Professional Documents
Culture Documents
on
acebo ok
Evidence from Young acebookers
Md Salleh Hj Hassan
SELF-PRESENTATION 2.0!
Md Salleh Hj Hassan
Ibrahim, AM & Hassan, MSH 2018 Self-Presentation 2.0! Self-Esteem on Facebook
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
List of Tables v
List of Figures vii
List of Abbreviations and their full
Meaning ix
Foreword xi
Preface xv
Devotion xix
Epilogue xxi
CHAPTER
One PRIMER 1
1.1 Social Interaction, Social Media and
Society 2
1.2 Facebook, the Internet and the Online
World in Nigeria 5
1.3 The Posers that Triggered this Research 11
1.4 The Research Probes 14
1.5 The Research Goals 15
1.6 The Substance of this Research 16
1.7 The Crucial Terms Defined 18
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Table of Contents
Three PROCEDURE 59
3.1 Synopsis 60
3.2 The Locale of this Research 60
3.3 The Respondents and Sampling
Procedure 60
3.4 The Research Instrument 62
3.5 Data Collection and Analysis 63
3.6 Pre-Test and Scale Reliability 64
3.7 Operationalisation of Variables and the
Research Design 66
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Table of Contents
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
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List of Tables
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AND THEIR FULL
MEANING
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
CSOs Civil Society Organisations
ICT Information and communication technology
IWS Internet World Stats
FOTN Freedom on the Net Report
FWA Fixed wireless access
GSM Global system for mobile telecommunication
NCC Nigerian Communication Commission
NEYIF North-East Youth Initiative Forum
NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations
PC Personal computer
RIP Rest in peace
SNSs Social networking sites
UK United Kingdom
UN United Nations
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation
UniMaid University of Maiduguri
UPM Universiti Putra Malaysia
UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Educational Fund
VIPs Very important person
WHO World Health Organisation
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FOREWORD
It is an honour and a great pleasure for me to write this foreword for this
book entitled ‘Youths’ Self-presentation on Facebook and Psychosocial
Well-being: Empirical Evidence from Nigerian Youths’ Facebook Use
Behaviour.’
Youths have been given a major attention in many countries around the
world given that they are the template for future generations and are
envisaged as potential leaders in whose hands the future of society lies. To
lend an empirical evidence-based credence to the importance of the future
of society, this book focuses on youths and their social interactions online.
My heartiest congratulations therefore go to the authors and team of
editors for producing this informative book: a paradigm that focuses on
self-presentation behaviours among young persons on Facebook and their
connections with their psychosocial well-being. This work encompasses
an introduction to social interactions among young persons and their
settings online, the Facebook environment in Nigeria, the literature on self-
presentation and social well-being, social networking sites and their
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Foreword
relations to gender, cultural identity and last but not the least, self-
promotion tools and Facebook.
This book was written with relentless effort by authors who foresee the
impact of Facebook use on youths’ self-esteem in relation to their self-
presentation online and psychosocial well-being. I anticipate that you will
find the findings of this book, especially regarding future generations of
social media researchers, parents and authorities involved in policy
formulation and decision-making processes on social media use and
people’s social well-being. I also hope that this work will provide further
guidance to future researchers to conduct studies on Facebook use among
young persons, particularly Nigerian youths. I would like to commend the
authors and team of editors for eschewing the pains and costs of producing
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Foreword
Finally, I hope the information provided in this work will benefit youths,
particularly Nigerian youths immensely and guide their mindset toward
being mindful of their social networking sites use behaviour. I strongly
believed that Nigerian legislators and policy-makers stand a tremendous
chance to benefit from the findings of this research work especially in the
realms of helping them legislate and formulate social well-being-friendly
social media access and use laws and policies respectively that can impact
positively on the psychological and physical well-being of both the youth
and other social media users in the country.
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PREFACE
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Preface
This research book found that intense Facebook use is correlated to low
self-esteem and, similarly, that the estimated size of a user’s audience
(Facebook friends) is significantly but negatively correlated to self-
esteem. These key findings suggest that intensity of Facebook use helps
users overcome low self-esteem and that the larger the size of an individual
respondent’s friends on Facebook, the lower his or her self-esteem would
become respectively. Hence, this book study recommends that further
studies should be conducted to further understand the effect of low self-
esteem arising from intense Facebook use by the youth.
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Preface
We wish to thank Associate Prof. Dr. Siti Zobidah binti Omar, Associate
Prof. Dr. Jusang Bolong, Mohd. Nizam Osman (PhD) and Akmar Hayati
binti Ahmad Ghazali (PhD) (all of Faculty of Modern Languages and
Communication, UPM) under whose tutelage and supervision the
corresponding author gained the knowledge, skills and experience to write
this research work. We also extend our sincere appreciation to Nor Azura
binti Adzharuddin (PhD) for chairing the corresponding author’s Master’s
thesis viva voce, creating time to write a befitting foreword for this book
despite her tight schedules and for the intellectual support she rendered
toward the success of this work. This work also recognises the paternal
and fraternal roles the co-author (Prof. Dr. Md. Salleh Hj. Hassan) played
toward supporting its successful completion morally and even financially
in addition to the authorship role they played. Furthermore, we would like
to express our sincere gratitude to the following intellectuals and
gentlemen for their invaluable support at various capacities, namely Prof.
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Preface
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DEVOTION
To the well-being of all Nigerian youths who use social media
responsibly; to the good health and long life of Fatimah Zarah Batulah (the
corresponding author’s newly-born baby girl); and to the good health of
Prof. Dr. Md. Salleh Hj. Hassan (the co-author), who’s just undergone an
eye surgery.
