1.

Definition
a. Petroleum waste

b. Explosives substances
 An explosive substance is a solid or liquid substance (or mixture of substances) which is in itself
capable by chemical reaction of producing gas at such a temperature and pressure and at such a speed
as to cause damage to the surroundings.
 reactive substance that contains a great amount of potential energy that can produce an explosion if
released suddenly, usually accompanied by the production of light, heat, sound, and pressure
c. Metal and Inorganic Nonmetal waste
i. Metal waste
 Substances or objects which are disposed, or intended to be disposed, or required to be
disposed that may contain metal elements
 Example: aluminium, mercury, lead, silver, zinc, copper, nickel, cadmium & etc.
ii. Nonmetal waste
 Inorganic non-metal waste is the waste not arising from natural growth and lack of metal
properties
 Example: glass, ceramic, plastic, paper, rubber, concrete, firebrick, sand, inorganic sorbents &
etc.
d. Radioactive waste
 Radioactive (or nuclear) waste is a by-product from nuclear reactors, fuel processing plants, hospitals
and research facilities. Radioactive waste is also generated while decommissioning and dismantling
nuclear reactors and other nuclear facilities
 Radioactive waste is nuclear fuel that is produced after being used inside of a nuclear reactor
 Low-level nuclear waste is the trash produced from cleaning materials and plant maintenance, similar
to most industrial garbage with one difference; it's detectably radioactive
 High level nuclear waste is primarily the fuel bundles that come from power plant reactors after they
can no longer maintain an efficient chain reaction. The nuclear waste issue boils down to this high-
level stuff, and misconceptions abound.
e. Halogenated and Non-Halogenated solvent
 Halogenated Waste (any organic chemical that contains F, Cl, Br, or I)
 Chloroform (Cl)
 Benzalkonium Chloride (Cl)
 Bromophenol blue (Br)
 Safranin (Cl)
 Un-halogenated Waste (organic solvent that do not contains F, Cl, Br, or I)
 Toluene
 Phenol
 Hexane
 Acetone
 Cyclohexane
f. Clinical Waste
 It refers to any waste that consists wholly or partly of:
o Human or animal tissue
o Blood or bodily fluids
o Excretions
o Drugs or other pharmaceutical products
o Swabs or dressings
 o Syringes, needles or other sharp instruments which, unless rendered safe, may prove hazardous
to any person coming into contact with it.
 Clinical waste also refers to any other waste arising from medical, nursing, dental, veterinary,
pharmaceutical or similar practice, investigation, treatment, teaching or research.
g. E-waste and mobile phone
 E-waste, short for electronic waste, can be any outdated or obsolete appliance or electronic device
found in offices, homes and pants pockets. Televisions, microwaves, computers and cell phones are
all common examples of e-waste
h. Persistent organic waste
 Compounds that are poorly degraded and thus accumulate in the environment
 Industrial chemicals – polychlorinated biphenyls, hexachlorobenzene
 Industrial byproducts – polyaromatic hydrocarbon
 Pesticides – DDT, Aldrin, Lindane
i. Exposure limit
 The maximum amount of the chemicals which can be present in the air without presenting the
health effect
j. TWA
 Average employee exposure over an 8 hours period based on chemical measurement close to the
worker
k. Ceiling limit
 Maximum allowable level – MUST NEVER be exceeded even for an instant
l. Short term exposure limit
 Level that MUST NOT be exceeded even for an instant
m. Environment
n. Pollutants
o. Practicable
p. Waste
 Any matter prescribed to be scheduled waste or any matter whether in a solid, semi-solid or liquid
form, or in the form of a gas or vapour, which is emitted, discharged or deposited in the
environment in such volume, composition or manner as to cause pollution
q. Scheduled waste
 Scheduled wastes are substances that are highly flammable, corrosive, toxic and easily react or
cause explosion when mixed with other substances. They may exist in a liquid, solid or semi solid
form
 Refer to schedule 1 of Environmental Quality (Schedule waste) regulation 2005
r. Environmental Hazardous Substances
 An environmental hazard is a substance, state or event which has the potential to threaten the
surrounding natural environment and / or adversely affect people's health
 For example, tanker truck-sized spills of substances such as milk can cause a lot of damage in the local
aquatic ecosystems, substances that deplete the ozone layer
s. Hazardous waste
 Substances that have the potential to harm human health.
 They may be solids, liquids or gases; they may be pure substances or mixtures. When used in the
workplace, these substances often generate vapours, fumes, dusts and mists
t. Environmental Risk
u. Thermal treatment
 Thermal treatment is any waste treatment technology that involves high temperatures in the
processing of the waste feedstock. Commonly this involves the combustion of waste materials.
Systems that are generally considered to be thermal treatment include: Cement kiln. Gasification
 Destruction of hazardous waste by thermal decomposition
2. Schedule Waste Management
a. Key elements
i. Legal framework – Legislation and regulations
 International – Basel convention
 National – EQA 1974
ii. Proper implementation and enforcement-DOE
iii. Facilities- Cleaner technology/more environmental friendly
 Kualiti Alam

