General Architectural Drafting - 1976 - William E Wyatt

THIS BOOK IS THE PROPERT YOF:
STATE
Brtftlr Nrv
ppnviNfF
Enter information
COUNTY
PAPKH in spaces
srHnoi district to the left as
nTHFP instructed
CONDITION
Year
ISSUED TO Used ISSUED RETURNED
PUPILS to whom this textbook is issued must not write on any page
or mark any part of it in any way, consumable textbooks excepted.
1. Teachers should see thai the pupil's name is clearly written in ink in the spaces above in
every book issued.
2. The following terms should be used in recording the condition of the book: New; Good; Fair;
Poorj Bad.
General
Architectural
Drafting
ARCHITECTURAL
DRAFTING
WILLIAM E. WYATT
Practical Arts Division Head
J. Sterling Morton High School
Cicero, Illinois
B
CHAS. A. BENNETT CO., INC.
Peoria, Illinois 61614
Copyright 1969, 1976
By William E. Wyatt
All rights reserved.
87002-072-2
Library of Congress Catalog No. 75-964.

Printed in the United States of America
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to express Kroehler Mfg. Co.
his thanks to the many persons, LifeNewspapers
firms, and associations that have Long Bell Division.
been of assistance during prepara- International Paper Co.
tion of this book. When drawings Meadow Steel Products Co.
or photographs supplied by others Morgan Sash and Door Co.
are presented, a credit line ac- Mosaic Tile Co.
companies each illustration. Many Mueller Climatrol.
illustrations are based upon infor- Worthington Industries
mation supplied by others and National Assn. of Home Builders
their contribution is acknowl- National Homes
edged herewith. National Lumber Mfg. Assn.
National Woodwork Mfg. Assn.
Alan demons Paratone Inc.
Albert Benda Paul Roise
American Plywood Association P. M. Bolton and Associates
American Standard Products Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co.
Anaconda American Brass Co. Plumbing- Heating-Cooling
Artcrest Products Co., Inc. Information Bureau
California Redwood Association Portland Cement Association
Carpet Institute Inc. Robert Borlik
Charles Bruning Co. Rohm and Haas Co.
Charles Voighl Scholz Homes Inc.
Cicero, Illinois Simpson Logging Co.
Commonwealth Edison Co. Steel City Electric Co.
Erwyn H. James Steel Joist Institute
Eugene Dietzgen Co. Symons Mfg. Co.
Federal Housing Administration The Ceco Corporation
First Federal Savings & Loan Unit Structures Inc.
Berwyn, Illinois United States Plywood Co.
Formica Corporation West Coast Lumberman's Assn.
Forest Studios Western Wood Products Assn.
Fred Reuten Inc. Weyerhaeuser Company
Frederick Post Co. Wire Reinforcement Institute
General Electric Co.
Honeywell Corporation Special Credit:
Jack Williams The author wishes to express
John Deere Corporation his special thanks to Mr. Raymond

Joseph T. Ryerson and Son, Inc. Hagood, Mr. Patrick McFall, and
Kitchen Maid Corporation Mr. George Voyta for their draft-
Kueffel and Esser Co. ing assistance on illustrations for
Knape and Vogt Mfg. Co. this book.
• INTRODUCTION
This book is in three parts: multi-color. When a drawing is
• Part I describes building ma- printed entirely in blue, it is drawn

terials and explains construction as a working plan. Pictorial draw-
principles. ings and working plans illustrat-
ing specific points are often multi-
• Part II presents information
color and are not intended for
necessary for building planning
use on building plans exactly as
and design.
shown. Naturally, any applicable
• Part III presents information
information can be used on your
necessary for drawing building
plan, but it will generally require
plans.
modification.
It is the author's belief that a working drawings

Illustrative
person must be familiar with in the book are usually drawn to

building materials, construction the smallest scale recommended
principles, and their terminology for a given item. For example,
before it is possible to draw tech- all symbols shown inChapter 38
nical plans requiring such infor- are drawn to a scale of Vi"= l'-O"
mation. Most discussions and because this is the size most often
illustrations are related to homes used on floor plan and elevation

or other light construction be- drawings. Individual drawings for
cause these are less complex than the building plans in Chapter 49
buildings of heavy construction. are drawn to their smallest allow-
Drawing principles for heavy con- able size for working drawings.
struction are the same as for light They are only half the size nor-
construction except that many mally used, so they fit on book

more must be mastered.
details pages.
Many explanations in this book Questions following chapters
are lengthy, but no discussion are designed to cover each major
presents all there is to know about topic presented, and are an in-
a given subject! Rather, the book valuable study guide.

gives a broad overview of many Spelling words and terms are
different areas. end of chapters.
listed at the A
Examination of the book re- good draftsman must be able to
veals that some drawings are in spell properly, as well as under-
a single color while others are in stand his terms.
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments 5 Steel Joists, 68; Questions to Reinforce Knowl-
edge, Terms to Spell and Know, 70.
Introduction 6
Chapter 6: Sill and Floor Construction... 71
Table of Contents 7
71; Termite Shield, Floor Joists, 73; Framing,
Sills,
List of Color Illustrations 11 74; Douglas Fir, Southern Yellow Pine Floor Joists,
75; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, Words to
Spell and Know, 78.
PART ONE
Structure-An Architectural Chapter 7: Frame Wall Construction 79
Wall Section, Sole Plate, 79;Top Plate, 81; Stud-
Obligation
ding, 82; Base Blocks, 84; Framing Diagrams, 85;
Headers— Exterior Openings, 86; Header Sched-
Chapter 1: Laying Out and Excavating 14 ule, Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, Words to
Selection of Building Location on the Lot, 14; Local Spell and Know, 87.
Ordinances and Zoning Laws, 15; Plot Plan, 18;
Staking Out, 20; Excavating, 22; Questions to Re- Chapter 8: Masonry Wall Construction 88
inforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and Know, 25. Brick, 94; Brick,Stone Bonds, 95; Concrete Block
Bonds, 96; Building Stone, 96; Purchase of Stone,
Chapter 2: Concrete 26 98; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, 99; Terms
to Spell and Know, 100.
Forms, 27; Mixing and Pouring Concrete, 29; Con-
crete Block Shapes, 32, 33; Concrete Blocks, 34;
Chapter 9: Ceiling Joists and Roof
Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell
Construction 101
and Know, 35.
Methods of Roof Framing, 101; Ceiling Joists-
36 Douglas Fir, Southern Yellow Pine, 103; Securing
Chapter 3: Footings and Foundations
Ceiling Joists to Wall, 104; Roof Types, 105; Roof
Load Bearing Ability of Soils, 36; Footing Shapes,
Shapes Frequently Used, 106; Low Slope Roof
37-39; Frost Line, 40; Questions to Reinforce
Joists or Rafters, 109; Rafters, 110; Names of
Knowledge, Terms to Spell and Know, 46.
Roof Parts, 111; Common Rafter Lengths in
Inches, 112; Roof Truss, 113; Preliminary Design
Chapter 4: Poured Concrete Slabs 47 for Nailed Glued Trusses, 1 14; Questions to Rein-
Suspended Concrete Floors, 49; Questions to Re- force Knowledge, Terms to Spell and Know, 115.
inforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and Know, 52.
Chapter 10: Roofing 116
Chapter 5: Structural Metal 53 Definition of Roof Sheathing, Roof Coverings,
1 16;
Welded Wire Fabric, 53; Wire Sizes, 54; Kinds and 119; Slate, 121; Flashing, 123; Questions to Rein-
Use of Beams, Reinforcing Bars, 55; Fiber Stress
I
force Knowledge, 124, 125; Terms to Spell and
— 20,000# per square inch, 56, 57; Sample Weight Know, 125.
Calculations, Standard Shapes, 58; Standard Steel
Pipe Columns, 62; Weights, Dimensions and Data,
Chapter 11: Post, Plank and Beam
Beams, 63; Elements of Equal Construction 126
Standard Steel I
Angles, 64; Elements of Unequal Angles, 65; Stan- Framing Systems, 126; Beam Shape, 127, 128;
dard Steel Angles— Weights, Dimensions and Data Maximum Spans for Floor Beams, Roof Beams,
— Equal and Unequal Leg Angles, 66; Channels- 129; Typical Glued Laminated Beam and Purlin
American Standard, Steel Angle Irons to Support Sizes, 130; Roof Decking, 131; Questions to Rein-
Four-Inch Masonry Walls, 67; Ryerson Open Web force Knowledge, Terms to Spell and Know, 134.
General Architectural Drawing
Chapter 12: Modular Construction 135 Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and Know,
218.
Modular Coordination, Building Material Sizes,
137; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, 143, 144;
Terms to Spell and Know, 144.
Chapter 20: Chimneys and Fireplaces 219
Chimneys, 219-221; Fireplaces, 222-225; Fire-
Chapter 13: Doors and Door Frames 145 place Opening and Liner Dimensions, 223; Ques-
tions to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and
Door Sizes, 146; Mul-
Classification of Doors, 145;
Know, 225.
tiple Application of Same Door Type; 147; Door
Jambs, 151; Thresholds, 154; Questions to Rein-
Chapter 21: Roof Overhang and
force Knowledge, 155, 156; Terms to Spell and
Know
Exterior Trim 226
156.
Closed Cornice, 228; Attic Ventilation, 230; Ques-
Chapter 14: Windows and Glass 157
Know, 233.
Window Types, 157-162; Mullions, 162; Window
Glass, 164; Window Insulating Glass— Standard
Chapter 22: Exterior Wall Coverings 234
Sizes, 165; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge,
167, 168; Terms to Spell and Know, 168. Wall Sheathing, 234; Horizontal Siding, 235; Ques-
Know, 241.
Chapter 15: Stairs and Stair Framing 169
Stringers, 169; Stair Types, 171-174; Stair Uses
and Locations, Structural Details, 175; Calculating PART TWO
Number and Size of Treads and Risers, 176; Ques-
tions to Reinforce Knowledge, 177, 178; Terms
function and beauty- essentials
to
Spell and Know, 178. of Planning
Chapter 16: Insulation 179 Chapter 23: The Architect 244

Method Heat Transfer, 179; Classifications of
of Need 244; Duties, Fees, 245; Ques-
for, Training,
Insulation, 180; Sound Conditioning, 182; Ques- tions to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and
tions to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and Know 246.
Know, 183.
Chapter 24: The Drafter 247
Chapter 17: Electrical Requirements 184 Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, 247.
Units of Measure, 184; Abbreviations for Units of
Measure, 185; Number of Wires Required, 186; Chapter 25: Design for Today's Living 248
Required Lighting Outlets and Switches, 187; Elements of Beauty and Design, 249; Application
Lighting Fixtures, 190; Questions to Reinforce of Design, 252; Steps in the Development of a
Knowledge, 192, 193; Terms to Spell and Know, Floor Plan, 253; Practical Considerations, 256;
193. Areas of a Home, 257; Planning the Exterior, 258;
Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, 259, 260;
Chapter 18: Plumbing 194 Terms to Spell and Know, 260.
Water Distribution System, 194; Waste Removal,
196; Recommended Minimum Standards for In- Chapter 26: Determining Needs and
dividual Sewage-Disposal System, 198-200; Ques- Wishes of the Client 261
tions to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and Specific Information the Architect Must Know,
Know, 201. 262.
Chapter 19: Climate Control 202 Chapter 27: Room-By-Room Planning 263
Gravity Warm Air, 203; Hot Water and Steam Heat, Entries and Halls, 263; Living Rooms, Dining
206; Radiant Heating, 208; Determining Heating Rooms, 265; Den or Study, 267; Bedrooms, 268;
Requirements, 210; Heat Loss Data, 211; Recip- Bathrooms, 269-273; Kitchens, 274-278; Design-
rocals, 212; Calculating Building Heat Loss, 213; ing the Kitchen, 278; Wall Units, Cooking Top or
Room Heat Loss Schedule, Approximate B.T.U./H. Sink Units, 279; Base Units, 280, 281; Utility and
Furnace Capacities and Sizes, 215; Questions to Pantry Units, 281; FHA Minimum Kitchen Stan-
Table of Contents
dards, 282; Multi-Purpose Rooms, 284; Garage Chapter 35: Sections 350
or Carport, 285; Questions to Reinforce Knowl-
Sections, Full Section, 350; Half Section, Offset
edge, 286-288; Terms to Spell and Know, 288.
Cutting Plane, 351; Questions to Reinforce Knowl-
edge, Terms to Spell and Know, 353.
Chapter 28: Furniture 289
Sketches of Furniture Most Often Used in Homes, Chapter 36: Pictorial Drawings 354
289-292. Isometric Arcs and Circles, 355; Oblique Drawing,
356; Cabinet Drawing, Perspective Drawing, 357;
Chapter 29: Community Factors to be Directions for Two-Point Exterior Perspective,
Considered 293 358; Perspective for One-Point, 375; Questions
to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and
Kinds of Communities: Urban, Suburban, Small
Know, 376.
Town, Rural; Utility Services, 293; Real Estate
Taxes, Transportation, Stores and Shopping Cen-
Chapter 37: Sketches and Rendering 377
ters, Fire Protection, 294; Schools, Churches,
Parks, Recreation and Cultural Opportunities, 295; Wash, 379; Graded Wash, 381; Wet-lnto-Wet,
Flat
Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, 297. 382; Opaque Water Colors, 383; Items for Con-
sideration in Rendering, 386; Procedure for Ren-
dering, Introduction to Rendering Details, 393;
Chapter 30: Site Planning 298
Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, 400-402;
Orientation, 300; Plot Plans, 303; Questions to Re-
Terms to Know and Spell, 402.
inforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell and Know, 306.
Chapter 38: Architectural Symbols 403
Part 1. 403-406
Structural Details,
PART THREE Part 2. Window Symbols, 407-411
From Ideas to Reality Part 3. Door Symbols, 412, 413
Part 4. Plumbing Symbols, 414, 415
Chapter 31: Drafting Tools and Techniques Part 5. Radiators, 415
for Developing Skill 308 Part 6. Supply Pipes, 416
Drawing Tables and Boards, 309; Instruments, Part 7. Heat Ducts and Registers, 417
Part 8. Electrical Symbols, 417-419
310; Handling Paper and Pencil, 312; Beginning
to Draw, Line Weights, 314; Architect's Scales,
Chapter 39: DIMENSIONS and Notes 420
317; Tools for Curved and Irregular Forms, 319;
Drawing Aids, 322; Questions to Reinforce Knowl- Extension and Construction Lines, 420; Dimen-
edge, 327, 328; Terms to Spell and Know, 329. sion Lines and Dimensions, 422; Dimensioning
Floor Plans, 432; Dimensioning and Notes for Ele-
vations, 436; Dimensioning, 437; Metric Measure-
Chapter 32: Drafting Mediums 330
ment, 439; Metric Measure Building Plans for a
Tracing Paper, Cloth, and Film, 330; Grids, 331;
Small Home, 442; Questions to Reinforce Knowl-
Water Color Paper, Poster and Illustration Board,
edge, 455; Terms to Spell and Know, 456.
332; Matte Board, 333; Questions to Reinforce
Knowledge, 333, 334; Terms to Spell and Know,
Chapter 40: Organization of Building
334.
Plans 457
Chapter 33: Architectural Lettering 335 Standard Sheet Sizes, Trim Lines, Borders, Lines,
457; Titles, 458; Sheet Layout, Schedules, 459;
Lettering Styles, 335; Width of Letters, 337; Let-
Lintel, Door, and Room Schedule, Questions to
tering Hints, 338; Applique Lettering, 339; Pres-
Reinforce Knowledge, 460, 461.
sure Sensitive Lettering, 340; Questions to Rein-
force Knowledge, 341.
Chapter 41: Drawing Plot Plans 462
Drawing Scale, Determining Plot Plan
Plot Plan,
Chapter 34: Orthographic Projection and Shape, Positioning Plan on a Drawing Sheet, Be-
Architectural Drawing 342 ginning the Drawing, Building Lines, 462; Building
Orthographic Projection, 342; Curved Parts, 346; Outlines, Construction Outside the Building, 463;
Auxiliary Views, Orthographic Views and Building Contour Lines, Utilities, 464; Elevations Above Sea
Plans, 347; Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, Level, Dimensions for Plot Plans, Lettering, Con-
348; Terms to Spell and Know, 349. densed Outline to Reinforce Knowledge, 465.
Genera/ Architectural Drafting
Chapter 42: Drawing Floor Plans 466 Structural Elevation Details, Exterior Elevation De-
How a "floor plan" is Viewed, Drawing Scale, Page, tails, Condensed Outline to Reinforce Knowledge,
Technical Data, 466; Drawing Wall Outlines, Door, 487.
Window, and Opening Locations, Wall Object Lines, Chapter 47: Drawing Framing Plans 488
Stairs, Chimney or Fireplace, Closet Parts, 467;
Drawing Scale, Sheet Size, Floor Framing Plan,
Drawing Kitchen Equipment, Utility or Laundry
Ceiling Joist Framing Plan, Roof Framing Plan,
Rooms, Bathrooms, Built-in Storage, Room and
488; Steel or Concrete Framing Plans, Wall Fram-
Area Lighting, 468; Lettering, Symbols, Exterior
ing Diagrams, Condensed Outline to Reinforce
Items on Floor Plan, Room Heat Source, Ceiling
Knowledge, 490, 491.
Joists, Access to Attic or Crawl Space, Elevation
Indicators, 469; Cutting Planes, Condensed Out- Chapter 48: Mechanical Plans 492
line to Reinforce Knowledge, 470, 471.
492; Plumbing Plans, 493; Heat-
Electrical Plans,
Chapter 43: Drawing Basement or Footing ing and Air Conditioning Plans, 494; Schematic
and Foundation Plans 472 Diagrams, Condensed Outline to Reinforce Knowl-

Drawing Scale, Sheet Size, Construction Materials edge, 495.
and Methods, Beginning the Drawing, Drawing

Chapter 49: Working Plans for a
Wall Footings, Wall Openings, 472; Pilasters, Area-
Contemporary Home 497
ways, Chimney or Fireplace, Stairway, Access to
Crawl Space, Broaden Wall Outlines, Floor Sup- Plot Plan, 499; Footing and Foundation Plan, 500,
ports, Furnace, Water Heater, 473; Laundry Facii- 501; Basement Plan, Window Schedule, 502; Door
ties, Plumbing, Electrical Outlets, Dimensioning, Schedule, Lintel Schedule, 503; Floor Plan, 504;
Electrical Floor Plan, 506, 507; Front and Rear
Lettering, 474; Symbols, Room Heat Source, Floor
Joists, Checking the Plan, Cutting Planes and
and Right Elevation, 509; Roof
Elevation, 508; Left
Identifying Codes, Finishing the Drawing, Con- Framing Diagram, 510-513; Laundry Chute Detail,
densed Outline to Reinforce Knowledge, 475,476. 514, 515; Outdoor Fireplace and Patio Detail, 516;
Removable Fire Pan Detail, 517; Bathroom Detail,
Chapter 44: Drawing Exterior Elevations.. 477 518-520; Typical Closet Detail, 521; Kitchen De-
tail, 522, 523; Fireplace Detail, 526; Stair Detail,
What Are Elevations?, Drawing Scale, Locating
Elevations on Drawing Sheet, 477; Beginning the 527.
Drawing, Floor Line, Ceiling Line, First Floor Joists,
Chapter 50: Reproduction of Drawings 528
Grade Line, Footings, Walls in Elevation, Determin-
Blueprints and Semi-dry Prints, 528; Ammonia
ing Which Roof Elevation to Draw First, Beginning
to Draw the Gable End, 478; Hip Roof, Drawing a
Vapor Machines, 529; Storage and Retrieval, Ques-
tions to Reinforce Knowledge, 532; Terms to Spell
Chimney Terminating on the Roof, 479; Chimney
Pot, Liner, or Cap; Saddle, Gutters and Down-
and Know, 533.
spouts, Gable Louver or Ventilator, Window and
Chapter 51: Specifications 534
Door Line, Door and Window Openings, Object
General Coverage, 534; Short Form, 535-542;
Lines for Walls and Sills, 480; Dimensions for Ele-
Questions to Reinforce Knowledge, Terms to Spell
vations, Symbols of Wall Materials, Cutting Planes,
and Know, 532.
Condensed Outline to Reinforce Knowledge, 481,
482. Chapter 52: Estimating 543
483 Approximate Methods, 543; Abbreviations of Lum-
Chapter 45: Drawing Building Sections
ber Terms, 544; Mensuration, Frequently Used
Drawing Scale, Section Through a Typical Wall,
Conversions, Weights and Measures, Acreage and
Other Wall Sections, Sections for Different Levels,
Areas, Square Tracts of Land, 545; Estimating by
483; Sections for Finished Attic, Stairwell, Fire-
Determining Exact Quantities, 546; Estimating
place, Kitchen Cabinets, Bathroom Cabinets,
Materials and Labor, 547, 548; Questions to Rein-
Closets, Sections Through Doors and Windows,
force Knowledge, Terms to Spell and Know, 549.
484; Miscellaneous Section Drawings, Condensed
Outline to Reinforce Knowledge, 485. Chapter 53: Architectural Models 550
Presentation Models, 550; Building Frame Walls,
Chapter 46: Drawing Elevation Details 486
556; The Entourage, 562.
Kitchen Elevations, Bathroom Elevations, Shelves
or Cabinets, Fireplace Walls, 486; Roof Framing, Index 565
10
— Color Illustrations
Curtain walls with sandwich panels between vertical Relationships of surfaces — identification of surfaces,
members, 239 345
Built-in kitchen features laundry equipment con- Diluted and strong water-color wash renderings, 380
cealed behind folding doors, 275 Professional and student opaque water-color render-
Storage accessories
—
"L" shaped kitchen — built-in ings, 383
planning area, 276

Opaque water-color rendering done in tones of gray,
384
A kitchen design adapted from a corridor layout, 277
Airbrush rendering, 385
Hard surfaced materials make this utility room easy
An eight unit apartment building, 388
to maintain, 284
Beautiful, conveniently located schools are an asset,
Ink line drawings with water-color washes, 389
296 Pen and ink rendering with water-color washes, 390
Plot plan showing building outlines and planting loca- Presentation floor plan rendered with water-color
tions, 302 washes, 397
Rendered plot plan showing roof outlines, 303 A second wash presentation, 398
Plot plan showing building outlines, 304 Rendering and plan, 498
Rendering of the large home, 331 Presentation model of a light company building, 551
House plans for the home, including maid's quarters, Views of a finished model with entourage, 562
shown on preceding page, 332 Various views of presentation model, 563
11
..
Part One
STRUCTURE —
AN ARCHITECTURAL
OBLIGATION
1 Laying Out and Excavating

2. Concrete
3. Footings and Foundations
4. Poured Concrete Slabs
5. Structural Metal
6. Silland Floor Construction
7. Frame Wall Construction
8. Masonry Wall Construction
9. Ceiling Joists and Floor Construction
10. Roofings
11. Post (Plank) and Beam Construction
12. Modular Construction
13. Doors and Door Frames
14. Windows and Glass
15. Stairs and Stair Framing
16. Insulation
17. Electrical
18. Plumbing
1 9. Climate Control
20. Chimneys and Fireplaces
21 Roof Overhang and Exterior Trim
22. Exterior Wall Coverings
13
a
Laying Out and Excavating
Selection of Building Location on the Lot
In choosing a building loca-

tion, you must know the exact '/l6 VtA Vt SECTION
property boundaries of the build-

ing site. It is not enough to take
tea
the word of the person from whom
the property is being purchased.
He may be entirely honest in his
V» SECTION
beliefs when he
describes the
boundaries of the property. But
the only way to be absolutely sure
is to have a survey of the property
made, following the legal descrip-
tion as given in the abstract. An Vi SECTION
abstract gives the exact legal de-
scription of property, stating
boundaries as measured from
latitudes, longitudes, and merid- A SECTION OF LAND
ians. Much of the country is di-
vided by government survey into
IS ONE MILE SQUARE
sections of one square mile each.
Sections are divided into sub-
sections of halves and quarters.
These are divided into further
halves and quarters. A legal de- The indicated divisions are described as follows:
scription of property and its use V2 = South half of section.
might read as follows: Va = Northeast quarter of section.

Ve = South half of northwest quarter of section.
The property known and described as
V\b — Northwest quarter of the northwest quarter of section.
Lots nineteen (19) and twenty (20)
'/3 2 — South half of the northeast quarter of the northwest quarter of section.
in Block two (2) in J. C. McCartney
'/64 = Northeast quarter of the northeast quarter of the northwest quarter of section.
and Co. Subdivision of the South
half of the Southeast quarter of the Divisions of one section of land (1 sq. mi.)
14
1: Laying Out and Excavating
Northwest quarter and the East half property and a record of the re- hearings, the rezoning will either
of the Northeast quarter of the South-
payments may be recorded. be approved or denied.
west quarter of the Northeast quarter.
Besides zoning ordinances,
Section 20. Township 39 North. Re-
Deed Restrictions regulations usually define the
subdivision of Blocks one (1) to five
(5). is to be zoned as a Second Com- An owner may add any restric- methods of construction to be
mercial District. tion he desires regulating future used. It is also common practice
An abstract also shows previ- use. Future owners are bound to for a local ordinance to state the
ous owners of the property, and them. For example, an owner may amount of ground area the build-
dates acquired and transferred to require all future buildings to be ing can occupy in relation to the
new owners. Amounts of money of masonry construction. The cost total area of the property, and the
or other considerations of the and quality of future buildings distance one must allow from the
transaction are usually stated. may be predetermined. Uses of edges of the building to the prop-
Money borrowed against the the property may be specified. erty lines. In many instances
the height of buildings deter-
N= y mined by
ordinances
local
governing
ordinance.
is
construc-
All
Local Ordinances and Zoning Laws tion requirements are usually as-
sembled and published in booklet
Before construction can begin, If the property is zoned and a form called the building code.
check the local ordinances and builder wishes to introduce an-
other kind of structure, he may Determining Building Location
zoning laws. Most communities
have regulations stating where apply to the governing body to Other homes in the area help
certain types of structures may have the property rezoned into a determine the location of a new
be located. For example, it would different class. The case will be house on the property. If all
not be possible to build an indus- reviewed and public hearings will other structures are built in a row,
trial plant in a new residential be held to give all property a given distance from the front
neighborhood. Zones are usually owners in the area an opportunity of the lot. the new structure
classified as (1) first residential- to express their wishes. After the should be in line with them.
single family, (2) second residen-

tial— multi-family. (3) apartments,
(4) first commercial, (5) second NOTICE
commercial. (6) light industrial.
A public hearing will be held by the Town of Cicero's Zoning Board of Appeals at 7:30
(7)heavy industrial. These names
P.M., on Monday, July — , 1 96—, in the Cicero Town Hall, located at 4937 West 25th Street,
and ratings may vary from one Cicero, Illinois, at which time the following proposal will be considered:
locality to another. Many areas

That property known and described as Lot 36 and the East Vi of Lot 35 in Block
were built up before adequate 3 in Householder's Addition to Morton Pork in the East Vi of Section 28, Township
zoning ordinances were estab- 39 North, Range 13, East of the Third Principal Meridian in Cook County, Illinois,
commonly known as 4808 West 24th Place, Cicero, Illinois, be rezoned from First
lished. In these areas one may find Residential to First Commercial.
a variety of buildings, constructed

Notice is hereby given that a copy of the proposed amendment to the Zoning
Ordinance
for many different purposes. Other will be available for inspection by any interested person at the meeting effecting such classi-
areas have been zoned after con- fication.
struction of at least a part of the Zoning Board of Appeals

Town of Cicero
of the
buildings. In these older areas it
WILLIAM MAGUIRE
may be difficult to tell exactly Secretary
into which zoning category prop-
erty should be placed. Public newspaper notice of rezoning request
15
Part One: Structure— An Architectural Obligation
Laws usually prohibit new con- to allow existing natural features it may take years before the area
struction that extends over this to remain. This not only is a will again have the harmonious,
line.On the other hand, a setback saving in cost but can add to the enriched look of belonging, unless
behind other structures will tend value of the property because it large sums are spent on sodding.
to obstruct the view from the new gives an established look. Many
it transplanting, or terracing. The
building. large developers move into an natural terrain may offer the best
When planning the location area and proceed to remove all basic landscape possible. Some
well to take trees, shrubs, hills, and even examples of construction in which
of a structure it is
into consideration trees and other existing lawns. When they are the natural landscape has been
growth. Many times the location finished the area looks like a preserved are shown on these two
of the building can be adjusted barren wasteland. If this happens pages.
16 The beauty of this home is enhanced by nature's landscaping.

Preserving existing trees around a building site adds beauty to the structure.
17
This modern plywood home blends well with its natural setting.
working plot plans are included vision is made to prevent mois-

in Chapter 41. ture, rot and termite damage.
Plot Plan
Establishing the Grade If one places the building
The grade or relationship of high above grade, it is likely to

The working drawings should the building to ground is very look as though it were built on
show a plot plan giving the out- important. The grade line is the stilts. However, if families live
line and shape of the property. point at which the earth touches in basement apartments, the struc-
This plan is dimensioned, showing the foundation of the building. ture may be built high enough
locations of all streets, sidewalks, One usually selects the highest so the basement windows will be
alleys, and easements for utilities. point on the perimeter of the above ground. The less under-
Generally the property owner building when starting to lay out ground depth a basement has,
can use easement space for yards the building's location. All di- the less waterproofing is required.
and gardens, but the utility com- mensions applying to the grade Some codes determine the maxi-
pany still reserves the right of line are taken from this reference mum depth if the basement rooms
access for placement and repair point— or bench mark, as it is are to be used for living purposes.
of utility services. sometimes called. Yet development of new building
The and outline of
location Recent preference in building materials has, for all practical
buildings to be placed on the prop- has tended to keep the floor line purposes, made this code obsolete.
erty should be drawn on the plot close to the grade. The omission Recent developments have en-
plan. Dimensions from each of of the basement in many new abled buildings to be placed
the property boundaries are given. homes has been one of the pri- entirely below grade.
The plan also includes all drive- mary reasons. Yet one must be When the grade is being es-
ways, sidewalks, patios, terraces, careful not to place the building tablished, adjoining terrain must
and other items to be constructed. too close to the ground because be given consideration. The
These are dimensioned when it of the danger of dampness and ground should slope away in all
is necessary to determine their rot. Most communities have reg- directions. Otherwise, water from
location. Trees, shrubs, and other ulations governing the distance adjoining property may drain
obstructions should be shown floors or wood parts of a building across and cause erosion, or it
when their presence has a bearing must be above grade. The FHA— may back up against foundation
upon the construction. Contour Federal Housing Adminstration and basement walls and cause
lines showing the elevations above —places a minimum of 8 inches moisture problems inside. One
sea level of the property are in- as the distance wood parts must must also consider what surface
cluded on some plot plans. be above grade. There are excep- water from a new site is going
Additional methods of showing tions to this rule, if adequate pro- to do to adjoining property.
18
NAME OF STREET
Plot plan.
19
Staking Out mainder of the building. Single checked diagonally in both di-
When staking out a building, batter boards, as shown, may be rections, the building is square.
the distance of setback from the used for marking offsets or inden- After the outlines of the build-
front property line is usually de- tations. The corners must be ex- ing have been established, thev
termined first. A line is stretched actly square; using a transit can be marked on the ground
across to represent the front edge level, or employing the 6-8-10 with marking lime. The line or
of the building. Then drive a small method of establishing a right staging is removed for excavation.
stake in the ground at the exact triangle. This an application

is Very simple rectangular struc-
front corner of each end of the of the Pythagorean theorem, tures, as in the illustration, may
building. A small tack or nail can which any right triangle
states: In be staked out as a single section,
then be driven into the stake to the square of the hypotenuse is orall at the same time. However,
mark the exact location. The stakes sum of

equal to the the squares most structures must be staked
should be driven almost flush of the other two sides. See out in sections, or different parts
with the ground. A batter board, illustration. at a time, because of the irregu-
such as the one shown, should Taut, or tightly stretched, lines larity of the outlines of the build-
then be constructed at the two of "staging." or carpenter's twine, ing. Additional offsets, as for
front corners, using 2x4 stakes of are fastened over the batter bay windows, recessed entries,
a suitable length, tapered at one boards to outline sections of the areaways, and porches, require
end with a hatchet or power saw. footing. These lines are usually- special laying out and forming.
The batter boards should be fastened by cutting notches in the The shape of a building should
placed no closer than 4 feet from batter boards to line with the be kept as simple as possible be-
the outside edge of the footing edges of the footing, by looping cause irregular shapes require
line. Then 1x6 boards are used to string around the boards, and more material and labor to con-
connect the stakes. The top edges tying. The strings can also be fas- struct. This is not only true for
of the lx6's should be straight- tened around nails driven in the excavation and forming and pour-
level and equi-distant above the boards. ing footings and foundations, but
grade line. The diagonal method is good also for all other parts of the
Next an approximate layout for checking the square. See il- building. The layout of a building
of the footing is measured off and lustration. If the tape measure with irregular outlines, and sec-
batter boards set up for the re- reads the same when the area is tions, is shown.
"L" shaped batter boards.
Straight batter board.
20
,
1 : Laying Out and Excavating
Il§§
Batter boards and string layout for a
rectangular building.
Using the 6-8- 10 right-triangle

method to check squareness
of a building corner.
y/A
<v, / / II / /
/ / /
Checking for squareness, using the di-
agonal method.
Batter boards and string layout for an
irregular shaped building.
Batter boards and string layout for an irregular shaped building.
21
Excavating at a construction site.
Excavating
The excavated earth is trans- rate locations. It is not always easy backfill and should be as clean
ported far enough from the im- to get the contractor to do this as possible. Backfill with trash
mediate vicinity of the building because of the time involved: in can be a haven for termites
it
site to prevent interference with therefore it should be stated and may cause both water pockets
construction work and so as not to clearly in the plans and specifica- and settling around the founda-
interfere w ith deliveries and stock- tions. tion wall.
piling of materials. While the earth is being moved The terrain and the condition
Top soil is a very scarce com- and while construction is in prog- of the should be checked care-
soil
modity in most regions and sells ress, care should be taken to keep fully before actual selection of a
for a premium price. For this the excavated material free of site is made. Firm clay makes an
reason the top and the sub-
soil debris and rubble. At least a por- ideal base for a building of light-
soil should be piled in two sepa- tion of the earth will be used as weight construction, whereas a
22
ing equipment performs many operations during construction
building of heavy construction would require excavating an area dependent to a large extent upon
would need piles or footings to considerably larger than the size the conditions of the soil to be
extend to bedrock. Rock forma- of the building. removed. If the soil is quite firm,
tions near the surface might re- Excavating can be done in it is not uncommon to use the
quire blasting and heavy equip- manv different ways. The old sides of the excavation as the
ment for removal, which would way is to use a shovel and other outside form for pouring concrete.
add considerably to the cost. hand tools. However, much of the This is more typical for light con-
If loosesand were encoun- hand labor has been eliminated struction. In heavy construction,
tered, added width would be re- and replaced with power tools the earth is removed from a larger
quired for the footings. Excava- such as trenchers, crane and drag- area than the building will oc-
tionmight be much more difficult line, backhoes, and bulldozers. cupy, and forms are constructed
because sand from surrounding See illustrations. to retain the concrete for footings
areas would tend to fill in. This The method of excavation is and foundations.
23
-fiSs ^
Leveling the construction site with a landscape rake.
Questions to Reinforce Knowledge
1. What is the purpose of having a building that is to be constructed? closer to the ground than formerly?
a survey of the property before con- 9. How can existing trees affect 1 6. What is meant by the term
struction begins? building construction? "terrain"?

2. What is an abstract? 1 0. What extra expenses may be 1 7. What is meant by the term
3. What is meant by a section incurred if a developer completely "staking out"?
of land? clears an area before construction 1 8. What is a batter board?
4. What is meant by deed re- is started? 19. What is staging?
strictions? 1 1 . What is the value of a plot 20. How does the Pythagorean
5. What is a zoning ordinance? plan? theorem apply to laying out a build-
6. How is it possible to have a 1 2. What is meant by the term ing?
zoning ordinance changed? "legal description"? 2 1 . What is meant by the term
7. What is a building code? 13. What is meant by "grade"? "diagonal method"?
8. How do other buildings in an 14. What is a bench mark? 22. Why should rubble and debris
area help determine the location of 15. Why are floors usually built be kept from backfill material?
24
!!_! v '( i a!T] i^Hll
i
ft
**Mj
A .
V
' -mm-
'
"l
Excavating a trench with a backhoe-loader.
Terms To Spell and Know
property neighborhood terrace adjoining

boundaries apartment easement erosion
purchased commercial utilities basement
abstract locality obstructions staking
surveyor height bearing batter
regulations barren contour transit
community terrain elevation Pythagorean
structure approaches legal hypotenuse
industrial site foundation staging
residential driveway perimeter
25
Concrete
Ingredients of Concrete somewhat, depending upon the upon the strength of the finished
desired plasticity of the concrete product. Note: Under no circum-
The chief ingredients of con-
crete cement— a mixture of
are
mix. The more water one adds to stances should the concrete be
the mixture the more plastic or allowed to freeze during the setting
lime and powdered clay— sand,
pliable the material becomes. period. If the temperature is near
crushed stone or gravel, and
water.
However, additional water freezing, yet concrete work must
weakens the finished concrete. be done, the mix may be heated
Proportions of Mix Use only enough to allow the before it is poured. Also chem-
The proportions of the ingredi- mixture to reach corners and icals are available that, when
ents will vary with the job the recesses of the form. Six gallons added to the mixture, generate
concrete is to perform. Generally of water per bag of cement is the heat which helps prevent freez-
quantity usually recommended. ing; and temporary shelters may
speaking, the more cement in the
mixture, the stronger it will be. Note: Any water in the mixture be built around, or covers placed
Cement is relatively expensive; includes the free water in the over, the concrete, and heat
therefore only enough is used to sand and gravel. Damp materials, supplied from portable heaters.
assure that the concrete will per- of course, would require the addi- The setting time is much faster
form its For ordinary con-

job. tion of less water than would dry in warm weather than in cold.
crete, such as in basement floors, materials. However, extreme warmth can

drives, and sidewalks, the mix Lightweight Aggregates cause a problem because the con-
usually consists of one 94 pound Concrete may not be required crete may become solid before
bag of cement to every 2Vi cu. ft. to support loads. Concrete usually the desired finish is achieved. It
of clean sand and 3 cu. ft. of weighs about 145 pounds per is necessary to add more water
crushed stone or %" screened, cubic foot. In order to reduce the in very hot weather and, for
washed gravel. The FHA mini- weight per cubic foot, lightweight added protection, to cover it with
mum requirement is one part aggregates are sometimes used in a material such as canvas or
the place of the crushed stone or sisalkraft paper. This will help to
cement, three parts sand, and five
parts gravel or crushed stone. gravel. The more common are retain the moisture for proper
Washed gravel should not be con- lava slag, cinders, and blastfurnace curing. It is also a good idea to
fused with ordinary road gravel, slag. dampen the concrete daily for
which is not only unwashed but Effects of Temperature about five days during curing.
also may contain a large quantity and Moisture If the temperature is either
of sand and other foreign matter Besides water, the temperature too cold or too hot during the
such as twigs and clay. at which concrete is poured and curing process, damage and flak-
The amount of water will vary cured has a tremendous effect ing of the surface may result.
26
2: Concrete
Forms
Being a semi-liquid, eonerete
mix must have a "container"
while it is taking shape. Such con-
tainers are called forms. Forms
are made of lumber, plywood,
hardboards, or metal. They may
either be built on the construc-
tion site or ready-made forms
can be set in place on the job.
Most larger jobs require the use

of both. For large straight
foundation walls the manufac-
tured forms are convenient. For
posts, columns, footings, and
special shapes, job-built ones
are usually more satisfactory.
NOTE: round posts are to be

If V .
poured, the forms are usually
made from cardboard tubes.
After the concrete is thoroughly Manufactured concrete forms.
set, the forms are then removed

or "stripped." If walls are being
poured, the forms are held to the Concrete forms being raised in place with a crane.
Symons Manufacturing Co
correct shape by wire or strap
ties. After the forms are removed,
these wires remain in the con-
crete and are sometimes objec-
tionable to the appearance of the
finished work. Most ties can be
broken back beneath the finished
surface by turning them. The
cavity where the tie is removed
should be filled or "painted"
Reinforcing
The strength of the concrete
and a resistance to cracking and
shifting position can be improved
by the addition of metal rein-
forcement.
27
This reinforcement is either has been welded into square or

deformed— not smooth— metal rectangular mesh. Examples are
rod, the diameter of which is de- illustrated and summarized in
pendent upon the amount of Chapter 5, Structural Metal. Re-

Deformed reinforcing bar.
strength required, or wire which inforcing in slab concrete should
be kept near the bottom. While
the pouring is in progress, the
workman should use a hoe or
similar device to lift the mesh
slightly so it will be embedded
firmly in the concrete. Reinforc-
ing rods must also be held up
from the bottom of the excavation
if they are to be of any value.
Steel stair forms being prepared Wire mesh reinforcement

for installation.
Complex forms for a foundation wall

2: Concrete
Mixing and Pouring Concrete

This was originally a hand It is not always possible to
operation. The cement was de- reach the point where the con-
livered in bags; the sand and crete is to be used. On smaller
gravel were dumped near the site jobs it will probably be trans-
where the concrete was to be ported in a wheelbarrow. On
mixed. On some very small jobs larger jobs it may be placed on
it is still handled in this manner. a conveyor, or pumped through
The workman shovels the dry in- large flexible hoses that can be
gredients into a wooden or metal moved as the work progresses.
mixing box; the water is added For high work, cranes or lifts
from a bucket; and the entire are employed.
contents is mixed thoroughly Concrete being poured from a Concrete is often transported to upper
with a hoe or shovel. The con- ready-mix truck is shown. levels by conveyor.
crete is then shoveled into a

wheelbarrow and transported to
the point where it is to be used.
This method is laborious and
time consuming on larger jobs.
A concrete mixer, usually
equipped with a gasoline engine,
helped make the mixing of con-
crete less of a chore. The mixer
of today is usually mounted on the
back of a truck. The ingredients
are measured into it from large
hoppers located at a central sup-
ply point. The concrete is mixed
while the truck is on the road to
the construction site. When the
order is placed, the customer
can specify what mix he desires.
If the concrete arrives at the con-
struction site with a low pouring
A multistory building formed for pouring.
consistency water from a tank on

the truck is added as required.
The mixer has a short trough Forms being set for the foundation of a large house.
attached for dumping the con-

crete to the job. Several exten-
sions for the trough are kept on
the truck to enable the operator
to reach work points. If the con-
struction job is large enough to
warrant, large hoppers and mixers
may be set up at the site.
29
Vibrating straight, shallow, grooved— face

When concrete is being poured, is desired, the troweled surface is
either the stiffness of the mixture swept with a coarse broom, the
or air trapped in the form may brush strokes going in the direc-
prevent the mix from completely tion the striations are to run.
filling the space. Voids or pockets Exposed Aggregate

may weaken the structure or allow Wood float used for a textured finish.
For decorative purposes on
water to pass through a wall.
water one method of achieving
is some concrete work, it is desirable
Vibrating the fresh concrete with
a smooth finish, but much faulty to leave the aggregate protruding
poles helps settle the mix. These
construction has resulted from above the surface. This is called
poles have motors or compressed
such attempts. A good product "exposed aggregate" concrete.
air hoses attached to vibrate
has a monolithic or one-piece The rough surface, as shown, is
them. Vibrating helps form a
finish. If the topping is added after achieved by leveling the concrete
more dense material.
the base coat of concrete has set, in the customary manner, except
When concrete is being poured
A chemical
the finish coat will not adhere that it is not troweled.
for a floor, walk, or other large,
properly to the base coat. The retarder is placed on the concrete
flat surface, it is sometimes completed.
topping is likely to break away, after the screeding is
tamped with a "jitterbug" to set-
leaving the rough aggregate ex- The sub-surface of the concrete
tle the coarse aggregate below the
posed. The topping must be hardens in the usual manner but
surface. Remaining aggregate,
placed over the base coat while the retarder prevents the surface
cement, and sand will be smooth
the mix is still plastic or pliable. from hardening. After the sub-
when the concrete is troweled.
However, if the base coat is rel- surface has set, the surface is
Note: Excessive tamping will
atively smooth, a rich mixture of washed with a hose, which re-
cause the aggregate to settle to
dry cement and sand may be moves the top mix but allows
the bottom of the slab, reducing
sprinkled directly on and troweled the aggregate to remain firmly
the strength of the concrete.
to the desired finish. The surface attached in the hardened con-
must be troweled until moisture crete below.
Screeding
from the mix is worked to the Retarders can also be added to
After the concrete has been
surface to insure a monolithic ordinary concrete to slow the set-
poured on a flat surface, the mix ting time.
slab.
must be leveled to the desired
height. The straightedge used is Troweling Expansion Joints
called a screed. The screed is Smaller surfaces are smoothed Large, uninterrupted areas of
moved back and forth across the with a hand trowel, moved in a concrete are likely to crack be-
surface, dragging the concrete circular motion, on partly hard- cause of expansion and contrac-
to the desired level. Motor driven ened concrete. On large jobs this tion due to changes in tempera-
screeds are sometimes used on is too time-consuming. Troweling ture. Therefore lines are usually
large jobs. machines accomplish the job in scored in the surface to allow the
a much shorter time, with less concrete to "move" in unobjec-
Topping manual effort. tionable places. If the surface is
During the leveling process, Textured surfaces are some- quite large, expansion joints are
aggregate may work to the sur- times desired. A wood float, as used to allow for expansion and
face, exposing gravel or crushed shown in the illustration, can be contraction. These joints are
stone. A smooth surface is usually used to achieve this. The float re- filled with tar or a fibrous material
desired. Topping the concrete with places the trowel during the fin- which has been impregnated with
a mixture of cement, sand, and ishing operation. If a striated- tar. The joints are placed so as
30
2: Concrete
Exposed aggregate concrete is used for this patio floor.
not to present an objectionable terials is the cause. When figuring

appearance. concrete, consider 25 cubic feet
as one cubic yard instead of the
Purchased by the Cubic Yard customary 27 cubic feet. One de-
Concrete is purchased by the sires to figure a job as close as is
cubic yard. Imagine a piece of possible, but it is better to have
concrete 3'x3'x3'. This represents too much concrete than not

one cubic yard. Concrete will not enough. Serious delays and faulty
usually pour out full measure. construction can result from or-
Loss of the water by evaporation dering too little concrete for a Expansion joints control cracking
and absorption into adjacent ma- continuous pour. concrete surfaces.
31
BULLNOSE BLOCK
Standard concrete block size.
(See page 34)
BULLNOSE CORNER BLOCK
Vl CORNER BLOCK
STANDARD BLOCK, 2 CORE
BULLNOSE JAMB BLOCK
CORNER BLOCK
STANDARD BLOCK, 3 CORE
Vi HEIGHT BLOCK DOUBLE CORNER BLOCK
Typical concrete block shapes.
32
OFFSET BLOCK
SOFFIT BLOCK
I
OFFSET BLOCK
OFFSET BLOCK
PILASTER BLOCK
LINTEL JAMB BLOCK PARTITION OR SOLID BLOCK

HEADER BLOCK
Typical concrete block shapes.
33
Concrete Blocks
Concrete can also be purchased blocks is 8"x8"xl6". This is called

in theform of ready-made blocks. the nominal size. The actual size
These are composed of cement, is %" less on all measurements.
sand, and a fine aggregate. Small The reason is to allow for the
gravel is the usual aggregate, but mortar joint and still lay up the
blocks are also made with other block at the given size. The rea-
materials. Cinder and haydite sons for the 16" measurement
are added to make a lightweight will be discussed later.
block. These are not designed to There are many sizes and
be load bearing, or supporting. shapes of concrete blocks. Pat-
They support only their own
will terns for laying of concrete blocks
weight. Beams support the floors are limited only by the imagina-
and walls. The block are used to tion of the designer. Samples of
wall off areas in a building and frequently used patterns for laying
to form outer walls. Concrete concrete blocks are shown in
First Federal Savings, Berwyn III.
blocks can be purchased which Chapter 8.

Exposed aggregate panels are frequently
have decorative aggregates such Concrete blocks are purchased
used for vertical Installations.
as marble or granite chips. by the hundred or, on smaller
The standard size of concrete jobs, by the individual unit.
Extensive use of concrete adds to the beauty of this home.

2: Concrete
1 . From what materials is ordi- 20. What tool is used for level-
nary concrete usually made? ing concrete?
2. Why does one sometimes 21. What is meant by the term

vary the proportions of the ingredi- topping?
ents of concrete? 22. What is meant by the term
3. What is the difference be- monolithic concrete?
tween road gravel and washed 23. What is meant by the term
gravel? machine troweling?
4. When concrete is not re- 24. What is a broom finish, and
Portland Ceinenf Awooc
quired to be load bearing, what ag- how is it achieved?
Concrete privacy screen.
gregates are sometimes used? 25. What is exposed aggregate
5. What two things are likely concrete?
to happen if concrete is poured in 26. What is a retarder, and why
freezing conditions? is it used? 29. How is concrete purchased?
6. How are the ingredients of 27. From what materials are or- 30. What are decorative concrete
concrete warmed and kept warm dinary concrete blocks made? blocks?
for use? 28. What are lightweight con- 31. What is the standard size of
7. What is the name of the item crete blocks? When are they used? a concrete block?
that holds the concrete in place
while it is curing?
8. What material is sometimes Terms To Spell and Know
used as a form when pouring round
concrete columns flaking expansion
posts?
ingredients reinforcement hardboard fibrous
9. What are some of the ma-
plastic deformed texture impregnated
terials used in form construction?
aggregates wheelbarrow striated evaporation
10. What is the process of re-
sisalkraft hopper retarder absorption
moving the forms from the concrete
curing consistency screeding trough
called?
1 1 . What is reinforcing rod?
12. What is reinforcing mesh?
Extra strength forms are frequently necessary for heavy construction.
1 3. Why is reinforcing rod held
away from the bottom of the ex-
cavation?
14. Describe a ready-mix truck.
1 5. How can the consistency of
concrete be varied?
16. What difficulties can result
from having voids in the concrete?

1 7. What is meant by the term
vibrating the concrete?
18. What is meant by the term
tamping the concrete?
1 9. What is the process of level-
ing the concrete called?
35
Footings and Foundations
Footing and Foundation Size When determining the weight

which one lineal foot must sup- LOAD BEARING
Two factors which influence the ABILITY OF SOILS
size of a footing and foundation port, the weight of all materials
SOIL TYPES IONS SQ. FT.
are: in the same foot of building must

Hard Pan 10
be considered.
• Load-bearing ability of the soil.
Rocks or Gravel 6
• Weight of the structure as Minimum Requirements for
Coarse Sand— Compact 4
distributed. Footings and Foundations
Stiff Clay 4
For large construction projects For most light construction it
not necessary to make mathe- Fine Sand — Dry 3

the load-bearing ability of the is
soil should be determined by an matical calculations to determine Fine Sand— Damp 2
engineer. For most light construc- the sizes to be used. The Federal Medium Clay 2
tion the accompanying table will Housing Administration mini-
Soft Clay 1
be adequate. mum requirements for firm soil
^ FOUNDATION
Definition of a Footing
A footing is the concrete or

other solid, enlarged base which
supports the foundation, a col-
umn, pier, or other weight. The
footing helps distribute the load.
Definition of a Foundation
A foundation is that portion

of the walls of a building which
is below the floor joist. Usually
most of the foundation is beneath

the finished grade.
^ KEY
Keyed footing and foundation.
•
36
3: Footings and Foundations
Footing Shapes
For lightweight, thin-walled If a stronger support is desired,
buildings such as garages and a monolithic footing and founda-
storage sheds, the load may not tion may be poured. Because of
require the use of a footing other the irregular shape, the form con-
than the foundation. If slightly struction and pour is difficult. It
more weight must be supported, is used onlv in cases of necessity.

and the earth is firm, it is permis- When the floor of a building
sible to use a flared footing. The is to be of concrete, the floor,
foundation is dug to the desired foundation, and footing are some-
depth and the base is widened times poured as a single-unit
When footing thickness and foundation
with a shovel to give a slightly floating slab. This type construc-
width are the same, the footing width
may be determined by the 30° 60° larger base. tion is used more often in moder-
method. The typical foundation is rec- ate climates where it is not nec-
tangular. The footing and founda- essary to add a great amount of
state that the foundation must
tion are usually poured at separate insulation. The insulation is
be at least as wide as the ma-
times. This forms a joint where placed on the exterior perimeter
terials to be supported. The foot-
The joint can
the sections meet. of the foundation wall and must
ing must be at least twice as
cause two problems: Water may extend to thetop of the floor.
wide as the foundation wall. The
enter the area between the two (Note: It is exposed and does not
minimum thickness of a bearing
parts or settling may cause the present a desirable appearance.)
foundation of poured concrete is
footing and foundation to sepa- The insulation is then faced with
6". However, local codes fre-
rate. A key may be placed in the asbestos board or other inorganic
quently require the use of a footing to help remedy these material.
greater thickness. For frame problems. (See next two pages.)
buildings an 8" thickness is often
used. Masonry veneer and solid
masonry buildings may require
10" or 12" foundation thickness.
The width of a concrete block
foundation wall should be 8"
minimum. The thickness Two-piece footing
or
and foundation.
height of the footing should be
the same as the width of the
foundation.
The 30° -60° method of deter-
mining the footing width and
the thickness or height is also
sometimes used. An example of
this method is shown.
Monolithic footing
Individual building codes dif- 2 x
and foundation.
fer widely as to required sizes.
Before a plan is drawn the build- On a flared footing the effective bearing
width should be at least twice the foun-
ing code for the locality should
dation width.
be consulted.
37
FOOTING SHAPES
ROCK LATH BEVEL SIDING
PLASTER
BASEBOARD SHEATHING
Poured footing and foun-
BASE SHOE dation for frame dwelling.
FINISHED FLOOR
SUBFLOOR
Frame building with poured

footing, concrete block ANCHOR
foundation, and concrete BOLT
slab floor.
CONCRETE
BLOCK
FOUNDATION
REINFORCING
RODS
WATERPROOFING
HEAT DUCT
ANCHOR BOLT
Combined floating slab, foun-
INSULATION dation, and footing.
ASBESTOS BOARD
38
VAPOR
M A ^- RIGID
BARRIER
INSULATION
Footing and foundation for wood

joists and masonry veneer wall.
Poured footing and foundation for frame
veneer house with a slab floor.
CONCRETE BLOCK
FURRING STRIP
LATH AND PLASTER
BASEBOARD
footing and foundation for a solid GROUND LEVEL
masonry building. / EARTH
39
Frost depths.
Frost Line
The depth of the footing is footing it will force the wall to Unexcavated Areas
determined by the depth to which move, which will cause cracking. The minimum distance be-
the ground is likely to freeze. The accompanying map shows tween the bottom of wood floor
Freezing and thawing cause the minimum footing depths for dif- joists and the ground is 24". (The
ground to expand and contract. ferent sections of the United earth should be scraped free of
If the ground freezes below the States, based upon the maximum all organic material.) This space
depth frost is likely to occur. How- will allow adequate air circula-
ever, this cannot be used as an tion and workmen can move
absolute guide. Many local codes about without difficulty. If damp-
specify depths that vary from ness is likely to occur, provision

recommended government stan- for draining the area should be
dards. Local codes must be con- made. Many builders place a 3"
sulted before plans are drawn. slab of concrete over the
The FHA places the mini- excavated area. Note: A screed
1 ,s-
mum height of basement ceilings is used to level the concrete but
at 6'- 10". If the basement
to be is it is not troweled to a smooth
National lumber Manufacturing Associc
finished as habitable rooms, 7'-6" finish.
Basement ceiling heights. or 8'-0" is more desirable. Space between the earth and
40
Stepped footings and foundations

are frequently required when
Pier data for unexcavated areas. building on uneven terrain.
floor joist must not be confused Fooling and Foundation before the next pour is made.
with height above grade. Reinforcement This allows the concrete to bond
Most construction requires the together.
Steps in Footing
addition of reinforcing rod to the
If the terrain is uneven, it is Pilaster
footing to minimize cracking and
not always possible to
level base for the' footing
make
and
a
shifting of the concrete. Two W the
A pilaster
wall. It
is
may
a post built into
occur in the
rods are usually adequate. They
foundation. Then the footing foundation wall or the support-
should not be placed above the
must conform to the shape of the ing walls above the foundation.
center of the footing.
ground, although the base is
To be effective, a pilaster
Rod may also be placed in
is
always kept level. To vary the placed on the inside of the build-
the foundation walls to increase
height, place steps in the footing. ing, when additional weight must
their strength.
The step heights should not ex- be supported. For example, if a
ceed 2'-0". The horizontal dis- Breaks in the Pour
large beam span a base-
is to
tance between steps should be no If all the concrete cannot be ment, a pilaster might be used
less than 2'-0". The horizontal poured at one time and breaks to support the end of the beam.
portion should be the same or splices must be made in the
thickness or height as other footing, they should not occur Foundation Wall Materials
footing. The vertical member close to a step or pilaster. The Although poured concrete is
should be at least 4" thick, and breaks should be kept clean and used commonly for foundation
the same width as the footing. should be thoroughly dampened walls, it is relatively expensive.
41
a lightweight foundation of this

type. The installation is the same
as for wood posts.
Hard varieties of stone and
brick are also used as foundation
materials. Both materials are
likely to disintegrate from ex-
cessive moisture if soft and po-
rous. A tile drain around founda-
tions of these types is necessary.
A stone foundation or retaining
wall can be battered or sloped, as
shown, to gain added strength.
Pilaster and beam pocket

Concrete Block
Concrete block is used quite
extensively as a foundation ma-
terial. The joints must be com-
In special cases, other materials
pletely filled with mortar. Metal
and methods can substitute. One reinforcing, as shown in the il-
of the earlier some-
methods,
lustration, is recommended be-
times used today, is to dig round
tween alternate courses of block
holes in firm earth and place
to help minimize cracking. Hollow
wooden posts in the holes. The
block walls are less waterproof
tops of the posts are made level,
than solid concrete, so more
so the building can be constructed
upon them. In pole construction,
these posts also act as the vertical
framework for the walls. Cypress,
cedar, and redwood are materi-
als well suited for this method
of construction. Other kinds of
wood may be used but they re-
quire the addition of a pressure-
treated preservative, such as
creosote, to retard decay.
Wood piles can be expected
to last about thirty years. The
part of the pile subjected to the
weather deteriorates much more
rapidly than that below grade or
submerged in water. A shallow
foundation wall can be used to
cap the tops of the poles to pro- Wood sill supported on concrete posts.
long their life. This wall also acts

as a level base for the sills. Con-
crete posts are sometimes used for
42
waterproofing is required to keep

the moisture from penetrating.
Drain Tile
When the foundation serves
as a basement
wall, or if water
might not drain properly other-
wise, a 4" inside-diameter drain
tile should be placed around the
perimeter of the building. The
tile is placed at the same level
as the footing, and about 6" out-

side of it. The tile should be laid
in bed of gravel or crushed

a
stone. The joints between the tile
should be left open about %".
These are covered with strips of
building paper or roll roofing to
prevent gravel above the tile from
entering it. The material for the
tile may be field clay, concrete, or
bituminous fiber. The drain tile
should be connected to the sani-
tary sewer (unless a code pro-
hibits it), a storm sewer, or a dry
well. The between the tile

joints
leading sewer or other
to the
drain should be cemented.
When a basement floor does not

extend to the footing, the dram
tile is placed near the sami level
as the floor.
When a basement
floor extends to a foot-
ing, the drain tile is
positioned adjacent to
the footing.
Waterproofing Foundation Walls

As was stated earlier, concrete
can be made more dense by add-
ing adulterants of other ma-
terials to the mix. This may make
the wall more waterproof, but it
should not be the only measure

taken. Also, some building codes
prohibit the use of adulterants.
Coatings of waterproof materials
are placed on the outside of the
foundation wall. One of the best
known methods is to mop a
layer, or layers, of tar on the out-
side of the foundation wall. The
use of plastic film between the
layers is an excellent newer
method. A 1" coating of cement

mortar is specified by some codes.
Others require cement in addi-
tion to tar.
At the juncture of the wall
and footing, extra care should be
taken. The tar or mortar should
be rounded in the corner to form
a cove which will flow water away
from the joint. See illustration,
page 43.
Many products are available
that are advertised to waterproof
a wall from the inside. Some of
these may work to a degree.
However, such waterproofing is
not usually very satisfactory. If

water penetrates the masonry
wall, pressure exerted against
the protective coat will probably
cause the wall to scale and blister.
Outside waterproofing may be

built up in layers and has the
wall to help resist pressure.
Areaways or Window Wells Concrete areaway

The purpose of an areaway is
to keep the earth away from an
opening, such as a window, in
44
the foundation wall. The area-

way may be made of metal or
concrete. Its inside width should
be about more than the wall
1'
opening. The top of a window

in a foundation wall must be
above the grade line; the distance
the areaway extends from the
building should be the same as
the depth of the window below
grade. The minimum distance
from the edge of the building is
l'-O"; the areaway should extend
below the window sill at least

6". The bottom of the areaway
should be covered with gravel or
crushed stone. Provisions should
be made for draining surface
water from the well. If the bottom At least two anchor bolts secure each
of the well is more than 2' deep, portion of the box sill to the foundation.
a guard rail should be provided.
Height Above Grade

Unless special provisions have
been made for protection against '/8"x3"x3" steel plate. Place the between each brick. Vents should
rot and termites, the top of the bolt through the plate so the be provied with a screen of not
foundation should be a minimum head of the bolt is in contact with less than eight squares per lineal
of 8" above the finished grade. the steel plate. Bolts are placed inch. The minimum amount of
No wood parts should be closer in thefoundation walls no more ventilation for crawl spaces is I
than 8" to the ground. Offsets than 8'-0" apart (on center). square foot for each 150 square
may be placed in the top of the Every board to be anchored must feet of ground area. Vents should
foundation to allow masonry to have at least two bolts. be placed near the corners of the
end even with the grade. An ex- building in such a manner as to
Foundation Vents
ample is shown on the footing and provide adequate cross ventilation.
The crawl space or unexca-
foundation detail on page 39. It is not necessary to place
vated area beneath a building
foundation vents in the wall if
Anchor Bolts must have ventilation to remove
the building's crawl space opens
Anchor bolts help tie the frame- moisture and circulate the air. If
directly into a basement and one
work of the building to the the area is not ventilated, mold
half the space between the floor
foundation. They should be at and rot will result.
joist and crawl space floor open.
least W
in diameter. They should Vents for foundation walls are
is
extend into a poured concrete usually 8"xl6", and cast of iron

8"xl6" foundation vents.
wall at least 6" and into a mason- or aluminum. When the wall is of
ry wall at least 15". When anchor brick it is possible to omit mortar
bolts are placed in piefs, a hole from some of the vertical joints,
slightly larger than the diameter or place a series of bricks in a
of the bolt should be drilled in a vertical position with open spaces
45
1 . What is a footing? 14. Why must one be concerned

2. What is a foundation? with this line?
3. What is the most common 15. What is meant by stepped
material for a footing? Others? footing? Why is it used?
4. What are two kinds of con- 1 6. What is the maximum height
crete forms frequently used for of the steps?
foundation walls? 1 7. What is the minimum hori-
5. What two factors determine zontal distance between steps?
the size of a footing? 18. What is the minimum thick-
6. What is the FHA minimum re-
ness of the concrete connecting the
quirement for foundation thickness? steps?
7. To meet minimum standards, 1 9. What is a pilaster?
on normal-weight construction, what 20. Why is cypress frequently
is the difference between the width used as a pile?
of the foundation wall and the width 21. How can the life of wood
of the footing? posts be extended?
8. To meet minimum standards, 22. If soft brick is used for a
what is the relationship between the foundation wall what is likely to
width of the foundation wall and the happen?
thickness or height of the footing? 23. Waterproofing is applied on
9. What is meant by the term which side of a foundation wall?
30° -60° method of determining Why?
footing size? 24. Explain the function of the
1 0. What is meant when one says drain tile placed around the exterior
a key is placed between the footing of the building.
and foundation? 25. What is the minimum dis-
1 1 . What is a flared footing? tance, on a wood building, the foun-
When is it used? What are its
dation should extend above grade?
advantages? Why?
12. What is meant by the term 26. How does one determine the
monolithic footing and foundation? number of anchor bolts needed?
13. What is the frost line? 27. What is a foundation vent?
Terms to Spell and Know
lineal preservative termite
flared creosote anchor

thawing submerged ventilation
pilaster juncture pier
cypress penetrate ceiling
cedar bituminous horizontal
redwood areaway vertical
46
<&
Poured Concrete Slabs
Prepared Earth as a Base settling. Concrete should never Vapor Barriers
If concrete is to be used on be poured over lose fill. As the Concrete is porous. Water in
the outside of a building, or if fill settles, the concrete will crack. contact with the under side of
moisture does not have to be It is then necessary to drill holes the floor will cause the top side to
considered on the inside, the con- in and pump a mix-
the concrete become damp. Concrete floors
crete may be poured directly on ture of cement, earth, and water in habitable structures require
smooth, firm earth. If the earth under it to make it level again. a vapor or moisture barrier be-
has been disturbed from its nat- This is verj costly. tween the fill and the concrete.
ural state, is should be well When plans are being drawn At the present time the most
tamped or compacted to eliminate for a building the preparation of widely used material is sheet
the earth is clearly stated. For plastic film. This may be obtained
A Definition of Concrete Slab

example,
is to be
if earth beneath a floor
filled, and com-
leveled,
in rolls up to 40' in width, thus
minimizing the number of splices
pacted this should be noted on needed. Note: An adhesive
A concrete slab is any thin,
the working plans. should be applied to joint splices
broad, flat shape, such as a floor,
to insure waterproofing.
driveway, walk, porch, or any Under-Floor Fill
The vapor barrier also makes
other broad, flat surface. When a concrete slab serves
pouring and finishing of the con-
For most applications the as a floor on the inside of a build-
crete less difficult. If concrete is
minimum thickness of a concrete ing, some material is usually
poured directly onto the fill, the
slab is 4" nominal size. Note: placed between the earth and
porous material tends to absorb
A nominal size is only approxi- concrete. Recommended is clean
water, thus making it harder to
mate. The actual size would con- sand, gravel, or crushed stone.
achieve the desired finish.
form to the dimensions of the Cinders are sometimes used but
lumber being used as a form. they tend to deteriorate, leaving Reinforcement
Dimension lumber is usually voids beneath the concrete. The Most building codes require
smaller than the stated size. For right materials help level the the addition of wire fabric to
example, a 2x4 is only l
5
/s"x3 5/8" surface.They also absorb surface concrete slabs. If the concrete
the other W is wasted in planing water and help drain it away from cracks, the wire fabric will pre-
and smoothing down before you the floor. vent separation, thus holding the
purchase it. The minimum thickness of crack to a minimum. Electrically
the under-floor fill is 4", pref- welded fabric with 6"x6" spacing
^5 if erably 6", if load bearing. is frequently used.
47
DIAGONAL CROSS-BRIDGING
EXTENDED ENDS
WELDED CONNECTION CONTINUOUS

HORIZONTAL BRIDGING
BEAM ANCHOR PIPES AND DUCTS
Steel Joisf Institute
Steel joist assemblies.
48
4: Poured Concrete Slabs
Suspended Concrete
Floors
Concrete floors, in addition to
being fireproof, give a structure a
rigidityfound with no other
method of construction.
Many times it is desired to lay
floors of concrete in locations
other than on or below grade.
When used above grade, a
method of supporting the con-
crete is necessary. Open web bar
joists as shown in the illustration
are sometimes used to span the
area where the floor is desired. Ribbed metal used as a base for
The and spacing of the joist
size above-grade concrete floor.
is determined by the span and
the load to be supported. Cor-
rugated or ribbed metal is at-
tached across the joist as a base the metal for the deck might be Other materials also serve as a
for the concrete. Manufactured 8'-0" long, plus 2' increments base for the concrete. Lumber,
materials for floor and roof decks, over this basic length. The length plywood, or fiber board is fre-
as shown, are also available. of manufactured sheet materials quently used. The exterior grain
For most light construction, are fabricated in even foot of plywood should be placed
bar joist spacing on 24" centers measures. By utilizing these full across the joist. Fiber boards work
makes maximum use of other lengths, we keep waste to a best for roof decks where no
building materials. For example. minimum. great live load is to be supported.
Pan type forms can add to both structure and beauty. Beams and floor are poured as one unit
with steel forms.
The Ceco Corporation, M Scilingo Pholo
Two kinds of loads must be A floor or roof of this type is
supported by the floor and roof usually quite expensive. In addi-

decks: (1) A dead load is the tion to the time and materials
actual weight of the materials needed for the forms, some ar-
in the floor, or bearing upon it. rangement must be made for
(2) A live load is weight in addi- supporting them in their proper
For example,
tion to the materials. place. Wood or metal posts with
people, furniture, and auto- cross T's at the top are placed
mobiles are live loads. beneath the form to hold it while
Precast joist.
the concrete is being poured and
Precast Joist
cured. These posts are called
Precast joists are manufactured
shoring.
in a plant away from the job site.
Reinforcing rod under tension

(prestressed) is placed in a form,
and the concrete is poured around
the rod. Examples of precast
joists are shown.
Monolithic Beam and Floor
When a one-piece floor system

is desired, it is possible to build
a single form for the floors and
beams. Necessary reinforcing is
wired in place and the concrete is
poured as for an ordinary slab.
However, the mix must be vi-
Precast joists support. Concrete floors
brated and worked into place so
the exposed under side will be
smooth and have a finished
appearance.
Monolithic beam and floor.

