i] EONaCrT ey a C 9 a ? A A Exhibit 6-1 Jim Beam appeals to interpersonal influence with this ad «+ Source Factors ‘The source component is a multifaceted concept. When Michael Jor- dan appears in a commercial for Wheaties, is the source Jordan him- self, che company (General Mills), or some combination of the two! And, of course, consumers get information from friends, relatives, and neighbors: in fact, personal sourees may be the most influential factor in a purchase decision. Fim Beam appeals to personal sources and their ability to influence one another with its “Real Friends, Real Bourbon” campaign (Exhibit 6-1). ‘We use the term souree to mean the person involved in communicat- ing 2 marketing message, either directly or indirectly. A divect source is @ spokesperson who delivers a message and/or demonstrates a product or service, ike tennis star Andre Agassi who endorses Head tennis rackets in Exhibit 6-2. An indirect source, say, a model, doesn’t actually deliver a message but draws attention to and/or enhances the appearance of the ad. Some ads use neither a direct aor an indirect source; the source is the organization with the message to communicate, Since most research focuses on individuals as a message source, our examination of source factors follows this approach. Companies are very careful when selecting individuals to deliver their selling messages, Many firms spend huge sums of money for a specific person to endorse their product or company. They also spend anillions recruiting, selecting, and training salespeople to represent the company and deliver sales presentations. They recognize that the characteristics of the source affect the sales and advertising message. Marketers try to select individuals whose traits will maximize mes- sage influcnce, The source may be knowledgeable, popular, ane/or physi- cally attractive; typify the target audience; or have the power (o reward or punish the receiver in some manner. Herbert Kelman developed three basic categories of source attributes: credibility, attractiveness, and power.’ Each influences the recipient’s attitude or behavior through a different process (sce Figure 6-2). Exhibit 6-2 Tennis star Andre Agassi serves as a spokes- person for Head irda),| | i Seca re ee Oa Attractiveness Peneiy ee ecu’ Source Credibility Credibility is the extent to which the recipient sees the source as having relevant knowledge, skill, or experience and trusts the source to give unbiased, objective information. There are wo important dimensions to credibility, expertise and trustworthiness, ‘A communicetor seen as knowledgeable—someone with expertise—is more asive than one with less expertise. But the source also has to be trustworthy--- honest, ethical, and believable. The influence of a knowledgeable source will be Jessened if audience members think he or she is biased or has underlying personal motives for advocating a position (such as being paid to endorse a product). ‘One of the most reliable effects found in communications research is that expert and/or trustworthy sources are more persuasive than sources who are less expert or trustworthy.* Information from a credible source influences beliefs, opinions, atti- tudes, and/or behavior through a process known as internalization, which occurs when the receiver adopts the opinion of the credible communicator since he or she believes information from this source is accurate, Once the receiver intemnalizes an opinion or attude, it becomes integrated into his or her belief system and may be maintained even after the source of the message is forgotten. A highly credible communicator is particularly important when message recipi- cents have 4 negative position toward the product, service, eompany, or issue being promoted, because the credible source is likely to inhibit counterarguments, As dis- cussed in Chapter 5, reduced counterarguing should result in greater message acceptance and persuasion, Applying Expertise Because attitudes and opinions developed through an inemalization process become part of the individual's belief system, marketers ‘want fo use communicators with high credibility. Companies use a variety of tech- niques to convey source expertise. Sales personnel are trained in the product line, which increases customers’ perceptions of their expertise, Marketers of Figure 6-2. Source attributes and receiver pro- cessing modes Exhibit6-3 Dove promotes the fact that it is recommended by experts in skin care highly technical products recruit sales reps with specialized technical back- grounds in engineering, computer science, and other areas to ensure their expertise, Spokespeople are often chosen because of their knowledge, experience, and expertise in a particular product or service area. Endorsements from individuals or groups recognized as experts, such as dactors or dentists, are also common in advertising (Exhibit 6-3), The importance of using expert sources was shown in a study by Roobina Ohanian, who found that the per- ceived expertise of celebrity endorsers was more important in explaining Purchase intentions than their attractiveness or trustworthiness. She sug- R0sis that celebrity spokespeople are most effective when they are knowl- edgeable, experienced, and qualified to talk about the product they are endorsing * Applying Trustworthiness While expertise is important, the target ‘audience must also find the source believable, Finding celebrities or other figures with a trustworthy image is often dificult. Many trustworthy public figures hesitate to endorse products because of the potential impact