b. State the principles used in hazardous waste management

 Prevention is better than disposal or clean up (Cradle to Cradle)!
 Bioremediation (with bacteria) /Phytoremediation (with plants)
 Incineration
 Deep-well disposal
 Surface impoundments
 Secure landfills

i. Cradle to grave
 From generation until disposal
 EQ (Schedule waste) regulation 2005
o Generator should notify DOE the categories and quantities of waste generated
o Schedule waste only can be stored, recovered, and treated within the prescribed
premises
o Container should be label, proper containers and proper storage area should be used and
incompatible SW is prohibited
o Generator should keep an up to date inventory of SW generated/treated/disposed
o Transportation of SW use consignment note system-Movement of waste is monitored
ii. Polluter pay principle
 The responsible party for producing pollution responsible for paying for the damage done to
the natural environment
 EQA 1974-Section 34B
o No person shall place deposit or dispose SW except at prescribed premises only.
o Any contravenes to this section shall be guilty and liable to fine not exceeding RM500 or
imprisonment not exceeding 5 years or both
iii. Waste management hierarchy

 Avoidance and Reduction: Products and materials must be designed in a manner that minimizes their
waste components or in a manner that reduces the natural material quantities used and potential
toxicity of waste generated during the production, and after use;
  Re-use: Materials can be used for similar or different purposes without changing form or properties.
This approach seeks to re-use a product when it reaches the end of its life span. In this way, it becomes
input for new products and materials
 Recycle: This involves separating materials from the waste stream and processing them as products
or raw materials. The first elements of the waste management hierarchy are the foundation of the
cradle-to-cradle waste management approach;
 Recovery: Reclaiming particular components or materials or using the waste as a fuel;
 Treatment and disposal: This is a ‘last resort’ within the waste hierarchy. Treatment refers to any
process that is designed to minimize the environmental impact of waste by changing the physical
properties of waste or separating out and destroying toxic components of waste. Disposal refers
specifically to the depositing or burial of waste onto, or into land

c. Explain the objectives of scheduled waste management

 To protect public health and the environment from the hazard of waste disposal
 To minimize the amount of waste generated
 To ensure safe and sound waste management
 To protect and conserve natural resources

d. With appropriate examples, classify waste using the common characteristics

Characteristics Description Examples
Ignitability If liquid-has a flashpoint less than 60°C Waste oil, used solvent
If not liquid-capable under standard temperature/pressure
cause fire
Corrosivity An Aqueous which pH ≥ 12.5 and pH less than or equal to 2 Battery acid
Reactivity Normally unstable and undergoes violent change, or create Lithium-sulfur battery and
toxic fumes when mixed with water explosives
Toxicity Waste is considered toxic if exceeds TCLP (toxicity Waste containing mercury
Characteristics Leaching procedure) Standard and lead
Human tissue, swab,
Infectivity (only apply to clinical waste)
dressing

e. Issues in SWM
 Lack of waste minimization and cleaner technology-expensive cost
 Waste minimization - Any method which helps to reduce the production of raw material and
toxicity of waste by altering the process of production
If the amount of hazardous wastes produced incline, human health and environment are
undergoing degradation
Cleaner technologies in industries are lacking
 Illegal dumping and transboundary movement of hazardous waste
 Transboundary movement – Transport of hazardous waste from one country and to another
country for treatment
It happens because of unavailability of proper treatment and disposal facilities in the origin
country
Developed nations like Singapore, United Kingdom, Japan and United States have facilities to
manage hazardous waste, but still they transport hazardous waste to another country
 Management of waste from non-industrial sources- enforcement
 Non-industrial sources of waste are from the household and institutional
Examples: Containers used for storing pesticides and herbicides, electronic waste (e-waste)
  When these wastes are disposed from the household and institutional, they are not disposed
properly and end up in the landfill

 Waste generators have to investigate alternative options, such as waste minimisation or pollution
prevention incorporating cleaner technology in the industry.
 It would reduce the cost of waste management in long term, when 3R are practiced.
 Industries export hazardous waste to their parent company (oversea) for treatment due to
unavailability of proper treatment and disposal facilities.
 Some of the waste are redirected to poorer nations who are willing to buy lower quality materials or
get paid for storing the waste.
 Malaysia is a signatory under Basel Convention 1993 – amendment to Order under Customs Act
1967
Customs (Prohibition of Export) (Amendments) (No. 2) Order 1993
Customs (Prohibition of Import) (Amendments) (No. 3) Order 1993
 The import and export of hazardous wastes into and from Malaysia is prohibited, except with prior
written approval from DG of DOE
 EQ (Scheduled waste) Regulations 2005 were focus on industrial waste
 Hazardous waste from non-industrial sources are disposed of in sanitary landfill
 Domestic waste contain many hazardous waste eg. Containers for storing insecticides, pesticides,
herbicides, chemical, petroleum products etc

