©2009 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 104, pp. 19–51

Mineral Deposits of Turkey in Relation to Tethyan Metallogeny:

Implications for Future Mineral Exploration
OZCAN YIGIT †
Department of Geological Engineering, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale 17020, Turkey

Abstract
The Tethyan metallogeny of Turkey, shaped by the interplay between subduction, collision, postcollision, and
rifting processes, is mainly associated with Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic volcanoplutonic and ophiolitic rocks.
A wide spectrum of ore deposits is represented from those occurring in island arcs to those associated with con-
tinental settings. Though Turkey has been one of the leading producers of chromite, the country is an emerg-
ing producer of precious and base metals.
This assessment of the metallogeny of Turkey is based on a comprehensive GIS database compilation that
contains known mineral deposits and prospects with relevant descriptive data. The data set contains informa-
tion on major deposit types of economic importance such as porphyry, skarn, epithermal including both high-
and low-sulfidation, polymetallic volcanic-associated massive sulfide (VMS) deposits including both Kuroko
and Cyprus types, podiform chromite, lateritic nickel, carbonate-hosted lead-zinc with nonsulfide zinc includ-
ing sedimentary-exhalative (SEDEX) and Mississippi Valley type (MVT), karstic and lateritic bauxite, orogenic
gold including both mesothermal and listwanite-hosted types, and placer deposits. Well known deposit types
that are less well represented in the database include sediment-hosted Cu, Carlin-type gold, iron oxide copper-
gold (IOCG), and detachment-fault related gold systems.
Exploration programs in the last two decades have started to reveal the true mineral potential of the coun-
try. Turkey is an underexplored country by today’s standards, with a large prospective area with a wide spec-
trum of mineral deposits reflecting the diverse geological environments that are present. Turkey is the least
well explored portion of the Tethyan belt, which hosts Au and Cu endowments comparable with the Andes and
the southwest Pacific metallogenic belts.

Introduction
“…From the land whose people are tillers of fertile fields
washed by the gold that the stream of Pactolus bears.”
Virgil, The Aeneid
TURKEY was one of the birthplaces of mining and ore extrac-
tion, with at least 9000 years of such activity, but only during
the past two decades has the metal endowment of the coun-
try been appreciated: Turkey has become a world-class explo-
ration frontier, especially for gold (Yigit, 2007b). The country
has the largest prospective land area in Europe, approxi-
mately 780,000 km2, which is approximately 1.5 times the size
of France, or about 3 times the size of Nevada. Nevertheless,
Turkey is an underexplored country with a large and diverse
mineral resource base, as well as being an underexplored por-
tion of the Tethyan metallogenic belt, which already has en-
dowments of more than 6.5 kt of gold and more than 80 Mt
of copper (Lips, 2007).
Although there are numerous mineral deposits in Turkey,
most of them are of modest size by world standards, with the
exception of industrial minerals; e.g., Turkey hosts 63 percent
of the global boron resources and significant perlite, clays,
and dimension stones. Turkey is a leading producer of boron,
with 30 percent of the world production, just ahead of the
United States at 28 percent. In spite of numerous mines, the
country is a leading producer only of chromium and, increas-
ingly, gold and silver. Most of the mines produced relatively
small amounts of metals, such as lead, zinc, and antimony,
with the exception of copper, production of which peaked at
76 kt Cu from 4.47 Mt of ore in 2000 (Mobbs, 2000), mainly
† E-mail, ozcanyigit@hotmail.com
from the Murgul, Cayeli, Kure, and Ergani deposits. More
than half of Turkey’s copper production is processed by the
Samsun copper smelter in northeastern Turkey, which was
privatized in 2004. A laterite nickel-cobalt deposit, Caldag, is
planned to start production by the end of 2008. Revenues
from mining activities contributed only 1.4 percent to the
Gross National Product (GNP) of Turkey in the last three
years (Turkish Mining Bureau (MIGEM) data, 2005–2007)
due to deterrence of long-term foreign investment by eco-
nomic instability. However, in the past one and half decades,
roughly 40 percent of the total exploration projects and ex-
penditures within the Tethyan metallogenic belt have been in
Turkey (Canby, 2007).
Most of the exploration efforts in Turkey are targeting shal-
low environments and employing surface geochemistry with
less emphasis on buried or conceptual targets. Gold is the
major target commodity for mineral exploration. Thus, most
of the recent discoveries as well as mining developments are
for gold and silver, though the potential for future base metal
and laterite nickel-cobalt deposits is also significant.
In terms of industrial minerals, the recent discovery of the
Kazan deposit with 607 Mt of resource at 31 percent trona re-
serves (Rio Tinto, 2003) north of Ankara, associated with an
Eocene lacustrine environment, is planned to be in produc-
tion soon using solution mining technology. The Beypazari
trona deposit, with 236 Mt of resource at 70 to 90 percent
Na2CO3 reserves, is located approximately 60 km east-north-
east of Kazan and is intended for immediate production.
Changes in the Turkish mining law in 1985 have stimulated
mineral exploration activities and resulted in many discover-
ies, though some of these new discoveries resulted from rein-
vestigation of long known prospects. Furthermore, buoyant

0361-0128/09/3800/19-33 19
20 OZCAN YIGIT

metal prices accompanied by amendment of the mining law
in 2004 and economic stability almost tripled the exploration
licenses assigned by the mining bureau (Fig. 1).
Even though the term “metallogeny” is commonly used for
both metallic and nonmetallic mineral deposits, this paper fo-
cuses on the metallic mineral deposits of Turkey in relation to
the Tethyan belt. Based on a GIS database of mineral deposits
and prospects compiled over many years, this paper addresses
the metallogeny of Turkey as well as recent discoveries and
exploration trends. The potential for future mineral explo-
ration trends is also evaluated. In spite of many published in-
ventories, with the exception of gold deposits (Yigit, 2006), no
paper has yet presented mineral deposits and prospects of
Turkey in a genetic framework.
Geologic and Tectonic Setting
Metallogeny in Turkey is mainly a result of the development
of the Tethyan belt within the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic
system that formed from the Jurassic-Cretaceous to the pre-
sent time (Dixon and Pereira, 1974; Jankovic, 1977, 1997).
The convergence of the African, Arabian, and Indian plates
and their collision with Eurasia in the area of the former
Tethyan oceans formed the Tethyan belt, which extends from
the western Mediterranean via the Alps to southeastern Eu-
rope, through Turkey, the Lesser Caucasus, Iran, and the Hi-
malayas to China. Hence, the mineral deposits of Turkey
were mostly formed during the Alpine orogeny related to the
Neotethys sensu lato. However, some of the deposits dis-
cussed in this paper formed during the Hercynian (=Variscan)
orogeny related to the Paleotethys sensu lato.
The geologic and tectonic setting of Turkey was discussed
in some detail in Yigit (2006); therefore, only a brief synopsis
of geological history is given in this paper. Crystalline base-
ment, covering approximately 5.5 percent of the land area in
Turkey, is characterized by metamorphic massifs, e.g., the
Strandja (or Istranca) and Kazdag Massifs in northwestern
Turkey, the Menderes Massif in western Turkey, the Kirsehir
Massif in central Turkey, and the Bitlis and Poturge Massifs in
southeastern Turkey (Fig. 2). Relatively well-studied massifs
in western Turkey suggest that age of metamorphism ranges

14
12 Discovery Rate
No. of Discoveries

10
8
6
4
2
0

800
700 Au Prices [Cumulative Average]
600
500
$ US

400
300
200
100
0

13000
12000
11000 Licenses
No. of Licenses

10000 Exploration including pre-operational

9000
8000 Operational
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Years
FIG. 1. Discovery rate, total of 106 deposits and prospects mainly precious and base metals, gold prices, and exploration
and operational licenses plotted against year for the last two decades. Data sources: TMDD for discovery rates;
www.kitco.com for gold prices; Turkish Mining Bureau (MIGEM) for exploration and operational licenses.

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 20
 42°N

STM CP
STZ IPS NAFZ
ZZ
IZ
EP
SZ

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
SZ SZ
40°N BP EAES
KDM
IAES TZ IAES EAAC
EG SG
KB AB
BG
CACC EAFZ
BFZ ITS BU
MTP BS
GG
AZ BM
BDU
38°N
KMG MM NB MTP
ITS GDU PM
BMG
AP
AN
LN
0 100 200
BU

21
kilometres
36°N
26°E 42°E
30°E 34°E 38°E
Explanation
Neo-Tectonic Fault-bounded Basins Fault
except Plains Strike-Slip Fault
PONTIDES
Ophiolite and Ophiolitic Melanges Normal Fault
Mainly Jurassic to Cretaceous Thrust Fault
Probable Fault
ANATOLIDES Major massifs - Pre-Mesozoic
TAURIDES Axial Trace of Anticline
Axial Trace of Syncline
Sutures Extensional Fissures Localizing Volcanoes
BORDER FOLDS
Thrust belts - teeth on the upper plate
0 200
kilometers
MINERAL DEPOSITS OF TURKEY IN RELATION TO TETHYAN METALLOGENY

FIG. 2. Paleo- and Neotectonic units of Turkey (modified from Gorur, 1998) with major massifs and ophiolitic rocks (modified from MTA, 1989), inset shows major
tectonic units (after Ketin, 1966) on DEM. AB = Akdag Block, AN = Antalya Nappes, AP = Arabian Platform, AZ = Afyon zone, BDG = Bolkardag Unit, BFZ = Bor-
nova Flysch zone, BG = Bergama graben, BM = Bitlis Massif, BMG = Buyuk Menderes graben, BP = Biga Peninsula, BS = Bitlis Suture, CACC = Central Anatolian
Crystalline Complex, CP = Central Pontides, EAFZ = East Anatolian Fault, EAAC = East Anatolian Accretionary Complex, EG = Edremit graben, EP = Eastern Pon-
tides, GDU = Geyikdagi Unit, GG = Gediz graben, IAES = Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan Suture, IPS = Intra-Pontide Suture, IZ = Istanbul zone, KB = Kirsehir Block, KDM
= Kazdag Massif, KM = Kirsehir Massif, KMG = Kucuk Menderes graben, LN = Lycian Nappes, MM = Menderes Massif, MTP = Menderes-Tauride Platform, NAFZ
= North Anatolian fault zone, NB = Nigde Block, PM = Poturge Massif, SG = Simav graben, STM = Strandja Massif, STZ = Strandja zone, SZ = Sakarya zone, TZ =
Tavsanli zone, ZZ = Zonguldak zone. This and all subsequent figures use a Lambert Conformal Conic Projection for Turkey, scale accurate for the location’s latitude.
21
22 OZCAN YIGIT
from Precambrian to Oligocene, and metamorphic facies
range from greenschist and amphibolite facies to eclogite and
granulite facies (Brinkmann, 1976; Akkok, 1983; Ketin, 1983;
Satir and Friedrichsen, 1986; Hetzel and Reischmann, 1996;
Oberhansli et al., 1998; Bozkurt and Satir, 2000; Okay and
Satir, 2000; Bozkurt and Oberhansli, 2001; Candan et al.,
2001; Lips et al., 2001; Rimmele et al., 2003; Bozkurt, 2004).
Multiple phases of metamorphism are commonplace in many
of the massifs; e.g., five phases of metamorphism are identi-
fied in the Menderes Massif, the first two of which are attrib-
uted to pre-Alpine orogenic events.
Paleozoic rocks are typically nonmetamorphosed sedimen-
tary rocks, exposed mainly in the northeastern, southeastern,
and southern parts of the country. In the northeast, a Paleo-
zoic rock succession called the Istanbul zone (Fig. 2) hosts the
country’s largest hard coal deposits around Zonguldak. Meso-
zoic rocks, covering extensive areas, comprise mainly platfor-
mal limestones, volcanic rocks, flysch sequences, and ophi-
olitic assemblages. Triassic and Jurassic rocks have limited
exposures, in contrast to Upper Cretaceous submarine vol-
canic rocks cropping out in northeastern Turkey (Fig. 3).
Ophiolitic rocks were obducted mostly in the Upper Creta-
ceous, though age dates range from Triassic to Paleocene
(Sengor and Yilmaz, 1981). Cenozoic rocks that cover large
areas and obscure older sequences are mainly characterized
by subaerial volcanic and shallow-water sedimentary succes-
sions. The latter hosts world-class borate deposits.
Intrusive rocks, exposed extensively in northwestern, cen-
tral, and northeastern Turkey (Fig. 3), are primarily granitic,
granodioritic, and syenitic compositions, whereas gabbroic
rocks are mostly associated with ophiolitic assemblages. Avail-
able scattered radiometric ages from intrusive rocks indicate
two broad age ranges (with the exception of the metamor-
phosed granites in crystalline massifs) of pre-Middle Jurassic
and Late Cretaceous to Miocene (Yilmaz and Boztug, 1996;
Delaloye and Bingol, 2000; Boztug et al., 2004; Ilbeyli et al.,
2004; Ilbeyli, 2005). Subaerial to submarine volcanic rocks
cover 20 percent of the total land area of Turkey, not includ-
ing mafic volcanic rocks related to ophiolites (Fig. 3). Volcanic
rocks range from Upper Cretaceous to Cenozoic in age,
mostly Neogene, with minor Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous
examples.
The first classification of the orogenic belts in Turkey was
by Ketin (1966), who proposed a fourfold geological division
of Turkey into east-trending belts: from north to south, these
are Pontides (Laurasian realm), Anatolides, Taurides, and
Border Folds (Gondwana realm; Fig. 2, inset). Although it
has been modified by many later workers (Sengor et al., 1980,
1984; Sengor and Yilmaz, 1981; Sengor, 1984; Gorur, 1998;
Okay and Tuysuz, 1999; Stampfli, 2000), this convention is
still the simplest and most widely accepted tectonic division
of Turkey. New studies employed paleogeography, plate tec-
tonics, geologic descriptions of the main sutures, microconti-
nental blocks, and oceanic domains to define the Turkish ter-
ranes further (Moix et al., 2008). The most prominent
tectonic features of the country are the Izmir-Ankara-Erzin-
can suture separating the Pontides in the north from the Ana-
tolide-Tauride platform to the south and the Bitlis suture
marking the northern edge of the Arabian plate in southeast-
ern Turkey. In a broad sense, these two sutures divide Turkey
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
into three geologically distinct domains (Fig. 2). In terms of
terranes, the Pontides (Pontide domain) consists of Rhodope-
Strandja and Istanbul, including the Zonguldak and Sakarya
zones; the Anatolide-Tauride platform is subdivided into the
Anatolian terrane, with related ophiolitic nappes; the Taurus
Cimmerian terrane, including south Taurides exotic units;
and the peri-Arabian domain, which corresponds to the Bor-
der folds (Moix et al., 2008).
Understanding of the complicated geological evolution of
these microterranes with suture zones as well as ophiolitic
melanges and exotic nappes using plate tectonics has pro-
duced a classic model for the Tethyan evolution of Turkey
(Sengor and Yilmaz, 1981), forming the most criticized yet
most used framework on which later studies are based.
Turkey constitutes the easternmost segment of the Alpine
orogenic belt and consists of numerous microterranes sepa-
rated from each other by complex suture zones (Fig. 2).
These suture zones represent remnants of the Tethyan
oceans, namely Paleotethys and Neotethys, though evolution
of these two oceans partly overlapped in time. Paleotethyan
evolution took place mainly in Permian to Triassic times by
southward subduction of the Paleotethyan Ocean beneath the
northern margin of Gondwanaland, finally culminating in the
Middle Jurassic. Neotethyan evolution occurred mainly from
Jurassic to Miocene times, reflecting mainly northward sub-
duction of the multi-armed northern and southern branches
of the Neotethyan Ocean separated by the Anatolide-Tauride
platform. The Late Cretaceous marks the initiation of the
north-dipping subduction activity associated with the closure
of the Neotethyan Ocean all along the Pontides. As the Black
Sea opened north of the Rhodope-Pontide island arc, exten-
sive ophiolite obduction occurred to the south, on the Ana-
tolide-Tauride platform and the northern part of the Arabian
Platform. The collision of the Anatolide-Tauride platform
with the Pontide arc along the Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan suture
completed the closure of the northern branch of the
Neotethyan (Vardar) Ocean during the latest Paleocene to
early Eocene times. The collision of the Arabian platform
with the Eurasian continent along the Bitlis-Zagros suture
zone created a compressional tectonic regime which in turn
caused the north-south extensional regime and related vol-
canism in the Aegean region. The North and East Anatolian
transform fault systems were created by this current tectonic
regime (Sengor and Yilmaz, 1981).
Notwithstanding the basic plate tectonic model given
above, the reality is much more intricate. There are numer-
ous contentious issues in the understanding of complicated
geological evolution of Turkey, including the number of
Tethyan oceans, the direction and timing of subduction
events, the origin and timing of the obduction of the ophi-
olitic rocks and their relation to Tethyan oceans, the origin
and timing of the extensional tectonic regime in western
Turkey (namely, tectonic escape, back arc spreading, and oro-
genic collapse models), and the controls on Cenozoic volcan-
ism (see Yigit, 2006). Any attempt to elucidate these contro-
versial matters is beyond the scope of this paper.
GIS Database
Assessments of the metallogeny of Turkey are based on a
comprehensive GIS database called the Turkish Mineral
22
 42°N