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EPILOGUE
CAVEAT!
USE SOCIAL MEDIA RESPONSIBLY
The Internet has revolutionised global connectivity and serves as the
oxygen that breathes life to globalisation; though it has rent the apparel of
personal privacy asunder.
Social media are the launchpads of social networking sites. They are the
key drivers of global social networking. In fact, the development of Web
2.0 has transformed social media to their current looks and status.
Unequivocally, social media have transformed social interaction and
social connectivity like no other in history. But social media are
progressively posing insurmountable challenges to conventional media.
Social network sites (SNSs) increasingly proving to the world that they
are the true, unmatched drivers of sociability, networkability,
intractability, connectability, associability and communicability of
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Epilogue
This should be a red-alert warning to SNSs addicts. Did you ever mind
the way you use SNSs? Did you ever posed for a second to regurgitate
over your general state of mind, especially your concentration while doing
things, or those of somebody you know? Did it ever cross your mind that
the need for you to use SNSs responsibly may weigh the same with that
for you to watch what you eat and mind what you drink, or weigh even
heaviest? This book cares about your mental well-being as it does about
your physical health. A word, it is said, is enough for the wise. So, please,
USE SOCIAL MEDIA RESPONSIBLY!
Figure E-1: Organised Internet cafe, symbolising the need for responsible social media
use by all and sundry, especially the youth
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Epilogue
THE YOUTH:
PRESENT, FUTURE AND BIG DREAMS
‘Yara, manyan gobe…’ is an Hausa maxim meaning, ‘the youths are the
leaders of tomorrow…’ In Nigerian socio-cultural milieu, the youths are
regarded as would-be leaders, or future leaders. This maxim sounds so
But, that ‘tomorrow’ has already come; it’s none other than this
information era! Unfortunately, many Nigerian youths are being carried
away by the endless fun of social media to the extent that they are bluntly
oblivious of the arrival of the very future they’ve been profoundly waiting
for, for generations. Instead of grabbing the chance of ruling not only the
society but also ideas and the world as a global neighbourhood by
harnessing the potentials of social media through the power of the
keyboard, or keypad (which represents one of the most powerful tools that
are mightier than the sword in this era), rather they’re being blinded by the
dazzling fun of social networking sites to realise the future is already
HERE.
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Epilogue
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Epilogue
Here you are in an era when the keyboard (or keypad) connects you with
the world at the speed of light.
Here you are in an age when the keyboard (or keypad) is faster than the
speed of light… and even is mightier than the throne.
Then, dear youths, which tomorrow are you still waiting for and throne of
which leadership else are you still craving to mount?
Think critically!
Unshackle your mind and free your thoughts… you’ll realise the reality.
And, you certainly will realise too, that you’re somebody; that you are a
social actor engaged in the drama of everyday life, theorised by Ervin
Goffman well over a half of a century ago.
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Epilogue
Figure E-2: An image illustrating the Nigerian youths’ proverbial dream of becoming
leaders of a utopian ‘tomorrow’, instead of harnessing the potentials of social media,
which represents one of the utilities of the ‘tomorrow’ they’ve been waiting for but are
rather being carried away by the endless fun in social media applications
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CHAPTER ONE
PRIMER
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CHAPTER ONE
PRIMER
1.1 Social Interaction, Social Media and Society
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The rise of social networking sites allows people to become even more
social, and provides them with more control over their social image than
it was possible in the past (Falola & Heaton, 2008; Niedermeier, Wang, &
Zhang, 2016). Recent years have witnessed the accelerated proliferation
of social media driven by the Web 2.0 technology, supports user-content
generation and interpersonal communication by enabling users to connect
with friends or people irrespective of time, place and circumstances (Kane,
Alavi, Labianca, & Borgatti, 2014). According to Ellison and Boyd (2013)
the concept of social media centers on four distinct features, namely digital
profile, search and privacy features, relational ties features and network
transparency.
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Previously, it was too difficult to conduct research over the use of social
media among Nigerian youth due to the digital gap. However, nowadays
with the rapid transformation of the economy this gap has already
narrowed. Related literature emphasises the innovative potential of
Facebook to change the nature of communication in communal social life
(FOTN, 2015). However, there is dispute over the extent and nature of
online communication and its relationship to social life as it is moving in
the real world. As online communication by isolating the individuals from
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huge increase from 1950 when it had only 38 million people (CIA World
Fact Book, 2017). The United Nations (UN, 2013) has projected that the
country will be the third most populous nation in the world by 2050 (with
440 million people) (Falola & Heaton, 2008; UN, 2013).
The religious profile of the nation shows that Muslims constitute 50%,
Christian 40% and indigenous beliefs 10%. Additionally, Nigeria’s
population has a high percentage of young people as shown in the
following population age profile: 0-14 years old: 42.79% (male
40,744,956/female 38,870,303); 15-24 years old: 19.48% (male
18,514,466/female 17,729,351); 25-54 years old: 30.65% (male
29,259,621/female 27,768,368); 55-64 years old: 3.96% (male
3,595,293/female 3,769,986); and 65 years and over: 3.12% (male
2,754,040/female 3,047,002) (Josephson, 2017; CIA World Fact Book,
2017).
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There are 16 million active Facebook users by June 2016 and Internet
penetration rate of 8.3%. the country has the largest population of Internet
and Facebook users in Africa (Reuters, 2015 Sept. 10). According to
Freedom on the Net Report (FOTN) the ICT market in Nigeria has
expanded considerably over the past decade, with the number of licensed
Internet service providers (ISPs) rising from 18 in 2000 to 189 as by the
end of March 2015 (FOTN, 2015; Reuters, 2015 Sept. 10).