on their ‘eputation and image. Ic has been suggested that former CBS news anchor 5 ee ecSelling Out, but Only Abroad Dem Ca er Roe money endorsing products and serving as advertis- ce ee ee ae) Ce eee See Ce aC) Ce Re Ree On ed Dee ee eC Cn United States are only too happy to appear in ads Peak inccs ' ~ Actress Kim Basinger has modeled hosiery in Italy; Woody Allen wrote and directed a series of commercials for the country’s largest grocery mn ee OM RC eC Se en mee ere tad sexy roles in movies like Basic Instinct and Casino, received between $1 million and $2 million to star CSR one Cea tee ure cen? Cae om ee es De ame ea Res Se et Rete ea grown up, in control.” Nowhere are ads starring American celebrities Cea ua OL Oe Reed ee RCC a em Re the trade in celebrity endorsers fiows the other way. Arnold Schwarzenegger pitches Nissin Cup Noodle and Chi Chin vitamin drink and can be seen Ree Ne eee UC ea) Or eae Lea Pe eee cee ec Rocker asec TR eee beer. Bruce Willis appeared on Japanese television Pee ee Cm ae Pee Cm Ce curt om ures) Se ee Sara trl Gere to fill seats. Actress Jodie Foster flirted with a Cr ee tee bals’ “She Drives Me Crazy” in a Honda ad. Charlie Se RC CCR eee rtrd Promotes the strengths of Nippon Steel, ous techniques to i Pe sates ge tate) to promote products in Japan for several reasons. Many Japanese identify with the Western style of life, and the celebrity endorsements give brands a certain international CO eee erase Ere Menace emmy react uae by product testimonials. Because Japanese com- ee esa Se ec een find an instantly recognizable Western celebrity ea eet OR en reporter, the movie studios also encourage celebri ree Re MEE Ceuta eer ee a Pee eo Ses aT esc uae recognizable the star, the better the picture wll do Cu Ce Resid benefit along with the marketer. ‘Many celebrities cashing in on foreign commer- cials try to protect their image at home. The stars Rea ea eee aus TE ee cn ed Ream ct Coe ee country for which they were intended. The world- wide head of commercials at the William Morris ee ee eee a edge of that endorsement should stay within that OMe eas Sources: Stephen Rae, "How Celebvities Make Killings on ee Leen a a Lauren David Peden, “Seen the One Where Arnoid Sells eer eR ae De ee ee cece See RET -rease the perception that their sou are trustworthy. Hidden cameras are used to show that the consumer is not a paid spokesperson and brands are compar plical of the ceptions of erelbility (Of course, the sponsor's brand always p consumer's regular brand, and he niques, 0 th ive evaluation of the product. Diss ms better than she is always surprised.) Most consumers y have limited value in enhancingusing Corporate Leaders as Spokespeople Another way of enhancing source credibility isto use the company president or chief executive officer as a spokesperson in the firm’s advertising. Many companies believe the use of their president or CEO is the ultimate ‘expression of the compauty's commitment to quality and customer ser- vice. In some cases, these ads have not only incressed sales but also helped turn the company leaders into celebrities.* Lee Iacocca appeared jn more than 60 commercials for Chrysler Corp. and became a national business hero for guiding the successful tumaround of the company. ‘Another popular corporate spokesperson is Dave Thomas, the foundex of Wendy's fast-food restaurants, who has been the company's pitch- rman since 1989 (Exhibit 6-4). Thomas has appeared in more than 500 Wendy's commercials and is widely credited with having helped increase the restaurant chain’s sales.° Other well-known corporate lead- ers who sometimes appear in ads for their companies include Dell Com- puter founder and CEO, Michael Dell, and Southwest Airline’s popular CHO Hesb Kellcher. ‘Some research suggests the use of a company president or CEO can improve attitudes and inccease the Jikelihood that consumers will inquire about the company’s product or service.” It is becoming com- ‘mon for local retailers to use the owner or president in their ads. Com- panies are likely to continue using their top executives in their advertising, particularly when they have celebrity value that helps enhance the firms’ image. However, there can be problems with this strategy. CEO spokespeople who become ‘very popular may get more attention than their company's product/service or adver- tising message. Acd if irm's image becomes too closely tied to a popular leader, there can be problems if that person leaves the company. {MC Perspective 6-2 dis- ‘cusses reasons why companies use CEOs and company owners as their advertising ‘spokespersons, Exhibit 6-4 Dave Thomas isa very effective spokesperson for Wendy's Limitations @f Credible Sources Several studies have shown that abigh- credibility source is not always an asset, nos is a low-credibility source always a lia- bility. High- and low-credibility sources are equally effective when they are arguing. fax a position opposing their own best interest.® A very credible source is more effective when message recipients are nat in favor of the position advocated in the. : message.’ However, a very credible source is less important wien the audience has 4 neutral position, and such a source may even be less effective than « moderately credible source when the receiver's initial attitude is favorable." Another reason a low-credibility source may be as effective as a igh-ci : source is the sleeper effect, whereby the persuasivencss of a message increases j with the passage of time. The immediate impact of a persuasive message may be e inhibited because ofits association with alow-credibility source. But with time, the association of the message with the source diminishes and the receiver’s attention focuses more on favorable information in the mescage, resulting in more support arguing. However, many studies have failed to demonstrate the presence of a sleeper effect."' Many advertisers hesitate to count on the sleeper effect, since expo- sure toa credible source is a more reliable strategy"? 