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
40°N

38°N

0 100 200

23
kilometers

36°N
26°E 42°E
30°E 34°E 38°E
Explanation
Submarine Volcanic Rocks Carbonate Rocks including recrystallized Limestones Acidic to Intermediate Intrusives Evaporitic Sedimentary Rocks
Eocene Mesozoic to Miocene
Jurassic-Cretaceous [Mainly]-Jurassic Miocene
[Mainly Tertiary]
Upper Cretaceous-Eocene Triassic-Jurassic
Ophiolite and Ophiolitic Melanges Oligo-Miocene
Upper Cretaceous Mesozoic
Mainly Jurassic-Cretaceous
Jurassic-Cretaceous Paleozoic-Mesozoic [Mainly Triassic]
Permo-Triassic Metamorphic Rocks
Subaerial Volcanic Rocks Permo-Carboniferous Pre-Mesozoic
MINERAL DEPOSITS OF TURKEY IN RELATION TO TETHYAN METALLOGENY

Quaternary Devonian
Plio-Quaternary Ordovician-Silurian-Devonian-Carboniferous
Tertiary [Mainly Neogene] Paleozoic

FIG. 3. Geology of Turkey (modified from MTA, 1989) with emphasis on the host-rock lithology of the known deposits and prospects.
23
24 OZCAN YIGIT
Deposit Database (TMDD), which contains more than
11,000 deposits and prospects including metallic, industrial,
and energy raw materials compiled from more than 20 differ-
ent databases. Repetition of some data in TMDD was in-
evitable due to poor data quality in the different sources of
data, as well as poor accuracy of some coordinate data. The
GIS database of Turkey contains a wide spectrum of geologi-
cal, geochemical, tectonic, geophysical, and topographic
maps ranging from 1:2,000,000 to 1:25,000 scale, including
Turkish topographic index maps. At the countrywide scale,
topography, geology, and tectonics combine with LANDSAT
and DEM data to provide a comprehensive base for the
TMDD. Stream-silt geochemical maps and geological maps
(1:100,000 to 1:25,000 scale), ASTER coverage and prospect
maps, and detailed DEM data (1:25,000 scale) combine at re-
gional to local scales.
Most of the data in TMDD are derived from Turkish Geo-
logical Survey (MTA) inventories (including, but not limited
to, Ryan, 1957; Gumus, 1970; MTA, 1979, 1980a, b, 1984,
1993a, b; Ersecen, 1989) and published and unpublished data
from numerous sources such as MTA and company reports,
including news releases and Turkish state planning organiza-
tion (DPT) data as well as the author’s field observations and
research projects. Most of the government inventories do not
contain any coordinate data, and, therefore, coordinate data
were taken from different scale topographic and geological
maps to create georectified maps.
The TMDD contains all available relevant descriptive in-
formation about deposits and prospects, including deposit
names and coordinate data as well as village, county and state
names, commodity, deposit type, host rock, mineralization, al-
teration, orebody, structure, tectonic setting, reserve and/or
resource data, discovery date, owner-operator, data sources,
etc. One of the main challenges of compiling a GIS database
in Turkey is the lack of publicly available data for some
prospects; exploration companies are not required to file de-
tailed data with the Turkish Mining Bureau (MIGEM) after
they relinquish exploration licenses. Deposit types for some
deposits and prospects in the database have been inferred
from published descriptions, because most of the MTA data
do not contain genetic classifications.
All of the databases are created in Microsoft Excel®, using
a maximum of 254 characters per cell, since MapInfo Profes-
sional® has a character limit for field width. All data, includ-
ing processed satellite image data, is imported into MapInfo
Professional® and is combined in the GIS environment with
the base maps. Geochemical data and 3D visualization is per-
formed by custom-built extensions for MapInfo Professional
called Encom Discover® and Encom Discover 3D®. Finally,
in the GIS environment, geospatial analyses were executed
using geological, structural, geophysical, tectonic, and metal-
logenic maps.
Types and Styles of Mineral Deposits
The wide variety of geologic and tectonic settings in Turkey
makes the country favorable for a wide spectrum of mineral
deposits associated with subduction, collision, postcollision,
and rifting processes. However, lack of investment in explo-
ration and development has meant that the real mineral po-
tential of the country has remained underappreciated until
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
recently. Principal Au-Cu-Mo deposits are mainly of porphyry
and epithermal types associated with volcanoplutonic arcs
forming from the Late Cretaceous to the Cenozoic. Signifi-
cant Cu-Pb-Zn deposits are mainly of VMS, including both
styles of Kuroko and Cyprus, and MVTs. Almost all the known
chromium deposits are podiform type related to Alpine-ophi-
olitic rocks.
Porphyry deposits
Exploration programs for the porphyry Cu deposits of
Turkey were started in the early 1970’s by the United Nations
Development Program (UNDP) and MTA. Although the pro-
gram resulted in several prospects, none of them turned into
economic deposits. However, more recent exploration efforts
have generated numerous porphyry Au-Cu prospects, and
two of these, Kisladag and Copler, are the only economic por-
phyry Au deposits in Turkey at the moment. Supergene pro-
files, oxidized leached cappings, and enriched zones are ei-
ther poorly developed or absent in most of the Turkish
porphyries, which is a major drawback from an economic
point of view.
Porphyry Cu-Au (Mo) deposits and prospects of Turkey are
chiefly related to Late Cretaceous to Miocene granitoids as-
sociated with both island arc and continental arc settings.
Yigit (2006) pointed out that porphyry belts in Turkey consti-
tute three roughly east-trending belts: Pontides, Anatolides,
and Border Folds. The known porphyry deposits and
prospects of Turkey are clustered in four districts within these
belts, which are in northeastern, east-central, western, and
northwestern Turkey (Fig. 4). Some of these belts do not co-
incide exactly with the tectonic divisions of Turkey in Ketin
(1966), even though the same nomenclature is used.
In spite of the fact that there are many known porphyry Cu-
Mo-Au systems with significant resources in the Pontides
porphyry belt, e.g., Derekoy in northwestern Turkey and
Guzelyayla, Gumushane, Bakircay, Balcili, and Ulutas in
northeastern Turkey (Fig. 4; Table 1), there is no well-defined
economic mineralization to date. Most of the known porphyry
systems contain relatively lower-grade mineralization (Table
1), and copper and molybdenum dominate over gold. In
northwestern Turkey, porphyry and/or skarn mineralization is
related to Late Cretaceous magnetite series I-type granitoids
(Ohta et al., 1988). Age of mineralization ranges from 76.7 ±
3.8 Ma (K-Ar on tonalite porphyry from potassic alteration
zone) at Derekoy to 81.7 ± 1.6 Ma (K-Ar on monzodiorite to
granodiorite) at the Sukrupasa prospect (Moore et al., 1980).
At Sukrupasa and Ikiztepeler prospects, tungsten mineraliza-
tion is conspicuous. The district is currently being evaluated
for porphyry Cu-Mo-Au potential, as well as epithermal Au
potential, by several mining companies, producing encourag-
ing results in the Sukrupasa and Ikiztepeler areas with gold
anomalies such as the northwest-trending Sarp Gold Corridor
(Slim, 2006).
In northeastern Turkey, porphyry prospects follow the
trend of the intrusions, which are mainly I-type calc-alkaline
and range from Late Cretaceous to Eocene (Moore et al.,
1980). The Guzelyayla porphyry prospect is associated with
Paleocene dacite and granodiorite porphyry and contains sig-
nificant Cu+Mo resources (Table 1). Stockwork and dissemi-
nated Cu-Mo mineralization is related to potassic and phyllic
24
 42°N
Derekoy Ikiztepeler Berta
Sukrupasa Yuksekoba
Kabatas
Guzelyayla
Bakircay Balcili Gumushane
Esendal Durusu
Inanmis
Ulutas

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Dikmen Tufekcikonak
40°N Saricayiryayla Gurculer
Halilaga Gelemic
Palamutoba Mayislar Copler Bahce Sabirli
Karapinar Muratdere Demirmagara Bayramdere
Tepeoba Turkmen Zangadere Cevizlidere
Pinarbasi Kabatas Sin Mamlis

Sayacik Kisladag AS Keban Nazarusagi

38°N
Uslu
Doganbey Ispendere

0 100 200

25
kilometers

36°N
26°E 42°E
30°E 34°E 38°E
Explanation
Submarine Volcanic Rocks Carbonate Rocks including recrystallized Limestones Acidic to Intermediate Intrusives
Eocene Mesozoic to Miocene
Jurassic-Cretaceous [Mainly]-Jurassic
[Mainly Tertiary]
Upper Cretaceous-Eocene Triassic-Jurassic
Upper Cretaceous Mesozoic
Jurassic-Cretaceous Paleozoic-Mesozoic [Mainly Triassic]
Permo-Triassic
Subaerial Volcanic Rocks Permo-Carboniferous
MINERAL DEPOSITS OF TURKEY IN RELATION TO TETHYAN METALLOGENY

Devonian Porphyry deposits or prospects

Quaternary
Plio-Quaternary Ordovician-Silurian-Devonian-Carboniferous
Tertiary [Mainly Neogene] Paleozoic

FIG. 4. Distribution of the porphyry deposits and prospects of Turkey with emphasis on host-rock lithology.
25
 TABLE 1. Characteristics of and Reserve and/or Resource Data for Selected Porphyry Deposits and Prospects of Turkey 26
Tectonic Principal Age of Orebody and Mineral reserves and/or
Deposit name State Commodity belt host rocks host rocks Structure resources and/or grade Status Data source(s)

Kisladag Usak Au Anatolides Multiphase Miocene Stockworks, Reserve: 153.330 Mt at 1.12 g/t M Hatch Associates
latite porphyry breccia; strong Au (proven + probable), inclusive Ltd. (2003);
intrusion WNW and to mineral resources Eldorado Gold
W trends Resource: 255.390 Mt at 0.95 Corp. news
g/t Au (measured + indicated), release, 02/22/2008
140.510 Mt at 0.74 g/t Au (inferred)

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Copler Erzincan Au, Ag Anatolides Granodiorite, Eocene (1), Stockworks; Reserve: 32.428 Mt at 1.739 g/t Au, D Marek and
(=Cukurdere) quartz monzonite, Liassic- 1 × 2 km 5.17 g/t Ag (proven); 19.873 Mt at Moores (2007);
monzodiorite, Campanian (2) depression 1.662 g/t Au, 4.39 g/t Ag (probable) Anatolia Minerals
diorite (1), Resource: 32.159 Mt at 1.090 g/t Au, Development Inc.
skarnified lime- 3.46 g/t Ag (measured + indicated); news release,
stone (2) 43.603 Mt at 1.715 g/t Au, 3.13 g/t 01/18/2007
Ag (inferred)

Guzelyayla Trabzon Cu, Mo Pontides Dacite porphyry, Paleocene Stockworks, Resource: 186.2 Mt at 0.3% P Er et al. (1995)
granodiorite fracture fills, Cu equiv
porphyry disseminations

Derekoy Kirklareli Cu, Mo, Au Pontides Monzonite Late Disseminations Resource: 270 Mt at 0.284% Cu P Ohta et al. (1988);
porphyry, quartz Cretaceous and stockworks; (Mutschler et al., 1999); or 221 Mt Ersecen (1989);
diorite porphyry, E-trending at 0.27% Cu equiv (Ersecen, 1989) Mutschler et al.
tonalite porphyry, monzonite (1999)
skarn porphyry dikes

26
Gumushane Artvin Cu, Au, Mo Pontides Granodiorite Post Quartz and Resource: 30 Mt at 0.3 g/t Au, P Soylu (1999);
OZCAN YIGIT

(=Ardala) porphyry, quartz Paleocene, quartz-sericite 0.3% Cu; or 80 Mt at 0.5% Cu with Ariana Resources
andesite, Middle- veinlets; average Au grades at the surface 0.6 Plc. news release,
dacite (1), Upper NNW-trending g/t; or 20Mt at 0.25% Cu, 0.45 g/t 07/11/2007
limestone (2) Eocene ? (1), fault Au and 65 ppm Mo
Paleocene (2)

Bakircay Amasya Cu, Mo Pontides Granodiorite (1), Late Stockworks; Resource: 200 Mt at 0.2% Cu+Mo P UN (1974a);
granodiorite Eocene (1) NE-trending Taylor (1981)
porphyry, andesitic mineralized
and dacitic dikes and altered
intruded into zone
marble, quartzite
and hornfels

Balcili Artvin Cu, Mo Pontides Granodiorite Paleocene Stockworks, Resource: 145 Mt at 0.25%Cu P Soylu (1999)
breccia pipe; equiv (Cu+Mo)
NE-trending
alteration zone;
Pebble dikes

Ulutas Erzurum Cu, Mo Pontides Quartz monzonite, Paleocene Stockworks, Resource: 73.6 Mt at 0.31% Cu + P UN (1974b)
quartz porphyry breccia, fracture 0.022% Mo Soylu (1999)
intrusive breccia fills; NE-trending
mineralized zone
 MINERAL DEPOSITS OF TURKEY IN RELATION TO TETHYAN METALLOGENY 27

alteration, weakly developed argillic alteration, and contains

skarn zones. The Guzelyayla porphyry has a very shallow oxi-

Kucukefe et al.
Yildirim (2002)
Data source(s)
dized zone, from 10 to 30 m (Soylu, 1999) in depth. The Gu-
mushane porphyry in the Artvin area is associated with Mid-
dle to Late Eocene granodiorite porphyry and contains