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languages to Facebook. Hausa and Fulfulde are two of the most widely
spoken languages not only in Nigeria but also in West and Central African
sub-regions. With these new additions, Facebook is now accessible in
more than 100 languages (Seheed, 2016, Oct. 1). In addition, now with the
influence of smart phones even while people are commuting they can get
connected to the internet and check their Facebook. Globally, more than
475 mobile phone operators work to deploy and promote Facebook mobile
products (Smith, 2013).
Facebook users post pictures and updates about their daily lives (Go &
You, 2016). Facebook communication and collaboration forms
relationships among the users (Goi, 2014). There are 11 fixed wired access
(FWA) providers and four GSM mobile phone operators that provide
Internet access to millions of subscribers in the country. However, the
growth of ISPs and FWA services sector has slowed down in recent years
with the rise in mobile access. By February 2015, the four privately owned
GSM companies namely, MTN, Globacom, Airtel and Etisalat had
combined total subscribers of over 136 million (FOTN, 2015).
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The rapid growth in the use of Facebook has been astonishing. From 2008
to June 2009, Facebook use grew by 157% that means Facebook has
gained an estimated 208 million visitors (Levy, 2010). When Facebook hit
the 200 million active users record, it made a video about the 200 million
people as the active users of the cite and claimed that such a population
can be perceived as a country that its populace is more than Japan or Russia
(Levy, 2010). In addition to exhibiting a network of friends, other users
can click on their profiles and traverse ever-widening social networks.
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Facebook currently is the largest and most popular social networking site
(Saheed, 2016 Sept. 30).
This study considered any young person as a cohort because the younger
generation (people between the ages of 17 and 24 years old) have been
recognised as innovators and early adopters of the latest technologies.
They possess potential susceptibility to develop patterns of problematic
use (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Therefore, these new technologies give
the social network an important role in the life of the younger generation.
The young people might be more eager to present themselves in certain
ways utilising Facebook now more than ever (Kim & Lee, 2011). This
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Like in many other parts of the world, in Nigeria, Facebook is the most
popular social networking site, which is used by many Nigerians,
especially people of younger age groups (Josephson, 2017; CIA World
Fact Book, 2017). Despite the limited literature on the use of Facebook as
self-presentation tool among Nigerian youths, experts’ observations have
consistently suggested that the use of social media can affect the behaviour
and psyche of users, especially heavy users. Furthermore, public opinions,
public lectures and undocumented addresses at many workshops and
seminars across the country have suggested that the use of social media by
the youth is increasingly becoming phenomenal, hence the need for
empirical investigation. These concerns are supported by Schlenker et al.
(2012) who found that there is a relationship between intense social media
use and social well-being. Though there are people who seldom use social
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networking sites but still they have weak ties with their physical and social
surroundings (Kramer et al., 2017).
Due to the vast cultural diversity and the opportunities the new social
media has given the youth to construct a desired image, identity, or
uniqueness in the multi-cultural environment of the country (Josephson,
2017), the forming of identity in social media among Nigerian youths is
very important to researchers. According to Fearson (1999) identity refers
to either (a) a social category, defined by member rules and all
characteristic attributes or expected behaviour, or (b) it refers to social
distinguishing features that a person takes a special pride in or views as
unchangeable but socially consequential. It can be both. Moreover, with
self-presentation youth create the desired identity that contributes to their
behaviour and affects their well-being. Thus, understanding how new
media effect youths’ identity construction and their subjective well-being
requires an empirical examination of the youths’ self-presentation
behaviour on social networking sites which are rapidly becoming a culture
among the youth (Kramer et al., 2017). Hence this book seeks to answer
some research questions and achieve some objectives as outlined below.
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This study was prompted by the urge to respond to the concerns raised
about the links and impact of the use of social networking sites on the
psychological and behavioural well-being of Nigerian youths. Hence, it is
expected that the findings of this study original, empirical information and
data about the use of Facebook by Nigerian youths. This study is
significant because it is expected that its findings will provide empirical
evidences on behavioural patterns (differences or otherwise) of self-
presentation and identity tactics among Nigerian youths based on gender,
age and culture (ethnic identity). One of the far-reaching significance of
this study is that it is expected that the findings will provide some
exploratory insights into the social, political and cultural importance of
Nigerian indigenous (local) languages, especially toward adoption of a
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It is expected that these findings will provide some benchmark data and
statistics for the Nigerian Government and government ministries and
departments focusing on ICT and social well-being/development of the
youth. Similarly, the findings of this study are expected to be a valuable
source of information to non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and
civil society organisations (CSOs) whose central attention are youths’
well-being and technology adoption/use e.g., the United Nations
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This study is significant because its findings are expected provide some
exploratory clues to parents, community leaders, school authorities and
social analysts about the impact of social media use on the well-being of
the youth in the society. Furthermore, not only are the findings of this study
expected to provide useful data and information resource for the
development and enhancement of viable health and ICT policy but also
are expected to provide some empirical underpinnings toward the
development and enhancement of the contents of the national social media
use Act.
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media-related issues reminds us how much the social networking sites and
mass media, despite their apparent similarities across the globe, are
affected by differences of culture, e.g., at individual, subgroup and nation
levels. Most of behaviours users exhibit on social networking sites are
cultural practices, values, norms and beliefs that resist or gives in to the
universalising tendencies of the new social networking world (Khan, Iqbal
& Gazzaz, 2012; McQuail, 2010).