f. Policy objectives on hazardous waste management

Under EQ(Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 2005, the following are specified:
(1) Toxic and hazardous wastes are listed in a schedule containing 107 categories of waste defined as
scheduled wastes.
(2) Scheduled wastes should, as far as practicable, prior to disposal, be rendered innocuous.
(3) The generation of scheduled wastes should be reduced to the maximum extent practicable using
the best practicable means.
(4) Scheduled waste generators will need to notify DOE of the categories and quantities of wastes
generated.
(5) Scheduled wastes can be stored, recovered and treated within the premises of a waste generator
with a license.
(6) Land farming, incineration, disposal and off site recovery, storage and treatment should be carried
out in prescribed premises licensed by DOE.
(7) Containers should be labelled; proper containers and proper storage areas should be used and the
storage of incompatible wastes is prohibited.
(8) Waste generators should keep an up-to-date inventory of scheduled wastes generated, treated and
disposed of.
(9) Transportation of scheduled wastes outside a waste generator’s premises should conform to the
consignment note system (manifest system) whereby the movement of waste is monitored until it
reaches the approved destination. Transporters would be licensed.
(10) The waste generator is responsible to monitor and ensure that the waste transported from his
factory reaches the approved destination.
(11) The waste generator is responsible to inform the transport contractor regarding the nature of the
waste being transported and what actions to take during accidents in order to minimise damage to
human life and the environment
g. SW Legislation
 International
i. Basel Convention
o Customs (Prohibition of Import) Order 1988
o Customs (Prohibition of Export) Order 1988
 General
i. The Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974-Main legislation administered by DOE
ii. Environmental Quality (clean air) regulation 1978
iii. Environmental Quality (industrial effluent) regulation 2009
iv. Environmental Quality (Sewage) regulation 2009
 Specific
i. Environmental Quality (Schedule wastes) regulations, 2005
o This regulation specifies requirements on the storage, transport, treatment and disposal
of such wastes
ii. Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled wastes treatment and disposal
facilities) regulation 1989
o Specify the requirement for renewal of license and inventory of prescribed premises
iii. Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Schedule wastes treatment and disposal
facilities) order 1989
o Interpretation of prescribed premises
o Off-site storage facility
o Off-site treatment facility
o Off-site recovery facility
o Scheduled waste incinerator
o Land treatment facilities
o Secure landfills

3. A scheduled waste contractor employs you as an Environmental Health and Safety

officer. You are required to do everything that is practicable to contain, cleanse or abate a
hazardous chemical spill or discharge. Propose an appropriate risk prevention and control
management plan. Illustrate your answer
4. Responsibilities of
a. Waste generator
 Every waste generator shall ensure that scheduled wastes generated by him are properly stored,
treated on-site, recovered on-site for material or product from such scheduled wastes or delivered
to and received at prescribed premises for treatment, disposal or recovery of material or product
from scheduled wastes.
 Every waste generator shall ensure that scheduled wastes that are subjected to movement or
transfer be packaged, labelled and transported in accordance with the guidelines prescribed by the
Director General
 A waste generator shall keep accurate and up-to-date inventory in accordance with the Fifth
Schedule of the categories and quantities of scheduled wastes being generated, treated and
disposed of and of materials or product recovered from such scheduled wastes for a period up to
three years from the date the scheduled wastes were generated.