(2003)
higher-grade gold values, up to 13 g/t. The Gumushane por-
phyry exhibits well developed quartz vein stockwork and
much more extensive argillic alteration zones in comparison
Status

to other porphyry systems in northeastern Turkey (Soylu,

1999). At the Bakircay prospect, a northeast-trending miner-
P

P
alized and altered zone along the Bakircay stream is related to
Eocene granodiorite porphyries, including andesitic and
0.041% Mo (0.96% Cu equiv) plus
4.86 Mt at 0.32% Cu, 0.046% Mo
Resource: 19.24 Mt at 0.33% Cu,

dacitic dikes intruded into marble and quartzite, forming

skarn zones. Biotite ages (K/Ar) indicate that potassic alter-
ation ranges between 38.6 ± 1.33 and 37.4 ± 1.29 Ma (Taylor,
Resource: 120.299 Mt at
Mineral reserves and/or
resources and/or grade

1981). The Balcili porphyry Cu-Mo prospect, also in the

Artvin area, occurs in a roughly northeast-trending zone of
Paleocene granodiorite that controls the stockwork and brec-
(1% Cu equiv)

cia mineralization with mainly potassic alteration. The age of

0.168% Cu

the porphyry Cu-Mo mineralization is 62.3 ± 4.2 Ma (K/Ar)

(Soylu, 1999). Ulutas is another Paleocene (59 Ma) porphyry
prospect in northeastern Turkey and contains a fairly well-de-
veloped leached cap, unlike other porphyries in the area. The
vein and veinlets

causative intrusions for porphyry mineralization are quartz

Disseminations,

disseminated,
Orebody and

monzonite and quartz porphyries with breccia zones. Yuk-

stockworks
Structure

sekoba, Durusu, Berta, Inanmis, and Kabatas are other por-

Breccia,

phyry prospects in northeastern Turkey (Fig. 4). The Yuk-

sekoba prospect is the only one that contains reported
TABLE 1. (Cont.)

unmineralized pebble dikes in the Pontides. Berta is a newly

discovered porphyry Cu-Au/epithermal prospect in which
Devonian (3)

Miocene (1),
Permian (2),
Eocene (1),

Triassic (2)
Paleocene-

drill intersections up to 710 m at 0.28 percent Cu and 0.07 g/t

host rocks

Au have recently been reported (Nuinsco Resources News

Age of

Oligo-

Pre-

Release, April 25th, 2007).

The Anatolides are the most prolific porphyry belt in
Turkey to date with two of the largest gold deposits, Kisladag
granite and granite
quartz porphyries

metasedimentary

and Copler. The belt also contains other porphyry prospects

with late stage

metabasic and
and schists (3)
Granitoid and

limestone (2)

like Saricayiryayla, Tepeoba, Muratdere, and Dikmen, as well

Granodiorite,
intruded into

intruded into
porphyry (1)

as many old and recently generated prospects, e.g., Cevizli-

host rocks

aplites (1)
Principal

rocks (2)

dere, Halilaga, AS, and Doganbey (Fig. 4). Kisladag, hosted

by Miocene multiphase latite porphyry intrusions, is the first
example of an economic porphyry deposit in Turkey; it began
commercial production in 2006. The Kisladag porphyry Au
Anatolides

Anatolides

deposit was discovered in 1998 and contains 5.5 Moz of Au

Tectonic

reserves (Table 1). Gold is related to at least three stages of

belt

partially overlapping stockwork veins and breccias around a

Notes: D = development, M = mine, P = prospect

weakly mineralized stock. The alkalic porphyry system in

Kisladag is exceptionally Au-rich with a high Mo content and
Cu, Mo, Au

Cu, Mo, Au
Commodity

contains relatively minor quartz veinlets (Sillitoe, 2002).

Thickness of the oxidation zone varies from 20 m to >100 m
(Hatch Associates Ltd., 2003). There are no reported radio-
metric ages for mineralization at Kisladag.
The Copler (=Cukurdere) deposit with 2.7 Moz of Au re-
Balikesir

serves and 3.5 Moz of Au resources (Table 1) is the second-

Bursa
State

largest gold deposit in Turkey. The Au is contained in three

orebodies of porphyry-centered mineralization: 1) the Main
Porphyry zone; 2) the outlying zone of skarn and/or replace-
Deposit name

Saricayiryayla

ment mineralization occurring along the limestone and mar-

ble contact, called the Manganese mine zone (previously
Tepeoba

mined for Mn); and 3) the Marble Cover zone. The Copler
porphyry Au-Cu system (note that Cu resources have not

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 27
28 OZCAN YIGIT
been reported) is hosted partly by Eocene monzodiorite and
diorite (44.4 Ma, Ar/Ar; Kuscu et al., 2007) and partly by
skarnified Jurassic-Cretaceous limestone. Low-grade Au-Cu
mineralization is mainly associated with K-silicate alteration,
though a classic concentric porphyry alteration is not evident.
The age of hydrothermal alteration is 40.2 Ma (Ar/Ar; Kuscu
et al., 2007). Late stage, overprinted base-metal–rich miner-
alization is interpreted as intermediate-sulfidation epither-
mal. Although it is classified as a typical porphyry system (Ko-
ciumbas and MacFarlane, 2003), the true nature of the
mineralized system needs further work. Quartz-manganese-
carbonate-barite veinlets and quartz-pyrite replacements of
limestone are two predominant styles of gold mineralization
at Copler, with the former constituting the majority of miner-
alized tonnage (Marek and Moores, 2007).
At the Saricayiryayla porphyry, Cu-Mo-Au mineralization is
associated with Eocene intrusions (50 Ma) and has known
skarn zones that were worked in the past. The newly discov-
ered Tepeoba prospect, generated from the long-known W
and Mo mineralization in the area by MTA, is associated with
Oligo-Miocene granitic intrusions (24–21 Ma) and contains
breccia zones. The Muratdere porphyry Cu-Mo-Au prospect
(55.5 Mt at 0.25 g/t Au) is associated with granitic intrusions
of Eocene (50 Ma; MTA data). Dikmen is a similar age por-
phyry Cu-Mo-Au prospect in the Biga Peninsula. Recent por-
phyry discoveries include Cevizlidere (=Kizilviran), which is
one of the significant discoveries without publicly available
reserve data, Kabatas (48.5 Ma, age of alteration), Bahce,
Sabirli, Bayramdere, Demirmagara, Zangadere, Mamlis, and
Sin in east-central Turkey.
The Halilaga porphyry prospect, in western Turkey, is
hosted by quartz- and feldspar-hornblende porphyries, as
well as possibly Oligocene andesitic flows and tuffs. The main
mineralized central zone, exposed over an area of 300 by 400
m, contains stockwork quartz veins up to 35 to 50 percent in
drill holes with visible disseminated Cu. One of the discovery
drill holes intercepted 298.2 m at 0.50 g/t Au and 0.53 percent
Cu, including over 105.4 m at 1.03 g/t Au and 1.03 percent
Cu. A secondary Cu enrichment containing up to 2.15 per-
cent Cu and 0.93 g/t Au over 25.8 m occurred in one of the
drill holes (Grieve, 2007). Other prospects in western Turkey
include “AS” (115 m at 0.8 g/t Au and 0.82 percent Cu in one
drill hole), Palamutoba, Tufekcikonak, Mayislar, Turkmen
(Yilmaz, 2003a), Karapinar (one of the drill holes intersected
0.36% Cu, 51 ppm Mo and 0.1 ppm Au over 221 m from sur-
face, and 0.31% Cu, 152 ppm Mo and 0.07 g/t Au over 54 m
at a depth of 273 meters in the same drill hole), Gurculer,
Sayacik, and Doganbey (Fig. 4).
The Border Folds region, with only a few known porphyry
prospects, is the least explored porphyry belt in Turkey. The
belt contains porphyry deposits such as those in the Keban
district with known porphyry and skarn mineralization at
Nazarusagi, Ispendere and the newly discovered Uslu
prospects. Most of the porphyry mineralization is associated
with Late Cretaceous granite intrusions of calc-alkaline to
alkaline composition (Dumanlilar et al., 1999) related to
magmatic arc of the southeastern Anatolian orogenic belt.
The ages of alteration at Nazarusagi and Keban are 77.6 ±
2.0 Ma (Ar/Ar) and 74.0 Ma (Ar/Ar), respectively (Kuscu et
al., 2007).
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Skarn and IOCG-type deposits
Though numerous skarn deposits (Meinert et al., 2005) are
distributed throughout Turkey (Fig. 5) following the general
trend of the porphyry belts, most of them do not contain suf-
ficient tonnage to have been exploited economically. Except
for Fe skarns i.e. Divrigi and Ayazmant, they contribute little
value to the Turkish metal endowment. Gold skarns are
sparse, i.e. Asar Tepe prospect in Biga Peninsula, as are Sn
skarns. Though most of the Fe-Cu, Pb-Zn, W or Mo skarns
were poorly appreciated, recent studies show that most of
these skarn zones are closely associated with porphyry sys-
tems in many districts, i.e., Copler and Keban Districts in east
central Turkey, Bursa-Kutahya District in western Turkey and
Derekoy District in northwestern Turkey. Some of the Fe-Cu
skarn districts have potential for iron oxide copper-gold
(IOCG) systems, i.e. the Hasancelebi and Divrigi districts in
east central Turkey and Ayazmant and Samli areas in western
Turkey (Yigit, 2006). Iron skarns are by far the most abundant
in northeastern Turkey. Many lead-zinc skarn deposits of
south central Turkey are commonly associated with more dis-
tal carbonate-replacement mineralization.
The Divrigi district contains many iron deposits occurring
in extensively hydrothermally altered ophiolitic rocks at the
contact with alkaline intrusive rocks. The Divrigi Fe mine
(133.8 Mt at 56% Fe and 0.5% Cu: Singer et al., 1993), the
largest Fe-Cu deposit in Turkey, consists of three orebodies,
namely A- and B-Kafa and C-Placer. The deposit is located at
the coincidence of shoshonitic to monzonitic alkaline intru-
sive rocks, recrystallized limestone and serpentinized ultra-
mafic rocks (Zeck and Unlu, 1991). A-Kafa is the largest ore-
body, with 79.9 Mt at 54 percent Fe; it consists of a magnetite
orebody containing a brecciated zone. The orebody includes
minor amounts of late stage pyrite and chalcopyrite veinlets
with alteration assemblages containing scapolite, diopside,
tremolite, actinolite, and andradite (Cihnioglu et al., 1994;
Gumus, 1998) and is associated with intrusive contacts. The
minimum age of the magnetite ore at Divrigi A-Kafa is 73.75
± 0.62 and 74.34 ± 0.83 Ma (Ar/Ar) from late alteration-phase
biotite (Marschik et al., 2008), whereas the age of the
causative intrusive, the Murmano pluton, is less clear, yield-
ing dates of 110 ± 5 Ma (Rb/Sr; Zeck and Unlu, 1988) and
77.2 ± 1.8 to 62.1 ± 0.3 Ma (K/Ar on hornblende and/or bi-
otite; Boztug et al., 2007). Marschik et al. (2008) favor ore for-
mation close to 74 Ma for the Divrigi A-Kafa deposit.
The Hasancelebi Fe district in Malatya has the largest iron
resources in Turkey and contains 685 Mt at 19 percent Fe
(Cihnioglu et al., 1994) and local high Cu and Au values up to
0.8 percent and 2 g/t respectively (Ay et al., 2004) in an area
0.3 km wide and 6 km long. The host rocks are intensely
metasomatized and scapolite-rich volcanic rocks. The miner-
alization has a very close spatial association with extensive
scapolitization (Gumus, 1998). In the district in general, early
Na-metasomatism with scapolitization is followed by mag-
netite; retrograde K-metasomatism with phlogopite, biotite,
and K-feldspar; and late-stage sulfide mineralization (Ay et
al., 2004). This paragenetic relationship is very similar to min-
eralization and alteration at Divrigi. The age of the mineral-
ization in the Hasancelebi district is constrained from 73.43 ±
0.41 to 74.92 ± 0.39 Ma (Ar/Ar), based on hydrothermal
28
 42°N

Maglavit
Kartiba
Karabork
Girlak
Cambasi
Zemberek Yayla

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Asar Tepe Uludag Kurtulmus
40°N Handeresi Maden Gumuskaya
Dudas Akdagmadeni
Samli Kulat Ciftligi Divrigi
Celebi Dumluca Bizmisen
Demirboku
Ayazmant Kesikkopru Akcakisla Keban
Kalkan
Hasancelebi Zeytindagi
Karamadazi
38°N
Camardi
Esendemirtepe Celaller

0 100 200

29
kilometers

36°N
26°E 42°E
30°E 34°E 38°E
Explanation
Submarine Volcanic Rocks Carbonate Rocks including recrystallized Limestones Acidic to Intermediate Intrusives
Eocene Jurassic-Cretaceous [Mainly]-Jurassic Mesozoic to Miocene
[Mainly Tertiary]
Upper Cretaceous-Eocene Triassic-Jurassic
Upper Cretaceous Mesozoic
Jurassic-Cretaceous Paleozoic-Mesozoic [Mainly Triassic]
Permo-Triassic
Skarn deposits or prospects
Subaerial Volcanic Rocks Permo-Carboniferous
MINERAL DEPOSITS OF TURKEY IN RELATION TO TETHYAN METALLOGENY

Quaternary Devonian
Plio-Quaternary Ordovician-Silurian-Devonian-Carboniferous
Tertiary [Mainly Neogene] Paleozoic