3 fa) z 5 is 3 ay F ye Source Attractiveness A source characteristic frequently used by advertisers is attractiveness, which ‘encompasses similarity, familiarity, and ikability.”* Similarity is a supposed resem- blance between the source and the receiver of the message, while familiarity refers to knowledge of the source through exposure. Likability is an affection for the source as a resull of physical appearance, behavior, or other personal traits. Even when the sources are not athletes or movie stars, consumers often admire their Physical appearance, talent, and/or personality.IMC Perspective 6-2 Using the Owner to Pitch the Company TO Or nes Amat a Inc. was developing a new ad campaign that would focus on the quality of Perdue chickens, The cre- ative director suggested a novel strategy of featur- DO Ce Cee aad Perdue Farms, as the spokesperson for the com- Pee Cen mire mae MW cud dog Spot and other animals Bree eee Pee ecu crcs Ee Pe Ch Naam Se I emer cand events, and late-night movies are likely to see cor ne Roe eee ee eC oe a result of the campaign, and Frank Perdue contin: ued to pitch Perdue chicken in ads for more than Pena eo aR as ae ~~ East in the process. Moreover, this campaign i often cited as setting the stage for the idea of ee cage cu ge Ce ar nearer eee ceed corporations have relied on their chief executive as, Rr cee es Tee creed ei gee cd eS A a a ene razor so much | bought the company.” Lee lacocea appeared in more than 60 TV commercials for Chiysler Corporation throughout the 1980s and early 90s, Orville Redenbacher pitched his brand of Pe eum eR CRS cane a ay seks While these individuals are among the best Pee ae Pen ce) pee Coe Lo mc ee eee ee Seattle became famous for demolishing a car with See ena a eae Eddie” Antar for years dressed up in a straight jacket and yelled “It's insane” on ads for a chain of stereo outlets in New York City. In Southern Cali- fornia, auto dealer Cal Worthington was long a staple on late-night TV with bits featuring him ‘wing-welking on airplanes, and appearing with his ee eRe eee PO nee et aes quasi-actors has to do with advertising budgets too Sry Oe cea ea announcers who may charge thousands of dollars re eee nena a eau ing and advertising experts question the strategy of using company presidents or owners in ads and Pe eee cm as ere ene ere nesspeople should only get in front of the camera eat a cee ONS eget Euan Pee ee eae oa Re Een aoa’ ecru cl Rok Ree Sires aca Nec Pat Renee asic Set ee eee commercials for their companies, which is one rea- Pen MeN eco eee eco eee re a eS says: “They're content to stand stiffly in front of the camera reading the cue cards in monotone. They think they're helping the business, They don’t realize Pee eee a as Pee a eee Renu ie Ree ceed Pee Recto arm eed et ec ae md Poe anor ee aa ete He spends up to $15,000 a month saturating the ere ee un cre ne eu Rog er aa eee caer about 75 percent of the people who walk into his ee eee ce Ma Re ead Pe RLS cena an eee Ce ute coc eet oe ee ee eee See a ae ec eee ee Ley Dee aa ue talking to them for years.” Sn ek eon Peer (ocd eR Renae unas trust and honesty and, more important, the ideaCERT Suen roma ae) Pn eRC eto ne eee bana Oa Source attractiveness leads to persuasion through a process of identification, whereby the receiver is motivated to seek some type of relationship with the source and thus adopts similar beliefs atitudes, preferences, or behavior. Maintaining this position depends on the source’s continued support for the position as well as the receiver's continned identification with the source. If tke source changes position, the receiver may also change. Unlike internalization, identification does not usually integrate information from an attractive source into the receiver's belief system, ‘The receiver may maintain the attitudinal position or behavior only as long as itis supported by the source or the source remains attractive, Marketers recognize that receivers of persuasive communications are more likely to attend to and identify with people they find likable or similar to them- selves. Similarity and likability are the two source characteristics marketers seck ‘when choosing @ communicator. Applying Similarity Marketers recognize that people are more likely to be influenced by a message coming from someone with whom they feel a sense of similarity." Tf the communicator and receiver have similar needs, goals, interests, and lifestyles, the position advecated by the source is better understood and rReeived. Similarity is used in various ways in marketing communications. Compa- nies select salespeople whose characteristics match well with their customers’. A sales position for a particulsr region may be staffed by someone local who hus background and interests in common with the customers. Global marketers often hire foreign nationals as salespeople so customers can relate more easily to them. Companies may also iry to recruit former athletes to sell sporting goods or beer, since their customers usually have a strong interest in sports. Several studies have shown that customers who perceive a salesperson as similar to themselves are more likely to be influenced by his or her message.'