b. Contractor
 Information to be provided by waste generator, contractor and occupier of prescribed Premises
o A waste generator, contractor and occupier of the prescribed premises shall provide
information in accordance with the Sixth Schedule in the manner provided in this regulation
or Director General shall determine other method as he thinks fit.
o A waste generator shall complete Part I of the Sixth Schedule in six copies and hand over the
six copies of the Schedule to the contractor when the scheduled wastes are delivered to him.
The contractor shall, upon receiving scheduled wastes from a waste generator, complete Part
II of the Sixth Schedule in the six copies given to him by the waste generator and shall
thereafter immediately hand over two copies of the Schedule to the waste generator who in
turn shall submit a copy to the Director General within 30 days from the date of transportation
of the scheduled wastes.
o The contractor shall within 10 days from the date of receipt of the scheduled wastes deliver
the scheduled wastes to the occupier of any prescribed premises and hand over the remaining
four copies of the Sixth Schedule to the occupier.
o The occupier of any prescribed premises shall, upon receiving scheduled wastes from the
contractor, complete Part III of all the remaining four copies of the Sixth Schedule handed over
to him by the contractor and shall, upon completion, retain one copy and return a copy each
to the contractor, the waste generator and the Director General, within 20 days from the date
of receipt of the scheduled wastes.
o If the waste generator fails to receive his copy of the Sixth Schedule from the occupier of the
prescribed premises referred to in sub regulation (5) within 30 days from the date of delivery
of the scheduled wastes to the contractor referred to in sub regulation (2), he shall notify the
Director General immediately and shall investigate and inform the Director General of the
result of his investigation.
o The waste generator, contractor or occupier of the prescribed premises shall each keep a
signed copy of the Sixth Schedule which shall be retained as a record for at least three years
from the date the scheduled wastes are received by the occupier of the prescribed premises.
 Scheduled wastes transported outside waste generator's premises to be accompanied by
information
o Every waste generator shall provide information in accordance with the Seventh Schedule in
respect of each category of scheduled wastes to be delivered to the contractor and shall give
the Schedule to the contractor upon delivery of the waste to him.
o The waste generator shall inform the contractor of the purpose and use of the Seventh
Schedule.
o The contractor shall carry with him the Seventh Schedule for each category of scheduled
wastes being transported and shall observe and comply with the instructions contained
therein.
o The contractor shall, in the selection of transportation routes, as far as possible avoid densely
populated areas, water catchment areas and other environmentally sensitive areas.
o The contractor shall ensure that all his employees that are involved in the handling,
transportation and storage of scheduled wastes attend training programmes.
 o The contractor shall ensure that during the training programme each employee is well
informed of the purpose and use of the Seventh Schedule.

c. Disposal
 Scheduled wastes shall be disposed of at prescribed premises only
 Scheduled wastes shall, as far as is practicable, be rendered innocuous prior to disposal.

5. Treatment
a. Physico-chemical
 a range of cool processing techniques
 aim to reduce the hazardous potential of wastes
 may also offer re-use or recycling opportunities
 often used in combination to optimise hazardous wastes treatment
 Chemical processes use chemical reactions to transform hazardous wastes into less hazardous
substances
 Physical processes enable different waste components to be separated or isolated, for re-use or
appropriate treatment or disposal
 All physico-chemical treatment processes generate residues which may:
o be hazardous wastes themselves
o be more concentrated than original waste
o be suitable for recycling
o require further treatment
o need to be landfilled

b. Chemical
Change chemical properties of waste. Use a chemical to treat a chemical. Need details of waste
composition and reactivity. Need qualified staff to: assess waste composition, monitor chemical
reaction, check reaction results
 Neutralisation
o A batch process
o Used for wide variety of acidic and alkaline wastes
o Acid wastes are neutralised by alkalis, and vice versa
o Used to treat liquid wastes, sludges and gases
o Reactions must be laboratory tested to control pH, identify complementary reagents
o Neutralised liquid usually sent for sedimentation
 Precipitation
o Causes soluble substances to become less soluble/insoluble
o Often used in combination with other treatment processes eg reduction, neutralisation
o Effective treatment for wastewater containing toxic metals which arise in metal-plating and
finishing industry, and mining
o Calcium hydroxide (lime) most widely used reagent
 Reduction and oxidation
Some common oxidising and reducing reagents
Oxidising reagents Reducing reagents
Sodium or calcium hypochlorite Ferrous sulphate
Hydrogen peroxide Sodium sulphite
Chlorine Sulphuric acid
Potassium permanganate Iron
UV Aluminium
Ozone Zinc
Sodium borohydride
 i. REDUCTION
o Commonly used for chromates and chromic acids from chromium plating and
tanning industries
o Cr VI reduced to Cr III then removed by precipitation
o Common reducing reagents:
 ferrous sulphate
 sodium sulphite/sulphuric acid
ii. OXIDATION
o Needs expert design, careful operation to be safe
o Is cost effective
o Enables avoidance of harmful side reactions
o Commonly used for cyanides
o Easiest oxidising reagents:
 sodium or calcium hypochlorite
 Hydrolysis
o Causes soluble substances to become less soluble/insoluble
o Often used in combination with other treatment processes e.g. reduction, neutralisation
o Effective treatment for wastewater containing toxic metals which arise in metal-plating and
finishing industry, and mining
o Calcium hydroxide (lime) most widely used reagent
 Encapsulation/solidification
o Achieved by mixing waste with cement, ash or lime and water
o Allowing the mixture to solidify into solid matrix
o Usually used for immobilizing heavy metal precipitate, sludge
o Encapsulation – solidification within a container

c. Physical
Many different physical treatment processes. Most are simple and low-cost. Choice depends on
physical form of waste and its characteristics
 Separation
o Sieving and screening - for dry materials of different particle size
o Distillation - to separate liquids
o Use of washing medium - to extract contaminants from soils or soluble components from
solid wastes
 Sedimentation
o Used to separate particles held in suspension in a liquid which is principally aqueous
o Uses gravity
o May require mechanical or manual stirring
o Suitable for a wide range of hazardous wastes
 metals in waste water
 neutralised acids and alkalis containing suspended metal hydroxides
 metals that have been precipitated
o Sludges may need further screening, drying or dewatering
o Separated liquid may need further treatment
 Adsorption
Adsorbents Application
o Solvent recovery
Activated carbon o Elimination of odour
o Gases purification
Alumina o Drying of gases and liquids
o Treatment of petroleum fractions
Bauxite
o Drying of gases and liquids
 o Selective removal of contaminants from
Molecular sieves
hydrocarbons
Silica gel o Drying and purifying gases