FIG. 5. Distribution of the skarn and potential IOCG deposits and prospects of Turkey with emphasis on host-rock lithology.
29
30 OZCAN YIGIT
biotite intergrown with magnetite (Marschik et al., 2008). Sta-
ble isotope data for late stage pyrite at Divrigi and Ha-
sancelebi together with calcite indicate a nonmagmatic
source for sulfur and involvement of evaporitic fluids for late
stage mineralization. The formation of Fe-bearing fluids is
therefore inferred from mainly evaporitic sources, although a
magmatic-hydrothermal component to the mineralization is
not excluded (Marschik et al., 2008). In western Turkey, the
Ayazmant (5.7 Mt at 46.05% Fe, 16.76% SiO2, 0.6% Cu and
1.06% S) and Samli deposits with total district resources of
1.6 Mt at 50 to 53 percent Fe2O3 (past production 1.75 Mt at
>56.5% Fe: Cihnioglu et al., 1994) are the other examples of
the Fe deposits.
The Uludag W deposit was mined by the government min-
ing agency (Etibank), and produced approximately 1 Mt of
ore from 1977 to 1989. The deposit still has a resource of 16.5
Mt at 0.44 percent WO3 (Ersecen, 1989). The exoskarn
scheelite mineralization formed at the contact between
Oligocene (24 Ma) granodiorite and Paleozoic marble.
In central Turkey, the Akdagmadeni district contains many
Pb-Zn-(Ag) skarns. Calcic and magnesian skarn mineraliza-
tion is associated with Upper Cretaceous granite and tonalite
intrusions and metacarbonate rocks within the Akdag Massif.
Though no up-to-date reserve or resource data for the district
are known, Pb-Zn ore from the district contains 1400 g/t Ag
in concentrate (Sagiroglu, 1984). At the Celebi Fe-Cu-W dis-
trict in central Turkey, it is suggested that Fe mineralization is
related to granitoids of intermediate composition showing
similarities to the causative plutons for the Cu-Au skarns,
whereas tungsten mineralization is related to granitoids of fel-
sic composition (Kuscu et al., 2002). The Kesikkopru (13.6
Mt at 32–54% Fe) Fe-Cu skarn is located to the southwest of
Celebi.
In south central Turkey, the Camardi-Ulukisla and Yahyali
districts contain numerous occurrences of Pb-Zn and Fe
skarns and replacement orebodies. Orebodies in these dis-
tricts have a very complex geochemical signature suggesting
multiple phases of overprinting mineralization: e.g., Fe-
Cu-Au-Ag-Co-Bi-Ti at Esendemirtepe, Fe-Cu-Au-Ag-Ti at
Kocak, and Fe-Cu-Mn-Sb-Hg at Celaller. At the Karamadazi-
Yahyali (6.4 Mt at 54% Fe resource: Cihnioglu et al., 1994) Fe
skarn mineralization is related to Eocene granite and diorite
intruded into recrystallized Permian limestones. Dating indi-
cates an age of 46.5 Ma (Ar/Ar) for alteration (Kuscu et al.,
2007). Many other small deposits such as Demirboku (3.7 Mt
at 3.91% Pb, 3.81% Zn, 0.25% Cu) and Handeresi (3.1 Mt at
5.24% Pb, 2.05% Zn: MTA, 1993b) as well as the Yenice dis-
trict in the Biga Peninsula could be examples of Pb-Zn skarns.
Epithermal deposits
Epithermal Au-Ag+/Hg-Sb deposits and prospects are
mainly clustered in two distinct regions in northeastern and
western Turkey. In northeastern Turkey, most of the epither-
mal mineralization is spatially associated with submarine to
subaerial Late Cretaceous to Eocene calc-alkaline volcanic
rocks, whereas Neogene subaerial volcanic rocks are the
dominant host in western Turkey (Fig. 6a, b). The Konya vol-
canic complex in south central Turkey is another promising
area for epithermal mineralization with several recent discov-
eries (see Inlice in Fig. 6a). Many of the known deposits and
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
prospects contain precious and base metals as well as signifi-
cant Sb and Hg. Epithermal Au-Ag deposits are to date the
most important economically in Turkey, as discussed in detail
by Yigit (2006, 2007a). None of the Hg deposits are excep-
tionally large or high-grade (Yildiz and Bailey, 1978); Sizma-
Konya is one of the largest (1.4 Mt at 0.15% Hg; Ersecen,
1989) in south central Turkey. The Goynuk and the Derekoy
prospects in Muratdagi district (Aral, 1989), and the Ivrindi
Sb-Au district are typical examples of epithermal Sb-Au–style
mineralization in western Turkey. Several epithermal-type
deposits with extensive alteration zones in western Turkey
also are exploited for industrial minerals such as clay: e.g., the
Duvertepe-Balikesir kaolinite deposit (63.7 Mt at 13–33%
Al2O3, Ersecen, 1989), silica (commercially called silex) and
sulfur deposits.
Both styles of epithermal mineralization, i.e., low sulfida-
tion (quartz ± calcite ± adularia ± illite) and high sulfidation
(quartz + alunite ± pyrophyllite ± dickite ± kaolinite: Heden-
quist, 1987; Simmons et al., 2005), are represented in Turkey.
High-sulfidation systems are mainly concentrated in the Biga
Peninsula in northwestern Turkey, i.e., Agi Dagi and Kirazli,
while the best examples of low sulfidation systems occur in
Ovacik in western Turkey and Kucukdere in the Biga Penin-
sula. Selected characteristics of the epithermal deposits with
>0.2 Moz Au as a reserve or resource are given in Table 2.
Gumuskoy in Kutahya, which started production in 1987, is
the first and only Ag-only mine in Turkey, with reserves of
21.5 Mt at 178 g/t Ag, containing approximately 123 Moz
(3534 t) of Ag, whereas Ovacik, which started production in
2001, is the first Au-Ag epithermal mine in Turkey.
The Efemcukuru low sulfidation system with reserves of
1.22 Moz Au is the largest epithermal Au deposit in Turkey
with ongoing mine construction (forecast to be in production
in 2010; Table 2). It is hosted by Neogene rhyolitic rocks and
Late Cretaceous to Paleogene flysch sequences. Kestanebe-
leni and Alanicidere are two major veins in this boron-en-
riched deposit, with most of the mineralization hosted by the
Kestanebeleni hill vein. Stockworks, breccias, and replace-
ment styles of mineralization are controlled by a northwest-
trending fault system that also forms loci for rhyolitic dike in-
trusion. Sulfide-poor quartz-rhodonite gangue precipitated in
three or more stages of early veining, with multiple subse-
quent phases of quartz and quartz-sulfide veins. Oyman et al.
(2003) proposed two hypogene events consisting of an early
metasomatism and a later three-stage hydrothermal alteration
and mineralization and a supergene event that controlled
gold mineralization. Most of the fine-grained (0.5–30 mi-
crons) gold mineralization occurs as free grains in quartz and
rhodonite gangue and as partially locked grains in pyrite, chal-
copyrite, and sphalerite, and to a lesser extent in galena.
However, enhancement of the gold grades is due to super-
gene alteration in an oxidized zone up to 100 m depth. Silver
grades are highly variable, averaging 11.9 and 8.3 g/t Ag in the
MOS and SOS zones of Kestanebeleni, respectively, and lo-
cally in excess of 100 g/t in MOS resulting from relatively
higher base metal values. The higher-grade silver zones tend
to surround high-grade gold zones (Wardrop Engineering
Inc., 2007). Mineralization-related alteration consists of
rhodonite, rhodochrosite, axinite, quartz, calcite, and adularia
in veins and stockwork zones and chlorite, sericite, illite, and
30
 MINERAL DEPOSITS OF TURKEY IN RELATION TO TETHYAN METALLOGENY
kaolinite in the wall rock. A fluid inclusion study indicates
200° to 300°C homogenization temperatures with salinities
ranging from 0 to 9 wt percent NaCl equiv (Oyman et al.,
2003). Fluid inclusion geochemistry and vein mineralogy re-
flect the complicated nature of mineralized systems in skarni-
fied host rocks.
The Ovacik open pit and underground Au-Ag mine is the
second largest epithermal gold deposit in Turkey. The deposit
consists of two economic banded quartz-veins called the M
and S veins and two less well mineralized veins called the D
and G veins, all hosted by an Early Miocene andesite por-
phyry. The mineralization is closely associated with develop-
ment of the east-northeast–trending Bergama graben, and
weighted mean age of mineralization is 18.2 ± 0.2 Ma based
on Ar/Ar dating of adularia (Yilmaz, 2002; Yilmaz et al., 2007).
Colloform to crustiform banded quartz-adularia veins and
late stage breccias locally contain bonanza gold grades with
excess of 100 g/t Au. The Ovacik district as a whole contains
many other low sulfidation veins, e.g., Narlica and Soganci,
but these are not presently being exploited.
The Agi Dagi deposit, with resources of 1.8 Moz Au and
12.3 Moz Ag, and Kirazli, with resources of 1.3 Moz Au and
3.4 Moz Ag, are two recently discovered high sulfidation ep-
ithermal deposits that are both undergoing feasibility studies
(Frontier Development Group Inc., news release, June 18th,
2007). Disseminated Au-Ag mineralization at Agi Dagi, which
consists of two mineralized zones, is associated with probably
Oligocene, pervasively altered felsic to intermediate volcanic
rocks and porphyry in flow-dome complexes, forming an ap-
proximately 4-km-long, 2-km-wide, northeast-trending silica
cap. High-grade oxide and lower-grade sulfide zones in the
Kirazli Au-Ag deposit are hosted by probably Oligo-Miocene
andesitic and dacitic lavas and pyroclastics. The Kirazli ep-
ithermal system consists of a combination of stockwork, brec-
cia, and disseminated and replacement-style mineralization,
forming an approximately 0.7-km-long, 0.3-km-wide, north-
northeast–trending zone. Early stage chalcedonic silica
formed a blanket-like aquitard for later mineralizing fluids,
which concentrated along breccia zones that represent fluid
conduits. The Sahinli deposit, with unclassified resources of 2
Moz Au; the Kisacik deposit, with resources of 1 Moz Au; the
Akbaba deposit, with resources of 0.3 Moz Au; and the Ku-
cukdere deposit, with resources of 0.29 Moz Au are some of
the other epithermal deposits with published resources on
the Biga Peninsula. Ore from some of the high-grade zones
from the Kucukdere low sulfidation epithermal deposit is
being mined and shipped to the Ovacik mill for processing.
Other epithermal prospects on the Biga Peninsula include
Piren Tepe, with 46.9 m at 1.79 g/t Au in one drill hole, as well
as Dogancilar (Pirajno, 1995), Kuscayiri (Yilmaz, 2003b), Kar-
taldag, and Madendag (Fig. 6a). Examples of the base
metal–rich epithermal deposits with intermediate sulfidation
(IS) affinities include the historical Balya mine, which also
contains replacement and skarn zones (13.5 Mt at 4.54% Pb,
2.6% Zn, 0.04% Cd, 58 g/t Ag, plus Au; MTA, 1993b), Ara-
pucan, and the Koru Pb-Zn-Ag-Au deposit. Some other ep-
ithermal prospects in western Turkey, most with recent ex-
ploration activity, include Akarca, Subeylidere, Kinik,
Kiziltepe, Kepez, Mumcu, Delidemirci, Degirmenciler, Ara-
pdag, Derinin Tepe, Goynuk, and Kure (Fig. 6a).
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
31
In northeastern Turkey, the Mastra Au-Ag (plus base met-
als) deposit with resources of 0.69 Moz Au is in pilot plant
production. Stockworks of quartz-adularia and sulfide miner-
alization at Mastra are hosted by Miocene andesite lava and
tuffs and are controlled by northwest-trending shear zones
dipping northeast 70°. The Tac (1.07 Moz Au, plus Cu) and
Corak prospects (0.74 Moz Au) are two adjacent high sulfida-
tion epithermal prospects undergoing feasibility study. Altin-
tepe (0.47 Moz oxide ore, 0.13 Mt at 1.12 g/t Au, plus 0.1 Moz
sulfide ore; Stratex International Plc., news release, Septem-
ber 10th, 2008) consists of two zones associated with Upper
Cretaceous volcanosedimentary rocks, porphyry, andesite,
and rhyolite domes. Mineralization and alteration assem-
blages indicate the possible formation of low-sulfidation
alongside a high sulfidation zone or a high-sulfidation system
overprinting a low-sulfidation, as is observed in Bahcecik
prospect (Yigit, 1997; Yigit et al., 2000). Sisorta (=Evliyatepe),
Aktutan, Sobran, Derinkoy, Ayyildiz and Mahmur Tepe are
the other examples of epithermal systems from northeastern
Turkey. At the Mahmur Tepe prospect, gold mineralization is
closely associated with mafic intrusive rocks (magnetite and
ilmenite, up to 39.7% Fe2O3 and 2% TiO2) and drilling indi-
cates that gold mineralization is controlled by fractures and
quartz veinlets with grades up to 19.3 g/t Au. The prospect
with its distinct aeromagnetic anomalies reflecting rocks with
45 Mt at 15 to 18 percent Fe (or 135 Mt at 15% Fe) (Kilinc,
1993), is one of the first examples in Turkey of an alkalic ep-
ithermal gold system (i.e. similar to Porgera).
The Sebinkarahisar district near Giresun contains many
polymetallic base- and precious-metal veins including the
Derekoy, Eskine Yaylasi, Etir Yaylasi, Inler Yaylasi and Asar-
cik deposits. At Derekoy, polymetallic veins are hosted by
Upper Cretaceous rhyolites and dacites (Table 2; Fig. 6b). At
Asarcik (2.0 Mt at 3.38% Pb, 3.94% Zn, 0.40% Cu, 50.15 g/t
Ag, plus Au) a major northwest-striking vein, approximately
2.25 km long and 2-4 m thick, and a secondary east-striking
vein, approximately 0.8 km long and 2 m thick, are hosted by
Upper Cretaceous quartz syenite, quartz micro-syenite and
quartz micro-monzonite (Ayan and Dora, 1995). In south
central Turkey the newly discovered Inlice high sulfidation
epithermal prospect (0.26 Moz Au resources, Stratex Inter-
national Plc. News Release, July 28th, 2008) consists of a num-
ber of northwest-trending and steeply dipping silicified
zones, hosted by probably Eocene andesitic rocks (Hall et al.,
2007). The vuggy and saccharoidal quartz hosts the gold min-
eralization in the main zone, and shows outward transition to
advanced-argillic and argillic alteration zones, typical of the
outflow path of a high sulfidation epithermal system in which
alteration and gold precipitation is controlled by mainly pH
and temperature changes. Other prospects, such as Oglakci
and Doganbey (Fig. 4), in the area may together with Inlice
form a new district for epithermal-porphyry exploration.
Significant open-pit mineable fluorite-barite-REE mineral-
ization of less certain affinity occurs at Kizilcaoren (30 Mt at
3.14% REE, 37.44% CaF2, 31.04% BaSO4; 0.384 Mt at
0.212% ThO2 in bastnasite (Kayabali, 1986)) in central
Turkey. Mineralization is hosted by Triassic metasandstones
and Oligo-Miocene pyroclastic rocks with a close spatial rela-
tionship to trachytic porphyry and phonolites. Fluid inclusion
studies of the vein and breccia mineralization at Kizilcaoren
31
32 OZCAN YIGIT

a
42°N

Akbaba Koru
Madendag
Sahinli
Kartaldag
Kuscayiri Kirazli
Dogancilar
40°N Arapucan Akarca
Pirentepe
Agi Dagi
Balya
Kisacik Derinin Tepe Gumuskoy
Kinik
Kucukdere
Subeylidere
Kiziltepe Goynuk Kizilcaoren
Narlica Mumcu
Ovacik Kepez
Degirmenciler
Arapdag Delidemirci
Efemcukuru
38°N
Kure Inlice
Oglakci

0 100 200

kilometers
36°N
26°E
Explanation 30°E 34°E
Submarine Volcanic Rocks Subaerial Volcanic Rocks Acidic to Intermediate Intrusives
Mesozoic to Miocene
Eocene Quaternary
[Mainly Tertiary]
Upper Cretaceous-Eocene Plio-Quaternary
Upper Cretaceous Tertiary [Mainly Neogene]
Jurassic-Cretaceous Epithermal deposits or prospects

FIG. 6. Distribution of the epithermal deposits and prospects of western Turkey with emphasis on host-rock lithology.

suggest temperatures consistent with epithermal mineraliza-
tion spatially associated with alkaline volcanic rocks (Gultekin
et al., 2003).
Volcanic-associated massive sulfide deposits
Polymetallic VMS deposits in Turkey are divided in two cat-
egories, called the Kuroko and Cyprus types. These are the
bimodal-felsic and mafic-dominated types of Franklin et al.
(2005). In this paper, the term “Cyprus-type” refers to any
ophiolite-hosted VMS, and has no genetic connotation to tec-
tonic setting or geochemistry of the host mafic volcanic rocks
(cf. Galley and Koski, 1999). Another category could be a
highly-metamorphosed VMS deposit; however, there is only
one reported example of this type, that of Yenipazar in central
Turkey. Kuroko-type deposits in Turkey are restricted to the
Late Cretaceous bimodal volcanic rocks of northeastern
Turkey, while Cyprus-type deposits are associated with ophi-
olitic rocks of the Kure district in northern Turkey and Ergani
district in southeastern Turkey (Fig. 7). Though most of the
early exploration efforts for Kuroko-type VMS deposits (e.g.,
Pejatovic, 1979) had concentrated on finding massive sulfide
lenses within the mineralized system, recent exploration pro-
grams have considered bulk-mineable Cu-Au stockworks as
well. Furthermore, pervasive hydrothermal alteration in the
Upper Cretaceous dacites (called ore-bearing dacite) hosting
Kuroko-type mineralization in northeastern Turkey also
forms many industrial minerals and industrial clays including
kaolinite and bentonite deposits, e.g., alunite in Sebinkarahisar

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 32
 MINERAL DEPOSITS OF TURKEY IN RELATION TO TETHYAN METALLOGENY 33

Derinkoy
Mahmur Tepe Tac
Mastra Corak
Altintepe Bahcecik
Sisorta
Ayyildiz

Sobran
Subak
Aktutan
Derekoy Asarcik
Inler Yaylasi Etir Yaylasi
Eskine Yaylasi

0 100 200

kilometers

34°E
Explanation
Submarine Volcanic Rocks
Eocene
Upper Cretaceous-Eocene
Upper Cretaceous
Jurassic-Cretaceous
42°E
38°E
Subaerial Volcanic Rocks Acidic to Intermediate Intrusives
Mesozoic to Miocene
Quaternary
[Mainly Tertiary]
Plio-Quaternary
Tertiary [Mainly Neogene]
Epithermal deposits or prospects

FIG. 6b.