* Similarity is aso used to create a situation where the consumer feels empathy for the person shown in the commercial. In a slice-of-life commercial, the advertiser usually starts by presenting a predicament with the hope of getting the consumer to think, “f ean sce myself in that situation an help establish a bond of similar- ity between the communicator and the receiver, increasing the source’s level of persuasivencss. Many companies feel tha the best way to connect with consumers is by using regolar-look- ing, everyday people with whom the average person can easily identity, For example, Exhibit 6-5 shows Chris Dollard, a rela- tively unknown aetor whois cast in many commercials because he is seen as “a regular Joe” whom consumers can relate to. Dollacd has appeared in ads for a number of companies and oducts including JC Penney, MCI, Baked Tostitos, and Isuzu ‘odeo. Applying Likability: Using Celebrities Advertisers recognize the value of using spokespeople who are admired: TV and movie stars, athletes, musicians, and other popular public figures. More than 20 percent of all TV commercials Exhibit 6-5 Chris Dollard appears in many commer- dials because he looks like an everyday guy 4177eC) ras A fal a a Exhibit 6-6 Michael Jordan's many endorse- ments include Gatorade Exhibit 6-7 Tiger Woods has endorsement contracts with a number of com- panies including Buick sat om, GOLFERS WANTED 22: (Galery nda wo share the Buck Cl Dream Hous, Goto tigerbuiek com today for your chance ta win. feature celebrities, and advertisers pay hundreds of millions of dollars for their ser- vices. The top celebrity endorser is former basketball superstar Michael Jordan, Even though he retired in 1998, Jordan has an estimated $40 million a year in endorsement deals with companies such as MCI-WorldCom, Nike, Bijan Fra- grances, Rayovac, Oakley, General Mills, and Quaker Oats (makers of Gatorade)! (Exhibit 6-6). One of the hottest new celebrity endorsers is golf phenom Tiger ‘Woods, who has signed endorsement contracts worth more than $100 million with ‘Nike, American Express, Generaf Mills, and Buick (Exhibit 6-7) ‘Why do companies spend hnige sums to have celebrities appear in their ads and endorse their products? ‘They think celebrities have stopping power. Thal is, they raw attention to advertising messages in a very cluttered media environment, Mar- eters think a popular celebrity will favorably influence consumers’ feelings, alt- tudes, and purchase behavior. And they believe celebrities can enfiance the target audience's perceptions of the product in zermis of image anc/or performance, For ‘example, a well-known athlete may convince potential buyers thatthe product will cenbance their own performance. ‘A number of factors must be considered when a com- pany decides to use a celebrity spokesperson, including the dangers of overshadowing the produet and being ‘overexposed, the target audience's receptivity, and tisks to the advertiser, Overshadowing the Product How will the celebrity oy GRAY oa, he Pro m pars t0 affect the target audience's processing of the advertising Danan noose message? Consumers may focus their attention on the ‘Aad AN a0 celebrity and fail to notice the brand, Advertisers should Sy Back select a celebrity spokesperson who will attract atten- tion and enhance the sales message, yet not overshadow the brand. For example, actress Lindsay Wagner was chosen as the spokeswoman for Ford Motor Co. dealers in Southern California because she brings a physical presence and star power to the advertising which attracts attention and makes it memorable. She is also very credible and accessible, which makes the advertis- ing believable and likeable. And yet she never over- shadows the brand, but rather enhances and hmumanizes it"? (Exhibit 6-8), Overexposure Consumers are often skeptical of endorsements because they know the celebrities are being paid.'* ‘this problem is particularly pronounced when a celebrity endorses too many products or compa- nies and becomes overexposed. Advertisers can protect themselves. against overexposure with an exclusivity setter, Eine tomme row Yo Ereclause limiting the number of products a celebrity ean endorse. However, such clauses are usually expensive, and mott celebrities agree not to endorse simitar prod- ucts anyway. Many celebrities, knowing their fame is fleeting, try to earn as muuch endorsement money as pos- sible, yet they must be careful not to damage their eredi- bility by endorsing too many products. For example, singer/actress Cher damaged her eredibility as an adver- tising spokesperson by appearing in too many infomer- ciels. When she realized that appearing in so many infomercials was devastating to her acting career as well, she ceased doing them." Target Audiences’ Receptivity Consumers who are particularly knowledgeable about a product or service or have strongly established attitudes may be less influ- enced by a colebrity than those with little knowledge or neutral attitudes. One study found that college-age students were more likely to have a positive atitude toward a product endorsed by a celebrity than were older consumers.” The teenage market has generally been very receptive to celebrity endorsers, as evi- =Path of meaning movement a stage of meaning movement‘According to this model, a celebrity’ effectiveness as an endorser depends on the culturally acquired meanings he or she brings to the endorsement process. Each celebrity contains many meanings, including status, class, gender, and age as well as personality and lifestyle. In