Martin and Leary (1999) argued that there are three distinct reasons for
engaging in self-presentation which can be distinguished from existing
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her psychological soundness (health) while using the social networks. One
of the popular definitions of health is the one by the World Health
Organisation (WHO), which states that, “Health is a state of complete
physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity”
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CHAPTER TWO
ANALYSIS OF PAST LITERATURE
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CHAPTER TWO
ANALYSIS OF PAST LITERATURE
2.1 Synopsis
The Internet has changed the way youth interact with their family and
friends. The recent development of social media especially Facebook has
created a new way that young people can present themselves to their peers,
by editing their profile and posting new pictures with an instant text
massage, enables them to present the desired image. Self-presentation
evokes images of gamesmanship, with people jockeying for position in the
social world by trying to convey an image of self to others (Schlenker,
2012). In fact, this definition is seen in different cultures around the world.
For example, “saving face” is a very important part of culture in Asian
countries. For people from certain Asian cultures life depends heavily on
how others perceive and evaluate them, just to avoid the embarrassment
of looking inappropriate, they involve with saving face culture.
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Callaghan (2008) argued that there are other factors which play role for
joining the social network such as loneliness, which Callaghan described
as social pain, a psychological mechanism meant to alert an individual of
isolation as well as a motivate that you seek for social connections.
Findings of a study conducted by Erbring (2000) titled: “Internet and
Society”, showed that individuals who were lonely or did not have good
social skills could develop strong compulsive Internet use behaviours
resulting in negative life outcomes; for example, harming other significant
activities such as work, school, or significant relationships, instead of
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In our daily lives, there are roles that we play to accommodate ourselves
to different social situations. For example, a person can be a student and
at same time, he or she may function as an employee of a specific
organisation and simultaneously can be a father or mother at the domestic
life. These different roles require individuals to adjust themselves
according to their social settings, which in turn require different social
acting. Goffman (2002) referred to this phenomenon of social role playing
as front region control. According to him by keeping different targets away
from one another, people can avoid the awkwardness of trying to present
disparate images of themselves to two or more targets simultaneously.
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Tedeschi (1999) found that defensive tactics, but not assertive tactics, were
positively correlated with social anxiety and external locus of control.
Fenigstein, Seheier, and Buss (1975) stressed the connections between
general self-presentation tactics that are used for approval and fear of
negative evaluation such as anxiety, low self-esteem and fear of failure.
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There seem to be growing concerns over the manner young people use
social media generally. Those concerns usually hover around social and
physical well-being of social networking sites users. Apart from the moral
concerns (discussed above), some health concerns are also being raised.
Parents, teachers, doctors (health personnel) and authorities do complain
about, for example, the deterioration of the health condition, change in
lifestyle and eating habits, poor academic performance and indulgence in
some deviant behaviours by mostly young people who are addicted to
using social media. Leary, Tchividijian, and Kraxberger (1994) found that
(online) self-presentational concerns lead people to engage in behaviours
that enhance their appearance to others but simultaneously jeopardise their
own physical well-being (e.g., overexposure to the sun, excessive dieting).
Health (or physical well-being) in this context does not only refer to the
physical well-being (soundness) of the individual using the social
networking sites, rather include the individual’s social and psychological
(psychosocial) well-being as well (WHO, 1946).
Scholars argue that using too much of selfies on social network sites leads
to narcissism, others even argued that using the social media constitutes
narcissism, lack of self-esteem and the most annoying habit on social
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A study also found that the number of people’s online social networks
correlates positively with life satisfaction and well-being (Kim & Lee,
2011). However, one negative effect that has received considerable
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consideration over the past several years is the level of addiction to the
internet as people become more involved in the internet use. Although
Internet use as an addicted activity varies among the youth, using the
Internet for gambling and pornography is common amongst such
individuals. Moreover, the excessive use of Facebook by the youth may
cause addiction behaviour, such as neglecting personal life, mental
preoccupation, escapism, mood modifying experiences, intolerance; and
concealing the addictive behaviour which, appear to be widespread in
some people who use social network services excessively (Young, 2009).
The negative impact of excessive Internet use can be seen across a wide
range of aspects of the persons’ life as well as on many aspects of their
family functioning (Leung, 2012).
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In line with this finding, other studies have shown that social-network site
use can lead to a variety of negative consequences such as decrease in real-
life communications and worsening of relationship problems (Leung,
2012). According to Kim and Lee (2011) a 24-year old female used social-
networking sites to such an extent that her professional and private life was
affected negatively. Therefore, she was introduced to a psychiatric clinic.
She was using Facebook for at least five hours a day and she missed her
job because she was repeatedly reported to be involved with Facebook
instead of her job; even in her clinical interview she used her smartphone
to access Facebook. The findings of the study indicated that not only did
the woman loses her job due to her addiction, but she also developed
anxiety symptoms as well as insomnia. This finding agrees with Schlenker
(2012) and Rosenberg et al. (1995).
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media obsessions” (p. 1). However, Anderson and Julie (2013) found that
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Furthermore, Bond (2009) found that female tend to use social networking
sites such as Facebook, Twitter and Myspace for self-disclosure with
friends and families while males tend to do self-disclosure more about
sports and amusement. Strano’s (2008) findings agree with the findings by
Selfiecity (2013) that women perform self-presentation acts on social
networking sites more than men do. Additionally, the study suggested that
older social network sites’ users tend to change their profile photo more
often than younger users, and are more likely to use profile photos of
themselves alone (e.g., selfie), not a group photo (e.g., groupie) or with
another person. Many previous studies have suggested that women
perform defensive self-presentation more often than men do.