Steel dome pans form a monolithic concrete floor system that can also serve as a finished ceiling
of rooms below.
The Ceco Corporation, M. Scilingo Photo
/f y < £1
^Bt^*z~~^*'
^Si^rt
I 4_
Ski
.1
Q|gP'"^^kl: ".-I
* *j
>*->-*
~
51
ft^-^L^ -p
i
.
Crawl Spaces for Pipes
When a concrete floor is used,

place major plumbing and wiring
beneath it in such a manner that
it is readily accessible for repair
and service, using a pipe trench
or crawl space as shown. A3"
concrete floor for the trench will
greatly improve working con-
ditions and help eliminate mois-
ture under the floor.
Lightweight Aggregates for

Floor and Roof Construction
Insulation from sound and
temperature can be improved
with the addition of a layer of
lightweight aggregate as shown.
It is not usually load supporting.
Added thickness would be re-
quired if the floor or roof must
Pipe trench details.
support a live load.
Ordinary roof systems use light-

weight aggregates exclusively.
1 0. What is a good material to 20. What is meant by the term
use as a vapor barrier? prestressed joist?
Questions to Reinforce 1 1 . What are two advantages of 21. What is a pipe trench?
Knowledge having a barrier between the floor 22. Why is a floor advisable for
and fill? a pipe trench?
1 What is a concrete slab? 1 2. What is meant by the term 23. Why may lightweight ag-
2. What is the thickness recom- suspended concrete floor? gregate be used in ordinary roof
mended for a live load-supporting 1 3. What is an open web bar systems?
concrete slab? joist?
3. Why is a 2x4 not actually 14. What determines the size
2"x4"? bar joist to use? Terms to Spefi and Know

4. When may concrete be 15. Name four materials that
poured directly on undisturbed or might be used over the joist to sup- applications expanded
firm earth? port the concrete floor. planing corrugated
5. Why is concrete not poured 1 6. Why is 24" on center a good settling increments
over loose fill? choice for bar joist spacing? What cinders plywood
6. What is under-floor fill? What other spacings might also be satis- vapor fiber board
materials are commonly used? factory? barrier precast
7. Why are cinders a poor 1 7. What is meant by the term adhesive prestressed
choice for fill? dead load? electrically monolithic
8. What is the minimum thick- 18. What is meant by the term rigidity shoring
ness of under-floor fill? live load? wiring
9. What is a vapor barrier? 1 9. What is a precast joist?
52
Structural Metal
Scope
local codes before establishing determining beam size, one must
Structural metal is any metal strength requirements and struc- also know what proportion of the
part that adds strength to the tural shapes and sizes, to meet weight is distributed to founda-
building. It usually supports or and columns, and whether
the desired standards. Each local tions
distributes weight other than its
code will have its own strength the load is quiescent (no move-
own. Because of the technical and size requirements. If no code ment) or is subject to movement.
nature of the topic it is impossible available, one may consult
is It is readily apparent that many
to do more than acquaint you government recommendations or assumptions must be made and/
with the problems involved. Most or considered before actual struc-
published industry standards.
cities and codes do not permit
tural parts can be planned.
the draftsman to make actual
Assumptions
To find the weight of materials,
strength calculations. When he As previously stated, all build-
one cannot weigh samples of
does, they must be checked and ing parts must support at least
building materials! Therefore
approved by a registered architect their own weight or the dead load.
manufacturers supply pertinent
or engineer, who then assumes In addition, some structural parts
data concerning their products
responsibility for the calculations. must support the weight of super-
and this information is incorpo-
The tables and charts shown in imposed or live loads.
rated into tables and charts to be
the chapter are satisfactory for Before one can determine the
used for planning purposes, be-
preliminary calculations, but ex- size of any structural part he must
fore construction starts.
gineering data is to be verified be- know its weight and the weight
fore construction proceeds. of the load to be supported. This Welded Wire Fabric
is difficult to know at the begin- Welded wire fabric is a pre-
Factors That Influence ning stages of planning. For ex- fabricated steel reinforcing ma-
One does not design all struc- ample, if one is designing a beam terial. It is manufactured of cold-
tural parts, using complete mathe- to support floor joists, he must drawn steel. It is a rigid material,
matical calculations. This would first know all of the materials due to its electrically welded con-
result in much unnecessary du- that will bear upon the joists, and nections at all wire intersections,
plication of work. Many require- the weight of these materials. He yet it is and has the ability
ductile
ments have been previously deter- must also determine the size, to lie flat in light and heavy
both
mined from similar construction number, and weight of all joists styles. Its main advantages are
and the results have been incor- to bear upon the beam. The speed of installation and ease of
porated into tables and charts. weight of the beam itself must handling on the job. It is espe-
It is very important to check be taken into consideration. When cially suitable as a reinforcement.
53
GAGE AND SPACING STANDARD PROJECTION

OF OF TRANSVERSE WIRES
ONGITUDINAL WIRES JOT MORE THAN 111
1"
i
<
£5 z
o a
O u_ 3
=x° 5
Z
o
>
One-way monolithic concrete slab floor.
.ENGTH OF SHEET TIP TO "*" -+-B

TIP OF LONGITUDINAL WIRES
Welded wire fabric detailing sheet.
Concrete floors, roofs, walls, and

other concrete structural elements A good rule for wire spacing, Reinforcement Sizes
usually require wire reinforce- regardless of wire size or pattern
Wire gage sizes as used in
ment. formed by cross wires is that wire
welded wire fabric are not to be
Heavy mats with wires in ex- spacing should not exceed twice
confused with reinforcing rod
cess of Vi" eliminate the necessity the thickness of the slab and max- sizes. Both materials have num-
of using individual reinforcing imum spacing is 12". It is cus-
ber sizes, so confusion could pos-
rods which must be wired together tomary to limit spacing of both
rod intersections; this in-
sibly result. A comparison of
at all longitudinal and transverse wires
sizes is shown in the table below.
creases possible uses of welded to amaximum of 6" in slabs less
wire fabric. Built-in spacing of than 6" thick. Reinforcing fabric
WIRE SIZE
wires is a time saver, assuring per- should not be carried through Gage No. Diamete
fect alignment of members.
When a slab on grade, loca-
construction or expansion joints. W .5000
is It should extend to within 2 to 4 0000000 .4900
tion of welded wire fabric will inches of the joints and edges 000000 .4615
00000 .4305
depend on the slab thickness. In of the slab. 0000 .3938
slabs 6" or more in thickness, Suspended concrete— or one- 000 .3625
the fabric should be placed at a 00 .3310
way floors and roofs used in com-
.3065
minimum depth of 2" below the bination with structural steel 1 .2830
and a maximum depth
surface frame, steel joists, precast or 2 .2625
equal to h the slab thickness. For
x
poured-in place beams, joist and Vt .2500

3 .2437
slabs less than 6", the fabric may pan or other construction- 4 .2253
be placed in the middle. Experi- involves an entirely different 5 .2070
ence indicates that the minimum engineering concept. Therefore
6 .1920
7 .1770
sizesof welded wire fabric should additional engineering data 8 .1620
be No. 10 gage for basement floors should be consulted prior to their 9 .1483
and sidewalks; No. 6 gage for 10 .1350
design.'
11 .1250
driveways and filling stations; and
12 .1055
No. 4 gage for heavy duty in- 'Adapted from Building Design Handbook,
dustrial floors. Wire Reinforcement Institute.
54
5: Structural Metals
kind* ami Use of I llciims must support. To simplify the

calculations,all weights have
To Support Floors latter has a much wider horizontal been based on the tables shown
For planning purposes, assume width or flange. Wide flange in this text.
you are designing a wood frame beams will support much greater Using the section through the
building, dimensions of which are weights and will withstand greater building shown in the illustration,
30'x48'. This building is to have lateral or sidewise pressure. the weights are as follows:
two stories as shown in the illus-
Weight Beam Is to Support
tration. The floor joists are placed first floor
across the short dimension. This

When load-supporting walls Live load 40 pounds pet square foot
30' are located beneath the spliced Dead load 10 " " "
span is too great for continu-
Net load 50
joists or wall of the area above,
ous wood floor joists, therefore Second floor
they must be spliced. The splice
no beam is necessary. When a
live load 40 " " " "
wall beneath the joists is not de- "
is ordinarily made above a wood Dead load ]Q " "
signed to be load supporting, a Net load SO '
girder or steel beam, and beneath

the bearing walls of the area
beam is required. The beam is Ceiling
Live load 20
above. Excessive deflection or sag- placed at right angles to the
Dead load ]0 " " " "
ging of the floor joists will occur
joists. placed as shown in the
If
Net load 30 " " "
foundation illustration, the span
if the bearing wall is not placed Roof bearing upon joists or
above the beam. is 48'. (See page 59.) interior wall for trans-
Local codes mission to beam

Two kinds of steel beams are usually specify
Walls
commonly used. These are: Amer- minimum amounts of weight that Live load
ican Standard beams and Wide I

floors and other building parts Dead load 10 pounds per square foot
Flange beams. The main differ-

I
ence between the two is that the
REINFORCING BARS
r No. Bar Size Diameter
2 •'A rd. .250
3 •Vs rd .375
4 Vl <6 .500
5 V, rd .625
6 V* rd .750
7 % rd .875
8 1 rd 1.000
9 "I sq 1.128
*
10 ' 1 '/• sq 1.270
1 1 •*lVi sq 1.410
14 ••1'/2 sq 1.693
18 ••2 sq 2.257
/a" bars are plain round; Ve" bars, plain

ound or deformed.
Ml bars are round. These sizes are equiva-
ent in cross section area to the standard
quare new billet reinforcing bar sizes
ndicated.
iZD
Weight distributed to a center beam.
55
- 1 1 1 1 1
o
n a a a a a
ce
0 a a a 3 3
a a a a s
a a a a a
o a a a a a a
CO
n a a a a a a s a a 1 S
0
n S § a a a a 3 S ° £ S
a a a a
.5 £
0) <A
r>
a a a a a a a a 3 3
5 1 o a a a a a a a a
o" s
n I 1
S £ o
i. -8 -
CO
s § a a a a a a si! a 3
0) | £
Q. £ O
£ * SS a s a a 5 1 a a a a a
o p a a
21
O % a.
Z
- *
CI s s a a a a 3 s 1 s 1
qls < ct
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
O 3 3 a a a a a a s 3 B 1 g o a a a s a
i si
» -j
CI
8= £ CO
= 2 SS a s 5 1 § ! = I a § 3 2i So
£ I
« -0
5 % a a a a 5 S a a s | a a a a a
I 1 s 1
•. t>
« s a aa a a a a 3 1
5 2 a a
1
a a a a a c% 5
^
Ik
!
n 5 5 a a a a s a a a S 2 I § a a a a a a a 2 5
1 s
o 2 3 5 2 3 2 a a is a a a a 5 S
Sr K 1 1 1 III
CO 3 3 s a 3 5 £ 3 5 S a s a a K 1 I i a a
1 HI 1
0 ^ S 3 a s 3 5 3 3 a a § s 11
s a a a
1
a a
11 i
* § 3 § 1 a a 11 s a 1 s a a 11 a a s
z
o
S 5 § s§ 2 s 5 s 35 ss 1 a si SI ja s s! III 11
s: * a: ^
a « - « « « - s s a s
56
5: Sfructural Metals
o
n 2°
5 i I
* 1
5 5 5 5 5
«
S 5 2 5 5
.
3 2 5 2 k c 1 a s
5 s £ s;g si
O
J;
* g *» «-> o Vw^
•
•
'
'
n
«
«>
g
525 o22 S2| 22
2 5 5 5
9 A
S 555 SSI g|i 22
§ S 5
O
X
o-
1
s
n a 11511 S§5 |S5 5 2| ||| ||
w s
fc
• »
a «
E
to
2 § 58!!! ss~ sis is? S|| ss
**.2 • « s
3 -. - - ^ - CN,^^ ¥ =5 e> £ £ S g?2S oS
1 z
-I
2* s.
S 5 e^*->w-.-«-. f S S 5 £ 5 £ 5 K §? S? S £ £
O I 2 <
O E 4 IA
S
©
.
5 5 5 5
=>
1 1 S S
o p = o o
2 5 5
e o o
§ g 1 g
o =>
11
p
1
<= o o
Hio
o o
5S
=><=>
I a o
1
1 ""
I _ o
s
ao
1 2 2 5 £ SSS2S ¥ £ S 3 5 S 5 S j£ SSS S gj
c 2 5 2 £ 5 5
* 1 ill cjsK§|| ;;s 115 2 = 1 is? 5 5
* 3 5 2 5 5 5 5 5 5
^ I
Ik o 5 ° ° ° 2 5 ^ o °
2|32£S£ is; ?11||1 III 1 1
o 1 la 1§§|I§| 5 2 2 5 5 s I
• 5 5 2 o S o oo =,
2 5 5
1 s 1 1 = 1
<e s s
1 § S £ |
* 3 s
X
S t as SSS s s S B £ S 5 S S5S
- s s s K s s SS
5
i: « s s :£ S S s
"» "s - :£ s:
2 c s
=
- :?2
57
SAMPLE WEIGHT CALCULATION ratios can be determined and the (vertical thickness), the loads
= tables still be used, as follows: shown
Width x length Area in the tables should be re-
30' x 48' = 1,440 square feet of floor
duced one-fifth; for rapidly mov-
area for each floor Local code 16 Kips _ x feet
24' span
8' x 48' = 384 square feet of wall Tables 20 Kips 30 feet ing loads, or where loads are
area for each wall suddenly applied with slight im-
16 30 Kips
Weight per square fool x number of square feet = : I6x = 600 or x = 37.5 Kips pact, the loads shown should be
20 x Kips
total weight
reduced one-third.
Weight of first floor = 72,000 pounds
For fluctuating loads causing The illustration of structural
Weight of second floor = 72,000 pounds
Weight of ceiling = 43,000 pounds
vibration, especially if the beams metal shapes, below, gives the
Roof bearing to beam = 00,000 pounds are long as compared to depth names of structural metal shapes
187,000 pounds
One half weight bears
on center beam = 93,500 pounds STANDARD SHAPES

Weight of first wall = 3,840 pounds
Weight of second wall = 3,840 pounds
F
Weight beoring upon beam = 101,180 pounds
This weight appears quite large, but one

^^ j
SLOPE 5% SLOPE
must remember that two stories are in-
2 IN 12
volved in the calculations.
«-w
The tables on pages 56 and 57

FILLET ~
give the greatest safe load (uni- v
formly distributed over the entire
Mfe i
WIDE-FLANGE BEAM WIDE-FLANGE BEAM STANDARD BEAM

beam length) which the steel I
PARALLEL FLANGES
beams will carry. The building on
page 55 has a uniformly distrib-
uted load.
The safe loads are given in
kips. One kip equals 1,000 pounds. F = FLANGE
The loads shown in the tables
D = DEPTH
include the weight of the beam,
which must be deducted to obtain
W = WEB
the net load.
The loads shown are based on
a fiber stress, or pressure they will
withstand, of 20,000 pounds per STANDARD CHANNEL CAR 8. SHIP CHANNEL
square inch. This stress is entirely
reliable for ordinary conditions
where the loads are quiescent
(subject to
to
no movement) as in
most buildings. It is a good idea
check strength requirements of
local codes, because some require
materials of greater or less
strength. However, proportions or
r FILLET
y
TEE
¥
L.?J
Structural metal shapes.
s]
J::
IVlLLE
58
S: Strucfural Mefals
48' 0" FOUNDATION WALL

y
BE AM SP \N
-
30'0"x48'0" foundation and floor framing plan with continuous span center beam.
and parts. It is assumed that the page 60 show different load dis- tion. (If no posts support the
beams are stiffened sideways to tributions and the percentage of beam, the span is 48'.) Actual
prevent buckling in the compres- weight they will support as com- span is the distance from one
sion flange; otherwise, loads must pared to the allowable loads inside edge of the foundation to
be reduced as shown in the fol- shown in the preceding tables. the opposite inside edge. To
lowing table, observing that the (See pages 56 and 57.) simplify the how-
calculations,
laterally or sideways unsupported ever, the span has been shown as
length of beams shall not exceed Calculating Beam Strength the entire building length. Note
40 times the width of the com- and Size that after the procedure is
pression flange. The illustration on this page mastered, only the true beam
The allowable deflection or shows a foundation plan 30'x48'; span should be used for making
sagging for plastered ceilings is the beam is placed the 48' direc- the calculations.
'/j6o of the span. This limit is not
reached on the span lengths shown Unbraced Proportion Unbraced Proportion
length to be Length to be
in the tables. The deflection will
of Beam used of Beam used
be reduced in the same ratio as
the load on the beam. 1 5 X flange width 1 00% tab. load 30 X flange width 77% tab. load
20 x flange width 92% tab. load 35 X flange width 69% tab. load
Distribution of Loads 25 X flange width 85% tab. load 40 x flange width 62% tab. load
The following illustrations on Percentages of calculated loads when beam lengths are laterally unbraced.
59
ooooooooo o the pound, so it
use the smallest size that will do

is advisable to
the job.
If the building has no base-
ment and piers are used, it is
Safe load = that given in tables. Ma Safe load — Vi that given in tables. advisable to place them on ap-
mum bending moment at Wl proximate 8' centers. Many local
codes specify minimum distance
Deflection = 8 10 that given in tables. between piers. A large number of
Deflection as in tables.
piers is not objectionable because
the space between the floor joist
EnI 00000000a [ o and earth is used only as crawl

space for maintenance. Posts in
~
y K ,
/
1
X
'L /-
a basement may be objectionable.
If so, a large beam size is justified.
Using the same 30'x48' build-

Safe load = 'A that given in tables. Safe load = Vt that given in tables.
ing described earlier but adding
Wl
M = — . Mot point of support = W. three posts as shown in the ac-
2
=
companying illustration reduces
Deflections = 2.4 that given in tables. Deflections 3.2 that given in tables
the beam span to 12'. This is rep-
resented by the shaded area on
2. 2 Q_ the plan. When the total bearing
*---b — -*** a
!
--/
1® weight on the beam
by 4, this is found to be 25,295
pounds or 25.3 kips. At the top of
the chart locate the 12 foot span
is divided
|«
/ -*| U H
Safe load = that given in tables. Safe load = that given in tables. and follow down the column until
12 I
25.3 kips is reached. This exact
size is not shown on the chart, so
Maximum bending moment, M = . Maximum bending moment between one must locate the next larger
1
loads = 'h Wa. weight. This is shown as 27 kips.
Then, as previously stated, the
Load distribution. weight of the beam must be added
to the net weight or load because
From previous calculations, Follow down the chart until 102 the beam must support its own
the weight bearing upon the kips is shown. When one does weight in addition to the building
beam was figured to be 101,180 this, 70 kips is the largest number weight. From the 27 kips on the
pounds. This is represented by shown. This is not adequate for chart, follow the column to the
the colored area on page 55. the span.Add piers or columns left to column show-
the vertical
Since the weight as calculated under the beam to divide the ing weight per foot. This column
is in pounds and the safe load length into the required short gives a weight of 25.4 pounds per
tables are in kips, convert the spans. The number of posts is lineal foot. When multiplied by
weight into kips. Using the tables determined by the amount of the span of 12' a beam weight of
for American Standard I Beams, open span desired. (The longer 304.8 pounds is shown. Add this
find the column at the top of the the span the greater the beam .305 kips to previous load of
chart that represents 48 feet span. weight.) Steel is purchased by 25.3 kips. This gives a total load
60
.
12'0" 5PAN
p- •^ >
^ 6, -—
r" i r *"1
"
1
1
1 i- .j L. .J L^ -J
T
il
>
• .
Br
-i -i
30'0"x48'-0" foundation and floor framing plan with center beam supported by
3 equally spaced posts to reduce beam span to 12' -0" o.c. L ight shaded area is
supported by foundation walls. Dark shaded area is supported by the center beam
and supporting posts.
of 25.6 kips. This size is still ade- posts are not the same or if the viously determined when making
quate to support the described weight is not uniformly distrib- strength and weight calculations.
load, so it is not necessary to uted, it is necessary to make The beam carrying this load is
move to the next larger beam separate calculations for each supported by two posts or col-
size. One should repeat the beam span. umns, one at each end. Thus half
strength calculations to be abso- of the load is supported by each
lutely sure the beam size is satis- Columns
Steel Posts or post.The load transmitted to each
factory. (Refer to the charts on To Support Beams post is called the beam reaction.
pages 56 and 57.) Posts, columns, or piers trans- Therefore, the beam reaction is
The beam selected is \0"x4 3A" mit the load imposed on the 12,647.5 pounds. Since two beams
and weighs 25.4 pounds per beam or girder to the footing terminate over the same post,
lineal foot. Since all building and on to the ground. The build- the total reactions of the two
spans shown are the same and ing shown in the shaded illustra- beams must be considered. The
since the weight is uniformly dis- tion has beam spans of 12'-0", beams and the loads are the
tributed, all beams will be the and the total load for each span same; therefore, the total weight
same size. If the spans between is 25,295 pounds. This was pre- to be supported is 25,295 pounds.
61
STANDARD STEEL PIPE COLUMNS

Safe Loads in Thousands of Pounds
Nominal External Internal Weight

Unbraced Length in Feet
Metal Radius of Moment
Size, Diam., Diam., per Ft., Area, Gyration, of Inertia,
Inches Inches Inches lbs. 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Inches Inches Inches
3 . . 3.500 3.068 . 7.58 . 33. 30 26 21 . 18. 16. 13. 2.228 1.16 3.017
VA 4.000 3.548 9.11 42 38 35 30 25 22 19 17 15 2.680 1.34 4.788
4 4.500 4.026 10.79 50 47 44 40 34 30 26 23 21 3.174 1.51 7.233

5 5.563 5.047 14.62 70 68 64 61 56 51 45 41 37 4.300 1.88 15.16
6 6.625 6.065 18.97 92 90 86. 82 79 74 69 63 56 5.581 2.25 28.14
8 . 8.625. . . 8.071 . . 24.70 121 120. 118 115 112 109 105 100 95 7.265 2.95 63.35
8.625 7.981 28.55 140 138 136 133 129 125 121 115 109 8.399 2.94 72.49
10 10.750 10.192 31.20 154 153 151 149 147 144 .141 137 .133 9.178 3.70 125.9
10.750 10.136 34.24 169 168 166 164 161 158 154 151 146 10.07 3.69 137.4
10.750 10.020 40.48 200 199 196 194 190 187 182 178 172 11.91 3.67 160.7
12 12.750. . 12.090 43.77 217 216 214 212 210. 207 .204. 200 196 12.88 4.39 .248.5
12.750 12.000 49.56 246 244 243 240 237 234 231 227 222 14.58 4.38 279.3
Standard steel pipe columns.
Supporting column and Pipe column and I beam supporting

beam connector. wood floor joists.
TS3
(If the two beams are of different

sizes and the loads are not the
WEIGHTS, DIMENSIONS AND DATA same, the reactions will not be
STANDARD STEEL 1 BEAMS equal.)Note: Since the end of
only one beam is supported by
the foundation, the beam reac-
If" ~r-
) tion at this location is 12,647.5
n
[
Lfi
1
Wj j k
rii"
t ii
O O
! O O
fiitl- -J
pounds, or one-half
weight transmitted to the posts.
the total
T !„!__
LjjfJ -i1_c='/,w + 'a.
Kinds of Steel Posts Used
Several kinds of steel posts
Maxi-
are used. Some of the more com-
Depth Dimensions, in Inches mum
of Wt. Rivet or mon are: ordinary steel pipe,
Beam, Per Ft., f W T K 6 A C Bolt,
heavy duty steel pipe, steel pipe
Inches lbs. Inch
filled with concrete. Standard and
24 120 4
8 'y.6 20'/. 1 'y>» l'/« 'A 1
Wide Flange I beams and H
105.9 7 7/e Vb 20% i'yi 6 l'A 4 y. 1
7
columns.
100 vn J
A 20 A 3 1
5
/. '/b 4 /l6 1
90 7V, V. 20>A PA % 4 A
3
1
Since standard steel posts or
79.9 7 '/2 20 3A 1% '/. 4 y.» 1 columns are frequently used for
20 95 7'/. y.6 16'/! \% >y.« 4 .'/a 1 light construction, their sizes and
7
85 7 'Hi 16'/2 l
3
/4 y.6 4 /.6 1
safe loads are shown in the table.
75 6V. y. 17 l'/,4 Vie 3'A 7
/.» A
7
65.4 6'A A 17 P/.6 y.* 3'/2 y.. '/, Joining Structural Steel Members
18 . 70 6'A A
3 15'/. PA .'Mi 3'A .'/i6 '/>
When beams are end joined
54.7 6 '/2 15'/4 1% "/,6 3'/2 y.6 'A
they must be fastened to each
15 50 5% »/,6 1 2'A 1 '/. % 3'A % 3
A
other as well as to a column or
42.9 5'A 7
/l6 12'A l'/4 y> 3% 'A V,
12 50 . . 5'A . . "/.6 9Ve iy,6 "/.« 3 7

/l6 y. columns supporting them. Stan-
40.8 5'/. 'A 9V> iy.. "/.6 3 Vl6 3
A dard connectors using bolts or
35 5'A 7
/l6 9 3A pa Vtt 3 w» 'A rivets are recommended. Tables
31 8 5 yB 9 3A IV4 Vn 3 •A
3
A of safe loads in this text are
10 35 5 y. 8 1 'A 2% y. 3
A
calculated based on standard "B"
25.4 4V. y.« 8 1 '/2 2 3A 'A
3
A
series connectors. Holes in the
8 23 . 4'A . '/u 6'/4 'y.6 7
/l6 2'A y.« 3
A
18.4 4 6V4 'y.s y.6 3
A connectors and beams, as illus-
*i« 'At, 2V»
7 20 3 7A .
'/.» 5% .
'/« % 2'A y.6 y. trated by the black circles, should
15.3 3V. 'A 5 3/e % % 2V4 y.6 y. be spaced on approximate 5W
6 17.25 3 5/a .
'A 4Vj A
3
% 2 y.6 y» centers.
12.5 3Vs Vi 4'A A
3
% 2 y.6 y.
5 14.75 ,3'A . . . '/a .

3% .
."/.6 y. 4 ,1% y.6 ,'A Column Caps
10 3 'A 3 s/« "/.6 y.6 PA y.4 'A
Pipe columns have steel plates
4 9.5 2 3A y.» 2 3A y. 5
/.6 l'A ,'A Vi
welded to each end to increase
.
7.7 2% yu 2 3A % y.6 l'A y.6 'A

their surface area and permit
3 5.7 .
2>A . y8 1A
7 ,'/.6 ,'A l'A .'A .%
5.7 2% y. 4 1% %6 "A l'/2 y.6 3
/e
fastening of parts. The cap is
secured to concrete footings by
pre-positioning anchor bolts in
Weights, dimensions, and data of standard steel I beams. the concrete so the bolts corre-
spond with the holes in the plate.
63
.
kxis X-X and X-Y Axis Z-Z

Size Wt. Area ol
in Per Ft., Section, 1 S r x or y r
Inches Lbs. Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches
ELEMENTS 1 xl x '/. . 0.80 0.23 .0.02 .0.03. 0.31 0.30 0.19

1 x] <?,. 1.16 0.34 0.03 0.04 0.30 0.32 0.19
xl x 1.49 0.44 0.04 0.06 0.29
OF 1 V* 0.34 0.19
lVSuClVtlX y. . . .1.01 0.30 .0.04 0.05 0.38 0.35 0.25
iKxlU!ixtt« 1.48 0.43 0.06 0.07 0.38 0.38 0.24
EQUAL l'AxI'/tx >A 1.92 0.56 0.08 0.09 0.37 0.40 0.24
lVixiVu y8 1.23 0.36 0.08 0.07 0.46 0.42 0.30
ANGLES lVzxlVfcctt* 1.80 0.53 0.11 0.10 0.46 0.44 0.29
l'/axl'/ix Vt 2.34 0.69 0.14 0.13 0.45 0.47 0.29
Column cap bolted to I beam. PixPAx '/b . . . 1 .44 0.42 0.13 0.10 0.55 0.48 0.35
1%X1 3/4X^16 2.12 0.62 0.18 0.14 0.54 0.51 0.34
I%x1%x Vi 2.77 0.81 0.23 0.19 0.53 0.53 0.34
2 x2 x '/« . .1.65 0.48 .0.19 0.13 0.63. 0.55 0.40
lJ 2 x2 xîs 2.44 0.71 0.28 0.19 0.62 0.57 0.40
2 x2 x V* 3.19 0.94 0.35 0.25 0.61 0.59 0.39
2 x2 x 5/i6 3.92 1.15 0.42 0.30 0.60 0.61 0.39
2 x2 x % 4.70 1.36 0.48 0.35 0.59 0.64 0.39
2'/2x2'/2Xy,6 . 3.07 0.90 0.55 0.30 0.78 0.69 0.49
zr 2'/2x2'/2X
2'/2x2'Axyi«
>A 4.10
5.00
1.19
1.47
0.70
0.85
0.39
0.48
0.77
0.76
0.72
0.74
0.49
0.49
2'/2x2'/2X % 5.90 1.73 0.98 0.57 0.75 0.76 0.48
3 x3 x Vi 4.9. 1.44 1.2 0.58 0.93 0.84 0.59
3 x3 xYi* 6.1 1.78 1.5 0.71 0.92 0.87 0.59
3 x3 x % 7.2 2.11 1.8 0.83 0.91 0.89 0.58
3 x3 x'/i 4 8.3 2.43 2.0 0.95 0.91 0.91 0.58
3 x3 x Vi 9.4 2.75 2.2 1.1 0.90 0.93 0.58
Column and beam fastened together 3Vix3'/2X Vi . .5.8. 1.69 .2.0 0.79 1.09 0.97 0.69
I
3y2x3'/2xyi« 7.2 2.09 2.5 0.98 1.08 0.99 0.69
with metal strap.
3>/ix3Vjx y. 8.5 2.48 2.9 1.2 1.07 1.01 0.69
Suitable methods of connecting 3'/2x3y2x'/l6 9.8 2.87 3.3 1 .3 1 .07 1 .04 0.68
3'/2x3'/2X '/2 11.1 3.25 3.6 1.5 1.06 1.06 0.68
structural metal parts are shown
in the accompanying illustrations.
4 x4 x % 6.6. 1.94 .3.0. 1.0 1.25 1.09 0.79
4 x4 x 5/ij 8.2 2.40 3.7 1.3 1.24 1.12 0.79
4 x4 x % 9.8 2.86 4.4 1.5 1.23 1.14 0.79
x4 7
Steel Lintels 4 x /u 11.3 3.31 5.0 1.8 1.23 1.16 0.78
4 x4 x Va 12.8 3.75 5.6 2.0 1.22 1.18 0.78
Steel lintels are constructed of 4 x4 x % 15.7 4.61 6.7 2.4 1.20 1.23 0.77
angle iron. These may be pur- 4 x4 x % 18.5 5.44 7.7 2.8 1.19 1.27 0.77
chased as equal angles, with both 5 x5 x % 12.3 3.61 .8.7 2.4 1.56 1.39 0.99
5 x5 x Vi 16.2 4.75 11.3 3.2 1.54 1.43 0.98
legs of equal size, or as unequal
5 x5 x % 20.0 5.86 13.6 3.9 1.52 1.48 0.97
angles with legs of different sizes.
6 x6 x % . 14.9. 4.36 15.4 3.5 1.88 1.64 .1.19
The accompanying table shows 6 x6 x 7
/i» 17.2 5.06 17.7 4.1 1.87 1.66 1.19
pertinent information concerning 6 x6 x Vi 19.6 5.75 19.9 4.6 1.86 1.68 1.18
6 x6 x'/, 6 .21.9. 6.43 22.1 .5.1 1.85 1.71 1.18
angles. . . . .
6 x6 x % 24.2 7.11 24.2 5.7 1.84 1.73 1.18

6 x6 x % . 28.7 8.44 28.2 6.7 1.83 1.78 1.17
Lintel Spans 6 x6 x % 33.1 9.73 31.9 7.6 1.81 1.82 1.17
The actual window, door, or 8 x8 x Vi 26.4. 7.75 48.6 .8.4 . 2.51 2.19 1.58
8 x8 x y. 32.7 9.61 59.4 10.3 2.49 2.23 1.58
other opening width is the true
8 x8 x % 38.9 11.44 69.7 12.2 2.47 2.28 1.57
span. This opening size is used 8 x8 x 7
/s 45.0 13.23 79.6 14.0 2.45 2.32 1.56
for determining the size lintel 8 x8 xl 51.0 15.00 89.0 15.8 2.44 2.37 1.56
8 x8 xl'/e 56.9. 16.73 98.0. . 17.5. 2.42. 2.41 1.55
required. (See page 67.)
64
' '
5: Structural Metals O O -c IO IO fs o o K O o
to CO IS. IS -O >o in >n >n
- c K rv N ts is ts is. IS. IS IS. K, CO 00 CO CO CO CO
00 CO CO CO 00
is d d a
0.66
ode d o
0.65 0.65 0.65
c odd d d d dd d d d d d d
1.30 1.29 1.28 1.28
•O
o Q 00 O CO "1
o a OKSS
•«»
co co 00 o o K 00 CO CO O O O O o o 00 O O O O
-
OO K
in
u"i O - io
tf to o o
>- _e
6 — - d d d a d d d d d d d d d d dd — — —
n en o ni c O CO IS O IS O IO Tf CO CN oo rs in -^ O -O ^ CO
X
•o
o o o o o o oo o o o o p O O p co p fsfs.rs.rs
Ml
d d d o ~J -^ — — d d d d d
in o
cn >o 00 K 00 o — OfN^-OO; cn -^ <> o- O O «— CO O cn u-> <o — in c> 00 o o o
1 do—'- •- .—" CN CN CN CO ^ <d is! oo
o oo un oo q co -o NNO-CO o ts o 00
CO 00 CO — O. O CO O
iO Is k <- in ^ IS.
co co -s - N cn n H
C) C V ^* tt*d ^ —
co co d ^ od
in
CN CO CO CO
-fl- u-J <i <i is! oo -d od o> "
— lO f> oo o co «n o* — co o o ^ O 00 CO ^ O O — CO CO o — iO o wo n o- >n
X _C CN CN CN •O rx K hs »0 "O -O -O N ppO-; o. o <y o o p CO o o o o if >o oo
CN CN CN CO CO
— — o » .— O 0> 00 o CO CN O CO CN — O O CO o rs «o co cn O CO — o
fl-
CN CN CN -O 0-0"0 o -o in in io O r> o o o o O- O O 00 iO iO IO io «o in in in tt
CN CN CN CN CN
1 o. cn oo CN IS. CN CN CO 00 CO CO CO CN io cs ex >n r- p ts -^ —
— CN CN CN -J CN CN CO CO CO CO ^' uS co nV ^
"O <i ts o! cn" d n co — ro id
<N CO Nf n t t <o •o 00 t> p O O 00 o — »n u-) n| ;

co —_ *n
> in o oin o CO -^ CO 00
f' ui o <b\coo> O IS 00 O CN CN ^'-O 6 co" »o ts! o! — V oo <> VCN t> ^T CO CN d
co tt in -o o t OKCO
K O O o *o — >o o io n o (n cn
•q to co TT CO CO K in o m o o i
is in
O; in in
o — 00
o ^ "> ** — o in —
— n
n
co o <n if oo o
CK Tf p
Areo of Section
Inches
^
rs co oo o.
co -^ -^ uS id sb
ts rs p IS
— <> & — CO
ci CO NT CN CN CO CO cn cn ci ^r tt co co in uS rs' co o! '
o — OK p o K to <*> ©• OCNIS-^ O
z t|J CN 00 CO 00
oo <y cn —
rs nt
CO d
CN CO
oo
o p-'ri in cb cs i
— : -d oo d co o!V
— CN ob co Is!
00 •- CN
co coio! ^"
< CN CO CO CN CO CO XT
-J £5 # ^ * ^^^^
<
J.] ro n to r; ro f co co co CO CO CO CO ^ t t t t t "* Tf «» ^t ^T o o oo
o
111 n » -<r in »n «n »n <n •O O "O -o o >o o >o -o -o 00 00 CO CO co
z
3
u.
CO CN CN O (N fN CN CO CO co CO CO CN -^ -^ "^ CO CO CO CN CN t mio irni
o is -.£ ^ ^
odd dodo odd odd
tr '•t -<* -<r -<r >n in >n
d d d d a
-<s*
IO IO iO IO IO
dodo<
-o -o -o •o -o o >o <3 "O
d ddd d d
— —
N. o. O N CO (V -^ ^ ocdOMK
CO co -^ O O *<t
in in in u-> tf IO IO fs o o •© O K rs oo co IS K fS 00 00 CO
oc
z
UJ
odd d d d d odd odd d d d d o dodo ddd d d d
n >» O is rs o in ^t xt CO CN — o - O 0O o o co is -o in
o o
t CO
* •o O CO CO -<t
n- >o in io uo <o >o Is Is Is
ts. is. r-v is. fs. oo oc O CO CO CO CO CO
><
M odd d ddd odd odd d d d d o dodo d d ddd d
00 — n O iO - o ocsn O O 00 — O O 00 o
iO »0 -O K
o cn m
•o fs ao — •o IS oo o — *»
i o tt -^ in •**
***
odd d
•
_c
d d d odd odd d d d d d d d d <- d d d — — — *
O- CM UO O K iO — o ^r
is tT o o oo *
o — — cn CO ^f IO Is o. o — CN *
odd d d ~ o
co -<t in hs. co >0 O cr ^r ox cn Tt o is.
odd d d d d
** .E
CM •» -o
o o -o
oo-o
fs is co co
O CN XT — no — Tf O CO o
o o o qoo-n
•v -o oo n SO 00 CO fs
CN CN CN CO CO CO
O
odd ddd d d — — odd
^ O
CO CN 0O 00 N in >n ^ in -^ co CN — O O Ov - OO K oo is. %o in u*) co
> ts ts is is o o o — — — O O — — o o CN CN CN CN CN CN
o oo oo o o ooo ooo
CO 00 ^T o oo in ts. ^ O 00 'O o — in co 00 lO
O O N in -o oo is o — co -^ ts O — IO p cn in rs o
1 cn co tt in co
odd d d d d odd odd d d — — — dd~ —
fN lO CN — o — _
iO
m o ts o CO in CN Nf IS. 00 CN O O. CN O CO IS iO oo o in — o
odd
-fl-
ddd
J
d (N « ni t in* -d
*7
— o — to O Is CO — CN CN ^t 00 •— co »o o o o
•O CO o oo fs.in oo
of Tt •© CO oo o co ^ u-> Nf is. CO o o- nt rs —
-^ rs
p O CN
in O; co Ot 00 (N O
Area Section
Inches
odd d ~ ~ ~ — — CN CN CN — — CN CO CN ~-'
CN CO CO
t CM N Wi CN
IS. O
u-> fO m o o 0> — CN CO -^ ^r o
o- cn oo cn in oo — >o
"*. *!
5 1=S "".
CN CO ^* «S -*' «"> >o nt" m" <i V -d rs! oo *> in >6 is! d id rs! oo ox '
— co
s
e
- CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CN CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO
CN CN (N (N CO CO c-i CO CO CO CO co CO CO CO CO "** ^ ^t "<J-

*
65
a « o ^ i^^^^s ^^^^??;? 5
* ec
» £ > as
O o m CO CN CN •— #—
< o -^
=o
«o o CO
< < <;
CNCNCNCNCNCNCNCNCN —
< <: <; <;
>—
SS
O. M o. -»
O ^ n n n cs - w'«r. * -» -» m « aj
;?
K
* CO K
o
^ p
O CO o
it •o >o -^
^
oO"Ocncoôio —
KKOO'O'OTfff
>0 CO CN CM —
0)
5 NO00K
— w- -O
a at C0C0IS.CNIS.CN-O — O O
c Z 3 OO'COCONNO'OiOin
< <t
in
h-
3 O- CO CO UO CN
"3 Z Of 2? *» CN OCO K
o 1- £ 'OCOIS.^CO.— UOOCN-OO
0) z I
z C0CN-OOO.C0rs.rs.OU-)
(A z |
in S CN CO CO CO CO
2 x K ^f — O CO z
"O O
o z
!=!
CN CN CO CO oco-oco — co-oco
< ok>o^ cn —o o o a> rs. <o
oc in
z :£
O
"<»
o o
CN GO «-
*o cm
^
— o
o -*
O-oocncoocoo — cs ^ in K
o o ^ noNoioncs^ôêoN
* —
<*.
is. O O —
K CN O K * uo .— O CO
2? CN -^
CO CN CN
»0O—
UO CN — O CO K-coin
a NO>0 * CO ^
CN O O ^ CO CN —
CN CN CN CN
"SS2
O — CI CO K
CN O CO
jS lO n N ;?
CO CO "O CO o
CO CN CN CN
-w m <n
O -9 *— — CN CN
— K ^ O CO OIs.
to m CO CO CO CN
o- CN ^
- •O — -<* CO
^
*o « •* CO -o in -^ CO CO 'O-^^TtfOCOCOCOCOCOCNCNCN
o ^ t * "
CO
* fl CO CO K. o •0 rl
66
The total length of the lintel

Cha nnels— American Standarc should be 8" greater than the
Allowable Uniform Loads in Kips opening. The 8" allowance is
For Channels Laterally Supported made so the lintel will have 4"
For channel laterally unsupported, allowable oads must be reduced. of bearing surface on each side
of the opening.
Nominal Depth and Width-Weight per lbs.
Ft.,
To determine lintel size,
Span 18x4 Deflec- 15x3'/i Deflec- weight of all materials and desired
in tion tion
Fwl 51.9 45.8 42.7 Inches 50 40 33.9 Inches live load, if any, are calculated the
2 280 same as for weight of walls and
3 280 234 210 238 202 156 .01 other structural parts, previously
4 230 212 203 .02 178 154 139 .02
described in this chapter. The
5 184 170 163 .03 143 123 111 .03
accompanying tables give the
6 154 142 136 .04 119 103 93 .05
7 132 121 116 .06 102 88 79 .07
total safe load that may be sup-
8 115 106 102 .07 89 77 70 .09 ported by each lintel size.
9 102 94 90 .09 79 68 62 .11 For preliminary calculations
10 92 85 81 .12 71 62 56 .14
only, it is not always desirable
1 1 84 77 74 .14 65 56 51 .17
to figure exact size requirements,
12 77 71 68 .17 59 51 46 .20
13 71 65 63 .19 55 47 43 .23
which takes unnecessary time
14 66 61 58 .23 51 44 40 .27 and effort. The following table
15 61 57 54 .26 48 41 37 .31 may be used:
16 58 53 51 .29 45 39 35 .35
17 54 50 48 .33 42 36 33 40 STEEL ANGLE IRONS
18 51 47 45 .37 40 34 31 .45 TO SUPPORT FOUR-INCH
19 49 45 43 .42 38 32 29 .50
MASONRY WALLS
20 46 43 41 .46 36 31 28 .55
21 44 40 39 .51 34 29 27 .61 SPAN SIZE OF LINTELS
22 42 39 37 .56 32 28 25 .67 to 5 feet 3" x 3" x </*"
23 40 37 35 .61 31 27 24 .73 5 feet to 9 feet 3'/2" x 3'/i" x W»"
4" 4" "
24 38 35 34 .66 30 26 23 .79 9 feet to 1 feet x x V, 4
25 37 34 33 .72 29 25 22 .86 10 feet to 1 1 feet 4" x 4" x W

26 35 33 31 .78 27 24 21 .93 11 feet to 1 5 feet 6" x 4" x %"
27 34 32 30 .84 26 23 21 1.01 15 feet to 16 feet 6" x 4" x W
28 33 30 29 .90 26 22 19.9 1.08
29 32 29 28 .97 25 21 19.2 1.16
30 31 28 27 1.03 24 21 18.5 1.24
31 30 27 26 1.11 23 19.9 17.9 1.33
32 29 27 25 1.18 22 19.3 17.4 1.41
33 28 26 25 1.25 22 18.7 16.8 1.50
34 27 25 24 1.33 21 18.1 16.4 1.60
35 26 24 23 1.41 20 17.6 15.9 1.69
PROPERTIES AND REACTION VALUES

3
S in. 69.1 63.7 61.0 53.6 46.2 41.7
V kips 140 117 105 140 101 78
R kips 69 58 52 83 60 46
G kip 14.4 12.0 10.8 17.2 12.5 9.6
N in. 8.4 8.4 8.4 6.8 6.8 6.8
Masonry above a wall
opening supported
by a steel lintel.
67
Open Web Steel Joists

"J" SERIES
Total Safe Loads in Lbs. per Lineal Ft. (For nominal joist depths 8" to 14" incl.)
JOIST DESIGNATION
Span
in Feet BJ2 10J2 10J3 0J4 12J2 12J3 12J4 12J5 12J6 14J3 14J4 14J5 14J6 14J7
8.4 75
9.4 ??
10 373 400 440 480
11 309 364 400 436
12 259 .324 . 367 .400 367 383 417 450 500
13 221 276 338 369 335 354 385 415 462
14 1 90 238 303 343 289 329 357 386 429 343 400 443 486 529
15 1 66 207 264 320 252 307 333 360 400 320 373 413 453 493
16 1 46 182 232 289 221 281 313 338 375 300 350 388 425 463
17 161 205 256 196 249 294 318 353 282 329 365 400 435
18 144 183 >28 175 222 278 300 333 261 311 344 378 411
19 129 164 205 157 199 249 284 316 235 294 326 358 389
20 . . . . . .1 7 1 48 85 142 180 225 268 . 300 212 265 310 340 370
21 128 163 204 243 286 192 240 287 324 352
22 117 149 186 222 270 175 219 262 309 336
23 107 136 170 203 247 160 200 239 290 322
24 98 125 156 186. 227 147 184 220 266 308
25 135 170 203 245 294
26 125 157 187 227 272
27 116 145 174 210 252
28 . 1 08 135 162 196 235
Total Safe Loads ir i Lbs. per .ineal Ft. (For nominal joist depth s 16' to 24" incl.)
JOIST DESIGNATION
in feet 1 6J4 16J5 16J6 16J7 1 SJ8 18JS 18J6 18J7 18J8 20J5 20J6 20J7 20J8 22J6 22J7 22J8 24J6 24J7 24J8
16....: 75 413 450 500. .5 38

is : 33 367 400 444 4 78 389 433 467 500
20 : 88 330 360 400 4 30 350 390 420 450 380 410 430 460
22 : 38 298 327 364 3 91 318 355 382 409 345 373 391 418 382 409 436
24 : 00 250 299 333 .3 58 281 325 350 375 307 342. 358 383. 350 375 400 367 392 .417
26 71 213 254 306 3 31 240 289 323 346 261 312 331 354 323 346 369 338 362 385
28 47 184 219 264 3 05 207 249 299 321 225 269 307 329 285 321 343 312 336 357
30 28 160 191 230 2 66 180 217 261 300 196 234 283 307 248 300 320 272 313 333
32 . 13 141 168 202 2 34 158 191 229 264 173. .206. .249 288 218 273 300 239. 294. 313
34 140 169 203 234 153 182 220 262 193 242 282 212 265 294
36 125 151 181 209 136 163 197 234 172 216 254 189 237 278
38 122 146 176 210 155 194 228 169 212 249
40 110 132 159. 190 140 175 205 153 192 .225
42 127 159 186 139 174 204
44 ... 115 145 170 126 158 186
46 116 145 170
48 106 .133 .156
Steel Joist Institute, Standard Specifications ond Load Tables Open Web Steel Joists.
68
Bar Joists
Bar joists, as illustrated and
discussed briefly in Chapter 4,
may be used as structural floor
and roof framing. Because of the
large number of sizes and weights
available, it is not possible to
include descriptions and tables
for all joists. The two most com-
mon are the "J" or junior joists
and the "H" or long span joists.
Limit the clear span of J-series

joists to 24 times depth.
The ends of steel joists shall
extend a distance of not less than
4 inches over masonry or poured
concrete supports. The ends shall
extend not less than 2V4 inches
over steel supports except where
opposite joists butt over a narrow
Rohm & Hoo» Photograph
steel support and attachment is
Structural steel for a movable dome.
made by welding or bolting.
Bridging-spacing
In no case shall the spacing of Completed dome showtng swimming pool through roof that can be opened.
& Haoi Photograph
bridging or sag rods be greater i
than given in the following table:

Clear Span Number of Lines of Bridging
Up to 14 feet One row near center.
1 4 to 2 1 feet Two rows placed at ap-
proximately Vi points of
span.
21 to 32 feet Three rows placed at
approximately Vt points
of span
32 to 40 feet Four rows placed at
approximately 1 / 5 points
of span
40 to 48 feet Five rows placed at
approximately 1 It points
of span.
Joist Spacing
Joists shall be so spaced that
the loading on each does not
exceed the allowable load given
for the particular designation and
span in load table. For floors,
it is recommended that maximum

spacing be not greater than 24".'
Structural Steel Data, J. T. Ryerson & Son, Inc. M

1. What is structural metal? 20. What is deflection? Is it im- 31. What is meant by the term
2. Who may make official struc- portant, or a problem? "beam span"?
tural calculations? Why? 21. When used in a building, do 32. What is a pipe column?
3. How are weights of materials steel beams support all floors? 33. Why are steel plates placed
determined? Explain. on the top and bottom of steel
4. Are all structural parts always 22. What is the recommended columns?
calculated by using mathematical live load which floors in dwellings 34. How is column spacing de-
data? Explain. should carry? termined?
5. How do individual local codes 23. What is a kip? 35. How is column size deter-
influence strength requirements and 24. What is meant when one mined?
calculations? says the load is uniformly distributed? 36. What is "beam reaction"?
6. If no code is required in a 25. What is "fiber stress"? 37. Can one have two beam
specific area, where can one obtain 26. If a safe load table is based reactions on the same column?
pertinent information concerning on a fiber stress of 20,000 pounds Explain.
required strengths and sizes of per square inch, and the local code 38. How are posts or columns
structural parts? specifies 1 6,000 pounds per square joined to beams?
7. What is a dead load? inch, how can the table be used to 39. How are steel columns se-
8. What is a live load? make the required calculations? cured to concrete footings or floors?
9. What is meant when one 27. What is a compression flange? 40. What are steel lintels?
says, "The load is quiescent"? 28. When one says lateral sup- 41 . How is their size determined?
10. What is welded wire fabric? port, what is meant? 42. What is a bar joist?
1 1 . Where is welded wire fabric 29. What is the allowable deflec- 43. Is there more than one kind?
used? tion for plastered ceilings? 44. How much bearing surface
12. How is its size determined? 30. How does one determine on masonry must a bar joist have?
1 3. Can you think of reasons why beam size from the load tables 45. Do you know why bridging is
welded wire fabric should not be shown in the text? used on steel joists?
carried through construction or ex-
pansion joints?
14. What is the difference be-
tween wire gage sizes and reinforc-
ing rod sizes? structural welded spliced
15. From the wire fabric illustra- distribute connectors flange
tions, can you describe the difference technical intersections lateral
between positive and negative steel? verified ductile kip
16. What is the apparent value of calculations install impact

a detail sheet for welded wire fabric? duplication alignment buckling
1 7. What do we mean when we incorporated gage deflection
say a reinforcing rod is deformed? recommendation longitudinal allowable
18. Are all reinforcing rods de- assumptions transverse represented
formed? superimposed suspended transmit
1 9. What is the difference be- proportion data reaction
tween a Standard and a Wide quiescent equivalent terminate
Flange I beam? pertinent billet
70
<a
Sill and Floor Construction
Sills shrinkage of lumber across the sonry veneer, this allows the
The sill is a wood beam that grain. This is undesirable when materials to be attached without
the exterior of the building is to danger of shifting or separating.
rests on the foundation. The sill
is pressed carefully into the mor- be faced with masonry veneer or One disadvantage is the time
tar to insure a good seal. Washers stucco. Expansion and contrac- necessary for "letting in" or
are placed over the anchor bolts,

tion of framing will cause crack- notching the studs to receive the
and nuts are tightened to hold ing of the exterior surface, or ribbon. (See page 512.) The rib-
the sill in place. The anchor bolts

separation of masonry from the bon is usually made of \" mate-
prevent the sill from slipping on wood frame. rial. A notch for thicker materials
the foundation and also secure

The major advantage of bal- would weaken the studs. Another
loon framing is its dimensional disadvantage is that the studs
the frame to the foundation dur-
ing high winds.
stability. Studding extending to must be raised or put in place at
the sill prevents any change of the same time as the floor joists.
Methods of Floor Framing shape on the outside of the Working over an excavation or
Two methods of floor framing building. When used with ma- basement is difficult.
are illustrated. Western or plat-
form framing is most widely used.
This method allows workmen to FLOOR JOIST
complete the base or platform in
CORNER STUDS
a minimum amount of time, thus
givingthem a firm, clean walk-
ing and storage surface for the
remainder of construction. An-
other advantage is that the solid
subfloor over the box sill helps
eliminate drafts, which can be a
fire hazard.
The box sill is composed of two
parts. The horizontal member is
the bed plate. The mem-
vertical FOUNDATION
ber is a header.
The chief disadvantage is Platform framing at a building corner.
71
Pressure Treated or Applied

Preservatives
Floor framing near moisture

or earth is susceptible to decay
and termites. Preservatives should
be added to the framing to pro-
long its life. The best protection
is gained by applying the pre-
servative under pressure. Deep
penetration is insured. Bulk pre-
servatives may be purchased and

job-applied; however, this is
time consuming and the results
are not permanent.
Balloon framing for an exterior wa
/ <
"V
T---.i
r--,. -L___ B
US- Deportm
Map showing (line AA) the northern damage by subterranean termites in the United
limit of States;
BB, the northern limit of damage by dry-wood or nonsubterranean termites.
71
6: Sill and Floor Construction
one, which will end with uneven

A Termite Shield
\ spacing.
joist
The spacing of the last
would be 16" if modular con-
A termite shield is placed over Grout or Mortar with Shield struction were used. A discussion
the foundation and piers. It should
A thin layer of grout or mortar, of this topic begins on page 135.
extend past the edges of the foun-
about W is placed over the In wood frame construction,
dation two inches and be bent
shield. This acts as a base for the first joist or header of the box
down to a 45° angle. The purpose wood parts. The grout helps level sill is frequently placed %" from
of the bend is to help prevent
the top of the foundation and the outside edge of the foundation
termites from bypassing. A ter-
acts as a weather seal. wall.
mite is a boring insect. It builds Size of floor joists is deter-
tunnels in wood material. It can- mined by the total load to be
not tunnel through the shield. supported and the distance they
Holesmust be cut in the must span. Charts showing the
shield anchor bolts. Tar or
for comparative strength of different
some other plastic material woods and the maximum allow-
should be used to seal around the able span for dimension lumber
bolts. When pieces of termite are shown. See page 75.
shield must be end joined, or Termite shield above Nominal 2" lumber is most fre-
when joints are made at the cor- foundation wall quently used for conventional
ners, this seam should also be framing. The term nominal means
sealed. The joint is best closed by "not actual." Finished size is
soldering. smaller than 2". When greater

Materials used for termite thickness is desired, the cost is us-
shields are: copper, copper coated ually considerably greater. When
kraft paper, or aluminum. Roll several joist sizes are required, it
roofing is sometimes used and is not unusual to select the largest

meets minimum requirements of size needed, and use this size for
some codes, but this is not recom- the entire structure. This is espe-
mended. The material is soft and cially true when the under sides of
Openings In termite shields as those for
is likely to decay. The edges do the joists form a base for a finish
anchor bolts must be completely sealed.
not stay at the proper angle. ceiling.
When joists must be end joined
N; J over a beam or girder, some pro-
vision must be made for tying
Floor Jolsl them together. They should be
Many woods are suitable for Spacing for floor joists may be lapped a minimum of 4" and be
Because of their abun-
floor joists. 12", 16", 20", or 24" o.c. (on cen- nailed firmly to secure, or a scab
dance, workability, and strength, ter). Spacing of 16" o.c. is most of lumber should be nailed across
softwoods are most frequently frequently used. When laying out the joint as shown in the second
used. The light weight of this for floor joists, measurements are on page 74.
illustration
group makes them easy to cut and begun at the outside edge of the beams, and girders which
Posts,
handle. Southern, long leaf yellow first or header joist. It is 16" from might be considered a part of
pine is the strongest of the native the outside of the edge joist floor framing are discussed in
softwoods. Douglas fir, hemlock, (header) to the center of the sec- Chapter 1 1.
and spruce have slightly less ond joist, and then 16" o.c. for When framing floor openings,
strength but are suitable. remaining joists— except the last all the joists should be doubled.
73
SOLID BRIDGING-
Framing
BUILT UP GIRDER-
Floor joists lapped over a built-up girder.
SCAB
Joists spliced above a built-up girder.
A ledger provides bearing surtace at

joist and girder intersections.
TRIMMER JOISTS-
Joist framing for flues or fireplaces.
The illustration shows the method ing should be spaced a minimum

of framing openings and names of 2" from the masonry. Note
of the parts involved. When fram- also that ends of joists may not
ing openings for fireplaces and terminate in a chimney or fire-
the area between the wood

flues, place and that all framing beneath
-METAL CONNECTOR
Joists may be secured to a girder with
and masonry should be filled with load bearing walls should be
metal connectors. a fireproof insulation. Wood fram- doubled.
74
1
Floor Joists
DOUGLAS FIR— COAST REGION
Association Lumber Grades
Select Dense Construction Standard Utility Select Dense Construction Standard Utility
Spacing
Structural Construction Structural Construction
Nominal sizes (inches) (inches
o. c.) 1700f 14501 19501 17001 14501 12001
1950 f 1200 f (1) (1)
30 LB. LIVE LOAD 40 LB. LIVE LOAD

Ft. In. Fl. In. Fl. In. Fl. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In.
2x6 12 11 4 11 4 11 4 11 4 8 4 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6 7 4
16 10 4 10 4 10 4 10 4 7 2 9 8 9 8 9 8 9 8 6 4
24 9 9 9 9 5 10 8 4 8 4 8 4 8 2 5 2
2x8 12 15 4 15 4 15 4 15 4 12 4 14 4 14 4 14 4 14 4 11
16 14 14 14 14 10 8 13 13 13 13 9 6
24 12 4 12 4 12 4 12 4 8 8 11 6 11 6 11 6 11 7 10
2x10 12 18 4 18 4 18 4 18 4 16 10 17 4 17 4 17 4 17 4 15 2
16 17 17 17 17 14 8 16 2 16 2 16 2 16 2 13
24 15 6 15 6 15 6 15 6 12 14 6 14 6 14 6 14 10 8
2x12 12 21 2 21 2 21 2 21 2 19 8 20 20 20 20 17 8
16 19 8 19 8 19 8 19 8 17 18 8 18 8 18 8 18 8 15 4
24 17 10 17 10 17 10 17 10 14 16 10 16 10 16 10 16 10 12 6
?. Denotes Grade is not a stress grade
SOUTHERN YELLOW PINE-MEDIUM GRAIN

Association Lumber Grades
No. 1 Dense No. 2 Dense No. 1 Dense No. 2 Dense

No. 1 Dense No. 2 Dense No. 1 Dense No. 2 Dense
Spacing K. D. 2" Di- K. D. 2" Di- K. D. 2" Di- K. D. 2" Di-
2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension
Nominal size (inches) (inches mension mension mension mension
o. c.)
1700 f 1500 f 14501 12001 1700 f 12001 1450 1200 f
30 LB. LIVE LOAD 40 LB. LIVE LOAD

Ft. In. Fl. In. Fl. In. Fl. In. Ft. In. Fl. In. Ft. In. Ft. In.
2x6' 11 4 11 4 11 4 1 1 4 10 6 10 6 10 6 10 6
16 10 4 10 4 10 4 10 4 9 8 9 8 9 8 9 8
24 9 9 9 9 8 4 8 4 8 4 8 2
2x8 15 4 15 4 15 4 14 4 14 4 14 4 14 4
16 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13
24 12 4 12 4 12 4 12 4 11 6 11 6 11 6 11
2x10 18 4 18 4 18 4 17 4 17 4 17 4 17 4
16 17 17 17 17 16 2 16 2 16 2 16 2
24 15 6 15 6 15 6 15 6 14 6 14 6 14 6 14
2x12 21 2 21 2 21 2 21 2 20 20 20 20
16 19 8 19 8 19 8 19 8 18 8 18 8 18 8 18 8
24 17 10 17 10 17 10 17 10 16 10 16 10 16 10 16 10
1
for 2"x6" lumber having actual dressed size of l s/a"x5 s/a"
Spans (b) Spans shall be decreased 5 percent from those shown for lumber
may be increased 2 Vi percent. more than 2 percent but not more fhort 5 percenf scanf from American
Notes: (a) Spans may be increased 5 percent from those shown Lumber Standards sizes measured at a moisture content of 9 per- J
for rough lumber or lumber surfaced two edges (S2E). cent or less, lumber scant more than 5 percent not acceptable.
Table of floor joist sizes and their spans.
75
Bridging
Bridging is used between joists

to stiffen the floor and spread the
concentrated load over a greater
area. Cross bridging is the type
most commonly used. Bridging as
shown in the framing diagram is
usually constructed of l"x3" lum-
ber. The ends are cut at an angle
to allow them to fit against the
joist. Bridging may also be made
of metal.
The top of the bridging is nailed
before the subfloor is nailed in
place. The lower ends remain Some building codes require floor bridging
loose. After the finished floor is
in place, the lower ends are pulled

subfloor can be laid across, at
flush with the bottom of the joists
right angles to the joist, or di-
and nailed. If the joists are
agonal, at a 45° angle to the
warped, the crowns are placed
near the top. When the lower ends
joists. A diagonal subfloor allows
the finished floor to be laid in any
are nailed, it tends to level the
direction. Also it helps "hold" the
floor. Actual strength gained from
corners. When a subfloor is to be
the addition of bridging is ques- Diagonal subfloor.
exposed to the weather for an
tionable, but most codes require
extended period of time, some of
their use. Most minimum require-
the boards should be omitted to
ments space the bridging not less
allow for drainage of water.
than 8'-0" apart. This means most
End joining of boards for the
typical rooms will have one row
subfloor should be done over floor
in the center. If the span is more
In some cases, when end
joist.
than 16' 0", two rows would be
matched tongue and groove lum-
required.
ber is used, the joints can be made
Subfloor
between joists. However, the lum-
Three materials are commonly ber should bear, or rest upon, at Tongue and groove subflooring is some-
used forwood subfloors. Plywood least two joists and no joints in times spliced between joists.
now is most popular. succeeding boards should be made

(1) Until recently, most the over or between the same joists.
common was tongue and groove
lumber. Minimum thickness is
2S
/3z"and maximum width is 8".
Excessive warpage can result
from using wider lumber.
(2) Lumber surfaced four sides
(S4S), is also sometimes used. The
size required is the same as for
Tongue and groove lumber provides strength at joints.
tongue and groove lumber. The
76
'
6: Sill and Floor Construction
(3) Plywood has become

widely used as a material for sub-
floors. The large size of the sheets,
BLOCKING AT EDGES OF PLYWOOD and the speed with which they
can be nailed, offsets the slightly
higher cost of material. Greater
care must be taken when spacing
the joists. Any discrepancy in
spacing will prevent the ends of

panels from resting on the joists;
excessive waste of material and
time will result from poor spac-
ing. When using 16" spacing for
floor joists, W plywood is ade-
quate. The outer grain of the ply-
wood should be placed across the
End joints should be stag-
joist.
gered so successive panels do not

break, or end over the same joist.
Unless tongue and groove ply-
Most plywood subfloors require support at all edges. wood is used, blocking is required
to support edges. A low-grade
sheathing of unsanded plywood
is usually used.
Joist Framing for Solid Masonry

When solid masonry is used
FIRE CUT for exterior walls, no box sill is
JH" JOIST required. The joist ends are im-
bedded in, or placed on a ledge
of the wall. Two methods of set-
ting joists are shown in the illus-
tration. Joist ends should have

3" minimum bearing on solid
masonry.
Pockets for beam ends should
f . > be provided in foundation walls.
'»! i
i
Q «V
•
^
•
'. * »'•« >
Foundation and wall with fire cut joist. Section through a wall showing square
cut joist seat.
Beam pocket in poured concrete wall
77
.
Minimum bearing surface for 7. What is meant by the term 1 8. What material is placed in
beam ends is 4". When wood "letting in" when referring to a this space?
beams are used, W clearance ribbon? 19. What is bridging? When is
should be provided at the sides 8. What advantage do pressure- it used?

and ends of the beam. This allows applied preservatives for termite pro- 20. Why is the bottom of bridg-
for expansion and contraction tection have over brush-applied ones? ing not nailed until after the subfloor
and permits air to circulate around 9. What is a floor joist? is laid?
the beam. Minor adjustments of 10. What is the strongest of the 2 1 . What are three materials fre-
alignment can also be made. native softwoods? quently used for subfloors? Which is
1 1 . What is the most frequently becoming most popular? Why?

used spacing for wood floor joists? 22. Why are joints not broken
Questions to Reinforce 1 2. Why is the box sill sometimes over the same joists when laying
placed %" inside the edge of the subfloors?
Know/edge
foundation?
1 What is a termite shield? 1 3. Why are joists sometimes
2. What is the purpose of bend- lapped over a beam? Terms to Spell and Know
ing the termite shield? 14. What are some other methods seam spruce
3. Why are the joints soldered of end-joining joists? soldering nominal
or otherwise closed in the shield? 15. When added strength is re- aluminum ceiling
4. Why is mortar placed over quired at floor openings, what is grout scab
the termite shield? done to the joists? shrinkage bridging
5. What part of a wood struc- 1 6. Why is framing not placed ribbon subfloor
ture is placed upon this mortar? against chimneys and fireplaces? softwoods discrepancy
6. What are two methods of 17. What is the minimum distance hemlock
wood wall framing? Explain each. between framing and a chimney?
78
V
Frame Wall Construction
Wall Section
During this discussion the tion the wall section might be necessarily indicate a trend
frame wall of a building is con- assembled on the subfloor and toward total prefabrication as
sidered as a single unit, even then erected. the ultimate in progress of con-
though it composed of many
is In volume production, the struction methods. The merits of
individual parts. Framing a wood parts are cut and assembled in total prefabrication and the use
wall was originally done one a shop or factory. Volume proof components in building will
piece at a time, on the construc- duction can increase quality and not be discussed at this time.
tion site. This no longer true.
is reduce the number of man hours Custom built, or one-of-a-kind
Only on very small jobs would of labor per unit, as well as im- framed very
building, can also be
the framing be done in this man- proving working conditions be- manner. Quality
efficiently in this
ner. Wall sections are usually cause of the efficiency. Parts of materials and workmanship
completed and then raised in for a structure being and
cut usually exceeds that of a build-
place. On some light construc- assembled in this manner do not ing totally assembled on the site.
Sole Plate
The sole plate is a 2x4, with
itswide dimension contacting the
subfloor. It is placed beneath all
stud walls.
When used on exterior walls it
iscustomary to align the edge of
the bed plate flush with the edge
of the foundation, as shown to
the left. Another arrangement is
sometimes substituted as shown

in the illustration at the right.
FOUNDATION Outside face of sheathing

flush with foundation face.
_| Outside face of sheathing protruding

past foundation face.
79
The sole plate acts as an anchor

for the studs and helps hold their
proper spacing. It also serves as
a means of attaching the wall to
the subfloor. It is sometimes
placed around the entire perimeter
of the wall, including door open-
ings. This helps make the wall
more rigid while it is being erected.
After the wall is nailed in place
the plate is removed from the
openings. When bearing walls are
parallel to floor joists, and in line
with them, the joists should be

doubled. When the wall is be-
tween joists, blocking as shown
in the illustration is used to pre-
vent the floor from sagging be-
BEARING WALL PARALLEL TO JOISTS
tween joists.
Joists are doubled beneath bearing walls. Double joists may be joined together, or
separated by spacers to accommodate wires or pipes.
Non-bearing walls may be spaced between joists
when blocking is provided. Also, note the block-

ing at edge joints of the plywood subfloor.
NON-BEARING WALL PARALLEL TO JOISTS
80
7: Frame Wall Construction
Top Plate
Plates are placed over the top joined, the splice should be made
of all studs. They serve as spacers over a stud. When splices must
and tie the top of the studs in be made both top plates, the
in
place. All plates on outside walls splices should not be made over
should be doubled because the the same stud.
weight of ceiling joists and rafters When the top plate is joined
bears upon them. It is sometimes at a corner, the plate should be
permissible to use single top lapped so the corner can be tied
plates for interior walls if no together as in the illustration.
load is to be supported. How- When panels of modular con-
ever, the extra time involved to struction are used for walls, the
cut and handle different length top plates are sometimes stood
studs usually offsets the amount on edge as shown to the right,
of material saved. and serve as a header around the
When top plates must be end perimeter of outside walls.
SINGLE TOP PLATE PERMITTED FOR INTERIOR

NON-BEARING WALLS-DOUBLE TOP PLATES
RECOMMENDED
Combination top plate and header for
use with modular panels.
SPLICES
ABOVE STUDS
6" WIDE NAILER
Frame wall intersection with one wa

ending between studding spacing of
adjoining wall.
Joining top plates at wall corners and above

studs.
TOP PLATES LAPPED
AT CORNERS
81
Studding
Studs are the slender wood up-
rights that form the vertical frame-
work of the walls of a structure.
Studs are usually made of 2x4's
actual size of which is 1 Vi "x3 Vz ".
One notable exception to the

standard thickness of frame walls
is the area which must accom-
^
modate the larger soil stack or
vent pipe for the bathroom
plumbing fixtures. This wall is
usually constructed of 2x6's.