 Flotation
o Relies on the natural behaviour of particles less dense than water
o Is suitable for a range of waste types e.g. oil/water separation
o Efficiency can be improved by blowing air through the liquid
 size of air bubbles should be varied according to waste type
 Drying
o May be needed after sedimentation
o Options include:
 Sludge drying beds
 Centrifugal separation
 Filtering and pressing

Drying and evaporation - example

 Soil vapor evaporation
o Remove VOC from soil by passing an air stream through the soil
 Sludge dewatering
 Filtration

d. Biological
 Biological treatment of hazardous waste
o optimises a natural process
o is suitable for low concentration organic wastes e.g. sludges
o requires good control of process conditions
o is relatively low cost, effective and tolerant to changes in waste
o is most widely used for wastewater treatment
o may be on-site or off-site
o new applications being developed

 Bioremediation - cost effective, does not produce toxic fly ash / bottom ash, can be modified for
in-situ remediation
 Used to clean up large volume of contaminated soil / groundwater caused by leaking of
underground storage tank / spills
 In-situ remediation is by introducing additional oxygen and nutrients to expedite degradation
process by microbes
  Contaminated soil can be excavated and transported to a conducive environment for composting
 Anaerobic digestion – remove chlorophenols, chloromethoxybenzones, chlorophenoxy
herbicides,homocyclic and heterocyclic aromatic compounds
 Activated / aerobic sludge treatment – reduce BOD and COD, phenols, nitrobenzene, cyanides
 Biofilm and immobilised cell systems – wastewater treatment
 Microbial enzymes of fungal origin – breakdown aromatics and chloroaromatics

d. Thermal
 incineration - complete combustion using excess oxygen
o Destroy organic compounds
o Liquid, solid
o Heavy metal not destroyed but oxidised to oxides eg sulphide, cyanide, and discarded in
bottom ash, fly ash or flue gas scrubber, then solidified and disposed to secured landfill

 is any facility used wholly or in part for the controlled combustion of municipal wastes and
other waste.
 waste materials are treated at incinerator plants through the controlled application of that
converts waste feed by high temperature oxidation to gaseous material.
 during combustion, the moisture is vapourised while the combustible waste is also
vapourised and oxidised.
 final products are CO2, water vapour, ash, and non-combustible or residue.

A. Categories
 Mass burning
 Selected burning
 Source separated materials
B. Types
 Multiple chamber incinerator
 Non-heat utilization incinerator
 Fluidised bed incinerator
 Rotary kiln combustor

 gasification - incomplete combustion in the partial absence of oxygen

 pyrolysis - thermal decomposition in the total absence of oxygen
Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of waste into gas and solid phases in the absence of
the external oxygen supply. The process takes place under the temperatures typically around
500 The gaseous product of pyrolysis can undergo the following transformations in downstream
processes:
 cooling down followed by oil condensing; liquefaction is applicable for a limited number
of feedstock, such as plastics or rubber
 cracking and cleaning in order to be used as fuel in a gas engine; pyrolysis gas
conditioning is a complicated problem and additional drawback is that further treatment
of the pyrolysis char will be performed at the high temperatures around 1500 C
 secondary combustion and generation steam in boiler, which consequently will be sent to
steam turbine to generate electricity
Some of the advantages of pyrolysis are that the pyrolysis process is relatively insensitive to its
input waste, combustion products associated with the burned solid waste are not generated,
and dioxins formation can be efficiently prevented.
(1) Objectives of thermal treatment
(2) Gasification vs. Incineration
Increasingly, gasification is being used to convert municipal solid waste, or MSW, into valuable
forms of energy. While this type of waste has been burned, or incinerated, for decades to create
heat and electricity, the gasification process represents significant advances over incineration.