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Perloff (2014) and Wilcox and Stephen (2012) argued that it is not natural
that women perform more defensive self-presentation tactics more than
men do. According to them many of those claims were based on non-
empirical bias and socio-cultural gender analogies, that since women’s
concerns for beauty is key to womanhood and that women spend more
time in front of the mirror applying make-ups, so they tend to perform
more defensive self-presentation tactics. The scholar further argued that
individual self-presentation performer’s gender can affect his or her
behaviour.
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It is argued that there are no media contents, traditional or new that are
free from cultural biases and objectives, and advance no relation to power
and domination. Traditional media contents such as news, programs,
documentaries entertainment or commercial, as well as majority of the
user-generated contents on social networking sites contain some elements
of prejudices of class, gender, race or misrepresentation and social
segmentation (Khan et al., 2012; Rosengren, 1983). Importantly,
entertainment programs, which offer hedonic motivation to the audience
and are predominantly targeted at the youth are shown to be heavily
saturated with cultural biases and prejudices. These media contents
influence the political thoughts, shape or reshape the cultural traits, pose
or propose idols and icons, affect the social order, and alter the relationship
between social institutions (McQuail, 2010).
There are research studies which advocate the immense power of media
(Curran, Gurevitch, & Woollacott, 1982) and social networking sites
(Adams, Florell, Burton, & Hart, 2014) to create myths, renew, amplify
and extend the existing predispositions to constitute a dominant culture.
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Cultural identity has been defined as the internal image that individuals
portray of themselves. In other words, cultural identity refers to the
phenomenon that makes people try to denote and connote who they are,
what category of people they belong to, and how they relate to others
(Hogg & Abrams, 1988). Deng (1995) stressed that identity describes the
way individuals and groups define themselves and are defined by others
based on race, ethnic identity, religion, language and culture. For example,
when people indicate that they are concerned about how others evaluate
them or they are worried about how well they will perform in social
settings, it is an indication that they have an awareness of the relationship
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between themselves and the reactions of others toward them that in turn
requires a reaction, i.e. they have a self-presentational goal. Youth always
tend to construct their own identity by relating themselves to the kind of
activities that they are involved in. For example, they tend to relate
themselves to their favorite sport team, certain kind of music, or they tend
to connect themselves to celebrities (Adams et al., 2014).
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Many previous studies have used social networking theory to study the
social networks of business organisations in relation to customer
consumption behaviours (McCarthy, Pitt, Campell, van der Merwe, &
Salehi-Sangeri, 2007). In addition, the scholars used social network theory
to examine Internet links between firms that engaged in consumer
marketing. Social networks have been identified as an important avenue
for the survival of small businesses, and critical in competing with larger
businesses (Pitt, van der Merwe, Berthon, Salehi-Sangari, & Caruana,
2006).
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Although research into the use of social media, and specifically social
networking sites as both self-presentation and promotional tool by
Nigerian youths and celebrities is still at an embryonic stage, interest is
focused mostly on the use of social networking sites for sociality and
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The present study regards Facebook as a front stage, that is, the user’s
profile home page, where they arrange their wall in a way that is normally
accessible to all friends and it is at the back stage where the actions of
messaging and updating their profile take place. These acts are in line with
Leary and Kowalski (1990) who asserted that impression management is
used for self-esteem maintenance, which is, by receiving compliments and
praise, it will enhance self-esteem. People try to create impressions that
will trigger esteem enhancing reactions when they expect feedback from
others (Leary & Kowalski, 1990).
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CHAPTER THREE
PROCEDURE
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CHAPTER THREE
PROCEDURE
3.1 Synopsis
This section discusses the overall methods adopted and materials used to
conduct this study, including the respondents’ information, sampling and
data collection procedures, data analysis, etc.
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the university using purposive sampling method. The sample size was
determined using the Krejcie and Morgan (1970) sampling technique.
Only students who have active Facebook profile with not less than 100
friends were selected. To avoid selecting students with a dormant or
without a Facebook profile, each of the selected respondents was required
to show his or her active Facebook profile. That was simple because
nowadays virtually every student has at least one mobile device (CIA
World Fact Book, 2017).
Furthermore, only respondents who have Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba ethnic
origins and hailed from Hausa-majority states (e.g., Kano, Kaduna,
Katsina, Jigawa, etc.), or are Hausa by ethnic origins but hailed from non-
Hausa-majority states/regions (e.g., Taraba State, Plateau State, Kwara
State, etc./north-central region, etc.). to avoid selecting irrelevant
respondents, participants were required to provide their letters of local
government of origin. Most of the respondents were contacted at the
premises of their faculties/departments, classrooms/lecture hall and the
library. Prospective participants were mobilised and lectured on the
research, its objectives, ethics, instructions and formality requirements one
day before the questionnaire was administered to them; this was to allow
them to get their indigenisation letters ready.
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According to Lodico, Spaulding and Voegtle (2006) there are four basic
ways of collecting data: self-administering, mailing, telephone or through
face-to-face interviews. This study used survey method. Data collection
involved self-administering of the 380 survey questionnaires to the
respondents on campus during class hours. It took each participant
between seven and twelve minutes to complete the questionnaire. All 380
(100%) completed questionnaires were retrieved from the respondents in
a field work which lasted for five days. However, only 377 valid
questionnaires were analysed after going through the necessary data
cleansing procedures.
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10 Self-esteem .968
7 Facebook intensity .889
12 Self-presentation tactics .878
Overall .911
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Intense Facebook Use: The choice and use of media are influenced by
user’s relation with their communication partners (Hythornthwaite &
Wellman, 1998). Facebook characteristics such as proximity, interactivity,
connectedness, and heterogeneity in race were positively associated with
use patterns, including time spent using the network site, posting
messages, photos, changing profile contents and the number of individual
user’s friends on the network. This study adopted Ellison, Steinfield, and
Lampe’s (2007) Facebook intensity scale to measure Facebook use beyond
simple measure of frequency and duration, incorporating emotional
connectedness to the site and its integration into individuals’ daily
activities.