The studding should be of
uniform length, which is deter-
mined by the ceiling height
desired. For conventional, flat
^
ceilings of homes, 8'0" is the
most common ceiling height.
Note: This measurement is not
the stud length, it is only used
in determining length. Studs are
usually spaced 16" on centers. Studs spaced 16" o.c. from inside building.
The stud is turned so the wide
dimension forms the thickness of
the wall. In rare cases where no
load must be supported, as in a
closet wall, the stud may be
turned so the short dimension
represents the thickness of the
wall. done only if space
This is
is at a premium. The 16" spac-
ing works well in "hanging a

curtain" of most wall materials.
In some very light construction
it is permissible to use 24" spac- Most frequently used built-up
corner stud arrangement.
ing. For example, studs for a
garage or shed might be so spaced.
The uniform spacing is usually
continued over window and door
openings.
It is impossible to start measur-
ing stud spacing at the outside
corner of a building and keep
the studs on 16" centers on the
inside of the building at the same
82
time. One of the spacings (inside

or outside) must necessarily be
ofTthe 16" module. It is customary
to start the spacing from the in-
side asshown in the stud layout

diagram. Then studs can be more
easily located when nailing
through plaster is required.
It is desirable— but impossible
—to purchase lumber that is per-

no warp or
fectly straight, with Studding arrangement for four intersect-
wind (twist). Yet only the ing walls. Two studs are Inset V between
adjoining ones to accommodate nailing.
straightest lumber should be
selected for studs. If studs are Intersecting wall con
forming to normal stud
noticeably warped, the crowns, OMITTED WHEN NO
ding spacing.
or high points, should be alter- SECOND STORY
nated, placing one toward the
outside and the next toward the surface, in relation to the stud
inside. When sheathing or wall arrangement. If an inside wall
covering is applied, this helps ends between studs, the first
pull the wall into a straight posi- arrangement (page 82) is used.
tion. If an occasional stud is If it ends on wall studs, the sec-
extremely warped, but must be ond (page 83) would be used.
used, it can be partially cut and
Stud Intersections
pulled into a straight position.
A scab or extra piece is then At wall intersections on the
nailed over the cut to hold the interior of the building, the studs
stud firm. are arranged as shown.
Framing for a window opening.

Corner Studs Studs at Wall Openings
When two exterior corners Double studs are placed at all

meet, studs must be joined to door, window, and other open-
form a corner post. Two methods ings. The outside stud extends
are shown. The first illustration from the bottom to the top plate.
shows the method most frequently The inside stud is cut to receive
used. The short wood sections the headers over the opening. If
between the studs are blocking no weight is to be supported for

used to help form the post. Short a second floor, the portion of stud-
scrap boards are used, thus elimi- ding above the header is some-
nating one extra full stud.
times omitted. The studs are used
in addition to the ones on the
Studs To Between an
Fill 16" spacing. However, when
Inside Wall and an Outside Wall possible, window and door place-
Inside and outside walls may ment are arranged to conform
Framing for a door opening. This method
be joined as shown. The arrange- with the stud spacing. The stud is not as frequently used as the other
ment to use will be determined by next to the opening is used for method shown on page 84.
the position of the inside wall normal spacing.
83
Base Blocks
Short scraps of lumber the
same thickness and width as
studding are placed against the
studs opposite the opening to
provide for nailing the ends of
baseboard and casing.
Corner Bracing
Temporary corner braces may
be used at studded wall openings
and room corners to insure a
square corner. They are applied
at a 45° angle to the studs. If
rigid sheathing is not to be ap- l"x4" "let-in" corner bracing.
plied to the exterior, it is neces-

sary to place permanent braces
on the outside of the studs. These Firestop and Nailers The accompanying chart shows
are made from l"x4" lumber Balloon framing leaves an open the header size required for vari-
and are "let in" to the studs. As space along the studs. This space
ous spans. See page 86.
said, if plywood or rigid insulating acts as a flue if fire occurs. West- Two methods of installing the
sheathing is used, no additional ern framing is not as open, but header are shown. The older
bracing is required. both walls should have lumber method requires short studs over
placed between the studs to the header. Newer construction
serve as a firestop. Two methods methods use a large header to

the entire space above the
of installation are shown. When fill
vertical coverings, such as ply-

opening. The additional material
wood or hardboard paneling, are required would not be as great

as the labor for laying out, cut-
applied directly to the studs, these
boards also act as backing. This ting, and installing crippled studs.
makes the wall Additional material can be saved

firm and provides
additional nailing surface. See
when applying sheathing or
inside wall coverings because
page 85.
the parts need not be spaced on
Headers the 16" module.
Joists, and additional
rafters, Plywood box beams are very
floors above, must be supported desirable as headers when long
Frequently used method of framing a
over doors, windows, and other spans are needed. They have an
door opening. Small blocks of 2"x4"
openings. Headers of lumber on exceptionally good weight-to-
called base blocks afford additional nail-
ing surface for securing casing and edge or plywood laminated beams, strength ratio. Such beams are
baseboard. A crippled stud is added as shown in the illustrations, also used with post and beam
above the header. are used. structural systems.
84
Dimension lumber nailed together to form

a header.
Solid headers completely filling the space

above an opening give added strength.
require uniform width lumber, and speed
construction.
PLYWOOD BOX BEAM

For wide openings plywood box beams
Two methods of installing firestop be- make excellent headers.
tween studs.
Framing Diagrams
When construction was entirely Conventional method of installing
a one-part-at-a-time operation, it header above an opening.
was necessary to draw complete

framing diagrams to show the
workmen how to assemble the
structure. At the present this is
not always done. However, any

information not placed on the
working drawings leaves the final
decision of framing location to the
builder.
Any person planning a structure
should be able to show the loca-
tion of the framing members. If
the parts are assembled away
from the site, the planning must
be exact, to assure a proper fit
when the building is assembled. Wall framing diagram (size and location dimensions are necessary to complete the plan).
85
Headers — Exterior Openings

Roof construction
Roof joist with bearing partition, Rafters with bearing partition Trussed rafters slope over 3 in 12
T
slope 3 in 1 2 or less
~
^^~\^ ^<f\>^
T i r
Width of structure
Header size
(on edge) "1
-^T^ "f
Slope over 3 in 12
Rafters with bearing partition
AS\K
Braced rafters with bearing
partition
/\
Trussed rafters
^^-^^v/^^^ *——<^?'^>-—
t i
r* T f 1 >
Slope over 3 in 1 2 Slope 3 in 12 or less Habitable space
1 story
6" 3'0" 6"

Up to 26 feet 2-2 x4s 3' 2'
6' 6" 5'0" 4' 6"

wide. 2-2 x 6s
2-2 x 8s 8' 6"
TV 6'0"
1 0" 6" 0"
2-2 x 10s 1 ' 8' i
8'
2-2 x 12s 1
3' 6" 1
10' 6" ,
9 , »
1 Vi or 1 story
2-2 x 4s 2' 6"

2-2 x 6s 4' 6" 4'0" 3' 6"
2-2 x 8s 6'0" 5' 6" 5'0"
2-2 x 10s 7' 6" ' 6' 6" i 6' 0"
2-2 x 12s 9'0" i 8' 0" 1
7' 6"
1 story
26 to 32 feet 2-2 x 4s 3'0" 2' 6"

wide. 2-2 x 6s 6'0" 4' 6" 4'0"
2-2 x 8s B'0" 6'0" 5' 6"
2-2 x 10s 1
1
0' 0" i
8' 0" 1
J. Q„
2-2 x 12s 1
12' 0" i
9 6
< " ' 8' 6"
1 Vi or 2 story
2-2 x 4s
2-2 x6s 4'0" 3' 6" 3'6"
6" 5'0" 6"
2-2 x 8s .
5' 4'
2-2 x 10s 'TV '6' 0" 1

5' 6"
6" T „
2-2 x 12s ' 8' 1
T 6" I
Note: The above spans are based on allowable fiber stresses in allowable fiber stress exceeding 800 are used, the spans for 2 x 4s
bending as follows: For 2 x 4s, 800 psi; for 2 x 6s and larger, 1,200 may be increased by 20 percent. Where conditions vary from these
psi.These a//owob/e stresses are average values taking into consid- assumptions, design headers in accordance with standard engineer-
eration upgrading for doubling of members. Where 2 x As having ing practice.
'
Triple studs at jamb opening; headers to bear on 2-2 x 4s.
Federal Housing Administration
86
A sample wall framing diagram

for a small structure is shown. HEADER SCHEDULE
See drawing, bottom of page 85.
OIIAN HEADER HEADER CLEAR HEADER
KEY
A typical schedule of header WIDTH HEIGHT SPAN LENGTH
sizes for a building is shown in 1 4 4" 4" 3'-0" 3'-3'/«"
the illustration. This is very con- 2 2 4" 6" 5'-0" S'-3'/<"

venient for workmen, as it elimi-
3 2 4" 8" 7'-0" 7'-3'/4"
nates the need to locate and figure
4 1 4" 12" 10-5" io'-9y4"
the length for each header.
Questions to Reinforce Knowledge Terms To Spell and Know

1 . What is meant by the term 18. What is a header? Explain prefabricated perimeter
"raising the wall"? its construction. component modular
2. What is the purpose of a 1 9. What is a framing diagram? workmanship sheathing
soleplate? 20. How is the size of headers sole plate scab
3.What is a top plate? Why determined? studding blocking
is it made from two pieces of lum- 21. Why is a schedule for headers studs firestop
ber? sometimes included on working header
4. Why are the plates lapped drawings?
at corners and where inside walls
join outside walls?
An architect and a builder discussing the framing plans during construction
5. What is a stud, or studding? of the building.
6. What size material is usually Wood Product* Ail
used for studs?

7. What is their normal spacing?
8. When may they be placed
so the small dimension represents
the thickness of the frame wall?
9. When referring to lumber,
what is warp? What is wind?
10. What is a scab?
1 1 . Why is blocking sometimes
used when forming a corner post?
12. What are two methods of
joining an inside wall to an outside
wall?
1 3. How are interior wall inter-
sections framed?
14. How are the studs arranged
at openings for doors and windows?
15. What is a base block?
1 6. What is corner bracing? How
is it applied?
17. What is a firestop? What
material is normally used?
87
Masonry Wall Construction
Masonry Materials the interior finish and the provi- wythes. All wythes are bonded
sion for attaching the finish to the with mortar and reinforcement.
Stone, brick, concrete block,
clay tile, terra-cotta, or specially
masonry. When more than one This bond is not sufficient to pre-
processed forms of each are clas-

wythe (thickness) of masonry is vent the wythes from separating.
used, they must be bonded or Therefore individual bricks or
sified as masonry.
fastened securely together. stones are placed crosswise of the
Masonry Construction wythes so they tie the two to-
Any wall constructed entirely Solid Masonry gether. Or, instead of placing in-
of the above materials is consid- As said, a solid masonry wall dividual units across both
ered a masonry wall. However, is constructed without a frame- wythes, header courses, as shown
other materials may be used as work of studding or space between in the illustration, are used. The
8: Masonry Wall Construction
Corrugated wall ties may be

placed in mortar joints for
wall reinforcement.
masonry used to secure the monolithic. They may be com-

wythes should equal at least 4% posed of separated wythes spaced
of the outer wall surface, and apart to represent a specified wall
should extend at least 4" into thickness. To be classed as a cavity
the interior wythe. The interior wall, the minimum cavity width
wythe is called a backing. When is 2" and the maximum is 4".
concrete block is the backing and Since masonry transmits heat,

it is faced with brick, even cold, and moisture, the cavity
seventh course of brick is placed between wythes may be filled with Welded wire reinforcement adds strength
as a header course. This allows insulation. Sprayed foam insula- and holds wythes in position.
the header course to tie across tions are especially good. They are
each second course of block inert and are not subject to rot
backing. and mold.
When face brick is used as a The space between masonry
decorative exterior covering, one units must be bridged with
sometimes desires not to disrupt reinforcement.
the facing pattern with header
Hollow Masonry
courses. Then the practice is to tie
the wythes with corrugated wall
Any wall constructed of ma-
sonry units or blocks which have
ties or other metal reinforcement.
interior voids— the area of which
Minimum spacing of such ties
is 16" on center vertically and exceeds 25% of the total cross-
32" horizontally. sectional area— is classed as

hollow masonry.
Masonry Cavity Walls
All masonry walls are not Soldier course in running bond brick.
89 RUNNING BOND
Construction detail with masonry veneer

wall covering.
Wall section combining masonry

veneer and wood siding.
VERTICAL SIDING
Masonry Veneer building, and is not intended to

A masonry veneer is a solid be load supporting. It is meant
finishing or decorative material to support only its own weight.
covering a less expensive ma- When veneer is applied over BRICK VENEER
terial. The backing may be of frame construction, a 1" air space
masonry, wood, or metal frame is left between the masonry and
construction. However, the term wall sheathing. The veneer is at-

veneer is usually intended to tached to the frame with metal
mean that masonry is applied as wall ties. Normal spacing for the
a covering over a material other ties is 16" vertically and 32" hori-
than masonry. When veneer is zontally. The air space allows for
applied over other masonry, it is variations in the thickness of the
usually referred to as facing. masonry, and resists transmission
Veneer placed over wood frame of heat, cold, and penetrating
is not a true structural part of the moisture.
90
peak or gable may be of 6" ma-

sonry. Note: This is accepted pri-
marily in low-cost buildings. Most
codes would not permit it. Gen-
erally, walls less than 35' high
may be of 8" solid masonry. Walls
more than 35' must be 12" solid
masonry. Most codes will permit
first story walls to be 12" and
second story walls 8".
The minimum thickness of

veneer for two-story structures
is 4".
Parging
Parging is a layer of rough
(not smooth finished) plaster made
from sand and portland cement.
It is used as a waterproofing on
Corrugated wall ties are nailed into studding
exterior foundation walls, between
for maximum strength.
solid masonry walls and interior
coverings and between masonry
wythes. This prevents the masonry
backing from discoloring exposed
decorative masonry.
Weep Holes for Cavity

and Veneer Walls
Temperature differences be-
tween interior and exterior walls
lead to moisture condensation.
This must be ventilated. Special
vents may be used, or vertical
mortar joints may be omitted
every 4' in the bottom course.
Masonry Wall Thickness

and Height
Wall thickness and height for
materials used in masonry will
vary with local codes. These must
be checked before wall planning
can be completed. The FHA
gives the following minimum
standards: Solid or hollow cavity
walls less than 9' high at the top
wall plate line and 15' or less at
91
Flashing and Termite Shields

Except for very arid regions,
one must place flashing at the base
of solid or hollow masonry, as
shown in the illustrations. The
termite shield is similar to that
used for a frame wall, except that
it is not visible from the exterior.
Bond Beams or Top Plate

If the structure is to be built
in a high wind or earthquake area,
a bond beam of concrete is used.
With solid masonry, this is a re-

inforced concrete band, extending
around the perimeter of the build-
ing. For 8" and 12" walls, two
No. 4 reinforcing rods are re-
quired. If the building is con-
structed of hollow concrete block
units, the bond beam is formed
with lintel blocks as shown and
two No. 4 reinforcement rods
added; then the units of the re-
inforced band are filled with
concrete.
If in neither a high wind nor
earthquake area, a single top plate

may be placed over both wythes
for masonry and firmly secured
with anchor bolts. These should
be placed as for foundations.
When hollow units are used, the
voids in the top course are rilled
with concrete.
PIPE
Lintels CHASE
When openings in masonry

are required, as for windows or
doors, masonry above the open-
ings must be supported. When Masonry above pipe chases and recesses
wall recesses are required, as for is most frequently supported by steel
flush radiators, pipe chases, and lintels.
other equipment, these openings

must also be supported by lintels.
A lintel is a horizontal construc-
A masonry arch gives its own support, so no steel lintel is required.
tion member over the opening.
Lintels may be constructed of
poured concrete, pre-cast concrete,
or concrete lintel blocks. These
are held to their proper position
with wood temporary vertical
supports called shoring; reinforce-
ment is added and the voids filled
with concrete. Arches of masonry
may also serve as lintels. When
concealed lintels are desired, struc-
tural metal may be used. Ends of
the lintel extend a minimum of
4" into the masonry wall.
93
A table of steel lintel sizes is
shown Chapter 5, Structural

in
Metal. Lintels must be clearly
indicated on the working drawing;
a schedule of lintel sizes, coded
to specific openings is most
desirable.
Damp-proofing
Since capillary action draws
moisture from a damp exterior
surface toward the interior, some-
thing must be done to stop this
flow.
Silicone spray on exterior ma-
sonry surfaces will help. Parging,
or rough plastering the wall on
the inside with a coating of Port-
land cement mortar and then Furring strips block moisture transfer and serve as nailers for wall coverings.
coating this surface with bitumi-

nous damp-proofing will retard in direct contact with the exterior, masonry is used, additional pre-
the flow of moisture. When a cav- this is sufficient. cautions must be taken. Furring
ity wall is used, the damp-proof- Interior finishes may be ap- strips, at least W in thickness
ing may be placed between the plied directly to the masonry cav- must be placed over the damp-
wythes. Since a cavity wall is not ity wall. However, when solid proofing.
Brick
Brick is a baked clay product. Bricks used as an exposed dec- product is the only excuse for
The finished color is determined orative material are called face using this material on prominent
by the natural color of the clay, bricks. They are uniform in size exteriors. It is the author's opinion
or earth colors may be added dur- (usually within Vi 6 " limits), that common brick on exterior
ing manufacture. Red and buff have neat, square corners and walls suggests more of a run-down
are the most common. However, close quality control during manu- appearance than any other single
brick is manfactured in almost facture. Common bricks are not factor of construction.
every color imaginable. Bricks uniform in size or color. They are
may be purchased in quantities used primarily as backing ma- Names and Sizes of Brick
of a single color, or they may terial, or sometimes on the sides The names of brick shapes are
vary within specified limits, as and back of a building, if par- well standardized; however, the
determined from manufacturers' tially obscured by other struc- exact sizes are not. A chart show-
samples. Variant colors and textures. These are porous, and ing names and approximate sizes
tures are obtained by using glazed absorb dirt readily. They eventu- is given on page 96. Individual
brick, which has a coating of ce- ally present an unsightly appear- manufacturers may vary W from
ramic on the face. ance. The expense of a quality the sizes shown.
94
"
RUNNING FLEMISH
HEADER DIAGONAL
Brick bonds.
3 UNIT RANDOM
BROKEN END
3 UNIT 3 UNIT 2 UNIT 4 UNIT

"
RANDOM SHORT MEDIUM RANGE RANGE RANDOM ASHLAR
95
)
Standard 2'/4"x3 3/4"x8" Brick Bonds

Modular 2'/4"x3 s/8"x7 s/8" Differing feelings for architec- Building Stone
Jumbo 2%"x3 A"x8" 3
tural beauty, and different ways
5/8" Stones most commonly used in
Norman 2'A"x3 5/8"xll of solving construction problems,
building are: sandstone, limestone,
S.C.R.* 2 /e"x5 /2"xll /2 "
, , ,
have resulted in identification of
and marble. Lava, quartz
granite,
Roman . l /8 "x3 5/8"x11 s/8"
5
certain styles and methods with
and other stone sometimes are
Baby Roman 1
5
/8"x3 5/e"x7 5/e" the people who developed them.
used in decorative details. Manu-
2 /2"x3 5/8 "x9" Some the more common brick
,
Fire Brick of
Oversize Size may vary
factured stone is made from ag-
bonds, and their application to
with manufacturer gregates of natural stone bonded
wall areas, are shown in the illus-
•Registered trademark. This brick is in-
into a monolithic unit, with mor-
tended as a single thickness, low cost, one- trations on page 95.
tar or synthetics as the bonding
story masonry wall.
agent. This stone may have a rough
textured or smooth polished face,
depending upon aggregates used
and effect desired. This material
should not be confused with "soft"
imitations, which try to simulate
or copy the appearance of true
materials.
Shapes of Building Stone

Rubble is stone as found in na-
ture. When used in building con-
struction no processing is done to
produce a more regular shape,
although large natural stones may
be broken to make them more
suitable for building purposes.
Two kinds of rubble are:
(1 Fieldstone, or stone as one
might find it in a field. It usually
has a rather smooth, rounded
surface of irregular shape. The
stones are fitted at random to form
a wall. The backs may be cut for
a more uniform thickness.
(2) Stratified stone, which is
found in thin broken layers may
be broken into pieces suitable for
building. It may be laid with the
strata in a vertical or horizontal
position. When laid vertically, the
PATTERNED
stones present many irregular
ASHLAR 4x8,
4 x 12, 4 x 16, 8 x 12, faces to the viewer. When laid
AND 8x16 horizontally they may be coursed
Concrete block bonds. or uncoursed (random).
96
Scholz Homes Inc.
Random stone adds to the beauty of this home.
Stratified stone as used on the front wall of this home gives a rugged effect.
Scholz Homes Inc
fiOfeSSSHranO
&3E&
97
Purchase off Stone
Stone is purchased by the ton. depending upon the type saw

The quoted price is usually based used. When a split face is used,
on pick-up at the quarry. Trans- shallow saw cuts are made the
portation costs must be added to length of the stone along the top
this. and bottom edge. The stone is

When 3Vi" stone is used, a ton then broken along this weakened
approximately 50 square line. When selecting stone, one
will lay
feet. should consult the manufacturer's
Ashlar. Imagine a piece of stone or supplier's literature concerning
10'xl0'x20' being taken from a the product.
quarry. From this one large stone,

small rectangular building Facing Stone
many
As stated earlier, facing is usu-
stones are to be cut. These manu-
factured rectangular shapes are applied over other masonry.
ally
called ashlar. The stone is cut into When it is placed over concrete,
pieces about V/i" thick, with the wall must be parged to keep
heights of 2>/4", 5", 1 A" and

}
lO'/z". the concrete from staining the
When mortar is added between stone. Facing may be either in
horizontal joints, the courses will the form of large square or rec-
work well with other modular ma- tangular stones of a uniform

thickness orit may be specially
terials. For example, if 2 A" and
l
5" stones are placed on top of shaped with decoration cut into
each other, and a W
mortar joint the face. When planning the
is used between, the total

height building, the architect specifies in-
dividual stone shapes. Each shape
is 7W. This is the same height
as
is located by number on the
plan
one 8" nominal concrete block or
and the stone is then cut to the
3 with mortar between.
bricks
desired shape. Each stone would
Lengths may be specified, but ash-
lar stone is usually purchased in not have an individual shape, but
random lengths. Ends are irregu- rather a series of shapes would
be repeated in the allover plan.
lar, or if specified at additional
All like stones, of course, would
cost, they can be cut to predeter-
When
buying have the same number. When the
mined lengths.
stone one must specify the quan- stones are delivered to the build-
tity proportion of each height ing site, they are stacked accord- This wall protruding above the roof
ing to numbermarked on by
as is called a parapet. The stone
desired; stated as a percentage.
called a coping. Also
The face of ashlar is either the manufacturer. Each stone has covering is
note the built-up roof and flashing

sawed or split. The sawed pat- this identifying number to corre-
detail plus the 45° cant strip.
terns may have many textures, spond with the working drawings.
98
Structural and Facing Tile
Tile is a baked clay product

similar to brick. The main differ-
ence is the cavities built into the

tile. These lighten its weight.
Structural tile is made as a back-
ing material or with one finished
face or more. When used in a
single unit wall, both faces are
finished. The exterior may be fin-
ished as a brick face, or a ceramic

glaze may be applied. When a
ceramic glaze is added, the ma-
terial is called facing tile.
Sills
Masonry buildings usually

have a stone sill beneath all open-
ings. Some manufacturers may
have standard sizes more popular
than any others; however, there
is no degree of uniformity as to
the size and shape of sills. One
Weyerhoeuter Company
cannot give as a standard answer Glazed facing tile Is easy to maintain and withstands much abuse while retaining
that sills generally have a certain its beauty.
size. They may range from Vh"
ance determines the size mortar 5. What is meant by the term
to 5" in thickness.
ings tend to use the thinner
Modern build-
sill.
For ashlar a
joint to use. mor- W header course?
tar joint is typical, but by no 6. What is a wall tie?
Modern design trends will be dis-
What
means the only size that may be 7. is a wythe?
cussed later.
used. Rustic type buildings may 8. What is a hollow masonry
Parapet, Coping have mortar joints in excess of unit?
1". On rubble walls not un- How are two or more wythes
A parapet is a low enclosing it is 9.
wall, usually extending above a common to use 3" of mortar be- of a cavity wall joined?
roof. Exposed masonry must be tween irregular spaces. 10. What is meant by the term
capped to prevent moisture from facing?
entering between wythes and mor- 1 1 . What is a weep hole; where

tar joints. This cap or covering, is it located?
Questions to Reinforce
usually of stone, or terra-cotta, 12. How does one determine re-
Knowledge quired thickness of a masonry wall?
is called a coping.
1. What is masonry? 1 3. What is the purpose of flash-
Mortar Joints 2 What is solid masonry ing; from the illustrations, what are
Two kinds of mortar are used: wall? two places where it is used?
(1) cement or (2) hydrated lime— 3 What is masonry cavity 14. What is a bond beam; why
or combinations of both, with wall? is it used?
sand as the aggregate. 4. What is a masonry veneer 15. How is a top plate secured
The desired finished appear- wall? to a masonry wall?
99
16. How many reinforcing rods 24. Name as many patterns of
are placed in a bond beam; where face brick as you can.

are they located? 25. What is rubble? Is there more
17. What is parging, and what than one kind? Explain.
is its function? 26. What is ashlar?
18. When may plaster be applied 27. What is a coursed pattern

directly to a masonry wall? for a masonry wall?
1 9. Think of two reasons for using 28. What are the common heights
furring strips on masonry walls. of ashlar? Thickness?
20. Brick is available in how 29. What is meant by the term

many standard colors? split face?
21. What is face brick; where is 30. How does one show and
it used? specify special stone shapes?
22. What is common brick; where 31. What is the standard thick-
is it used? ness or height of stone sills?
23. Name five different kinds of 32. How is stone purchased, in
brick and their sizes. terms of weight and price?
veneer matt shoring
terra cotta velour rubble
attaching architectural coursed

wythe sandstone ashlar
flashing limestone quarry

lintel block granite mortar
damp-proofing marble chat sawed
arches lava hydrated
capillary quartz rustic
silicone strata coping

parging stratified parapet
glazed fieldstone textures
100
)
<£>
Ceiling Joists and Roof Construction
ng with ceiling joists

bearing wall. Three methods of roof framing
for light construction are used:
(1 The oldest and most com-

mon method is a frame com-
posed of ceiling joists, rafters,
and other parts which are cut and
assembled at the building site,
or, for large developments, parts
may be cut at a cutting shed, and
then delivered to the individual
Ceiling, |oistsand rafters combined building site for assembly.
form roof trusses.
becoming widely used
(2) Also
are roof trusses in which the
ceiling joists and rafters are as-
sembled to form a single unit.
(3) Post-and-beam (or girder)
has heavy planks placed across
the beams to form the roof deck.
The first two types will be dis-
cussed in this chapter. Post and
beam roof construction is dis-
cussed separately in Chapter 11.
Post and beam roof system
101
Ceiling joists and rafters are in to the sides as shown in the
very close proximity and serve to illustration.
counteract thrust forces of each
Determining Joist Size
other. Many times they are con-
as a single unit, as in
Joist size is determined by the
structed
roof trusses, or one of them may
strength of the wood species to
be omitted and the remaining be used, by the joist span, and by

the net load the ceiling is to sup-
member will be required to serve
port.
as both. For these reasons the
discussion of ceiling joists and Since it is difficult to determine
the exact weight of all structural
roof construction will be given
in the same unit.
parts, and since research and
past experience indicate sizes
The discussion is primarily
that can be expected to support
about light wood frame construc-
the structure, exact engineering
tion. However, other materials
data will not usually be com- Ceiling joists may be lapped above
can serve equally well. For ex- bearing wall.
piled for light construction. It
ample, steel and aluminum manu-
facturers are supplying structural
is common practice to use estab-
parts for light construction.
lished minimum sizes from exist-
ing tables and charts.
The tables for ceiling joists
Ceiling Joists
and rafters used in this text show
Ceiling joists are structural
minimum standards established
members that support the finished
by the FHA. As mentioned
ceiling and also floors of occupied
earlier, one must check local
space above. In addition, they
codes to be certain these tables
act as tension members to resist
satisfy legal requirements.
the outward thrust of the rafters.
The rafters exert constant outward Minimum Loads for Ceiling Joists
pressure on the outside walls. If the space above the ceiling

The ceiling joists tie the building joists is not to be used for oc-
and prevent the tops of outside cupancy, the rafter slope is greater
walls from spreading apart be- than 3" in 12", and attic storage
cause of this pressure. is desired, a net load of 30
pounds per square foot (psf) is When ceiling joists are end joined above
Splices in Ceiling Joists a bearing wall, scabs should be Vt"

adequate. This allows 20 psf. for
above the lower edge of the joists.
If continuous ceiling joists do live load and 10 psf. for dead
not extend across the building, load. If the slope of the roof is
they are spliced over an interior 3" in 12" or less and no attic
wall. When a wall supports the storage is desired, the total net
ceiling joists in this manner, we load may psf. The accom-
be 15
say the wall is load bearing. When panying tables are based upon
joists are spliced they must be these strengths.
secured together and also secured When ceiling joists serve as
to the wall supporting them. The floor joists for occupancy above,
joists may be lapped and spiked strength requirements should be Ceiling joists may be secured to wall
together, or a scab may be nailed the same as for floor joists. plates with metal connectors.
102
Ceiling Joists
DOUGLAS FIR, COAST REGION— ASSOCIATION LUMBER GRADES
Select Dense Construc- Standard Utility Select Dense Construc- Standard Utility
Spacing Structural Construc- tion Structural Construc- tion
Nominal siie (inches tion tion
(inches) O.C.)
1950 f 1700 i 1450 f 1200 f (') 19501 17001 14501 12001 (')
NO ATTIC STORAGE LIMITED ATTIC STORAGE
2x4' 12 11 10 11 8 8 10 9 6 8 2 6 4
16 10 10 10 7 8 8 6 7 2 5 6
24 9 6 8 2 6 4 7 6 5 10 4 6
2x6 12 17 2 17 2 17 2 17 2 13 6 14 4 14 4 14 4 14 4 9 6
16 16 16 16 16 11 8 13 13 13 12 10 8 4
24 14 4 14 4 14 4 14 4 9 6 11 4 11 4 11 4 10 6 6 8
2x8 12 21 8 21 8 21 8 21 8 20 2 18 4 18 4 18 4 18 4
16 20 2 20 2 20 2 20 2 17 6 17 17 17 17 12 4
24 18 4 18 4 18 4 18 4 14 4 15 4 15 4 15 4 14 4 10
2x 10 12 24 24 24 24 24 21 10 21 10 21 10 21 10 19 6
16 24 24 24 24 22 6 20 4 20 4 20 4 20 4 16 10
24 21 10 21 10 21 10 21 10 19 6 18 4 18 4 18 4 18 13 10
Denotes grade is not a stress grade. (b) Spans shall be decreased 5 percent from those shown for lum-
1
3
Denotes light framing grade. (Not industrial Light Framing) ber more than 2 percent but not more than 5 percent scant from
Notes: American Lumber Standards sizes measured at a moisture content of
(a) Spans may be increased 5 percent from those shown for J 9 percent or less, lumber scant more than 5 percent will not be
rough lumber or lumber surfaced two edges (S2E). acceptable.
SOUTHERN YELLOW PINE-(MEDIUM GR AIN)-ASSOCIATlON LUMBER GRADES
No. 1 X. D. No. 2 K. D. No. 1 No. 2 No. 1 K. D. No. 2 K. D. No. 1 No. 2

Spacing
Nominal site
2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension
(inches
(inches)
o.c.)
17001 1500 f 14501 1200 f 1700 f 15001 14501 12001
NO ATTIC STORAGE LIMITED ATTIC STORAGE
2x4 12 11 10 11 10 11 10 11 10 9 6 9 6 9 6 9 6
16 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 8 6 8 6 8 6 8 6
24 9 6 9 6 9 6 9 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 6 10
2x6' 12 17 2 17 2 17 2 17 2 14 4 14 4 14 4 14 4
16 16 16 16 16 13 13 13 12 10
24 14 4 14 4 14 4 14 4 11 4 11 4 11 4 10 6
2x8 12 21 8 21 8 21 8 21 8 18 4 18 4 18 4 18 4
16 20 2 20 2 20 2 20 2 17 17 17 17
24 18 4 18 4 18 4 18 4 15 4 15 4 15 4 14 4
2x 10 12 24 24 24 24 21 10 21 10 21 10 21 10
16 24 24 24 24 20 4 20 4 20 4 20 4
24 21 10 21 10 21 10 21 10 18 4 18 4 18 4 18
1
Spans for 2" x 6" lumber having actual dressed size of (b) Spans shall be decreased 5 percent from those shown for lum-
1W x 5W may be increased 2Vi percent. ber more than 2 percent but not more than 5 percent scant from
Notes: American Lumber Standards sizes measured at a moisture content
(a) Spans may be increased 5 percent from those shown for of I 9 percent or less. Lumber scant more than 5 percent will not be
rough lumber or lumber surfaced two edges (S2E). acceptable.
Ceiling joist sizes and spacings.

103
Ceiling Joist Spacing materials are used, as 4'x8' frequently placed in the utility
normally panels, 16" spacing is normally room or a hall. A

disappearing
Ceiling joists are
specified. stairway is convenient for gaining
spaced on 16" or 24" centers, used attic
access to frequently
with the 16" spacing usually pre-
more Framing for Attic Opening storage space.
ferred because this gives
support to the finished ceiling. Framing for openings should Rafters
When the 24" spacing is specified conform to good practice as de- Rafters are the sloping struc-
and the ceiling is to be installed scribed in Chapter 6, page 74. tural members designed to support
Attic access usually provided in
using prefinished materials, is
roof loads. Rafter size is deter-
furring strips are sometimesplaced an inconspicuous place. Access to mined by the strength of the
at angles to the joists on
right an attic with no storage space is wood species,by the sloping or
spacings that conform to the size frequently placed in a closet, rafter span, and by the net load
of the material. When large sheet while access to attic storage is
the roof is to support.
From general observation you
may have noticed roofs that were
practically flat and ones that were
very steep or any angle of slope
Securing Ceiling foists to Wall
in between. Climate is one of the
determining factors of roof slope.
When ceiling joists and walls In colder climates it is customary

to build the slope quite steep to
of the rooms below the joists are
shed snow and ice, while in
parallel to each other but the
warmer climates this is not nec-
joists do not bear upon the wall,
essary, so roof slopes are gener-
some provision must be made for
securing the two together. Two
ally quite low. A low slope rep-
resents a considerable saving in
methods of joining walls and
shown in the illustra-
materials. However, low slope
ceilings are
roofs must have greater strength
tions.
to support additional live loads,
Beam or Girder to Support Non-bearing partitions may
such as an unusual snowfall. Cur-
Joists Above Openings be blocked between ceiling
joists.
rent design tends to favor low
If ceiling joists are at a right slopes when at all permissible.
angle to an between
opening
rooms, as when a living and dining
room have no wall between (open
plan), a beam or girder must
support the opening. If the beam
protrudes below the finished
ceiling, the joists may be lapped

or spliced over the beam. How-
ever, if a smooth ceiling is desired
between the two rooms, a ledger
may be added to the beam as 3uilt-up girders with ledgers permit level
shown and the joists supported on Ceiling joists secured to
ceilings between rooms.
ledger. The ledger should both edges of a wall give
the
nailing surface for finishing
equal h the total
x
beam depth.
materials.
104
9: Ceiling Joists and Roof Construction
RAFTER
CRIPPLED STUD
Roof Types
Traditional design has devel-
CEILING JOIST
oped standard roof types. The
more common are shown in the
illustrations on page 106.
DOUBLE TOP PLATE
These are not the only solutions
to placing a roof on a structure.
Gable end framing

Modern design and experimenta-
tion have offered many unusual
shapes. Some of the new shapes,
based on an expanding technol-
ogy, will certainly
become stan-
dard forms of construction.
Others are merely an attempt to
find something new and different
and have no structural advantage
over existing types. Some of the
more promising new shapes are
illustrated.
To design a good roof requires
a basic knowledge of the parts and
how these partsare assembled
into a finished structure. When
complicated design is involved,
it is necessary for the designer
to
supply framing plans describing
the parts and their locations in
relation to the other structural
members.
Gable Roof
The gable roof is the most fre-
quently used type. When more
complicated types are used, the
gable usually forms the basic part
of the shape.
Building Span
Ceiling joists and rafters are
usually placed across the shortest
building dimension. The distance
from one outer corner of the top
plate to the opposite outer corner
is the building span.
105
Frequently used roof shapes.
Roof shapes frequently used on contemporary buildings.
BARREL VAULT
CYLINDRICAL PARABOLOID
106
RIDGE BOARD Rafter Run

MEASURING LINE
The rafter run is the horizontal
distance from one end of the
rafter to the opposite end. When
a ridge board is placed at the
upper end of the rafters, the center
of this board is considered as the

point where each run terminates.
BUILDING SPAN
Rafter Notch at Top Plate
A flat bearing surface is nec-

upon the
essary where rafters bear
top plate. A notch ("bird's
mouth") is cut on the lower edge
of the rafter so the notch is equal
PITCH SYMBOL
in width to the 2x4 top plate.
12
When solid masonry walls are
used and a wide top plate is
placed covering both wythes, the

notch is still made only 4" wide.
This is slightly variable.
Measuring Line of Rafter

The measuring line is an imag-
inarv line running parallel to the
edge of the rafter so that it passes
through the inside 90° corner
formed by the notch and extends
the entire length of the rafter.
STANDARD ROOF SLOPES Mfg Ajioc

Rafter Tail
Notional lumber
Roof construction data. The rafter tail is the amount

of rafter extending past the side
COLLAR BEAM- of the building to form the over-
hang. The tail is not considered
PURLIN WITH BLOCKING LET IN PURLIN
a part of the actual rafter length.
Rafter Span
The rafter span is the inclined

or actual rafter length, measured
from the 90° corner of the notch
and following the measuring line
to the center of the ridge board.

Note: It is very easy to confuse
rafter span with building span.
Be sure vou understand it. Also
Collar beams and braces strengthen roof construction. see illustrations on page 108.
107
Part One; Structure— An Architectural Obligation
RIDGE BOARD
VALLEY JACK RAFTER
COMMON RAFTER
HIP JACK RAFTER

Roof framing parts identification.
(1) It is stated as a fraction, as

full pitch, Vi pitch, Vi, Va, etc. On
a full-pitch roof the rise is equal
to twice the rafter run. This is
also equal to the building span.

On a Vi pitch roof the rise is equal
to the rafter run. (2) The pitch is
also stated as the amount of rise
in inches in proportion to each
12 inches of run. Examples are
4/12,5/12,6/12, 10/12, or 12/12.
This might also be stated as "6
inches to the foot," "10 inches to
the foot," etc.
Rafter Angle
As stated earlier the rafter is
designed in a ratio of rise to run.
The rafter tables on the carpenter's

framing square are also based
on this ratio. The tables are tabu-
Flat roof framing lated in even inches of rise in

proportion to 12" or 1' of run. It
is not wise to design a roof with

Rise Pitch an uneven pitch such as 4'/2/12
Rise is the vertical distance Pitch is the amount of slope or because this prevents the work-
from the lower edge of the ceil- slant of the roof. It is described men from using the tables on the
ing joists to the rafter measuring as the proportion or ratio of rise framing square, greatly increasing
line, when measured at the end of in relation to each foot of rafter labor costs because of the extra
the rafter run. run. Pitch is stated in two ways: time involved.
108
LOW SLOPE ROOF JOISTS OR RAFTERS
(Roof slope 3 in 1 2 or less)
DOUGLAS FIR, COAST REGION— ASSOCIATION LUMBER GRADES

Select Dense Construc- Standard Utility Select Dense Construc- Standard Utility
Spacing
Nominal size Structural Construc- tion Structural Construc- tion
(inches
(inches) tion tion
a. c.)
19501 1700 f 14501 12001 (I) 1950 f 1700 f 14501 1200 f (1)
Light Roofing Light Roofing
NOT SUPPORTING FINISHED CEILING SUPPORTING FINISHED CEILING

FT. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In.
2x6 12 14 4 14 4 14 4 14 4 9 6 13 8 13 8 13 8 13 8 8 10
16 13 13 13 12 10 8 4 12 4 12 4 12 4 11 10 7 8
24 11 4 11 4 11 4 10 6 6 8 10 10 10 10 10 8 9 8 6 2
2x8 12 18 4 18 4 18 4 18 4 14 4 17 8 17 8 17 8 17 8 13 2
16 17 17 17 17 12 4 16 4 16 4 16 4 16 2 11 6
24 15 4 15 4 15 4 14 4 10 14 8 14 8 14 6 13 2 9 4
2 x 10 12 21 10 21 10 21 10 21 10 19 6 21 21 21 21 in
16 20 4 20 4 20 4 20 4 16 10 19 6 19 6 19 6 19 6 15 8
24 18 4 18 4 18 4 18 13 10 17 8 17 8 17 8 16 8 12 10
2x12 12 24 24 24 24 22 8 24 24 24 24 21
16 23 6 23 6 23 6 23 6 19 8 22 6 22 6 22 6 22 6 18 2
24 21 2 21 2 21 2 21 2 16 2 20 4 20 4 20 4 20 2 14 10
(Roof slope 3 in 12 or less)
SOUTHERN YELLOW PINE (Medium Grain)-ASSOCIATION LUMBER GRADES

No. 1 K. D. No. 2 K. D. No. 1 No. 2 No. 1 K. D. No. 2 K. D. No. 1 No. 2
Spacing 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension
(inches)
o. c.) 17001 1500 f 1450 f 1200 f 17001 1500 f 14501 12001
Light Roofing Light Roofing
NOT SUPPORTING FINISHED CEILING SUPPORTING FINISHED CEILING

Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In.
2x6' 12 14 4 14 4 14 4 14 4 13 8 13 8 13 8 13 8
16 13 13 13 12 10 12 4 12 4 12 4 11 10
24 11 4 11 4 11 4 10 6 10 10 10 10 10 8 9 8
2x8 12 18 4 18 4 18 4 18 4 17 8 17 8 17 8 17 8
16 17 17 17 17 16 4 16 4 16 4 16 2
24 15 4 15 4 15 4 14 4 14 8 14 8 14 6 13 2
2x10 12 21 10 21 10 21 10 21 10 21 21 21 21
16 20 4 20 4 20 4 20 4 19 6 19 6 19 6 19 6
24 18 4 18 4 18 4 18 17 8 17 8 17 8 16 8
2x12 12 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24
16 23 6 23 6 23 6 23 6 22 6 22 6 22 6 22 6
24 21 2 21 2 21 2 21 2 20 4 20 4 20 4 20 2
1
Spans for 2"x6" lumber having actual dressed size of 1 ¥$"x5W (b) Spans be decreased 5 percent from those shown for lumber
shall
may be increased by 2Vi percent. more than 2 percent but not more than 5 percent scant from American
Notes: (a) Spans may be increased 5 percent from those shown Lumber Standards sizes measured at a moisture content of 1 9 percent
for rough /umber or /umber surfaced two edges (S2E). or less. Lumber scant more than 5 percent will not be acceptable.
Low slope rafter sizes and spacings.

109
RAFTERS
(Roof Slope over 3 in 1 2)
DOUGLAS FIR-COAST REGION-ASSOCIATION LUMBER GRADES

Select Dense Select Dense
Spacing Structural Construction Construction Standard Utility Structural Construction Construction Standard Utility
Nominal size (inches) (inches
o. c.) 1200
1950 f 1700 f 1405 f f
(1) 1950f 1700 f 14501 1200 f (1)
LIGHT ROOFING HEAVY ROOFING
2x4 ! 12 11 6 9 6 7 4 10 4 8 2 6 4
16 10 6 8 4 6 4 9 6 7 2 5 6
24 9 2 6 10 5 2 8 4 5 10 4 6
2x6 12 16 10 16 10 16 10 16 10 11 2 15 6 15 6 15 6 14 10 9 6
16 15 8 15 8 15 8 15 9 8 14 4 14 4 14 12 10 8 4
24 13 10 13 10 13 6 12 2 7 10 12 6 12 6 11 6 10 6 6 8
2x8 12 21 2 21 2 21 2 21 2 16 8 19 8 19 8 19 8 19 8 14 4
16 19 10 19 10 19 10 19 10 14 4 18 4 18 4 18 4 17 6 12 4
24 17 10 17 10 17 10 16 8 11 10 16 6 16 6 15 8 14 4 10
2x10 12 24 24 24 24 22 10 23 6 23 6 23 6 23 6 19 6
16 23 8 23 8 23 8 23 8 19 8 21 10 21 10 21 10 21 10 16 10
24 21 4 21 4 21 4 21 16 2 19 8 19 8 19 8 18 13 10
1
Denotes grade is not a stress grade. (b) Spans shall be decreased 5 percent from those shown for lumber
7
Denotes light framing grade. (Not Industrial tight Framing) more than 2 percent but not more than 5 percent scant from American
Notes: Lumber Standards sizes measured at a moisture content of 9 percent 1
(a) Spans may be increased 5 percent from those shown for or less. Lumber scant more than 5 percent will not be acceptable.
rough lumber or /umber surfaced two edges (S2E).
(Roof slope over 3 in 1 2)
SOUTHERN YELLOW PINE— MEDIUM GRAIN— ASSOCIATION LUMBER GRADES

No. 1 K. D. No. 2 K. D. No. 1 No. 2 No. 1 K. D. No. 2 K. D. No. 1 No. 2
Spacing
2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension 2" Dimension
(inches
Nominal size (inches)
o.c.)
17001 15001 1450 f 1200 f 17001 1500 1 14501 1200 f
LIGHT ROOFING HEAVY ROOFING
2x4 12 11 6 11 6 11 6 11 4 10 4 10 4 10 4 9 8
16 10 6 10 6 10 6 9 10 9 6 9 6 9 4 8 6
24 9 2 9 8 10 8 8 2 7 8 7 6 6 10
2x6' 12 16 10 16 10 16 10 16 10 15 6 15 6 15 6 14 10
16 15 8 15 8 15 8 15 14 4 14 4 14 12 10
24 13 10 13 8 13 4 12 2 12 6 11 8 11 6 10 6
2x8 12 21 2 21 2 21 2 21 2 19 8 19 8 19 8 19 8
16 19 10 19 10 19 10 19 10 18 4 18 4 18 4 17 6
24 17 10 17 10 17 10 16 8 16 6 16 15 8 14 4
2x10 12 24 24 24 24 23 6 23 6 23 6 23 6
16 23 8 23 8 23 8 23 8 21 10 21 10 21 10 21 10
24 21 4 21 4 21 4 21 19 8 19 8 19 8 18
Spans for 2"x6" lumber having actual dressed

1
•of IVs"x5W (b) Spans shall be decreased 5 percent from those shown for lum-
may be increased 2Vi percent. ber more than 2 percent but not more than 5 percent scant from
Nates: (a) Spans may be increased 5 percent from those sho American Lumber Standards sizes measured at a moisture content of
for rough lumber or lumber surfaced two edges (S2E). J 9 percenf or less. Lumber scant more than 5 percent will not be
acceptable.
no Rafter sizes and spacings.
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 25 26 28 30 32 34 36
RAFTER RUN IN FEET
Rafter span conversion diagram.
Knowing the names of roof There are two sets of rafter tables pounds per square foot is classed
parts is very important if one is to in the text: one for low slope as a heavyweight roofing.
convey their descriptions to other rafters and/or roof joists and one The low slope tables covering
persons. Therefore study carefully for normal rafters with a slope support of finished ceilings are
the illustrations naming the parts. greater than 3" in 12" pitch. Each based on a total design load for
Proper methods of joining the table is divided into two sections. both stress and deflection of 35
parts can also be determined by The low slope tables are divided pounds per square foot. The
studying the illustrations. so the unfinished ceiling is to the dead load has been calculated
left and the chart for finished at 15 psf and the live load at 20
Rafter Tables Used in Text ceilings is to the right. Rafters psf. Deflection is not to exceed
Rafters for low slope roofs with a low slope are designed to '/240 of the clear span up to 15
may also serve as a base for the accommodate lightweight roofing, feet. If the joists are longer than
finished ceilingon their lower side. which weighs less than four 15 feet the total deflection must
In this case the same members pounds per square foot. Any roof- not exceed %". See tables on
serve as rafters and ceiling joists. ing that weights more than four pages 109 and 110.
Ill
COMMON RAFTER LENGTHS

IN INCHES.USE DECIMAL
EQUIVALENT CHART TO CONVERT TO
FRACTIONS-READ FIGURE TO
LOWER RIGHT OF INTERSECTING LINES.
RUN IN FEET
Low slope tables used in figur- slope roofs with finished ceilings. Rafters designed for heavyweight
ing supports for finished ceilings Study and compare rafter tables. roofing are based on a total load
are based on a total design load Rafters with a slope greater of 30 psf. The dead load has been
for both stress and deflection of than 3" in 12" and designed for calculated at 15 psf and the five
30 psf. The dead load has been lightweight roofing are based on load at 15 psf. Deflection is not
calculated at 10 psf and the live a total design load of 22 psf. The to exceed Viso of the clear span
load at 20 psf. The allowable de- dead load has been calculated at up to 15'. Over 15' the deflection
flection is the same as for low 7 psf and the live load at 15 psf. is not to exceed 1".
112
Combination nailed and glued
"W" truss.
"W" truss with split ring connectors.
Roof Truss
Ceiling joists and rafters may reducing construction time and no bearing walls are required,
be cut and assembled as a single labor costs. (3) A truss bears only interior walls can be placed in any-
unit, with structural support be- upon the outside walls, thus per- desired location.
tween the members. The triangu- mitting a clear span the entire
Methods of Assembling Roof Truss
lar unit thus formed is called a width of the building. This elimi-
roof truss. The truss has many nates the need for bearing walls There are two common meth-
advantages over conventional and permits the building to be ods of assembling roof trusses.
framing methods. The struc-
( 1 ) framed as one large room. The One method makes use of metal
tural members can be smaller building can be closed in after a connectors and the other is by
than conventional framing and minimum of time and the area gluing and/or nailing. When a
still furnish the same strength. used for working during the re- nailed, glued truss is used, ply-
(2) They may be purchased, thus mainder of construction. Since wood gussets, are used at joints.
113
th plywood gussets.
Two shapes are used for nailed,

glued trusses. These are either a
W truss or a king-post truss. Two
methods of framing the nailed
and glued W
truss are shown, with
the latter preferred.
Preliminary Design for Nailed Glued Trusses All trusses should be designed
conforming to standard engineer-
Pitch 2/12 to 4/12 Span Chords ing practice. Note that itis more
practical to purchase them as

W - Truss 20'-8" to 28'-8" 2x4
manufactured units than to con-
struct them at the building site.
W • Truss 28'-9" to 40'0" 2x6
Truss Spacing
Kingpost 1
8'-0" to 24'0" 2x4
The most common spacing
for wood roof trusses is 2'-0" on
Kingpost 25'0" to 32'-0" 2x6
center (o.c). However, this is not
Table of truss cords. the only spacing that may be used.
114
.
1 What are three common 16. Name and describe as many 34. What is lightweight roofing?
methods of roof framing? roof types as you can. Heavyweight?

What are ceiling joists?
2. 17. What is the most frequently 35. What is a roof truss?
Where are splices in ceiling
3. used roof type? Why? 36. What are the advantages of
joists made? 1 8. What is meant by the term a truss roof over conventional fram-
4. What is a load bearing wall? building span? ing methods?

5. What is meant by a scab 19. What is meant by the term 37. What are two methods of
being nailed onto a joist? rafter run? assembling roof trusses?
6. What three factors determine 20. Why is a rafter notched 38. What is a W truss?
ceiling joist size? where it joins the top plate? 39. What is a king post truss?
7. When do ceiling joists also 2 1 . What is another name for the 40. Which is the stronger?
serve as floor joists? rafter notch? 41. For typical light construc-
8. What is the preferred ceiling 22. Where is the rafter measur- tion, what is the truss spacing most
joist spacing? ing line located? What kind of line frequently used?
9. What determines spacing of is this?
furring strips placed at right angles 23. What is a rafter tail? Terms to Spell and Know
to the ceiling joists? 24. What is rafter span?
prefinished
counteract
10. What are two methods of 25. What is rise?
framing furring
securing ceiling joists to walls par- 26. What is pitch?
joists traditional
allel to the joists? Use sketches, if 27. How are rise and run related
rafters gable
necessary. to pitch?
assembly mansard
1 1 . If there is no wall between 28. What is a dormer?
truss gambrel
two adjoining rooms (open plan), 29. What is a crippled stud?
girder butterfly
how are the ceiling joists supported? 30. From your own reasoning,
planks parabola
What
12. special provision should why are rafters doubled at openings?
roof deck hyperparabola
be made when there is an opening What special provision must
31.
barrel
tension
through ceiling joists? be made when framing a gable to
thrust overhang
1 3. What is a rafter? accommodate masonry veneer?
lightweight
spiked
14. What factors determine roof 32. What is a ridge board, and
nailed heavyweight
what purpose? Do
slope? is its all build-
species W truss
15. Why are low slope roofs ings with a sloping roof have one?
slope king post truss
quite popular at the present time? 33. What is a low slope roof?
115
a®
Roofings
Definition of This type roof may be flat. Roofs rating, which is Class A, as de-
Roof Sheathing of these materials are usually re- termined by Underwriters Lab-
served for buildings of heavy oratories. The planks are also
Roof sheathing is the solid
construction. However, the con- very low in noise transmission,
base material placed over the
crete plank systems are used quite which makes them satisfactory
rafters or roof framing members
extensively in small masonry as a flooring system.
to support the roof covering.
apartments and light commercial
Concrete or buildings. Two advantages are Wood Roof Sheathing
Gypsum Base Sheathing the speed of erection and its fire Wood frame roofs using either
If a structure is of masonry
and has steel or concrete roof
framing members, the roof deck
may be of concrete or gypsum.
Sometimes this deck is made of
concrete planks or it can be
formed and poured. When gyp-
sum is used as a roof deck it is
not intended to support live loads
other than water or snow. Gyp-
sum is prepared with water in a
mixer and sprayed onto the roof

through a hose. It is leveled in
much the same manner as con-
crete. When gypsum is used as a
base for roofing it coats a form of
fiberboard or corrugated metal.
This form material is not re-
moved; it acts as a sub-base for

the roof. Two advantages of gyp-
sum over concrete are its light
weight and the short setting time
for the material.
Concrete or gypsum roofs are
covered with built-up roofing. Concrete planks may be installed for floor or roof systems.
116
rafters or roof trusses are usually
covered with a wood sheathing.
When wood shingles are to be
used as a roof covering, l"x3"
strips are often placed across the
rafters with vacant spaces be-
tween. This meets minimum re-
quirements where wood shingles
are permitted but makes addi-
tional work later if the shingles
are replaced with other types of
roofing, which requires that these
spaces be filled in.
Solid Sheathing
Western Wood Products Assoc
Surfaced-four-sides (S4S) lum- Wood strips are frequently used to replace solid sheathing when wood shingles are
ber is frequently used as roof to form the finished roof.
sheathing. However, tongue-and-
groove or shiplap lumber is more
satisfactory because the edges are
held securely together across the
space between rafters.
Sheathing Lumber Sizes
When either S4S boards or

edge-and-end matched lumber is
used,and when minimum rafter
spacingis 24" o.c. or less, nominal
1" (actually "/u") lumber is

used. When greater rafter spacing
Staggered end
is desired, additional sheathing
with solid lum
thickness is also required. Tables
of lumber thickness and spans
are shown in Chapter 1 1, Post and
Beam Construction. Tables of ply-
wood thickness and spans are
shown on page 1 1 8 of this chapter.
Breaking Joints in Sheathing
When S4S lumber is used, suc-

ceeding boards should not be
spliced over the same rafter. The
joints should be staggered or al-
ternated. If end-matched lumber
is used, a joint may be made be-
Plywood roof sheathing must be posi-
tween rafters but the board must
tioned so ad|oining panels do not end
rest upon at least two rafters.
on the same joist.
117
Part One: Structure — An Architectural Obligation
ROOFS— Minimum Thicknesses, Spans and Nailing Schedules

(Grain of Face Plys. Across Supports; Stagger All Panel End Joints)
FHA requirements
When the minimum property standards of the FHA are met for each use, this agency
allows the use of plywood in all parts of the home. This table sets out the basic FHA
requirements.
MAXIMUM SUPPORT SPACING
(Center to Center)
Slate,
SPECIES PLY- Asphalt or Wood (a)
Clay
NAIL SIZE NAIL SPACING
WOOD Shingles or Shakes Built-up Common
THICK- Roofing Nails
Asbestos-
NESS (<)
Cem. or
Blkd Shingles Panel Inter-
Blkd (b) Unblkd (b) Unblkd Unblkd Edges mediate
Douglas Fir, V\t" 16" 16" 16" 6d 6" 12"

Western larch and %" 24" 20" 24" 16" 6d 6" 12"
Group 1 (C-C and C-D
w 32" 24" 32" 20" 16" 8d 6" 12"
sheathing grades only)
w 42" 28" 42" 24" 24" 8d 6" 12"
plywoods %" 48" 32" 48" 28" 32" 8d 6" 12"

%" 16" 16" 16" 6d 6" 12"
Groups 2 and 3 of
Western softwood
w 24" 20" 24" 16" 16" 8d 6"
6"
12"
plywood (d)
%" 32" 24" 32" 20" 20" 8d 12"
3/4" 42" 28" 42" 24" 28" 8d 6" 12"
(a) Flat roofs used for walking traffic metal clips designed for this purpose. (d) grades identi-
This applies also to all
such as sun decks shall use same con- fied as Group 1, excepting the sheath-
(c) Or 5d threaded nails for Vis" and
struction as subflooring. ing grades (C-C and C-D) which if identi-
3
/s" plywood and 7d threaded nails for
fied as Group 1 may take the same
(b) Blocking of edges shall be by accu- other thicknesses.
spans as Douglas fir.
rately cut wood blocking or by special
American Plywood Assoc
Width of Sheathing Boards

As stated in Chapter 6, wide
boards warp more than narrow
ones. When roof sheathing— also
sometimes called decking or roof
boards— warps, it presents an un-
sightly, irregular roof. It can also
affect the quality because shingles
may not lie flat, thus permitting
wind to lift them from the roof.
Boards no wider than 6" are
recommended.
Plywood Sheathing
Sheathing grade plywood (ex-
teriorunsanded) makes very fine
Building paper is fastened between roof sheathing and the exterior roof covering. roof sheathing. The advantages
are the same as for sub-floors. "
118
10: Roofings
discussed in Chapter 6. Tables used, the face grain is placed sheathing from the weather. It
for plywood roof sheathing are across the joists. Examine care- also serves as a partial vapor
shown. Even though Vi</' and fully the notes at the bottom of barrier. If the roofing is to be
W thicknesses meet minimum the plywood sheathing tables to laid immediately, the building
requirements up to 30 pounds be sure all requirements are paper may be tacked in place with
total live and dead loads for 24" fulfilled. roofing nails or staples. How-
rafter spacing, the deflection be- ever, with only nails holding the
tween rafters is sometimes visible Building Paper edges it is easily torn. Therefore
to the observer. For this reason After roof sheathing is in it is usually held in place by
the author prefers a ¥i" minimum place, it is covered with felt build- tacking wood lath along the
thickness, with W thickness more ing paper. Manufacturers recom- edges.This protects the paper
desirable if cost will permit. mend 15 pound paper for most from being torn by either the
When plywood sheathing is applications. This protects the wind or workers' movements.
Roof Coverings
Built-up Roofing vantages over other types. It has
Built-up roofing is used on flat a Class A fire rating. It is easy to
or low slope roofs. It consists of repair or replace and is very wind
alternate layers of asphalt and resistant.
building felt. The final coat of The crushed stone placed in
asphalt is covered with gravel, the outer layer serves chiefly as a

slag, or stone chips (chat). The decorative covering but also helps
color and texture depend upon reflect the sun's rays.
the material used. This type of gMfffUnnWiP.MW^

roofing may be applied to almost
any roof deck, since no nails or
A built up roof is long lasting and ideally
other mechanical fasteners are
suited to flat installations.
required. It is especially suitable
for concrete and gypsum but may
be used with wood, plywood, or
fiberboard if adequate strength is
provided at joints in the roof
decking.
Low slope built-up roofs are widely used
Most satisfactory results are
on contemporary homes.
obtained when the material is ap-
plied by a professional. Roof costs
are based on the amount of time
it can be expected to last. This
depends upon the number of lay-
ers of asphalt and felt that are
applied. It may be purchased with
a 10, 15, or 20 year warranty.
Built-up roofing has several ad-
2/12 the underlay paper should

be head lapped 2". For slopes
less than 2/12 the underlay
Three-tab square butt shingle.
should be doubled. Asphalt shin-
Individual shingle. gles arepurchased by the square,
or 100 square feet. The standard
weight is 215 pounds per square.