explaining stage I of the meaning transfer process, ‘McCracken notes: Celebrities draw these powerful meanings from the roles they assume in thei television, ‘movie, military, athetc, and other carcers. Each new dramatic role Grins the celebrity into contact with a range of objects, persons, end contexts, Out of these objects, persons, an contexts ae transferred meanings that then reside inate celebrity? [Examples of celebrities who have acquired meanings include actor Bill Cosby as the perfect father (from his role on “The Cosby Show”), tennis star Andre Agassi as the defiant tennis star (from his anties and performance on and off the court), and actor Jerry Seinfeld asthe quirky comedian (from his role onthe sitcom “Seinfeld”). MoCracken suggests celebrity endorsers bring their meanings into the ad and transfer them tothe product they are endorsing (stage 2 of the model in Figure 6-3). For example, Subaru’s use of actor Paut Hogan as its spokesperson takes advantage of Hogan's image a5 a rugged, tough guy from the Australian outback, which he developed from his roles in the Crocodile Dundee movies and other films. Subaru tas done an excellent job of using Hogan in its ads for its Outback-—a vehicle the company positions as the first sport utility wagon (Exhibit 6-10). In the final stage of MeCracken’s model, the meanings the celebrity has given to the product are transferred to the consumer. Subaru touts the Outback asa vehicle that combines rough-terrain driving capability with the ride and comfort of a pas- senges cat, and the use of Paul Hogan helps in creating this mage. Subarv's vice president of marketing says, “A lot of sport wility shoppers are buying the rugged, go-anywhere image. Paul Hogan not only gives us. nice play on the Outback name but also a chance to help rugged-ize the Outback image." McCracken notes that {his final stage is complicated and diffcat to achieve. The way consumers take pos Exhibit 6-10 Australian actor Paul Hogan helps posi- tion the Subaru Outback as 2 rugged, go-anywhere vehicle x wn 8 st yt Bree reritayExhibit 6-11 Revlon makes effective use of supermodel Cindy Crawford in this ad sexsion of the meaning the celebrity has transferred co a product is probably the Jeast understood part ofthe process. ‘The meaning wansfer model has some important implications for companies using celebrity endorsers. Marketers must first decide on the image or symbolic ‘meanings important to the target audience for the particular product, service, or company. They must then determine which celebrity best represents the meaning or image to be projected. An advertising campaign must be designed that captures that meaning in the product and moves it to the consumer, Marketing and advestising personnel often rely on intuition in choosing celebrity endorsers for their compa- zies or products, but some companies conduct research studies to determine con- summers’ perceptions of celebrities’ meaning. Marketers may also pretest ads to determine whether they transfer the proper meaning to the product. When celebrity endorsers are used, the marketer should track the campaign's effectiveness. Does the celebrity continue to be effective in communicating the proper meaning to the target audience? Celebrities who are no Jonger in the limetight may tose their ability (o wransfer any significant meanings to the product. ‘AS we have seen, marketers must consider many factors when choosing a celebrity to serve as an advertising spokesperson for the company oF a particular brand. IMC Perspective 6-3 discusses how marketers use research data to help in the choice of celebrity endorsers. Applying Likability: Decorative Models Advertisers often draw atten- tion to their ads by Featuring a physically attractive person wino serves as a passive ‘or decorative model rather thae as an active communicator. Research suggests that physically atractive communicators generally have a positive impact and generate more favorable evaluations of both ads and products than less attractive models." ‘The gender appropriateness of the model for the ‘product being advertised and his or her relevance to the product are also important considerations.” Products such as cosmetics or fashionable clothing are likely t0 benefit from the use of an attractive ‘modet, since physical appearance is vety relevant in marketing these items. For example, Revion uses supermodel Cindy Crawford in advertising for vari- ous cosmetics products such as its Fire & Ice fra- grance (Exhibit 6-11). ‘Some models draw attention to the ad but not to the proviuct or message. Studies show that an attrac- tive model facilitates recognition of the ad but does ‘not enhance copy readership or message recall? ‘Thus, advertisers must ensure that the consumer's attention will go beyond the model to the product and advertising message. Source Power ‘The finat characteristic in Kelman's classification scheme is source power. A source has power when he or she can actually administer rewards and punishments to the receiver. As a result of this. power, the source may be able to induce another person(s) to respond to the request or position he or she is advocating. The power of the source depends on several factors. The souve must be perceived as being able to administer positive or negative sanctions to the receiver (perceived con- trol) and the receiver must think the source cares.Cee ee ad ede fi Gu kana oe tao Using Q Ratings to Help Choose a Celebrity iTaellsois Obviously many marketers believe strongly in the Peon er ed eee a Rea km end eee oe ec ne AOA LS will attract viewers’ attention and enhance the Ped Tg cago preening on their own intuition and gut feeling, many turn ee ere oe among the target audience en Sess en in eae nies and their advertising agencies rely on Q rat- Ee ae ence ed Sete CN ce ec ee een ah and movie actors and actresses and entertainers, ee cel Pn an eae ee ec ee CR ee eee reael re ea en crd Pee ae ec Ree ge re eee eS She and retired players, coaches, managers, and sports- ree ae ea ee cee) ee ee eee the performer or sports personality and, if they have, to rate him or her on a scale that includes “one ot my favorites," “very good,” “good,” Se Se Re eM ce what percentage of people have heard of the Cee RS ee ec Se enue ROS nee kaa te The well-known Q rating is calculated by See ee cee ‘ated that a person is “one of my favorites" by the Pe ag OR esc Led they have heard of that person. The Q rating thus ERR ten ce one eee ete UPR ea a ora FRU aes A er aad Ree Re ce Sn eR cee eee Re eee eet eon oe Renae Cun e Ce oC ee Gr Moe htc racer ray EME Cm ra karat SU eR erm (54), Harrison Ford (51), Bill Cosby (50), Mel Gibson (48), Michael Jordan (42), Della Reese (39), Ron ome mR eco me mT SC ee ea eR Performers and 17 for sports personalities. Market- ing Evaluations also breaks down the Q ratings on Se ee Re eg ee ae Pee ea at ee eee education, and race, so that marketers have some PR nee LR ae) eT ene ek oe? eR Re ore Pe ce ees ACen ce nC least in the United States). And although television Pee age rue eee fee ek Pana ee eked Cee Tee eed smaller stars than it once had, For example, in SOS PSO eee Cree er ke Paes oe cen SER SRE eC co’ of 70 as recently a5 1996, but it had declined to 58 by 1999, Reasons offered for the decline in the ee Coe eee ey Seed ce Rec URC ced the TV viewing audience is spread over an increas- ing number of channels. While hit shows of the past reached 30 to 40 percent of the viewing audi- en ee eee Ecc’ Re eee ea eR Uk oa Sere eed ed shows, which take airtime away from star-driven emu ee ae) Ser ee er en ee) away from single-star programs. Many marketers are responding to decline in the number of big TV stars by using sports personalities er ec ei ace nate celebrities aren't just selling sneakers and Gatorade Secu Ee a esac Fer ee eee unos See ee mec eee rora cheek ads in which athletes such as tennis player OO et ee ae Mod and skier Picabo Street appear a5 savvy investors. verre Rc ested aria day guy. There is one difference, however. The sports stars have higher Q ratings. ee ee enc Dunstan Prial, "New Faces,” San Diego Union-Tribune, December 22, 1999, pp. C1, 3; Bill Carter, "Stars Don’t shine as Brightly n an Expanding TV Universe,” Toronto eeeco o 3 Ei o Exhibit 6-12 Actor Charles Bronson’s authoritative image makes him an effec- tive source about whether or not the receiver conforms (perceived concern). The receiver's estimate of the source’s ability to observe conformily is also important (perceived scrutiny), When a receiver perceives 9 source as faving power, the influence process ‘occurs through a process known as compliance. The receiver accepts the persua- sive influence of the source and acquiesces to his or her position in hopes of obtain- ing a favorable reaction or avoiding punishment. The receiver may show public agreement with the source's position but not have an internal or private eomnmit- ment to this positon. Persuasion induced through compliance may be supesficial and last only as long as the receiver perceives that the source can administer some reward or punishment. Power as a source characteristic is very difficult to apply in a nonpersonat influ- ‘ence situation such as advertising. A communicator in an ad generally cannot apply any sanctions to the receiver or determine whether compliance actually occurs. An indirect way of using power is by using an individual with an authoritative person- ality as a spokesperson. Actor Charles Bronson, who typifies this image, has ‘appeared in public service campaigns commanding people not to pollute or damage ‘our natural parks (Exhibit 6-12), ‘The use of source power applies more in situations involving personal communi- ‘cation and influence. For example, ina personal selling situation, the sales rep may have some power over a buyer if the later anticipates receiving special rewards or favors for complying with the salesperson. Some companies provide their sales reps with large expense accounts to spend on customers for this very purpose. Rep- resenlatives of companies whose product demand exceeds supply are often in a jon of power: buyers may comply with their requests to ensure. an adequate supply of the product. Sales reps must be very careful in their use of a power posi- tion, since abusing a power base to maximize short-term gains can damage long- term relationships with customers, Lon Message Ractors Tsay matketing communications are presented is very important in determining their effectiveness. Promotional managers must con- sider not only the content of their persuasive messages but also how this informa- tion will be structured for presentation and what type of message appeal will be used. Advertising, in all media except radio, relies heavily on visual as well as ver- bol information, Many options are available with respect tothe design and presen- tation of a message, This section examines the structure of messages and considers the effects of sifferent types of appeals used in advertising Message Structure Marketing communications usually consist of a number of message points that Wit communicator wants {0 get across. An important aspect of message strategy is