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CHAPTER FOUR
OUTCOMES AND TREATISE
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CHAPTER FOUR
OUTCOMES AND TREATISE
4.1 Synopsis
This chapter first presents and then subsequently discusses the findings of
this study. In the Discussion sub-section, the findings are synthesised and
referred to the existing literature in such a way that they are understood in
relation to previous research.
The demographic data of the respondents show that most of them (69%)
were male and younger, with majority (73.1%) of them aged 18 to 21 years
old. Many (24.7% and 38.2%) of them have many Facebook friends, from
200 to 300, or more respectively. Similarly, many (44.3%) of the
respondents spent more than two hours using Facebook, with only 37.4%
of them spending less than one hour. Additionally, quite many (66.6%) of
them used smartphone to access Facebook. However, not so many of them
accessed Facebook using laptop (23.3%) and personal computer (PC)
(7.4%); and that a negligible percentage of the respondents used iPad
(1.9%) and tablet (0.8%) to access the social networking site (see Table 4-
1).
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Age Category
18 to 21 276 73.1
22 to 24 101 26.8
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English 84 22.3
Hausa 189 50.1
Igbo 5 1.3
Pidgin English 90 23.9
Yoruba 9 2.4
Total 377 100
Ethnic identity
Hausa 220 58.4
Yoruba 95 25.2
Igbo 50 13.3
Other ethnics 12 3.2
Total 377 100
Note: 1= Smartphone refers to any type of mobile phone that can be used to browse the
Internet.
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A Comparison of the mean values of the genders (male and female) in self-
esteem difference was made employing equal variance t-test. The result
shows a significance value (.243), which is greater than .05: indicating that
there was no significant difference between genders in self-esteem on
Facebook as shown in Table 4-4. Hence, H1 was not accepted.
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Table 4-5: Correlation between Intense Facebook Use and Low Self-
Esteem
Self-Esteem
Pearson Correlation -.001 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .989
N 377 377
Note: N= number of sample; * Correlation is significant at 0.05 level (2-tailed)
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Self-Esteem
Pearson Correlation -.014⁎⁎ 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .05
N 377 377
Note: Note: N= number of sample; * Correlation is significant at 0.05 level (2-tailed)
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Table 4-7 shows that there was no significant difference in the use of
assertive and defensive self-presentation tactics on Facebook between
Hausa and Yoruba youth based on their ethnic identity as shown by the
significance value (.130, (2-tailed)), which is greater than .05. Hence, H4a
was not accepted. This result implies that assertive (exemplification) and
defensive self-presentation tactics are neutral to users in the context of
ethnic identity. In other words, both Hausa and Yoruba youths use both
self-presentation tactics on Facebook in similar manner.
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However, Table 4-8 shows that there was a significant and positive
difference in the use of assertive and defensive self-presentation tactics on
Facebook between Hausa and Igbo youths based on ethnic identity. This
is indicated by the significance value (.000, (2-tailed)), which is less than
.05. Hence, H4b was accepted.
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H4c: There is significant and positive difference in the use of assertive and
defensive self-presentation tactics on Facebook between Hausa and other
youth based on ethnic identity.
The result of the analysis on the difference in the use of assertive and
defensive self-presentation tactics on Facebook between Hausa youths and
those of other (minority) ethnics revealed that there was no significant
difference between the ethnic groups as shown by these indices: (.099, sig
(2-tailed)) at .05 significance level (see Table 4-9). With this, H4c was
rejected.
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The result of the analysis on the difference in the use of assertive and
defensive self-presentation tactics on Facebook between Yoruba and Igbo
youths based on ethnic identity revealed that there was a significant and
positive difference between the ethnic groups as indicated by these indices:
(.000, sig (2-tailed)) at .05 level of significance (see Table 4-10). Hence,
H4d was accepted.
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The result of the analysis for the difference in the use of assertive
(exemplification) and defensive self-presentation tactics on Facebook
between Yoruba and other (minority) ethnics groups youths revealed that
there was no significant difference between the ethnic groups as indicated
by the following indices: (.296, sig (2-tailed)), which is greater than the
significance cut-off value of .05 (see Table 4-11). This led to the rejection
of H4e.
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Age
Self-Presentation
Pearson Correlation -.017⁎⁎ 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .05
N 377 377
Note: Note: N= number of sample; * Correlation is significant at 0.05 level (2-tailed)
4.5 Discussion
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After all, many of the existing evidences linking intense social networking
sites’ use with psychosocial well-being among young users are merely
suggesting the possibility of direct, cause-and-effect relationship, but not
confirmed (see Verduyn et al., 2017). In addition, the question of context
suitability may be raised here, because a clear majority of the existing
literature claiming the possibility of links between the degree of
individual’s use of a social networking site and his or her psychosocial
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Smartphone (or other types of mobile phone) has been the most popular
device used by the respondents to access Facebook. The results show that
quite many (66.6%) of them used smartphone to access Facebook.
However, not so many of them accessed Facebook using laptop (23.3%)
and personal computer (PC) (7.4%). A negligible percentage of the
respondents used iPad (1.9%) and table (0.8%) to access the social
networking site. These results suggest that the youth predominantly use
smartphone (mobile and other types of cellular phone) to browse online
(Bharucha, 2017). This may have been due to issues regarding
affordability and ease-of-use (Juma, Robert, & Mwaura, 2017).