However, some codes require up
to a 275-pound weight.
Two-tab hex shingle. Asphalt shingles are favored

Giant individual American shingle.
by many. They are easy to apply,
have a good appearance, are fire
and are reasonable in
resistant,
cost.They are usually applied
over wood sheathing. When ap-
plying nails or staples to secure
Three-tab hex shingle. Dutch lap shingle.
the roofing, care must be taken to
avoid joints in the sheathing. If
Asphalt shingle patterns.
nails are not properly held they
will work around in or through
Asphalt Roll Roofing the outer surface, causing leaks.
nailed to prevent water from run-
Asphalt roll roofing is felt build- Shingles are lapped over the
ning under the joint.
ing paper impregnated with as- gable rake and fascia from A" to X
phalt. It is purchased in rolls of Asphalt Shingles W to prevent capillary action

36" width. It may be either smooth Asphalt shingles are of asphalt from drawing water under them.
surfaced, with the asphalt ex- impregnated felt paper which is Metal edging or starter strip is rec-
posed, or it may have stone gran- coated on the face with fine stone ommended. When one observes
ules imbedded in the outer granules. They may be purchased asphalt strip shingles, the slits
surface. The granules may be in a wide variety of solid and forming the tabs are seen. If the
distributed over the entire sur- variegated colors and in many first course of shingles is placed on
face or they may be on only the different patterns. The more com- the roof in the regular manner,
lower half of the roll if double mon are illustrated. Perhaps the the felt underlay is exposed be-
coverage (two layers) is not de- most familiar is the 3-tab square tween the slits. One must use a
sired. Roll roofing may also be butt shingle. The dimensions of strip of roll roofing or reversed
purchased with a patterned ex- strip shingles are 12"x36". The shingles beneath this first course.
posed edge. amount of tab exposure to the
This is a very inexpensive roof weather (amount of shingle visi- Asbestos Cement Shingles
covering used on small utility ble) is dependent upon the roof Asbestos cement shingles are
farm structures or storage units pitchand grade of shingle used. manufactured of asbestos fibers
where appearance is not a factor. Five inches to the weather is a bonded in portland cement. They
This prohibits its use on most typical exposure. Low slope roofs are usually striated or textured to
homes. Roll roofing is suitable for or high wind areas may require resemble wood shingles. They are
roof pitches of from 1 / 1 2 to 5 / 1 2. cement under each tab to seal it very durable except they are quite
When it is used on low slope to the roof, or the newer self- brittle and will shatter if struck
roofs, it is recommended that sealing shingles may be used. a sharp blow. They are available
the lower edge be cemented and For roof pitches of more than in a great range of colors. There
120
10: Roofings
are no uniform standard sizes.

Most companies manufacture in-
dividual shingles and wider widths
resembling several shingles. These
shingles are recommended for
roofs with a pitch of 5/12 or

greater but may be used on low
slope roofs if special sealing pre-
cautions are taken. Asbestos ce-
ment shingles are fairly expensive
and are therefore used primarily
on institutional buildings and
finer homes.
Corrugated asbestos cement
sheets are used primarily for util- on wood strips or solid roof
Random width wood shingles or shakes may be laid either
ity structures. sheathing covered with felt building paper.
Clay Tile
Clay manufactured of
tile is
shale in the form of

and clay
baked masonry. There are many (1) Wood shingles which are rally into thin layers by earth
shapes of clay tile. If they are to sawed to their shape and forces. The shingle is the thickness
be included in your plan secure (2) Wood shakes, split, either of a layer but is cut into rec-
detailed information from manu- by machine or by hand. tangles of the desired size. The
facturers literature. It is a very The hand split is the more costly surface may be smooth or rough,
durable material and comes in a of the two. On less expensive split depending upon the effect de-
wide range of colors. It has several shakes the shingle is split on the sired. Slate makes a permanent
disadvantages. It is quite expen- face and then sawed (called re- roof but its high cost limits use.
sive, very heavy, and must be sawing) to form a taper. In this It is also easily broken if struck a
installed by an expert. It is used way two shingles are formed from sharp blow. It is installed in much
primarily for institutional build- one piece of wood. thesame manner as flat clay tile.
ings and expensive homes. It Many codes prohibit the use of Weight and cost are about the
should be laid on a solid deck wood shingles or shakes because same.

with 30 pound felt beneath the of their fire hazard. However, Terne
tile. when this is not a problem, they
Terne is sheet iron or steel
Wood Shingles do present a pleasing appearance.
coated with an alloy of tin and
They cost approximately three
These shingles are used when lead. It is purchased in rolls and
times the amount of a good qual-
a rustic appearance is desired. may be applied on very low slope
ity asphalt shingle. As stated ear-
The thick butt (bottom end) pro- roofs. It may have either standing
lier, wood shingles are not usually
vides a wide shadow line at the or flat locked seams. This roof
laid on a solid roof deck. Strips
base. Wood shingles are manu-
are nailed across the rafters to
should be painted or have a bi-
factured of cedar, redwood, or tuminous coating applied. It is
conform to the amount of headlap
cypress, with cedar being most installed over a solid roof deck.
desired.
frequently used. Wood shingles Terne is a good roof; if kept prop-
Slate under normal use, it
can actually be divided into two erly coated,
groups: Slate is a stone formed natu- will last indefinitely.
121
Ik±V*^
Unif Structures, Koppers Com
Properly designed standing seam metal roofs can contribute to overall architectural beauty.
It has very good fire and wind roofs. It may be placed over a Corrugated and ribbed roof-
resistance. The cost is about three solid deck or may be placed ver- ings also are often treated with
times as great as asphalt shingles. tically over purlins or furring fiberand bituminous coatings to
without a roof deck. It is used prolong their life, improve ap-
Copper
primarily on utility structures as pearance, and reduce noise.
Copper is purchased in rolls a finished roofing. However, it is
and applied in the same manner Aluminum Shingles
sometimes used as a base for con-
as terne. It is also a very durable
crete, as previouly discussed. Be-
Aluminum is also formed into
material and makes a beautiful individual and strip shingles, used
cause of the rust-resistant zinc
roof after the copper oxidizes to for the same applications as as-
coating, it may be left unfinished
a warm
green patina. The chief phalt shingles. The colors tend
but painting assures better ap-
disadvantage of copper is its high pearance and longer life. The
initial cost, which prohibits its use Corrugated roofing is widely used on
sheets are 26" wide and 6' to 12'
utility structures.
on inexpensive structures.
long.
Corrugated or Ribbed Corrugated or ribbed aluminum

Galvanized Roofing is similar in appearance and ser-
This comes in steel sheets vice to galvanized roofing. How-

formed with corrugations or ribs ever, since aluminum does not
to add rigidity. The sheet is dipped rust, it need not be painted. The
into a hot zinc alloy to form a cost is slightly more than for gal-
rust protective coating. The roof- vanized but it is still primarily

ing is not intended for low slope used for utility structures.
122
10: Roofings
to be bright and have a glossy ap- in flat and corrugated styles. They these panels as replacement for
pearance. They are a very durable are a relatively new product. windows, or they are very satis-
shingle. However, their noise Generally the panels are of either factory for and patio
carport
transmission is great. They are fiber glass or translucent acrylic roofs. They work on slopes
best
lightweight and easy to apply. plastic. Their uses are as varied over 4/12 but may be used on
They are used on roofs with over as the imagination. They are es- low slopes if the joints are
a 4/12 pitch. Their cost is slightly pecially suitable as inserts in calked or sealed. Panels are easy
more than for asphalt shingles. roofs on industrial and utility to cut and install using woodwork-
structures, as they admit light ing tools. The cost is greater than
Translucent Panels but the sun's rays. Many
filter for metal roofing but is still satis-
These panels are manufactured buildings are being built using factory for low-priced structures.
Flashing
Where a vertical surface joins
a roof the joint must be sealed.
When two roof surfaces are joined
they must also be sealed. Metal.
plastic, or bituminous materials
are placed in the joint to lead
the water away. When planning a
building the flashings must be
described and specified. Examples
of flashing at important locations
are shown in the illustrations.
These should be studied carefully.
Flashing seals the joint between a roof

and an adjoining wall.
Boston ridges are used to finish gable and hip roofs.
123
.
Chimney saddles must be flashed to

prevent leaks.
A dormer requires flashing above the window and where it meets another roof.
Chimneys extending through a roof ridge
should be flashed on all sides.
Both open and closed valleys should be flashed to prevent leaks.
Questions to Reinforce Know/edge
1 What is roof sheathing? 4. When and why is gypsum 7. What are concrete planks,
What are two other names by which used as a roof deck? and why are they used?
it is called? 5. Are the forms removed when 8. Why is edge and end
2. When may concrete be used a gypsum roof deck is used? Explain. matched lumber better for roof
as a roof deck? 6. What are some of the ad- sheathing than S4S lumber?
3. What are some of the advantages of a gypsum roof deck? 9. How thick is nominal 1"
vantages of a concrete roof deck? What is one disadvantage? lumber?
124
10: Roofings
1 0. May boards ever be spliced 29. When one says "to the 38. Why do codes sometimes
between rafters? When? weather," what is meant? prohibit the use of wood shingles?
1 1 . Why are wide boards less 30. Are asphalt shingles widely 39. What is head lap on a
satisfactory than narrow ones for used? Why or why not? shingle?
roof sheathing? 31. What special precaution must 40. What is terne and how is it
12. What is likely to happen if be taken when asphalt shingles are purchased?
wide boards are used? used on a low slope roof? 41. Is terne a good roofing
13. What is sheathing grade 32. Why do shingles extend past material?
plywood? the edge of a roof? 42. Is terne suitable for flat
14. How does one determine 33. Why is the first course of roofs?
what thickness of plywood to use? asphalt shingles doubled? 43. What is the life expectancy
15. What relationship does the 34. What is an asbestos cement of terne?
face grain of the plywood have to shingle? Is it a good shingle? Where 44. Why does copper turn green?
the rafters? is it most frequently used? 45. What is corrugated roofing?
16. What is building paper? 35. Is there more than one shape Name the kinds and describe.
1 7. Why is building paper used of clay tile? Explain. 46. What are translucent corru-
beneath roofing? 36. What are the advantages of gated panels and where are they
1 8. How is it purchased? clay roofing tile? used?
19. What is built-up roofing? 37. Explain difference between 47. What is flashing? Is it a very
20. Where is this most frequently wood shingle and a split shake. important item on a building? Why?
used?
21. Is this a good material for
flat roofs? Explain. Terms to Spell and Know
22. Why is crushed stone applied
roofing resistant rustic
to the surface of built-up roofing?
shingles decorative terne
23. What is asphalt roll roofing
matched granules bituminous
and where is it used?
staggered imbedded oxidize
24. How wide is asphalt roll
alternate variegated patina
roofing?
decking butt ribbed
25. What are two surface treat-
exterior rake zinc
ments for asphalt roll roofing?
staples fascia alloy
26. Can roll roofing be used on
lath tabs fiber glass
low slope roofs? Explain answer.
asphalt asbestos acrylic
27. What are asphalt shingles? Is
warranty institution translucent
there more than one kind? Describe.
flashing
28. What is meant when one
says 3-tab shingle?
125
an
Post, Plank and Beam Construction
Wood post and beam construc- can building. It is also common less, since the method is applied
tion consists of a series of posts in farm and utility structures. in modern structures, it is
with heavy beams across them. Even though modern building important.
The posts transmit the building techniques and methods of join-
load to the footing. The wall area ery have improved, the basic prin- Scope of Discussion
between the posts does not add to ciple is much the same as in This unit is designed to famil-
the structural strength. The wall earlier times. It is favored in heavy iarize you with the basic problems
acts as a curtain to enclose the mill construction but not in homes. involved. It will also be an aid in
building. It may be a series of preliminary design work. For final
lightweight panels or may have New Uses design purposes, engineering data
conventional wall construction. Because of post and beam ap- and analysis should be studied.
A structure may be built in its plication to modern structures, Post and beam is a relatively
entirety of post and beam or one especially since the development simple system with many similari-
section (such as a wall or roof) of glued laminated beams, ply- ties to structural steel framing.
may be built using this method wood box beams, and other lami- However, because of the larger
and the remainder may be built nated structural components, free- need for fram-
structural sizes, the
another way. dom of design has become virtu- ing connectors, and methods of
Post and beam is a very old ally unlimited. Even so, the use of joinery, the system presents new
method of construction. It was post and beam construction has problems for one familiar with
used extensively in early Ameri- not spread to all areas. Neverthe- conventional framing.
Framing Systems
There are two general meth- are at right angles to the roof slopes, which, as said, allows un-
ods of beam placement. The first slope. When decking is placed at limited design possibilities.
is called the transverse system. In right angles to the beams, it slopes
this system, the roof beams fol- from the highest to lowest point Wood Posts
low the roof slope. The plank on the roof. See two drawings, When floors are to be sup-
decking is at right angles to the top of next page. ported, 6"x6" wood posts are re-
beam, which permits roof decking quired. Posts for walls and to
to be placed in its customary po- Roof Slope support ceiling beams should be
sition. The second method iscalled Post and beam construction is 4"x4". Consult the codes, some
the longitudinal syslem. The beams suitable for flat as well as all roof require different calculations.
126
J J ; Post, Plank and Beam Construction
Transverse beams extend from a building

edge to a center beam.
Beam Shape
Beams are usually rectangular,
with the thickness greater than the
width. The top of a beam may be
beveled to follow the roof slope.
If a load bearing wall is placed
at the ridge, the wall may replace
METAt STRAP METAL PLATE
the ridge beam. See next page.
Beam Spacing
Beam spacing and span are
determined by the size and species
of material used and by the total
load to be supported.
When 2" thick tongue-and-
groove subfloor or roof deck is
used the beam spacing is not to
exceed 7'-0". If greater beam
spacing is desired, thicker planks
must span the beams.
Three tables of beam sizes are
given. See pages 129 and 130. Methods of joining beams at the roof ridge.
127
A purlin may be secured between beams
before finishing materials are applied.
X
x
X
X
X
Beams may be notched to fit over

conventional frame walls. The up-
per 2x4 is a nailer fastened to the
plank roof.
Beam connectors.
This subfloor system places IV tongue

and groove plywood across 4'0" o.c.
beams.
Heavy plank subfloors may also be sup-

ported by a post and beam system.
"
Maximum spans for floor beams

using 2" plank subfloor
Spacing Douglas Fir Spacing Douglas Fir
Nominal Silt in feet S.Y. Pine Redwood Nominal Size in feet S.Y. Pine Redwood
1-3x10" 4'0" 12'-8" 1

0'-4" 2-2x12" 4'0" 16'1 1" 13'- 10'
4'-6" ll'-l 1" 9'-9" 4'-6" 1

6'-0" 13'-1"
5'0" 1 1
'-4" 9'-4" 5'0" 15'-3" 1
2'-5"
5'-6" 10'- 10" 8'- 11" 5'-6" 14'-6" 1 l'-10'
6'0" 10'-5" 8'-6" 6'-0" 13'1 1" 1 1
'-4"
6'-6" lO'-O" 8'-2" 6'-6" 13'-5" iO'-ir

7'0" 9'-8" 7"-l 1 7'0" 12'11" 10'-7"
2-2x10" 4'0" 1
4'0" 1 1
'-6" 1-4x12" 4'0" 17'- 10" 1
4'-6"
4'-6" 1
3'-3" 1C-9" 4'-6" 16'- 10" 1
3'-9"
5'0" 1
2'-7" 10'-3" 5'-0" 1
6'-0" 13'-1"
5'-6" 1
2'-0" 9'- 10" 5'-6" 15'-3" 1 2'-6"
6'0" 1 1
'-6" 9'-5" 6'0" 1
4'-8" 1
2'-0"
6'-6" ll'-l" 9' 1" 6'-6" 14' 1" 1 1
'-6"
7'0" 1
0'-8" 8'-9" 7'-0" 1
3'-8" ll'-l"
1-4x10" 4'0" 1
4'-9" 12' -1" 1-6x10" 4'0" 17'11" 1
4'-9"
4'-6" 1 3'- 11" 1 1
'-5" 4'-6" 1
7'0" 13'-11"
5'0" 1
3'-4" 10'10" 5'0" 16'- 3" 1
3'-3"
5'-6" 12'-9" 1
0'-4" 5'-6" 1
5'-6" 1
2'-8"
6'-0" 12'-2" 9'- 11" 6'-0" 14'- 10" 1

2'-2"
6'-6" ir-9" 9'-7" 6'-6" U'-3" ll'-8"
7'0" 1 1
'-4" 9'-3" 7'-0" 13'- 10" 1 1
'-3"
Maximum spans for floor beams using 2" plank subfloor.
Maximum spans for roof beams

using 2" plank decking
Spacing Douglas Rr Spacing Douglas Fir
Nominal size in feel S.Y. Pine Redwood Nominal Size i.i feet S.Y. Pine Redwood
2-2x6" 4'0" 10' 1" 8'-3" 1-3x10" 4'-0" 1 5'-2" 1 2'-5"
or 4'-6" 9'-7" 7'- 10" 4'-6" 1

4'-4" 1 1
'-9"
1 -4x6" 5'0" 9'- 1

" 7'-4" 5'0" 1
3'-8" 1 1
'-2"
5'-6" 8'-8" 7'-0" 5'-6" 1

3'0" 1
0'-8"
6'0" 8'-4" 6'-9" 6'0" 1 2'-6" 1

0'-2"
6'-6" 8'0" 6'-6" 6'-6" 1
2'0" 9'- 10"
7'0" 7'-8" 6'-3" 7'0" 1 1
'-7" 9'-6"
2-2x8" 4'-0" 1
3'-4" iO'-ir' 2-2x10" 4'-0" 1
6'-9" 1
3'-8"
or 4'-6" 1 2'-8" 1
0'-4" or 4'-6" 15'- 10" 12'11"
1-4x8" 5'0" 1
2'0" 9'- 10" 1-4x10" 5'0" 15' 1" 1
2'-4"
5'-6" 1 1
'-6" 9'-4" 5'-6" 1
4'-5" H'-IO"
6'0" 1 1
'0" 9'0" 6'-0" 13'- 10" 1 1
'-4"
6'-6" 1
0'-7" 8'-8" 6'-6" 1
3'-4" IC-IO"
7'-0" 1
0'-3" 8'-4" 7'-0" 12'- 10" 1
0'-6"
Maximum spans for roof beams using 2" plank decking.
129
Typical Glued Laminated Beam and Purlin Sizes*
TOTAL LOAD (LIVE AND DEAD)

SPAN SPCG. 30 P.S.F. 35 P.S.F. 40 P.S.F. 45 P.S.F. 50 P.S.F. 55 P.S.F.
6' 3%"x 6>A" 3%" x 6'A" 3%" x 6'A" 3%"x 8'A" 3%" x 8'A" 3%" x 8'A"
12' 8' 3%"x 8'/." 3 3A' x 8'A" 3%" x 8'A" 3%" x 8'A" 3%" x 8'A" 3%" x 9%"
12' 3%"x 8'A" 3%' x 8'A" 3%" x 9 3A" 3%" x 9%" 3%' x 11%" 3%" x 11%"
16' 3 3/b"x 9%" 3%' x 9%" 3%" x 1 1 %" 3%" x 1
3" 3%' x 14%" 3%" x 14%"
6' 3%"x 8'A" 3 3/e' x 9%" 3%' x 9 3A" 3%" x 9 3A" 3%' x 9%" 3%" x 9%"
16' 8' 3%" x 9%" 3%' x 9%" 3%' x 9 3A" 3%"x 11%" 3%' x 1 1 %" 3%' x 1 1 %"
12' 3%" x 1 1
%" 3%' x 11%" 3%" x 13" 3%" x 1
3" 3%' x 14%" 5'A' x 1 1 %"
16' 3%" x 1
3" 3%' x 13" 5'A" x 1 1
%" 5'A" x 1 1 %" 5'A' x 13" 5'A' x 13"
8' 3%" x 1 1
%" 3%' x 1 1
%" 5'A' x 1 1
%" 5'A"x 11%" 5'A' x 1 1 %" 5'A' x 11%"
20' 12' 3%"x 13" 3%' x 14%" 5'A' x 13" 5'A"x 13" 5'A' x 13" 5'A' x 14%"
16' 3 3/s" x 1
4%" 5'A' x 13" 5'A' x 14%" 5'A" x 1
4%" 5'A' x 16'A" 5'A' x 1 6'A"
18' 3" 4%" 14%" 5'A"x 16'A" 17%"

5'A" x 1 5'A' x 1 5'A' x 5'A' x 16'A" 5'A' x
8' 3%" x 1
4%" 3%' x 14%" 3%' x 14%" 5'A" x 1
3" 5'A' x 14%" 5'A' x 14%"
24' 12' 3%" x 1 6'A" 5'A' x 13" 5'A' x 14%" 5'A" x 1 4%" 5'A' x 16'A" 5'A' x 1 6'A"
16' 5'A"x 14%" 5'A' x 16'A" 5'A' x 16'A" 5'A" x 1

7%" 5'A' x 1
7%" 5'A' x 1 9'A"
18' 5'A" x 1 6'A" 5'A' x 1 6'A" 5'A' x 1 7%" 5'A" x 1 9'A" 5'A' x 1 9'A" 5'A' x21'A"
8' 3%"x 1 6'/." 3 3A' x 16'A" 5'A' x 14%" 5'A"x 16'A" 5'A' x 16'A" 5'A' x 16'A"
28' 12' 5'A"x 16'A" 5'A' x 16'A" 5'A' x 17%" 5'A"x 17%" 5'A' x 17%" 5'A' x 19'A"
16' 5'A" x 1
7%" 5'A' x 1
7%" 5'A' x 19'A" 5'A"x 21'A" 5'A' x21'A" 5'A' x 22%"
18' 5'/4" x 1
7%" 5'A' x 19'A" 5'A' x21'A" 5'A" x 1 9'A" 5'A' x 22%" 5'A' x 24%"
8' 5'A" x 1 6'A" 5'A' x 16'A" 5'A' x 17%" 5'A"x 17%" 5'A' x 17%" 5'A' x 19'A"
32' 12' 5'A"x 17%" 5'A' x 19'A" 5'A' x 1 9'A" 5'A" x 1 9'A" 5'A' x 21 'A" 5'A' x 22%"
16' 5'A" x 1 9'A" 5'A' x21'A" 5'A" x 22 3A" 5'A" x 22 3A" 5'A' x 24%" 5'A' x 26"
18' 5'A"x 19'A" 5'A' x 21Vs" 5'A' x 22%" 5'A" x 24%" 7" x 22%" 7" x 24%"
8' 5'A"x 19'A" 5'A' x21'/b" 5'A' x 21Vs" 5'A" x 22%" 5'A' x 22 3A" 5'A' x 24%"
40' 12' 5'A" x 22%" 5'A' x 22%" 5'A' x 24%" 5'A" x 24%" 5'A' x26" 7" x 24%"
16' 5'A" x 24 3/e" 5'A' x26" 7" x 24%" 7" x 24%" 7" x 26" 7" x 27%"
18' 5'A" x 24%" 7" x 24%" 7" x 24%" 7" x 26" 7" x 27%" 7" x 29'A"
12' 7" x 24 3/a" 7" x 26" 7" x 27%" 7" x 27%" 7" x 29'A" 7" x 30%"
50' 16' 7" x 27%" 7" x 29'A" 7" x 30%" 7" x 30%" 7" x 32'A" 9" x 30%"
18' 7" x 29'A" 7" x 29'A" 7" x 30%" 7" x 32'A" 9" x 30%" 9" x 32'A"
20' 7" x 29'A" 7" x 30%" 7" x 32'A" 9" x 30%" 9" x 32'A" 9" x 34'A"
12' 7" x 29'A" 7" x 30%" 9" x 30%" 9" x 30%" 9" x 32'A" 9" x 34'A"
60' 16' 9" x 30%" 9" x 32'A" 9" x 32'A" 9" x 34Vb" 9" x 35%" 9" x 37%"
18' 9" x 29%" 9" x 32'A" 9" x 34'A" 9" x 35%" 9" x 37%" 9" x 39"
2C 9" x 32'A" 9" x 34 '/a" 9" x 35 3A" 9" x 37%" 9" x39" 9" x 40%"
'This table of typical sizes is based on the following criteria. 3. is 1/240 of span for live load only or 1/180
Deflection limit
1. The loading shown is total load of which 15 p.s.f. is assumed of span for total load, whichever governs. This meets the
to be dead had. A.I.T.C. deflection criteria for "Commercial and Institutiona I-
2. Maximum bending stress is 2200 p.s.i. + 15% increase for Withovt Plaster Ceiling" use.
short time loading.
Weyerhaeuser Company
130 Glued laminated beam and purlin sizes.

TONGUE AND GROOVE DOUBLE TONGUE AND GROOVE
V JOINT V JOINT GROOVED
The first table, page 129, is for

floor beams using 2" plank sub-
floor. The second table, same
page, is for ceiling beams using

2" wood plank decking. The third
table is to be used if wider floor
or ceiling beam spacing is desired.
This table is calculated for glued
laminated lumber. When solid
Plank designs.
beams are desired their strength
is approximately the same. This Roof Decking
table is suitable for coast region SIMPLE SPAN
Douglas fir and medium-grain n
JJ
southern yellow pine. When other
species are desired, consult other
tables.
Roof Decking Douglas Fir LIVE LOAD (Lbs. per Sq. Ft.)
There are three methods of NOM.

GRADE AND PARA. 20 30 40 50
laying roof planks: ( ) They may THICK.
1
3" Select Dex -127b 15'3" 1

3'3" 1
2'0" U'3"
form simple spans placed from
3" Comm Dex-127c 15'3" 3'3" 2'0" n-3"
one beam to the next beam;
1 1
4" Select Dex-127-b 20'3" 17'9" 16'0" 15'0"

may be continuous over
(2) they
4" Comm. Dex-127-c 20'3" 7'9" 16'0" 150"
two beams or, (3) they may be 1
placed random. When placed

at Western Red Cedar
at random, succeeding planks 3" Select Dex— 427-b 1
3'0" 1 1
'3" 1
0'3" 9'6"
should not both end between the 3" Comm. Dex— 427-c 130" 11'3" 10'3" 9'6"
same beams. Illustrations showing 4" Select Dex— 427-b 17'3" 15'3" 13'9" 1
2'9"
the three methods of installation 4" Comm. Dex— 427-c 17'3" 15'3" 1
3'9" 12'9"
and tables of maximum spans

COMB. SIMPLE + 2-SPAN CONTINUOUS
are shown. Spans for roof planks
for Douglas fir are also suitable
for southern yellow pine. Note:
Yellow pine has slightly greater
strength.
Fiberboard roof decks are also TT
used but their span is usually Douglas Fir LIVE LOAD (Lbs. per Sq. Ft.)
limited to 8'-0". NOM.

THICK.
GRADE AND PARA. 20 30 40 50
Decking should be face and 3" 7'3" 5'0"
Select Dex— 127-b 1 1 1
3'6" 1
2'6"
edge nailed according to the 3" 7'3" 2'6"
Comm. Dex— 127-c 1 15'0" 13'6" 1
manufacturer's directions. 4" 22'9" 8'3" 6'9"

Select Dex— 127-b 20'0" 1 1
4" Comm. Dex— 127-c 22'9" 20'0" 1

8'3" 16'9"
Insulation for Plank Roof
Western Red Cedar
For most regions the roof deck-
3" Select Dex— 427-b 1
4'9" 1
2'9" 1 1
'9" 1
0'9"
ing will be sufficient insulation.
3" Comm. Dex— 427-c 1
3'6" 1
2'0" 1
0'9" ICO"
4" Select Dex— 427-b 1
9'6" 1
7'0" 1
5'6" 14'3"
131 4" Comm. Dex — 427-c 1
8'0" 1
6'0" 14'3" 1
3'3"
(Table continued on next page.]

Obligation
Part One: Structure— An Architectural
When additional insulation is re-

Roof Decking
quired, it be placed above
may
RANDOM LENGTH
or below the decking. The planks
are usually left exposed on the
underneath side and rigid insula-
tion is placed above the decking.
Purlins
LIVE LOAD (Lbs. per Sq. Ft.)
too
Douglas Fir When beam spacing is
50 great for plank spans, intermedi-

ate members may be placed across
the top of-orhung between-the
beams, and secured with metal
connectors. These intermediate
members are called purlins. When
beams are to be left exposed but
the plank decking is not (as when
acoustic tile is the finished ceil-
ing), purlins are usually used.
West Coosf Lumben
GROOVE IN BEAM
FOR UTILITIES
Weyerhoeuier Company
Groove in beam for utilities.
Insulation may be placed either above or below roof

decking.
METAL CONNECTOR
This laminated beam is called
a three-hinged arch.
Side view of purlin and its metal beam

connector.
132
Provision for Utilities
One big disadvantage of this
method is that there is no "attic"
or space between framing for con-
cealed wiring and other utilities.
It is sometimes possible to rout

grooves in the top of beams or to
leave channels in built-up mem-
bers to accommodate these utili-
ties. However, when lighting fix-
tures are spaced between beams

(on the planks) it is virtually
impossible to conceal them. They
are usually surface mounted.
Quite frequently the post and
beam is constructed as a single
unit, as in the three-hinged arch
shown. Examples of buildings
using plank and beam construc- This gymnasium roof is supported by laminated beams and pur
tion are illustrated on this page.
133
Laminated beams are widely used in today's building. The arch is an example.
Un.l Sin
.
1 What is wood post and beam finished floors, what is their mini- 1 7. Why is insulation sometimes
(plank and beam) construction? mum size? placed above the decking?
2. Is it a new method of con- 1 1 . Posts for walls and to sup- 18. What is another name for
struction? port ceiling beams are what mini- declking?
3. Is it used in homes today? mum size? 1 9. What are purlins?
4. Is it the most widely used 1 2. Which of the two beam di- 20. What are metal connectors?
method of construction? mensions, vertical or horizontal, is Do you know another name for-them?
5. What is the main difference largest? 21 . Why are electrical work and
in the ways it is now used as com- 13. If 2" thick plank is used for utilities sometimes difficult to place
pared with the past? subfloor or roof deck, what is the with this method of construction?
6. What are glued laminated maximum beam spacing?
components? 14. Are glued laminated and solid Terms to Spell and Know
7. Are posts and beams ever beams of the same species and
joinery planks
built as one unit? Explain. other characteristics approximately
laminated insulation
8. What are the two beam the same strength?
components purlins
placement systems? Discuss each. 1 5. What are three methods of
transverse acoustic
9. What roof slope must one placing planks across roof beams?
longitudinal rout
use with this type construction? 1 6. Which is the stronger, south-
beveled channels
1 0. When wood posts support ern yellow pine or Douglas fir?
134
Modular Construction
As stated in the first paragraph skeleton framework, forming totally prefabricated structure
of Chapter 7. building construc- main structural panels. These may with mass-production volume did
tion has traditionally been dune be assembled at the job site to not have a significant impact
one piece at a There are
time. form a building shell or they may upon building construction until
many reasons why buildings can be purchased or constructed to immediately following World
no longer be built entirely in this varying stages of completion. For War II.
manner. No doubt you have heard example, the panels might be Early attempts at production-
the old saying. "Time is money." studding covered with sheathing, line building the manufac-
left
A builder must do everything or they might be completed wall turers poor reputation.
with a
within his power to complete a sections ready for interior finish. Insufficient research, poor design,
structure in the most efficient and There is no one standard panel and a "seller's market" made a
economical manner possible. If system, manyorganizations have victim of the consumer. Conse-
he does not have a highly orga- developed systems. quently, after supply and demand
nized and efficient operation, he Large construction panels are became reversed and the con-
cannot survive in today's competi- not confined to any one material. sumer could bargain better, pre-
tive market. Use of preassembled Wood is most frequently used for fabricated structures had lost
components, prefabrication, and light construction but metal and favor. Prejudice from these early
modular coordination help him plastics work equally well. Plastics attempts still affects opinion of
meet today's competition. These are usually used as coverings or many people. Yet the prefabri-
methods permit uniform sizes of decorative units. Curtain walls, cated structure of today bears
parts, close quality control, and exposed aggregate panels, and littleresemblance to early at-
rapid erection. other masonry units all lend them- tempts. For example, homes in
selves to this modular system of the $100,000.00 class are now par-
Components construction. tially or substantially prefabri-
Components are large pre- cated before delivery.
assembled building parts such as Prefabrication The objection that all prefabri-
roof trusses, window units, or Prefabrication is the manu- cated structures were similar in
framed panels for floors, walls, or facture of all building parts in a appearance has been remedied.
roofs. The latter may be con- factory. These parts are usually Stock models are supplied in a
structed using a variety of mate- assembled into large panels be- wide variety of designs and varia-
rials and different panel systems. fore shipment to the building site. tions of architectural details. Many
Large sheet materials (plywood, Prefabrication is not new. Earliest large manufacturers maintain their
drywall, fiberboard, hardboard, or uses date to the latter part of the own architects and permit exten-
others) are glued and nailed to a nineteenth century. However, the sive design freedom to the buyer.
135
'-%
Building components of this prefabricated home are sized according to modular increments. ScM * Hom
Designs are completed and the buildings are quite popular with would require door jambs to be
building is fabricated to order. amateur builders. custom built. The list of possible
Prefabrication has become widely size variations would be infinite.
used for every type of structure, Need for Standardization Standardization is necessary if
including homes, commercial and In order to make maximum volume and quality production is
industrial buildings. Structural use of building materials and con- to be achieved.

parts may be of wood, metal, or struction labor, standardization of Manufacturers, suppliers, ar-
more recently of masonry. sizes and methods of construction and
chitects, building contractors,
For those who do not desire a are necessary. If each manufac- tradesmen agree that standardiza-
one
totally prefabricated building, turer were to decide all the di- tion of materials sizes, compo-
may purchase ready-cut parts mensions of his products and nents, and construction methods
and then have the individual parts manufacture them to any size he is the key to a better structure at
assembled at the building site. desired, complete chaos would re- minimum cost.
The design is chosen from one of sult. Lumber thickness from one It is very easy to say that stan-
a series of stock plans which may company would not match the dardization is necessary but very
be altered to meet any require- thickness from another. There difficult to accomplish. Each of
ment, or some manufacturers will might not be a relationship be- the groups of people mentioned
cut a complete building from the tween the size of concrete blocks above has little influence on the
owner's plan. Each part is num- and brick. Plywood or fiberboard thinking of the others!
bered as to its location in the fin- sheathing sizes might differ from
ished structure. Ready-cut build- rock lath or plasterboard sizes, Size of Building Modules
ings may be purchased in any which would complicate studding The novice soon becomes fa-
stage of completion to suit the placement. There might be no miliar with the 16" and 24" spac-
wishes of the purchaser. These standard door thickness, which ing of framing members. Which
136
7 2: Modular Construction
is a step toward use of modular into an unlimited number of com- lBuilding Material
sizes. Since dimensions between plicated designs. Building mod- Sizes
framing members have already ules are like these toys except
Much work is being done by
been accepted as standards, rea- they are larger. One module may building material manfacturers
son says they should be a part of be compared to a 4" block or
to change product sizes so they
basic modular sizes. Also, since cube. This is called a module. conform or will fit into the mod-
most large sheet materials are Imagine a 4'-0" cube constructed
ular plan. Even though great
already manufactured in 4'-0" of 4" modules; this is called a strides have been made, at the
widths, this size is considered the major module. A 16" or 24" cube
present time the change-over is
starting point for all standard is a minor module. Two
called
not complete. Materials used alone
sizes of material. 16" minor modules are some- —as wall paneling, acoustic tile,
Imagine a group of building times combined to form a third
and sheathing materials— are the
blocks (toys) that can be arranged minor module of 32". full modular size. Other materials
such as concrete block, brick, fac-

ing tile, and batt insulation are
made smaller than the module so
Modular Coordination they will fit into the finished prod-
The attempt to acquaint all knowing about modular construc- uct. Even though smaller they
people in every phase of the build- tion! His efforts to make maxi- adjust to the modular layout be-
ing industry with these three basic mum use of building materials cause they fit into the completed
modules, and to persuade them naturally leads to an attempt to modular product without being
to incorporate them into their find full sizes that fit plans. cut or re-formed.
products, designs, or construction Every good builder knows that Building materials based on
is called modular coordination. framing members are spaced on the 4" module will usually be one
Efforts promoting the modular 16" and 24" centers, in light wood of the following sizes:
concept of building are directed frame construction. So he chooses 4 'x8" 16 'x96"
toward the following: materials that fit the spacing.
8 'xl6" 48' 'x48"
• Acquainting individuals with When using small boards for sub-
16 'xl6" 48' 'x96"
the concept, terms, sizes, and uses floors and wall, or roof sheathing,
16 'x32" 48' 'xl20
of modules. framing members may vary from 16' 'x48" 48' 'x144
• Urging building material standard spacing without any se-
manufacturers to use modular rious consequences. But when The 48"x96" size is most fre-
sizes, and to coordinate sizes with large sheet materials are used, quently used.
other manufacturers. uneven spacing results in the Some modular materials are
• Urging builders of conven- sheets not ending on the framing. based on a 3" module instead of
tional frame structures to follow It is readily apparent that framing the standard 4". Kitchen cabi-
modular sizes. spacing is very important for and floor cover-
nets, appliances,
• Development and prefabrica- maximum use of materials. The ings are examples.These use 3"
tion of modular components. big difference between this and modules because their manufac-
• Promoting modular drafting using all-modular construction turers standardized product sizes
and design. methods is one
that, in the latter, before the 4" module was adopted.
Most construction makes some constantly maintains an aware- These have not changed. Prob-
use of modular materials and ness of standard sizes and pre- lems involved can be solved.
methods. Frequently this is with- plans the work to make use of These are not structural items;
out the builder's being aware of as many full-sized materials as they are installed after other mod-
it, or possibly without his even possible. ular construction is complete.
137
24" MODULES FOR TRUSSED ROOF

48" MODULES FOR ROOF SHEATHING
STANDARD ROOF SLOPES
48" MODULES FOR TRUSS &

GABLE SPANS 16" MODULES FOR
WINDOW & DOOR
LOCATION & STUDS
16" MODULES FOR DOORS, 16" MODULES FOR

WINDOWS & STUDS
WINDOW & DOOR
48" MODULES FOR OVE PANEL SIZES
HOUSE WIDTHS 48" MODULES FOR
16" MODULES FOR FLOOR JOISTS
OUTSIDE OVERALL
48" MODULES FOR FLOOR SHEATHING
DIMENSIONS AND
FLOOR SHEATHING
MODULAR
MASONRY FOUNDATION
MODULAR COORDINATION OF HOUSE ELEMENTS

All structural and aesthetic elements of a house are related. Coordinated modular increments of the struc-
tural elements, in an example house on the 48-inch module, are shown in the diagrammatic drawings. Standard
sizes of various existing materials will easily fit the modular increments of the example shown.
Modular coordination of house elements. Also see column 1, page 139.
138
96" 96
?2: Modular Construction
t CO
g
'
CO
0
INCH MODULE ON 48-INCH MODULAR GRID
-7
-O

a
GO
3
<3
O-
till

1 1TTTII++ r~ =2 mi:
Relationship of modular panels to grid
lines. See illustration at right. 48" 96" 48"
'
In any modular system (conven- Observation sample

of the most systems are 32", 48", 64",
tional framing or component floor plan shows panel widths 80", 96", and 144", with 48" being
parts) sizes conform to the module most frequently used. Framing the basic major modular width.
or vary only to accommodate members of components may be Half panels 24" wide may be
other materials. Study the series designed to conform to 16" or purchased, or "filler" panels can
of illustrations showing how build- 24" spacing. (The panel spacing be made to order, to accom-
ing materials and components are illustrated is placed on 16" cen- modate non-modular designs.
used in modular construction. ters.) Component panel widths of Wall components are S'-V/i" tall.
139
Blank wall panels on the 16-inch and

24-inch modules show their relationship. The
16-inch components increase design flexibility
by one third, and perhaps more, when multi-
level structures are considered. In considering
both systems, the increased use factor must
be weighed against increased component
inventory.
24" MODULES
24
16" MODULES
16
The interior ceiling height will be

8'-0". Floor, roof, and truss com-
ponents have modular lengths,
usually even numbered, as 24'-0"
or 26'-0".
Window and door components The 64-inch modular door and side- Two standard 32-inch casement window
are designed to fit into the mod- light panel is integrally designed to units are shown mullioned to become a
ular system. Note: When panels become a part of the 16-inch modular 64-inch window unit to fit a 64-inch wall
system for wall, door and window compo- opening. The structural jambs of the win-
are used and placed edge to edge,
nents. The pre-assembled unit with dow panel combine with adjacent blank
double studs result at the edges. built-in header fits the 64-inch wall wall studs to provide required double
When such a panel is used with opening. framing at openings.
others, it fulfills the requirement Window panel construction deta
of building codes that specify

double studs at sides of door and
window openings. Notice also
that the studdings are continuous
from bottom to top.
Square-top high-wall and low-wall offsets,

parallel to thestandard height, 8-foot l'/i-inch
wall,extend the use of the modular system.
Porch offsets, for sloping ceiling houses, often
require high-wall units. Continuous roof slopes,
on garages, may require low-wall offset storage
areas.
National lumber Mfg. Assoc
140
7 2: Modular Construction
Notional Lumber Mfg Asioc
A series of blank wall areas and open areas form the walls of the house. The proportion of
blank walls and 'holes" is an important factor in the design of house exteriors and interiors. The
materials used on the blank areas and the window and door design in the "holes" completes the
exterior and interior wall composition. The illustration graphically shows the need for modular
coordination in these components.
Large components are not con- themselves to this system of con- low modular design, door and
fined to any one material. Wood struction. Masonry units— such as window openings conform to the
is most frequently used for light concrete panels, exposed aggre- module in both vertical and hori-
construction but other materials gate panels, and others— are also zontal directions. The masonry
work equally well. Metal, glass, used. When individual materials, bond (pattern) must also conform
and plastic, or curtain walls lend as brick or stone, are laid to fol- to modular increments.
Laminated beams and building panels contribute to the design of this modern clinic.
Weyerhaeuser Company
141
Modular building materials permit new design concepts
for home buildin
Curtain walls of this school are designed

according to modular
.
12: Modular Construction
Modular Design and Drafting

The architect or designer is
responsible for achieving maxi-

mum use of modular materials
and methods of construction, re-
gardless of whether his planning
is on conventional construction or
components. He may promote

modular coordination in the fol-
lowing ways:
• Select building materials that
are modular in size.
• Specify exactly what materials
are to be used.
• Design all major parts in mod-
ular increments, using materials
selected.
• Have complete plans.
• Use modular grid lines on all
plans.
• Show complete dimensioning,
and details.
notes,
• Use modular dimensioning to
show modular and non-modular
sizes.
Artcrett Products Compony.
No doubt you are familiar with Modular sized building materials are used in this office interior.
ruled graph paper. Some draw-
ing and tracing paper (descrip-
tions in Chapter 32) use grid of outside walls, partitions, win- terialsize is non-modular. This
lines. Most of these have the lines dows, doors, masonry units will must be shown on the plans. See
spaced at Vs" or '/io". Grid lines conform to one grid line, but the modular dimensioning in Chap-
for modular construction are simi- opposite edge will not, if the ma- ter 39.
lar except module grids are
spaced at 4" intervals (at what-
ever scale is being used). Large Questions to Reinforce Knowledge
scale details include module and 1 . What are some of the fac- 5. What is prefabrication? Par-
major module grid lines, while tors which have brought about the tial, total?
small scale drawings omit the need for modular construction? 6. Is this a new development?
module grid lines. 2. What is a building compo- Explain.
Because all building materials nent? 7. Is it true that only inexpen-
do not fit into modular sizes in 3. In what forms are building sive buildings are prefabricated?
every dimension, this complicates components manufactured? Explain.
the job somewhat. Some edges of 4. What material is most fre- 8. Are prefabricated structures
parts will not always be on the quently used for modular compo- confined to wood framing systems?
grid line. For example, one edge nents? What else?
143
9. What is a ready-cut building? 20. Framing of wood building 24. What materials are used for
1 0. Why is standardization of components usually have what spac- modular components?
building materials sizes necessary? ings of framing members? 25. What measures may be taken
1 1 . What is a module? 21. What is the most frequently by the architect to insure adequate
12. What is the underlying idea used panel size of modular building use of modular construction?
of the building module? sheet materials? 26. Why is modular corrugated
1 3. What is a major module? 22. What are the standard modu- roofing 26" wide instead of being
14. What is a minor module? larcomponent widths? on a module of 24"?
1 5. What is the smallest standard How are windows and doors
23. 27. What is the difference be-
building module? used with modular components or tween modular coordination and
1 6. What is the main difference conventional modular framing? modular construction?
between making the best use of mod-
ular materials in standard construc-
tion and actual modular construction?

1 7. What is being done by build- Terms to Spell and Know
ing materials manufacturers to fur-
ther modular construction? component building shell major module
1 8. Why are some modular ma- prefabrication stock plans minor module
terials not based upon the 4" modular coordination plasterboard facing tile
module? modular construction module

19. Are all building materials
modular in size? Explain.
144
Doors are used to protect an opening from the ele-
ments, to separate rooms, areas or compartments, to
prevent or admit entrance or exit, and to add decora-
live architectural detail. In addition, a door may
admit light and ventilation or expand vision.
Doors and Door Frames
Classification of Doors grain lumber glued into a large Both solid and hollow styles
Doors fall into two general sheet and covered on each face may have openings cut for glass
design categories: with Vt," plywood, or the core may or panelswhen desired. Moldings
•
be of particle board, which is and panels may be applied to the
Panel doors
reconstructed wood flakes and surfaces for added decoration.
• Flush doors
resins bound into solid sheets. These may be factory or job
Panel doors. This door consists See two illustrations, page 146. applied.
of a heavy framework around the Solid core flush construction
outside and has a relatively thin is used primarily for front en-
panel placed within this frame- trance doors and for institutions.
work to enclose the space. Frame They are sturdy and will take
size will vary slightly with dif- much abuse. Cost limits their use
ferent manufacturers. Different in small homes.
size doors will also have different Hollow core flush doors look
width frames. the same as solid ones. Their only
The inside edges of the frame difference is the interior construc-
and the panels are usually molded tion. They have a light wood frame
(shaped) into a decorative pat- around the perimeter, but the in-
tern. may be of wood,
Panels terior is hollow. Without addi-
glass,metal or other material. tional stiffening, W
plywood cov-
Panel doors are usually of wood ering does not make the door
but other materials are gaining rigid. Additional stifleners are
in popularity. placed in the void. These may be
Flush doors. Flush (sometimes cross bands of wood, expanded
called slab) doors are smooth on paper (thin strips, on edge, glued
both faces. Wood is the material into a honeycomb shape), card-
most frequently used. There are board rings, circles of wood shav-
two types of flush doors, with ings, or plastic foam. Two meth-
_ ';••--'. \
many
i
construction variations ods of constructing hollow core

within each type. Solid core flush doors are shown. These doors are
doors are solid throughout (no inexpensive, present a fine ap-
inner cavities). They are usually pearance, and serve for most in-
made of narrow strips of edge terior uses.
145
Door Sizes
Because of the great variety,

complete lists of door sizes are
not possible. Consult manufac-

turers' literature when making
door selections.
The two most widely used door
heights are 6'-8" and 7'-0". Both
sizes are considered standard.
Personal preference dictates the
choice.
For homes and other small
structures most codes specify the
following minimum sizes:
Front entrance doors

1%"x3'-0"x6'-8"
Service entrance doors
edge grain lumber core; (right) with particle 1%"x2'-8"x6'-8"
Solid core doors: (left) with
board core. Interior doors to rooms
1 /8 "x2'-6"x6'-8"
3
Bathroom doors
3
1 /s"x2'-0"x6'-8"
Preferred bathroom doors
P/8 "x2'-4"x6'-8"
Single closet doors
P/8 "x2'-0"x6'-8"
Recommended minimum door sizes.
Although sizes of parts on a

panel door vary with style and
manufacturer, they approximate
those shown below:
43/""
Stiles
Top rail 4% "

Cross rail
4%"
Lock rail 5 /s
"
Mullion 45/s
5
Bottom rail 9 /s"
3/»"
Bars (muntins) 1
7/ ' 6
"
Sticking
3/*'
Raised panels
Approximate sizes of door parts.
Hollow core doors.
146
) 3: Doors and Door Frames
Multiple Application of Same lloor Tvp«»
There is minor confusion re- times have the knob at 40" (Vi
garding designation of door types. door height) so they may be re-
Tradesmen and others sometimes versed up and down. Commer-
refer to the following as door cial and institutional doors are
types: mounted with the knob at 42"
• Hinged doors from the floor.
• Bypass sliding Determining door swing. On a
• Pocket doors closed door, with edges of hinges
• Bi-fold or folding door units exposed, if the knob is to your
• Double action hinged right, this is a right-hand door. If
These are not truly door types. the hinges are exposed and the
They are simply standard doors knob is to the left, it is a left-
using hardware designed for a hand door.

specific purpose. Bypass sliding doors for interior
Hinged doors. Hinged doors use. Bypass sliding doors are oc-
Hinged flush door.
are the most common. They must casionally used at openings be-
be located so the door swing does tween rooms. However, they are variety of materials used, styles,
not interfere with passage or much used with wide closets and and surface treatments.
furniture arrangement. The door storage areas. Any door type or Since these doors are hung so
usually folds against an adjoining style may be used. Frames, doors, they will slide past each other, one
wall. On small structures such as and hardware may be purchased edge of one door must be ex-
homes doors open toward the separately, or all necessary parts posed. A clearance space (approx-
rooms. On larger public buildings may be purchased in a knocked- imately Va") between doors is also
the doors open out. This is done down package, or the unit may be visible. This space and door edge
so they cannot be forced closed completely preassembled. Con- should not be visible as one en-
if the building must be evacuated sult manufacturers' literature to ters, or stands in the center of
rapidly. become acquainted with the wide the room.
The face of a door is set
flush with the edge of the jamb
on the opening side. Interior doors
in a home have two hinges. The
top of the upper hinge is from

5" to 7" from the top of the door.
The bottom of the lower hinge
is 9" to 11" from the bottom of
the door. Exterior doors and

others subject to heavy use re-
Bypass sliding doors.
The third hinge
quire three hinges.
is mounted midway between the
top and bottom hinges. Height of
door knobs and other controls is
optional. Residential construction
usually places their height at 36".
However, pre-hung doors some-
147
When two doors are installed The "O" represents a fixed unit
as a unit, the finished opening and the "X" a sliding unit.
width is 1" less than the total Pocket door units are used
door widths. When there are three when space is at a premium or
doors in the unit, the finished when door swing is undesirable.
opening is 2" less than the total However, they are more difficult
door widths. For example, two to operate than hinged doors and
2'-0" doors require a finished are not convenient when they
opening of Three 2'-0"
3'- 11". must be opened and closed fre-
X o ox
doors require a finished opening quently. They are especially use-
TYPE 2
of 5'-10". ful as a means of closing off din-
Bypass sliding doors for exte- ing rooms from kitchens, studies O X O
rior use feature large glass areas from living rooms, or in compart-
with narrow stiles and rails. This mented bathrooms. They are not TYPE 3C
permits a feeling of uninterrupted suitable as exterior doors. The X o O O O X
space. Both wood and aluminum door and pocket assembly is usu-
units are popular. These units are ally of wood with metal stiffeners
TYPE 3E
usually purchased preassembled. in the jambs as shown. The units O X X O
They may be used in any climate. may be job built or prefabricated.
In cold climates insulating glass The prefabricated type usually
TYPE 40
is required. gives better service because of X O O X
The units may be purchased the close quality control during
with many combinations of fixed manufacture.
TYPE 4E (WITH MUNTIN)
and sliding sections. On the illus- Double-action hinged doors. X O X
trations notice the small "O" and There are two general types of
"X" in the center of each section. double-hinged doors. Light-duty
TYPE 4E (WITHOUT MUNTIN)
Combinations of fixed and sliding doors.
Bypass sliding glass doors for

exterior use.
148
Plan view of pocket door assembly
doors such as for cafes, as shown

in the illustration, have spring
hinges that will operate in either
direction. They are mounted at
the intersection of the door and
side jamb. Heavy-duty doors have
a pivot hinge at the top and bot-
tom of the door. They also have
a spring or hydraulic arrangement
either in the bottom of the door
or recessed in the floor to bring
the door back to a closed position.
A door mounted in this man-
ner may be placed in the center
of the door frame or so one face
is flush with the edge of the jamb.
Most frequent use is between

the kitchen and other rooms. Double-action hinged door. Pivot hinged glass door.
149
Plastic folding or accordion door

Wood folding door.
Cafe doors (double action).
Folding doors are composed of dion doors because they fold in Bi-fold doors. Bi means "two
narrow strips (about 3") of wood, an accordion or bellows fashion. parts". A typical unit consists of
rigid plastic, or other material. Small sizes are made to fit stan- four doors, two of which are
Each strip is hinged to adjoining dard or special openings. Large mounted on each side jamb. How-
ones. Folding doors may also have sizes may be custom fabricated ever, additional sections may be
a metal skeleton which is covered for individual jobs. Large instal- mounted in a similar manner. In
with cloth or pliable plastic. These lations may be equipped with practice, any door of any material
units are sometimes called accor- motorized controls. or style may be mounted as a bi-
150
13: Doors and Door Framt
Door Jambs
A door jamb (buck) is the part
of the frame which fits inside the
masonry opening or rough frame
opening. Jambs may be of wood
or metal. Wood has been the tra-
ditional material but steel and
aluminum have gained much
popularity, especially in heavy-
duty installations. They are not
uncommon in homes.
A jamb consists of three parts.
There are two side jambs and a
head jamb across the top. There
may be an additional head jamb
if a transom-which is a glass or
Dutch door solid panel opening above a door
Wood or metal frame with panel of wood,
-is required. Transoms have lost
plastic, or glass.
popularity in the immediate past
fold door. The frame and hard- but are now enjoying a new flair.
ware may be purchased as a unit Recent adaptations place the

and the doors purchased sepa- transom so it extends to the ceil-
rately, or the entire unit may ing, thus eliminating

framing and
be
purchased completely prefabri- finishing over the door. This is
cated and ready-hung. especially suitable for non-
These doors are very popular bearing walls.
for wide closets and are some- Metal jambs are made in a
times used as doors between wide variety of shapes and sizes,
rooms or as room dividers. some of which are illustrated on
Individual door widths are usu- page 152. Note: The stop-whkh
allybetween P-0" and 2'-0". is the protrusion the face of the
Using special folding hard- door closes against— is an integral

ware, any standard doors may be part of the frame. Exterior wood
mounted so they "fold" to enclose door jambs also have the stop as
any amount of space. When a part of the jamb.
mounted in manner, all

this
doors in the group will be the
same size. When open, all doors
are stacked at right angles to the
wall with their faces against each
other.
Definition of Door Frame

A door frame is the finishing Metal clad fire door.
Rabbeted exte
materials surrounding a door to rlor door jamb
conceal or beautify structural with Interior and
building parts. exterior casing.
151
.
Thickness of exterior wood jambs

is l'/s", with a W
rabbet serving
as a stop. On interior door jambs
the thickness is approximately
%" (using nominal 1" material)
and the stop is applied to the
face of the jamb.
Wood jambs are manufactured
in two standard widths. Jambs for
lath and plaster are 5V4" wide,

Plan view of exterior door in frame wall. 5
while those for drywall are 4 /8"
11- wide. Jambs may easily be cut to
fit walls of less thickness. If walls
are slightly thicker than the jambs,
strips of wood are nailed on to
form an extension. Also, jambs
may be custom made to any de-
sired size for a slight additional
cost. Jambs may be purchased
knocked down (not assembled),
assembled with just exterior cas-
ing or brick mold applied, or as-
sembled with the door pre-hung
in the opening.
Pre-hung door units are also
Plan view of exterior door in solid masonry wall
available with split jambs to
9. Interior casing
Parts identification permit rapid installation and to
1. Wall studs 10. Door (hollow core shown)
Threshold
allow for any variation in wall
2. Space for leveling door jamb 1 1
Side jamb 12. Sill thickness.

3.
4. Door stop 1 3. Brick mold
5. Rabbeted stop 14. Air space Metal door jamb shapes

6. Plaster or other interior wall finish 15. Furring strips A. Jamb profile
'6- Master grounds B. Integral stop

7. Sheathing
8. Exterior wall covering 17. Exterior trim (casing) C. Masonry wall
152
'
13: Doors and Door Frames
Modern use sometimes elimi-

nates wood casings around door
and window openings. Metal cor-
ners, as shown, protect wall finish
materials.
Exterior Trim
On exterior wood jambs the

trim (brick mold or casing) is pur-
chased as a part of the jamb.
When used in a wood frame wall,
a drip cap may be placed over Metal corners frequently replace wood
Interior door jamb (1) with stop (2) and
the top of the trim. When ma- casing.
casings (3) installed.
sonry is to be placed over the
opening, must be supported on
it
-c
-«î
\/
—B
lintels. Jambs in masonry do not
require a drip cap. On one-story
f common practice Door Millwork
l -> buildings,
to design a building so
it is
no ma-
II sonry is required above open-
A rectangular
board may serve
ings. This space is filled with pan- I as an exterior
eling or molding. casing.
—A
1 Door Sills
A sill extends across the bot-
k
lL
tom of an outside door and con-
nects the two side jambs. Interior
Brick
quently
mold
is used
fre-
in-
doors do not usually have a sill. stead of flat casing.
A sill helps hold the lower part

A. Wall studs E. Door stop
of the side jambs in their proper
B. Plaster on rock lath F. Door jamb
C. Casing G. Plaster grounds location. The top of the sill is
D. Space for leveling door jamb sloped to provide a wash to drain A drip cap is placed
Plan view of door frame detail in plas- water away from the door. If the above casings to
tered frame wall. door unit is to be installed in a shed water away
wood frame wall, a wood sill is from a door in a
wood wall.
used. A masonry building re-
Interior Trim
quires a masonry sill.
Interior trim is not a part of A sill has considerable thick-

the door jamb, so it is purchased ness and extends below the top This is a very popu-
lar casing shape.
separately. Note: All parts may edge of floor joists. The joists
sometimes be included in the must be notched or special fram-
same package, but this is an ex- ing may be required to accommo-
ception rather than standard date the sill. Examples of framing
practice. Illustrations of a variety when the sill is at right angles to
of casing and other wood trim and when
the joists, it is parallel, Door stops.
shapes are shown. are shown on page 154.
153
PERCENT
11
AVERAGE
MOISTURE CONTENT
Recommended average moisture content
U. S Weolher Bu,
for interior finish woodwork in various parts
of the United States.
Thresholds
A threshold (saddle) is a nar-
row strip of wood or metal used
to cover the joint between a sill
and a finished floor. It also serves

as a barrier for rain and wind.
Section views of typical thresh-
olds are shown.
Framing for a wood door sill at right
angles to floor joists.
Framing for a wood door sill parallel to

floor joists.
Wood and metal threshold shapes.
Exterior panel door with wood sill in a
frame wall.
154
.
7 3: Doors and Door Frames
Carpet pile weather

stripping.
Weatherproof ing
Flexible metal, pile (fiber, as Two frequently used garage door styles.
on a carpet), or felt may be fas-
tened around exterior doors to Garage Doors door se-

turers literature before
make a permanent seal in main- lection made. is
taining inside temperature. Garage doors are usually the The most common residential
overhead type. They may be garage door sizes are shown
Entrance Door Details spring operated. Some doors have above. These are actual sizes;
Entrance doors are given spe- radio or "electric-eye" operators.
framing around them is not
cial architectural emphasis to en- The latter units add slightly to
shown.
hance their beauty and serve as the building cost but give a feel- Single garage doors Double garage doors
a focal point. They may be job ing of quality construction to the Height Width Height Width
built or purchased as prefabri- building. Because of the wide 6-6" x 8-0" 6'-6" x 15-0"
cated units. When space permits, variety of materials used, differ- 7-0" x 8'-0" 7'-0" x 15'-0"
double entry doors are frequently ing construction of doors, and 6-6" x 9'-0" 6-6" x 16'-0"
used. sizes available, consult manufac- 7'-0" x 9'-0" 7'-0" x 16'-0"
1 Explain the construction of a 9. How does one determine 1 7. From the panel door illustra-
wood panel door. which height to use? tion, explain, in your own words,
2. What are the two kinds of 1 0. What is the thickness of most the following terms.
flush wood doors? exterior doors?
• stile
3. Are all panel doors con- 1 1 . What is the thickness of most
• top rail
structed of wood? Explain. interior doors?
• cross rail
4. Describe the two types of 12. What is the minimum face
• lock rail
folding doors. size of front entrance doors?
• mullion
5. How is the term "folding 1 3. What is a service entrance
• muntin or bar
door" sometimes misused? door? What is its minimum size?
6. What is meant when one says 14. What is the minimum size of
• bottom rail
• sticking
doors fold in a stacking arrangement? interior residential doors?
• raised panel
7. What is the largest size fold- 1 5. What is the minimum size of
ing door? bathroom doors? 1 8. What is a hinged door?