(7.8 Mt at 1.67% K2O and 2.41% SiO2), barite in Toplak-
tepe and Koprubasi, and bentonite in Tirebolu district near
Giresun.
The Murgul deposit, the largest VMS deposit in Turkey
(Table 3), consists of two orebodies called Anayatak (=Damar)
and Cakmakkaya hosted in a predominantly felsic volcanic se-
quence. The orebodies consist of mainly pyrite-chalcopyrite
stringer (stockworks + disseminations) with little massive sul-
fide ore in the system. Sulfides comprise mostly pyrite and
chalcopyrite with minor galena, sphalerite, fahlore (tetra-
hedrite-tennantite group), and locally fluorite, with highly el-
evated Au values in siliceous late-stage, low temperature
(140° to 170°C) veinlets (Tuysuz, 2000). The funnel-shaped
stringer zone of mineralization with oval surface section,
trending north-northwest and approximately 250 m thick, is
hosted by Upper Cretaceous intensively silicified and chlori-
tized pumiceous dacitic tuffs. The original textures of the pro-
tolith are largely obliterated in the pervasively silicified zone,
totally replaced by quartz with minor amounts of illite-
sericite. The silicified zone is surrounded by an illite-sericite
zone and there is a lateral and upward transition to a kaolin-
ized zone that contains local coarse-grained gypsum and
pyrite-bearing lenses (Cagatay, 1993).
The Cayeli (=Madenkoy) Cu-Zn-Ag-Au underground
mine, in production since 1994, is situated between hanging
wall pyroclastics and flows and footwall rhyolite. The massive
sulfide orebody is underlain by stringer mineralization that
has a strike length over 0.92 km with changing dip angle from

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 33
 TABLE 2. Characteristics and Reserve and/or Resource Data for Epithermal Deposits Containing >0.2 Moz Au as Reserve or Resource in Turkey 34
Principal Age of Orebody and Mineral reserves and/or
Deposit name State Commodity Deposit type host rocks host rocks Structure resources and/or grade Status Data source(s)

Efemcukuru Izmir Au Epithermal Flysch, Late Veins, stock- Reserve: 3.785 Mt at 10.04 g/t Au, D Oyman et al. (2003);
low sulfidation hornfels (1), Cretaceous– works, breccia, inclusive to mineral resources Eldorado Gold
rhyolite intrusions Paleogene (1), replacements; Resource: 4.087 Mt at 11.01 g/t Au Corp. news
premineraliza- Neogene (2) NW-trending (measured + indicated); 0.891 release, 02/22/2008
tion (2) faults and veins Moz at 8.32 g/t Au (inferred)

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Sahinli Canakkale Au, Ag Epithermal Andesitic Eocene? (1), Veins; mainly Reserve: 2.778 Mt at 5.76 g/t Au P Yildirim and
volcanic rocks (1), Paleozoic (2) NE-trending (unclassified) Cengiz (2004)
schists (2) veins with some Resource: 7.5 Mt at 8.5 g/t Au
E- and N-trends (unclassified)

Agi Dagi Canakkale Au, Ag Epithermal Felsic to Oligocene? Disseminations, Resource: Deli zone: 1.6 Mtat F Cunningham-
high sulfidation intermediate breccias; 1.80 g/t Au, 13.50 g/t Ag Dunlop and Lee
volcanic rocks NE-trending (measured), 18.3 Mt at 1.20 g/t Au, (2007a); Fronteer
and porphyries mineralized and 10.20 g/t Ag (indicated), 10.2 Mt Development
altered zone at 1.30 g/t Au, 15.50 g/t Ag (inferred) Group Inc.
Baba Zone: 15 Mt at 0.80 g/t Au, news releases,
1.00 g/t Ag (indicated), 9.1 Mt at 0.80 06/18/2007
g/t Au, 0.30 g/t Ag (inferred)

Kirazli Canakkale Au, Ag Epithermal Andesitic and Lower Stockworks, Resource: 1.1 Mt at 1.40 g/t Au, F Pirajno (1995);
high sulfidation dacitic lavas and Miocene breccia, 9.60 g/t Ag (measured), 8.3 Mt Cunningham-
pyroclastics disseminated at 1.10 g/t Au, 5.80 g/t Ag Dunlop and Lee
and replacement; (indicated), 24.6 Mt at 1.20 g/t Au, (2007b); Fronteer

34
NNE-trending 2.00 g/t Ag (inferred) Development
mineralized zone, Group Inc.
OZCAN YIGIT

sub-horizontal news releases,

ore zones 06/18/2007

Ovacik Izmir Au, Ag Epithermal Andesite Early Banded-quartz Reserve: 1.456 Mt at 8.4 g/t Au, M Yilmaz (2002);
low sulfidation porphyry, late Miocene veins, breccia; 17.7 g/t Ag including M and S veins Yilmaz et al. (2007)
stage dolerite E-trending Resource: 4.221 Mt at 6.27 g/t Au,
dikes M vein and 5.75 g/t Ag (measured + indicated +
NW-trending inferred) including M and S veins
S vein

Kisacik Canakkale Au Epithermal Dacitic- Upper Multi-phase Resource: 56.537 Mt at 0.55 g/t Au P Kilic et al. (2004)
low sulfidation rhyodacitic Miocene hydrothermal
and andesitic breccias and
volcanic rocks stockworks;
NE-trending
mineralized and
altered zone

Tac Artvin Au, Cu Epithermal Andesitic flows, Upper Veins, stockwork Resource: 20.397 Mt at 1.63 g/t Au F Mosher (2007);
high sulfidation agglomerates, Cretaceous veinlets and (uncapped), 1.48 g/t Au (capped), Mediterranean
lapilli tuffs and to Eocene breccias; 0.13% Cu (indicated), 2.254 Mt at Resources Ltd.
turbiditic volcano- NE-trending 1.55 g/t Au (uncapped), 1.50 g/t Au news release,
clastic-sedimentary fault system (capped), 0.17% Cu (inferred) 03/11/2008
rocks intruded by
mafic and felsic
dikes and sills
 TABLE 2. (Cont.)

Principal Age of Orebody and Mineral reserves and/or

Deposit name State Commodity Deposit type host rocks host rocks Structure resources and/or grade Status Data source(s)

Mastra Gumushane Au, Ag, Cu, Epithermal Andesite porphyry, Eocene Stockworks with Resource: 1.778 Mt at 12.1 g/t Au, D Tuysuz et al. (1995)
Pb, Zn low sulfidation andesitic tuff local brecciation; 4.7 g/t Ag, 0.2% Cu, 0.2% Pb, 0.2%
NW-trending Zn (691100 oz Au, 268500 oz Ag;
shear zone measured + indicated + inferred)

Corak Artvin Au, Ag, Pb, Epithermal Andesitic flows, Upper Veins, stockwork Resource: 9.690 Mt at 1.30 g/t Au F Mosher (2005);

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Zn, Cu high sulfidation agglomerates, Cretaceous veinlets and (uncapped), 1.17 g/t Au (capped), Mediterranean
lapilli tuffs and to Eocene breccias; 2.10 g/t Ag, 0.30% Pb, 0.50% Zn Resources Ltd.
turbiditic volcano- NE-trending (indicated), 11.797 Mt at 1.11 g/t Au news release,
clastic-sedimentary fault system (uncapped), 0.99 g/t (capped), 2.34 03/11/2008
rocks intruded by g/t Ag, 0.30% Pb, 0.51% Zn (inferred)
mafic and felsic
dikes and sills

Altintepe Ordu Au Epithermal Volcano- Upper Veins, stockwork, Resource: Total oxide: 0.287 Mt at P Curtis & Associates
sedimentary rocks, Cretaceous breccia, 1.78 g/t Au (measured), 9.28 Mt at Inc. (2002); Stratex
feldspar porphyry dissemination; 0.87 g/t Au (indicated), 3.52 Mt at International Plc.
andesite, rhyolite E-trending 1.73 g/t Au (inferred), news release,
domes fault zone at Sulfide Ore: 0.1 Moz Au 10/10/2008
extension ridge

Derekoy Giresun Pb, Zn, Au, Epithermal Rhyolite, dacite Upper Veins; mainly Reserve: 3.265 Mt at 6-22% Zn, M Ayan and Dora
Ag Cretaceous NW-trending 2–12% Pb, 2.5–8.2 g/t Au, (1995)
veins 25-90 g/t Ag

35
Akbaba Canakkale Au Epithermal Andesite (1), Lower Veins, breccia, Resource: 8 Mt at 1.25 g/t Au P MTA (1993a)
(=Madendag) low sulfidation schists (2) Miocene (1), stockworks; (unclassified)
Pre-Triassic (2) mainly NW-
trending veins,
NE-trending
mineralized
fissures and
fractures

Kucukdere Balikesir Au, Ag Epithermal Andesite Miocene Banded-quartz- Resource: 1.276 Mt at 6.43 g/t Au M Colakoglu (2000)
low sulfidation porphyry carbonate veins; (measured + indicated), 0.138 Mt
NE-trending at 6.45 g/t Au (inferred) or 1.406
veins Mt at 4.92 g/t Au
MINERAL DEPOSITS OF TURKEY IN RELATION TO TETHYAN METALLOGENY

Inlice Konya Au, Ag Epithermal Andesite, Upper Veins, selective Resource: 0.327 Mt at 2.90 g/t Au F Hall et al. (2007);
high sulfidation andesite tuffs, Miocene to replacements, (measured), 1.50 Mt at 2.62 g/t Stratex International
andesite dome Pliocene breccia; Au (indicated), 1.97 Mt at 1.20 g/t Plc. news release,
and breccia NW-trending Au (inferred) 07/04/2008
discontinuous
vein zones

Notes: M = mine, D = development, F = feasibility, P = prospect

35
36 OZCAN YIGIT

42°N

Koprubasi Murgul Irsahan

Harkoy Akarsen
Bakibaba Cayeli Tunca Kuvarshan
Asikoy Akkoy Lahanos Karagol Sinkot
Killik Seyitler
Cerattepe
Israil Kutlular 40°N
Kizilkaya
Toplaktepe Kayabasi Kotarakdere

Yenipazar
Kedak
Madenkoy 38°N
Soganli
Ergani

0 100 200

kilometers 36°N

42°E
34°E 38°E

Explanation
Submarine Volcanic Rocks Ophiolite and Ophiolitic Melanges VMS Deposits

Eocene Mainly Jurassic-Cretaceous Kuroko-type

Metamorphic Rocks Cyprus-type
Upper Cretaceous-Eocene
Pre-Mesozoic Metamorphosed VMS
Upper Cretaceous
Jurassic-Cretaceous

FIG. 7. Distribution of the VMS deposits and prospects of Turkey with emphasis on host-rock lithology.

65° north-northwest to 50° at depth and consists of mainly
pyrite, chalcopyrite, and sphalerite, with minor dolomite and
barite. Argillic and chloritic alteration in the footwall is most
closely associated with mineralization. A northwest-striking
and 50°–east-southeast dipping scissor fault separates the
upper “Main” zone of the deposit from the lower “Deep Ore”
zone. The fault is postulated to be a synvolcanic feeder acting
as an escarpment during ore formation (Cagatay, 1993; Clow
et al., 2006).
The Cerattepe deposit is a hybrid VMS system with some
epithermal features, as in the Toplaktepe prospect (Yigit,
1993, 2006; Aslaner and Yigit, 1996). Cerattepe is being de-
veloped mainly for Cu, and the ore will be shipped directly to
Cayeli Mine to be processed. Because of transport costs, only
the high-grade portion of the deposit will be mined (Table 3).
The deposit, hosted by the Late Cretaceous Artvin volcanic
complex, comprises a basal zone of high-grade Cu sulfide and
an overlying and flanking Au-Ag-Pb-barite-rich oxide zone
(O’Brien, 1997).
The Lahanos district around Giresun contains many known
small VMS deposits and prospects, including Lahanos,
Kizilkaya, and Killik. At Lahanos, a massive sulfide orebody
with stringer footwall zone consists of two different spha-
lerite-galena-rich “black ore” horizons and an intervening
pyrite-chalcopyrite-rich “yellow ore” horizon. At Kizilkaya
(5.1 Mt at 0.8% Cu, 1.0% Zn and 0.02% Pb; Cagatay and Eas-
toe, 1995), a north-northeast–trending zone, 1 km by 0.3 km,
contains three massive sulfide orebodies surrounded by
quartz stringers. The age of alteration at Kizilkaya is 77 Ma
based on K/Ar dating of sericite (JICA, 1998).
The Tirebolu district near Giresun includes several massive
sulfide bodies, such as barite-rich Koprubasi (=Harsit) (Table
3), Harkkoy (2.1 Mt at 1.03% Cu, 1.75% Zn, 0.47% Pb, past
production; Ersecen, 1989) and Israil. Stockwork and dissem-
inated mineralization at Akarsen (4 Mt at 2.87% Cu, 39.6% S,
35 g/t Ag and 2.3 g/t Au) commonly have small inclusions of
native gold. Many other small deposits with some past pro-
duction and prospects in northeastern Turkey could be rep-
resentatives of Kuroko-type VMS deposits, such as Kutlular
(1.2 Mt at 2.49% Cu, past production), Kotarakdere (0.963
Mt at 1.31% Cu, 2.73% Zn), Kayabasi (=Kankoy; 3.3 Mt at
1.11% Cu, plus Au), Akkoy (1.8 Mt at 2.86% Zn, 0.47% Cu),

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 36
 TABLE 3. Characteristics and Reserve and/or Resource Data for Selected VMS Deposits of Turkey

Principal Age of Orebody and Mineral reserves and/or

Deposit name State Commodity Deposit type host rocks host rocks structure resources and/or grade Status Data source(s)