In order to understand the advantages of gasification when compared to incineration, it’s

important to understand the significant differences between the two processes:

A. Incineration literally means to render to ash.

Incineration uses MSW as a fuel, burning it with high volumes of air to form carbon
dioxide and heat. In a waste-to-energy plant that uses incineration, these hot gases are used
to make steam, which is then used to generate electricity.
B. Gasification converts MSW to a usable synthesis gas, or syngas.
It is the production of this syngas which makes gasification so different from
incineration. In the gasification process, the MSW is not a fuel, but a feedstock for a high
temperature chemical conversion process. In the gasifier, the MSW reacts with little or no
oxygen, breaking down the feedstock into simple molecules and converting them into
syngas. Instead of making just heat and electricity, as is done in a waste-to-energy plant using
incineration, the syngas produced by gasification can be turned into higher valuable
commercial products such as transportation fuels, chemicals, and fertilizers.
In addition, one of the concerns with incineration of MSW is the formation and
reformation of toxic dioxins and furans, especially from PVC-containing plastics and other
materials that form dioxins and furans when they burn. These toxins end up in exhaust
steams by three pathways:
 By decomposition, as smaller parts of larger molecules,
 By "re-forming" when smaller molecules combine together; and/or
 By simply passing through the incinerator without change.
Incineration does not allow control of these processes, and all clean-up occurs after
combustion.
C. Gasification is significantly different and cleaner than incineration:
 In the high temperature environment in gasification, larger molecules such as plastics
are completely broken down into the components of syngas, which can be cleaned
and processed before any further use,
 Dioxins and furans need sufficient oxygen to form or re-form, and the oxygen-
deficient atmosphere in a gasifier does not provide the environment needed for
dioxins and furans to form or reform,
 Dioxins need fine metal particulates in the exhaust to reform; syngas from gasification
is typically cleaned of particulates before being used,
 In gasification facilities that use the syngas to produce downstream products like
fuels, chemicals and fertilizers, the syngas is quickly quenched, so that there is not
sufficient residence time in the temperature range where dioxins or furans could re-
form; and
 When the syngas is primarily used as a fuel for making heat, it can be cleaned as
necessary before combustion; this cannot occur in incineration.
The ash produced from gasification is different from what is produced from an incinerator.
While incinerator ash is considered safe for use as alternative daily cover on landfills, there are
concerns with its use in commercial products. In high-temperature gasification, the ash actually
flows from the gasifier in a molten form, where it is quench-cooled, forming a glassy, non-
leachable slag that can be used for making cement, roofing shingles, or used as an asphalt filler or
for sandblasting. Some gasifiers are designed to recover melted metals in a separate stream,
taking advantage of the ability of gasification technology to enhance recycling.
(3) Explain the role of particulate matter in the formation of dioxins and furans in the incineration
of hazardous chemicals

(4) State the Pollution Control Equipment used in incineration

(5) Pyrolysis differs from incineration in that it destroys toxic and hazardous waste. Using
appropriate examples, explain this statement
Pyrolysis has a number of important advantages over incineration. Pyrolysis is, by definition,
the process by which organic compounds are heated in the absence of oxygen and broken down
into simpler more basic components. The resulting components are; oil, tar, gas, and carbon. The
main by-product of interest to us is syngas, which is composed of carbon monoxide, hydrogen,
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, methane, and a variety of other hydrocarbon gases. This gas can then
be combusted in a secondary process and used to power a generator for electricity.
Syngas has a calorific value, so it can be used as a fuel for an internal combustion engine. The
exact calorific value varies based on the exact fuel and process utilized to create it.
 The pyrolysis system for treatment of MSW and other wastes demonstrates
excellent practical performance in controlling the emission of harmful substances
such as dioxins with levels dramatically lower than regulation values.
 The pyrolysis facility is self-sustainable, i.e. fuel is required only for start-up
operations. Steam and/or electricity generated during operation is further supplied
outside of the facility to the customers.
 Another environmental aspect is the reduction of the residuals to be sent for landfill
disposal. Some remaining non-toxic ashes can also be used in the building industry.
 Recovered Metals are non-oxidized and can be further used.
 Can treat both low calorific and high calorofic waste.

(6) Describe the formation of dioxin/furan in incinerator

Through complete combustion, PVC can be broken down into water, carbon dioxide and
hydrogen chloride (HCl). However, complete combustion is rarely feasible in reality, and dioxins
can be unintentionally generated as by-products according to incineration conditions.
PCBs, PBBs and PBDEs can be present in waste materials. Dioxins (PCDDs and PCDFs) are not
normally present in waste, but are formed when chlorine-containing organic substances (e.g. PVC)
 are burned. If combustion takes place at temperatures of about 850ºC, any dioxins already formed
are destroyed, but can re-form again post-combustion. Cunliffe and Williams [2007] found that
“formation of PCDD/PCDF on flyash deposits in the post-combustion plant of incinerators can
result in the release of significant amounts of PCDD/PCDF to the flue gas stream”. Littarru [2006]
has shown that about 57% of emitted dioxins (in terms of TCDD equivalents) are in the flue gases,
with about 43% sorbed on the fly-ash