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With the combined percentages of the users of Yoruba and Igbo languages
and that of other minority ethnic groups (41.7%) not reaching a 50%, these
findings indicate that Hausa is the dominant language of communication
among the university students. These findings and those from the context
of language of communication on Facebook (in the immediate preceding
paragraph) suggest two implications related to socio-cultural development
in Nigeria and national integration, namely: (i) implication of the
possibility of the adoption of Hausa as a language of instruction in schools
and higher institutions, and (ii) implication of the possibility of the
adoption of Hausa as a national language.
Nowadays youth do virtually all those things through online virtual public
spheres/communities in different ways behind the screens of their mobile
devices in a very personalised manner. Interestingly Facebook has become
very popular social media outlet among the youth. Facebook flexibly
allows users to share pictures, videos (links), user-generated contents and
similar social activities online through which they get to know, understand
one another, and make friends. Facebook also permits users to decide what
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Further analysis of the finding of this study indicate that most of the
respondents indicated a high level of concern about their self-worth among
circles of friends on Facebook (refer to Table 4-2). This finding implies
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that most of the respondents were confident and believed that they had
recognisable self-worth in their circles of friends. By and large, this
finding suggests that most of the respondents were concerned about the
perceptions of others about them, too much of which studies show could
lead to psychological or personality problems such as anorexia and
narcissism (see). There is abundant evidence suggesting the link between
individuals’ degree of concern about their ‘self’ as it is seen and perceived
by others on social networks and negative psychosocial well-being
(Dobson, 2014; Perloff, 2014; Soliman et al., 2014; Wrammert, 2014).
Furthermore, the claims made earlier based on the evidence in the positive
self-esteem perception scale that most of the students had higher
tendencies to be self-aggrandising than on Facebook than otherwise was
substantiated by the results of the negative self-esteem perception scale.
Even though the moderate level of the scale may be regarded as a
‘moderately powerful’ self-esteem balancer (refer to Table and 4-3), the
fact that there is an empirical evidence suggesting that such negative
cognitive self-worth feelings did occur in the youths’ psyche is sufficient
to claim that some of their self-presentation behaviours on social
networking sites could have an untoward impact on their psychosocial
well-being.
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Facebook use, the higher the degree of low self-esteem, further implying
that more low self-esteem affects the user, which is naturally unfavorable
to the user, because under normal circumstances people favor having high
self-esteem (Arkin, 2013). Hence, as far as low self-esteem in Facebook
use is concerned, it would be advisable for users to use Facebook intensely
if they would not want to have low self-esteem, or if they would not want
the degree of their low self-esteem to rise, and vise-vasa. However, in the
pretext of wanting to boost their self-esteem, users are advised to avoid
excessive use of Facebook always because this book discovered only
correlation between intense (Facebook) use and low self-esteem; and
correlation does not translate to cause-and-effect relationship (Kim, 1973).
Similar findings have been reported in the literature (see).
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or her audience, or at least those that matter the most, e.g., by reacting
to/liking their postings, comments, acknowledging tags, accepting new
friend requests, uploading pictures and video clips, as well as snapping
photos and tagging dozens of friends, etc.
From the youths’ ethnic identity dimension, the result of the hypothesis
that there was significance and positive difference in the use of assertive
and defensive self-presentation tactics by Hausa and Yoruba youth on
Facebook indicates that there was no significant correlation, leading to the
rejection of H4a (refer to Table 4-7). This result implies that both assertive
(exemplification) and defensive self-presentation tactics are not peculiar
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of Nigeria, where this study was conducted. Furthermore, with the addition
of Hausa language to Facebook, the profile of Hausa culture and its global
importance will continue to soar.
In what seems to correspond with the finding that shows that there was no
significant and positive difference in the use of either assertive or
defensive self-presentation tactics on Facebook between Hausa and
Yoruba youths (refer to Table 4-7), the result in Table 4-10 shows that
there was a significant and positive difference in the use of assertive and
defensive self-presentation tactics on Facebook between Yoruba and Igbo
youths, leading to the acceptance of H4d, a result that reaffirms the claims
that Hausa and Yoruba ethnic groups have more common cultural ties than
do have Hausa and Igbo groups (Ukonu, Edogor, & Ezugwu, 2017). This
implies that there is an affinity between Hausa and Yoruba ethnic groups
but there is weak or no affinity between Hausa and Igbo groups as there is
weak or no affinity between Yoruba and Igbo groups. The result also
shows that there was no significant difference between Yoruba and other
(minority) ethnic groups youth (refer to Table 4-11), which led to the
rejection of H4e.
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On one hand, all these findings suggest that Hausa, Yoruba and other
(minority) ethnic groups have some affinity among them in terms of
cultural identity on social networking sites much more than they do have
any affinity with Igbo ethnic group in terms of cultural/ethnic identity. On
the other, the results suggest that Igbo youths used more assertive tactics
than do Hausa, Igbo or other (minority) ethnic groups do. Igbo people are
widely believed to be the most enterprising ethnic group in Nigeria. Their
use of assertive (exemplification) tactics in self-presentation on Facebook
may be correlated to their entrepreneurial cultural orientation (Chukwuezi,
2001). These findings variously imply that despite the youths’ affinity with
Western pop culture, which dominates the social networking world
(Wakefield & Wakefield, 2016), Nigerian youths could manage to
maintain ties to their ethnic and cultural backgrounds even in the global
melting pot of cultures (social networking sites).