Murgul Artvin Cu, Au Kuroko- Highly silicified Upper Stringers with Reserve: Anayatak (=Damar) and M Schneider et al.
type VMS; dacitic Cretaceous minor massive Cakmakkaya; 40 Mt at 1.25% Cu, (1988); Cagatay
epithermal pumiceous tuff ore; Funnel 0.1% Zn, 0.05% Pb, 0.2 g/t Au, (1993)
shape stringer 25 g/t Ag (past production; 1972–
zone with NNW- 1992; 38 Mt at 1.1% Cu) or
trending oval alternatively

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
surface section Anayatak; 20.8 Mt at 1.32% Cu,
Cakmakkaya; 32.2 Mt at 0.98%
Cu (Ersecen, 1989)

Cayeli Rize Cu, Zn, Kuroko- Footwall rhyolite, Upper Massive, Reserve: 4.55 Mt at 3.9% Cu, 5.8% M Cagatay (1993);
(=Madenkoy) Au, Ag type VMS hangingwall Cretaceous stringers at the Zn, 0.6 g/t Au, 46 g/t Ag (proven); Inmet Mining Corp.
pyroclastics footwall; NE- 6.63 Mt at 3.6% Cu, 5.8% Zn, 0.5 (2006)
and flows striking massive g/t Au, 52 g/t Ag (probable)
orebody with Resource: 1.8 Mt at 3.1% Cu, 3.0%
NNW dips Zn, 0.5 g/t Au, 21 g/t Ag (measured);
2.363 Mt at 3.2% Cu, 2.8% Zn, 0.5
g/t Au, 23 g/t Ag (indicated); 0.980
Mt at 3.3% Cu, 6.6% Zn

Cerattepe Artvin Cu, Au, Ag Kuroko- Dacitic tuffs Upper Massive, Reserve: 1.560 Mt at 8.8% Cu, D O’Brien (1997);
type VMS; Cretaceous veinlets, 1.1% Zn, 1.4 g/t Au, 33 g/t Ag Cominco (2000);
epithermal disseminations; (probable); alternatively 3 Mt at Inmet Mining Corp.
NE-trending 4.2 g/t Au, 151 g/t Ag (oxide), 3.7 (2006)

37
fault zone Mt at 5.2% Cu, 1.2 g/t Au, 25 g/t
Ag (sulfide)
Resource: 5.2 Mt at 3.8 g/t Au, 117
g/t Ag (oxide), 0.2 Mt at 1.8 g/t Au,
30 g/t Ag, 5.2% Cu (sulfide;
indicated)

Lahanos Giresun Cu, Pb, Zn, Kuroko- Dacitic lavas Upper Massive lenses, Resource: 11.582 Mt at 1.33% Cu, M Pejatovic (1979);
Au, Ag type VMS Cretaceous footwall 1.5% Zn, 0.1% Pb, 37.4% S, 0.5 Leitch (1981);
stringers; g/t Au, 5.5 g/t Ag Singer et al. (1993)
NE-striking,
horizontal
massive lenses

Koprubasi Giresun Pb, Zn, Cu, Kuroko- Dacitic lavas Upper Massive lenses, Resource: 19.4 Mt at 0.20% Cu, M Aslaner and
MINERAL DEPOSITS OF TURKEY IN RELATION TO TETHYAN METALLOGENY

(=Tirebolu) Sb, Ag, Au, type VMS and pyroclastics Cretaceous stringers, 0.97% Pb, 1.43% Zn (past Gedikoglu (1984);
Ba breccia; dome production) MTA (1993b)
structure

Asikoy (Kure) Kastamonu Cu, Au, Ag Cyprus- Basaltic pillow Middle Massive lens, Reserve: 11.23 Mt at 1.56% Cu, M Cagatay (1993);
type VMS lavas (spilites), Jurassic stringers; 2.48 g/t Au, 10 g/t Ag Erler (1995)
carbonaceous thrust fault
argillites and
turbidites
37
38 OZCAN YIGIT

Seyitler (1.4 Mt at 1.68% Cu, 2.51% Zn, 0.35 g/t Au, 36.84 g/t
Ag), Sinkot (5.1 Mt at 0.39% Cu, 46.39% S; MTA, 1980a),

Alyamac (1979);
Ersecen (1989);
Data source(s)

Gumus (1998)
Kuvarshan (1.2 Mt at 1.5% Cu, 3% Zn, 0.6% Pb, 1 g/t Au, 25
Erler (1984);

Erler (1993);

Erler (1984)
g/t Ag), Irsahan (0.658 Mt at 0.63% Cu, 1.93% Pb, 4.7% Zn,
50g/t Ag; Ersecen, 1989; Fig. 7).
Kure in northern Turkey and Ergani Maden in southeast-
ern Turkey are two authenticated Cyprus-type VMS deposits
with significant Cu production (Griffitts et al., 1972; Hutchin-
Status

son, 1973). The Madenkoy-Siirt polymetallic deposit in south-

M

D
eastern Turkey recently started production. Other prospects
of Cyprus type include numerous Cu-pyrite prospects in the
Ergani district as well as Kedak and Soganli deposits in the
0.93% Zn, 31.49% S, plus Au and
1.39% Cu, Mihrapdag; 0.290 Mt
Reserve: Anayatak; 14.649 Mt at

Resource: 25.8 Mt at 2.06% Cu,

same belt (Fig. 7).

Ag, or alternatively 14.5 Mt at
average 1.2 g/t Au (significant

Asikoy and Bakibaba are the major producing Cu+(Au-Ag)

mines in the Kure district, though there are also a number of
Mineral reserves and/or
resources and/or grade

small occurrences. Massive basalt flows, pillow lavas with

local breccias, and tuffs form the basaltic sequence of the
past production)

Kure Ophiolite which is the host for mineralization. Asikoy is

the largest known single lens of massive sulfide in the district
at 2.5% Cu

(Table 3) and contains high Co values averaging 0.30% (Ca-

3% Cu

gatay et al., 1980). The massive sulfide lenses comprise pyrite

and chalcopyrite underlain by stringers of pyrite and sporadic
chalcopyrite.
orebody striking

Cyprus-type VMS deposits are associated with the south-

E and dipping
disseminated;
Orebody and

with footwall

east Anatolian ophiolite belt, an eastern extension of the su-

Massive lens

lens shaped
thrust fault

50°–60° N

ture zone of the Troodos Massif, Cyprus, and a part of the

stringers;
structure

Massive,

southeast Anatolian orogenic belt that formed in Late Creta-

ceous to Middle Miocene times. The belt is known for nu-
TABLE 3. (Cont.)

merous cupreous pyrite occurrences (Fig. 7; Erler, 1984;

1989). The Ergani Cu mine, the largest deposit in the belt,
consists of two orebodies called Anayatak and Mihrapdag
host rocks

Eocene

Eocene

(=Weiss) that are hosted by mafic submarine volcanic and in-

Age of

trusive rocks, with minor Eocene mudstone and red-black

limestone. The sulfides are mainly pyrite, chalcopyrite, and
pyrrhotite along with minor magnetite associated with strong
Mafic submarine

silicification and chloritization. A magnetite-rich zone below

avas, mudstones,
black limestone
mudstone, red-

conglomerates,
Spilitic pillow l
volcanic rocks,

the massive lens occurs at Anayatak (Erler, 1984). At

diabase dikes
cherts and

Madenkoy-Siirt, a lenticular-shaped, east-striking, and 50° to

host rocks
Principal

60° north-dipping orebody is approximately 600 m long, 300

m wide, averages 50 m thick, and consists of mainly pyrite,
Notes: D = development, F = feasibility, M = mine, P = prospect

chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and magnetite.

The Yenipazar deposit, with indicated resources of 3.5 Mt
Deposit type

type VMS

type VMS

at 1.18 g/t Au, 35.3 g/t Ag, 0.36 percent Cu, 1.34 percent Pb,
Cyprus-

Cyprus-

1.59 percent Zn, and inferred resources of 3.8 Mt at 1.09 g/t

Au, 35.2 g/t Ag, 0.33 percent Cu, 1.17 percent Pb, and 1.37
percent Zn, is located in central Turkey. The deposit is cur-
rently at the feasibility study stage. Hosted in Paleozoic schist,
Commodity

Cu, Au, Ag

it is the only reported highly metamorphosed VMS deposit in

Cu, Zn,

Turkey. Though it is generally thought to be a VMS deposit,

Au, Ag

the orebodies are not truly massive sulfide in nature, usually

containing 15 to 20 percent sulfides. The main orebody, con-
sisting of pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, and gahnite,
appears to be stratiform, with high-grade breccia zones (Arm-
Elazig

strong et al., 2007).

State

Siirt

Carbonate rock-hosted Pb-Zn

Deposit name

Southern and southeastern Turkey possesses many Pb-Zn de-

Mihrapdag=

Madenkoy
(Anayatak,

posits hosted by Middle Cambrian to Jurassic shelf carbonates

Ergani

in a belt extending along the Tauride Mountains, including

Weiss)

from west to east Bolkardag, Yahyali (=Zamanti), Tufanbeyli,

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 38
 MINERAL DEPOSITS OF TURKEY IN RELATION TO TETHYAN METALLOGENY 39

Malatya, Keban, and Hakkari districts (Fig. 8). Additionally,
many small replacement deposits occur throughout Turkey,
e.g., Papazlik in Biga Peninsula, northwestern Turkey and
Hazine Magara and Kirkpavli in northeastern Turkey. Most of
these Pb-Zn deposits have not been studied in detail, and
therefore, in this paper any Pb-Zn deposits of Turkey that are
hosted in carbonate rocks are discussed in this section with-
out genetic connotation, though by definition sediment-
hosted Pb-Zn deposits are hosted by carbonate and siliciclas-
tic rocks that have no obvious genetic association to igneous
activity (Leach et al., 2005). These deposits may include Mis-
sissippi Valley type (MVT), Irish type, sedimentary-exhalative
(SEDEX), and carbonate replacement type deposits. Though
many of the deposits in the Tauride Mountains contain small
reserves or resources, the main important feature of several
of the deposits is that they possess non-sulfide (oxide) zinc,
which is an attractive exploration target due to new develop-
ments in hydrometallurgy (see Hitzman et al., 2003). Smith-
sonite, hydrozincite, cerussite, and anglesite are the main ore
minerals, with minor sphalerite and galena. Pb-isotope stud-
ies in the belt suggest that deposits have both crustal and
magmatic contribution, and age of mineralization ranges from
Paleozoic to Cenozoic (Ceyhun, 2003).
The Yahyali (=Zamanti) and Tufanbeyli districts have many
small deposits (<0.5 Mt ore regardless of grade), such as Al-
adag (0.437 Mt at 12.57% Zn, 6.67% Pb), Agcasar (0.265 Mt
at 5.63% Zn, 3.71% Pb), Denizovasi (0.178 Mt at 5.3–9.8%
Zn, up to 6.8% Pb), Kalekoy (0.14 Mt at 35.0% Zn, 15.0% Pb)
and Tekneli (0.340 Mt at 25% Zn, 3.6% Pb; MTA, 1993b). Pb-
Zn mineralization with characteristics of MVT-style deposits

42°N

40°N

Keban
District
Yahyali 38°N
District
Hakkari
Bolkarlar Malatya District
District
Tufanbeyli District
Alanya-Gazipasa District
Barite (Gn) District 0 100 200

kilometers 36°N

42°E
34°E 38°E
Explanation
Carbonate Rocks including recrystallized Limestones Acidic to Intermediate Intrusives
Mesozoic to Miocene
Jurassic-Cretaceous [Mainly]-Jurassic
[Mainly Tertiary]
Triassic-Jurassic
Mesozoic
Paleozoic-Mesozoic [Mainly Triassic]
Carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn
Permo-Triassic
Permo-Carboniferous Carbonate-hosted barite+Pb

Devonian
Ordovician-Silurian-Devonian-Carboniferous
Paleozoic
FIG. 8. Distribution of the carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn districts of Turkey with emphasis on host-rock lithology.

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 39
40 OZCAN YIGIT
occurs at Akcal and Bozcal in the Tufanbeyli district hosted by
Devonian dolomite. Most of the known prospects (one of
them containing average 38% Zn, 4.7% Pb oxide ore) in the
Hakkari district are hosted by Jurassic-Cretaceous limestones
and have stratabound massive orebodies with fracture fills
and low grade mineralization in the matrix of limestone brec-
cia. The nature of the mineralization, i.e. stratabound, and
syngenetic with no igneous activity in the area, as well as Pb-
isotope data suggests SEDEX type mineralization (Ceyhun,
2003).
The Bolkardag district containing carbonate replacement
deposits (i.e., Bolkardag I, with 0.284 Mt of resource at 5.4%
Pb, 4.7% Zn, 9.4 g/t Au, 335 g/t Ag, and Bolkardag II) has
residual enrichment of gold in karstic limestone. The Keban
district contains skarns and replacement mineralization, while
the Malatya district contains mainly carbonate replacement
orebodies, i.e. Cafana (1.2 Mt at 9.9–29.9% Zn, 0.9–7.7% Pb).
In addition to Pb-Zn orebodies, important galena-bearing
barite deposits are also hosted in carbonate rocks, such as in
the Karalar district (3.3 Mt at 86.43% BaSO4) in southern
Turkey (Fig. 8). In Karalar, galena mineralization has a close
genetic association with Permian limestone and was de-
posited during the dolomitization processes (Bozkaya and
Gokce, 2004).
Podiform chromite deposits
Turkey has been an important producer in the world met-
allurgical-grade, high-chrome chromite market. For example,
Turkey was the 4th largest producer in 2005, with estimated
production of 45 Mt (Mobbs, 2007). Since the first discovery
of chromite in 1848 in the Harmancik-Bursa area, the metal
played a strategic role for the country, especially during
World Wars I and II as well as during the Cold War years.
Chromite deposits of Turkey are associated with Alpine-type
peridotites that are a part of ophiolitic assemblages covering
large areas, with the most important zones in northern and
southern Turkey (Fig. 9). Most of the ophiolitic assemblages
are incomplete, except the one in Kizildag-Hatay, southern
Turkey, where a complete “Trinity” sequence is found. The
age of emplacement of ophiolitic rocks ranges from Jurassic
to Cretaceous, but occurred mainly in the Late Cretaceous.
Though most of the obducted ophiolite is related to closure of
the Neotethyan oceans sensu lato, the origin of some ophi-
olitic terranes is not clearly understood, as discussed previ-
ously in Yigit (2006). The lack of chromitite formation in the
ophiolite complexes of central and northern Turkey (Fig. 9)
might be explained by tectonic environment, e.g., the lack of
old lithospheric mantle causing the rising-melt equilibrium
with the depleted peridotites such as at mature-spreading
centers (Zhou and Robinson, 1997). The ophiolitic rocks also
host many different industrial minerals in the country, such as
magnesite, sepiolite (hydrated magnesium silicate), asbestos,
and talc.
Chromitite is found in four stratigraphic positions of ophi-
olitic assemblages, which from bottom to top are as follows:
harzburgite with enclosing dunite, the upper part of the tec-
tonized harzburgite, dunite layers at the cumulate-tectonite
contact, and dunite layers of the cumulate sequence. With
some exceptions, chromitite deposits hosted in harzburgite
are higher grade than the deposits hosted in cumulate section
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
(Engin et al., 1987). The chromitite deposits are usually small
in size, as in most other podiform chromite deposits (rarely
>1 Mt ore), with complex structural relationships and podi-
form, lenticular, irregular, shapeless, and/or banded type
geometries (MTA, 1966; Engin et al., 1987).
Though many occurrences of chromite are known in
Turkey (Fig. 9), most of the reserve and resource data for
chromite deposits are not up to date or reliable, some old fig-
ures give resources of 31.1 Mt at 30 to 48 percent Cr2O3
(MTA, 1986). Bati (=West) Kef in the Guleman district is one
of the largest chromite deposits in Turkey, with 5.7 Mt at 33
percent Cr2O3. Large, high-grade orebodies are exemplified
by Golalan deposit, with 1.2 Mt at 51 percent Cr2O3 produced
from a single pod. Other high-grade orebodies with at least 1
Mt ore include the Orhaneli deposit in Harmancik district (1
Mt at 40–48% Cr2O3), Sori Uzundamar I (1.0 Mt at 42–48%
Cr2O3) and Sori Yenilasir (1.0 Mt at 42–48% Cr2O3) in Gule-
man district, and the Dogu Ezan and Tercan deposits in
Kopdag district (2.7 Mt at 38–54% Cr2O3).
Some of the districts contain low-grade, bulk-mineable
chromite deposits, such as Kizilyuksek-Yatardic (198 Mt at
5.6% Cr2O3, locally containing up to 30% Cr2O3), Kovankaya
(6.2 Mt at 5.38% Cr2O3), Gerdibi-Gertepe (15.9 Mt at 2–5%
Cr2O3) in the Pozanti-Karsanti district, and Eskikoy-Karan-
likdere (2.3 Mt at 5–15% Cr2O3) in the Kuluncak-Hekimhan
district.
Lateritic nickel-cobalt deposits
Lateritic Ni-Co-(Fe) deposits of Turkey are associated with
the same ophiolitic terranes hosting the chromite deposits
(Fig. 9). Though the ophiolite formation occurred mainly
during the Jurassic to Cretaceous, the laterite profiles formed
in subtropical to tropical conditions in the Eocene to
Miocene. The Caldag lateritic deposit (33.3 Mt at 1.14% Ni,
0.07% Co) in western Turkey contains over 255,000 t of re-
coverable nickel (European Nickel Plc., 2006; Fig. 9). The
deposit was recognized as an iron resource in the 1940s and
mined in the early 1950s, but Ni-Co resource potential was
first recognized by MTA between 1977 and 1983. The Ni-
bearing portion of the laterite profile ranges from 5 to 10 m
in thickness, is locally up to 100 m thick, and consists of, from
bottom to top, serpentinite, weathered serpentinite (sapro-
lite), Fe-limonite and an upper silcrete (=siliceous duricrust).
The upper part is rich in iron, and lower saprolitic serpenti-
nite layers have higher concentration of Ni and Co (Gumus,
1999), which is generally trapped in the crystal lattices of
goethite, chlorite, smectite, garnierite, and asbolane. Prospects
with similar-type of mineralization are found also at the
Gordes and Gurlak prospects (Fig. 9). Many other iron-lat-
erites in the country have not been fully evaluated for their
Ni-Co potential.
Karst-type and lateritic bauxite deposits
Almost all known bauxite deposits of Turkey are located in
the Tauride belt in southern and southwestern Turkey, except
the Kokaksu district in northwestern Turkey (Fig. 10). Most
of the deposits contain either bauxite (including iron-rich
compositions) or diasporite, and the majority of them are
karst-type allochthonous deposits occurring as pockets or lay-
ers in Triassic to Upper Cretaceous limestones. The only
40
 42°N