8. What are the two standard 16. What is a better size for 19. When are two hinges
door heights? bathroom doors? required?
155
20. When are three hinges more satisfactory than a hinged 45. Explain two methods of alter-
required? door? ing these widths.
21. Why are doors in public 35. What is their biggest disad- 46. What is meant when one
buildings hinged so they swing to- vantage? says a door jamb is purchased
ward the outside? 36. What is a bi-fold door unit? "knocked down"?
22. What is the relationship of 37. What is a double action 47. What is a split jamb, and
the face of a door and the edge of hinge? Describe two kinds. why is it used?
a jamb? 38. What is a door jamb? 48. What is a brick mold? What
23. What is the normal height of 39. What is a transom? In what is the difference between this and
the knob on a residential door? types of building might you find an exterior casing?
24. What is the normal height of them? 49. Describe the shape and func-
the knob or panic bar on public 40. What is a door stop? tion of a drip cap.
buildings? 41. What generally is the thick- 50. Is interior trim normally pur-
25. What is meant by the "hand" ness of an interior wood jamb? chased as a part of the door jamb?
of a door? Explain how it is de- 42. What generally is the thick- What construction might call for this?
termined. ness of an exterior wood jamb? 51. What is a door sill and why
26. What are bypass sliding 43.What generally is the width is it used?
closet doors? Is this actually a kind of a wood jamb to be used with 52. What is a threshold? De-
of door? Explain. lath and plaster? scribe four kinds.
27. How may units for these be 44. What generally is the width 53. Why is an entrance door
purchased? of a wood jamb to be used with given special design emphasis?
28. What kinds of doors may be drywall?
used for bypass sliding doors?
29. Explain the finished opening
widths required for these units.
30. How does one determine
door frame cross rail buck
which door to place toward the
panel door bar transom
front of the unit? (Closest to the
flush door sticking drywall
observer.)
folding door hinge lath
31. How are bypass sliding doors
molding bypass sliding door plaster
used at exterior openings?
slab pocket door knocked-down
32. What does the "X" and "O"
solid core bi-fold door brick mold
on a sliding door elevation represent?
particle board double action hinge sill
33. What is a pocket door unit?
hollow core side jamb threshold
Describe the construction of the
stacking head jamb
pocket.
34. When is a pocket door unit
156
M Windows and Glass
Each window manufacturing windows, but they are not used buyer resistance based on tradi-
association (wood, steel, and alu- extensively in residential con- tional ideas ismain reason
the
minum) and each individual struction. Steel windows lend their use is limited. Each year
manufacturer make claims that themselves to solid masonry con- aluminum windows are gaining
their material is best for windows. struction. Since there are no wide in popularity.
Each material has advantages jambs, they take a shallow space.

Plastic
and disadvantages. A material They are usually set into a chase
Plastics are being used in win-
may be more suitable for one in- in a masonry wall. No interior
stallation, but under different con- side and head trim is normally dow manufacture. Sheet films and
spray-on coatings form protective
ditions another material may be used. Plaster or other interior fin-
more practical. No attempt will ishes are usually returnedaround and decorative coverings on
a corner bead (metal corner) and
wood, steel, and aluminum win-
be made here to evaluate the mer-
its of each window material. finished to the face of the window dows. Some use is being made of
with the same material as inside molded or extruded plastic parts.
Wood Windows Much greater use is expected in
walls. A lightweight metal frame
Wood windows are usually
extends around the entire win-
the immediate future.
manufactured of white pine. This dow, replacing the sill at the bot-
wood is favored because of its
tom. The bottom frame is usually
abundance and the fact that it is
soft but still machines and sands
placed on a masonry sill and the Window Types
joint between the window and sill
The grain structure
To acquaint yourself with the
to a fine finish. is filled with caulking.
various window types, study illus-
is close,which permits a wide va-
Aluminum Windows trations of each. Only common,
riety of possible finishes. Hard-
All types of windows are man- frequently used types are shown.
wood windows are available, but
ufactured of aluminum. This The illustrations are self-explana-
their high cost limits their use.
modern material lends itself to tory of the general shapes of each
Steel Windows many applications in all modern type. Most types may be pur-
Steel windows may be pur- construction— commerical, indus- chased of wood, steel, or
chased with a prime coat of paint trial, institutional, and residential. aluminum.
or they may be purchased com- Until recently residential use has No two windows of the same
pletely finished in many decora- been limited primarily to warm type, purchased from different
tive colors. Industrial, commer- climates.They do have some dis- manufacturers, will be exactly the
and institutional construction
cial, advantages for cold climates, be- same. The size and shape of in-
make widespread use of steel cause they conduct cold, but dividual parts will vary slightly.
157
Clearstory Hopper.
159
.
That is why the illustrations rep-

resent general shapes and do not
refer to specific detail. One must
refer to manufacturers' data to
obtain exact sizes and shapes.
This information is then included
in the working drawings. It will
be shown as details and notes.
Window Parts, Sizes, and

Elevations
Window size is usually (but

not always) designated by the
glass size of the individual sash
units. of parts and typical
Names
sizes aregiven in the illustrations.
Glass size is based on 4" incre-
The large window on this home is called
a bow window.
ments in width and 2" in height.
12"
Typical glass sizes range from
to 48" in width and from
12" to
36" in height. Sash sizes, which
is the wood frame enclosing the
glass, are based on modules to
accommodate standard glass
sizes. Window stiles are approxi-
mately 2" wide. This makes the

horizontal window opening
4"
wider than the glass size. Top

B®J? rails are 2" wide, bottom rails
3",
and meeting or lock rails 1". This

1 Air space 15. Mortar joint in
gives a total of 6" of wood show-
2. Apron elevation
ing. The size is sometimes in-
16. Mortar joint in
3. Blind stop creased so 7" of wood is showing.
section
Bottom
This is not the size of the actual
4. rail
mold 17. Ground strip

5. Brick
(casing) 18. Parting strip parts; they are larger and are rab-
6. Interior casing
19. Plaster beted to accommodate the glass.
7. Ground strip 20. Putty or glazing Overall window heights are also
8. Header compound
based on the 4" increment. When
Head jamb 2 Rock lath
double hung windows are used
1 .
9.
10. Rigid insulating 22. Side jamb
sheathing 2 3. Wood sill and each size is based on 2" in-

1 1 . Angle iron lintel 24. Stile or side rail crements, the combined units form
12. Brick in 25. Stool a modular size.Most manufac-
26. Stone
elevation sill
turers include more than the glass
3. Brick in section 27. Stop
1
size in their window description,
14. Double studs 2 8. Top rail
giving the glass size, opening or

Cutaway view of double hung window
Section view of double hung window
and related parts. sash size, masonry or rough open-
with parts identification.
160
'
Fixed picture window with casement side lights
Double, double hung
p W
Fixed picture window with double hung side lights
Double hung
U J —
structural unit
/ V
II
/ s 1
Double owning
1
Rail and muntin sizes.
/\ Triple combination
V J
Double, double hung structural unit
ing size, and the unit or overall

size. This latter size is shown from
outside edge to outside edge of
the casing. When two or more
windows are assembled as one
unit, the mullions are included in
the overall length. Names and ap-
proximate sizes of window parts Double sliding
are shown in the illustrations here

and on the following page. Double casement
Window elevations.
161
Mullions
A mullion is any post or divi-
sion between individual window
units. Size is variable. Side jambs
are %" thick; when two windows
are placed side by side the small-
mullion is
est possible wide. \W
Manufacturers combine individ-
ual windows into groups, with
mullions between the windows.
Note; Most manufacturers will
not permit these to be returned if

the wrong size is ordered. The
Window size designations.
manufacturer does not normally
arrange more than three windows
in a group. If more are placed
side by side, a wood stiffener ex-
tending from the bottom to the
top plate should be used between
each window. This calls for a Double studs between windows
larger mullion than if the win-
dows are placed against each
other. If more than three units
are used together, a subsill is
added beneath the regular sill,
extending the entire length of

Steel post encased by jombs and
the unit. The subsill must be trim
Window muntin designs. notched to pass the vertical stiff- Mullion details.
eners between windows. Draw

Bars or Muntins a separate detail to show this. are to be job assembled, or are
Bars or muntins (different Note that modern practice not a manufacturer's standard
names for the same thing) some- tends to keep mullions narrow. size, working drawings include
times divide the glass into smaller However, as discussed here, wide large scale details showing
panes. When the window is sub- mullions extend the size of a construction and methods of
divided, the individual panes are window unit. If individual units assembly.
not modular sizes since the
glass must be trimmed because
of the addition of the muntins.
The muntins may form vertical Picture Windows may be purchased in standard
or horizontal window panes, or Picture windows used alone or width of stiles and rails. Sash with
both vertical and horizontal bars in combination with other win- wide stiles and rails may be made
may divide a window into a larger dows should be designed to use for standard glass sizes. This
number of panes. Early Ameri- standard glass sizes. Many large makes the sash opening size non-
can designs use many panes. picture windows have insulating modular to accommodate custom-
Modern design favors only hori- glass, so the cost is prohibitive if built and oversize units. These
zontal divisions. standard sizes are not used. Sash parts are not constructed at the
162
14: Windows and Glass
building site, so it is important so water will not drip on the ex- kets,placed on setting blocks, or
forcomplete details to be shown; terior covering. Some sills have a employ some other method of
then they can be custom built. groove in the bottom to accom- installation.
Exterior Window Trim modate a wood molding. If a Window Descriptions

molding is used beneath a sill, it
Because exterior window trim Descriptions of windows refer
helps block entrance of water and
(finishing boards) is applied when to the window type: double hung,
serves as a cover over window
windows are assembled, they are casement, awning, picture (fixed
flashing.
a part of the window. Trim with sash), or other kinds. It may refer
As previously noted, wood
decorative molding on its face is to combinations of window types.
windows have sills but most metal
called brick mold. Flat trim is Reference is also made to the
windows do not. However, wood
called casing. Brick mold is more number of windows in the group.
sills and casings or brick mold are
widely used. Its name implies When one window is to be in-
sometimes attached to aluminum
that it is used only with brick but stalled alone it is called a single
windows. Even though, in addi-
this is not a proper assumption. (the word window is not in-
tion, most windows in masonry
It is also used with other masonry cluded). When two windows are
walls have a stone sill, this is not
and wood frame construction. included in one unit it is called
a part of the window. It is de-
Size is slightly variable; it is ap- a mullion unit, abbreviated to
signed and purchased separately.
proximately l'/g" thick and 2V2" mull When three windows are
When several windows are
wide. Exterior casing is l'/s" thick included in one unit, it is called
combined into one unit, the wood
and the width is variable. Casing and when four windows
a triple,
sill should be continuous.
3" wide is most common. Note: are combined it is called a quad-
When drawing elevations, the cas- Installation of Glass
ruple, abbreviated to a quad.
ing drawn outside

is the actual Window types and number of
Windows may be purchased
window size. units are combined when stating
glazed (with glass factory-in-
a window There is
description.
Drip Cap stalled) or they may be unglazed
no set form
composing win-
in
A drip cap as illustrated in the (no glass). When they are glazed,
dow descriptions. However, one
previous chapter is placed over the glass is purchased as a part
must be sure all necessary infor-
the top of the casing to prevent of the window. When they are
mation is included. This informa-
water from standing on the flat unglazed, of course, the glass is
tion may or may not be used dur-
surface and to prevent capillary purchased separately. Small units
ing construction, but it is vital for
action from drawing moisture be- (as all but picture windows for a
•.•stimating and purchase of ma-
hind the exterior covering. Metal house) are usually purchased
terials. Sample descriptions of
flashing extends from under the glazed. Larger ones are usually
windows follow:
siding. It is bent so it covers the unglazed. The plans or specifica-
tions must state method of pur-
A picture window with two double
top of the drip cap.
chase and also state the method
hung side lights, one on each
When several windows are
side. Each double hung sash is
combined into one unit, the drip
of securing the glass in the sash
and the method and glazing ma- to have two bars or muntins:
cap should be continuous.
terial. This description must in-
• Picture/w/DH. 2-bar Sd. Lts.
Sills
clude whether the glass is to be A triple awning unit:
A sill is a sloping surface at set in putty, whether it is to be • Mull, awning
the bottom of a window to drain back puttied (putty placed be- A corner picture window with
water away from the parts. Most tween the face of the glass and casements on each side:
sills are of wood. They extend face of rabbet on the sash), im- • Corner picture/w/2 three-bar
past the front edge of the window bedded in neoprene rubber gas- casements
163
Note: It is necessary to include ing and locking devices. Screen

complete size description. This is and storm window combinations
usually placed on the window are sometimes built as a part of
schedule. the window unit. It is not possi-
ble to discuss all available hard-

Window Hardware ware. One should consult manu-
There is a wide variety of hard- facturers' literature for details.
ware available to make a modern Required window hardware
window more useful. Some of may be listed on a schedule of the
the hardware includes sash bal- plans or in the specifications.
ances and tension tracks to per- For most building materials
mit sash removal. Hinged sup- small measurements are given be-
port bars are designed to hold fore large ones. This is not true
awning and hopper windows when specifying glass. The width
open. Hand crank and automatic isalways given before the height.
operators move and hold awning Ordinary glass has slight waves
and casement sash in selected po- in it; they cause less visual dis-
There are also many lift-

sitions. tortion if horizontal.
Window Glass
There are several thicknesses
of window glass. Sizes may vary
All glass used in windows is
slightly with different manfactur-
not window glass. The term win-
ers. The more common thick-
dow glass means the glass has
nesses are:
had no additional finishing pro-
cesses. It is used as it is drawn. Approximate Oz. per Maximum
Classification
(Thickness sq.ft. size
Glass edge for small units
Drawing one of the methods of
is
Photo 12-14 36x50"

manufacturing glass into large
sheets. Picture W
.58 to .68
Vu"-Vn"
16
19
36x50"
40x50"
together to form a rolled edge.
There are four widely used Single strength Insulating glass can be used on
window glass:
qualities of Double strength V>" 26 60x80" all window installations. Sash
Heavy sheet Vu" 40 120x84" must be made to provide for the
• AAQuality— This is the best
Heavy sheet Vn" 45 120x84" additional glass thickness. Stan-
window glass obtainable, manu-
Heavy sheet Vt" 52 120x84" dard sizes are shown in the ac-
factured on special order only
and priced accordingly. companying tables.
Insulating Glass
Be exact in ordering. Do not
• Premium— Best commercial Insulating glass has two sheets
specify the wrong trade name.
quality, remarkably free of dis-
of glass separated by space. De-
tortion.
hydrated air at atmospheric pres- Grey Glass
• A Quality— Has no imper- sure is sealed into the space. There When one wishes to reduce
fections that cause noticeable dis- are two methods of sealing the transmission of light or heat one
tortion. edges. Large windows have a may use special greyed glass. Vi-
• B Quality— Has some distor- steel frame with gaskets to form sion is obscured only slightly.
tion but is suitable for usual small a seal. Smaller panes have a glass Looking through reminds one
it
panes. edge. The two sheets are melted of looking through sun glasses.
164
'
Insulating Glass— standard sizes
METAL EDGE GLASS EDGE

2 Pieces W Polished Plate Glass— '/>" Air Space (DS premium)
UNIT SIZE UNIT SIZE UNIT SIZE 2 Pieces '/«" Window Glass— l W Air Space
33" x 76%" 46%" x 56%" 56%" x 58%" Picture window sizes
35%" x 36" 47%" x 50%" 56%" x 66"
35%" x 48%" 47%" x 66%" 56%" x 70%" DOUBLE HUNG AWNING CASEMENT
35'/j" x 60%" 48" x 48" 57" x 76%" WINDOWS WINDOWS WINDOWS
36" x 44%" 48" x 60" 58" x 64%" Width Height Width Height Widtt Height
36" x 55V4" 48" x 72" 58" x 72%" 49% »" x 46" 36%" x 49%" 35 7/i 4 " x 36 Me"
36" x 68%" 48%" x 55%" 58" x 80%" 49'At" x 50" 39%" x 49%" 35'/ is" x 48%"
36" x 75" 48%" x 68%" 58" x 96%" 49% 6" x 58" 44%" x 49%" 35 '/ .6" X 60'/l»"
36" x 93" 48%" x 75" 58" x 1 1
6%" 57V. 6" x 46" 44'/ i«" x 36 % »"
42" x 48%" 48%" x 93" 60" x 72" 57% 4 " x 50" 447i«" x 48%"
42" x 56%" 48%" x 50" 60%" x 66%" 65% t" x 46" 44'/u" x 60 7/is"
42" x 66" 48%" x 58" 60%" x 68%" 65% «" x 50" 55% 6" x 36 K»"
42" x 72" 50" x 56%" 60%" x 75" 55%«" x 48%"
44%" x 48'/s" 50" x 64%" 60%" x 93" 68 'At" x 36 Vie"
44%" x 60%" 50" x 72%" 64%" x 66" 68' He" x 48%"
45" x 76%" 50" x 80%" 66" x 72%"
45%" x 52" 50" x 96%" 66" x 84"
46" x 48'/2" 50%" x 60%" 66" x 96"
46" x 64'/2" 52%" x 58%" 72" x 84" GLASS EDGE (SSA)
46" x 72%" 52%" x 70V." 72" x 96"
46%" x 52'/2" 55%" x 60%" 2 Pieces )4*" Window Glass— Vi." Air Space
Width Height Width Height Width Height
16" x 24" 21 Vie" x 49" 36" x 16"
2 Pieces 'At" Window Glass— %" Air Space 1
6" x 32" 21'/i6"x6iyu" 36" x 20"
35 %" x 36" 48%" x 42" 64%" x 46" 16" x 36" 22" x 18" 36" x24"
35'/2" x 48'/." 48%" x 46" 64%" x 50" 16" x 48" 22" x 55'/. 6" 36V " x 14%"
35%" x 60%" 48%" x 50" 64%" x 58" 1
6" x 60" 24" x 16" 36 5/ " x 18%"
42" x 66" 55%" x 36" 68%" x 36" 16»/ie" x 24%" 24" x 20" 36 5/. " x 22%"
,J/I4 " 24" 30%"
42" x 72" 55%" x 48V." 68%" x 48%" 16'/.«"x 30 x 24" 36V " x
44%" x 36" 55%" x 60%" 72" x 48" 16'/. 4 "x 36 ,J/i»" 24" x 32" 39% " x 14%"
44%" x 48%" 56%" x 42" 72%" x 46" 16'/.6" x49" 24" x 36" 39% " x 18%"
"
44%" x 60%" 56%" x 46%" 72%" x 50" 16'/i»" x 61*1 4 24" x 48" 39% " x 22%"
45%" x 52" 56%" x 50" 75" x 36" 19" x 15" 24" x 60" 39% " x 30%"
48" x 48" 56%" x 58%" 75" x 48%" 1 9%" x 53" 24%" x 15%" 40" x 16"
48" x 60" 20" x 16" 27%" x 14%" 40" x20"
20" x 20" 27%" x 1
8%" 40" x 24"
20" x 24" 27%" x 22%" 42% " x 22%"
2 Pieces '«" Window Glass— %" Air Space 20" x 32" 27%" x 30%" 44" x 16"
For Wood Doors For Window Walls 20" x 36" 28" x 16" 44% " x 14%"
Width Height Width Height 48"
20" x 28" x 20" 44% " x 18%"
21%"x62%" 45%" x 25%" 20" x 60" 28" x 24" 44% " x 22%"
25%" x 62%" 42%" x 22%" 21 'At" x 24%" 32" x 16" 44% " x 30%"
21 Vie" x 30' % t" 32" x 20" 45% " x 25%"
Class Max.
Unit Thickness *PP rox -
21 Wx 36 ,3 "
/i 4 32" x 24"
nessf Spoce Sq.ft.* Tolerances 'A" Mi Vi " Air Net Weights

Space Space Per Sq. Ft.
%" '/." 12 To 48"

%" Glass Air Max. Dimensional Unit Approximate
or + 'At", -Vt»" '%2" '%."
Over 48" 3% lbs. Thick- Space Area Tolerances Thick- Average
ness Sq. Ft. ness Net Weights
+ %",-'/.»" ±V!)2" ±V4j"
Per Sq.
y.6" %" To 48"
Ft.
or %" 17 + %",-'/. 6" "At" <

s
At" 5% lbs. %" Y\t" 24 ±Vi«" 'At" 3% lbs.
± 'A 2" ± Via"
%" ± %i"
Vi" Over 48"
or %"
%2" Vi»" 10 ±<At" %" 2% lbs.
70 + =/l6", -'/l t" 'y.»" "/,«" 6% lbs.
±'/3 2"
±J4s" ±%2"
* Minimum $ize, 28 ocfua/ united inches. So/ex", SoJargray* Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co
So/orbronze™ — maximum 50 sq. ff. fGlass thickness and at
165
space are subject to practical manufacturing tolerances.
This glass is not recommended stalled in much the same manner Space must be left between the
where high light transmittance is as ceramic Large sheets may
tile. top of the blocks and lintels or
desired— for example, in mer- require special metal anchors to headers to allow for deflection.
chandise display windows. help secure them to the building. Clearance should also be given
of openings to allow
at the sides
Polished Plate Glass Patterned Glass forexpansion and building settle-
After glass is manufactured, it As the name implies, decora- ment. This space should be
may be ground and polished to tive patterns manufactured
are packed with oakum, which is a
true flat surfaces of great bril- on the face of glass. This decora- fiber material similar to rope that
liance and high reflectivity. Usual tion may be on one or both faces. has been soaked in oil. It serves
thickness is from Va" to 1 Vi". There When one considers the number as a cushion. The joint is then
are three qualities of plate glass: of glass manufacturers and all covered with caulking to give a
• Silvering QuALiTY-This is the decorative glass patterns of finished appearance.
the best quality available; it is each, the variety is virtually un- Glass blocks are modular units.
seldom used in sizes over 20 limited. For specific information Block thickness is nominal 4" or
square feet. concerning individual patterns, 3 5/s" actual. Nominal face sizes
• Mirror Glazing Quality— consult manufacturers' literature. are 6"x6", 8"x8", 12"xl2", and
There are some small visible de- 4"xl2". Any actual face size is
fects but the quality is exceptional. Safety Glass %" less for both dimensions.
• Glazing QuALiTY-This is
Safety glass consists of two or The units are laid in much
used when ordinary glazing is re- more sheets with tough, transpar- thesame manner as other ma-
quired but not for mirrors. It is a ent plastic bonded between them. sonry and should have reinforce-
very good quality. Recent development has seen ment between alternate courses.
foreign objects, such as leaves, fi- They must be secured to other
Tempered Glass ber glass, butterflies, paper, cloth, masonry or frame with wall ties
Most sheet glass is quite brittle or metal imbedded in the plastic. or set in metal channels which
but can be made more shock re- The plastic is so clear that it may are secured to the structure.
sistant by heat tempering. Tem- be as much as V»" thick for the Glass blocks are frequently
pered glass will bend about four inserts.Very interesting patterns used combination with other
in
times as far as ordinary glass may be achieved by "sandwich- windows. Modular windows are
without breaking. When it does ing" decorative inserts between sometimes set in the center of the
break it does not shatter; it dis- several sheets of glass. Standard glass block area.
integrates into small, blunt-edged patterns may be purchased or Decorative patterns vary
pieces. The uses of this glass are panels may be custom fabricated slightly with individual manu-
practically unlimited. Its extra to specifications. Any material facturers. The faces may be
cost is more than offset by its selected for use must be inert to smooth, have a swirled effect, or
many advantages. the plastic so as not to affect it have wide or narrow flutes run-
chemically. ning in one or both directions.
Structural Glass Newer patterns may have a peb-
Many parts of the interior and Glass Block bled or textured surface, or sculp-
exterior of buildings may be faced Structural glass blocks are not tured designs may be created by
with opaque colored glass. It is designed to be load supporting. texturing portions and leaving
usually in square or rectangular When masonry is placed above other glass plain. Surfaces may
shapes of varying size and thick- them, must carry the load.
lintels also be finished with colored ce-
ness. The face may be polished Wood framing above must be ramic enamel. They may have di-
or embossed. This material is in- supported by headers. rectional screens imbedded in the
166
.
14: Windows and Glass
center cavity to control light and ter of the building so other rooms
heat transmission. can use the exterior walls.
Glass blocks are normally a If windows are to be used for
very pale green but some compa- light or ventilation, they should
nies make them in a variety of still be placed following the old
colors. established rules.
Other Uses
There are many other kinds Questions to Reinforce
and applications of glass that can- Knowledge
not be fully covered in a book of
1 What window material is
this nature. Some of the more
best?
common are mentioned to ac- 2. What species is usually used
quaint you with the need for
for wood windows? Why?
further study.
3. Do steel windows normally
• Corrugated glass have a sill and wide jambs?
• Wired glass 4. Steel windows are most fre-
• Glass brick quently used in what kind of con-
• Sculptured glass struction?
• Glass mirrors 5. What is a plaster return?
• One way glass 6. What is a corner bead?
• Bullet resisting
7. What window types are
• Bent glass manufactured from aluminum?
• Sand blasted 8. What is the extent of alumi-
• Rolled edge— fire polished num window usage?
• Heat grid glass 9. What role is plastics playing
Glass block window • Glass lighting panels in window manufacture?
structural details.
1 0. Name and describe common
window types.
11. Are windows of the same
Window Requirements quired to serve their original type always exactly the same?
In the past, windows were purpose. Explain.
needed to admit and pro-
light Windows still remove the feel- 1 2. What module is used for
vide ventilation. Every room was ing of living in a cubicle by ex- glass and sash size?
required to have at least one win- panding the line of vision, ap- 1 3. What is a sash?
dow and preferably more. When pearing to bring the outside to 14. Is a 30"-wide glass size one
more than one window was used, the inside. This is usually their of the standard sizes? Why?
they were placed to provide ade- most important function at the 1 5. What is the relationship of
quate cross-ventilation. Mechani- present time. If a window is not stile width to glass width?
cal light and ventilation have used for this reason, it is some- 1 6. Describe the following win-
changed this somewhat. Many times omitted. For example, when dow sizes:
codes still state minimum glass bathrooms and kitchens were al- • rough or masonry opening
and ventilating areas for each ways placed on outside walls, this • opening
room; however, with electric was done so the room could have • unit opening
lighting and mechanical ventila- windows. Modern applications 1 7. What is a muntin?
tion, windows may never be re- may move these rooms to the cen- 1 8. What is a bar?
167
1 9. What is a lock or meeting 38. What is window hardware? 47. Is there more than one qual-
rail? Explain. ity? Explain.
20. What is a stile? 39. Is all glass for windows 48. What is tempered glass?
21. What is a top rail? called window glass? 49. What is structural glass?
22. What is a bottom rail? 40. What are the qualities of 50. What is patterned glass?
23. How does its size compare window glass? 51. How are decorative objects
with a stile or top rail? 41. What is insulating glass? placed in glass?
24. What is a brick mold? 42. Why is it important to select 52. Do glass blocks support
25. What is an exterior casing, standard sizes? weight of the structure?
and what is the difference between 43. What is between the panes 53. What are the standard sizes
this and a brick mold? of insulating glass? of glass blocks?
26. What is a mullion? Are mul- 44. What are two methods of 54. Is it necessary for all rooms
lions always the same size? Explain? sealing the edges? to have windows? Explain.
27. When is a vertical stiffener 45. What is grey glass? 55. What are three functions of
placed inside the mullion? 46. What is polished plate glass? a window?
28. What is a subsill? Does it come in more than one thick- 56. Does each window always
29. Is a stone sill a part of a ness? Explain. serve all three functions?
window?
30. Is exterior casing or brick
mold a part of the window?
31. What is a drip cap and why prime coat window opening drip cap
is it used? chase unit opening Neoprene
32. What is meant when one says trim muntin mull.
a window is to be purchased caulking mullion quad.

unglazed? plastic window stiffener D.H.
33. When ordering glass how extruded subsill Sd. Lt.
are the dimensions listed? Why? double hung top rail window operator
34. How does one describe sev- casement meeting rail distortion
eral windows made into one large awning flute window glass
unit? hopper ceramic insulating glass
35. What is a mull window? fixed sash lock rail grey glass
36. What is a triple window? bow window bottom rail polished plate glass
Does it have vertical stiffeners? bay window sticking tempered glass
37. After studying the chapter, stile casing patterned glass
from your own reasoning, describe rough brick mold sandwich glass
a Corner picture/w/ 3-bar case- opening pebbled oakum
ment Sd. Lt.
168
Stairs and Stair Framing
no distinction
In this discussion mon. Heavy construction makes Stringers
will be made between stairs and almost exclusive use ofsteel and
Stringers are the structural
an ordinary set of steps. The term concrete. Since this book deals
stairs will include any set of steps primarily with light construction,
parts (similar to inclined and
notched floor joists) that support
attached to a building. greater emphasis will be given
the stairs. Although minimum re-
Wood is most frequently used wood stair construction. However,
quirements permit only two string-
in light frame construction, but any stair part may be constructed
ers, one at each side of the stairs,
steel and concrete are not uncom- of other materials.
a third stringer in the middle
makes the steps more rigid and
should be included except on very
inexpensive construction. There
are two general methods of con-
structing wood stringers (with
many variations of each).
A plain stringer is a 2"xl0" or
larger, with notches at each step.
This is used for basements or
other very inexpensive construc-
tion. The treads and risers are
nailed directly to the stringers.
These are sturdy stairs but do not
give a finished appearance. Noise
(squeaking) is likely when weight
is on the treads.
shifting
Treads for basement stairs are
frequently made from 2" thick
dimension lumber, and risers are
sometimes omitted.
A housed stringer ismade from
finished lumber; Vi" deep grooves
are routed into it so the treads
first Federal Sovir
Stairways may be the focal point of beauty for a room. and risers slip into the stringers.
169
Stair Parts
Total Stair Rise
This is the distance from the

top of one finished floor to
another.
Total Stair Run
This is the total horizontal

stair length.
Unit Structures, Koppers Company, Inc
Stairways may be the focal point of beauty for a room.
The grooves are slightly larger
than tread and riser thickness, to Stair parts.

F
accommodate glued wood wedges
which are placed in the grooves
behind the risers and below the Riser
treads. This closes all joints so A vertical member (back of

they are tight from the finished step) extending from the bottom
side of the stairs. of one tread to the bottom of the
Three methods of framing tread above.
stringers at floor openings are
Rise
shown. The method shown in the
The vertical distance from the
third illustration is preferred by
top of one tread to the next.
the author because the header
joists are doubled, which permits Tread
the outside header to be left un- A horizontal member (top of
attached when the floor is framed.
step) extending from the face of
This header may be assembled
one riser to the face of an ad-
with the stairs while they are on the
joining one, plus nosing.
floor in a flat position, and raised
into place. A ledger as shown in Run
the first illustration may also be The horizontal distance from
used with the third method if the face of one riser to the face
greater strength is desired. The of an adjoining one.
method shown in the second il-
Nosing
lustration is least satisfactory be-
The portion of tread that over-
cause the stringer has very little Joining
laps the riser below.
surface bearing upon the header. floor
fair Rail
Stair Types
Straight Stairs
The side hand rail following
he rake angle of the steps. Straight stairs lead from one basement stairs) a stair rail is
level to the next without turns. needed on both sides.

These are the least expensive to
build. If the stairs are enclosed L Stairs
by a wall on both sides, they are An L stairs (sometimes called

called closed siring stairs. If they a dogleg or platform stairs) has
are against a wall on one side, one landing somewhere in the
but open on the other, they are flight of steps. A
person using the
called open string stairs. When stairs must make a 90° turn at
open string stairs are used, a stair this point. When the landing is
rail is required on the open side. near the top or bottom of the
If both sides are open (as for flight, it is called long L stairs.
Stair rail heights (banister).
lewel Post
The large post at the foot (bot-

3m) or head (top) of a stairs
'hich supports the ends of the
[air rail.
Typical baluster shapes.
II T~
r
ll
,
PLAN
Busters 1
PLAN
Small, evenly spaced posts to
upport the stair rail. Straight stairs. Long L stairs (bottom L).
171
1 /
1 '
Long L stairs (top.L).
When the landing is near the cen-

ter of the flight, it is called wide
L stairs.
Double L Stairs
L stairs have two turns,

Double Wide L stairs.
one near the bottom and one near Double L stairs.
the top.
172
J 5: Stairs and Stair Framing
PLAN
Double L stairs.
PLAN
"
U Stairs
Narrow U stairs have two

flights of steps with a landing be-
tween. The upper flight reverses
directions and runs parallel to the
first flight. One must make a 180°
turn on the landing. There is very

little space between the two
flights.
Narrow U stairs.
173
Obligation
Part One: Structure— An Architectural
Winders
„ When space is at a premium
it is sometimes difficult to allow
1
room for landings. Wedge shaped

winder steps may serve to turn a
'
corner. These are difficult and ex-

]
pensive to build, and dangerous
_
PLAN to use. The narrow wedge side
does not provide adequate foot-

ing surface.
Wide U stairs
Wide U stairs are similar to

the narrow U except the flights
are moved apart to form a well-
hole between. This wellhole must
be enclosed by a stair rail. A third
short flight is sometimes added,
as shown, at the landing. When
this is done forms two smaller
it
landings instead of one large one.
Winding stairs (winders).
174
I 5: Stairs and Stair Framing
Stair Uses and Locations holes and have doors at the bot-
tom or top. In a multi-story
• Main stairs: well-constructed building, doors are required at
and finished for constant use. each level.
• Service or basement stairs: de- Service stairs are usually lo-

signed for utility uses. cated near the kitchen or other
• Outside steps or stairs: attached service area. Basement stairs are
stairs outside the building. in the same general location. One
Main stairs leading to upper should be able to enter a building
levels should be located near the and go to a basement without
main or front entrance. When walking through another room.
possible, one should enter the For most convenient use. service stairs The method used in the illustra-
are in line with an entry door. Doors
stairs from a hall (preferably the tion affords easiest access. It is
should not interfere, but neither should
entry hall). It is not good prac- not necessary to turn a corner
they open directly over a stairway.
tice to be required to walk through when carrying bulky objects to
a room to reach a stairs. Can you the stair well to upper levels, but the basement. This direct access
see why? However, open string this does not necessarily cause also eliminates carrying items
stairs are sometimes placed in- discomfort to occupants. One through other parts of a building.
side a room to achieve an archi- should carefully consider whether Outside steps or stairs may
tectural effect. Additional service the beauty of an open stairs war- lead from the ground to the build-
stairs are usually provided else- rants the discomfort and extra ing, or to upper levels. They may
where. Both open string and heating expense that will proba- also lead from the ground to a
closed string stairs without a door bly result. Furthermore, drafts basement floor. When inside ac-
at the bottom or top waste heat are a definite fire hazard. Stairs cess to a basement is not near
and allow cold drafts to descend. in public buildings are frequently a service entry, additional out-
Warm air also ascends through required to be enclosed in well- side access should be provided.
Structural Details Rise no nosing is used (as for concrete

Stair width for main stairs, as Maximum rise for main stairs steps with vertical risers) the
stated by the FHA. is 2'-8" is 8'/<". minimum is 1
1".
minimum, plus the width of the Maximum rise for service or Note: Every step in a flight of
stair rail. However, this is hardly basement stairs is 8V4". stairs must be the same— that is.
adequate. The author considers Maximum rise for exterior have the same rise and run. This
3'-0" aminimum width, with steps or stairs is IV2". means exactly the same!
3'-2" to 3'-6"much better. Run Winder size. The rise of a
Minimum stair width for ser- Minimum run for main stairs winder is the same as the rise of
vice and basement stairs is 2'-6", is 9" plus \W nosing. any other step in the flight.
as stated by the FHA. However, Minimum run for service or When possible, winders should
3'-0" is better. basement stairs is the same as not come to a point at the nar-
Outside must be at least
stairs above when closed risers are used. row end. An old rule says that
as wide as the walk leading to With open risers, run is 9" plus the narrow end of the tread
them and no less than 3'-0". Out- Vi" nosing. should be no less than % the
side steps to a basement must be Minimum run for outside steps width of an ordinary tread, but
at least 2'-6" wide. or stairs is 10" plus 1" nosing. If this rule is seldom observed.
175
.
width (from door to stairs) is 2'-6", Calculating Number and Size of
but when the door width is greater Treads and Risers

than 2'-6", a landing at least as
wide as the door
Headroom is
isrecommended.
measured from
^ Jhe
tQ
fo „ owing proce dure
determine the number
treads and rJsers and thejr sizes
was
f
the front corner of a tread (edge

for {he staifs shown in the iUus
.
of nosing) to the closest obstruc- tration Procedure for designing

tion above. This obstruction may WQuld be the same
yQur stairs
be a door opening, a soffit (which
Yqu must knQW the distance
in this reference is a sloped ceil-
between finished floors. Detail
ing over the or a framed
and overa „ dimensions for this
stairs),
opening in a floor or ceiling drawing are bot h given. Add all

above. FHA minimum head- detail dimens ons together to i
room for a main stairs is 6'-8", vefif th(j ov£rall dimensio n.

but 7'-4" to 7'-7" is better. Mini-
When nQ ovefall floor t0 floor
When a door opens toward the stairway
a landing should be provided.
mum headroom for basement or
dimension is given be sure you
service stairs is 6'-4".
include all sizes of all building
FHAprescribes that tread A stair rail should be provided
materials when com puting this
width, 18" from
when measured on at least one side of a stairway. ht _ For example on this plan
the converging end, should be Standard height of the stair rail sizes are inc luded:
thg foUowi
is 30" on the rake (angle follow-
the same as full treads.
lower floor to
F inished
A landing at the top of stairs ing the steps) and 34" on the
finished ce lin 8 °
landing. Three steps or fewer do 9
'
is desirable. A door should not „

Ceiling material th.ckness 0/2
If a door not require a stair rail. Wellholes .
open over the stairs.

between
Furring strips
swings toward the stairs, a land- more than 30" deep require a
ceiling and joists A
ing is required. Minimum landing stair rail.
9'n
Height of floor |oists
Thickness of subfloor .... (W

WA" Thickness of finished floor 0%"
Special Note: (not including nosing) is
.
A stairway must have a to 11". Ideal rise is 7" to 7V*". Total rise 9'-0'A"
proper slope if it is to be easy The proportion of tread Since the size of each step is
to use. Steep stairs cause un- width to rise (and riser height) computed in inches, the over-
necessary difficulty for users. determines stair slope. Two all dimension should also be
Main stairs are designed for methods of establishing this changed to inches. The total rise
ease of use. Attic and basement proportion are stated below. then is 108%". Since 7" is an
stairssometimes approach the 1 you add the proposed
If ideal step height, the total rise
absolute maximum rise and rise to the proposed tread js divided by 7. This indicates
minimum run, without regard width and the sum is between [54/, r i se rs are required. Then
for easy use. Stairs that are too 17 and 18, the stair slope will s j nce Tise for each step must be
low-angled are avoided be- be satisfactory. exactly the same, either 15 or 16
cause they require too much you multiply the pro-
2. If risers will be required. When
space. posed rise by the proposed l08'/4" is divided by 15, riser
Page 175 states maximum tread width and the product is height is 7.22". So far, this fig-
rise for a step and minimum 70 to 75, the stair slope will ure appears to be very satisfac-
run. These do not represent be satisfactory. The closer to t ory, so additional calculations
ideal sizes. Ideal tread width 75, the better the slope. w jh be based upon it.
176
IS: Stairs and Siair Framing
o a
O I
flQ
z «
= o
s O
^ I
k
1
6.47"
1
1
N
1
I ± 7.22"
O
I
Z
> 00 10'A" 9
o IV.
O f
1/1
STRINGER
'
OPTIONAL ~-^^/\ <
f
147" OR 12 -3" RUN
Stair calculations
The number of treads is always stairs are too flat. Using method Questions to Reinforce
one less than the number of risers, number 2, the size is also unsatis- Know/edge
so 14 treads are required. This is factory. Another trial must be
because the floor or landing serves made, using another tread width. 1 . What are stair stringers?
as the top tread. Since 11" is an For the second trial lOW is used. 2. Describe plain stringers, their
ideal tread width, and is a whole If 10V4" is added to 7.22, the sum limitations and uses.
number, it will be used for pre- is 17.72, which indicates that the 3. Describe housed stringers,
liminary tread calculations. Using slope is satisfactory. their advantages and uses.
method number 1 of checking To find the total stair run, 10'/2 4. Draw sketches showing meth-
add the rise (7.22) to

stair slope, is multiplied by the number of ods of joining stairs to floor framing.
the proposed tread width (11). treads ( 14). This gives a total stair 5. Describe total stair rise.
The sum of these two numbers run of 147" or 12'-3". Since these 6. Describe total stair run.
is 18.22. This is larger than the - stairs give adequate headroom, 7. What is a riser?
number 18, which indicates the they are satisfactory. 8. What is rise of a step?
177
Port One: Structure— An Architectural Obligation
9. What is a tread? Does this 27. When should an outside ward a stairs, what special provi-
include all of the material forming basement stairs be provided? sions should be made?
the horizontal part of a step? 28. What is recommended as a 34. What is the FHA minimum
1 0. What is run of a step? minimum main stair width? requirement for headroom over a
1 1 . What is a nosing? 29. From your own reasoning, stairs?
12. What is a stair rail? why must all steps in a straight 35. What is the standard stair
1 3. What is a newel post? flight be the same size? rail height above the steps?
14. What is a baluster? 30. Do maximum rise and mini-

36. What is the stair rail height
15. Describe a straight stairs. mum run, as stated in the text, rep-
on a landing?
1 6. What are open string stairs? resent ideal step sizes? Explain.
37. Why is the correct stair slope
7. What are closed string stairs? so very important?

1
31. What are the FHA minimum
18. What are L stairs? What is 38. Describe ideal tread width.
size requirements for winder treads?
the difference between a long L and 39. Describe ideal riser height.
32. Is it permissible to have a 40. How can one determine if a
a wide L?
door open out over a stairs? Why? has a proper rise-to-run ratio?
1 9. What are double L stairs? stairs
20. What are narrow U stairs? 33. When a door must open to- Describe two methods of checking.
21. What are wide U stairs?
22. What is a winder?

23. Where is the best location Terms to Spell and Know
for a main stairs?
plain stringers stair rail dogleg
24. When the main stairs are
placed in this location, why are ser-
housed stringers newel post U stairs
total stair rise baluster wellhole

vice stairs usually provided else-
total stair run straight stairs winder
where?
25. Why is it a good idea to riser L stairs main stairs
rise (of step) closed string stairs service stairs

have a door at the top or bottom of
a stairs? tread open string stairs headroom
26. Why is it good to have a run (of step) landing soffit
basement stairs directly across from nosing flight (of stairs) rake
a service entry door?
178
1M>
Insulation
As used here, to insulate means For convenience, the three ducted through building parts
to hinder or stop the transfer of methods of heat transfer are re- such as floors, walls, or ceilings,
heat, cold, or sound from one viewed, even though you have and the rays of the sun may strike
area to another. All building ma- studied them in other courses, be- surfaces inside through windows.
terials have some insulating cause they are closely connected The problem is to control the
value, so a structure never with-
is with understanding the handling transfer.
out insulation. However, the term of insulation. While studying the Good construction methods
here refers to materials used ex- chapter remember that insulation and weather stripping at all doors
clusively for the purposes just is to work with heating and cooling and windows help a great deal.
stated. systems discussed in Chapter 19. Usually more heat and cold are
transferred through windows than
any other building parts. Glass is
a very poor insulator. When
Methods of Heat Transfer standing near a window one may
Heat experience heat or cold transfer

is transferred in one of held near a lighted electric bulb
warmed by through the glass and mistake it
three ways. These are: (1) by con- they are radiation.
for outside air entering the build-
duction, (2) by radiation, and (3) • Convection is the mass move-
by convection. ment of heated air or other par- ing, even though it is tightly
closed.
ticles either resistant to or caused
• Conduction is the direct pas-
by gravity or mechanical forces. The addition of storm windows
sage of energy, light, or heat from
or double glazing helps stop this
one object to another, through For example, in a two-story home,
transfer. Air space between the
contact. For example, you place heavier cool air descends along
the steps of a stairway while light
panes of glass is the actual
your hand on a cold windowpane,
retardant.
the cold is conducted to your warm air moves toward the top of
As said, walls, floors, and ceil-
hand, and heat to the the stair well. These are convec-
glass, by ings act as conductors. The
direct contact. tion currents.
amount of conduction depends
• Radiation, in a simplified sense, Means of Retarding Heat Transfer upon the materials used. When
is the passage of heat rays through Heat or cold may be convected the construction materials them-
space or air. An object is warmed into a building through openings selves do not have sufficient in-
when the rays strike its surface. such as windows, doors, or loose sulation value, additional mate-
For example, if your hands are construction. It may also be con- rials must be used.
179
Classifications of
Insulation
There are many materials used
as insulation. They may be
grouped into four general cate-
gories: (1) vegetable. (2) mineral.
(3) metal, and (4) plastic. Each
may be processed into many dif-
ferent forms for special uses.
Loose Fill Insulation

This insulation is not pressed
into a sheet or other solid unit
and must be placed loose between
framing members. It may be
Loose fill insulation may be poured or Rigid insulation placed toward the out-
poured or blown into position.
blown between studs. side of a frame wall may also serve as
Loose fill insulation is usually of sheathing.
mineral composition, but occa-
sionally vegetable material such
as granulated cork is used. It may
be either fibrous (like threads),
or granular (small particles). Ex-
amples of fibrous insulation are
rock wool, glass wool (spun glass
fibers), and slag wool. Cork (vege-
table) and expanded mica (min-
eral) may be granular.
It is sometimes difficult to han-
dle loose fill insulation because
it must be installed after most
construction is completed.
Packaged Fill Insulation
This material is similar to fi- Half thick batt insulation should be fas-
brous loose fill insulation except tened on the warm side of a wall to Fiberboard insulation may serve as a
it is adhered to, or contained be- minimize condensation. plaster base.
tween, sheets of kraft paper for

more convenient use. The pack- as shown. Observe that some of Rigid Insulations
aging permits installation while the insulations have paper on only These may be of mineral, vege-
construction is in progress. Pack- one face while others are com- table, orfoamed plastic, and are
age width is designed to fit be- pletely encased in it. Note also available in many different sized
tween normal stud spacings. that some have nailing flanges sheets, used for many specific
Thicknesses most frequently used. while others do not. Those with- purposes. One should consult
are 1", 2", 4", and 6". out provisions for fastening are manufacturers' literature to be-
This insulation may be in- held in place by forcing them become acquainted with the many
stalled as batts. blankets, or rolls tween the framing members. forms and uses. Typical rigid
180
16: Insulation
insulations are manufactured of

grass-type vegetable fiber that has
been broken down from its living
stateand reprocessed by pressure,
heat, and the addition of resins.
Some are fibrous mineral mate-
rials such as spun glass or rock
wool. Foamed plastic contains
cells that insulate.
These are frequently dual pur-

pose products that serve as insu-
lation but also as wall sheathing,
soffit coverings, plaster base,
roof
sheathing, acoustic wall or ceiling
On solid masonry walls, spaces between
materials such as panels or tile,
furring strips may be filled with
and similar items. See three illus- Foil reflector insulation insulation.
is nailed or
trations, top left, on page 182. stapled to studs.
Insulation (pressed) board wall

flat or have folded or stamped
sheathingis widely used. Its stan- ness. As a backing of drywall or
designs to add to rigidity and in- rock lath,
dard thickness is -A:" but Vi" it also serves as a fire
crease reflective Paper
quality. retardant.
meets most code requirements.
backing is sometimes added to
Standard widths are 24" and 48". Reflective insulation may have
the foil to increase its strength. In a sandwich construction, consist-
Standard lengths are 8'-0" and
9'-0". turn, aluminum foil is frequently ing of two layers of foil with space
added to one face of packaged in- and
Board surfaces may be un- stiffeners between them as
sulation for increased effective- shown.
treated and have the fibers ex-
posed, or they may be encased
in a waterproof bituminous
coating.
Foil backed plaster board
Slab insulation is similar in ap-
serves as a fire retardant.
pearance to insulation board with
a coated surface, except the sheets
are not pressed into a rigid form.
Even though the exterior is rigid
the interior material is usually
quite soft. They are usually of Loose fill is poured and
mineral or foamed plastic. leveled between joists.
Reflective Insulation
Thin sheets of high gloss metal,

usually aluminum, may be used
to reflect heat or cold. The sheets
may be used alone or combined
with other materials. When used Batts or blankets may be
alone they are usually secured to stapled from above.
framing members. They may be
181
Port One: Structure— An Architectural Obligation
and
Plaster as Insulation
Sound Control
Batts or blankets may also Ordinary sand plaster has very
be fastened from below. little insulating value. When in-
sulating qualities are desired,

lightweight plasters made from
minerals such as expanded mica,
vermiculite, or perlite are effec-
tive. Insulating plaster is fre-
Rigid fiberboard insulation quently used for sound control.

may be placed between a Greater insulating value as well
subfloor and finished floor to as sound control can be obtained
reduce sound transmission.
with a sprayed plaster, texture
finished. Sprayed plaster is cur-
rently very popular because large
areas can be applied quite rap-
idly. It is most widely used on
Fiberboard insulation may commercial structures. Sprayed

serve as a celling base. plaster gives a beautiful and in-
teresting appearance. Its greatest
disadvantage is its softness which
causes it to become damaged
easily.
Sound Conditioning waves as much as is possible, to porous textured ones. This is why
Special effort to sound condi- prevent them from passing to a room with an acoustic plaster
tion homes and apartments is a other areas. Hard, smooth sur- or tile ceiling and carpeted floor
relatively recent development. faces reflect more sound than is quieter than one with a smooth
Livability can be greatly en-
hanced if sound conditioning is
carefully planned.
Some surfaces absorb, while
others reflect sound waves. Sound
conditioning means absorbing
Stud arrangement for sound control

wall. A metal channel system is used to support suspended acoustic ceilings.
182
.
16: Insulation
much sound to pass through to as poured concrete or concrete

other living areas. When this is plank floors, may be used.
objectionable, sound deadening As walls between
rooms allow
insulation, as shown, can be ce- sound two independent
transfer,
mented between the subfloor and walls with space and insulation
finished floor. Note: The finished between them, as shown, helps
floor should not be nailed through reduce this.
the insulation to the subfloor be- Special metal and rubber clips
cause nails transfer sound. may also be used to hold wall-
An acoustic ceiling on the ad- board and other sheet materials
jacent level will also improve away from framing members to
sound conditioning. A drop ceil- reduce sound transmission.
ing, as shown on the bottom of Wood paneling similar to the
Acoustic wood panel wa page 182, not directly attached to one shown may be fastened to a
the joists, provides even better wall, acting as a trap to prevent
sound control. sound reflection. Although the
plaster ceiling and a hard surface If the methods discussed do paneling does not absorb the
floor. not provide sufficient control, sound, it turns waves into each
Wood joists and floors permit other construction methods, such other.
1 As used here, what is meant 1 1 . What are two disadvantages 23. Describe insulating plaster.
by the term insulation? of using loose fill insulation? How does it differ from regular
What is conduction? From
2. 12. What is batt insulation? plaster?
your own reasoning give an example 13. What is blanket insulation? 24. What is sound conditioning?
other than the one in the book. 14. In what two ways are the in- Why is it important?
3. What is radiation? Give an sulations mentioned in questions 1 2 25. Describe some of the meth-
example other than the one in the and 1 3 held in place? ods used to improve sound condi-
book. 15. What is rigid insulation? tioning.
4. What is convection? Give an 1 6. What are three types of rigid
example other than the one in the insulation? Terms to Spell and Know
book. 1 7. What is insulation board wall
5. What is weather stripping sheathing?
heat transfer
and why is it used? 18. What is its standard thick-
conduction
6. How do storm windows or ness?
radiation
double glazing help stop heat trans- 19. Name two surface treat-
convection
fer? ments for insulating board wall weather stripping
7. From what four basic mate- sheathing.
loose fill insulation
rials is insulation usually manufac- 20. What is reflective insulation?
batt insulation
tured? How is it used?
blanket insulation
8. What is loose fill insulation? 21. Why is it sometimes paper
rigid insulation
9. What is meant by the term backed?
slab insulation
fibrous insulation? 22. How is reflective insulation
reflective insulation
10. What is meant by the term sometimes used with other insulat-
sound conditioning
granular insulation? ing materials?
183
w Electrical Requirements
Each year many new electrical through wires to a building. This conductors up to the service en-
devices are placed on the market source usually (but not always) trance panel are No. 6 or heavier.
to make and more en-
life easier provides the lines only to a build- Most codes require amp.
that 100
joyable. New homes
and other ing. The entrance service and wir- service be used, but some require
buildings are equipped with as ing throughout a building are even greater amperage. Of course
many of these devices as the usually provided by the owner. the system must be designed to
budget will permit. Even modest The conventional way of run- meet the demand of all electrical
homes include many devices that ning entrance conductors to a items. A sketch of general require-
were formerly very luxurious or building— or from the power plant ments is covered here.
even non-existent. The number of —is by overhead service, which
electrical items included in homes means wires on poles from a
Units of Measure
\
is increasing, and will continue source to the building. Another
to do so. method is underground wiring.
Ampere. Amperage is the
strength of an electric current. It
If one tries to use all of today's The first method is most often
is the quantity that can be trans-
conveniences with wiring designed used because it is least expensive.
mitted through a wire at a given
for the past, the results can be However, it has serious draw-
backs. Wires strung from pole to
time.The larger the wire the more
disastrous. Inadequate wiring can
amperage it can transmit.
cause lines to which
overheat, pole are unsightly. They are also
damaged during Ohm. The unit of electrical re-
may result in fires. Overloads easily storms,
sistance in a circuit.
cause fuses to burn out, which is which can cause interruptions in
Volt. Voltage is the pressure
very inconvenient. Wires that are service. The underground method
that forces current through a
too small create excessive resis- is much more expensive to install
wire. It is the force that causes
tance which in turn increases the but is more desirable because it
one ampere to flow through a
electricity used. This causes an removes these objections. Many
wire whose resistance is one ohm.
increase in the electric bill. It is newly planned communities have
Watt. A watt is one ampere
necessary to plan a building's complete underground service.
under one volt of pressure.
electrical features so they exceed
Kind of Service Watt hour. A watt hour is one
the anticipated demand for elec-
For the architectural drafts- watt used for a period of one
tric current.
man, a course in electrical circuit- hour.
Electric Service ry is valuable. Homes and other Kilowatt. A kilowatt is 1,000
Electric service is supplied by small buildings usually require watts.
private or publicly owned organi- three-wire, single-phase, 120-240 Kilowatt hour. A kilowatt hour
zations that deliver current volt electric service. Entrance is 1.000 watts used for one hour.
184
17: Electrical Requirements
Abbreviations for Units An example of the electric requirements for a small home might
of Measure be as follows:
ampere Amp., amp., A General illumination 4.0 KW = 4,000 W @ 120 V = 33.30 omps.
volt V, v Dishwasher 1.0 KW = 1,000 W @ 240 V = 4.15 amps.
watt W, w Electric stove 9.8 KW = 9,800 W @ 240 V = 40.83 amps.
watt hour watt-hr., wh., whr. Automatic clothes washer 0.6 KW = 600 W @ 120 V - 5.00 amps.
kilowatt KW, kw. Automotic clothes dryer. . . .6.3 KW = 6,300 W @ 240 V = 26.25 amps.
kilowatt hour . . . K.W.H., kwh., Heating system 0.5 KW = 500 W @ 120 V = 4.17 omps.
kw-h, kw-hr Central air conditioning. . . .5.0 KW = 5,000 W @ 240 V = 20.83 amps.
Formulas for Units of Measure

Future appliances 8.0 KW = 8,000 W @ 120 V = 66.66 omps.
35.2 KW 201.19 amps.

W = Ax V W
V= — A= W
— The above list does not include all items normally found in a home; the
A V ones given are for illustrative purposes only.
Calculating Demand
The following table shows If one were to use all the elec- panels may equipped with
be
items of electrical equipment and trical items listed above at the circuit breakers that can be reset
the amounts of current the\ re- same time the entrance service after an overload is removed.
quire. This is only a partial list. would need to carry 202 amperes.
If different items or ones with However, one may safely assume Distribution
different power ratings are to be that no more than Vs of the items From the electrical center, and
used, their requirements must be will be in use at the same time. passing through individual fuses
secured from manufacturer's data. To arrive at a realistic amperage or circuit breakers, branch cir-
then, one would provide approxi- cuits are run to equipment and
Electrical Equipment Demand mately Vs the computed amount, lighting. Branch circuits are usual-
Diversified or 121 amps. A search of manu- ly designed to carry 15 or 20
demand
(KW) facturer's data reveals no entrance amps., depending upon the con-
General illumination 4.0 service panel designed for this ductor wire For many years
size.
Automatic clothes washer .6 specific amperage. However, one No. was con-
14 conductor wire
Dishwasher .9
is listed 125 amp.
as providing sidered adequate but, with to-
Electric range 8.0
Electric oven,
one may be used.
service, so this day's increased demand. No. 12
built-in 3.6
Electric cooking top, built-in (4 units) 4.5 Entrance service panels may be is desirable. If circuits are to carry
Electric clothes dryer: equipped with fuses, as described heavy loads as for electric stoves,
Normal 3.4 containing a limited con-
earlier, air conditioners, or heavy duty
High speed 6.3
ductor that melts when excess motors, they may require No. 10
Electric water heater:
Normal recovery current is passed through, ' or or larger conductor wires.
1 .5
High recovery 3.4

Food freezer .
.6
Food waste disposer .4
Water pump .4
Attic fan .4
Electric bathroom heater (each) 1 .3

Central heating system' .5
Room air conditioner (each) 1.0
2
Central air conditioner 1
( )
1
Only the larger of the heating or cooling load
need be considered.
* Rated wattage.
F. H. A.
185
direction they may be placed in conduct static charges, thereby

a single conduit; unnecessary
it is reducing danger and annoyance
to have separate conduits for each to the user. Many building codes
set Conduit
of wires. may be require all wiring in new con-
categorized into two classifica- struction to be installed in this
tions: rigid or flexible. On the manner.
illustration, observe how the con- Wires running from an appli-
duit is bent so wires can turn ance or fixture to a switch are
corners. frequently colored red for easy
Some codes permit wires to be identification.
run without conduit if they are
Number of Circuits Required
considered fire safe. Two or more
As discussed earlier, each cir-
wires, depending upon the num-
cuit should carry no more than
ber needed for the circuit run,
15 or 20 amps; so individual cir-
may be encased in flexible cable
cuit loads must be calculated and
similar in appearance to flexible
distributed throughout the system
conduit, or two or more wires may
to accomplish this. Proper distri-
have built-in protection, such as
bution is very important for effi-
strands of wire inside a water-
cient operation.
proof covering, or wires may be
Rigid conduit and receptacle boxes back Stoves, air conditioners, water
encased in plastic. The latter is
to back. heaters, furnaces, freezers, large
frequently used for outside or
motors, or any other device that
There are several methods of underground circuits. It must be
requires large amperage should
protecting circuits, determined by of a grade that seals out water,
be placed alone on a circuit. Re-
local code requirements and per- which can cause short circuits,
ceptacle outlets in the kitchen,
sonal preference. The most com- and does not deteriorate from
laundry, or utility room should be
mon uses wires in metal or plas- exposure.
distributed between two or more
tic pipe, called conduit. Different Any of the protective methods
circuits and should not be on ones
pipe sizes permit any number of mentioned above can be used in
used for illumination. All recep-
wires to be placed inside. If many conjunction with low voltage sys-
tacle outlets in a room should not
wires are to be run in the same tems, which are discussed later.
be placed on the same circuit.
Circuits may overlap into two or

Wires and Circuits Required more rooms.
In rooms other than the ser-
Three wires are normally be strung. In addition to these
brought from the source to the wires a green one is sometimes
vice area, lighting fixtures and
entrance panel. Two of them are included to serve as a secondary
receptacle outlets may be placed
black and one is either white or on the same circuit. However,
ground. This wire is not connected
no room should have all equip-
uninsulated. Each of the black to the electrical system. One end
wires supplies 120 volts, while
ment on the same circuit. The
is fastened to a water pipe or
load can be too heavy and if ser-
the white one serves as a neutral metal stake outside the building
vice is disrupted the entire room
or ground wire. If branch circuits and the other end is fastened to
is without electricity.
require only 120 volts, just one the case of the appliance or fix-
black wire and one white wire ture. This wire is used to siphon Outlet Boxes
are needed. If a circuit requires electricity into the ground in the Except for low voltage systems,
240 volts, all three wires must event of a short circuit, and to all wire connections, fixtures, re-
186
)
individuals, or some models have weather, they should be water-

removable sides so several can be proof.
joined together to form gang boxes Living room. No permanent
to accommodate several switches light fixture is usually required if
or receptacle outlets. Boxes may switch-controlled receptacle out-
be fastened directly to structural lets are provided.
members, or they may be secured Dining room. The dining room
by a variety of fastening devices. must have at one switch-
least
When installed, the open side controlled, permanent light fix-
of a box is placed flush with the ture. For best results this fixture
finished wall. should be near or over the dining
room table.
Required Lighting
The kitchen should
Kitchen.
Outletsand Switches have a permanent light fixture
Every room except the bath mounted in or near the center of
should have at least three duplex the ceiling. This light should be
(double) receptacle outlets. They controlled by switches near the
are installed a maximum of 12 doors. A permanent fixture should
feet apart, but 8 feetmore de-
is also be installed above the sink.
sirable. Every wall large enough The switch for this light may be
for placing furniture should have on the wall adjacent to the sink.
a receptacle outlet; this includes Utility or laundry rooms. These
wall spaces between doors, below rooms should also have perma-
windows, or by fireplaces. Outlet nent, ceiling-mounted light fix-
location should be planned to tures controlled by switches. Fix-
coincide with furniture placement. tures must also be provided near
That is, if a lamp or other elec- the laundry tubs or sink and
trical device is likely to be used other work areas.
at a certain location, there should Bedrooms. Bedrooms do not
be a receptacle outlet near it. always have permanent ceiling-
Special outlet requirements. ( 1 mounted fixtures. These may be
Every hall should have at least omitted if switch-controlled re-
one receptacle outlet. (2) In addi- ceptacle outlets are provided and
tion to regular kitchen or utility the client so desires.
ceptacle outlets, switches, and room outlets, each permanent Activity room (with any name).
other devices should be joined to appliance should have a separate This room should be equipped
the electrical system in outlet outlet. There should be two or with permanent switch-controlled
boxes. Rectangular, square, and more above each counter
outlets fixtures. They may be simple ceil-
octagonal boxes are shown. The top. (3) An outlet must be pro- ing mounts or very elaborate in-
first two are used primarily for vided above or close to the lava- stallations featuring light troughs,
switches and receptacle outlets. tory mirror. (4) When outlets are indirect lighting, accent lights,
Octagonal boxes are used for in- placed in basements, garages, out- dimming devices, or other
stalling light fixtures and making doors, or any other place where specialties.
wire connections. Octagonal boxes dampness is likely to occur, they Halls. The entry or foyer and
are used alone, but square or must be of the grounding type. all halls should have permanent
rectangular ones may be used as (5) If outlets are exposed to the switch-controlled fixtures.
187
Three-way switches are recom- Closets or cupboards. All

mended for a long hall. These closets, except very small shelving
are operated at two points, for units, should have a permanent
convenience. light fixture. These are usually
Bathroom. The bathroom must very simple with exposed incan-
have at least one permanent fix- descent or fluorescent bulbs. All
ture mounted above the lavatory closet lights must be switch-
S- mirror. Its switch should be near controlled. The switch may have a
the point of use. However, if this simple pull chain attached to the
is the only fixture in the room fixture, or it may be mechanical,
the switch should be near the door. to turn the light on automatically
If the room is larger than 5'-0"x as the door is opened. When
-S- 8'-0", an additional ceiling fixture closets are filled with shelves, as
should be provided. Note: One a linen cupboard, it is a good idea
should be unable to reach any to place a simple ceiling-mounted
switch or receptacle outlet from fixture so it will illuminate the
the bathtub because of the elec- area.
trical danger to the user. Stairways. Permanent fixtures
should be provided to illuminate
A. Light outlet with pull switch
all stairways. They may be at a
B. One lighting outlet controlled by a
point along the stair well or near
single pole switch
the top or bottom. When illumi-
C. Two lighting outlets controlled by
nating basement stairs, if the light
a single pole switch
is placed at the foot of the stairs
D. One lighting outlet controlled by
three-way switches it may also illuminate part of the
basement. If there is no other ac-
E. Two lighting outlets controlled by
three-way switches cess to the basement this light
Switching diagram. may have a single-pole switch. If
the basement has another door
Suspended ceilings with luminous panels are decorative as well as functional.
Artcresr Products Co., Inc providing access, a three-way
switch should be provided so the
light can be controlled from both
the head and foot of the stairs.
Even though a single-pole switch
fulfills the minimum require-
ments, three-way switches are
strongly recommended for all
stairs.
Basement lights. There are no

special lighting requirements for
the basement. However, proper
illumination must be provided
for safety and the tasks to be per-
formed. Lights may be controlled
by switches or pull chains as
desired.
188
"" AJS i -iiUlL .
Scholz Hornet I
Exterior lighting makes this home an after-dark showplace.
Lighting for this family room and kitchen adds to both function and beauty.
Scho'z Homes Inc.
189
> >
9
Lighting fixture types.
190
1 7: Electrical Requirements
Garage. Permanent switch- Special Lighting Requirements The accompanying diagram

controlled fixtures are to be in- In addition to the general il-
shows how the electrical system
cluded in the garage. One should lumination just discussed, it is de- can be divided into two parts.
be able to control them from sirable to have additional light in The main system supplies 120
either the house or garage. most rooms for reading, sewing, volts to fixtures and is very simi-
Outside illumination. Perma- writing, cooking, or other uses. lar to conventional wiring. Con-
nent fixtures must be provided One may also desire light for its
ventional switch wires leading
to illuminate the entrance outside beauty or psychological effect. from fixtures have been elimi-
each door. These are controlled There are so many electrical
nated. They are replaced by elec-
by switches inside the building fixtures available that it is not tromagnet switches actuated by
but next to the door opening. Ad- possible to discuss or show all of the low-voltage circuit.
ditional exterior lighting is de- them. Only general types are At the left of the diagram ob-
sirable but must be designed to represented to convey an idea of serve the transformer. Switch
specific needs or desires. wires leading from the transformer
fulfill the possibilities.
supply 12 or 24 volts (depending
upon the system). Observe also
that after the switch wires leave
the transformer the two sets of
wiring are not connected any-
where in the building; that is,
they operate independently of

each other. Since they supply little
voltage they may be of very light-

duty bell wire. There is no danger
of a hazardous short circuit in the
switching system; wires need not
be run in conduit nor installed in
metal switch boxes.
Low voltage wiring diagram.

