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Mechtel 1
Sentence Outline for:
Pollution mapping using bioindicators, an error analysis
I. Opening, with Thesis
A. Nearly all pollution mapping and analysis utilizes indicator species such as
macroinvertebrates. However, despite the widespread use of these bioindicators of
aquatic ecosystems, untested assumptions still exist which may affect the
accuracy of the data collected and thus the conclusions of the experiment: the
halflife of pollutants in the environment, the geographic movement of
macroinvertebrates due to their life cycle, the nature of pointpollution sources
and the largerscale effects of chemicals, and varied, environmental factors. If any
one of these assumptions is false, there would be drastic changes to the
implications of many studies, which may necessitate the implementation of new
standards for biological indicator species monitoring, pollution mapping using
point scale pollution, and large spatial/temporal scale pollution grading.
B. Exploring the assumptions and methods for testing those assumptions in the
context of biological sampling can provide a basis for creating better strategies for
the collection and analysis of macroinvertebrate data.
II. Background: The basis for bioindicator use in pollution mapping and its processes.
A. Both biotic and abiotic indicators are used to judge environmental health. By
quantifying their values, scientists can determine the relative health of estuaries
and streams.
1. Chemical indices (an abiotic indicator) are used to find the amount and
variety of chemicals in the water column or in the sediment. It is the most
quantitatively accurate score, however, it is not the best option for
assessing the overall health of an ecosystem.
a. “The second … is the chemical test: we use these little test kits
with color indices to compare the results against the color
indices, the color metrics, to see, you know, what the values
indicate.” (Strozyk, personal communication, November 30, 2017)
b. As a statistic, biological monitors have shown high correlation
to chemical, and therefore pollution, factors in streams. This
data, which has been aggregated, has been then concluded to
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show a cause and effect relationship given the variety of
circumstances studied. (Cairns & Pratt, 1993)
2. Physiogeographical scores (an abiotic indicator), and associated Riparian
Biological Scores (a biotic indicator) are the second most used/important.
These both show human impact on a stream ecosystem; the greater the
deviation from expected norms, the greater the human impact.
a. “We use the corridor assessment, which is a book created from
Department of Natural Resources, that was designed from an
original manual that field experts actually use and brought to
the level where it is easy for high school students to have
concept attainment. So we use that to look at the physical
stream, the riparian buffer, the width, the breadth of it,
erosion, attachment sites for macroinvertebrates, etc.”
(Strozyk, personal communication, November 30, 2017) These are
all physiogeographic scores which show how much human impact
there is on an ecosystem.
b. “Sometimes, if we have time, we will use a Howard County
government app called Stream Mapper. We typically don't
have time for that, but once in awhile we do…. It is very
similar to the stream corridor assessment, where you take
pictures of upstream and downstream, and, you know, you
identify if there is any trash, and you look at the sinuosity, or
how the stream curves.” (Strozyk, personal communication,
November 30, 2017)
3. Water column macroinvertebrate (i.e.: suspended in an aquatic ecosystem)
scores (a biotic indicator), are one of two types of live bioindicators. They
are used to see how pollution moves throughout an ecosystem.
a. “There are other tests for … organisms that live in the water
column, but that kind of depends on what test those regulators
and … companies think will enter and affect the environment.”
(Reed, personal communication, November 11, 2017)
b. Bioassessment protocols often include fish or small, mobile
invertebrate or vertebrate organisms, in addition to water
column macroinvertebrates. (Barbour, Gerritson, Snyder, &
Stribling, 1999)
4. Benthic macroinvertebrate (i.e.: located in the sediment or adhered to
rocks on the bottom of an aquatic ecosystem) scores (a biotic indicator)
are the most common form of quantitative biological indicator. They
provide a comparative analysis between streams in the same region and
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usually sensitive to pollution which may not show up on chemical scores,
or are not known to exist in the environment naturally.
a. “The … macroinvertebrate count, and collecting them and
finding them on site.” (Strozyk, personal communication,
November 30, 2017)
b. A plethora of articles, all demonstrating the use of this data to
make deductions about the health of streams and waterways.