6. Disposal of waste
1. Deep-well disposal (trade-off)

2. Surface impoundments (trade off)

3. Secure landfills (still applicable)

7. Effects of exposure to toxic and hazardous waste
 Pollute water courses, ground water, atmosphere and land
 Toxic to human, plant and organisms
 Cause cancer, damage to skin and body tissues
 Fire outbreak at dumping site which can release toxic materials

 In particular, organic domestic waste poses a serious threat, since they ferment, creating conditions
favourable to the survival and growth of microbial pathogens. Direct handling of solid waste can result in
various types of infectious and chronic diseases with the waste workers and the rag pickers being the most
vulnerable.
 Exposure to hazardous waste can affect human health, children being more vulnerable to these pollutants.
In fact, direct exposure can lead to diseases through chemical exposure as the release of chemical waste
into the environment leads to chemical poisoning. Many studies have been carried out in various parts of
the world to establish a connection between health and hazardous waste.
 Waste from agriculture and industries can also cause serious health risks. Other than this, co-disposal of
industrial hazardous waste with municipal waste can expose people to chemical and radioactive hazards.
Uncollected solid waste can also obstruct storm water runoff, resulting in the forming of stagnant water
bodies that become the breeding ground of disease. Waste dumped near a water source also causes
contamination of the water body or the ground water source. Direct dumping of untreated waste in rivers,
seas, and lakes results in the accumulation of toxic substances in the food chain through the plants and
animals that feed on it.
 Disposal of hospital and other medical waste requires special attention since this can create major health
hazards. This waste generated from the hospitals, health care centres, medical laboratories, and research
centres such as discarded syringe needles, bandages, swabs, plasters, and other types of infectious waste
are often disposed with the regular non-infectious waste.
 Waste treatment and disposal sites can also create health hazards for the neighbourhood. Improperly
operated incineration plants cause air pollution and improperly managed and designed landfills attract all
types of insects and rodents that spread disease. Ideally these sites should be located at a safe distance
from all human settlement. Landfill sites should be well lined and walled to ensure that there is no leakage
into the nearby ground water sources.
 Recycling too carries health risks if proper precautions are not taken. Workers working with waste
containing chemical and metals may experience toxic exposure. Disposal of health-care wastes require
special attention since it can create major health hazards, such as Hepatitis B and C, through wounds
caused by discarded syringes. Rag pickers and others who are involved in scavenging in the waste dumps
for items that can be recycled, may sustain injuries and come into direct contact with these infectious
items.
8. Explain the safety measures taken to protect workers who are involved in handling these
substances.

 Rule #1. Follow all established procedures and perform job duties as you’ve been trained.
 Rule #2. Be cautious and plan ahead. Think about what could go wrong and pay close attention to what
you’re doing while you work.
 Rule #3. Always use required PPE—and inspect it carefully before each use to make sure it’s safe to use.
Replace worn out or damage PPE; it won’t provide adequate protection.
 Rule #4. Make sure all containers are properly labelled and that the material is contained in an
appropriate container. Don’t use any material not contained or labelled properly. Report any damaged
containers or illegible labels to your supervisor right away.
 Rule #5. Read labels and the material safety data sheet (MSDS) before using any material to make sure
you understand hazards and precautions.
 Rule #6. Use all materials solely for their intended purpose. Don’t, for example, use solvents to clean
your hands, or gasoline to wipe down equipment.
 Rule #7. Never eat or drink while handling any materials, and if your hands are contaminated, don’t use
cosmetics or handle contact lenses.
 Rule #8. Read the labels and refer to MSDSs to identify properties and hazards of chemical products
and materials.
 Rule #9. Store all materials properly, separate incompatibles, and store in ventilated, dry, cool areas.
 Rule #10. Keep you and your work area clean. After handling any material, wash thoroughly with soap
and water. Clean work surfaces at least once a shift so that contamination risks are minimized.
 Rule #11. Learn about emergency procedures and equipment. Understanding emergency procedures
means knowing evacuation procedures, emergency reporting procedures, and procedures for dealing
with fires and spills. It also means knowing what to do in a medical emergency if a co-worker is injured
or overcome by chemicals.