Electrical Plans
Electrical plans for light con-

struction are drawn to show the
approximate location of the en-
trance service panel, all switches,
receptacle and fixtures.
outlets,
Exact locations are seldom di-
mensioned, thus permitting slight
variations to expedite installation.
Except for very large buildings
Switch locations for interior and exterior fixtures. with complicated electrical sys-
tems, conductor wires are not in-
Low Voltage Systems the cost may be prohibitive. Low dicated on electrical plans. When
When switches must control voltage wiring and switching de- one observes electrical floor plans
electrical devices from a great vices are a practical solution be- and sees lines connecting switches
number of locations, the installa- cause they are designed for these and fixtures, these may be mis-
tion becomes very complex and installations. interpreted as wire locations.
191
.
These lines only indicate the Symbols run to a building? Explain the use
proper switch to control a specific Electrical items are drawn as of each.
fixture; they do not indicate the symbols on building plans. For 27. What is a secondary ground?
exact location of conductor wires. convenient reference those most 28. Why are switch wires some-
If space permits, electrical in- frequently used are included in times colored red?
formation may be included on a Chapter 38, rather than with other 29. From your own reasoning,
floor plan. If the plan is too com- electrical information. Of course, from the preceding question, why
plex, a separate one may be symbols replace specific items. If are several colors used on the in-
drawn to show wiring and fixtures. such items must be identified, sulation of electric wires?
Electrical information may also code numbers or manufacturers' 30. What is the recommended
be required on elevation, detail, model numbers may be added to amperage for a typical electrical
and section drawings. For ex- the plan at a location near the circuit?
ample, typical and special switch symbol. When drawing symbols 31. Is it permissible to place an
and receptacle outlet heights need on your plan be sure to check the electric stove and an air condition-
to be shown. examples mentioned earlier. ing compressor on the same circuit?
Explain why or why not.

32. What is a receptacle outlet?
33. Should all receptacle outlets
in a kitchen or utility room be on
1 Why does the number of 15. Give abbreviations for items the same circuit?
electrical items found in homes today 9 through 14. 34. Should light fixtures be on
exceed the number used in the im- 1 6. What is the formula for find- the same circuit as receptacle out-
mediate past? ing watts? lets in a kitchen or laundry room?
2. What is the anticipated trend 1 7. What is the formula for find- Why or why not?
for the future? How does this affect ing volts? 35. In other rooms is it permis-
building wiring? 1 8. What is the formula for find- sible to place light fixtures and re-
3. What is likely to happen if ing amperes? ceptacles on the same circuit?
wiring is inadequate? 1 9. Explain how to determine 36. How would you advise a
4. What is electric service? Who the electric requirements of a home. client on having all receptacles and
supplies it? 20. When making electrical cal- fixtures in any room on the same
5. Who pays the cost for en- culations, does one presume that circuit? Why?
trance conductors up to a building? all equipment will be used at the 37. What kinds of items require
Explain. same time? Explain. individual circuits? Why?
6. What are two methods of 21. What is an entrance service 38. Excluding the items in ques-
running entrance conductors to a panel? tion 37, must each room be placed
building? Explain the advantages and 22. What is a branch circuit? on a separate circuit? Explain why
disadvantages of each. 23. What conductor wire size is or why not.
7. How much voltage is normally recommended for most circuits? 39. What are outlet boxes? What
supplied to a home? Amperage? When is heavier wire recommended? are the three most frequently used
8. What is an ohm? 24. What is conduit? Describe two shapes?
9. What is an ampere? kinds. 40. What are gang boxes?
10. What is a volt? 25. Are conductor wires always 41. What is a duplex receptacle
1 1 . What is a watt? run in conduit? Explain why or why outlet?
1 2. What is a watt hour? not. How do building codes help 42. How should receptacle out-
1 3. What is a kilowatt? determine this? lets be spaced in a room? What is
14. What is a kilowatt hour? 26. How many wires are usually the minimum number for each room?
192
43. What walls should have 52. How does a low-voltage wir- 55. On a floor plan, what do the
receptacle outlets? ing system differ from the conven- lines connecting switches and fixtures
44. If a room does not require a tional one? show?
permanent light fixture, what special 53. Explain why low-voltage 56. Is electrical information in-
provision must be made? switch wire size can be less than cluded on the regular floor plan or
45. Describe possible lighting re- with conventional wiring. is a separate one drawn to include
quirements of a kitchen, utility room, 54. On electric plans, does one this information? Explain.
or laundry room. normally dimension the location of 57. Explain how code numbers
46. Describe the possible lighting receptacle outlets or light fixtures? or letter symbols can be used with
requirements of bathrooms. Why or why not? electrical symbols.
47. What kinds of closets require

light fixtures?
ns to Spell and Know
48. Must all closet lights be
electric service watt flexible conduit
operated from wall mounted
entrance service watt hour secondary ground
switches? Explain.
entrance conductors kilowatt receptacle outlet
49. Describe locations of fixtures
overhead service kilowatt hour switch
to illuminate a stairway.
underground service entrance service panel low-voltage plan
50.What kind of switch is rec-
ohm fuse fixture
ommended for stairways?
ampere circuit breaker single-pole switch
51. Describe lighting require-
volt branch circuit three-way switch
ments at exterior doors. Where are
rigid conduit
switches for these lights located?
193
m Plumbing
Elsewhere in this book it is gravity to carry the water to its leads from the city main, well, or
pointed out that one cannot be- destination. Others were com- other source to a location just in-
lieve that everything new is nec- pletely enclosed by stone, brick, side the building. The size of this
essarily good and that everything or concrete. Per capita water con- pipe determined by the amount
is
old is no longer applicable. If this sumption was greater than that of water to be supplied and by
were true plumbing would have of many cities today. local code requirements. FHA
been discarded a long time ago. Excavations of ruins also re- minimum requirements specify at
So-called modern history indi- vealed interior plumbing fixtures least a %" supply line. However,
cates that many

of our immediate and supply systems that are still a larger size is more desirable.
forebears had no plumbing con- virtually intact. This line is usually of galvanized
veniences. It is easy to rationalize iron or copper, but brass alloy or
that if they had none, plumbing Today's Water Supply cast iron pipe are also frequently
had not been invented prior to Availability of a suitable and used, with infrequent or experi-
this time. This is a false assump- abundant water supply is too mental use of other materials.
tion. Study of the rise, decline, often taken for granted. We know This main line may be located
and fall of the Roman Empire that water is taken from lakes, in the same trench with the waste
shows that plumbing played an reservoirs, rivers, deep wells, and line leading from the building to
important part in their daily lives. that some is being converted from the sewer. Note: Back fill cover-
Great aqueducts transported make it suitable for
sea water to ing water lines must not contain
water from distant mountains for human consumption. Because of cinders or other debris that could
use in the cities. Some of these waste, neglect, and increased us- have a corrosive action on the
were open channels built with a age, an adequate water supply pipe.
gradual slope which permitted is becoming difficult to maintain. The water supply line usually
connects to a meter and/or shut-
off valve. In warm climates the
Water Distribution System meter may be installed either in-
People are familiar with heater. Each of these fixtures side or outside the building, but
plumbing fixtures because they must be connected to a water sup- in cold climates it is most often
see and use them. Almost every ply source and drain. (Except that installed inside. A water line may
home has at least one kitchen some water heaters do not con- pass through a foundation wall
sink, water closet, lavatory, bath- nect to the house drainage sys- or beneath a footing. When the
tub, and either a laundry tub or tem.) Plumbing fixtures and their pipe passes through a foundation
connections for an automatic arrangement into rooms are dis- wall it should be encased in a
washer. Also, each house usually cussed in Chapter 27. short length of larger diameter
has either a gas or electric water One large water supply line pipe to permit building settlement
194
?8: Plumbing
and pipe movement. The void Pipes must either be placed below
between pipes should be filled the joists and the ceiling furred
with a pliable waterproofing. down to accommodate them, or
If city mains supply more than joists may be notched to receive
80 pounds of water pressure per the pipe. Joists should be notched
square inch, then a pressure re- close to their top edge and the
ducing valve should be installed COMPRESSION cut should be no more than A l
in the main before it connects to CHAMBER joist width to avoid weakening.

house lines. If too little pressure It is also a good idea to place
is one may install a
supplied, the notch in the first A
l
of the
booster pump and storage tank joist length from a supported
to increase pressure. end.
In localities where
no city The tap fixture location is
mains are present, the owner shown on floor plans and no fur-
must connect a pump and storage ther dimensioning is usually re-
tank to a well or other supply quired to show where pipes extend
source. Pipe noises are reduced by using com- through a floor or into a wall.
pression chambers.
Their exact positions are usually
Branch Water Lines determined by the plumbing con-
Inside the building the water use. The compression chambers tractor. Naturally there are ex-
line divides into two pipes called shown in the illustration are con- ceptions to this; when specific
branch lines. One pipe supplies structed of short pipe risers with pipe locations are necessary be-
cold water and the other is con- closed ends. cause of other construction fea-
nected to a hot water heater. Both All water lines should be in- tures, then exact dimensions are
on toward each
lines then contine stalled in an orderly manner but required. In addition to the water
tap. These pipes are called should use a minimum amount of lines for fixtures, others are also
primary branch lines, which fre- pipe. Pipes are usually installed desirable. Every home should
quently have %" inside diameter. parallel to building edges with have at least one outside faucet
A smaller diameter (usually W) hot and cold lines running par- (also called a sill cock or hose
secondary branch line is used to allel to each other approximately bib), and additional ones are also
connect each tap with both hot 6" apart. Closer spacing permits frequently installed. In cold cli-
and cold primary branch lines. transfer of heat and cold from mates these should be of the
Each branch line should have one pipe to the other. If closer frost-free type. When lawn sprin-
a shut-off valve before it connects spacing is required, pipes must kling is anticipated freestanding
to a faucet so individual fixtures be insulated to prevent heat trans- types may be installed in the
can be isolated from the system fer. When finances permit, insu- lawn. These may protrude above
without shutting off all water to lated hot water pipes conserve hot the lawn level or be recessed so
the building. water and reduce water heating they are not visible. Permanent
Water pipes that extend verti- costs. lawn sprinkling systems with pipes
cally to each fixture are called When pipes must be installed and sprinklers throughout the
risers. between and a ceiling they
a floor lawn may be installed if desired
Many codes require compres- may be between joists,
placed and finances permit. It is also a
sion chambers to join branch when both pipes and joist run the good idea to have a faucet in or
lines with faucets. These serve as same direction. When pipes are at near the garage. Note: Some
aircushioning devices to help re- right angles to the joists their in- heating and air conditioning
duce pipe noises during faucet stallation is more complicated. units also require a water supply.
195
Waste Removal
Used water and wastes must
be drained from the building
through sewage disposal pipes.
Those inside the building are
frequently called drains. Sewage
pipes or drains are
many individual parts.
Traps. Connecting directly to
composed of
W=
each fixture is a pipe with a All plumbing fixtures require traps before emptying into house drams.
sharp bend in it. This bend is
called a trap. For most fixtures
the trap is of a small diameter,

except for the water closet, which
requires a 4" one. Other drain trap
sizes aredetermined by the fix- A properly designed water supply and
ture opening to which they are waste removal system.
American Brass Compa.
connected. Traps are very nec-
essary to a plumbing system.
They remain full of water at all
times to prevent sewer gas from
backing up into the building. In
addition to its objectionable odor,
this gas is poisonous and, if con-
fined in a closed space, is
explosive.
Traps empty into the main
house drainage system. Horizon-
tal drains then slope gently toward
the city sewer or other drainage

system. Drains should slope ap-
proximately lA" per foot. A steeper
slope causes water to drain from
the building sewer too rapidly,
thus leaving waste materials in
the pipe. If drains in the house or
those connecting to a city sewer
must change levels rapidly, it is
best to continue the gentle slope

as described and then drop them
vertically to their new level. When
drains change direction of flow, as
when they turn a corner, a clean-
out opening must be provided.
Vents. Have you ever poured
liquid from a container with one
196
18: Plumbing
small opening in the top? If not, ing these large vents are usually
obtain a metal container with framed with 2"x6" studs instead
such an opening. Fill it with water of 2x4's.
and then pour the contents out. Like water supply lines, there
The liquid will not pour smoothly are many different kinds of pipe
from the container because there used for removing wastes. Cast
is no air inlet. Now, puncture a iron pipe is widely used. This is
small hole in the top on an edge a very good material because it
opposite the original opening. The is long lasting and its perma- Western Wood Products Assooot.on
small air hole permits the liquid nently sealed bell joints seldom if Vent stacks require flashing to prevent
leaks.
to flow freely. ever need repairs. Copper and
This same principle is applied brass alloy pipes are also fre- levelby additional support. Fiber,
to house drainage system. It
a quently used. These are not only bituminous coated, and plastic
was mentioned earlier that traps long lasting and easy to install pipe are also used, most fre-
always contain water; therefore but do not rust. Four-inch diame- quently outside a building.
it is not possible for air to enter the ter pipes are most frequently used Before selecting a kind of pipe
drains from the traps. Drains for main lines. Vitreous clay bell for drains or specific sizes to drain
must have ventilation to empty tile is sometimes used to connect fixtures one must check local
properly. Observe the cutaway from a building to the city sewer codes because some codes specify
photograph showing a house or other drainage system. With the exact kind and size required
plumbing system. Note the large this material a 6" diameter pipe for each application.
pipe extending vertically through is recommended. Note: Bell tile After all interior drainage lines
the roof. This is a soil and vent should not be used in areas merge to form one line, a final
stack. From the bathroom, pipe where tree roots are present be- trap should be installed to pre-
carries waste from the second cause they penetrate cemented vent gas and wastes backing up
floor to a point below the first joints between tiles and clog the from the city main. This trap
floor; this part of the pipe is the system. Neither should it be used should be placed at a point just
soil stack. The vertical riser ex- on unstable soils unless it is held before the sewer leaves the house.
tending up from the second floor
is the vent stack. Of course, in a
one-story home the vent stack HOUSE DRAIN
comes from first floor level. This
large vent usually connects to
the water closet drain. On the
cutaway photograph observe how
other fixtures are vented into this
main one. If fixtures are widely
separated, as those for bathrooms
and the kitchen, additional soil
and vent stacks are required.
When only one fixture is to be
vented (excluding water closets)
some codes permit 2" vent stacks.
Otherwise, they are 4" inside di-
ameter and will not fit inside
SUMP PIT & PUMP
regular stud walls. Walls contain- Sump pumps lift water to overhead sewers.
197
A vent should be installed on the FROM

house side of the trap to permit BUILDING FROM OUTLET
TO INLET COMPARTMENT
gas not exhausted by other vents COMPARTMENT TO ABSORPTION
to escape. FIELD
Main sewers frequently are not

as deep as basements. House
drains leading from living levels
then cannot be concealed beneath
basement floors. Attach them to
basement walls or suspend them
Septic tanks are used in localities not served by city sewers.
from joists in order to maintain
a suitable sewer depth and slope
for joining outside sewers.
Septic Systems to the building collects wastes
It is customary to locate drains As stated earlier, when there and permits solid materials to set-
in basement floors but when the is no sewage system, it is neces- tle. Bacterial action then decom-
sewer is higher than floor level sary to provide other means of poses the solid wastes. Near the
a gravity type drain cannot be waste removal. The most widely top of the tank an opening is
used. A concrete pit with a cover used is a septic system. This re- joined second compart-
to the
is located in an inconspicuous moval method is favored because ment. Clear water drains from
location and the floor sloped it house wastes rather
purifies the first Another
into the second.
slightly toward it. The pit is than contaminating the immedi- outlet in the second compartment
equipped with a sump pump that ate vicinity. permits water to overflow and
has a pipe connected to the house House sewers empty into the drain into a septic field. The field
drain. When water fills the pit to upper part of an air-tight under- is a series of open jointed pipes
a predetermined level, the pump ground container called a septic laid in gravel or crushed stone;
turns on automatically and lifts tank. The tank has two compart- it allows drainage water to seep
the water to the drain. ments. The compartment closest into surrounding earth.
Recommended Minimum Standards for Individual Sewage-Disposal System

(To be supplemented by local code requirements)
Table 1 Table 2
REQUIRED CAPACITIES AND SUGGESTED DIMENSIONS
FOR SEPTIC TANKS
(Minimum size tank 750-gallons liquid capacity) Locations of Systems
Suggested Dimensions for Minimum Safe Distances in Feet
Rectangular Tanks
Max. No Normal
Na. al of Liquid Cap.
Septic Absorp- Seepage Absorp-
Bedrooms Persons of Tank Inside Inside Liquid Total Tank Bed
From tion Field Pit tion
in Dwelling Served in Gallons Width length Depth Depth
Well 50 100 100 100
2 or less 4 750 3'-6" 7'-6" 4'-0" 4'-9" Property Line 10 5 10 10
3 6 900 3'-6" 8'-6" 4'-0" 4'- 10' Foundation Wall 5 5 20 5
4 8 1,000 4'-0" 8'-6" 4'-6" 5'-5" Water Lines 10 10 10 10
5 10 1,250 4'-0" 9'-6" 4'-6" 5'-5" Seepage Pit 6 6 - -
6 12 1,500 4'-6" 1 O'-O" 4'-6" 5 '-6" Drywell 6 20 20 20
198
J 8: Plumbing
Absorption Trench 6. With about 6" of water remaining in the hole,

The absorption trench gives needed
Function: establish a reference point such as a nail stuck in the
additional treatment to the sewage from the septic side near the top of the hole. From this point obtain
tank. In it the effluent is treated by bacteria that a measurement to the top of the water level. Record
live in the upper reaches of the soil. Final disposal the measurement and the exact time.
is accomplished by ground absorption. The absorp- 7. Allow the water to seep away completely.
tion area needed is determined by percolation tests. Again record the exact time and compute the dis-
See "Percolation Test Instructions," below. tance the water has dropped.
8. Convert the time interval to minutes and divide
this figureby the number of inches of water which
Percolation Test
has seeped away to obtain the average time for
After a tentative site for the absorption trench
one inch of water to seep away.
has been selected, at least two percolation tests
9. Determine from Table 3 the square feet of
should be made. The percolation test determines
trench bottom area needed for each bedroom. See
the absorption rate of the soil. Knowing the absorp-
Table 4 for width and spacing of absorption trenches.
tion rate of the soil, the absorption area needed per
10. Multiply the square feet of trench bottom ab-
bedroom can be taken from Table 3.
sorption area needed for each bedroom by the num-
ber of bedrooms in the house to get the total trench
Percolation Test Instructions
bottom area needed.
The procedure for conducting the percolation test
is as follows:
1. Dig or bore holes with horizontal dimensions

of from 4 to 1 2 inches and vertical sides to the esti- Table 3
DATA FOR DETERMINING SQUARE FEET OF
mated depth of the bottom of the proposed absorp-
ABSORPTION AREA NEEDED PER BEDROOM
tion trench. On level ground this depth is usually
Effective absorption area in
about 30 inches. In order to save time, labor and Average time in minutes for square feet needed in trench
volume of water required per test, the holes can be water to fall one inch bottom per bedroom
bored with a 4-inch auger. 2 minutes or less per inch 85 sq. ft. per bedroom
3 minutes per inch 00 sq. ft. per bedroom
2. Scratch the bottom and sides of the hole with
1
4 minutes per inch 1 1 5 sq. ft. per bedroom

a knife blade or sharp pointed instrument in order 5 minutes per inch 125 sq. ft. per bedroom
to remove any smeared soil surface and to provide 10 minutes per inch 165 sq. ft. per bedroom
a natural soil interface into which water may perco-
late. Remove all loose soil from the hole. Place 45 minutes per inch 300 sq. ft. per bedroom
about 2 inches of coarse sand or fine gravel in the 60 minutes per inch 330 sq. ft. per bedroom
Over 60 minutes Unsuitable for absorption field
bottom of the hole. -
3. Carefully fill the hole with clear water. By re-

filling if necessary keep some water in the hole for
at least 1 2 hours. This saturation procedure will give
most soils ample time to swell and approach the Table 4
conditions that prevail during the wettest season of SIZE AND SPACING REQUIREMENTS FOR
the year. Thus the test will give comparable results ABSORPTION TRENCHES
Effective Absorp-
whether made during a wet or dry season. Width of Trench Depth of tion Area in Minimum Spacing
4. After the 12-hour saturation period allow the at Bottom Trench Square Feet per of Lines C to C
in Inches in Inches linear Foot in Feet
hole to empty. Remove that portion of the sand or
gravel which has become coated with soil particles. 12-18 1 8 to 30 1.5 6.0
18-24 1 8 to 30 2.0 6.5
5. Pour about 12" of water into the hole and 24-30 18 to 36 2.5 7.0
wait until about 6" of this water remains. 30-36 24 to 36 3.0 7.5
199
c
Material
Absorption lines may be constructed with four-
inch field tile or properly perforated sewer tile.
Place of building paper or similar material

strips
over the open joints of the field tile. Surround the

pipe completely with coarse gravel or stone.
Septic Distribution Absorption

Tank Box Field
* *
r^
© 4 i
t.:-----d
Details of Absorption Trench and Line, for
1
Non-Perforated Sewer Pipe i
© QI
!
ABSORPTION TRENCHES IN HILLY LAND

On rolling or / /
hilly land each / /
absorption line
should follow ap-

© / ,
\ \
proximately the
land surface con-
tour.
©—
\ \ \
Absorption Trench for
Rolling or Hilly Land. Absorption Field Patterns for Reasonably Level Land
Slope
Slope the absorption lines two to four inches per
TOO feet. Progressive clogging of the absorption

lines may develop if the slope of the lines is flatter
or steeper.
Plumbing-Healing-Cooling Information Bureau
200
?8: Plumbing
Other Plumbing Lines of and installed at the same time 2 1 . From your own reasoning,
Foundation drain tiles were as other plumbing. why are cleanouts necessary when
discussed in Chapter 3, Footings Garage floor drains are fre- sewer drains change directions?
and Foundations, but are again quently included as a part of the 22. Describe why vents are a
mentioned here as a reminder plumbing system. necessary part of a plumbing
that they are a part of the plumb- Drainage for gutters and system.
ing system. downspouts should be installed 23. What is the difference be-
Gas lines may also be a part along with the plumbing system. tween a soil stack and a vent stack?
When may the same pipe be used?
24. Describe which plumbing fix-
Questions to Reinforce Knowledge tures require vents and tell why.

25. Why do walls containing
1. Is the use of plumbing a 1 3. What recommended
is the vent stacks almost always have
modern development? Explain. spacing between parallel hot and 2"x6" studs?
2. Name four sources frequently cold water pipes? 26. Describe the variety of dif-
used as a water supply. 14. Why are water and sewer ferent pipes available for waste lines.
3. What is the minimum rec- pipes usually installed parallel to 27. How does one determine
ommended size for water lines con- building walls? which one to use?
necting from the city main to a 15. Describe the special provi- 28. Why is a trap placed in the
home? sions necessary when pipes must be sewer pipe just before it leaves a
4. What two materials are concealed between floors and building?
most frequently used for water ceilings. 29. Which side of this trap is
lines? 16. What is another name for vented? Why?

5. Why must cinders and debris outside water faucets? 30. What is a sump pump? Why
be kept from back fill covering 1 7. Describe two types and rea- is it used?
water lines? sons for their use. 31. What is a septic system?
6. Describe water meter loca- 18. Pipes to drain water and Why is it used?
tions in relationship to a home? Why wastes from a building are called 32. Describe the operation of a
are they sometimes located one by what names? septic tank.
place and sometimes another? 19. What is a trap? Why are 33. What size pipe is usually
7. Why should water pipes or traps used? used for septic absorption fields?
sewers be placed inside a pipe col- 20. What is the recommended 34. How does this size compare
lar when they pass through a foun- amount of slope for a sewer? Why? with foundation perimeter drain tile?
dation wall?
8. What is a branch water line?
How many are required? Why? Terms to Spell and Know
9. What is the smallest diameter
aqueduct compression chamber soil stack
pipe recommended for branch water pipe riser vent stack
plumbing
lines? cock bell tile
water main sill
1 0. What is the difference be-

water meter hose bib sump pump
tween a primary and secondary trap septic system
pressure reducing
branch line? sewer percolation test
valve
1 1 . What name is given to verti- booster pump sewage absorption trench
cal water and drain pipes? branch water line drain or field
12. What is the purpose of com- shutoff cleanout distribution box
pression chambers at faucets?
201
.
m>
Climate Control
Man's physical environment lation is one of the necessary in- crude and inefficient, but recent
plays an important part in how gredients for adequate climate ones are highly sophisticated,
he feels and reacts to situations. control. The three methods of capable of heating, cooling, and
This chapter discusses ways of heat transfer (1) conduction, (2) humidifying buildings automati-
altering building temperature, air radiation, and (3) convection dis- cally. They are well designed,
circulation, and humidity for cussed earlier are ways mechani- require less space, and are very
healthful, comfortable living. calequipment transfers heat, cold, efficient.
Man's primary concern in the and humidity from one location

Heat Distribution Methods
past was to change temperature to another.
just to survive, but at the present Heating progress evolved from There are three widely used
time this is not enough. One can- an open fire to the fireplace, then methods of heat distribution:
not be pleasant or work at maxi- to the heating stove. After the 1 Ducts for warm air.
mum efficiency when he is heating stove the next great step 2. Pipes for carrying steam or hot
uncomfortable. forward was the invention of a water.
Chapter 16 is directly related furnace capable of heating an 3. Surfaces for distributing radi-
to this discussion because insu- entire building. Early models were ant heat.
A light-colored roof reflects the sun's rays and makes a home easier to cool.
202
1 9: Climafe Control
Gravity Warm Air level, with ducts below floors,
Warm air gravity heating sys- require the latter type.
tems were formerly widely used. Appearance and operation of

Early warm air furnaces were newer forced warm air furnaces
merely large round stoves with are much improved over earlier
models. Whereas early models
an outer jacket to lead air into
large round ducts radiating in all were large, round, and had
directions from the furnace top. sprawling round ducts occupying
These ducts supplied warm air to much space, newer models are
heat outlets in each room. There compactly designed, rectangular
were no mechanical devices to units with shallow, rectangular
move air through the ducts, hence ducts that occupy little space.
the name gravity flow. Warm air

When ducts run the same direc-
ducts in both early and current tion as joists they may be re-
furnaces usually terminate at in- cessed between them.
lets near outside walls. Inlets are

usually located beneath windows
because more heat is radiated
through them than at any other
point. Cold air outlets near in-
side walls connect with ducts
that return cold air to the furnace The plenum chamber for connecting heat
for warming and recirculation. ducts is placed below this counterflow,
forced warm-air furnace.
Forced Warm Air
Fuel
A gravity system loses consid-
Early warm air furnaces used
erable heat during transfer
coal as their fuel. This required
through ducts because air move-
shoveling and was both dirty to
ment is slow. A more rapid move-
handle and did not burn with
ment could minimize heat loss.
a clean flame. Introduction of
When a fan is installed in the
stokers to feed the furnace auto-
furnace plenum chamber to speed
matically removed the first ob-
air transfer, the unit is then called
jection but even better methods
a forced warm air furnace.
were sought. Oil and gas replaced
The plenum is the air chamber
coal as the most widely used
or bonnet of the furnace used to
fuels. Furnaces using oil or gas
collect warm air for distribution.
are fed automatically. These fuels
It is usually on the top of the
also burn with a cleaner flame.
furnace because warm air rises
naturally to this location. How- Advantages and Disadvantages
ever, some furnaces have a Forced warm air furnaces have
reversed flow (counterflow) and both advantages and disadvan-
the plenum is on the bottom. tageswhen compared with other
Mueller Climotrot
Homes with basements use the types. They are inexpensive to
This upflow, forced warm-air furnace may
type, but no-basement homes
first
be installed with 0" clearance at sides purchase and easy to install. They
having the furnace on the main and back. provide an adequate heat supply.
203
Honeywell Inc.
A thermostat is an automatic sensing

device to be preset at a desired
temperature.
Mueller Climafrol
This low forced-air furnace may be equipped with air conditioning evaporator coils
at any time, thus simplifying any future air conditioning installation.
Hone/well Inc.
Controlled thermostats automaticlly

Heat ducts for warm air furnaces registers. Note: Dust in the air change desired temperature at a pre-
may also be utilized for central may be moved with the flow but scribed time.
air conditioning, thus making furnace air filters help remedy

air conditioning installation less this.
expensive than when installed Four common ducting methods

separately. are shown in the illustrations.
Heat is supplied almost in- You should use the one that fits
stantly when automatic devices best with your construction.
denote a need. When the temper- Heat ducts are not always be-
ature reaches the prescribed level low floors. They may be placed in
the furnace ceases operation. Con- attic space or between ceiling
tinual switching from heat to no joists. Registers then are either

heat can be objectionable. in the ceiling or upper walls. Some
Most disadvantages are related authorities feel this location gives i.
to the rapid air movement through more uniform heat distribution. Honeywell Inc.
ducts. Since the air moves rapidly, However, ceilings and walls tend Deluxe thermostat for automatic tem-
noise is transmitted from room to to become soiled around registers, perature change of both heat and air
room. Rapid air flow can also thus requiring greater mainte- conditioning.
create drafts in the vicinity of heat nance effort.
204
19: Climate Control
Honeywell Inc
Deluxe multistage thermostat for auto-

matic changeover of heating and air-
conditioning systems. This thermostat
raises and lowers temperature auto- Perimeter loop duct system.
matically as desired.
Extended plenum duct system.
205
Cutaway view of hot water boiler.
Mueller Climatrot
Hot water boiler.
Hot Water
and Steam Heat
Furnaces supplying hot water
and steam heat are very similar.
When hot water is used, the water
circulates in pipes and radiators;
but when steam is used, only
steam passes through pipes and
radiators. Since the operation is
similar and steam heat is most

frequently used for large build-
ings but seldom for homes, this
method will not be discussed
further.
As with warm air furnaces, In the following paragraphs you learned that the large pipe
early models were large and un- two-pipe and one-pipe distribution supplying water to a building is
sightly. Coal was the most widely systems for supplying radiators called a main. Likewise, the large
used fuel and gravity carried with hot water and returning supply pipe distributing hot water
water through pipes and radia- cooled water to the furnace from the furnace is also called a
tors. Well designed, compact, cur- boiler are discussed. This does main. This pipe leads past each
rent models are most often fired not imply that only one or two radiator so all can be supplied.
by oil or gas. Pumps circulate pipes are actually required. Each The two-pipe system requires a
water through pipes and radiators. system is composed of many in- second main to return cooled
The process of circulating hot dividual pipes. water to the furnace boiler for
water from a furnace boiler Two-pipe system. The two- reheating. Two smaller branch
through pipes and radiators is pipe system is the oldest but least lines connect each radiator to
called hydremic heating. frequently used. In Chapter 18 supply and return mains.
206
?9: Climafe Control
each. Automatic controls may

supply different zones with vary-
ing amounts of heat
r -| RADIATOR |
— '
f
-j RADIATOR |— A bedroom zone may
as desired.
require
r J J BOILER less heat than a living area.
RETURN Radiators are usually located
Reverse return two pipe hot water system.

on outside walls. The best loca-
tion is beneath windows. Room
size and the amount of heat loss
through building parts determines
the radiation surface required.
p
-
j
RADIATOR —
| '
|--
|
RADIATOR Radiation surface is that part of
a radiator, such as fins or tubes,
that actually emits heat.
RETURN
For maximum comfort heat
Direct return two-pipe hot water system. must be distributed uniformly
throughout a room. Long, low
radiators spread heat more uni-
L RADIATOR^
j
L RADIATOR^
| formly over a wider area than
tall narrow ones.
WATER MAIN Radiators may be open to view
or encased by decorative covers.
L RADIATOR^
|
RADIATOR
J They may protrude into rooms or
One-pipe hot water system. be recessed into walls so only
their face is exposed. Baseboard
radiators are favored for homes
f=^\ CIRCUIT
f
# 1
because of their long, low radia-
tion surface and their pleasing
appearance.
WATER MAIN
> Advantages and Disadvantages
Hot water is one of the best
heat distribution methods. It gives
For
t^ t^
more uniform heat distribution, a home may
circuits.
be zoned into separate heating
uniform spread without sudden
temperature changes. It is easily
controlled to supply varying
amounts of heat to different
rooms or zones. There is no rapid
air movement near radiators.
One-pipe system. The one-pipe Circuits However, hot water heating
system is widely used. One main If one main serves an entire equipment is more expensive to
leads past all radiators and then building, distant radiators may purchase and installation costs
returns cooled water to the fur- not receive sufficient hot water. A are greater than forced warm air.
nace boiler for reheating. Two building may be divided into For best results hot water systems
branch lines connect to each zones (areas) with piping layout should be designed and installed
radiator and the main. subdivided into circuits to supply by experienced personnel.
207
Hot water furnaces react slowly continues mounting for awhile. needed for air conditioning. This
to changing needs. When radiators Note: Adjustment of the thermo- makes combined installation costs
are cold and heat is demanded, stat allows for this, but in ex- greater than when air condition-
water must be heated in the fur- tremely cold weather only efficient ing is installed to use forced warm
nace boiler and pumped through insulation can hold an even air ducts.
the radiator until it also is temperature. It is possible to air condition
warmed. If a radiator is hot and Central air conditioning units with cold water if radiators are
heat no longer required, the
is cannot be built into hot water equipped with fans, but this sys-
water and the radiator still must heating systems. Pipes are re- tem is not economically installed
cool, so that room temperature quired for heating but ducts are or maintained.
Radiant Heating
Another excellent heating
method is called radiant heating,
which gives a more uniform dis-
tribution than any other. With
(
radiant heat an entire surface I
)
,
such as a floor, wall, ceiling, or

(
large panel is warmed so it will
)
radiate heat to all parts of a room. BOILER
There are several radiant sys- c
tems, but two have proved most ) L
effective and widely used. (

Radiant hot-water heat. This RETURN
system requires a conventional Radiant hot water coils are most often imbedded in concrete floors.
furnace and Hot water
boiler.
distributes heat to rooms. There
are no radiators, which are re-
placed by pipe coils imbedded in
the floor, to spread heat through-
out its area. The floor thus acts as
a large radiator to heat the room.
This system is used almost ex-
clusively in buildings with con-
crete floors because pipes are
easily imbedded in the material.
Concrete is a poor insulator so
heat spreads uniformly over the
surface. When on-grade slabs
are used, insulation beneath the
floor minimizes heat loss to the
ground. Any suitable material can
then be laid over the concrete to
form a finished floor; however, Heat distribution is most uniform when a radiant system is divided into circuits.
208
19: Climate Control
wood or other insulative materials

partially restrict heat transfer.
is
A
on
coil serves
radiant hot water coil
be installed so an entire building
a single circuit.
an entire building. Us-
That is,
may
one
^^^/T
•,
^J
ing a single coil may permit the *», *v vs,
water to cool before the entire
building is warmed. It is best to
have a home zoned into separate
r -*-
circuits so water does not travel
long distances. Separate circuits
also permit individual tempera-
ture controls for different zones.
TT"Tl~'7~7
Radiant heat may be supple-
i
mented by auxiliary units such
as radiators when large windows
or other areas require additional
radiation. Auxiliary units are not
part of the radiant system.
As said, radiant hot water heat
ri i
Commonwealth Edison Co.
Plastic spacer strips fastened to this concrete ceiling with a strong adhesive assure
is very good; but it has two dis- proper cable spacing.
advantages over other methods:
(1) It is expensive to install be-
cause much pipe is required and
Application of plaster completes this radiant electric cable installation.
(2) pipes are imbedded in floors, wealth Edison Co
so are difficult to service or modify.

Electric Radiant Heat
Heating by electricity has tra-
ditionally been more expensive
than using other fuels. Many util-
ity companies now give special

rates for total electric homes. In
some localities this fuel is more
costly than others but is becoming

competitive.
Electric radiant heat is usually
installed in ceilings but it may
also be located in walls. Most in-
stallations use coils similar to
those for hot water radiant heat-
of wire and
ing, except coils are
areimbedded in the ceiling. Each
room has an independent heating
element with its own temperature
controls.
209
There are several prefabricated used because they insulate and do forced warm air heat because
elements designed for rapid, eco- not give proper radiation. ducts must serve only a single use.
nomical installation. They may be When conventional drywall is There are other ways of heating
single wire grids fastened to a used with electric radiant heat, with electricity. Forced warm air
flexible backing, or panels that two thicknesses are required. The furnaces may be equipped with
fit together. After installation all first thickness is nailed to ceiling electric heating elements. Radiant
form a continuous resistance ele- joists and resistance wire is stapled baseboard heat may use electric-
ment and operate in the same to it. The outer layer should be ity. Small electric units are de-
manner. One small wire is coiled fastened to the first thickness signed to heat individual rooms.
back and forth across the ceiling with adhesive rather than nails
and is stapled to cover the sur- to avoid damage to wires. Other Heating Equipment
face. The resistance wire becomes Radiant electric heat is very Almost all heating equipment
warm during use but never hot, clean because no combustible operates by one of the methods
so this is a very safe heating materials are used. Heating ele- just described. Some combine
method. Wires extend room ments have no moving parts, so principles from two systems. For
length and successive coils are maintenance costs are virtually example, conventional or base-
approximately Yh" apart. Exact eliminated. Radiation from the board hot water radiators may be
spacing is determined by the ceiling distributes heat uniformly. heated by self-contained electric
amount of radiation needed. In- Electric heat is widely used in units. Specialized equipment may
stallations should be designed warm regions but is efficient in be designed to heat an entire
by specialists. Many utility com- almost any climate if proper in- building or it may be capable of
panies calculate heating require- sulation is provided. Minimum heating only small areas. Because
ments and design installations recommendations specify 6" in of the scope of the subject it is
free of charge. ceilings, 4" in walls, and 2" be- not possible for a book of this
Electric radiant heat can be neath floors. nature to present an in-depth
used with both plaster and dry- As with other heating methods, study. For a better understanding
wall, but it does not work well electric radiant heat has weak- of furnaces and heating systems
with insulating ceiling tile. Plaster nesses. There are no ducts or you may study detailed specifica-
ceilings should have a sand base fans for air exchange, so exhaust tions of many manufacturers, or
because this plaster permits heat fans are necessary. Equipment books devoted exclusively to this
to spread uniformly and makes a for humidity control may be re- subject. Many large heating
good radiation surface. Newer quired. Air conditioning installa- equipment manufacturers publish
lightweight plasters should not be tion costs are greater than with engineering manuals.
Determining Heating Requirements

To calculate a building's exact the calculations to be included as British thermal units.
heating (or cooling) requirements a part of the working drawings Heat loss and heat gain.
and then to design a system to or specifications. The subject can- Conductance or thermal
the need is very technical
fulfill not be discussed fully in a book resistance.
and should be done by an engi- of this nature; heating engineer- "U" factors.
neer specializing in this work. ing manuals may be consulted if Building surfaces transmitting
However, preliminary design data additional information is needed. heat loss.
must be calculated by the archi- Necessary information includes Infiltration.

tect. Many building codes require an understanding of: Design temperature.
210
19. Climate Control
• Formulas for calculating heat cold. Since some construction ma- have been completed by others
loss. terials transfer heat more readily and the information recorded for
• Compilation of heat loss data. than others, insulators are used use. There are slight variations in
• Equipment selection based up- to help balance heat loss and the ways that heat transfer takes
on compiled data. heat gain. place, so information recorded on
charts or tables may be called
British Thermal Unit Conductance conductance, thermal resistance,
A British thermal unit (abbre- Most individuals cannot sci- or resistivity. For, in depth analy-
viated to BTU) is the quantity of entifically test each building ma- sis, each has its own code desig-
heat needed to increase the tem- terial or component part to deter- nations. In this discussion all are
perature of pound of water 1°.
1
mine conductance. Such tests identified by the code letter "C."
If room temperature is approxi-
mately 70°, one cubic foot of air Heat Loss Data
can be warmed 1° by .018 BTU. Approximole resistances of one sq. ft. sf building material of stated thickness
Heating and cooling needs are

"C" "C"
computed by the number of BTU Resistivity Resistivity
required to maintain a selected

4' concrete or stone .32 Vi" fiberboard sheathing 1.45
temperature within a building.
Furnaces are rated by their BTU 6' concrete or stone .48 %" fiberboard sheathing 2.18
input and output. Furnace BTU 8' concrete or stone .64 W plywood .65
output per hour (BTU/H) is used
2' concrete or stone .96 Vt" plywood .80
when sizing a furnace to BTU heat
loss calculations. Air conditioners V concrete block .70 Vt" plywood .95
are rated by the number of BTU 8' concrete block 1.10 Va" softwood sheathing or sidi ig .85
they remove per hour. Air con-
12' concrete block 1.25 roll roofing .15
ditioners were formerly rated in
4' wt. concrete block 1.40 asphalt shingles .16
tons but this measurement is not It.
as exact. 8' It. wt. concrete block 1.70 wood shingles .86
Heat Loss and Heat Gain 12' It. wt. concrete block 1.88 metal roofing .00
Every object conducts heat or 4' common brick .82 tile or slate .08
cold, butsome permit more trans- 4' face brick .45 composition floor covering .08
fer than others. As you know,
4' structural clay 1.10 1" mineral batt insulation 3.50
materials that allow much transfer
tile
are called conductors, and those 8' structural clay tile 1.90 2" mineral batt insulation 7.00
that permit little transfer are 12' 4" mineral
structural clay tile 3.00 batt insulation 14.00
called insulators. Presence of heat
does not insure warmth or com- r stucco .20 2" gloss fiber insulation 7.00
fort. To be comfortable a person plastic vapor barrier .00 4" glass fiber insulation 14.00
must gain the exact amount of building paper 1" loose
.06 fill insulation 3.00
heat he loses. When it is cold out-
doors but warm inside, heat
w rock lath or plasterboard .33 1" air space for brick veneer .00
transfers through walls to the w sand plaster .15 2" wall air space .50
outside. Your body radiates heat

w insulating plaster .75 4" wall air space 1.00
toward the cold wall. If the body
loses more heat than it gains, re-
w fiberboard ceiling tile 1.20 6" wall air space 1.50
gardless of temperature, you feel

Heat loss data.
211
Charts and tables giving or adjoining spaces with different

thermal resistance of building Reciprocals temperatures, transmit heat loss
materials by number
designate or heat gain. Inside walls, floors,
which materials have the most "C" ••U"
.,
c
..
"U"
and ceilings between heated
resistance. The larger the number Resistivity Factors Resistivity Factors spaces do not transfer heat to
the greater the thermal resistance. the outdoors, so they are not used
100.00 .01 2.44 .41
For example, the thermal resis- for heat loss calculations. Note:
50.00 .02 2.38 .42
tance of a 4" common brick is
33.33 .03 2.33 .43
Ceilings adjoining attics, and
.82, but 4" of glass fiber insulation 25.00 .04 2.77 .44 floors above crawl spaces, are
has a thermal resistance of 14.00. 20.00 .05 2.22 .45 often considered as outside sur-
Thermal resistance "C" cannot faces. Attics and crawl spaces
16.67 .06 2.17 .46
be used directly for heat loss cal- have slightly different tempera-
14.29 .07 2.13 .47
culations, but must be converted 12.50 .08 2.08 .48
tures than outdoors but to con-
to a "U" factor which is used for 11.11 .09 2.04 .49 sider them partially heated spaces
calculations. 10.00 .10 2.00 .50 requires additional test data. At-
"U" factor. A "U" factor, ab- tached garages are also usually
9.09 .11 1.96 .51
breviated to "U" in actual com- considered as unheated spaces
8.35 .12 1.92 .52
putations, is the number of BTU 7.69 .13 1.89 .53 because doors are frequently left
transmitted in 1 hour through 1 7.15 .14 1.85 .54 open.

6.67 .15 1.82 .55 Heat lossis computed for in-
square foot of a building material
(or combined materials) for each dividual rooms rather than for
6.25 .16 1.79 .56
degree of air temperature differ- 5.88 .17 1.76 .57
entire buildings. Room losses are
ence between indoors and out- 5.55 .18 1.72 .58 then combined to determine total
doors. As with "C," "U" factors 5.26 .19 1.69 .59 building heat loss. Note: How to
5.00 .20 1.66 .60 calculate heat will be ex-
have been
for building materials loss
predetermined and recorded on plained step by step following

4.76 .21 1.64 .61
charts and tables for convenient 4.55 .22 1.61 .62
discussions of infiltration and de-
reference. 4.35 .23 1.59 .63 sign temperatures.
Converting "C" to "U." As 4.17 .24 1 .56 .64
4.00 .25 1.53 .65
Infiltration
stated, "C" cannot be used in
In addition to heat loss through
final heat loss calculations, but 3.85 .26 1.50 .66
construction materials, wind pres-
must be converted to "U." For 3.70 .27 1.49 .67
sure causes air to enter a build-
conversion to a "U" factor, deter- 3.57 .28 1.47 .68
3.45 .29 1.45 .69 ing through spaces around win-
mine the reciprocal of "C." That
3.34 .30 1.43 .70 dows and doors. Such air entry
is, divide by "C." To calculate
1
is called infiltration.
a building's heat loss it is neces- 3.23 .31 1.40 .71
sary to obtain "U" factors for all 3.13 .32 1.39 .72
construction materials (or com- 3.03 .33 1.37 .73

"U" Factors for Windows and Doors
2.94 .34 1.35 .74
bined materials) that will transfer
2.86 .35 1.33 .75 Single thickness glass 1.13
heat to the outdoors.
Glassweld insulating glass . . . .60
2.78 .36 1.32 .76 Single glass with storm window 60
Building Surfaces Transmitting 2.70 .37 1.30 .77 Metal edge insulating glass .54
Heat Loss 2.63 .38 1.28 .78 Nominal 4" thick glass block .47
2.56 .39 1.27 .79 1
3
/s wood door 54
All building surfaces (entire 2.50 .40 1.25 .80 Above but with storm door .34
walls, floors, ceilings, doors, and 1 V* wood door 50
windows) exposed to outdoors. Above but with storm door . . . . .32
Reciprocals.
212
19: Climate Control
An exact way of determining quirements one must know the available in heating engineering
the amount of infiltration is called room temperature level to be manuals. If data cannot be ob-
the crack method. To use this maintained. A 70° room tempera- tained for your community, you
method it is necessary to know ture may be considered suitable can compile your own. To estab-
the size crack around windows all for most activities in the home. lish an outside design tempera-
and doors. A locality's wind pres- However, 75° is frequently used ture for your locality consult the
sure helps determine the volume in calculations so a higher heat weather bureau or other reliable
of air that will enter a given size level can be maintained. Desired source and ask for the coldest
crack. To use this method, consult room temperature level is called temperature ever recorded during
prepared tables or charts. (Such inside design temperature. October; also secure coldest tem-
tables and charts arc not included peratures for November, Decem-
It is also necessary to know
in this text.) ber, January, February, and
outdoor minimum temperatures
March. The median of these is the
The FHA permits estimation during the heating season. Note:
outside design temperature for
of air infiltration. To prepare It is unnecessary to know the
your locality. (To simplify later
heat loss data for a home, infiltra- coldest temperature ever recorded
calculations round off your aver-
tion may be assumed to equal because extreme weather condi-
age to the nearest 5°.)
one air exchange per hour. For tions seldom occur. It would be
Heat loss calculations use the
example, if a room is 10'-0"xl2'-0" almost useless to size a furnace
—20° design temperature difference be-
and has an 8'-0" ceiling, its vol- for use at if this tempera-
tween indoors and outdoors. For
ume is 960 cu. ft. Therefore air ture is likely to occur only once
example, if the inside design tem-
infiltration per hour can be as- every 30 years. Averages are
perature is 75° and the outside
sumed to equal 960 cu. ft. Note: sought rather than coldest
design temperature is — 10°, then
Infiltration rate must be com- temperatures.
the design temperature difference
bined with other room heat losses
The average outdoor minimum is 85°. The design temperature
to arrive at a" total loss.
temperature during the winter for a given locality remains con-
months is called an outside design stant. One must secure this infor-
Design Temperatures temperature which has been pre- mation only once for permanent
When calculating heating re- determined for many cities and is use on all jobs.
i al«*ulalin£ Ituilding II«nii Losn

Heat loss calculations are based The heat loss calculations and long. Multiply height by length
upon the terms, definitions, and explanations are for the room to determine gross (total) wall
data discussed on preceding shown in the floor plan illustra- area; so 8'-0"X 12'-0" = 96 sq. ft.
pages. One must alsoknow facts tion. Additional construction data of area.
relating to the specific room for will be found on wall section • The window is 3'-0"x5'-0" and
which losses are to be computed. "A," wall section "B," and the has an area of 15 sq. ft.
Data assembly and heat loss com- section through the ceiling. See • From the 96 sq. ft. of gross
putations for one room are pre- drawings on the next page. wall area subtract the 15 sq. ft.
sented in the following logical of window area to determine the

order. Wall "A" (net) wall area; so the net wall
For an understanding of heat • Wall "A" is an outside wall area is 81 sq. ft.
loss calculations be sure each and must be used for heat loss • Wall section "A" names each
point is understood as it is calculations. building material used in this
presented. • This wall is 8'-0" tall by 12'-0" frame wall.
213
20'-0"
INSIDE WAIL "D" .
Vi" LT. WT.

1.
1 1
PLASTER .75
1
%" ROCK LATH .33
4" BATT
INSULATION 14.00
_/
INSIDE DESIGN
13?z TEMPERATURE 75°
O
Section through ceiling.
V 9
1
12'
BTU/H. Change the decimal to
the closest whole number which
INSIDE
5' x 8' is 592 BTU/H.

WITH METAL EDGE To determine BTU/H of win-
INSULATING GLASS dow "A", multiply the window
/////////l \l> / f / /!/ / / // A area of '15 sq. ft. by the glass "U"
factor of 1.13 by the design tem-
OUTSIDE DESIGN perature difference of 85° ; as
TEMPERATURE -10° 15X1.13X85=1,440.75, which is
rounded off to 1,441 BTU/H.

Example room floor plan.
Wall "B"
WOOD SIDING .85 Resistivities of each building • Wall "B" is also an outside
FIBERBOARD material were taken from the table wall and must be used for heat
%/.,,
SHEATHING 2.18 on page 212 and placed adjoining loss calculations.
2" BAH INSULATION each identifying name. • This wall is 8'-0" high by 20'-0"
7.00 • Individual material resistances long; so 8'-0"x20'-0"=160 sq.
2" AIR SPACE .50
when added together equal 1 1.61 ft. of gross wall area.
%" ROCK LATH .33 total wall resistivity. • The window is 5'-0"x8'-0" and
• Resistivitymust be converted has an area of 40 sq. ft.
Vi" LT. WT.
to a "U" factor by dividing by 1
• From the 160 sq. ft. of gross
PLASTER .75
11.61 to find the reciprocal. The wall area subtract the 40 sq. ft.
"U" factor of 11.61 is .086. of window area, which leaves

• The window in wall "A" has 120 sq. ft. of net wall area.
Wall Section "A. Note on wall section "B"
no storm sash, so its "U" factor • also
(from the table on the bottom of name each building material used
FACE BRICK .45 page 212) is 1.13. and give resistivities of each.
• The shows an inside
floor plan • Individual material resistances,
1" AIR SPACE .00
design temperature of 75° and an when added together, equal 1 1.21
FIBERBOARD
4
SHEATHING .218 outside design temperature of total wall resistivity.
— 10°, so the design temperature • Convert resistivity 11.21 to a
2" BAH INSULATION
difference is 85°. "U" by finding its recipro-
factor
2" AIR SPACE .50 To determine BTU loss per cal, which is .089 "U."
hour of net wall "A", multiply the • The window in wall "B" is
3
/a" ROCK LATH .33
net wall area of 8 sq. ft. by the 1 double insulation glass with a
W LT. WT. wall "U" factor of .086 by the metal edge. From the table on
PLASTER .75
design temperature difference of page 212 the "U" factor for this
85; as 81 X. 086x85 = 592. 11 glass is .54.
Wall Section "B.'

214
X
1 9: Climate Control
• The design temperature differ- heat loss to outdoors; therefore sq. ft. by ceiling "U" factor of
ence of 85° is the same for wall no heat loss calculations are .066 by the design temperature
"B" as it was for wall "A." required. difference of 85°, as 240 X.066
• To determine net wall "B" 85 = 1,346.4, which is rounded off
Ceiling
BTU/H, multiply the net wall to 1,346 BTU/H.
area of 120 sq. ft. by the wall
• This ceiling is below an un-
healed attic, so its heat loss to Infiltration
"U" factor of .089 by the design
temperature difference of 85°, as
outside must be calculated. • The room dimensions of 12'-0"
120 X. 089X85 =907.80, which is • The ceiling is 12'-0"x20'-0" x20'-0"x8'-0"= 1,920 cu. ft.
to 908 BTU/H.
rounded off and has an area of 240 sq. ft. • If air infiltration equals 1 ex-
• To determine window "B" • The drawing of the ceiling change per hour; this also equals
BTU/H, multiply the window section names each building ma- 1,920 cu. ft.
area of 40 sq. ft. by the glass terial used and gives resistivities • Since room air is to be warmed
"U" factor of .54 by the design of each. and it requires .018 BTU/H to
temperature difference of 85°; as • Individual ceiling material re-

warm 1 cu. ft. of air 1°, infiltra-
40 X. 54x85 =1,836 BTU/H. sistances when added together

tion calculations are based upon
equal 1 5.08 total ceiling resistivity.
a "U" value of .018.
Walls "C" and "D" • Design temperature for this
• The reciprocal of 15.08 is .066
exposed to out-
Neither wall is infiltration calculation is 85°.
"U."
doors; therefore neither is used • To determine room infiltration
• The design temperature differ-
for heat loss calculations. BTU/H losses, multiply the vol-
ence of 85° is also used for ceil- ume of 1,920 cu. ft. by the "U"
Floor ing computations. factor .018 by 85; as l,920x.018
This floor is above a heated • To determine ceiling BTU/H X 85 = 2,937.6, rounded off to
basement and does not transmit multiply the ceiling area of 240 2,938 BTU/H.
Room Heat Loss Schedule

Room name Area or "U" Design Temp.
or number volunw factor Difference
Gross wall "A" 8'0"xl2'-0" 96 sq. ft.
Window "A" 3'0"x5'-0" 15 sq. ft. 1.13 1,441

Net wall area "A" 81 sq. ft. .086 592
Gross wall "B" 8'-0"x2Cy-0" 160 sq. ft.
Window "6" 5'0"x8'-0" 40 sq. ft. .54 1,836

Net wall area "B" 1 20 sq. ft. .089 908
Floor Heated basement below so there is no loss.
Ceiling 12'-0"x20'-0" 240 sq. ft. .066 1,346

Infiltration 1 2'-0"20'-O"x8'-0" 1,920 cu. ft. .018 2,938
Total room heat loss in BTU per hour 9,061
Approximate B.T.U./H. Furnace Capacities and Sizes

FORCED WARM AIR HOT WATER BOILER
B.T.U./H. B.T.U./H. Approx. size B.T.U./H. B.T.U./H. Approx. size
input output input output
75,000 60,000 20"x28"x58" 100,000 60,000 1 6"x22"x32"
1 00,000 80,000 24"x28"x58" 130,000 80,000 1 6"x25"x32"
1 20,000 1 00,000 28"x28"x58" 160,000 1 00,000 1 6"x28"x32"
1 50,000 1 20,000 32"x28"x58" 200,000 1 20,000 1 8"x28"x32"
1 75,000 1 35,000 36"x28"x58" 240,000 1 35,000 20"x28"x32"

For detailed specifications consult manufacturer's literature.
term window air conditioner im-

plies that this is the only location
where such units may be used.
Many window air conditioners
are mounted permanently through
outside walls so they do not oc-
cupy window space.
Central air conditioning cools
entire buildings. As stated earlier,
there are two distribution meth-
A central air conditioner has a condenser ods. (1) Cold water may be cir-
outdoors and an evaporator indoors. culated through pipes to fan-

Mueller Oimalrol
equipped radiators that spread
cooled air throughout each room.
This is not found generally in
homes. (2) Refrigeration units
equipped with blowers to force
cooled air through ducts are most
widely used. Central air condi-
tioners may be compact units
serving only a single function, or
they may be combined with warm
air furnaces so that one circuit
both heats and cools.
As stated earlier, air condi-
tioners are most often rated by
the number of BTU they extract
Air Conditioning tioned. Because of early high per hour. Air conditioning needs
As with heating, some form of costsit was truly a luxury. This are computed in much the same
air conditioning has been in exis- isno longer so. Improved equip- manner as heat loss calculations.
tence for a long time. Homes dur- ment design, mass production, Instead of doing computations for
ing the Roman period were often and resultant lower costs have heat loss, air conditioning re-
built around a courtyard having helped make it widely used. Al- quirements are based upon heat
a large fountain in its center. most all medium priced and some gain. Insteadof using the coldest
Falling water from the fountain inexpensive homes are air condi- days in each month to determine
caused air convection currents tioned, and use continues to design temperature difference, the
which helped cool the home. expand. mean of warmest recorded days
Mechanical air conditioning is There are two main ways of the six summer months is used.
a relatively recent development. homes are air conditioned. For Inside design temperature for
Early models relied on air move- small spaces such as individual summer cooling is normally 75°.
ment through water for cooling. rooms, or homes formerly without The direction a wall faces, amount
Later equipment employs refrig- air conditioning, window air con- of roof overhang, sunlight ex-
eration units to manufacture ditioners are widely used. These posure, shade trees or other ob-
cooled air. small refrigeration units are structions in the immediate area,
In the immediate past only ex- equipped to blow cooled air di- number of occupants, and other
pensive homes were air condi- rectly into rooms. Note: The considerations are necessary be-
216
19: Climate Control
fore one can complete heat gain

calculations. Because of the sub-
ject's complexity, this chapter
does not attempt to present an
in-depth study. For additional in-
formation, consult engineering
manuals or other books devoted
to air conditioning.
Humidity Control
In addition to temperature, the

amount of moisture in the air af-
fects physical comfort. Indeed, it
is a serious part of air condition-

ing. The amount of moisture in
the air is called relative humidity.
Under normal circumstances the
FHA recommends a relative in-
Mueller Cl.molrol
door humidity of 50%. When Electronic dust filters make a home practically dust free.
moisture is added to inside air,

it is called humidification. When
moisture is extracted from inside
air, the process is called dehu-
Equipment may be
midification.
purchased to do either or both
operations. Units may be portable
or permanently installed, with
some that are automatically con-
trolledby sensing devices that
registerhumidity level and are
switched on or off as a need
arises.
Ventilation
Ventilation for rooms, attics,

crawl spaces, basements, garages,
and spaces between walls is es-
sential to a building to insure oc-
cupants' comfort and safety.
These areas are mentioned in this
chapter only as a reminder that
each must be considered during
Mueller Cl.mofrol
building planning. Specific refer-
An air conditioner may be designed furnace so one unit takes care of both
into. a
heating and cooling needs. ences for each are found in ap-
propriate chapters.
217
.
Questions to Reinforce Knowledge 33. What i i inside design

temperature?
1 What does the term climate 21. Describe two different meth-
mean to you? ods of distributing radiant heat.
34. What is an outside design
control
temperature?
2. From this and other chapters 22. What is a British Thermal
35. What is a design tempera-
name and describe the three heat- Unit?
transfer principles. 23. How many BTU are required
ture difference? What is its use in
heat loss calculations?

3. What are the three most to raise the temperature of 1 cu. ft.
widely used methods of distributing

36. Explain in detail how building
of air 1°F.?
heat loss is determined.
heat to rooms? 24. How is a furnace rated?
37. Is the idea of air condition-
4. Describe a gravity warm- 25. What name is given to build-
air furnace and its operation.
ing new? Explain.
ing materials that transfer much heat?
5. Describe a forced warm-air
38. Name two applications of
26. What name is given to build-
window air conditioners as the best
heating system.
ing materials that transfer little heat? system to install.
6. What is a plenum chamber?
27. What is thermal resistance? 39. Explain another method of
7. What is a reversed flow
What are two other names closely mounting a "window" air condi-
warm-air furnace? When is it used?
associated with this? tioner.
8. Name two combustible fuels
28. Does a building material hav- 40. What is central air condition-
that have practically replaced coal
ing a high number "C" have more ing? Describe two distribution
for home heating. Why are these
or less resistivity than a building methods. Which is preferred? Why?
favored?
material with a low "C" number? 41. How are air conditioning
9. Name three advantages of
29. What is a "U" factor? units sized?
using warm-air furnaces.
30. Describe how "C" is con- 42. Explain what is meant by the
10. Name three disadvantages
of using warm-air furnaces.
verted to a "U" factor. term humidity control.
31. What building materials ad- 43. Under normal circumstances
11. From the illustrations, name
and describe four ducting methods
jacent to outdoors transmit heat loss? what indoor relative humidity is
32. What is infiltration? recommended?

for forced warm-air furnaces.
1 2. What is hydronic heating?
1 3. What is the difference be-
tween a two-pipe and a one-pipe hot-water radiant heat one-pipe hot water "U" factor
hot-water heating system? Describe duct system reciprocal
each.
gravity warm air pipe circuit infiltration
14. Of the two systems, which forced warm air zoned heating inside design
is most widely used? Why? inlet baseboard radiator temperature
1 5. When referring to a hydronic

outlet electric radiant heat outside design
heating system, what is a circuit?

plenum resistance element temperature
What reversed flow British Thermal Unit design temperature

1 6. is meant by the term
stoker (BTU) difference
zone control?
1 7. What radiator shape is most hot water heat BTU/H gross wall area
effective? Why? steam heat conductance net wall area
1 8. Name three advantages of hydronic heating heat loss window air conditioner
using hot-water heating. radiator heat gain central air conditioner
boiler thermal resistance refrigeration unit

1 9. Name three disadvantages
two-pipe hot water resistivity relative indoor humidity
to using hot-water heating.
20. What is a radiant heating system "C" number humidity control
system?
218
Chimneys and Fireplaces
Chimneys mum space between them, usually good product many codes do not
The main purpose of a chim- with insulation added. Some permit their use.
ney is to provide a draft so fuel codes require its inclusion. In most instances the chimney
in a furnace or fireplace will burn. (2) Masonry with clay flue is round and does not present a
Of course, fumes and smoke also lining. Mortar joints deteriorate finished appearance from the ex-
are conducted Combustion
off. from heat; clay flue liners pro- terior. This is because we do not
cannot be sustained without an vide additional fire protection. identify the round shape as proper
oxygen supply. There are three When they are used, some codes for a chimney. Therefore many
common methods of constructing permit only one masonry wythe companies supply covers that
chimneys, with many variations instead of two. Except for the in- resemble a conventional chimney.
and sizes for each. clusion of the liner, construction
(1) Solid masonry. When solid is the same as for solid masonry. Flue Liners
masonry is used there should be (3) Prefabricated chimneys The three most common shapes
at least two wythes of masonry may be of masonry similar to for flue liners are (1) round, (2)
surrounding the flue to minimize flue liners or they may be pf square, and (3) rectangular. There
fire danger. If one wythe fails metal. Most prefabricated units are many different sizes, so you
the other will contain the fire or are double walled with insulation should consult technical data
heat. A solid masonry chimney in the cavity. These chimneys when selecting the size to use.
for either a furnace or fireplace have advantages over convention- An 8"x8" adequate for most
is
requires a footing. It should ex- al ones. They do not require a furnaces, and 8"xl2" or 12"xl2"
tend at least 12" past the sides in footing because they are light- is suitable for most fireplaces.
all directions and should be at weight and are designed so they These are nominal modular
least 12" thick. Large footings, can be suspended from framing sizes. Actual sizes are W less so
as for fireplaces, should include members. They are safe because they can be fitted with other
reinforcing rod or wire mesh for they are fully insulated. They are masonry modular sizes.
additional strength. easy to install and do not require When flue liners are used, the
Chimney masonry should not as much space as conventional first section of liner at the bottom
be in contact with any wood fram- chimneys. of the flue should be supported by
ing material. Leave a 2" mini- Note: Even though they are a other masonry.
219
SchoJz Homes Inc
Prefabricated chimneys blend well with this traditional style home.
Fire-clay flue I
2" Min. clearance for wood
trimmer at chimney breast.
Wood trimmer bm V2" — Chimney— 4" solid masonry

(min) if flue liner is used.
Support flue-liner.
Parge smoke chamber with

fire-c'ay mortar {refractory
mortar).
Parging may be omitted
if wall thickness is
8"
solid masonry.
Adjustable damper.
Lining of fire-brick
may be laid 2" way)
shall extend full width
of throat.
8" Min. total thickness.
8" Min. foundation wall
Provide not less than 8 inches of solid masonry as

indicated between smoke chamber and face of chimney
breast when wood trimmer is used. Masonry fireplace design data.
220
20: Chimneys and Fireplaces
Chimney Cover
Rain or snow can enter the
opening in the chimney top and
cause dampness inside the build-
ing. Covers may be placed above
the chimney to prevent this.
Chimney Height
The height a chimney must
Clay flue liners may be round, square, or rectangular. extend above a roof varies with
local codes. FHA requirements
lO'-O" MIN. specify that the top of a chimney
must be at least 2'-0" higher than
the highest roof point within
Improper chimney height re- lO'-O".
duces efficiency of a fireplace
Flashing
or flue.
Where a chimney passes
through a roof the joint must be
sealed with flashing and counter
flashing as shown, except when
built-up roofing is used. It can be
lapped continuously onto the
chimney to replace the flashing.
Counter flashing must be bent
down to cover the edge of the
The liner usually extends about roofing. See roof construction il-
4" above the top of a masonry lustrations in Chapter 9.
chimney. When determining

Saddle
chimney height, use the top of
the liner as the terminus.
If a chimney can be located on
A properly designed chimney cap can be
a roof ridge, rain water is shed
both decorative and functional.
Chimney Cap away. When the chimney passes
A solid masonry cap should be through ainclined roof
single
installed above brick or stone surface, can accumulate
water
chimneys to prevent deterioration and back up beneath the roofing,
of the mortar joints. This cap causing leaks. This is especially
should have a wash, or angle, so true if the roof slope is low or
water cannot stand on it and the chimney is wide. If the chim-
speed deterioration. Stone or con- ney is more than 30" wide, a
crete is the most frequently used small protector with the same
material. There is no standard pitch as the main roof should be
thickness forchimney caps, but built behind the chimney. This
they should not be less than 2" is called a saddle. If the saddle
thick. The proper thickness is is quite small, it may be covered
A chimney cover is frequently used in .
dictated by local custom and with sheet metal. If it is large,
areas with abundant snow or rainfall. , ,.
personal preference regular roofing should be used.
221
Fireplaces
Fireplaces were formerly used
exclusively for heating but they
are now used primarily for ap-
pearance and enjoyment.
Many fireplaces are con-
structed of solid masonry, but
other materials are also used.
Double-walled sheet metal liners
that warm and circulate air into
a room are widely used. These
One face open
units require less masonry than
Two faces adjacent.
conventional fireplaces, are easy
to install, and their design helps
insure proper functioning. Pre-
fabricated freestanding fireplaces
and unusual shaped custom built
units are also quite popular. The
desired finished appearance— and
whether or not it is to be used
for heating purposes— helps deter-
mine which kind to use.
Metal is a widely used fireplace material.