(See volume of works cited.) Further, this technique has been
expanded since its introduction to show correlation, to a
scientific tool. (Cairns & Pratt, 1993)
5. Other notes to include, generally: In modern times, the idea of using
biological indicators traces back to the use of birds being taken into
mines, testing the birds’ survival in the subterranean conditions. A
dead bird would mean that the miners were also in danger. (Cairn, &
Pratt, 1993) The idea of a ‘poison tester’ is essentially the role
bioindicators play; their statistical survival is the basis for assessing
ecosystems.
B. Applications for data range from conservation to advocacy to politics.
1. The creation and implementation pollution maps, as derived from data.
a. See maps by scientists and students:
http://maryland.maps.arcgis.com/apps/webappviewer/index.ht
ml?id=0c45c88bddb24fd0a656033315ab5acc and
http://geodata.md.gov/streamhealth/ (Strozyk, personal
communication, November 30, 2017) Container Website inclusion
uncertain.
b. Goals of the Chesapeake Monitoring Cooperative include
“identifying local hotspots.” Further, when data is collected,
locations are also supposed to be included for the data, so as to
compare to other locations. (Macroinvertebrate MEthods
Manuel, n.d.)
2. Ecosystem health monitoring is one of the primary uses for the data; it was
its original intention.
a. The creation of an “assessment framework for midAtlantic
coastal plains streams using macroinvertebrates” as a means
for quantifying the health of the region. (Maxted et al., n.d.)
b. Similar research for the Viseu River and its tributaries is also seen.
(CurteanBanaduc, 2008)
c. Also seen at “McDonald Creek.” (Hauer, Stanford, Giersch, &
Lowe, 2008)
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d. Also Southeastern Asia. (R. Shah & D. Shah, 2013)
e. Also in Irish estuaries. (Tomilson, Wilson, Harris, & Jeffrey,
1980)
f. Others.
3. Trickledown effect, as seen as another application for data’s implications:
a. Legislation that protects the environment is often the goal of local
studies. This can also translate to public advocacy of lawmakers
endorse the idea of local environmental protection.
b. Conservation efforts by private or public organizations can be
spurred and assisted in mission by data and its implications.
1) Watershed Advocacy on a local or personal level, and in
the secondary and primary academia. (Strozyk, personal
communication, November 30, 2017) &
(Macroinvertebrate Methods Manual, n.d.)
2) As for directing official conservation efforts, literally to
inform about the issue.
(a) Chesapeake Monitoring Cooperative
(Macroinvertebrate Methods Manual, n.d.)
(b) Southeast Asia (R. Shah & D. Shah, 2013)
(c) Viseu River and Tributaries (CurteanBanaduc,
2008)
c. Education; primary, secondary, and postsecondary institutions use
simple, yet real lessons to teach the principles of environmental
science and marine ecology (at least intended for stream
ecosystems).
1) “The level where it is easy for high school students to
have concept attainment.” (Strozyk, personal
communication, November 30, 2017)
2) For citizen science advocacy and inclusion.
(Macroinvertebrate Methods Manual, n.d.)
C. Benefits for the use of benthic macroinvertebrates, applications of the data, and
derived inferences.
1. The efficiency of using benthic macroinvertebrates is not as high as a
single chemical score. However, if tens or hundreds of chemical scores are
required, searching for macroinvertebrates is not at a large disadvantage
when searching for the best ecosystem monitoring system.
a. Benthic macroinvertebrates are found abundantly throughout
streams worldwide.
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1) Locality can be assumed to be a necessary requirement, as
deduced from the necessity and as corroborated by other
articles. “Location (please be specific)”
(Macroinvertebrate Methods Manual, n.d.)
2) Note: this is a paraphrase from (Cairns & Pratt, 1993)
b. There are diverse species of benthic macroinvertebrates.