knowing the best way t communicate these points and overcome any opposing viewpoints audience members may hold, Extensive research has been conducted on how the structure of a pessuasive message can influence its effectiveness, incleding order of presentation, conclusion drawing, message sidexiness, refutation, and ver- bal versus visual message characteristics, Order of Presentation A basic vousiueration in the design of a persuasive. message is the arguments’ order of presentation. Should the most important mes- sage points be placed at the beginning of the message, in the middle, or at the end? Research on learning and memory generally indicates that items presented first and last are remembered better than chose presented in the middle (see Figure 6-4). This suggests that a communicator’s strongest arguments should be presented carly or late in the message but never in the middle. Presenting the stongest arguments at the beginning of the message assumes a primacy effect is operating, whereby information presented fist is most effective.Mneatl Beginning Middle ‘Order of Presentation Putting the strong points at the end assumes a recency effect, whereby the last arguments presented are most persuasive. ‘Whether to place the strongest selling points at the beginning or the end of the message depends on several factors. I the target audience is opposed to the commu nicator’s position, presenting strong points first Gan reduce the level of counterargu- ing. Putting weak arguments first might lead to such a high level of counterorguing that strong arguments that followed would not be believed. Strong arguments work best at the beginning of the message if the audience is not interested in the topic, so they can arouse interest in the message. When the target audience is predisposed toward the communicator’s position or is highly interested in the issue or product, slrong arguments can be saved for the end of the message. This may result in a more favorable opinion as well ax better retention of the inforation. ‘The order of presentation can be critical when a long, detailed message with many arguments is being presented. Most effective sales presentations open and close with sicong selling points and bury weaker arguments in the middle, For shore communications, such as a 15- or 30-second TV or radio commercial, the order may be less critical. However, many product and service messages are reccived by consumers with low involvement and minimal interest. Thus, an advertiser may want to present the brand name and key selling points early in the message and repeat them atthe end to enhance recall and retention. Condusion Drawing — Marketing communicators must decide whether their messages should explicitly draw a firm conclusion of allow receivers to draw their ‘own conclusions. Research suggests that, in general, messages with explicit concla- sions are mote casily understood and effective in influencing attiuudes. However. other studies have shown that the effectiveness of conclusion drawing may depend. ‘on the target audience, the type of issue or topic, and the nature of the situation.’> More highly educated people prefer to draw their own conclusions and may be annoyed al an attempt to explain the obvious orto draw an inference for them. But stating the conclusion may be necessary for a less educated audience, who may not draw any conclusion or may make an incorrect inference from the message. Mar keters must also consider the audience’s level of involvement in the topic. For highly personal or ego-involving issues, message recipients may want to make up ‘own minds and resent any attempls by the communicator to draw a conclu- sion. One study found that open-ended ads (without explicit conclusions) were ‘more effective than closcd-ended arguments that did include a specific conclu- sion—but oly for involved audiences.° ‘Whether to draw a conclusion for the audience also depends on the complexity of the topic. Even a highly educated audience may need assistance if its knowledge level in a particular area is low. Does the marketer want the message to trigger immediate action or a more long-term effect? if immediate action is an objective, the message should draw a definite conctusion. This is a common strategy in potiti- cal advertising, particularly for ads run close to election day. When immediate impact is not the objective and repeated exposute will give the audience members ‘opportunities to draw their own conclusions, an open-ended message may be used. Figure 6-4 Ad message recall as a function of order of presentation Petite) Sats ry a ie eRe sl Te)Exhibit 6-13 Hewlett- Packard makes effective use of an open-ended approach Drawing a conclusion in a message may make sure the target audience gets the point the marketer intended. But many advertisers believe that leving customers example, a health services agency in Kentucky found that open-ended aus were ‘more memorable and more effective in getting consumers to use health services than were ads stating a conclusion, Ads that posed questions about alcoho! and drug abuse and left them unanswered resulted in more calls by teenagers 1 a belp line for information than did a message offering a resolution to the problem.” The ad for Hewlett-Packard personal computers in Exhibit 6-13 isa very good example of an open-ended ad. The questions encourage individuals choosing a PC for their company to consider the benefits of purchasing from a well-known corporation like Hewlett-Packard rather than from a smaller, less reliable company. Message Sidedness Another message structure decision facing the marketer involves message sidedness. A one-sided message mentions only positive attributes: or benefits. A two-sided message presents both good and bad points. One-sided messages are most effective when the target audience already holds a favorable opinion about the topic. They also work better with a less educated audience.” ‘Two-sided messages are more effective when the target audience holds an opposing opinion or is highly educated. Two-sided messages may entance the credibility of the source.