Kopperi Company, Inc.
Two faces opposite

Three faces open.
Hearth hearth may be flush with the
An open fire is quite dangerous

floor or can be raised as desired.
unless it is properly shielded. A Ash Chamber
non-combustible hearth should When space is available be-
extend at least 16" in front of a neath the finished floor, an ash
fireplace and at least 8" past each chamber is recommended. Any
side of the opening. Stone, brick, such chamber must be equipped
and tile are most frequently used, with a metal clean-out door. A
but other suitable materials are rectangular ash dump is located
available. The hearth is extended in the inner hearth so ash removal
beneath the fireplace to form an is simplified. When no space is
inner hearth. This may be the available for an ash chamber, a

same material as the outer hearth, small rectangular recess can be
but fire bricks are recommended built into the inner hearth floor
if frequent use is anticipated. The to contain the ashes.
222
k „l -
Fireplace Opening and Liner Dimensions

1 FACf OPEN 2 FACES ADJACENT 2 FACES OPPOSITE 3 FACES OPEN
D H W FlUI D H W FlUI D H w F1U! H W FlUI
20" SO- 30" 12". 16" 20" so- 30" 16"«16" 28" 30" 34" 16".20' 24" 24" 34" 16".I6"
20" SO" 34" 16". 16 20" so- 34" 12".16" 28" 36" 38" 16"«I6" 28" 30" 38" I6"x20"
20" 36" 42" 16"«20" 24" 42" 42" 16"«20" 30" 38" 42" 16"«20" 28" 36" 38" 20"»24"
Fireplace opening and liner dimensions.
Damper Position of Fireplace Face Fireplace Finish

Every fireplace should have a The face of a fireplace may be Fireplace designs are limited
damper to regulate the flow of air flush with a wall, or it may pro- only by the imagination. The ex-
and to block ofl" the chimney ject into a room. Since a fireplace posed masonry can vary from 8"
when it is not in use. has considerable depth, special surrounding the opening to entire
Lintel consideration must be given to walls of stone or brick.
Masonry above a fireplace- the space it occupies. It could give Some period settings require
opening must be supported. A a beautiful appearance in the the addition of wood mantels,
3"x3"x'/4" lintel extending 4" on room it occupies but protrude but current design tends to elimi-
each side of the opening is into and spoil the use of another nate them. Simplicity rather than
recommended. room. ornateness is usually preferred.
FIRE BRICK OR LINER
/ /
FRONT ELEVATION
Fireplace in interior frame wa
Stone fireplace in exterior frame wall. 3rick fireplace in brick veneer wall.
t-FIRE BRICK OR LINER -FIRE BRICK OR LINER
8"MIN.
223
Scholl Horn** Inc.
Stone laid with wide mortar |oints plus a stone mantel gives A double-faced fireplace serves as a room divider.
this fireplace a rugged appearance.
This prefabricated barbecuing fireplace helps give the home

a feeling of country charm.
Morgan Company
Offset fireplace flues

,
DAMPER
permit one fireplace
to be installed be
ASH
neath another. CHUTE
224
.
Large areas of stone or brick are 1 3. What is a wash on a chimney

very popular. When space per- cap? Why is it used?
mits, fuel storage compartments 14. What is the minimum thick-
may be built into the fireplace- ness of a chimney cap?

wall. Book shelves, storage spaces. 15. What keeps rain or snow
or built-in entertainment equip- from entering the top of a chimney?
ment are frequently incorporated Explain.
into the fireplace wall. 16. What is the recommended

chimney height?
Two or More Fireplaces
1 7. Is flashing always used be-
If two or more fireplaces are tween the chimney and roof? Explain.
to be included, considerable sav- 18. What is a saddle? Why is it
ings result if they can be designed used?

into one masonry unit. The addi- 1 9. Explain the variety of fire-
Brickwork may be corbeled to change
tional fireplaces ma) be on the place shapes?
chimney size.
same or different living levels. 20. Give three reasons why fire-
Each one should have a separate- place liners are frequently used.
flue. When they are on different Corbel
2 1 . What is a prefabricated fire-
levels it is sometimes possible to II chimney area is small
the place? Describe the variety available.
shown, to con-
offset the flues, as and you desire it to appear larger 22. What is a hearth? Should
serve space. Observe the angle from outside the building, or if every fireplace have one?
of the inclined flue on the illus- you wish it to be located in a 23. Describe the minimum dimen-
TOO sharp an angle is
tration. different position on the roof, the sions of a hearth.
hazardous and also prevents chimney may be corbeled, as 24. What is the best material for
proper functioning. shown. an inner hearth if the fireplace is
to be used frequently?
25. What is an ash chamber?
Questions to Reinforce Knowledge 26. Why must a fireplace have a
damper?
1 Why is it very important that sometimes used to cover the chim-
27. Describe a corbeled chimney.
a chimney have proper draft? ney on the building exterior?
2. Why should a solid masonry 8. What are three shapes of
chimney have at least two wythes? flue liners?
3. What are two advantages of 9. Why should the bottom sec- Terms to Spell and Know
using clay flue liners? tion of flue liner be supported? chimney hearth
4. What chimneys require a 1 0. About how much does a flue fireplace inner hearth
footing? How large should they be? liner protrude above other chimney flue liner ash chamber
5. What chimneys do not re- masonry? chimney cap ash dump
quire a footing? Why? 1 1 . When determining total chim- chimney cover cleanout door
6. What is meant when one ney height, where Is the measure- flashing damper
says that most prefabricated chim- ment taken? saddle corbel
neys are double walled? 1 2. What is a chimney cap? Why
7. Why are imitation brick shells is it used?
225
Roof Overhang and Exterior Trim
Cornice. The word cornice, from to mount conventional gutters on is the simplest kind. On this style
ancient Greek, means a horizon- a surface unless the surface is rafter tails are exposed. The back
tal molding along the top of a perpendicular to the ground. of roof sheathing serves as the
wall. This molding when viewed Open cornice. An open cornice exterior finishing material. A sim-
in profile is usually, but not al-
Notional Lumber Monuracfui
ways, curved or sculptured.
The term cornice as used in
this book is more inclusive than
the above definition. It includes
all building materials necessary
to join a wall and roof. The pur-
pose of a cornice is to make a
beautiful finished intersection to
join the two parts, and to protect
other building materials from the
Rafter tails and fascia are usually per-
weather. pendicular to the ground when attached Short overhangs and vertical fascia are
There are many different gutters are to be installed. often used with traditional designs.
methods of enclosing a cornice,

so they must be designed to suit
regional or personal preferences.
Rafter tails. As stated earlier
the part of a rafter extending past
an outside wall is called a rafter
tail. Its outside end may be per-
pendicular to the ground or at
right angles to rafter edges. The
first method is normally used
when metal gutters are desired. Flat roof overhangs may have soffits
The second method permits a If no gutters are required, or if they are parallel to the ground, or they may be
wider variety of styles and is nor- to be the built-in type, rafter ends and tapered toward rafter ends. The fascia
fascia may be square with joist edges. may be at right angles to joist-rafter
mally used when built-in gutters
edges or at any desired angle.
are desired. Note: It is difficult
226
pie molding covers the joint where
the wall and sheathing meet. Raf-
ter ends may be left exposed or
a board called a fascia may par-
tially or fully cover them. A fas-
cia may be flat or of elaborate,
molded shapes. However, simple
shapes are more practical when
gutters are to be installed.
Economy construction using
conventional framing, with raf-
ters spaced 16" or 24" o.c, some-
times employs this open cornice
method. Post and beam construc-
tion with structural parts exposed
is also a popular and widely used Western Wood Products Assoc
This open cornice has false rafter tails with finished lumber exposed to view on
application of an open cornice.
the under side.
This open cornice has brick veneer extending up to the roof

sheathing. When planks form the finished overhang the
rafter tailsmay conform to spacing requirements for plank
Rafter tails shown on this wall section are notched to receive and beam systems shown in Chapter 11.
roof planks above the exposed rafters.
227
Closed Cornice
Rafters are encased— not visi- fascia and soffit, shown in the
ble—in a closed or box cornice. illustrations. The first illustration
Variations are used for much shows a butt joint with the soffit
light construction. fastened to the bottom edge of
A closed cornice may have fin- the fascia. This is the poorest
ishing materials attached to raf- method because it leaves an un-
ters so the overhang follows the finished exposed edge. It is not An exposed soffit edge is undersirable
roof slope; or an overhang may only unsightly but may permit because water may enter between it and
be finished so its lower surface is moisture to enter the soffit ma- the fascia.
parallel to the ground. terial and cause deterioration.

The second illustration shows
Soffit the fascia extending below the
A soffit is a covering for the rafter ends the same amount as
lower edge of rafters. It may be the soffit thickness. The edge of
of wood, metal, fiberboard, dry- the fascia is rabbeted to permit
wall, plaster, plastic, or others. nailing and to form a tight joint
The proper material to use de- between the two materials.
pends upon personal or regional The third illustration shows the A soffit joined to a rabbeted fascia re-
preference. fascia protruding below the soffit quires perfect alignment to insure a
any desired amount within limits. close fitting joint.

Nailers for Soffit Materials
The back of the fascia is grooved
Most soffit materials are only
semi-rigid and must be nailed or BUItDING PAPER
fastened to each rafter and along
all edges. Materials should be
installed according to the manu-
facturer's directions.
The lower edges of rafters are
usually below the top edge of
wall sheathing and there are no
exposed structural parts that per-
mit nailing the back edge of a
soffit. A nailer strip must be fas-
tened to the sheathing, flush with

the lower edge of rafters, so the
soffit can be nailed securely.
Fascia
A closed cornice has at least
one finishing board nailed to
cover rafter ends. This board is
called a fascia. A fascia is also

used as a nailer for the front edge
FIBERBOARD SHEATHING AIR SPACE
of the soffit. Study the four com-
A grooved fascia helps conceal alignment irregularities.
mon methods of joining a wood
228
2 J: Roof Overhang and Exterior Trim
A double fascia increases nailing surface

at the soffit edge.
to receive the soffit. This method

is very desirable because it per-
To increase overhang height,
mits slight discrepancies but the
rafters may be secured to a top
joint appears closed. plate above celling joists.
The fourth illustration shows a
double fascia. Naturally only the
exposed one on the outside needs
to be of fine quality materials.
Although the double fascia re-
quires more material than the
first three, it is frequently used be-
cause it is easy to construct and
looks very good. The small mold-
ing covering the joint can be any
desired shape. If materials fit
without open spaces between

them, this molding may be
omitted.
Relationship of Ceiling
Joists and Fascia
One cannot assume that all
fascias are on the same level as

ceiling joists. When rafter ends
protrude beyond a wall as con-
tinuations of the rafters, the fascia
is lower than the ceiling joists.
Also, to increase overhang
Roof slope and amount of over- height, ceiling may be
joists
hang determine how much the extended past building edges
fascia is below the ceiling joist and rafters notched to a plate
line. Of course, a fascia can be at as shown.
the same level as joists, but special

construction is then required. The
illustrations show two ways the
problem may be solved.
229
Molding for Soffit
A small molding of your choice

isused to conceal the joint be-
tween a soffit and exterior wall
covering. Study the illustrations
and observe that the soffit is in-
stalled before exterior wall
coverings.
A frieze board is sometimes
used to join wood siding and a
This is flat with the lower
soffit.
edge rabbeted to receive the sid-

ing. The wood molding described
earlier is then placed to cover the
joint between the frieze board A rabbeted frieze board is sometimes used to
and soffit. cover the joint between a wall and the under
side of a roof.
Lookout
When a soffit is to be level an
additional framing member, a
lookout, is required. Fastened be- turn may be attached to the end
tween the rafter ends and wall or fly rafter. The home on page
sheathing as shown in the illus- 2 has cornice returns.
the rake, gives outside finish at a
trations, the lookout serves as a
Gable End Overhang gable end. This rafter is fastened
nailer for the soffit.
A gable end may be finished to the lower face of roof sheath-

Cornice Return ing,and sheathing ends are ex-
so it has little or no overhang, or
A cornice sometimes re-
is it may extend any desired amount. posed unless covered with a mold-
turned around the end of a build- When designing an overhang it ing. The molding can bea l"x2"
ing. This is done for improved must be appropriate to the rest rectangular board or a more
visual effect. When a box cornice of the building style. elaborate molding of your choos-
is used, the entire box may be ing. The same molding shape as
returned. When an open cornice Molding for Fly Rafter used between the wall and soffit
is used, a simple single-piece re- A fly rafter, sometimes called is frequently chosen.
Attic Ventilation
Insulation applied between beneath the roof overhang, in the For specific ventilation require-
ceiling joists causes a tempera- gable ends, in the roof ridge, or ments, consult the illustrations
between the attic

ture difference on the roof surface. They may and their accompanying data.
and rooms below. This results be pre-manufactured or custom
in condensation; therefore the built units. All ventilators must Louvers
atticmust be ventilated so air be equipped with screens. Screens A louver is a ventilator with
can circulate and remove mois- with 8 squares per running inch fins or slats to allow air to pass
ture. Ventilators may be provided are recommended by the FHA. through. Fins may be fixed (sta-
230
21: Roof Overhang and Exterior Trim
NET VENT AREA

CEILING AREA
900
^r
I* f\ Fs
^ T- 'X I
x 250
National Lumber Manufacturers Assoc.
Methods of ventilating roof spaces and amount of ventilation required.
tionary) or adjustable so they can

be opened or closed. Expansible
metal ventilators are available so
they can be adjusted to fit varying
roof slopes.
The amount of net free venti-
lating area is usually stamped or
printed on a purchased ventilator.
One must secure sizes to meet
calculated ventilating require-
ments, as discussed earlier. For
job or custom built units one Gable end louvers may be of wood or metal.
must measure and calculate the

net ventilating area. To determine
actual ventilating area one must
deduct the amount of space oc-
cupied by wires in the screen.
231
Gutters
Gutters are troughs attached to
the edge of a roof to carry water
away. They may be of metal,
wood or plastic, and are available
in a wide variety of styles and
sizes. Metal is most frequently
used,commonly galvanized iron
because it is less expensive.
Molded wood gutters are not as
popular as formerly. Most wood
gutters are of the built-in type
and may be custom designed for
each specific application. These
are lined with sheet metal or
other material to make them
waterproof.
Some of the more common
gutter shapes are shown. The
proper one to use depends upon
building style and amount of
4"
water to be drained away. A
or 5" gutter is usually adequate
for small structures such as
homes. For most beautiful results
simple styles are recommended.

The FHA permits gutters to
be installed perfectly level if the
material is rigid and pockets or
low spots do not develop. How-
ever, for best results they should
slope slightly toward downspouts.
Leaders or Downspouts
Leaders or downspouts are
pipes that carry water from a
gutter to the ground. They should
be of the same material and size
If a gutter is
4"
as the gutter.
wide downspout should be 4"
its
across. Hangers must be used to

Built-in gutters are often fabricated to
secure both the gutter and down-
your specifications.
spout to the building. Note: Gut-
ter hangers should be installed
before roofing to prevent nail
holes from causing leaks.
y^-
232
.
21: Roof Overhang and Exterior Trim
Coarse screens over all gutters, splash block and then onto the 25. Why is attic ventilation nec-
and basket strainers at downspout yard. essary?

heads where they join the gutter, In localities with little rainfall 26. How does one determine the
catch and help prevent clogging and only traces of snow, as Ari- number, size, and location of attic
by leaves or other foreign matter zona or northern desert regions, ventilators?
thatis washed down. water may be trapped for special 27. Why must ventilators be
Water must be drained away uses. Drainage is generally not a equipped with screens?
from the bottom of downspouts. problem. Heavy precipitation 28. Describe a louver.
They may empty into a sanitary areas such as the Northwest Coast. 29. Why do louvers sometimes
sewer when building codes per- New England, the Great Lakes have movable fins?
mit, but preferably a storm sewer, region, and parts of the Gulf 30. What is a gutter? From what
a drain tile field, dry well, or— for Coast maj have rigid water drain- materials are they frequently made?
an economical installation— onto a age codes. 3 1 . What is a leader or down-
spout?
32. How does one determine
downspout size?
Questions to Reinforce Knowledge 33. Why should gutters and
1 As used in this book, what 1 2. Describe two relationships of downspout heads be equipped with
does the word cornice mean? How soffits to roof slope? screens?
does this compare with the older 1 3. Why are nailers frequently 34. Describe a built-in gutter.
definition? installed before soffits are applied? 35. Describe ways of draining
2. What is the purpose of a 14. What are fascias? Why are water from downspouts. Why do
cornice? they necessary? you think codes must be designed
3. How does one determine ex- 15. Describe four methods of and enforced for different regions?
act cornice style and construction? joining a soffit and fascia.
4. What is a rafter tail? 1 6. Why are fascias usually
5. Why are some rafter tails placed below the ceiling joist line?
perpendicular to the ground while 1 7. Describe two methods of Terms to Spell and Know
others are at right angles to rafter constructing a cornice so it is on the cornice rake
edges? same level as ceiling joists. rafter tail louver
6. What is an open cornice? 18. Why are moldings used open cornice gutter
7. Describe two widely used where a soffit joins a wall? closed or box leader
applications of open cornices. 19. What is a frieze board? cornice downspout
8. What is a closed cornice? A 20. What is a lookout? fascia gutter hangers
box cornice? 21. What is a cornice return? frieze board basket strainer
9. What is a soffit? 22. What is a fly rafter? lookout downspout head
10. What is a nailer strip? 23. What is a gable rake? cornice return storm sewer
11. Describe materials suitable 24. Why is a molding frequently fly rafter drain tile
for soffit construction. How does one applied along the top edge of a fly
dry well
determine the proper one to use? rafter?
233
Exterior Wall Coverings
Exterior coverings are used to are available, no lengthy discus- ability and beauty. This will make
protect buildings from the ele- sion of any will be given. When its overall cost greater than an-
ments, afford a degree of perma- selections are being made, one other material which has a
nence, and to add architectural must refer to manufacturers' lit- greater initial cost but requires
beauty. Use should conform to erature, specifications, or samples no maintenance. For example, a
elements of good design, "line, for best results. painted wood wall may require
form, color, texture, etc.," see repainting every three to five
Chapter 25. Cost of materials often has years, while a brick wall will re-
an influence on those selected. quire virtually no maintenance.
Some materials suitable for But you must consider more than Ease and speed of installation
exterior wall coverings are dis- the initial cost. Permanence also affects the choice, when cost
cussed in other chapters because should be given careful consid- is a factor. Materials requiring
they are also structural materials. eration. A good building is de- littlemaintenance often keep a
These will be mentioned briefly signed to require a minimum of good appearance longer. Many
here so as to give a complete pic- maintenance. An inexpensive factors must be considered when
ture. Actually, because of the material may require continual selecting exterior building mate-
large number of materials that maintenance to retain its service- rials.
Wall Sheathing
Wall sheathing is placed be- at a 45° angle to the studs. The mit rapid erection. Panels are ap-
tween a building frame and ex- latter is preferred because it gives plied with the face grain vertical
terior covering. It adds rigidity, more rigidity to the building. for maximum strength. When 16"
serves as a backing for exterior When diagonal sheathing is used, or 24" studding spacing is used,
coverings, and may also serve as most codes permit elimination of W plywood is adequate. Some
insulation. the "let-in" diagonal bracing at codes permit less thickness, but
Lumber is the traditional corners as discussed in Chapter 7. this should be avoided on quality
sheathing material. Traditionally, A note on the plans or specifica- construction.
this may be one of three selections must state the size of lumber Fiberboard wall sheathing may
tions— S4S, tongue and groove, or to be used and the method of be purchased with the faces un-
ship lap. There are two methods installation. treated, or the sheets may have
of installation. It may be placed Sheathing grade plywood and a bituminous coating. Of course,
horizontally across the studding, fiberboard are also suitable for when the latter is used it is not
or it may be applied diagonally walls. Large plywood panels per- necessary to cover the sheathing
234
with building paper because the
surface is already protected.
Treated fiberboard is moisture
resistant but does not act as a
vapor barrier. It will allow the
wall to "breath" (permit transfer
of vapor). Therefore sheathing
should not be covered on the out-
side with a vapor barrier because
this will trap condensation within
the wall.
Most common fiberboard sheet
sizes are 24"x96" and 48"x96".
However, a wide variety of sizes
is available. The 24"x96" sheet is
installed with the long dimension

across the studding. Sheets are
staggered so adjoining ones do
not end on the same stud. The
48"x96" sheets are installed with
the long dimension vertical.
The two most frequently used
thicknesses are W
and Vr.". The 2
W
thickness meets most mini-
mum code requirements but 25/m"
is preferred because of its greater Weitern Wood Products Associorion, Arl Commercial Srudios
strength and added insulation solid lumber is used as wall sheathing a diagonal installation is most
satisfactory.
value.
Omission of Wall Sheathing Horizontal Siding

When frame buildings are in
warm climates, or when they are Horizontal siding is made of is used when specifying thickness.
used for unheated garages and thin, narrow, uniform-width strips Nominal thicknesses are Vi", W,
other utility structures, sheathing of material. It is usually installed and %". Nominal widths are 4",
sometimes with the strips overlapping. This 6", 8", 10", and 12". Bevel siding
is omitted. If wall
sheathing is not required, build- produces interesting horizontal will cover much less surface than
ing paper is applied to the walls shadows at the intersections. one might anticipate from the
and the exterior covering is
Wood is the traditional material nominal size. Regular bevel siding
applied. used. When solid wood is used, will cover Vh" less height than
Wall sheathing and exterior the boards taper in a wedge, its nominal size. For example,
covering are frequently incor- angled down from top to bottom. the exposed face of 10" bevel
It is called "bevel siding," or in siding is 8V2". Rabbeted bevel
porated into a single prefabri-
cated product.
some areas of the country "lap siding will cover 1" less width
Wall coverings may be struc-
siding" or "weather boarding." than the nominal size; therefore
tural or non-structural.
The first is more descriptive. the exposed face of 10" rabbeted
The thick bottom edge "butt" bevel siding is 9".
235
|p!;;|î$^;
Bevel siding can be incorporated into beautiful designs.
Bevel siding. Tongue and groove. Shiplap.

(A) Rabbeted
(B) Plain
Vertical board and batten siding.
Methods of |oinery. r
[1
Vertical board on board siding.
236
?
22: Exterior Wall Coverings
"^ ^ r\ r^S
z~^s
LrU Lru jv Lrv C3f ^ ^ £3
X r\ \ —
p. ^£ ^~gr- 7"
|
| n
^r-^r^r-v-^-nr^r-^r-^
4j ~v ~L> 17 ~L X s_
Tongue and groove siding patterns; shiplap siding patterns. Plank patterns.
Lumber with good weathering sulation. Pre-finished siding is lar to boards and battens. The
characteristics should be used. usually applied with special fas- main differences are 'that the first
Redwood is considered best. teners to avoid face nailing. boards applied have much more
There are two common patterns Wood siding patterns. Two space between them, and the
of wood bevel siding— plain and methods of edge joining lumber board replacing the batten is
rabbeted. Cross-sections of each siding are shown— shiplap and much wider.
are shown. tongue and groove. Cove and
The finished surface may be drop siding are designed to be Edges of this tongue and groove siding
smooth or saw textured. used horizontally. The other pat- are beveled to form a "V" which con-
terns are usually applied verti- ceals |oints and produces shadow lines
Other Horizontal Siding for vertical emphasis.

cally. Examples of exterior siding
Horizontal siding may also be patterns include only those most
of plywood, hardboard, or recon- frequently selected.
wood. The latter is made
structed Boards and battens. S4S boards
of small sections which have been may be applied vertically and the
jointed and glued to form large joints between boards covered
boards. with narrow strips of wood called
The above materials may be battens. In the illustrations, notice
purchased with unfinished sur- the spaces between each board.

faces, or a variety of surface These spaces permit expansion
finishes applied. They may be and contraction. Notice also that
overlaid with resinous paper, pre- wide boards are nailed in the
finished with paint, or covered center, but not at the edges. This
with colored plastic film. minimizes warping. Narrow
Horizontal siding is also manu- boards may be nailed along one
factured of pre-finished steel, edge, with the other edge "float-
aluminum, and plastic. These may ing" free.
have rigid backing panels or the Board-on-board. Board-on-
backs may be covered with in- board installations are very simi-
237
Plywood siding. Large sheets
may be
of exterior grade plywood
used as a finished covering, or
vertical wood strips may be added
to simulate battens. Plywood may
be purchased with saw-textured
or other decoration cut into the
outer surface. Some of the more
common are shown.
When large sheets are used the
face grain is vertical.
Shingles or shakes. Wood shin-
gles or shakes, described in Chap-
ter 10, may also be used as ex-
terior wall covering. Because wood
shingles are quite narrow, they
are sometimes manufactured in
assembled widths on a solid back-
ing board. Coverings simulating
wood shingles are also manufac-
tured of asbestos, bituminous
United Slates Plywood Corp. composition, hardboard, or alu-
Early American style cedar plywood siding. minum. Their surface is machined
to resemblesawed or hand split
shingles. A great many sizes,
'Planktex" siding.
United States P/ywood Corp.
shapes, and colors are manufac-
tured, so it is necessary to con-
sultmanufacturers' literature
when making selections.
Stucco
Stucco is a thin plaster used
primarily on the outside. It must
be waterproof. Stucco may be
similar to interior plaster in that
it takes a three-coat application-
one brown scratch coat, one
brown coat, and one lime finish
coat. Or it may be made entirely
of cement plaster. However, this
is quite brittle; it may crack be-
cause of expansion and contrac-
tion of base materials, unless
control joints are used. Lime stuc-
co is less brittle, although its sur-
face is not as hard.
238
,on g ,astin g beauty and require

pane,s between vertical
members have
Curtain wa,,s with sandw,c h
no maintenance.
239
.1 11 ;
]
»
^;. 13^3
_ - — ^-n*^.. z
mm
HI
H"
':_
zr** v
Si JPT-1
3J
1
ns-
HBHHrrij ! l
as&v ji 21
III VUS^
til
'
III
- JCT
mi' nwwak -
The modern design of this brick apartment complex is aesthetically pleasing.
The beauty of this apartment structure is enhanced by its stucco finish.
<AV
7 T
4&f 1 f7
A
f
Wi ''!'J&
.
Stucco may have a smooth or Stucco is sometimes plastered

textured surface. Most stucco is a directly masonry surfaces.
on
brilliant white and may be left this However, wire reinforcing (fre-
color. Pigments or decorative ag- quently with paper backing) is
gregates may be added to the fin- usually secured to the building
ish coat for a built-in permanent first and then the stucco is plas-
finish. Stucco also paints well and tered. Minimum recommended
thickness 3A".
is easy to maintain. is
Questions fo Reinforce Knowledge
1 What functions do exterior 14. When may sheathing be omit-

coverings perform? ted from wood frame walls?
2. How does maintenance affect 15. What is meant by the state-
selection? ment, "Wall sheathing and exterior

3. Why might one choose to covering are frequently incorporated
Rohm and Hoot Co
cover a building with large plywood into a single product"? Plastic panels are a popular covering
sheets instead of boards? 16. What is horizontal siding? material for commercial installations.
4. What is wall sheathing? 1 7. What is bevel siding?
5. What materials are used for 18. What is the name for the 30. What is stucco?
wall sheathing? thick edge of bevel siding? How 31. What is the normal color of
6. What are the two directions does its meaning differ from its stucco?
in which solid wood sheathing may meaning in other joints? 32. What may be done to change
be applied? 19. What are the nominal widths the color?
7. Which of the two methods of bevel siding? 33. What are the two common
is better? Why? 20. What are three methods of types of stucco?
8. What is the face-grain direc- pre-finishing wood siding? 34. What is a control joint?
tion of plywood sheathing? 2 1 . What other materials may be 35. Which is more brittle, lime or
9. What is the correct applica- used as horizontal siding? cement stucco?
tion of 48"x96" fiberboard 22. What is shiplop siding?
sheathing? 23. Is it applied vertically or
Terms To Spell And Know
10.What is the sheet direction horizontally?
of 24"x96" fiberboard sheathing? 24. What is drop siding? wall sheathing
1 What
1 . is an advantage of us- 25. What is board and batten tongue and groove
ing bituminous-coated fiberboard siding? shiplap
sheathing? 26. Why are wide boards only taper
12. What is likely to happen if nailed in the center on this siding? bevel siding
plastic film is placed between the 27. What is board-on-board rabbeted bevel siding
sheathing and the exterior wall siding? boards and battens
covering? 28. What are some advantages board-onboard siding
13. What are the two most fre- of using plywood for exterior walls? stucco
quently used fiberboard sheathing 29. What is the purpose of back- lime
thicknesses? ing boards?
241
Part Two
FUNCTION
AND BEAUTY-
ESSENTIALS OF
PLANNING
23. The Architect

24. The Drafter
25. Design for Today's Living
26. Determining Needs and Wishes

of the Client
27. Room by Room Planning
28. Furniture List
29. Community Factors to be Considered

30. Site Planning
243
The Architect
An architect is a designer or ings such as garages or other util- and building trends but the com-
builder of anything, including ity structures unless they are a petent architect must always do so.
golf courses, but the term is most part of a large project. For per- Many states and communities
frequently used to describe a personal satisfaction buildings as have building standards and laws
son who designs, draws plans for, complex as homes or larger that practically require an archi-
and supervises building construc- should be designed by an architect, except for utility structures.
tion. The term comes from ancient tect. This is not to imply that Even in residential areas, this
Greek, meaning "master builder." one should not avail oneself of can be true. Of course any build-
As is true in other professions, a plan service or prefabricated ing must meet state and local
architecture is becoming very structures, because these are code requirements.
specialized. Individual architects usually designed by professionals.
usually confine their activities to It is sometimes difficult for Architect's Training
small areas of the field. In addi- people to realize that they need To register as an architect to-
tion to designing buildings, archi- the services of an architect. They day, one almost must have a col-
tectural professions include such may think that they know ex- lege degree. Accelerated courses,
specialties as city planning, land- actly what they want and how the with limited general education,
scape architecture, and naval building should be constructed. may allow completion in three
architecture. Architects engaged This may or may not be true; years. However most accredited
in designing buildings frequently usually it is not. They may not colleges will require at least four
specialize in designing one kind even be aware of many design and many five years for grad-
—homes, churches, schools, hospi- and construction problems which uation.
tals, or others. The main reason may be encountered. Two types of curricula may be
for this specialization is because One of the most frequently offered (not all schools offer both).
the building industry is so large used excuses for not commission- One may study architecture as it
one cannot hope to become pro- ing an architect is that their ser- relates to design, or a more tech-
ficient at designing all building vices cost too much. However, nical course is offered in archi-
types. Thus the architect concen- the architect's fee is often less tectural engineering.
trates on one kind of design to than the amount saved by the Most colleges require a broad
become more expert. architect's efficient use of building liberal education, as well as pro-
space and good utilization of fessional study. The reason for

Need for an Architect building materials and construc- this is that architects must be flu-
Architects usually do not de- tion methods. An individual may ently aware of the cultural aspects
sign very small or simple build- not keep abreast of new products of society.
244
23: The Architect
Graduation from a four or five ble for the following, whether he The Architect's Fee
year course earns the student a or she docs work or not:
all the Successful architects are well
bachelor's degree. If additional • Determine the needs and paid for their services, but it is
formal education is desired, he wishes of the client. difficult to say how much one may
or she may do advanced study for • Determine the financial status be expected to earn per year. It
a master's or doctor's degree. of the client and the amount of is like any other profession. Some
In addition to formal educa- money the client desires to spend architects become very expert or
tion, the prospective designer so the building plan is within rea- well known and earn large sums
must also serve under the guid- sonable bounds. of money while others do not.
ance and supervision of a compe- • Draw preliminary plans until a Average income is about the same
tent architect in much the same suitable one is achieved. as that of a good doctor, lawyer,
manner as a doctor serves an in- • Draw allworking plans for the or other professional person.
ternship. The length of time one building, no matter how compli- Again, as in any other work, one
must serve is not exactly the same cated. does not become rich the first
everywhere but it is usually about • Determine all materials to be year of employment. In fact, dur-
three years. used. ing early years one may be paid
After the training period one • Draw up contract documents less than many persons in less
may take examinations to qualify between the client and architect, glamorous lines.
and become a registered architect and also between client and con- An architect usually works on
in the state of residence. It is then tractors. a commission basis, the fee being
possible to secure a license in • Write specifications for the a percentage of the total building
other states. building. cost. This fee is variable but is
It is still possible in some in-

• Make cost estimates so the frequently between 5% and 8%
stances to become a registered owner will know approximate cost of the building cost. This seems
architect without attending col- and whether or not bids are within like a large fee, but one must
lege.However, because one must reason. realize that it is not all clear
have so much more knowledge • Supervise the letting of bids. profit. Business relations and
than was formerly necessary, it is • Know responsibility and finan- office upkeep, taxes, plus pay-
becoming increasingly more diffi- cial ability of individual con- ment of drafters and supervisory
cult. After serving under an archi- tractors. personnel, consume a large per-
tect for a period, one must take • Audit the contractors' accounts centage of the fee. Expensive
and pass the same qualifying tests and analyze receipts and state- maintenance must continue
as those with college training. ments. The architect must be cer- through all seasons. Much of the
tain that all bills for material and architect's success depends on
The Architect's Duties labor are paid. good business management.
An architect has many duties • Make payments to contractors. If an architect has a flourishing
and responsibilities which require • Supervise construction and see business with several commis-
thorough familiarity with the total that plans are followed accu- sions at the same time, it is not
building industry. To discuss all rately. In cases of errors or omis- possible to do all supervisory
of the specific duties would result sions on the plans, or misinterpre- work at each of the construction
in much repetition of information tation by contractors, the archi- sites. Most large construction
presented elsewhere in the book; tect corrects or explains them. projects require that the architect
therefore only broad categories • Inspect and pass upon the have a full-time representative
are listed to suggest the extent of quality of all material and of at the site. When this is true,
the work. labor performed, and secure all the architect's representative has
The architect must be responsi- guarantees. direct authority over construction.
245
Port Two: Function and Beauty— Essentials of Planning
1. Who may be called an 1 1 . From your reading and your are 1 4 major items listed in the text.
architect? own reasoning, why is it necessary You should be able to list 10 or

2. Name four different kinds of for a prospective architect to serve more. They need not be in any given
architects. a period of time working for a com- order.
3. Why do architects frequently petent architect? 16. How does the architect's in-
specialize in designing predomi- 1 2. After formal and informal come compare with earnings in other
nately one kind of building? training is completed, how may one well known professions?
4. Why does one need the ser- secure an architect's license? 17. On what basis is the archi-
vices of an architect? 1 3. Is it always necessary for an tectural firm paid for its services?
5. Are buildings always de- architect to attend college? Explain. 1 8. What is required of the suc-
signed by architects? Explain. 14. Why must an architect be cessful architect besides the ability
6. In what way is one required familiar with all phases of the build- to attract clients? Discuss.
to obtain the services of an archi- ing industry? 1 9. What are the duties and
tect? Explain. 15. What services does the archi- responsibilities of an architect's
7. What are the normal educa- tect perform for the client? There representative?
tional requirements for an architect?
8. What are the two different
curricula offered?
9. Why do colleges also require Terms to Spell and Know
the architect to have a liberal
architect's commission architectural engineering
education?
registered architect architect's representative
1 0. What advanced degrees are
offered in the field of architecture?
246
.
The Draftsman
Very briefly, this chapter mere- methods of joining them. After It is impossible to say exactly
ly identifies the particular work becoming a master drafter, he or how much a drafter can be ex-
of the architectural drafter. As she can become responsible for pected to earn per year. Wages
you know, a drafter is a person the work of other drafters as well. are variable throughout the coun-
who draws pictorial and working If one is extremely ambitious try. Even in the same city, all
plans for any structure— buildings, and talented, the drafting position drafters do not earn the same
equipment for buildings, and may be used as a stepping stone to wage. Beginning salaries are not
other items. He or she works for other positions. One may through high. They may be compared to
and under the supervision and di- further work and study become other types of office work, but
rection of an architect. Duties and an estimator, specifications writer, as one remains in a position the
responsibilities vary with experi- architect's representative, or an salary increases are usually bet-
ence and ability. architect. ter than the average of other
Beginning duties frequently in- There is no prescribed amount office workers. After several years
clude distribution of supplies to of formal education one must of experience, a good drafter can
other drafters, reproduction of have to become a drafter. One reasonably expect to earn as
prints from tracings, and other may secure a position upon com- much as an office manager or
routine assignments. The first pletion of high school, but many service department head in other
actual drawing will probably con- firms require at least two years types of business. One may have
sist of copying or tracing small of college. Many young architects, a flair for advertising layout or
details from other drawings. upon completion of their formal sales work that will lead to work
Later, the drafter will develop education, begin their careers as in product promotion not con-
working drawings from informa- drafters. nected with architecture.
tion supplied him or her. After
more experience, when he or she
knows the materials and construc-
tion methods used by the employ-
1 Explain the difference be- in your community for the drafter
er, the drafter will handle much tween an architect and an architec- in architecture, manufacturing firms,
of the detailed planning, such as tural drafter. city planning departments, and legal
the size of structural parts and 2. Investigate the opportunities work such as producing site drawings.
247
Design for Today's Living
Architecture, in its truest sense, gets the impression that every- people living in forest regions
is shelter from the elements. It thing new isgood and everything built mostly of timber, while those
may many purposes. It may
serve old is poor. Nothing could be in volcanic regions made exten-
be a home or permanent shelter. farther from the truth. Only time, sive use of stone, and available
It may be a place to work, play, continued use, and acceptance clay resulted in brick structures.
or worship. All great architecture can determine true worth. Architecture took materials at
is a solution to a building prob- Building has seen a continual hand and used them to solve
lem, using the best building ma- evolution from the beginning of building problems. However, with
terials and construction methods recorded history to the present; today's modern transportation,
available. Architecture must fulfill however, there have been set- all materials are readily available,
three obligations: backs and periods of regression. although the fact that transporta-
(1) function Progress cannot be constant. More tion costs add to the building cost
(2) structure progress is made at some times must still be given consideration.
(3) beauty than at others. Since this book is primarily
The three are interdependent. As is true today, buildings of concerned with drafting, rather
The function is the reason for the past which we regard as great than a course in architecture, no
a building's existence. The struc- were built using the best materials lengthy discussion of individual
tural and methods of
materials and methods of the time. Some styles or their merits will be pre-
construction must enhance the examples of this great architecture sented. It is the author's opinion
function. When a selection of are the Egyptian pyramids, Greek that architecture of today should
structural systems must be made, and Roman works, Gothic cathe- not be copies of building styles
the main consideration is, how drals, classic homes, and the fore- from the past. They should have
can the building best be built to runners of modern skyscrapers. straightforward designs taking
fulfill its function? For example, Each of these represents an ex- advantage of today's materials
at the present time thin-shell con- pression of their times and the and construction methods.
crete dome structures represent way of life of the people.
Beauty
the latest building fashion. Yet
Style Beauty pleases or satisfies. It
one does not build a concrete
dome unless this represents the
During each period of history, may give the beholder a feeling of
best solution to the problem.

style has evolved when individual awe and inspiration. It is impor-
groups developed basic architec- tant for one's inner enrichment.
Architectural Merit ture to suit their own needs, using This may be stated as an esthetic
In this period of rapidly chang- construction materials available quality or feeling. Beauty is not
ing technology, one sometimes in their own locality. For example, a simple thing. Total architectural
248
25: Design for Today's Living
beauty will rely upon building buildings. One may like a building It also dates a building. The deco-
lines, form, proportion, harmony. style because it represents the ration should naturally and logi-
balance, color, and texture. familiar, having complete disre- cally go with the building mate-
Beauty is directly related to gard for other merits. Likewise, a rials. The designer does not want
past experience. If one has seen building of unusual form (but of the building to appear monoto-
only ugly things, one may think good design) may be disliked only nous and drab. The building
the least ugly is beautiful! Archi- because it represents the unfamil- should express one's feeling for
tecture is, or at least should be, a iar or unknown. It is easier to rely beauty. The designer must rely on
work of art. Yet a building con- upon the security of the past (the functional design and an honest
sidered beautiful by some may tried and true) than to explore the use of materials to support the
provoke feelings of disgust in unknown. desired artistic effect. He or she
others. No two people have the Pseudo Beauty should not rely upon gimmicks or
same feeling of beauty for a given When one observes the shiny unusual uses to bring attention to
object or experience. An untrained embellishments of an industrial the structure. This false idea is
individual may like a great, com- society, one sometimes confuses the basis for much of the poor
plicated musical composition; gaudiness with design and beauty, architecture one sees. Not to im-
however, this is doubtful because especially in judging buildings. ply that all of today's architecture
it is not within his or her realm of I his is not to say that no decora- is poor, it is not; much is very
experience. This person will prob- tion is to be used, because deco- good. In most of today's good de-
ably gain greater pleasure from ration plays a very strong role. sign the architect employs an
the music of the street because it Applied or "stuck on" decoration honest use of materials and sim-
is familiar. The same is true of without a purpose is to be avoided. plicity as primary guides.
EI« k iiM k nls of lt«»aiily himI Design
Line Form
Building lines (do not confuse The total of all lines, when tangle is approximately 5 units
with earlier definition of building combined or enclosed, creates the wide and S units long, or has a
line, meaning the location where building form. Form may be de- width to length proportion or
the building is to be placed) rep- scribed as the solid mass of the ratio of 5 to 8. This rectangle is
resent the border, boundary, or building. Form was best analyzed considered the most pleasing pro-
outline of the building or its parts. by America's great architect. portion obtainable. It is used
They may he described as a con- Frank Lloyd Wright, when he extensively when designing room
nected series following each other stated the principle that form fol- sizes and building shapes.
in time or space. For example, a lows function.
building with horizontal lines is
one that is usually low and has a Proportion

profile that closely follows the Proportion is the relationship
ground plane. Or the building of one part, item, or area to an-
lines may be emphasized by hori- other. All structural units, or
zontal shadow lines of bevel sid- visual spaces, must contribute to
ing. Vertical lines may also make a feeling of total architectural

the points of emphasis. unitv. The Greek Golden Rec- Greek golden rectangle.
249
F '
££§£
p»»
m£m\
SS\
,JL. «. Hff'
Scho/z Homes Inc.
Horizontal line emphasis.
Vertical line emphasis.

National Homes
I
laiillillibl
TTT
l:k ti:lA| s 1*«
JJ~: 11 vif c ^^ ^
^RHb
11
MHT# 1
s
Massive structure contributes to the beauty of this luxury home.
Windows of the second story balance with those on the lower level. "Borrows" from both Georgian
and Colonial styles. Na)lona/ Homes
251
Part Two: Function and Beauty— Essentials of Planning
Balance of parts to unite the structure to unite them into a structure of

Balance is the ability of one visually. esthetic appeal.
mass or area to equal or counter- The previous discussion of the
Color and Texture
act another visually. An example elements of beauty and design only
of balance windows on a Color— or patterns of color—
is large serves as an introduction to a
and second story placed di-
and texture, which is the degree
first broad topic. For those with spe-
or pattern of roughness of a mate-
each other, or
rectly in line with cial interest, further study is
rial, can be used to emphasize all
a 2-story unit balanced with a recommended.
of the elements of design and
long, low extension, such as a
beauty. Choosing the Form
garage.
A plain (also plane) surface As mentioned, the building
Rhythm can be made interesting by their form should follow the function.
Rhythm is the visual artistic use. Since color is part of the Quite frequently a building could
relationship of individual build- surface finish and texture is in the take any one of a number of
ing parts and their arrangement surface of the material, these are forms and still adequately per-
in the total building pattern. It not applied decoration. form its function. When this is
is enhanced by a visual flow or Good architecture incorporates true the must choose
designer
movement of regularly recurring these elements of design into an the most satisfactory form to ful-
elements or features such as plac- integrated whole. An adequate fill the obligations of function
ing tops of all windows and doors designer has a knowledge of all and structure, and still create a
at the same height, or repetition design principles and knows how pleasing and beautiful building.
Application of Design
After the needs and wishes of areas. From the wishes of the Golden Rectangle previously de-
the client have been determined client, and using details learned scribed. Two or three alternate
and recorded— see Chapter 26— concerning planning individual shapes and sizes should be sug-
actual design is begun. The dis- rooms, tentative room and area gested for each room. The room
cussion of planning problems and sizes may be determined for the and its size should be labeled on
solutions will be confined to house entire plan. For example, the each cutout. The cutouts may be
construction because this is typi- client may have previously de- arranged and rearranged until the
cal of all light construction. When cided that lO'-O" x 12'-0" is the most suitable room arrangement
other structures are to be designed minimum size of children's bed- is achieved.
the principles are the same. rooms and the master bedroom It will not be possible to make
Since a building is planned for must be at least 14'-0" x 20'-0". all the cardboard rooms fit to-
the function it is to perform, this The plan must contain and con- gether perfectly. Some may over-
suggests the interior should be form to these requirements. lap slightly, or the plan may
planned first. Still, the exterior have insufficient or too much
must contribute to a harmonious Room Cutouts area allowed for halls and closets.
and unified structure. A home A beginner may use light- Minor adjustments will naturally
may follow any of a variety of weight cardboard and a W= 1
'-0" have to be made. When a good
forms. Therefore the designer scale, then cut rectangles repre- tentative room arrangement is
must choose one that is suitable. senting tentative room and area achieved, a quick sketch of the
Chapter 27 discusses elements sizes. The cutouts might well fol- floor plan should be made (not
of planning individual rooms and low the 5 to 8 proportion of the drawn with instruments).
252
T
BED- BED-
STEPS IN THE ROOM ROOM
DEVELOPMENT
OF A FLOOR
PLAN MASTER
LIVING DINING
BEDROOM
ROOM ROOM
DINING LIVING ROOM BED- BED-

ROOM ROOM ROOM
1
1
UTILITY KITCHEN
1 1
1 1
MASTER
J *.
BEDROOM
v. J
Room templates arranged into a tentative floor plan.
-I 1 I
•- H •—
LIVING ROOM
UTILITY KITCHEN
+-t*i 1 MASTER
BEDROOM
Single line floor plan adapted from template arrangement.
253
Presentation floor plan.
Before an originally styled sign for a relaxed atmosphere but orderly manner. The arrangement
building takes its final form, many still provide for many physical of rooms and location of walls,
tentative plans are made and the activities. This has led to the indoors, windows, and all building
final selection is taken from the clusion of multi-purpose rooms parts should make best use of all
best one. The cardboard cutouts (with many names) and has con- building materials so the house
should be saved for future use. tributed a tendency to the isola- willbe economical to build. One
tion of living rooms. In the past house (or any building) which is
Requirements of a Good Home
the living room was the focal almost identical to another may
A good home expresses the
point of activity, but it is gaining cost hundreds of dollars more
way of life of its occupants. A de- popularity as a retreat or com- because it does not make maxi-
sign for an active family will be
pany room similar to the turn-of- mum use of building material
differentfrom one for a family
the-century parlor. sizes. One method of framing may
which spends much time reading
cost more than another, when the
and listening to good music. This Well-planned Details
lessexpensive one might actually
fact creates a problem for the The home and each room in
perform the job better.
development home because it is it should be well planned includ-
Flexibility
not designed for specific individ- ing all necessary features in each
uals. An attempt is made to de- room, arranged in a logical and The house should be flexible.
254
The use of certain rooms might sion of all windows across the look as though it fits or belongs
change in the future and this front. Omission of windows on in its Another of the
location.
must not restrict the use of other any wall where complete privacy truths expressed by Frank Lloyd
rooms. If the house is expansible, is desired is becoming accepted Wright is that architecture should
provide for additions which do practice. The
rebirth of the atrium, be organic. He believed nature is
not interfere with present rooms which an enclosed garden, or

is beautiful and one should use as
or look as though they were stuck inner court, and the division of many native materials as possible.
on when viewed from the inside living areas into separate struc- One should make maximum use
or outside. A well planned addi- tural units are popular means of of the natural terrain and the
tion blends so well with the rest gaining privacy. home should approximately fol-
of the building that an observer low its contour. Naturally this

should not be able to tell an addi- Limiting Influences does not imply that floors slope
tion has been made. As population increases, as to follow the ground. Floor levels
cities grow in size, as land be- may be stepped so they conform.
Privacy
comes scarce, as labor costs rise
A good house should afford Other Homes in Area
and the value of money goes
privacy for the occupants. This Besides blending harmoniously
down, average size homes have
means privacy for the individual become smaller. It is necessary
with its surroundings, the home
family members or visitors, and much must look well with other homes
for planning to be better
also those within must have pri-
than it was in the past. This
in the area. If all the other homes
vacy from those outside. Many smaller size has also contributed
are large one should not build
things are done to afford privacy.
to the popularity of multi-use
a small home, or if all homes are
One of the recent trends has been
rooms. (For minimum housing,
small one should not build a
to place the kitchen near the large one. If the area contains
still small. Middle and
sizes are
front and place the living room upper income housing is begin-
older homes of questionable val-
in the rear. This arrangement also ue, it is usually poor economics
ning to feature more and larger
gives the living room access to
rooms.)
to construct a large expensive
patios in the rear, which contrib- home in their midst. A person
utes to relaxed outdoor living. Size and Type Home To Be must carefully study an area's
Even more recent is the use of Considered property values to see whether
high privacy walls across the front A home must be compatible they are increasing or decreasing
enclosing open courts, or omis- with its surroundings. It should before deciding to build.
Solid walls facing a street, separated living areas, and an atrium give privacy to this home's occupants.
P.M Boffon Assoc.
255
-**'
Practical Considerations
Client's Financial Ability
been most popular in recent it is not as widely used as the
The home designer must know years. All low, sprawling homes one story designs.
the financial status of the client. have become known as ranch-
Split Level
Many people have wants that house style. This label is not
split level home has been
The
are completely out of proportion properly used.The true ranch
to their ability to finance them. house is an outgrowth of the
much abused and misused. The
warm purpose of a split level is to per-
One must decide what is luxury climate southwest. It pre-
mit the floors to follow the natu-
and what is necessity. Sound use sents a lowwide over-
profile,
hangs to keep out the sun, and ral ground contour. Thus the
of the prospective home owner's
split level can be placed on ir-
credit may determine whether or large sliding glass areas which
regular lots totally unsuitable for
not the proposed building is open so the evening breeze will
enter. Extensive use is made of
homes with one or two stories.
constructed.
Portions of the garage, basement,
Rule-of-thumb estimates say outdoor living areas and patios.
a home should not cost more Post and beam construction lends or recreation room may be placed
than 2'/2 to 3 times the individual's itself to this design.
below the ground. When the
annual salary. Such a rough The single story home most
ground slopes from the front of
esti- is
the lot toward the back, it is com-
mate is not reliable in all inexpensive to build, per square
stances. One must consider the foot. More footing and founda-
mon practice for the house to
appear as a single story dwelling
individual's prospects for the tion length, outside wall area, and
from the front and a full two
future. The amount of current roof materials are required than
stories from the rear.
outstanding debt and how obli- for other classifications of equal
gations are fulfilled must be con- area.
Rows of suburban split levels
placed on level ground are an
sidered. The amount spent on
One and One-half Stories unrealistic use. Other designs
luxury, travel, social activities,
One and one-half story houses would afford more house for less
and family education also affect
one's ability to pay. Of course,
usually have a steep roof slope money and would be more har-
only the family head can decide, so the attic space can be utilized. monious with their surroundings.
Ceilings usually follow the roof
but the designer may suggest Floor Plan Shapes
ways of adjusting. slope over part of a room. Dor-
mers admit light and air. Shed Shape of the floor area also
Number of Stories
dormers are frequently placed on affects the cost. A square or rec-
Whether a home is to have the back of the house to give
tangular building is less expen-
one, two, or possibly more stories additional flat ceiling area. The sive one of an irregular
than
changes with current fashion and shape. However, if finances will
style is prevalent in Cape Cod
from locality to locality. permit, homes have two or more
and other early American designs.
Four general classifications
rectangles adjoining each other
Two Story
to relieve monotony of appear-
are:
• Single story
Two story homes make maxi- ance. These rectangles may form
• One and one-half story mum use of limited ground area. L, U, or T shapes. Again, when
• Two story They are less expensive to build finances permit, and one desires
• Split level
than single story homes of an nonconformity, still more irregu-
equal area. The two story home lar and unusual designs may be
Single Story
is enjoying a new popularity in adopted. Unusual designs take
The single story home has many parts of the country, but care and expert knowledge.
256
Areas of a Home
A home is divided into three
areas (groups of rooms). The di-
visions are based upon the func-
tions to be performed. These
areas are:
• Public: Living rooms, dining
rooms, front entry, or any other
place entertaining is to be done.
• Private: Bedrooms, den or
study, any room used as a retreat.
LIVING ROOM
• Work: Kitchens, utility rooms,
laundries or any room where the
business of running the house-
hold is performed.
Baths or powder rooms may
be placed in any area. Some
rooms are designed with over-
lapping functions. For example,
a master bedroom may also be
The three areas of a home (1) Public. (2) Private, and (3) Work.
used as the owner's sitting room
or retreat (same area). A kitchen
may also be used as the only
planned dining area in the home,
or a family room may be used for
Family room of a prefabricated home, adjoining a kitchen and patio, contributes
informal entertaining (different
to gracious informal living.
areas). Schofz Homes Inc
Traffic Pattern
As stated earlier, privacy is
important to the individual. Each

room or area should allow pri-
vacy when it is desired.
One should be able to walk
from one room or area to another,
without passing through a third
one. Living and dining rooms
are considered the same, when
fulfilling this requirement. It is
permissible to walk through a

dining room to go from a living
room to a kitchen. One may also
pass through a kitchen to reach
a utility room or laundry. One
should not pass through a bed-
room to reach any other room.
257
Port Two: Function ond Beauty— Essentials of Planning
Halls front entry space. One must step should have at least two entries.
Front entry and bedroom halls directlyfrom the outside into the Besides the front entry, most
are necessary to fulfill the above living room, bringing the rain, codes require a side or rear ser-
requirements. A central entry, snow, dust, and wind with them. vice entry. In addition to provid-
similar to the ones in the floor The living room must also serve ing for service deliveries, the addi-
plan layouts illustrated earlier, as a corridor to reach other rooms. tional entry gives an alternate
permits greatest design flexibility. If space and finances permit, this means of leaving the building for
Many inexpensive or poorly is to be avoided. convenience and in case of fire
arranged homes do not have a All homes and apartments or other disasters.
Planning the Exterior

"Organic" architecture has led materials are used they must have oddly constructed and thinks it
to a reduction in building height. a look of belonging together. For is acceptable and good. Just be-
Heat and cold may be controlled example, it is generally poor prac- cause a thing done by some
is
better than in the days of high tice to build a brick structure and does not make good or accept-
it
ceilings and big attics. Not all then insert a few stones at ran- able. It is not being done by lead-
buildings emphasize low horizon- dom, or to build of brick and ing architects and designers.
tal lines, but they tend to do so. then place a triangular section of
Building cost is another factor stone at each of the lower out- Mixing Architectural Styles
leading to height reduction. Less side corners. One does not put One should not use different
material is required if height is on ornamentation such as this architectural styles on different
reduced. just to make the building differ- parts of the same building.
ent or eye catching. One must
Combination of Wall Materials rely upon the building's good de- Roof Slope
As stated earlier, simplicity sign to bring attention to it. For Roof slopes on a building
should be the designer's guide. the beginner this is very difficult should all be the same. Changing
When combinations of building to believe. One sees buildings pitch does not add to the design
Economically used brick and vertical siding skillfully combined to complement the total design.
Schoiz Homes Inc
t
Hv. ••'Tili
-'3m \m\\ \
^J^^PW n ^^ mMm \ fflHi fli
1r 1 ^""N,
*0»£i> ^^^^^SBBI^^^^^ ~ —^_ .