1) Note: the above is paraphrased from (Cairns & Pratt, 1993)
2) This allows for similarity between diverse stream
ecosystems and greater statistical weight to the data.
3) See also the existence of listings as presented in (Barbour et
al., 1999)
c. Only simple locating methods are required. The personnel,
therefore, can be varied with little prerequisite skill.
1) Can use data from citizen science. (Macroinvertebrates
Methods Manual, n.d.)
2) Student science. (Strozyk, personal communication,
November 30, 2017)
3) Professional data. (Macroinvertebrates Methods Manual,
n.d.; Strozyk, personal communication, November 30,
2017)
4) Student and professional collaboration, or at least
correlation. (Macroinvertebrates Methods Manual, n.d.;
Strozyk, personal communication, November 30, 2017)
2. Accuracy.
a. Easy rules for orderlevel identification.
1) Note: the above is paraphrased from (Macroinvertebrate
Methods Manual, n.d.)
2) At “level[s] where it is easy for high school students to
have concept attainment.” (Strozyk, personal
communication, November 30, 2017) is highly emphasized,
and the above statement can be safely derived.
b. Resources for in field or in lab identification are readily
(relatively) available.
1) Note: the above is paraphrased from (Reed, personal
communication, November 13, 2017)
2) Note: the above is paraphrased from (Macroinvertebrate
Methods Manual, n.d.)
3) Note: this can be derived from (Barbour et al., 1999)
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III. Studies utilizing macroinvertebrates has evolved, since ints conception into the applied
field seen today.
A. Purpose of studies to the type and amount of data has evolved over time.
1. Basic indicator species have been generally used, and expanded.
a. To be inserted as necessary: Tables of names (Barbour et al.,
1999)
b. Lists, as referenced (Macroinvertebrate Methods Manual, n.d.)
2. Correlation was established and later was attributed to environmental
factors. Aggregated data, over time, led to…
a. Note: the above is paraphrased from (Carnes & Pratt, 1993)
b. Note: this is a necessity logically derived from (Macroinvertebrate
Methods Manual, n.d.; Dauer, Ranasinghe, Weisberg, 2000)
3. … final uses established as universally accepted bioindicator.
a. Paraphrased from (Carnes & Pratt, 1993)
b. As derived from plethora of articles, referenced earlier.
B. Examples can be provided with accompanying information related to background
paragraph, using the background section as a scaffold.
1. Health of bays, which are specified, is a common scenario.
a. Chesapeake Bay, referenced:
1) (Macroinvertebrate Methods Manual, n.d.)
2) (Strozyk, personal communication, November 30, 2017)
b. Viseu River (CurteanBanaduc, 2008)
c. Also seen at “McDonald Creek.” (Hauer, Stanford, Giersch, &
Lowe, 2008)
2. Health of streams, which can be aggregated or generalized for a region,
are another common scenario.
a. “MidAtlantic streams.” (Maxted et al., n.d.)
b. “Microtidal estuaries.” (Wildsmith, Rose, Potter, Warwick, &
Clarke, n.d.)
c. “Indiana Warm Water Streams” (Hrodey, Sutton, Frimpong, &
Simon, 2009)
d. Also Southeastern Asia. (R. Shah & D. Shah, 2013)
e. Also in Irish estuaries. (Tomilson, Wilson, Harris, & Jeffrey,
1980)
IV. Assumptions used in macroinvertebrate studies have been fairly constant since the
original use of these bioindicators. As derived logically, and not necessarily implicated or
explicated in Works Cited or Works Consulted. These include:
A. Major Issues
1. Assumptions regarding fall off of point pollution sources.
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2. Assumptions regarding extraenvironmental impacts.
3. Assumptions regarding the effects of temporally, but not spatially, point
pollution sources.
B. Minor Issues
1. Potential movement in macroinvertebrates throughout a riverine micro
ecosystem. Noting that this has never been considered an acknowledge
source of error
2. Macroinvertebrate identification methods.
3. Inaccuracy in data collection or modelling.
V. Problems exist with using those assumptions and how those assumptions may be studied.
As derived logically, and not necessarily implicated or explicated in Works Cited or
Works Consulted.