9. Route of exposure
 An important exposure route of concern at a hazardous waste site is inhalation. The lungs are
extremely vulnerable to chemical agents. Even substances that do not directly affect the lungs may
pass through lung tissue into the bloodstream, where they are transported to other vulnerable areas
of the body. Some toxic chemicals present in the atmosphere may not be detected by human senses,
i.e., they may be colorless, odorless, and their toxic effects may not produce any immediate symptoms.
Respiratory protection is therefore extremely important if there is a possibility that the work-site
atmosphere may contain such hazardous substances. Chemicals can also enter the respiratory tract
through punctured eardrums. Where this is a hazard, individuals with punctured eardrums should be
medically evaluated specifically to determine if such a condition would place them at unacceptable risk
and preclude their working at the task in question.
 Direct contact of the skin and eyes by hazardous substances is another important route of exposure.
Some chemicals directly injure the skin. Some pass through the skin into the bloodstream where they
are transported to vulnerable organs. Skin absorption is enhanced by abrasions, cuts, heat, and
moisture. The eye is particularly vulnerable because airborne chemicals can dissolve in its moist surface
and be carried to the rest of the body through the bloodstream (capillaries are very close to the surface
of the eye). Wearing protective equipment, not using contact lenses in contaminated atmospheres
(since they may trap chemicals against the eye surface), keeping hands away from the face, and
minimizing contact with liquid and solid chemicals can help protect against skin and eye contact.
 Although ingestion should be the least significant route of exposure at a site, it is important to be aware
of how this type of exposure can occur. Deliberate ingestion of chemicals is unlikely, however, personal
habits such as chewing gum or tobacco, drinking, eating, smoking cigarettes, and applying cosmetics on
site may provide a route of entry for chemicals.
 The last primary route of chemical exposure is injection, whereby chemicals are introduced into the
body through puncture wounds (for example, by stepping or tripping and failing onto contaminated
sharp objects). Wearing safety shoes, avoiding physical hazards, and taking common sense precautions
are important protective measures against injection.
10. Basel convention

 global legal instrument on “the control of transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and on
their disposal”
a. overall goal
“To protect, by strict control, human health and the environment against the adverse effects which
may result from the generation and management of hazardous wastes and other wastes.”
b. Further objectives
 To reduce transboundary movements of hazardous waste to a minimum consistent with their
environmentally sound management;
 To dispose hazardous wastes as close as possible to their source of generation;
 To minimize the generation of hazardous waste in terms of quantity and hazardousness.
c. Principle
 Hazardous waste should be disposed of in the State where it is generated
 Transboundary movement of hazardous wastes should be permitted only when the transport
and ultimate disposal of such waste is environmentally sound
 Prior written consent and notification must be implemented by the exporting state to the
importing and transit states
 The exporter should reimport the waste if for some reason the shipment of waste is not
successful
d. The four main groups of hazardous waste properties are:
 Toxic and eco-toxic
 Toxic wastes are harmful or fatal when ingested, inhaled or absorbed through the skin.
EXAMPLES
> Spent cyanide solutions
> Waste pesticides
 Eco-toxic waste is harmful or fatal to other species or to the ecological integrity of their
habitats.
EXAMPLES
 > Heavy metals
> Detergents
> Oils
> Soluble salts
 Corrosive
Acids or alkalis that are capable of dissolving human flesh and corroding metal such as storage
tanks and drums.
EXAMPLES
> Acids from metals cleaning processes e.g. ferric chloride from printed circuit board
manufacture;
> Liquor from steel manufacture.
 Ignitable
Wastes that can cause fires under certain conditions or are spontaneously combustible.
EXAMPLES
> Waste oil
> Used solvents
> Organic cleaning materials
> Paint waste
 Reactive
Reactive wastes are unstable under ‘normal conditions’. They can cause: explosions, toxic fumes,
gases or vapours.
EXAMPLES
> Peroxide solutions
> Hypochlorite solutions or solids
e. Excluded from the scope of the Convention are:
> Radioactive waste
> Waste derived from normal operation of a ship
f. Prohibition of export
o To any point south of 60 degrees South latitude
o To any state which has imposed a ban on the import of such waste
o Wastes will not be managed in an environmentally sound manner
o To any state which is not a party to Basel Convention (except for bilateral, multilateral or
regional agreement)
g. Prohibition of import
o A ban or prohibition is declared by the State of import
o Lack of capacity/infrastructure/trained personnel in the state of import
o Facilities or persons are not authorized to transport or dispose the wastes
o The wastes will not be managed in an environmentally sound manner in the state of import
h. Movement of hazardous waste only be allowed if
o State of export does not have the technical capacity and necessary facilities
o The wastes are required as a raw material for recycling or recovery
o The transboundary movement is in accordance with other criteria decided by the Parties
i. Application for export or import
o Export application forms and checklist
o Import application forms and checklist
o Permit issued by Department of Environment, HQ
o May cover multiple shipments of hazardous wastes for a maximum period of 12 months
o Contract between the waste generator, transporter and disposer
o Movement must be covered by insurance, bond or bank guarantee
j. Current issues
 Strategic Plan for the implementation of the B.C.
 Implementation of the Ban Amendment.
 Issues related to Annex VII.
 Basel Protocol on Liability and Compensation.
 Mechanism for promoting implementation and compliance.
 Illegal traffic.
o Without notification
o Without consent
o With consent through falsification, misrepresentation or fraud
o Does not conform in a material way with documents
o Results in deliberate disposal in contravention and principles of international law
 Dismantling of ships.
 Identification of wastes in the World Customs Organization’s HS code.