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Kopdag District
40°N
Harmancik
District
Kuluncak-Hekimhan
District
Eskisehir
Gordes Pinarbasi
District
Gurlek District
Caldag

38°N
Fethiye-Koycegiz Pozanti-Karsanti Guleman District
District District
Denizli
District

41
0 100 200

kilometers

36°N
26°E 42°E
30°E 34°E 38°E

Explanation
Ophiolite and Ophiolitic Melanges
Mainly Jurassic-Cretaceous Podiform Cr deposits or prospects

Lateritic Ni deposits or prospects

MINERAL DEPOSITS OF TURKEY IN RELATION TO TETHYAN METALLOGENY

FIG. 9. Distribution of the podiform chromite districts of Turkey including lateritic nickel with emphasis on host-rock lithology.
41
42 OZCAN YIGIT

42°N

Kokaksu
District

40°N

Yalvac-Sarkikaraagac Saimbeyli
District
Milas-Yatagan District
38°N District

Seydisehir-Akseki
District Ayranci Islahiye-Payas
District District
Alanya
0 100 200 District
36°N kilometers
26°E
30°E 34°E 38°E

Explanation
Carbonate Rocks including recrystallized Limestones
Jurassic-Cretaceous [Mainly]-Jurassic
Triassic-Jurassic
Mesozoic
Paleozoic-Mesozoic [Mainly Triassic]
Permo-Triassic
Permo-Carboniferous Bauxite deposits and prospects

Devonian
Ordovician-Silurian-Devonian-Carboniferous
Paleozoic
FIG. 10. Distribution of the karstic- and lateritic-bauxite districts of Turkey with emphasis on host-rock lithology.

autochthonous lateritic bauxite deposit is reported from the
Sarkikaraagac district (Fig. 10; Ayhan and Karadag, 1985).
Limited studies on the origin of the karst-type bauxite de-
posits suggested an allochthonous (Ozlu, 1979) or unconfor-
mity-type (Ozturk et al., 2002) origin in some of the deposits
in the Seydisehir district, such as Dogankuzu and Mortas.
There are no up-to-date reserve data for the bauxite deposits
of the country; the data given below are taken from Ersecen
(1989).
Boehmite ore districts are exemplified by the Seydisehir
district, which includes the Dogankuzu, Mortas, and Kiziltas
deposits and is one of the most productive districts in Turkey,
with 26.3 Mt of resource at 55 to 67 percent Al2O3, 4 to 13
percent SiO2, and 13 to 19 percent Fe2O3. The Akseki district
contains ~17.5 Mt of resource at 47 to 66 percent Al2O3, 1 to
24 percent SiO2, and 9 to 31 percent Fe2O3, while the
Kokaksu district contains ~7.8 Mt of resource at 42 percent
Al2O3, 17 percent SiO2, and 23 percent Fe2O3.
Diasporite-bearing ore districts include the Milas district,
with ~46.1 Mt of resource at 46 to 61 percent Al2O3, 6 to 13
percent SiO2, and 21 to 29 percent Fe2O3; the Yatagan dis-
trict, with ~26.7 Mt of resource at 48 to 52 percent Al2O3, 11
to 23 percent SiO2, and 20 to 24 percent Fe2O3; the Tufan-
beyli deposit in Saimbeyli district, with 10.7 Mt of resource at
50 to 52 percent Al2O3, 6 to 11 percent SiO2, and 25 to 28 per-
cent Fe2O3; the Alanya district, containing ~4.5 Mt of re-
source at 37 to 67 percent Al2O3, 4 to 17 percent SiO2, and 18
to 45 percent Fe2O3; and the Ayranci district (Bolkardag),
with ~3.9 Mt at 57.55 percent Al2O3, 3.4 percent SiO2, and
24.2 percent Fe2O3.

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 MINERAL DEPOSITS OF TURKEY IN RELATION TO TETHYAN METALLOGENY
Ferrous bauxite deposits are found in the Islahiye district
(95.8 Mt at 40.64% Al2O3, 15.15% SiO2, 29.05% Fe2O3), in
the Payas district (66.4 Mt at 20% Al2O3, 21% SiO2, 32%
Fe2O3), and in the Yalvac district (28.7 Mt at 41.7% Al2O3,
15.17% SiO2, 17.5% Fe2O3, 4.74% TiO2).
Orogenic Au deposits
Yigit (2006) classified the orogenic gold deposits of Turkey
in two subcategories, which are mesothermal gold and list-
wanite-hosted gold. Orogenic gold deposits in Europe are
mainly associated with a Late Paleozoic Hercynian orogeny
(Paleotethyan sensu lato; Groves et al., 1998; Goldfarb et al.,
2001), some exceptions are Oligocene (Neotethyan sensu
lato; Heinrich and Neubauer, 2002). Mesothermal gold de-
posits and prospects in Turkey are mainly related to pre-
Mesozoic massifs, such as the Menderes, Kirsehir, and Bitlis
massifs (Figs. 2 and 11). The Menderes Massif contains many
prospects with small discontinuous quartz veins with ar-
senopyrite-associated gold with elevated Bi values (Erler and
Larson, 1992); for example, at the Aribasi, Yusuflu, Zeytinlik,
Bozdag, Umurbaba, Cavuslar, Beylerderesi (=Tire), and
Sobuca deposits (Fig. 11). The exact origins of the orogenic
gold deposits in Menderes Massif are obscured due to remo-
bilization during later Alpine orogenic events, causing ep-
ithermal signature in some deposits, such as at Kure (Yigit,
2006). At least two different events affected orogenic gold de-
posits in the Menderes Massif: a low temperature remobiliza-
tion during Cenozoic metamorphism associated with core
complex formation as well as epithermal mineralization re-
lated to active and extinct geothermal systems formed during
an extensional tectonic regime. The Savcilibeyit deposit in
Kirsehir Massif and the Sincik deposit in Bitlis Massif are
other examples of this type (Fig. 11).
Listwanite-hosted deposits, hosted by ophiolitic ultramafic
rocks, mainly serpentinites, are associated with thrust faults,
normal faults, and shear zones, which are favorable loci for
high-fluid flow and related mineralization with silica-carbon-
ate alteration (listwanitization). Gold mineralization typically
postdates the serpentinization process (Ucurum and Larson,
1999). The Tethyan ophiolitic melanges, of course, control
the distribution of the deposits Kaymaz (0.218 Moz Au, plus
Ag), Tavsan, Karaagac, and Narman (Fig. 11). An intimate Sb-
Au association is present in some prospects, such as at Tavsan
in the Dagardi Sb district (2.5 Mt at 5.75% Sb; Ersecen,
1989) and Karaagac in Muratdagi Sb district.
Placer deposits
Mythical King Midas, who wished that everything he
touched turn into gold, washed in the Pactolus River to rid
himself of that curse after he turned his daughter into a
golden statue and so formed placer gold deposits. According
to archeological records Croesus, last king of Lydia, made the
first gold coins in about 700 BC (Young, 1972) using placer
gold that was mined from the Pactolus River (present day
Gediz) and Sardis River (present day Sart) in western Turkey.
Despite a long history of placer mining, very few placer de-
posits of Turkey have current economic interest; one example
is the iron placer in Divrigi district. In recent years, some
gold, as well as rutile, ilmenite, zircon, and magnetite, has
been recovered from Sart river placers.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
43
Turkey possesses mainly stream (alluvial), eluvial (collu-
vial), and beach (marine) mineral sands (Gumus, 1999). Most
of the interest has been in gold-bearing placer deposits (Yigit,
2006), but all the known prospects contain small amounts of
Au; the largest placer Au deposit, Sart, contains resources of
73,500 oz Au resources (MTA, 1993a). Akillicay-Hatay in
southern Turkey, Irlamaz-Manisa and Geyve-Sakarya in west-
ern Turkey, Mert Golu (=Mert Lake)–Kirklareli in north-
western Turkey, Harput-Elazig and Hamek-Bingol in eastern
Turkey, and Semenlik Lake in northeastern Turkey are some
of the other placer Au prospects. PGE concentrations are re-
ported from the Dalaman-Mugla placer in southwestern
Turkey and the Darphane (Kazikkaya)-Kars placer in eastern
Turkey. At Semenlik Lake, Holocene beach sands in the
Carsamba delta near Ordu, including alluvium of the Terme
River, have resources of 700 Mt at 9 percent Fe and 6 to 7
percent TiO2 with local high-gold grades up to 11.4 g/t (Kok-
soy, 1973). No more recent data are available for these min-
eral sands of the Ordu-Samsun area.
Sediment-hosted Cu
Sedimentary hosted copper occurrences are clustered in
the Cankiri-Corum-Yozgat Basin and Sivas Basin of central
and east-central Turkey, respectively, and are associated with
Oligocene to Miocene evaporitic sedimentary rocks (Fig. 12).
In most of the known prospects, there is no reserve or re-
source data or published information of the lateral extent of
the mineralization. However there are many prospects with
copper, silver, uranium, and/or vanadium mineralization. Na-
tive copper, malachite, and cuprite mineralization in the
Delice-Yerkoy district is limited to the Oligo-Miocene
Topraklik Tepe Formation (Aral, 1990a, b), which consists of
mainly continental clastic rocks, including red sandstones,
conglomerates, mudstones, and volcanoclastic sediments,
with local coal and gypsum intercalations. Assay results of 15
samples from Terzili prospect in the Delice-Yerkoy district
range from 1 to 11 percent Cu, 5 to 100 g/t Ag, 5 to 60 g/t
U3O8 and 70 to 200 g/t V (Aral, 1990b).
Other Deposit Types
Other types of less well-defined Mn and Fe deposits occur
in Turkey. In addition, there are several examples of well-
known deposit types, such as Kiruna-type Fe deposits, Carlin-
type Au, and detachment-fault related Au that are either
poorly represented or not recognized to date. For the com-
pleteness of the metallogeny of Turkey, some of the other de-
posit types are described below.
Many sedimentary Mn deposits and prospects occur
throughout Turkey, however, most of them are small in size
with relatively low or no economic importance. The largest of
this type of Mn deposit in Turkey is the Ulukent deposit in
the Tavas Denizli area in southwestern Turkey with 4 Mt of
resource at 33.86 percent Mn, 18.27 percent SiO2, and 5.53
percent Fe. Many other Mn deposits and prospects of hy-
drothermal origin are associated with ophiolitic rocks and
Upper Cretaceous volcanosedimentary rocks in northeastern
Turkey. Camdag-Sakarya, in northwestern Turkey, contains a
total resource of 1,456 Mt of siliceous and carbonate ore, with
iron contents ranging from 34.65 to 39.52 percent Fe in
siliceous and 13 to 23 percent Fe in carbonate (Cihnioglu et al.,
43
 44

42°N

Narman

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
40°N
Kaymaz

Tavsan

Zeytinlik Karaagac

Yusuflu Bozdag Savcilibeyit

Umurbaba
38°N Cavuslar
Aribasi Beylerderesi
Sincik
Sobuca

44
0 100 200

kilometers
OZCAN YIGIT

36°N
26°E 42°E
30°E 34°E 38°E

Explanation
Ophiolite and Ophiolitic Melanges
Mainly Jurassic-Cretaceous
Metamorphic Rocks Mesothermal gold deposits or prospects
Pre-Mesozoic Listwanite-hosted gold deposits or prospects