A. Human error is a common, yet real source of error, sometimes accounted for,
sometimes not. It is sometimes hard to tell if it was accounted for, as it is never
stated. This can be seen through:
1. Sampling methods.
a. Note: the above is paraphrased from (Barry & Elith, 2006)
b. Note: the above is derived from: (Strozyk, personal
communication, November 30, 2017; Macroinvertebrate Methods
Manual, n.d.)
2. Misattribution or interpretation.
B. Builtin inaccuracy in either statistical models or prescribed sampling methods.
1. Statistical probability of missing data points or an inaccurate account
of full random sample of data given an unknown total. (Barry & Elith,
2006)
2. Ultimately this becomes circular in reasoning; uses past studies to help
future ones, never checking original assumptions.
C. Unverified circumstances.
1. Environmental factors.
a. Rain.
b. Permeability.
c. Soil composition.
d. Turbidity.
e. “In addition to water chemistry, the presence or absence of a
species can be determined by such factors as: (1) its presence
or absence in the species pool available for colonizing the area
studied; (2) the season in which the collection is made; (3) flow
conditions at the time of the study; and (4) chance.” (Cairns &
Pratt, 1993)
Mechtel 8
f. Seasonal Variation (Beugly & Pyron, 2010)
2. Human influences.
a. Permeability.
b. Fertilizers.
c. Chemicals.
d. Physiographic morphology.
e. Pollution gradients as temporal mobility. (Matlou,
AddoBediako, & Jooste, 2017)
3. Will add note to check further modelling errors in (Barry & Elith, 2006)
VI. There are several options for further research.
A. Do statistical analysis of human error and built in inaccuracies.
1. Requirements:
a. Large data volumes will need to be gathered, processed, and
analyzed.
b. Accurate modelling software will be needed, be this
selfprogrammed or already in existence.
2. Issues:
a. Still may still include built in errors, but to lesser degree.
b. It will Require access to vast amounts of data and computing
systems, or lots and lots of my freetime.
c. It is not the most important issue which could be addressed by
research in this direction.
B. Conduct field experiments testing unverified circumstances. (i.e.: test a
circumstance with and without unreferenced factor and gauge the differences)
1. Requirements:
a. Lab or field setting is required.
b. Indicator Chemicals are required.
c. Testing apparatus are required.
2. Issues:
a. The gathering of data will require many administrative details.
b. The data gathering will take time, however maybe not as much as
the other option.
c. The use of the necessary equipment may also require special work.
3. Please note that this is the most practicable given temporal and monetary
restrictions.
C. Simply show a statistical and/or symbolic logic model for potential errors.
1. Requirements:
a. Application of symbolic logic or statistics.
b. A very large volume of articles for analysis.
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2. Issues:
a. Procuring those articles, because of the needed volume, could be
expensive.
b. It would necessitate working off of theoretical data, not collected
data, so assertions would be weaker.
VII. Concluding Paragraph:
A. There are clearly systemic errors which exist in the data and analysis methods for
utilizing benthic macroinvertebrates in aqueous and subaqueous environments,
stemming from untested assumptions. The evolution of bioindicators has
addressed some universally uncontrolled variables, but not necessarily in the
context of benthic macroinvertebrates. These gaps would allow for statistical error
in modelling using the data and analysis. In order to determine the impact of these
uncontrolled variables, tests on those variables in either a lab or field setting
would yield an approximation of possible skewed data. Even if only one variable
is shown to be an influence, there exists the possibility of larger modelling errors.
Mechtel 10
Works Cited1
Barbour, M.T., J. Gerritsen, B.D. Snyder, and J.B. Stribling. (1999). Rapid Bioassessment
Protocols for Use in Streams and Wadeable Rivers: Periphyton, Benthic
Macroinvertebrates and Fish, Second Edition. EPA 841B99002. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency; Office of Water; Washington, D.C.