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This study found that a significant different exists between male and
female youths’ Facebook use (refer to Table 4-13), which led to the
acceptance of H6. This result suggests that the Facebook use behaviour of
male and female youths is significantly different. This result is not
surprising being that the study was performed in Nigerian context, a
country where access to, and use of ICT in general, especially social
networking sites are sensitively gendered, more particularly in the north-
eastern part of the country. Although this study did investigate the degree
of use by gender, in most cases, the culture there seems to permit the male
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person to access and use technologies and social networking sites more
than it gives the female person room to do so (Ibrahim & Adamu, 2016).
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This result led to the partial acceptance of H7; and the result further
suggests that younger youths use more assertive self-presentation tactics
than do older youths. Many past studies have found correlation between
age and self-presentation tactics (e.g., Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007;
Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010). Moreover, the use of Facebook, and social
networking sites in general are significantly different between age groups
(Arkin, 2013; Schlenker, 2012). Younger users tend to use more self-
assertive tactics; and, male users have been shown to employ self-assertive
tactics more than do female users (Blachino, Przepiorka, & Rudnicka,
2013; Bond, 2009).
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CHAPTER FIVE
FINALE
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CHAPTER FIVE
FINALE
5.1 Synopsis
This chapter summarises the findings and implications of this study and
proffered some recommendations for further research and policymakers.
The chapter also outlines the limitations of this study.
5.2 Conclusion
The aim of this study was to explore further understanding regarding the
association between Nigerian youths’ Facebook use behaviour and
psychosocial well-being. Specifically, the study focused on the correlation
between the use of self-presentation tactics (assertive and defensive) on
Facebook and the effects such behaviour could have on the youths’ self-
esteem. The results showed that intense Facebook use is correlated to low
self-esteem. Similarly, intense Facebook use was found to be correlated to
gender difference, suggesting that the psychosocial well-being of either
male or female users would be affected based on the individual user’s
gender dispensation with the intensification of Facebook use. In a related
context, users’ age was found to be correlated to the users’ Facebook use
behaviour. The salience of gender and age implies that in north-eastern
Nigerian society Facebook use is largely gendered and that age determines
the use behaviour. In addition, as intense Facebook use may be associated
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Ibrahim, AM & Hassan, MSH 2018 Self-Presentation 2.0! Self-Esteem on Facebook
to an individual user’s Facebook friends’ size, this study has also found
that estimated size of a user’s audience (Facebook friends) could affect the
user’s self-esteem negatively, suggesting that the larger the size of an
individual respondent’s friends on Facebook, the lower his or her self-
esteem would become. However, self-esteem was not found to be affected
by users’ gender dispensation.
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It is gratifying to note that some of the findings of this research have been
supported by Facebook company itself, acknowledging that social media
use can be bad for users’ mental health. Facebook researchers admitted
that even though spending time on Facebook passively consuming
information can leave people feeling fatigued, they argued that engaging
and interacting more with people on the platform can solve the mental
problem. Facebook’s research director, David Ginsberg and research
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Ibrahim, AM & Hassan, MSH 2018 Self-Presentation 2.0! Self-Esteem on Facebook
scientists, Moira Burke have claimed that active interaction with fellow
social media platform users, especially close friends by sharing messages,
comments, posts and having fun such as reminiscing previous interactions
have been empirically linked to improvement in well-being (Levin, 2017).
Much as they made those claims, the authors, however, cited a study
finding which suggests that Facebook users who clicked four times as
many links as the average user reported worse mental well-being.
According to them, a similar study also found that reading about others
online can lead to negative social comparison, which often leads to mental
turbulence, dissatisfaction with one’s status and self-worth and envy
(Levin, 2017).
Many past studies have consistently found that the excessive use of
Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, WhatsApp and other social network sites
can damage the emotional well-being of the user, particularly the youth
(e.g., see Arkin, 2013; Bharucha, 2017; Diefenbach & Christoforakos,
2017; Rosen, Whaling, Rab, Carrier, & Cheever, 2013). Also, refer to
Chapter Two for more information on this assertion. In fact, the findings
of the present study and many others are continuously acknowledging that
the Internet, particularly social media are gradually succeeding in taking
people away from real-life (in-person) social engagement. Furthermore,
the findings of the present study provide hints to the claims made by
communication psychologists that social media use, especially via mobile
phone have redefined modern social relationships, by making people
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5.4 Recommendations
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authorities and other key stakeholders in society such as Federal and State
Ministries of Health, WHO and UNICEF for the benefit of members of
public that use Facebook and other social networking sites. This study
recommends that similar research should be conducted in the other major
geopolitical regions of the country.
Given that the present study has found that intense Facebook is correlated
of low self-esteem negatively (i.e., the higher the intensity of use, the lower
the feeling of low self-esteem), this implies that as far as low self-esteem
in Facebook use is concerned, it would be advisable for users to use
Facebook intensely if they would not want to have low self-esteem, or if
they would not want the degree of their low self-esteem to rise, and vise-
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Ibrahim, AM & Hassan, MSH 2018 Self-Presentation 2.0! Self-Esteem on Facebook
Taking from the finding that Facebook use is largely gendered, this book
recommends that more longer-term gender empowerment development
intervention programs and projects should be executed at community and
grassroots levels by the Government in collaboration with both local and
international development agencies and organisations. The mass
communication two-steps-flow model approach should be strategically
adopted to engage community and opinion leaders consistently and
sustainably for the success of the programs.
111
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It is also a limitation worth mentioning that this study was carried out in
only one out of the many universities in the country; and the study was
conducted in north-east, a region where Hausa language is predominantly
spoken (as a lingua franca). Even though a sample size of 380 is good for
a study like this one, whose results can even be generalised among a
population of one million (see Sekaran, 2003), this book still regards this
study’s sample size (380 pre-data analysis/377 post-data analysis) as a
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Images
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