FIG. 11. Distribution of the orogenic gold deposits and prospects of Turkey with emphasis on host-rock lithology.
 MINERAL DEPOSITS OF TURKEY IN RELATION TO TETHYAN METALLOGENY
Cankiri-Corum-Yozgat
Basin Area
Delice-Yerkoy
District
34°E
Explanation
Evaporitic Sedimentary Rocks
Miocene
Oligo-Miocene
FIG. 12. Distribution of the sedimentary-rock hosted copper prospects of Turkey with emphasis on host-rock lithology.
1994). The Deveci siderite deposit with 59 Mt at 36.48 percent
Fe and 3.70 percent Mn in the Hekimhan-Malatya area in east
central Turkey could be an example of SEDEX iron mineral-
ization. A Kiruna-type Fe deposit in the Avnik district hosts 104
Mt at 14 to 58 percent Fe, (Helvaci, 1984) with associated ap-
atite in calc-alkaline metavolcanic rocks of intermediate to fel-
sic composition within the Bitlis massif in southeastern Turkey.
Previous work (e.g., Yigit, 2006) has emphasized the lack of
studies on the precious and base metal and REE contents in
Turkish iron ore districts and pointed out some similarities
between some iron districts and iron-oxide-copper-gold
(IOCG) systems, e.g., those at Divrigi, Hasancelebi, and
Avnik districts (see earlier discussion). Recent studies at the
Bakirtepe deposit (Ucurum et al, 2007) in the Divrigi district
corroborated characteristics of IOCG-like systems, though
others have argued that an exposed altered and mineralized
porphyry intrusive on the top of Bakirtepe mineralization
(Yigit, 2006, 2007a) is present, suggesting a magmatic (por-
phyry) association for the mineralization.
Looking at the potential for Carlin-type gold deposits, several
gold prospects have been pointed out with some affinity to this
important deposit type. These include the Kaletas-Gumushane
deposit in northeastern Turkey (Tuysuz et al., 1995), Beykoy
in the Balikesir district (Yildirim, 2002) and Sb districts in the
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
45
Sivas Basin
Area
0 100 200
kilometers
38°E
Sedimentary-rock hosted copper prospects
Kutahya area in western Turkey (Jankovic, 1982; Oygur and
Erler, 1999). Yigit (2006) emphasized that true nature of min-
eralization in these prospects remains unresolved, though one
or more conspicuous features of Carlin-type deposits may exist.
A close spatial and temporal association occurs between de-
tachment and/or listric faults related to core complex devel-
opment, and Au-Sb±Hg mineralization in the Menderes
Massif, e.g., in the Kursunlu, Emirli, and Halikoy prospects.
At Kursunlu, Au-Sb mineralization is associated with silicifi-
cation and brecciation occurs along hanging and foot walls of
a detachment fault near the intersection with a high-angle
fault in the southern margin of Gediz graben (Erler and Lar-
son, 1992; Larson and Erler, 1993). In the Emirli and Halikoy
districts, Au-Sb±Hg deposits and prospects are closely associ-
ated with northwest-trending listric faults immediately south
of Kucuk Menderes graben (Akcay et al., 2006).
Some Metallogenic Factors and
Implications for Mineral Exploration
Mineral deposits and prospects of Turkey are mainly asso-
ciated with Late Mesozoic to Cenozoic rocks. It is difficult to
correlate the tectonic terranes with the metallogenic belts, as
they are not fully coincident (Yigit, 2006). Certain metallo-
tectonic terranes can be traced through Turkey, such as the
45
46 OZCAN YIGIT
Late Cretaceous Banatitic magmatic and metallogenic belt
(Berza et al., 1998; Ciobanu et al., 2002), also known as the
Carpatho-Balkan metallogenic province (Jankovic, 1997) or
the Apuseni-Banat-Timok-Srednogorie belt (Popov et al.,
2000), in southeastern Europe, which extends into the north-
western corner of Turkey (Strandja zone) before reappearing
in the eastern Pontides and continuing into the southern
Transcaucasus belt (Pejatovic, 1979; Jankovic, 1997).
Within Turkey this belt contains numerous Late Creta-
ceous Kuroko-type VMS and porphyry deposits as well as ep-
ithermal systems whereas in southeastern Europe it hosts
world-class porphyry deposits such as Majdanpek, Bor in
Serbia, and Medet and Elatsite in the Srednogorie area of
Bulgaria, as well as the largest gold deposit in Europe, Rosia
Montana in Romania. In Turkey, porphyry systems ranging
from Late Cretaceous to Paleocene intruded into older VMS
terrain in the eastern Pontides. The eastern Pontides also
contain numerous skarns related to Late Cretaceous to Pale-
ocene intrusions. The Oligocene-Miocene Serbomacedon-
ian-Rhodope belt (Heinrich and Neubauer, 2002) in south-
eastern Europe, containing the Skouries porphyry in Greece,
could correlate with the Anatolide porphyry trend hosting
the largest gold deposits in Turkey (Yigit, 2006). Epithermal
and skarn systems are other prominent deposit-types in the
belt.
Jurassic to Cretaceous ophiolite and ophiolitic melanges es-
pecially in south and southeastern Turkey that host Cyprus-
type VMS, numerous podiform chromite deposits, and nickel
laterites stretch from the Troodos Massif in Cyprus to
Greece, Albania, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bosnia-Herzegov-
ina. Carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn deposits of the Taurides in
southern Turkey can be traced through southern Greece to
the Dinarides-Hellenides belt of Albania, Montenegro,
Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Croatia (Jankovic, 1997).
The extension of the Turkish part of the Tethyan metallo-
genic belt as it enters Iran and continues to Pakistan is ob-
scured by the collision of the Arabian and Eurasian plates in
eastern Turkey. Lack of detailed radiometric age data as well
as geochemical studies prevent determination of which belt
(namely Pontides, Anatolides or Border Folds) hosts world-
class porphyry deposits such as Sar Cheshmeh in Iran and
Reko Diq in Pakistan.
A west-northwest–trending belt of porphyry deposits, called
Anatolides porphyry Cu-Au belt (Yigit, 2006), runs from the
Biga Peninsula in the west through central Anatolia to eastern
Turkey. Intrusives in the belt show a conspicuous west-north-
west trend overprinting the general tectonic fabric of Turkey
and cutting across the Sakarya zone, the Izmir-Ankara-Erzin-
can Suture, and the Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex
(Fig. 2), suggesting a Cenozoic age for the majority of the in-
trusions in the belt (Yigit, 2006). Both magmatic and volcanic
rocks have ages younging from north to south, from Creta-
ceous to Eocene and Miocene-Pliocene, indicating a close re-
lation to the Aegean Trench rollback. The Aegean Trench in
the south appears to control the dominantly east-trending
porphyry and/or metallogenic belts in Turkey, a fact that is
overlooked in many studies. These ideas are supported by a
recent study by Jolivet and Brun (in press), which showed
that tectonic features in the Aegean region are compatible
with the hypothesis that a single subduction has been active
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
throughout most of the Mesozoic and the entire Cenozoic.
Geochemical and geophysical mapping of continental crust
that may control the mineralized trends could help to differ-
entiate microplates, e.g., 87Sr/86Sr ratios used in Carlin-trend
studies (Yigit, 2006).
Scattered radiometric ages from porphyry deposits suggest
mainly Eocene or younger ages for Au-rich porphyry miner-
alization. Late Cretaceous porphyries are mainly located in
northwesternmost Turkey, i.e., the Derekoy district, and in
the Border Folds region, i.e., the Keban district (Fig. 4).
Eocene intrusives appear to be more prospective; therefore,
Eocene volcanoplutonic complexes in the country merit more
exploration effort. The southern slope of the mountains of
northeastern Turkey contains prospects whose ages are
mainly Paleogene, and this belt may continue to the western
part of northeastern Turkey, such as west of the Kabatas
prospect. Even though intrusives are not mapped in the
Eocene volcanics forming a northwest-trending belt, intru-
sives may be present and exploration is therefore warranted.
In western Turkey, relatively shallow parts of porphyry sys-
tems are preserved as indicated by the known high sulfidation
epithermal systems, as distinct from northeastern Turkey,
where most of the porphyries have neither coeval volcanic
rocks nor preserved lithocaps with the possible exceptions of
the Tac and Corak prospects. This probably indicates a rela-
tively higher erosional rate in the island-arc setting of north-
eastern Turkey. Polymetallic epithermal to transitional veins
in the Sebinkarahisar district in northeastern Turkey, could be
Cordilleran-type veins in a porphyry environment with simi-
larities to Butte, Montana (Yigit, 2006). Furthermore, a por-
phyry belt in Armenia and Azerbaijan projects into Turkey,
but in Turkey it is mostly covered by Neogene volcanic rocks.
Erosional windows in this volcanic cover may, however, pro-
vide areas with exploration potential. Many known high sulfi-
dation epithermal systems in the Biga Peninsula, western
Turkey, may form lithocaps to porphyry deposits. Due to lack
of deep drilling (>250m) in most of the exploration programs
in Turkey, the porphyry potential at depth remains relatively
untested.
There is a conspicuous spatial association between carbon-
ate rocks and productive porphyry deposits in Turkey (e.g.
Copler district; Fig. 4). Therefore, it is believed that the pres-
ence of carbonate rocks in the wall-rock stratigraphy could be
a useful indicator of prospective porphyries from regional- to
prospect-scale exploration.
Gold-rich porphyry systems of Turkey, e.g. Copler and
Kisladag, are unambiguously associated with alkalic magmatic
rocks similar to the Skouries porphyry in Greece. The Ana-
tolides belt of Turkey could be an extension of Serbo-Mace-
donian belt; if this is the case, alkaline-related porphyry de-
posits of Turkey need to be evaluated for their PGE potential,
as Skouries has relatively high palladium content (Yigit, 2006).
In northeastern Turkey, a prospect called Mahmur Tepe in
a potential outlier (Fig. 4) has some affinities to alkalic ep-
ithermal systems. On the regional maps, the host rocks are
mapped as Pliocene basalts (MTA, 2002) with northwest
trend, have large extent, and contain intrusive rocks ranging
in composition from gabbro to diorite. This belt thus has po-
tential for this style of epithermal and/or porphyry systems.
Furthermore, these mafic gabbroic to dioritic intrusions may
46
 MINERAL DEPOSITS OF TURKEY IN RELATION TO TETHYAN METALLOGENY
be the source for Fe-Ti+Au rich mineral sands in the
Carsamba delta between the towns of Samsun and Ordu.
Recently, many of the old VMS districts of Turkey have
seen renewed exploration interest, in part due to their gold
and silver contents; this includes in particular the felsic-vol-
canic–dominated district on the Black Sea coast (Yigit,
2007b). Many of these deposits can contain gold-rich and
gold-enriched orebodies as well as other byproducts, e.g., Cd
and possibly REE in Kuroko-type (e.g., the Tirebolu district
for Cd and Lahanos for REE; USGS, 2005), Co in Cyprus-
type (e.g., the Kure district; Cagatay et al, 1980). The Cerat-
tepe deposit and Toplaktepe prospect have similarities to hy-
brid Au-rich VMS systems (e.g., Eskay Creek; Yigit, 2006)
and VMS districts on the Black Sea in northeastern Turkey,
i.e., the Tirebolu and Lahanos districts near Giresun, are no-
tably rich in precious metal.
In northeastern Turkey, porphyry deposits appear to over-
print VMS deposits, porphyry related alteration zones may be
disguised by extensive VMS-related hydrothermal alteration,
and VMS-related alteration veining may be misinterpreted as
porphyry-related alteration, e.g., the stockwork zones in Berta
prospect. Classically, many stringer zones containing stock-
work and disseminations were interpreted as feeder zones of
VMS deposits without associated massive sulfide mineraliza-
tion. Special attention should be given to prospects with ex-
tensive “stockwork style” Cu-Au mineralization, because
these stockworks may be a part of a porphyry system.
The PGE content of the Turkish chromite ores has not
been well studied, with the exception of some areas such as
Dogu Kef and Bati Kef in the Guleman district (Page et al.,
1984). High-concentrations of Pt and Pd (41.15 and 14.950
ppm, respectively) were detected in the Harmancik mine in
the Fethiye-Koycegiz-Denizli district; chromite ore was ana-
lyzed, after microwave acid digestion, by Micromass Platform
ICP-HEX-MS (Ucurum et al., 2006) but later assaying of ore
from the same mine was not able to reproduce similar num-
bers (Ucurum, pers. commun., 2006).
Lateritic nickel deposits, although well-known, were not re-
garded as economic using conventional pyrometallurgical
processing techniques. Nevertheless, recent studies (e.g., at
Caldag) indicated that hydrometallurgical recovery of Ni and
Co with sulfuric-acid heap leaching, a technique commonly
used to process copper ores, but less commonly with regard
to nickel ores, shows much promise due to the low clay con-
tent of these lateritic profiles. This new production technol-
ogy, with recovery rates of 72 to 74 percent in 16 to 18 months
of leaching at Caldag, may make Turkey attractive for further
lateritic nickel exploration and mining.
Underappreciated Fe-Ti±Au-bearing mineral sands, such
as the Holocene beach sand of the Black Sea between Ordu
and Samsun in northeastern Turkey, also deserve more atten-
tion, as there are no recent studies or assessments of known
mineral sand prospects.
In the Menderes Massif, some Au-Sb±Hg deposits such as
Kursunlu, Emirli, and Halikoy appear to have an intimate re-
lation with extensional faulting. Near-surface expressions of
the faults appear to be listric (Akcay et al., 2006), though the
true nature of the faulting is not known at depth in the Emirli
and Halikoy deposits. At Ada Tepe in the eastern Rhodopes,
the main stage of gold mineralization and alteration in the
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47
sedimentary cover is controlled by normal (or listric?) faults
that formed above the detachment fault, along with a tabular
orebody called the Wall forming along the actual detachment
fault (Marton et al., 2007). These detachment fault-related or
listric fault-related systems, especially in western Turkey, ap-
pear to have potential for forming significant deposits, espe-
cially at depth along the detachment fault.
Many areas of Turkey lack known mineral occurrences not
because of unfavorable geologic setting but due to insuffi-
cient exploration activity (Yigit, 2007b), and reconnaissance
exploration in these areas, rather than in known districts, may
be successful. This is borne out by the recently discovered
Konya epithermal/porphyry district in an area without known
gold prospects. Additional areas may include the Agri and Van
areas in eastern Turkey, with known sulfur deposits and hot
spring activity as well as extensive alteration zones, but no
known gold deposits. Another less well-explored zone stretches
from northern Turkey west through the Istanbul zone (Fig. 2)
along the Black Sea coast. The porphyry potential of the
Akdagmadeni district, with its many known skarn mineraliza-
tions, and the Yahyali and Bolkarlar districts, with many
known carbonate replacement and skarn deposits, could also
be investigated for porphyry-style mineralization.
Since the change of the mining law in the mid-1980s, most
of the western exploration and mining companies concentrated
on relatively big and easy targets (e.g., shallow, exposed sys-
tems) relying heavily on surficial geochemistry such as BLEG
and stream sediment sampling. As this first pass has been com-
pleted in many areas, these regions may need reevaluation with
integrated geological, geophysical, and lithogeochemical stud-
ies to identify systems with less obvious surface expression.
Acknowledgments
Catherine Yigit is thanked for her invaluable discussions on
the major themes of the paper, as well as proofreading and
editing. Special thanks are due to Dave Burrows for his de-
tailed review of the paper which improved the text greatly.
Larry Meinert’s editorial input is greatly appreciated. Bahri
Yildiz is also thanked for his review. This paper is an offshoot
of a presentation given in the SEG session of the SGA Bien-
nial Meeting in Dublin in 2007. The kind invitation to attend
the meeting from Mac Canby of Freeport-McMoran is grate-
fully acknowledged. Some of the data for Biga Peninsula are
from an ongoing study on the gold metallogeny of the Biga
Peninsula supported by the Turkish Science Foundation
(TUBITAK Project 104Y062 “Gold Metallogeny of the Biga
Peninsula, NW Turkey”) and TUBITAK is, therefore, grate-
fully acknowledged.
October 17, December 20, 2008
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