Barry, S., & Elith, J. (2006). Error and uncertainty in habitat models. Journal of Applied Ecology.
Beugly, J., & Pyron, M. (2010). Variation in Fish and Macroinvertebrate Assemblages Among
Seasonal and Perennial Headwater Streams. American Midland Naturalist, 163(1), 2.
Cairns, J., Jr., & Pratt, J., R. (n.d.). A History of Biological Monitoring Using Benthic
Macroinvertebrates. Reprinted From: Freshwater Biomonitoring and Benthic
Macroinvertebrates, D.M. Rosenberg and v.H. Resh, eds., Chapman & Hall, NY. 1993.
CurteanBanaduc, A. (2008). Viseu River and Some Tributaries Ecological Assessment Based on
Macroinvertebrate Communities, 165–182.
Dauer, D., Weisberg, S., & J., R. (2000). Relationships Between Benthic Community Condition,
Water Quality, Sediment Quality, Nutrient Loads, and Land Use Patterns in Chesapeake
Bay. Estuaries.
Hauer, R., Stanford, J., Giersch, J., & Lowe, W. (2000). Distribution and abundance patterns of
macroinvertebrates in a mountain stream: an analysis along multiple environmental
gradients.
Matlou, K., AddoBediako, A., & Jooste, A. (2017). Benthic macroinvertebrate assemblage
along a pollution gradient in the Steelport River, Clifants River System. African
Entomology. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.4001/003.025.0445
Hrodey, P. J., Sutton, T. M., Frimpong, E. A., & Simon, T. P. (2009). Landuse Impacts on
Watershed Health and Integrity in Indiana Warmwater Streams. American Midland
Naturalist, 161(1), 76.
Maxted, J., Barbour, M., Gerritsen, J., Poretti, V., Primrose, N., Silvia, A., … Renfrow, R. (n.d.).
Assessment framework for midAtlantic coastal plain streams using benthic
macroinvertebrates. North American Benthological Society.
Nontidal Benthic Macroinvertebrate Methods Manuel. (n.d.). Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay.
Shah, R., & Shah, D. (2013). Evaluation of benthic macroinvertebrate assemblage for
disturbance zonation in urban rivers using multivariate analysis: Implications for river
management. J. Earth Syst. Sci.
Tomlinson, D. L., Wilson, J. G., Harris, C. R., & Jeffrey, D. W. (1980). Problems in the
assessment of heavymetal levels in estuaries and the formation of a pollution index .
Retrieved from Biologische Anstalt Helgoland website:
https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2FBF02414780.pdf
1
Please note that interviews are not included in either the Works Cited or the Works Consulted, as per the rules of
APA Style intext citations.
Mechtel 11
Wildsmith, M. D., Rose, T. H., Potter, I. C., Warwick, R. M., & Clarke, K. R. (n.d.). Benthic
macroinvertebrates as indicators of environmental deterioration in a large microtidal
estuary. Marine Pollution Bulletin.
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Works Consulted
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and field setting . Retrieved from Higher Education Press and SpringerVerlag Berlin
Heidelberg website:
http://www.otterpointcreek.org/images/uploaded/FES12231BA1.pdf
Coble, P. G. (2009, October 16). Estimate of the Time and Space Scales Associated with Material
Exchange across the Landsea Interface . Retrieved from
http://optics.marine.usf.edu/~hu/scratch/SHORE/geocape/fy2010/GEOCAPE%20propo
sal%20Coble.docx
Dutkiewicz, S., Follows, M. J., Heimbach, P., & Marshall, J. (n.d.). Controls on ocean
productivity and airsea carbon flux: An adjoint model sensitivity study . Retrieved from
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http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2005GL024987/full
Obolewski, K. (n.d.). Composition and density of plantassociated invertebrates in relation to
environmental gradients and hydrological connectivity in wetlands. Oceanological and
Hydrobiological Studies, 40(4), 52–63.
Plattner, G.K., Joos, F., & Stocker, T. F. (n.d.). Revision of the global carbon budget due to
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