* A bettereducated audience usually knows there are ‘opposing arguments, so a communicator who presents both sides of an issue is likely to be seen as less biased and more objective. Most advertisers use one-siced messages. They are concemed about the negative effects of acknowledging a weakness in their brand or don't want to say anything positive about their competitors. There are exceptions, however. Sometimes adver lisers compare brands on several attributes and do not shows theic product as being the best on every one. In some simations marketers may focus on a negative atttbute as a way of enhancing overall perceptions of the product. For example, W. K, Buckley Limited has become one of the leading brands of cough syrup in Canada by using 2 blunt two-sided slogan, “Buckley's Mixture, It tastes awful. And it works." Ads for the brand poke fun at the cough syrip's terible taste but also suggest that the taste is a reason why the produtis effective Exhibit 6-14). Buckley's ig using the humor- ‘ous two-sided message strategy in its entry into the U.S. market.” Refutation Ina special type of two-sided message known as a refutational appeal, the communicator presents both sides of an issue and then refutes the ‘opposing viewpoint. Since refutational appeals tend (o “inoculate” the target audi-mat — SRL Due pe. ence against a competitor's counterclaims, they are more effective than one-sided ‘messages in making consumers resistant to an opposing message." Refutational messages may be useful when marketers wish to build atinudes that resist change and must defend against attacks or criticism of their products or the company. For example, Exhibit 6-15 shows one ofa series of ads from Apple Com puter that were run a few years ago in response to negative publicity the company hud been receiving regarding its long-term viability and position in the PC market. Market leaders, who are often the target of comparative messages, may find that acknowledging competitors’ claims and then refuting them can hetp build resistant atiwides and customer loyalty. Verbal versus Visual Messages Thus far our discussion has focused on the information, or verbal, portion of the message. However, the nonverbal, visual clements of an ad are also very important. Many ads provide minimal amounts of information and rely on visual elements to communicate. Pictures are commonly sed in advertising to convey information or reinforce copy or message claims. Both the verbal and visual portions of an ad influence the way the advertising message is processed.” Consumers may develop images or impressions based on visual elements such as an illustration in an ad or the scenes in a’TV commercial. 1n some cases, the visual portion of an ad may reduce its persuasiveness, since the pro~ cessing stimulated by the picture may be less controlled and consequently less favorable than that stimulated by words.” Exhibit 6-14 Buckley's Cough Syrup uses a two- sided message to promote the product's effectiveness ry bed Seer tay 2 Pymy Es UTES.) Exhibit 6-15 Apple used a refutational Exhibit 6-16 Visual images are often designed to appeal to address concerns about the company support verbal appeals fi i | By 2Pxt Your Bopy IS THIs PARCHED. (Your PERFORMANCE Is Dryinc Ur, Too.) Zee M3) reins ee Apparel etna eon nes emus tani Pictures affect the way consumers process accompanying copy. A recent study showed that when verbal information was low in imagery value, the use of pictures Providing examples inereased doth immediate and delayed recall of product aurib- utes. However, when the verbal information was already high in imagery value, the addition of pictures did not increase recall. Advertisers often design ads where the visual image supports the verbal appeal to create @ compelling irapression inthe consumer's mind. Notice how the ad for the CamelBak SnoBow! uses visual ele- ‘ments to support the claims made in the copy regarding the importance of being. hydrated when skiing (Exhibit 6-16). Sometimes advertisers use a different strategy; they design ads in which the visual portion is incongruent with or contradicts the verba! information presented. ‘The logic behind this strategy is that the use of an unexpected picture or visual image will grab consumers’ attention and get them to engage in more effortful or elaborative processing,*® A number of studies have shown that the use of a visual that i inconsistent with the verbal content leads to more recall and greater process- ing of the information presented." Message Appeals ‘One of the advertiser’s most important creative strategy decisions involves the choice of an appropriate appeal. Sorne ads are designed to appeal to the rational, Jogicat aspect of the consumer's decision-making process; others appeal to feelings inan attempt to evoke some emotional reaction. Many believe that effective adver- {ising combines the practical reasons for purchasing a product with emotional val- ues. In this section we will examine several common types of message appeals, including comparative advertising, fear, and humor,