_3i^5"^!liBPi^Si^^ '
..
^ "^^^^1
_. .
i/*trr.' • •»
258
.
and will also require additional brick covers all of the exterior 9. What should be the basis
labor. Shed dormers were men- or only the lower part, rowlock for planning today's buildings?
tioned earlier as a means of gain- brick sills*may be used. If mate- 10. What is beauty? What de-
ing added flat ceiling area; these rials other than masonry are used termines it?
roofs do have a roof slope that on the lower part, the sill may 1 1 . Why is beauty important?
is different from the rest of the be wood. 12. What is meant by the term
building. When these are used Location of Changes in Coverings pseudo-beauty?
they must not have a stuck-on 1 3. What is meant when one
appearance.
Changes in materials are usu-
speaks of an honest use of mate-
ally made with the lower
in line
rials?
Changes in Exterior Wall
edge of windows, or at least are
Coverings To Reduce Height 1 4. What is applied decoration?
kept at a uniform height. When
Visually 15. What is a "gimmick"; what
changes in height are desired,
is wrong with it when used on a
Since horizontal lines are usu- this change is usually made at
building?
ally emphasized, common prac- door or window openings.
1 6. If something is modern, does
tice calls for two exterior wall Stone and brick can be com-
that meon it is bare of all decora-
covering materials, divided hori- bined if it is done with care, adds
tion? Explain.
zontally to visually reduce build- to the appearance, and the de- When
1 7. speaking of design,
ing height by adding horizontal signer can justify this practice.
what are the lines of a building?
lines. When this is done, the lower The combination must improve
18. What lines are emphasized
portion is built of one material, the design. Generally speaking it
in ranch-house design?
and another material is added is more desirable to use dissimi-
1 9. When referring to a building,
above. If masonry is to be used, lar materials when more than one
what is form?
it is placed on the lower portion exterior coveringis planned. For
20. What is proportion?
because it must be supported by example, brick and redwood can
21. What is the Greek Golden
the foundation and footing. If be a very harmonious combina-
Rectangle; what are its proportions?
other masonry, or a dissimilar tion. Aluminum siding goes very
22. What is balance?
material is used, a stone sill serves well with light-colored limestone,
23. What is rhythm?
as a cap (water table) and a divi- especially on remodeling jobs.
24. What is texture?
sion between materials. The sill Red brick does not go well with
25. Which is planned first, a
may be of stone similar to ones yellow brick. Upper wall covering
building interior or exterior?
used on the lower part of the is generally lighter than the lower
26. How may cardboard cutouts
building, or cut stone of a con- one, to keep the building from
be used as an aid in planning?
trasting color may be used. If looking top-heavy.
27. What problems of design
does the development house present
that a custom house does not?
Questions to Reinforce Knowledge 28. What is a multi-purpose
room?
1 What is architecture? mean it is good? If it is old, does In some homes, why has the
29.
2. What are the three obliga- that mean it is no longer usable? livingroom been placed away from
tions of architecture? Explain. other rooms and out of the traffic
3. What is the primary purpose 6. What makes great architec- pattern?
of a building? ture great? 30. Why must one make maxi-
4. What determines the struc- 7. From your own reasoning, mum use of building material sizes?
tural system one should use? what is a period of architecture? 31. What is meant when one
5. If an idea is new, does that 8. How does style evolve? speaks of a flexible house?
259
32. What is an expansible 44. For area received, is a two 51. Whatare two reasons why
house? How does one provide for storyhome economical to build? height of homes has decreased?
this? 45. What is a split level home? 52. From your own reasoning,
33. What does it mean to say What should determine the floor what is likely to happen if a build-
that additions should not look stuck levels? ing has several architectural styles?
on? 46. What floor plan shapes are 53. Does a variety of roof slopes
34. A home must provide two most economical to build? add interest to a building? Explain.
kinds of privacy. What are they? 47. What are the three areas of 54. How may changes in exterior
35. Why have average homes a home? wall coverings visually reduce build-
become smaller? 48. What area is a bathroom in? ing height?
36. What is organic architecture? 49. Why is traffic flow important? 55. Where are these changes
37. How do other homes in an 50. How do halls aid this? usually made?
area affect one that is to be built?
38. Do people always desire

homes in keeping with their financial
ability? What are some of the finan-
cial factors that must be taken into timber interior overhang
consideration? form (building) sketch patio
39. Is it absolutely safe to say proportion multi-purpose dormer
one can afford to buy a house worth rhythm retreat attic
three times one's annual income? harmony parlor areas of the home
40. What is ranch-house design? balance flexibility public
41. When considering the amount applied decoration atrium private
of area, is a single story home eco- building lines organic work
nomical to build? corridor
"form follows function" profile
42. What is a 1 'A story home? rowlock ornamentation
Greek Golden Rectangle
43. How do shed dormers make
such a house more usable?
260
Determining Needs and Wishes
of the Client
There are literally thousands Necessities vs. Luxuries architect tend to have certain
of items and ideas to be given Most individuals have no real identifying features. He or she is
consideration when planning a idea of the combined cost of all usually commissioned because the
building. Any one item, if not the beautiful items they desire client is impressed with previous
properly resolved, can cause to incorporate into their home. structures. However people's ideas
errors or misunderstandings. They usually visualize a rosy vary, so they must reach an agree-
Therefore it is necessary to keep picture of a spacious, near-perfect ment as to the style to be used.
a written record of all planning. home completely filled with con- Note: This is why presentation
This can be in the form of orga- venient gadgets, fine furniture, drawings are submitted before de-
nized notes, check lists, or data and lovely accessories. One must tailed planning is done.
compiled on charts. Samples of keep the budget in mind during The architect must also deter-
these are included. all planning stages. The client, mine the type home the client
Many items mentioned briefly with the architect's help, must desires; for instance, is it to be a
here are discussed at greater decide what items are necessities single story, two story, split level,
length in other chapters. This and what ones are luxuries. or tri-level? He or she should also
chapter only indicates some of inquire whether the client prefers
the important items that must be Adapting Client's Ideas compact homes or ones that use
given consideration before the de- Every person desiring to build a large area. The client's prefer-
sign is begun, so discussion is a home (or other structure) has ence as to construction methods
limited. many ideas he or she wishes to in- should also be sought. For ex-
corporate into the plan. This is as ample, does the client prefer
Financial Ability of Client
it should be. However, if the ideas wood frame, solid masonry, ma-
Before planning begins, the
are so inflexible that the architect sonry veneer, steel, or some other?
architectmust know the financial
is allowed no design freedom, a The architect must also know the
status and ability of the client.
poorly designed building will
client's preference of exterior
He or she must know exactly how probably result. covering materials. The roof
much can be spent on the total
General Appearance of shape and degree of slope should
building project. People have a
also be discussed.
tendency to overstate their finan-
cial ability. If the building is too One of the first things an archi-
The Lot
costly, it may work hardships on tect should know about the client
the family for a long period of is the architectural style preferred. The architect should examine
time, perhaps over several years. Buildings designed by the same the lot before planning is begun.
261
If a large scale map of the plot Orientation it is harmonious to the permanent

is not available a survey may be Preliminary examination of the features of the terrain.
made at this time. The size, shape, lot will also help determine prob- • The relationship of the front
and terrain must be known. Con- lems and solutions of orientation. elevation and entries to the street.
sultation with the client will de- Major problems to be given con- • How to secure the best view.
termine what existing features sideration at this time are: • Orienting the structure to take
such as trees, shrubs, boulders, • Location of other structures in advantage of prevailing winds.
earth, or others are to be retained the immediate vicinity. • Orienting the structure to take
or removed. • How to design the structure so best advantage of the sun.
Specific Information the Architect Must Know

• Number of people in the fam- ties such as painting, photogra- • Garage: Is a garage or carport
ily: Is the home being designed phy, sewing, reading, woodwork, to be included; if so, for how
for a young family that is likely music, or others, when these rep- many cars? Is the garage or car-
to increase or is the number rather resent the client's interests? port to be used for storage?
permanent? Will it be necessary • Storage facilities: List all of • Equipment desired: List all
to accommodate the client's par- the items the needs to

family mechanical items to be included.
ents at a later date? store. Categorize according to use. Is there a preference for any
• What is the age of each mem- • What is the family's living pat- brand or specific models?
ber of the family: Are children tern? Is the home to have a for- • Color: What are the client's
each to have separate bedrooms mal or informal atmosphere? (entire family's) preferences and
or are two or more boys or girls • Open or closed plan: Are dislikes in colors?
to share a room? If rooms are to rooms to be open to each other? • What kind of heating and cool-
be shared, are separate storage Which ones? Or are all to be ing is desired?
facilities to be provided for each separate rooms? • Special features for interior:
person? • Number and location of bath- What special features are desired
• Number of rooms desired- rooms, half baths, or powder such as fireplaces, bookcases,
number required. rooms. Equipment desired in planters, dividers, or others?
• Functions each room must per- each. • Special features for exterior:
form—how to accomplish them? • Room finishes: What are the What special features are desired
• Approximate size of rooms: client's preferences as to wall, such as pools, terraces, patios,
How much can these sizes vary? floor, and ceiling finishes? outdoor fireplaces, fences, gar-
What are the minimums and • Basement: Is the home to have dens, or others?
maximums for each room? a basement, or shall utility ser- • Can all of the proposed fea-
• Special interests: Are space vices be provided by a utility tures be incorporated into the
and facilities provided for activi- room, laundry, or other? client's actual budget?
262
Room-by-Room Planning
Entries and Halls Additional protection from the To give maximum service with
Most buildings should have at elements can be gained by recess- a minimum of care, entry halls
least one entry hall. However, ing the doors into an alcove as should have hard-surfaced floors
they are sometimes omitted be- shown. that are easy to clean. Composi-
cause of space and cost limita- The front entry hall is usually tion and plastic tile or roll floor-
tions. Entry size should be in given special architectural em- ing, ceramic tile, or flagstone
proportion to the scale of other phasis. The entry sets the mood lend themselves to contemporary
rooms. For example, if a spacious or feeling of the entire building. installations. Carpet and exposed
building is being designed, a spa- It extends an invitation to enter. hardwood be avoided
floors are to
cious entry should be included. Halls should be located so they in entries because they are more
If the building serves only basic- give access to all rooms. difficult to maintain.
needs, then the entry would be
minimum size. The FHA mini-
Inclusion of furniture makes this spacious, luxurious tiled entry even more
mum width of all halls in homes
inviting.
The Mosaic Tile Co.
is 3'-0". measured from the
It is
face of walls and not from fram-

ing members. Note: This width
is too narrow for convenient use
and beauty, and should be used

only for minimum installations.
Wider halls are much more de-
sirable, if space and cost permit.
Entry doors leading to the
central hall should be covered
by a porch or roof overhang.
IL Jl
A recessed entry gives the door protection

from the weather.
263
Contemporary design makes
frequent use of large glass areas
in a spacious entry. A feeling of
uninterrupted space may be fur-
ther enhanced by adding small
gardens, rocks, plants, small trees,
pools, or fountains. Any of the
above may be further empha-
sized by mood lighting. A variety
of wall treatments, if combined
with good taste, can also create
interest. Another trend is to make
the entry spacious vertically (tall)
by having it extend to a two-

story height. However, ceiling
height in entries or other halls
may be lower than in other rooms
so one has a feeling of greater
space when he steps from the hall.
Hall use can be improved if it
is large enough to accommodate The Mosoic Tile Co.
some furniture. Large glass areas appear to increase entry size.
Doors leading from an entry

hall (foyer) to other rooms tend
to conserve heat, but are some-
A loggia is an outside entry used primarily in warm climates.
times eliminated in the interest P.M. Bolfon Assoc.
of beauty. Recent trends some-

times omit a solid wall between
an entry and an adjoining room
and replace it with dividers,
planters, screens, or free-standing
divider closets. When closets
serve as room dividers they are
not always built with conven-
tional framing. Closets with thin
walls are frequently constructed
of hardwood plywood or of less
expensive plywood and covered
with decorative materials such as
hardwood paneling, plastic lami-
nate, fiber glass, vinyl, or resinous
coated fabric.
FHA regulations state that a
home must have a closet to serve
the front entry. Minimum inside
size is 2'-0" x 3'-0". If possible
264
closet near the rear entry. This
closet is frequently designed with
special storage places for outdoor
wearing apparel and equipment.
Living Rooms
A living room usually has di-
rect access to the entry hall. When
the living room is used as a focal
point of family activity it should
be quite large. The author's mini-

mum recommended size is 12'-0"
x20'-0", but if the room to be is
used only as a retreat it is fre-

quently no larger than 12'-0"x
14'-0".
Each living room should have

a special center of interest such
as a fireplace, lighted mural, or
entertainment center around
which furniture may be grouped.
Schofx Homes Inc.
There is no required equipment
Two-story height adds to the impressiveness of a foyer.
for this room; however, fireplaces,
bookcases, planters, built-in stor-
this closet should open into the included, but should be when age areas, special window em-
hall. possible. Available space and phasis or high ribbon windows,
As mentioned earlier, a ser- finances do not usually permit and built-in furniture add to
vice entry hall is usually placed a spacious service entry. It is de- beauty and use. Living rooms
near the kitchen; if a basement signed to be utilitarian. The ser- may be given an added feeling
is required, frequently the hall is vice entry sometimes enlarged
is of spaciousness by designing them
used for entering the basement. and called a mud room. sunken two or three steps, or by
A service entry hall is not always It is very desirable to have a having the ceiling a different
height from that of other rooms.
Interior masonry walls are also
Metal grilles may serve as open dividers between an entry and living room.
quite popular. Floor surfacing
Scho/z Homes Inc
materials are influenced by re-
gional preference. Carpet, ex-
posed hardwood, tile, and ter-
razzo are all very popular. See
illustrations on the next page.
Dining Rooms
If a dining room is the only
m eating area in a home, the

size and surface treatments are
different from those of homes
with other eating areas provided.
265
room
Scholz Homes Inc. Scnolz Horn
Large glass areas and a massive fireplace wall add to the A dining room may be open to the kitchen.
interest of a living room.
A sunken living room and an open stairway in the entry

give a feeling of luxury. One end of a living room may be set aside for formal dining.
Scholz Homes Inc. Scholz Homes Inc.
266
27: Room-by-Room Planning
For example, if the room is used

only for special you
occasions
might want to carpet and equip
the room with fine furniture. If
used daily by the family, the
room might have hard surfaced
floors and durable, plastic-
surfaced furniture. China, silver,
and linen storage would be en-
tirely different to meet the needs
of the two uses mentioned. Room
size would probably be about
the same for either use. Size is
determined by the anticipated
number to use the room. There is
no established minimum size,
but ll'-0"xl3'-0"or 12'-0"xl4'-0" If possible, avoid living and dining rooms separated by a hall.
is satisfactory for modest

dwellings. Den or Study have a desk or bookcases. These
A dining room is not always Such a room is usually quite rooms may be located so they
separated and closed off from small. It is used as a specialized adjoin a living room, or they may
other rooms. It may be partially retreat work or relaxation.
for be in the bedroom area. When in
open to a living room, family Small homes frequently use it as the latter, they are usually close
room, or kitchen. When the din- an auxiliary guest room. It may be to the entry hall. Since such rooms
ing room is open to another room, equipped with bed or
a fold-out serve as guest bedrooms they
both rooms will appear larger. couch. Both dens and studies may should have a closet.
Walls between the dining room
and one of the other rooms are
This study provides an individualized learning center that can be easily changed by
frequently omitted, or may be
readjusting movable shelves.
replaced with partial walls, fire- Knope & Vogf Mfg. Co
places, planters, screens, counters,

or cabinets to define the areas.
Of course, the view into other
rooms is limited by these devices.
A living room and dining room
should be adjoining. It is very
poor practice to have the two
rooms separated by a foyer or
hall. This tends to separate people
into small groups when you need
the extra space rather than uniting
everyone. Also it divides the home
into cells, losing a sense of
spaciousness. A dining room and
kitchen should be adjoining for
convenience of use
267
Part Two: Function and Beauty— Essentials o( Planning
They may convey

feeling by using deep wood tones
a masculine
i^-'W^
for room finishes. Wood paneling
is frequently used for walls. Ceil-
ings are frequently of acoustic &?
material for sound control. Any B. RM.
floor surfacing material may be
used, with personal preference
dictating choice.
CD
Bedrooms o[
The number of bedrooms re-
quired is determined by the needs D
M.B. RM.
of the occupants. Moderate sized
homes usually include at least
three. It is customary have all
to
'i
in!
bedrooms in a separate wing or
on a separate living level to in-
sure privacy. They should be near
the front entry and connected by
a hall so occupants are not re-
iplliPf^
—r\
/- r
quired to walk through other
rooms to reach them. Bedrooms
may be separated and placed in
other locations if there is a good
reason for it. For example, the

master bedroom may be separated
-2/
from children's bedrooms so all
will have maximum privacy.
FHA minimum area is 100
sq. ft. but 120 sq. ft. is more de-
sirable. The author's minimum
recommendation for children's
and guest bedrooms is 10'-0"x
12'-0". The master bedroom is '->%. : '^%
usually larger; if space and fi-
nances permit, 12'-0"xl6'-0" is a
desirable size.
Every bedroom must have at Closet and storage space locations.
least one closet, and master bed-
rooms frequently have two. Size are a welcome addition to any Size and location of doors and
is determined by the items to be bedroom. When bedrooms have windows determine where furni-
stored but a minimum of 8 sq. private baths the closets should turemay be placed in a room.
ft. of arearecommended. Mini-
is be close to the bath. If a separate Remember that bedrooms are
mum depth is 2'-0". Combination dressing area is provided, the designed for convenient use. See
chest, drawer, and wardrobe units closets are in this area. the drawing above.
268
Bathrooms
number, and location of
Size,
bathrooms. The minimum 5'x8'

bathroom is rapidly disappearing.
In both moderate priced and lux-
ury homes, bathrooms are be-
coming quite large. It is not
uncommon them to be 10'xlO'
for
or larger. Both custom and manu-
ms must be beautiful as well as utilitarian.
factured homes are including It is very appropriate to have

i i
spacious baths and feature many a bathroom near the main entry
A half-bath frequently occupies a small
built-ins. Buyers are no longer and living room for convenience
space and does not have all major
fixtures.
content with the minimum fixtures of guests. If a bath in this loca-
in a simple, rectangular room. tion must also serve bedrooms,
The number of bathrooms per it is placed so that occupants of
r\ home is also increasing. Every

home is required to have at least
one, but most have a minimum
bedrooms can reach
being visible from other areas.
it without
of one and one-half or two. It is
not uncommon a home
.0^
for to
have three or more. Each does
not have to include all major
fixtures but may serve only spe-
The term half-bath
cialized needs.
Typical fixture placement for a smal
bathroom with a bathtub.
denotes rooms that do not include
all three major fixtures.
home has only one bath,
If a
it must be entered from a hall. It
is not permissible or convenient Q
to walk through a bedroom to
reach this bath. Full baths are
frequently located between bed-
D
rooms and doors lead to the bath
from each room. This is permis-
sible if the home has other bath-
rooms for general use. Additional
bedrooms cannot use this bath.
Typical fixture placement for a small They must have their own or use Bathroom fixtures placed back to back
bathroom with a shower.
a bath in an adjoining hall. conserve space and money.
269
It is also very desirable to have be placed inside a closely adjoin-

a bath near the kitchen and rear ing wall it is permissible to place
entry. Many homes also have the fixture on an outside wall.
half-baths in finished basements. Lavatories. There are many
Bathroom doors are usually beautiful wall-mounted lavato-
CCI hinged, butwhen space is at a ries. However, when space per-
premium pocket or sliding doors mits, general preference is for
may be installed. Swing of hinged built-in units. These may be sim-
doors should not interfere with ple, containing only the lavatory,
fixtures or their use. or they may have elaborate stor-
Water closets are usually lo- age and dressing facilities. Many
cated so they are not directly in occupy an entire wall. They may
line with the door. They are usu- include soiled clothing storage,
ally partly shielded by other fix- space for linens, space for medi-
tures or partial walls. Water cines and toilet supplies, and elab-
closets are usually placed farthest orate make-up areas.
This bathroom arrangement for a master from the door. They may be It is not uncommon for long
bedroom also serves as a guest powder
placed in alcoves, or separated lavatory cabinets to have two
room.
from the rest of the room by di- lavatory bowls. Double lavatories
vider screens. may be one single fixture, or sep-
Original water closet styles had arate fixtures may be mounted in
a separate base and water tank. the counter top. The lavatory is
Many are still manufactured as frequently located close to the

two-piece models. Newer designs bathroom door for convenient
are one-piece. The tank on two- use, on the wall opposite the di-
piece models is quite tall. One- rection of door swing.
piece units have low tanks. Con- Lavatory units can be pur-
ventional water closets are floor chased in standard manufactured
mounted. Some later designs are sizes or, at slight additional cost,
wall hung for ease of cleaning. they may be custom fabricated
Minimum wall area for a water for any style or requirement. When
closet is 30". It must be 15" from custom made, recommended door
Water closets should not be visible from
an adjoining wall or object to the width should not exceed 18".
other rooms.
center of the fixture. However, Drawers on rollers are included
36" is more desirable. Water sup- on quality installations.
ply pipes frequently go straight Lavatory cabinets are manu-
from the tank, through the floor. factured in many depths (distance
Quality installations should have from wall to cabinet front). Most
L_L
a shut-off valve on this supply frequent is 22". Counter tops
line. usually project 1" more than the
1
Early rules implied that a water cabinet. This gives a standard

closet should not be against an counter top depth of 23". Mini-
15 outside wall because of freezing, mum depth for special lavatories
and also the need for space in- is 16". Custom-built counter tops
Space must be provided at both sides of side the wall for a vent or soil may vary between these two sizes.
a water closet. Lavatory height
stack. However, if the vent can is also vari-
270
'
able, but 32" is most frequently

used.
Lavatory cabinets may be cov-
ered with fine hardwoods, plastic
laminates, ceramic
translucent plastic panels. Design
tile, metal, or îx
T
is limited only by the imagina-
VARIES
tion, but you must remember the
function is the most important
consideration.
Bathtubs. Common shapes and
typical installations of bathtubs
are shown. They may be of enam-
eled cast iron or pressed steel, or o
CO
plastic. They may also be custom 23"
built of tile, marble or other
stone, or terrazzo. Cast iron is
Blocking beneath a bathtub helps mini-
mize cracking.
still most frequently used.
— — L -* .
-A!
Standard length of rectangular Showers in large bathrooms
1
tubs is 5'-0". but 5'-6" is frequent- ! 1

are usually given separate enclo-
5; i
ly used. Lengths of 4'-6" and 6'-0" sures. Bathtubs or showers are

can be obtained on special order. frequently built into alcoves. The
Tub width, and design
height, ceiling may be lowered and a
are not standardized. Specific CN soffit used so the enclosure ap-
sizes and styles must be deter- pears as a unit when you step
mined from manufacturers' litera-
1
"11 inside.
ture. Later design makes exten- Walls extending up from a
J
sive use of sunken tubs. Most bathtub must be waterproof. Spe-
manufacturers offer tubs for re- 19" cial attention must be given the
f
cessed installations. Although joint between the tub and wall
custom-built tubs add only slight- 22" material.
I
ly to total building cost, they Blocking, as shown, should be
Recommended lavatory cabinet sizes.
contribute a definite feeling of provided under the back edge of
luxury. They are used in both the tub for additional support.
modest and luxury homes. Because the bathtub and walls are
Tub and shower. Combination of dissimilar materials their rate
tub and shower installations are of expansion and contraction is
common. These require shower not the same. This makes it diffi-
curtains or doors. Glass or plastic cult to avoid cracking at this line.

doors may be of, the folding or Pliable caulking which adheres to
sliding type. Note: A bathtub- both materials reduces the prob-
shower door in small bathrooms lem. The only permanent solution
makes the rooms seem even is the fiber glass tub which has
STD. SIZES
smaller. Shower curtains, which the enclosure itself built as an
can be open when not in use, Rectangular bathtub sizes.
left integral part. This eliminates the
do not give this feeling. joint or line.
271
D
? ,
I
i )
A long lavatory cabinet is frequently
placed on a wall opposite other fixtures.
\
D] P.M. Bolfon Assoc
To create a feeling of spaciousness bathrooms may have an enclosed garden.
Bathtubs are frequently placed window. It is a poor location and

13
on walls opposite the lavatory, should be avoided if possible.
Plumbing materials cost is reduced if all
fixtures are located on a common wall.

The least expensive installations When the tub must be under a
place all three fixtures (water window, aluminum framed or
and the head of
closet, lavatory, glass block units are
the bathtub) and their plumbing recommended,
lI along the same wall. This may Prefabricated metal showers
cause the tub to be under the are sometimes used for minimum
Luminous ceilings and soffits may replace bathroom windows.

u Artcres! Products Co., Inc.
u
A compartmented bathroom places each
main fixture in a separate room.
272
installations. Luxurious showers drafts. Modern design sometimes

are usually built on the job. Mini- includes laundry facilities in a
mum size is 30"x30"; however, bathroom. Washers and dryers
30"x36" is better. Luxury installa- may be placed in alcoves or be-
tions may be 36"x48" or even hind doors. Occasionally these
larger. appliances are installed free-
more desirable to have the
It is standing.
shower and tub separated than to Imaginative use of accessories
have them together because foot- can improve both appearance A bathroom serving two areas may be
ing is better in a regular shower. and function of any bathroom. partially compartmented.
When a home has two bathrooms, Medicine cabinets above a lava-

the tub and shower are frequently tory were once standard. Many
placed in different rooms. beautiful medicine cabinets are
Compartmented bathrooms still available, but current design
which have each fixture in a sepa- may replace them with large mir-
rate room are very popular. ror sometimes covering
areas,
Bathroom floors may be of any entire walls. Medicines formerly
durable material; most frequently stored in a cabinet above a lava-

used is ceramic tile, terrazzo, com- tory may be stored in a locked
position tile, or roll goods. Carpet drawer. All medicine should be

is sometimes used. Exposed wood locked away from children. Cos-
floors are not recommended be- metics formerly stored in the
cause of moisture. medicine cabinet are easier to use This common bathtub alcove arrange-
if space is designed for them in ment adjoins a closet of another room.
Suspended and luminous ceil-
ings are very attractive in a make-up unit.
bathrooms. The following common acces-
Combination bathrooms and sories, and others, may be in-
Combination bath-dressing rooms are
dressing rooms, with built-in fix- cluded in bathrooms. When in- very popular.
tures, vanity units, closets, and cluded, they should be shown on Scholz Homes Inc.
storage drawers, are frequently the plans, and additional descrip-

-
r
used. When placed so they are tions given in the specifications.
;
entered from a master bedroom, Towel bars

the dressing sometimes is
area Soap and grab
not closed off from the bedroom. Soap dishes
As mentioned earlier, some Toilet tissue holders
provision should be made for Toothbrush and glass holders
soiled clothing and clothes bins Clothes hooks
may be incorporated into lavatory Facial tissue holders
or other cabinets. One large com- Magazine racks or book shelves
partment may be included, or Retractable clotheslines
several small compartments may Telephones
provide for clothing sorts as it is Divider screens
used. Inclosed clothes chutes for Intercommunication systems
storage on other levels are con- Auxiliary heaters
venient.Doors to clothes chutes Exhaust fans
should be self closing to prevent Built-in scales
273
.
Kitchens
Since the kitchen is the most
used room in a home, not only by
the housewife but others as well,
prospective owners demand in-
clusion of many labor-saving de- L _
vices. These may be arranged in
"U" shaped kitchen layout.
convenient and pleasing patterns.
Items that were luxuries a very
short time ago are now demanded
even in very inexpensive homes. r-\
More must be given to
attention
planning the kitchen than any
other room.
There are five basic kitchen x>
layouts:
f r
• "U" shaped
• "L" shaped
• Corridor
• Straight line
• Island
An example of each of these
layouts is shown. The proper one
to use is determined by the room
size and arrangement of doors
and windows, and by personal
preference. A "U" layout is best
because it permits efficient use of
allequipment with a minimum of 1 Food enters home
steps or movements. An "L" lay- 2. Storage for future use

3. Preparation begun
out is the second choice. A corri-
4. Washing and adding water
dor layout can be very satisfactory
5. Additional preparation
6. Cooking
7. Removal for serving
8. Serving
*
[X —_ ><
>o
7---
"L" shaped kitchen layout!
(8
Corridor kitchen layout.
- MBQk-^ 274
IZZCJ
E3Q {
iX X4
Straight line kitchen layout.
if adequate room is provided for

people to pass. Recommended
minimum corridor width 4'-0".
For most convenient use a corri-

dor should not exceed 5'-0" in
is
EE _L ~1
width. A straight line kitchen is
least convenient because much

walking must be done during use.
An island layout is an adaptation
of any of the above, with some IS i
of the equipment placed in the 1 \ / i
center of the room. 1 J- ~A 1
V Si
After the basic layout is de-
Island kitchen layout.
termined, cabinets, appliances,
and the sink are arranged for
convenient use. Adequate plan-
ning includes counter space near
each item of equipment. The
basic items are arranged accord-
This built-in kitchen features concealed laundry equipment behind large folding doors.
ing to their order of use during
General Efeclrtc Co.
food preparation. For example,
the refrigerator is usually placed
near the service entry so food can
be stored without walking across
the room. (Note: All equipment
is not always furnished as a part
of the building; stoves and re-
frigerators may be added later.
When they are not included, space

must be provided for their instal-
lation.) Kitchens in the accom-
panying drawings are arranged
for efficient use. The plan for the
"L" layout numbered, indicat-
is
ing logical order of use. The

numbered circles on the drawing,
page 274, show the orderly use of
space allowed by this arrangement.
275
«*.">
This kitchen features an island for equipment storage and food preparation.
276
Note the corner sink in this L-shaped kitchen. A built-in planning area is a welcome addition to any kitchen.
1*0
Jffl
Generol Electric Co
This kitchen design is an adaptation of a corridor layout.
When basic items are drawn are placed near the sink or dish- pearance because of smooth tran-
on a plan, their size and shape washer; seasonings are placed sitionsbetween objects.
must conform to the general near the stove and also near the Traditional kitchen appliance
shape of the item. Most are drawn eating area. color was formerly white. Today,
as symbols but, when no stan- All appliances and equipment appliances may be almost any
dardized symbol is available, they should be selected before the final color, or theymay be of brushed
are drawn to conform to the shape kitchen layout is determined. chrome, copper, or stainless steel.
of the object. When you draw Appliance styles and some Because of the extreme variety
your plan you should (1) consult sizeschange slightly each year. of appliances available, only the
the sample floor plans, (2) study (This may be planned obsoles- more common are shown. Later,
sizes and shapes from manufac- cence.) Nevertheless, specific se- when large scale plans are drawn,
turers' literature or actual objects, lections must be made so they you must include exact sizes, so
and (3) study sample working will fit with the cabinet arrange- consult manufacturers' specifica-
drawings in the text and ment. For example, you must tions.
elsewhere. know the exact size of a built-in Modern kitchen cabinets look
After preliminary design is oven before an oven cabinet can like fine furniture.They appear
complete, specific conveniences or be selected. best as part of an open plan.
appliances not found in every Built-in appliances are favored Many choices of decorative
kitchen— storage cabinets, racks, over free-standing models. Cur- materials are available as cabinet
holders, trays, special drawers, rent designs feature square cor- facings. Inexpensive cabinets
etc.— are located for best use. For ners which eliminate spaces be- builton the job are sometimes of
example, refrigerator containers tween appliances and other items firplywood. Birch plywood is
would be located close to the re- such as cabinets. Square designs most frequently used for standard
frigerator; dishwashing supplies also help avoid a cluttered ap- cabinets.
277
This material has a close
grain structure, beautiful pattern,
and lends itself to many finishing
methods; it is also reasonably
priced. Oak is also quite popular
but slightly higher priced. Other
hardwoods are sometimes used
for custom installations, as are
plastic laminates, but they cost
Flush mounted doors without exposed
slightly more than wood. Thin Rabbeted doors face frames.
laminate for vertical surfaces only
makes the price about the same
as wood. Plastic laminate may be
used as an exterior covering only
or, on luxury installations, cabi-
nets may be surfaced throughout.

board is being used
Particle
extensively for cabinet parts.
When used, it may be faced (cov-
ered) with wood veneer, plastic

laminate, or plastic film. On in- Flush mounted doors with exposed face
expensive cabinets, particle board Surface mounted doors. frames.
interiors are sometimes painted.
Metal cabinets are used ex-
Designing the Kitchen
tensively in commercial, institu-
tional, and large apartment proj- To design kitchens you must Observe the assortment of filler
ects, but less in homes today. know cabinetand equipment strips for joining cabinets at cor-
Most cabinets are prefinished sizes. The accompanying small ners and to fill space between
with lacquer, plastic, or baked-on drawings of kitchen cabinets
scale cabinets and end walls. Kitchens
finishes. However, some are fin- show standard sizes of individual should be designed with a mini-
ished after cabinets have been in- units.These represent selections mum of filler strips because the
stalled on the job. Brush-applied from only one manufacturer, but strips may appear to be added on.
finishes can be satisfactory but it others are similar. Study these They may be eliminated by de-
is difficult and costly to duplicate sizes carefully. Also, study the signing the kitchen so it conforms
the quality of factory applications. code system for designating cabi- to modular cabinet sizes.
There are three general ways of net selections. See page 279. Now When several cabinets are
mounting cabinet doors, (with find the cabinet that is coded made for combining, unlimited
many variations of each). They W-3930. The W indicates this is a arrangementsmay be ordered.
are: (1) rabbeted (sometimes wall cabinet (upper); the 39 is the Some manufacturers offer only
called inset or offset doors), (2) cabinet length; the 30 indicates individual units which must be
surface mounted, and (3) flush height. Notice also that there are combined at the construction site,
mounted. Study the illustrations two additional codes on the cabi- while others manufacture large
to determine the relationship of net; this indicates that the cabinet unitscontaining more sections.
each door type to cabinet face is available in two additional The large scale cabinet detail
frames and other necessary struc- sizes. Identification of other codes on page 282 shows additional
tural parts. is given in accompanying notes. structural parts and typical sizes.
278
WALL UNITS
sEND W-3612
LED
13"
END
SCALE 'A"
W-3315
= 12"
__J |
.
W3615
36"
W-3915 & W-4215
13"
END
C-l
(1) 24"
W-2421
+
W-2721
27" .
30"
-
W-3021
.
4-
.
33"
W-3321
.
36"
W-3621
39", 42"
W-3921 & W-4221
& 48"
cs
48'
|15"&I8J
"&24' 27" & 30' 33" & 36"
J3'J_||1) |J_2^J |21 ;| | ; |
[ |
I
END W1230 W-1530 W-2 30 1 W-2730 W-3330

W-1830 W-2430 W3030 W-3630
39", 42" & 48" 24" |(2)(3) 33 (2)(3) 30" & 36" |(4) 30" & 36"
-
_
t
|(5)
W-3930 W-4230 W-2530-CR W-3630-CR W-3030-GG WP3030-GG

Also W-2530-CL Also W-3630CL W-3630-GG WP-3630-GG
o
en
H ----- ,«
o
m
24" (1) 24"

WCR-2430
REVOLVING SHELVES
COOKING TOP OR SINK UNITS
•
... ...
r
" '
jjs
zo
'. — -J
30" 24" 30"33"36" 30" 8. 40" 24" 24" 27"
R-30 (4) SF-24 SF-30 SF-33 R-30-400 (3) R-24-C (7) END (8) RM-27
SF-36 R-40-400
Standard cabinet sizes.
279
i
BASE UNITS
—
—
r
24" 15"&18" 21"&24" 27" & 30" 36" & 42" 5 "8.18" 18"&24'_' _30" S. 36'^
B-15 B-21 B-27 B-36 BD-315 BD-418 BC-30
B-l 8 B-24 B-30 B-42 BD-318 BD-424 BC-36
— —
—
*~
— I~ZH
OD
42" 15" 18" is'^

r-T
24" 18"
|
B-46-50-CR (2) 3D-31. END 1 t
Also B-46-50-CL (3) FRONT BP-18-L REAR

Also BP-18-R
— — — r n
"1
C
y\
^ l_ _i
S r
42" 24" 42" 30" 30" 30"
BA-3 w/ BA-3 w/ BA-30 (4
BP-46-50-CR
Also BP-46-50-CL
— |i
1
,~r
tTTTI
i
1
1 1=3
r
i
— i
! "-i
36" 24" 12" 12 „ 18" 18" _18"_ 18"

\1^\
BAPL-36 (5) END END BV-12 BV-12 BV-12 BA-18 BA-18 BA-18 B-18
(6) w/3-V-12 w/T-12CA-18-30 w/NT-18 w/BEV-18 w/T-18
W/2-ST-18 w/BTA-18
280
-
BASE UNITS (continued)
1 1
I
12",
BOES-12
MAX.
r> <
29" 22%"
MAX
* m ^
—— o
33"
n t (
UTILITY AND PANTRY UNITS

——
cz: u ;
u i
__ cz:
cz: u
i r —— ;::-
:3
CO
-^. .^_ cz u oo
r I .
24" 21" _
21" 42" 24' 36" , 1
END U-2 1-D U-2 ID PFS-42 END (l)
The Kitchen Maid Corp.

281
1 —
Kitchen cabinet elevation detail with W36/30 W18/30 W18/30 W36/15

code designations.
/.;.,.„
/?///
rr —55 t~
|
BA 18 1
8-36 B-18 SF-42
II I
|
'
III!
FHA Minimum Kitchen Standards

The following minimum stan- • Shelf area of revolving base
dards, as established by the shelves (lazy susan) may be con-
FHA, should be included in any sidered as twice its actual area in
kitchen planning. determining required shelf area
Each kitchen have acces-
shall provided clear width of opening is
sible storage space for food and at least 8V4".
utensils, and space for such activi- • Drawer area may be substi-
ties and equipment as needed to tuted for not more than 25% of
perform the intended functions. required base shelf area.
Minimum and
Shelf • If a range is not provided, pro-
Counter Top Area vide at least a 40" space for range.
• Total shelving in wall and base
cabinets, 50 square feet, with not
Height of Shelving and
Counter Top
less than 20 square feet in either
wall or base cabinets. • Wall shelving above 74" can-
• Minimum counter top area 1 not be included in required area.
square feet.
• Maximum height of counter
• Minimum drawer area 1 top is 38". (Standard 36")
square feet.
• Counter top space below 30"
• Area occupied by sink basin above floor shall not be included
and by cooking units shall not be in required area.
included in minimum counter top • Height between counter top
area. and wall cabinets shall be at least
Approximate kitchen cabinet dimensions.
• Storage space in ranges, when the following:
provided in the form of drawers Over range and sink cabinets,
or shelving may be included in 24".
the minimum shelf area. Over other base cabinets, 15".
282
Depth of Shelving and

Counter Top
• That portion of shelving and
counter top space less than or ex-
ceeding the following dimensions
shall not be included in the re-
quired area:
Min. Max.
Wall shelving 4" 18"
Base shelving 12" 24"
Counter top 15" 30"
Spacing of Shelving
Clearance between shelving
shall comply with the following
to be included in required area.
Minimum
Depth of Shelf Spacing
4" to 6" 5" room features
This kitchen-family a built-in barbecuing grill with exhaust hood for
6" to 10" 6" all-weather use.
10" to 15" 7"
15" to 24" 10"
Cores for counter tops are usu- space between the top and the
ally made of plywood or particle ceiling. They may be finished
Mechanical Ventilation board. They may be covered with flush with the face of upper cabi-
Air shall be exhausted from plastic laminate, vinyl (or other nets; extend slightly so a wood
kitchens in a range hood, or by plastic), ceramic tile, or stainless molding can be applied over the
a wall or ceiling fan through a steel. Stone or manufactured stone joint between cabinets and the
grilled opening located (a) in the is also sometimes used. Edge- soffit; or they may extend in front
ceiling above the range, (b) in the grain maple or birch is suitable of the cabinets to accommodate
wall close to the ceiling above for chopping tops and cutting recessed lighting.
the range, or (c) in the wall im- boards. Upper cabinets are not usually
mediately above the range. When Methods of construction and placed closer than 6" to a win-
located in the wall immediately standard sizes are shown. dow. When they are required on
above the range, the wall fan shall Floor coverings should be hard both sides of a window, the soffit
be located approximately at the surfaced for easy cleaning. Wood is usually continued across, above
centerline of the range and a surface floors for kitchens are not the window. This visually unites
metal hood of the size and height recommended. When ceramic or the cabinet structure.
shown below shall be installed plastic tile or roll flooring is A
valance usually extends be-
above the fan. All fans shall dis- specified over wood subfloors. a tween the cabinets. It is placed
charge to outdoor air. plywood, particle board, or hard- flush with the face of the cabinets,
Range hood shall be at least as board underlay is required. with its upper edge against the
long as range, shall be at least Wall surfacing should be wash- soffit. When a valance is required
17" wide, and the bottom of the able for easy cleaning. it is built of the same material
hood rim shall be not more than Soffits are usually placed above as the cabinets and in the same
30" above the range top. kitchen cabinets to enclose the design.
283
placed near the kitchen, some-

times with no wall between. In-
'Multi-purpose Rooms" dividual needs of the client deter-
Family rooms, recreation have a retreat while others are en- mine equipment to be included.
Utility rooms were formerly un-
rooms, activity rooms, rumpus tertaining or perhaps watching a
TV sightly catch-alls because furnace,
rooms, play rooms, learning cen- different program in the liv-
tersand others with similar names, ing room. The extra room usually
water heater, and laundry facili-
have much in common. They is placed close to the kitchen and ties did not have unified design or
give the family a place for infor- may not be closed off.
pleasing appearance. Since design
mal living without disrupting Activity rooms are usually improvements have been made
other parts of the home. These quite large. There is no minimum on equipment, the areas are fre-
are designed to serve the specific size but for modest homes 12'x20' quently given a glamour treat-
needs of occupants. Such rooms is popular. ment and finished in the same
style as kitchens.
may be on main or upper levels, They are designed for easy
or in a basement. maintenance, usually with hard- To you must analyze
design,
the to be performed
functions
There are two approaches to surfaced floors, washable walls,
locating activity rooms. They may acoustic or suspended ceilings,
and the order in which they are
be (1) close to or opening from and specialized built-in storage. done. All cabinets, equipment,
the living room, to give addi- Equipment sometimes includes and appliances are then arranged
tional area for entertaining; or hi-fi, stereo, television, intercom-
in their order of use.
(2) they may be isolated in an munication, refrigerators, bars, or It is permissible to walk

area of their own for privacy. In a small food center. Fireplaces through rooms from the
utility
this way parents and children can may be included for atmosphere. kitchen to reach the rear door.
The services may be located
elsewhere as said. For example,
it was mentioned earlier that
Utility Rooms or Laundries are exceptions of course, as when laundry facilities are sometimes
Main-floor rooms and
utility individual functions such as heat- placed in a bathroom. They may
laundries are required in homes ing and laundries are included as
be located at the end of an all-
that do not have basements. There parts of other rooms. They are purpose kitchen of the proper size
Hard surfaced materials make this utility room easy to maintain.
and arrangement. They may also
The Moiaic Tr/e Co. be placed in a closet off a hall.
Furnaces and water heaters may

also be placed in closets if proper
ventilation is provided. Combusti-
ble fuels require oxygen. Local
codes must be consulted to deter-
mine fire wall requirements for
furnace rooms. Specific directions
for designing firewalls are provided
by Underwriters' Laboratories.
There is no minimum size for
utility rooms or laundries, but
ample work space must be pro-

vided. Storage for supplies must
be included.
284
Basements
Many homes, especially in
Garage or Carport
warm climates, or areas with un-
favorable terrain, do not have
A garage is an enclosed unit inconvenient to connect only from
basements. However, when physi-
which may be separate or attached the outside, it defeats the pur-
cal conditions are favorable, or
to another building. A carport is pose of the idea.
if in congested urban or suburban
an open shelter (on at least one Garage carport design
or areas where land values are high,
side) which also may be either should harmonize with the house. basements provide inexpensive
free-standing or attached. Minimum inside size for each additional living and utility space.
Both garages and carports pro- car is 10'-0"x20'-0". However, a
Basements may be unfinished,
vide storage space for items in larger size is preferred. Recom- or finished into auxiliary living
addition to automobiles. This mended inside size is 12'-0"x areas. Note, however, that some
storage should be designed to 24'-0" for each.
codes will not permit permanent
make maximum use of all avail- Garage door sizes are given
habitable rooms in basements if
able space. Equipment and supply in Chapter 13.
the floor is more than half the
storage in a garage may be in Hard-surfaced floors, as con-
total ceiling height below grade.
separate compartments, as closets, crete or asphalt, are required. If
As stated and illustrated in
or wall shelves and hooks may be in a damp region, or if cars are to
Chapter 3, FHA minimum ceil-
utilized. Storage areas in carports be washed in the garage, floor
ing height in basements is 6'-10",
are usually enclosed units with drains should be provided.
but 7'-6" or 8'-0" is more desir-
doors extending across one side. Since many families have two
able, if finances permit.
Garages and carports attached or more cars, double-car garages
It is not permissible to place
to a home are preferred over free- or carports are recommended for wood columns (posts) in direct
standing units. However, this usu- all new construction of homes contact with the basement floor.
ally raises insurance rates slightly. that exceed a basic, low-cost plan.
They must be raised on a concrete
When attached, provide a fire wall Many garages are designed so
base as shown.
between the two structures. Many- they can be heated to provide a
codes permit a wall with a one- play area for children, and to
hour fire rating. make the car easier to start dur-
When unattached they may be ing cold weather.
of lightweight construction, with An additional outside door
the interiors frequently left un- (besides ones for cars) should be
finished. When attached to a home provided.It should be located for Section through a
their construction the same most convenient use. A 2'-8"x wood post and its
is as
footing.
for the rest of the building. No 6'-8" or 7'-0" size is satisfactory.
footing is needed for strength A window or windows- con-
across the garage door opening; forming to the style used in the
however, in cold climates, a frost house should be provided.
wall must extend as deep as the Driveways should be at least
rest of the building foundation. as wide as the garage door. When
When the unit is attached to a a hard-surfaced driveway is not
home, it should have a direct con- included, a concrete apron is to
nection, preferably to the base- be provided in front of the ga-
ment or kitchen. It is not only rage doors.
285
.
Concrete floors must be at least If sewers in the area are deeper 27. Why are bedrooms normally
3" thick, with wire mesh as de- than the basement floor, floor placed in a separate area from other
scribed in Chapter 5. Under-floor drains may be used. If sewers are rooms?
fill and waterproofing are rec- shallow (overhead type) sump 28. When may they be placed in
ommended. Drain tile, as used pumps as shown in Chapter 18 another location?

around the outside perimeter of may be required. If floor drains 29. What is the minimum area
the footing, may also be placed or sumps are installed, the floor for children's bedrooms?
around the inside under the floor should be sloped slightly toward 30. What is the recommended
if surface water is a problem. them. size for a master bedroom?
31 . What is minimum number
the
of closets for a bedroom?
32. Is it true that bathrooms
1 Why should a home have a a good idea to have a half-bath should occupy as little space as pos-
front entry? Is it always possible? near the service entry? sible? Explain.
Why? 14. What is the relationship of 33. How does today's bathroom
2. What determines the size of the living room to the front entry? size compare with the common size
an entry hall? 1 5. What is a special center of in the past? Why?
3. What is the minimum width interest for a living room? Explain. 34. Do new homes tend to have
of entries and other halls? Is this 1What special features can be
6. one or more than one bathroom?
usually adequate? Explain. included to make a living room ap- What is a half-bath?
35.
4. Why are entry doors some- pear more spacious and beautiful? If a home has only one bath-
36.
times recessed into an alcove, or 1 7. What are two major factors room, why must it be located in a
covered by a wide roof overhang or which help determine dining room central hall?
porch? Explain the desirability of this. size? 37. When is it permissible to at-
5. Why should a front entry hall 1 8. What determines the room tach a bathroom to a bedroom?
be decorated and furnished artfully? finish to be used, and type of furni- 38. From your own reasoning,
6. Why should entry halls have ture and built-ins to be included in what are the most frequent bathroom
hard-surfaced floors? What mate- a dining room? locations?
rials are recommended; what ma- 19. What is the desired relation- 39. Why are pocket doors some-
terials are not? Why? ship of a living room and dining times used on bathrooms? If space
7. What are some of the things room? permits other types, are they recom-
which can be done to give an entry 20. Why should they not be sepa- mended? Why?
architectural emphasis? rated by an entry or other hall? 40. Why are water closets some-
8. What is meant when one says 2 1 . What is the relationship of a times placed in alcoves or separated
an entry is spacious vertically? dining room and kitchen? from the rest of the room?
9. Why should all homes have 22. Why should they not be sepa- 41. What is the minimum wall
a closet near the front door? What rated by a hall? area at the back of a water closet?
is its minimum size? 23. Why is a den or study fre- What amount of wall area is better?
1 0. What is a service entry hall? quently a multi-purpose room? 42. Is it permissible to place a
Why is it usually placed near the 24. If such a room must serve water closet on an outside wall?
basement or kitchen? as a guest bedroom, what special 43. What are the possible ob-
1 1 . What is a mud room? provision should be made? jections to this? How are they
1 2. Why is it desirable to have a 25. Are dens or studies usually overcome?
closet near the service entry? designed as quiet places? Explain. 44. From your own reasoning,
1 3. From study of this chapter 26. Moderate sized homes usu- what is the difference between a
and your own reasoning, why is it ally have how many bedrooms? lavatory and a sink?
286
45. Which is most popular today, cabinet be omitted above a lavatory? 80. How may the number of re-
wall hung or built-in lavatories? What replaces it? Explain. quired filler strips be reduced?
46. Describe the variety of lava- 63. From your own reasoning, 8 1 . From previous reading, what
tory cabinet designs (items of equip- why are bathroom accessories im- is the size of a module for kitchen
ment frequently included in lavatory portant? cabinets?
cabinets). 64. Why must kitchens be more 82. What is a toe board? Kick
47. Describe three methods of than just functional? Explain. board?
mounting lavatories or kitchen sinks. 65. Describe five basic kitchen 83. What is the standard depth
48. What are the most frequently layouts. of a lower base cabinet?
used materials for counter tops? 66. Of these five, which is most 84. What is the standard height
49. What is the standard depth convenient? Why? of a base cabinet?
of lavatory cabinets? Of counter 67. Explain what is meant by 85. What is the standard height
tops? Why are they different? logical order of use. from the floor to the top of the
50. What is standard lavatory 68. Why should one not place a counter top?
height? Is this the only height used? refrigerator and oven next to each 86. What is standard backsplash
Explain. other? height?
51. Describe the different mate- 69. If there is no conventional 87. What is the depth of an up-
rials used for bathtubs. symbol for an appliance, what de- per cabinet? Why is this variable?
52. What is the standard length termines how it is drawn? 88. What is the greatest standard
for rectangular bathtubs? What 70. Are appliances selected be- height of an upper cabinet?
other stock sizes are common? fore or after kitchen planning is 89. Why is more than one stan-
53. What is a sunken or recessed completed? dard upper cabinet height necessary?
bathtub? 71 . Why must one select specific 90. What is a range hood? What
54. Why are shower doors not equipment rather than relying upon determines its size and capacity?
recommended for bathtubs in small general size and shape? 91. What is the standard kitchen
bathrooms? 72. Which are most popular, free counter top width (distance from
55. Why is a drop ceiling or sof- standing or built-in appliances? wall to front of counter)?
fit sometimes built over a bathtub 73. Is it true that it is difficult to 92. What type of floor surfacing
or shower stall? obtain colored kitchen appliances? is preferred in the kitchen? Why?
56. Why is it difficult to avoid a 74. What wood is most frequently 93. How is a soffit used in a
crack where the bathtub joins a wall? used for kitchen cabinets? What other kitchen?
57. Why are all three main bath- woods or materials are also fre- 94. What is a valance? Why is
room fixtures frequently placed quently used? Explain. it used?

along the same wall? 75. What is particle board? How 95. What are two different ideas
58. What is a compartmented and with what finishes may it be concerning the location of activity
bathroom? Explain. used as a cabinet exterior? rooms?
59. What kinds of materials are 76. Why are factory or shop- 96. Why are activity rooms de-
recommended for bathroom floors? applied finishes usually more satis- sired?
Why? factory than job-applied ones? 97. When are utility rooms or
60. Are combination bathroom 77. Describe three kinds of cabi- laundries usually placed on the main
and dressing rooms very popular? net doors. living level? Explain.
Explain. 78. When referring to a kitchen 98. Are these rooms ever open to
61. What is the major disadvan- cabinet, what do the letters and or part of a kitchen? Explain.
tage of clothes chutes? How is this numbers in the following code repre- 99. If no basement or utility room
disadvantage remedied? sent-W-3930? is included, how may the normal
62. When may a typical medicine 79. What is a filler strip? services of these rooms be provided?
287
100. What equipment is usually in- a single-car garage or carport? Two-

cluded in these rooms? car garage? What is a more suitable
101. What is the difference be- size for a single-car garage? Two-car
tween a garage and a carport? garage?
Explain. 106. What is the minimum ceiling
102. How will their construction height for a basement? Is this ade-
differ if they are attached or unat- quate? Explain.
tached from a house? 107. From your own reasoning,
103. Why are attached units pre- why is it inadvisable to have wood
ferred? walls in a basement? If they are de-
104. Except in basic, low-cost sired, what precautions should be
housing why should one try to avoid taken?
a single-car garage or carport? 108. Is a sump pump always re-
105. What is the minimum size for quired in a basement? Explain.

porch shower enclosure filler strip
alcove shower stall utensil
flagstone caulking lazy susan

foyer bathtub range
hardwood plumbing grill
plastic laminate compartmented chopping top

fiber glass bathroom cutting board
vinyl luminous ceiling soffit
focal point suspended ceiling valance

fireplace vanity intercommunication
terrazzo kitchen utility room
built-in cabinet laundry
half-bath appliance water heater
water closet refrigerator garage
lavatory planned obsolescence carport
self-rimming brushed chrome frost wall
fabricated stainless steel urban

translucent plastic veneer suburban
cast iron lacquer sump pump
288
.
To function adequately a home if rooms are small, furniture do not represent furniture
—or any other building— must should seem less massive and styles, the sketches show gen-
have furnishings that contribute lightweight in appearance. If eral furniture shapes.
to its total efficiency and please rooms are large, massive furni- 3. The stated dimensions accom-
our taste. Many periods in history ture can give a feeling of strength panying each sketch represent
have given us furniture styles that and dignity. standard or frequently used
remain popular to the present The collection of furniture sizes.
time. Personal preference deter- sketches shown is not intended 4. The plan view drawings may
mines whether an individual se- as actual furniture styles. How- be used as guides for drawing
lects French Provincial, Early ever, the sketches and plan view templates to be cut out and
American, Contemporary, or drawings may serve you in five arranged and re-arranged to
some other furniture style. Natu- ways: determine furniture placement
rally, the one selected should con- 1 The sketches represent furni- within rooms.
form to or fit well with the build- ture items most often used in 5. The plan view drawings may
ing in which it is to be used. homes. They will serve as re- also be used as guides when
Furniture scale (its size and minders to plan for their furniture outlines are re-
mass) should be compatible with inclusion. quired on presentation or
the building's size. For example, 2. Even though individual items working drawings.
Studio couch
length 88"
2. Occasional chair Ottoman
depth 32"
width 28" length 24"
height 29"
depth 32" width 19"
as fold out bed
height 29" height 16"
length 60"
289
CD
9. Step table 1 3. Hi-ti or stereo
length 27"-30'
5. "Mrs." chair length 48"-60'
width 15"-19" 20"
width 28" depth
height 21" 30"
depth 32" height
height 30"
I 1
10. Corner table 14. Organ or piano
length 30" variable sizes
6. Cocktail table
depth 30" approx. 48"x26'
length 48"-60"
height 15"
width 16"-22"
height 15"
or diameter 34"-48'
15. Buffet
a length 48"-60"
depth 18"-20"
height 30"
7. Lamp table or night stand
11. Desk
width 21"
length 36"-55'
depth 17" depth 20"
height 22" 29"
height
a
8. Lamp table or night stand 12. Television 16. China cabinet
width 24" length 24"-60" length 56"
depth 18" depth 20" depth 18"-20'
height 22" height 30" height 70"
290
28: Furniture
k Pî ^< 0\
r^
y
17. Rectangular dining table
;
P 1
cz
24. Triple dresser
length 60"-72'
length 60"-72" 20"
depth
width 40"-42" 30"
height
height 29"
Beds— mattress sizes

twin 39"x75"
long twin 39"x80"
double 54"x75"
long double 54"x80"
Queen 60"x80"
King 75"x80"
18. Round dining or breakfast table
diameter 36"-44" 25. Refrigerator or freezer
29" width 30"-36"
height
depth 26"
height 60"-72"
O O
19. High back chair

n Chest
length
width
height
38"
19"
46"-50"
26. Single oven range
width 24" or 30'
seat 17"xl7" depth 25"
seat height 1 7"-l I
height 36"
height 34"
20. Chair
o 23. Double dresser
length
sa
'US
27. Double oven range
40"-42"
seat 17"xl7" length 48"-62'
depth 25"
seat height 1
7' depth 20"
height 36"
291
33. Dishwasher (built-in)
width 24", 30"

depth 25"
height 34'h"
Drop in range 30. Drawer range with oven above Portable dishwasher
length 24" or 30" length 30"-40" width 24"
depth 23"-25" depth 25" depth 25"
fits with 36" counter height 36"
height 30"-34" height
34. Automatic washer

Li width 27"
depth 25"
height 36"
31 . Surface unit
length 24" 30", 36", 40'
width 20"
29. Built-in oven

width 24"-34" 32. Range hood 35. Clothes dryer
depth to fit 25" oven cabinet length 24"-42' width 27"
height 24"-42" depth 18" depth 25"
292
Community Factors To Be Considered
When it is necessary to change munity is a smaller one on the sidewalks are provided by gov-
location of whether
residence, fringes or outskirts of a large city. ernment agencies.
you rent, buy, or build, examine It is frequently primarily residen- Private corporations ("public
the new community to determine tial, and owes its existence to the service" companies) operate un-
if it fulfills your specific needs. large city. der a franchise, or agreement
Sometimes a job or position Small town. This is a small with government, which gives
may dictate where one lives, with- community with a distinct busi- them sole permission or authority
out regard for likes or dislikes. ness center, independent of an to operate in a community with-
However, if a community is com- urban area. Most residents work out competition from similar com-
one may be
pletely unfavorable, here rather than commuting to panies. These legal monopolies
required to seek another job the city. have close governmental control
elsewhere. Rural. In a rural area there is and supervision— federal, state,
A majority of the people now no organized, built-up commu- and local. Even though rates are
live in or near a large city. This nity of homes; each one is sepa- regulated by government, cost of
concentration of population rated from others. Rural areas services rendered vary widely
around major cities is increasing, are usually associated with agri- from community to community.
while it is decreasing in small, culture, and present a quiet, iso- If services are not available in
isolated or poorly developed com- lated atmosphere. rural areas, the owner may pro-
munities and rural areas. All pre- vide them himself or as part of
dictions indicate this trend will Utility Services a cooperative system. If one is
continue. Utility services may be pro- contemplating living where some

vided by public or private cor- services are not provided, the
Four Kinds of Communities porations, or by government extra cost of obtaining them must
Urban. An urban community agencies. Services in most com- be considered.
is perhaps with a
a large city, munities are provided by both Utilities supplied by govern-
population of 100,000 or more. corporations and government. ment. Even though government
This is an arbitrary figure; an Telephone service is supplied by agencies furnish some utility ser-
urban area may have fewer or private corporations. Water, gas, vices, they must be paid for by
greater numbers of people. The and electricity may be either pri- the property owner through taxes
highly congested central city or vate or community-owned ser- or special assessments. These
inner city is usually considered vices. Sewers, garbage removal, charges must be taken into con-
the urban area. streets and roads, curbs, gutters, sideration when selecting a com-
Suburban. A suburban com- storm sewers, street lights, and munity.
293
For example, streets, sewers, residential, as many suburban fly frequently to other cities, rea-
water mains, curbs, sidewalks, areas, usually have a high real son says his home should be con-
street lighting, and others, as estate tax. Taxes in old estab- venient to the airport.
mentioned earlier, must be paid lished areas may be higher or
for by property owners. Some- lower than in recently developed Stores and Shopping Centers
times real estate taxes cover the areas. It is not always possible A beautiful little home in the
costs and maintenance. Indi- to determine the exact amount of country may be just what a per-
viduals may also be assessed for tax to be paid, but a close esti- son would like to have. How-
improvements which adjoin their mate can be made. Personal ever, it may be very inconvenient
property. When the latter is true, property tax should also be in- when shopping must be done.
the charges are usually paid as vestigated because this can affect You should consider the location
time payments, due annually or cost of living. Some communi- of stores and shopping centers,
semi-annually until the debt is ties have none, while others have their distance from the home,
retired. However, in some in- quite a severe tax. the amount of time required to
stances the costs must be paid reach whether one can
them,
upon completion of the improve- Transportation walk to them or whether other
ment, or within a short time limit Transportation plays an im- transportation must be used. Ade-
afterward. portant part in modern life. If quate parking facilities should be
When a person is interested in
present. You may also want to
it will be necessary to commute
buying in a new development the
consider availability of shopping
to work, available transportation
charges for existing and future
facilitieswill help determine areas in larger nearby cities. If
utilities or services must be
where you live. so, their location and time needed
checked carefully. It is not un-
If an automobile is the only to reach them are important.
common for property to be ad-
means of transportation, you
vertised at a very low selling Fire Protection
must be concerned with the streets
owner
price; then the prospective
and roads. Road improvements When selecting a community
discovers several assessments
and how well they handle traffic you should inquire about fire pro-
that were not included in the pur-
are very important. The location tection. In large cities this service
chase price.
of expressways, how close they is taken for granted. Most cities
Real Estate Taxes pass to your place of employment, have adequate equipment and
Real estate taxes may be a their accessibility to your home, personnel to meet most emergen-
determining factor in selecting a location of entrancesand exits, cies. No direct charge is usually
building location. Comparisons and how well they handle traffic made for this service. Small com-
of taxes in neighboring commu- at peak rush hours may be de- munities may have only mini-
nities and city areas should be termining factors. Parking facili- mum equipment, manned by
evaluated prior to purchase. Both ties at your place of employment volunteer firemen who either do-
present and anticipated future and in downtown areas, as well nate their services or receive a
values should be considered. as their cost, also become im- nominal fee for each fire call.
Generally speaking, local real portant considerations. Many rural areas have no orga-
estate taxes are less in communi- If local public transportation nized fire protection. Residents
ties with many large industries. must be used, check the availa- must rely upon their neighbors
Real estate taxes of large indus- bility of rail and bus services, for help, or call firemen from
tries usually relieve the burden and their cost. If one is interested nearby cities. When outside fire-
of the individual tax payer and in flying, either as a hobby or as men must be called, individual
make the overall tax rate much transportation, then an available property owners pay for the
lower. Areas that are primarily airport is a necessity. If one must service.
294
ohm m^mimi
Rohm & Haoj Co.
A good community must have adequate shopping facilities.
There are usually no water tion provided. If there are high major consideration. When one is
mains in rural areas. It is neces- school or college students in the a long-time resident of a locality
sary to rely on wells and pumps, family, one will be interested in he frequently takes his church for
or water may be conducted or transportation to these schools. granted. But when moving, you
even trucked from central sources. Unless private or parochial schools should check to see if your spe-
Insurance rates are usually are available, a small community denomination is represented.
cific
greater in areas with little or no may have only one high school. Note the distance of the church
fire protection. Large consolidated schools can from your home.
usually offer a wider variety of
Schools courses. Teachers arc better paid. Parks, Recreation, and
There are several important Many large communities also Cultural Opportunity
factors you must consider when offer local or area junior college As the nation becomes more
checking the schools in a com- programs. urban in character it is increas-
munity. The quality of education The direct and indirect costs ingly difficult for the individual
offered most important. Educa-
is of attending each school must be to "feel" the beauty, solitude, and
tion is same everywhere.
not the considered. Also the amount of comfort once achieved by spend-
Some schools are very good while money spent by a community on ing a quiet moment in the splen-
others have lower standards. You its schools has a greater influence dor of undisturbed natural sur-
can at least check the facilities- on the local tax rate than any roundings. The serene landscape
buildings and equipment. other single factor. Amount of has given way to commercializa-
The distance of schools from book purchase or rental,
tuition, tion and "progress." In many
home is also very important. If and other charges vary widely. localities there is no undisturbed
one has small children he will be countryside to enjoy. Fortunately,

interested in elementary schools Churches a new interest in preserving and
that are within walking distance The spiritual life of the in- re-establishing natural beauty is
of home or have bus transporta- dividual and a community is a emerging.
295
Conveniently located schools that are both beautiful and offer a fine education are an asset to a
community.
296
29: Community Factors To Be Considered
We have had national, state, surrounding area. Make it a point ing a building to fulfill or conform
and local parks for a long time, to notice these things. to all established requirements.
but a new emphasis is being Many communities provide ad- This is an absolute necessity if
placed on their creation and use. ditional facilities, for swimming, difficulty with local authorities is
Some projects are primarily con- shuffleboard, tennis, ice skating, tobe avoided. Check the require-
servation measures, while others golf, baseball, and bowling. Check ments before a location is chosen,
are devoted to beauty. to see if your specific interest is because they greatly affect both
where poorly planned
In areas included. In addition to the public the kind of building that may be
development has marred a river- programs, the YMCA and many erected and the total cost.
front or hillside, steps are being business establishments or other If zoning regulations or build-
taken for renewal. This need for private organizations provide cen- ing codes are unrealistic— a hin-
natural beauty is expressed in ters for your enjoyment. Of drance to good construction, or
other ways. Many residential course, a private club is expensive. good land use— or if they dis-
areas have restrictions which are You may desire cultural enrich- criminate in favor of certain
designed to preserve natural ment. Libraries, theaters, music building materials and against
beauty by requiring existing trees centers, art galleries, museums, other accepted ones, dictate build-
and terrain to be left undisturbed and sports are usually available ing design, or are not compatible
when new building is being done. in larger communities. with your ideas, then you will
This need is also expressed by the wish to choose another building
inclusion of trees, shrubs, other Zoning Regulations and location. This is not to imply that
plantings, and open areas when Building Codes all codes and regulations are bad,
new projects are planned. As mentioned earlier, you must because they are not. The pri-
Many citizens are not aware of check all local zoning ordinances mary purpose of codes and zoning
the parks and recreation facilities and building codes. Prior discus- regulations is to protect the rights
available in their own locality or sion was directed toward design- of individuals.
1 . Name some reasons for ex- of organizations that supply utility 15. How do small communities
amining a community before moving services? that cannot hire fulltime firemen
there. 8. Who pays for utility services? solve the problem?
2. What are the population 9. What is a real estate tax? 1 6. Is it true that all schools in
trends at the present time? Personal property tax? all communities are equally good?
3. Describe the four basic kinds 1 0. How do industries in a local- Explain.
of communities — urban, suburban, ity affect the tax rates? 1 7. Why does one usually want
small town, and rural. 1 1 . Why do suburban areas fre- to live close to elementary schools
4. What are some of the ser- quently have a high tax rate? or determine if bus service is
vices usually provided by govern- 1 2. How may transportation fa- provided?

ment or private utility companies? cilities affect your choice of building 18. Why is this not so important
5. Are the same services avail- location? for high schools and junior colleges?
able in all communities? Explain. 1 3. Why should you be con- 1 9. How and when may churches
6. Are utility costs constant cerned with location of stores and affect where you live?
throughout the country? Why or why shopping centers? 20. Do zoning ordinances and
not? 1 4. How does living in a rural building codes always fulfill their
7. What are two different kinds area affect fire protection? Why? intended purpose? Explain.
297
Site Planning
As emphasized in Chapter 25, be analyzed. Actually the prob- clude space for gardening and
a building should be related to lems and striving for solutions to play.
its site so the two appear to belong them may result in better design,
The Living Area
together and to the neighborhood. construction, and land use, be-
For this reason a plot should be cause of conveniences overlooked
The outdoor living area may
include not only the lawn but
selected before the building is at first glance.
designed. Of course, when doing A fully developed housing area spaces for flowers, shrubs and
trees, terraces, a patio, reflecting
classroom problems or other as- has many advantages because of
signments it is necessary to assume services already "built in." A or swimming pool, or a game
a hypothetical or imaginary site, small site or irregular terrain can
court. It may also contain elabo-
terrain, and related conveniences. be offset by clever design in two-

rate food service facilities. The
Many people feel that an ideal story or split level style.
outdoor living area should be de-
signed to fulfill the individual
building lot should be almost Most important, the site should
family's needs. It is frequently
level. Building on flat ground does fit the client's needs best.
help reduce costs and requires shielded from the public by a
Site Divisions screen, wall, or fence, especially
little imagination. When building
on flat ground it is not usually
A lot is divided into three areas in a closely settled neighborhood
necessary to coordinate the build-
according to their use. These are: and dry, warm climate where pri-
ing plan with the terrain. ( 1 ) The approach, (2) service area, vacy is needed because of regular
Near large cities much of the
and (3) living area. outdoor living.
desirable flat land is already oc- The Approach Formal vs. Informal
cupied. To find an ideal, level Remember, this area is most One must decide whether the
plot may be necessary to look
it
noticeable to the general public building and its surroundings are
farther out. Some clients may to be formal or informal in char-
and must be designed to present
prefer to use less desirable land acter. In the past much emphasis
a pleasing appearance. It is the
closer in. The available city land
building's "showcase."
was placed on formality, which
is generally in congested areas, was often achieved by symmetri-
lots are frequently odd shaped, The Service Area cal balance of the building and
they may be quite small, may This area includes the drive- its landscape. For instance, if one
need clearing and filling, or the way and parking facilities, when is designing a duplicate of a
terrain may have undesirable fea- they are to be included in the stately colonial mansion both the
tures such as irregularity. plan. Of course, the area should structure and its surroundings
The seems to
fact that a plot adjoin the service door for con- should be very formal, is the
present serious problems should venience of deliveries. It may in- way the originals were designed.
298
!&,:•'-¥
JU
lr
ii
ii m
"""-'**•-
JPC\
•>.
The driveway of this home leads to both the living and service entries.
Scholz Homes Inc
This home is especially designed for outdoor living. 299
i
n
-
w
f
4%' ir f
,T >>-
*
:,'^.V-
Iwi
^~.„_
FWt; lal **a«
1*
»toj
1
in
i Ti'.tf br ill''
m_
Window and door arrangements of this home present a formal balance.
Generally, current design fa- Landscaping, like building de- information in a drawing, place a
vors relaxed informality but with sign, should be restrained and small scale plan in the center cir-
an interesting, livable atmosphere. simple. For smaller homes and cle, draw from the center
a line
Lack of formality does not mean lots, this means making use of the perpendicular to each wall, and
a hodgepodge of outdoor features. same area for different occasions. extend each line beyond the cir-
cumference of the circle, as in the
example. Read about the recom-
Orientation mended wall treatment and sun-
shading in the quadrant that each
To properly orient a building proper placement of trees, wide wall faces. Naturally, these sug-
to the site, one must consider overhangs, and shading devices. gested sunshading devices apply
many things. The terrain has been When properly designed, wide whether or not you plan to install
discussed in other chapters, as was overhangs or shading devices take air conditioning (cooling) equip-
location of other buildings. Plan- advantage of the low winter sun ment. (See caption.)
ning must also consider prevail- and admit its warming rays, but
ing wind direction. Large glass summer Determining Landscape
they block out hot rays
areas should be avoided on a when the sun is near its zenith
Requirements
side exposed to a cold north wind, and its heat is most intense. As with some building designs,
or wind blowing in from a lake The illustration— which in- landscape developments fre-
or bay. cludes pertinent data and the table quently just seem to happen. For
The sun can be made to work accompanying it— shows how a maximum beauty and use, the
for you. Both wind and sun can building can be oriented to take designer's job is to make them
be partially controlled by the advantage of the sun. To use this happen in an organized manner.
300
30: Site Planning
Orientation*
1. Sun exposure is short and intensity is partly
relieved by cool air.
2. Overhang and reflective screens ineffective.

1 . Sun 3. Low trees or hill give valuable shade.
exposure is
Solutions (in order of effectiveness)
short but in-
tensified by high A. Sunshading by walls, trellis, lattice, high

air temperature and fences, low trees, etc.
low angle.
Solutions (in order of

effectiveness)
A. Sunshading by walls, trellis,

1 . Sun
exposure is sustained and
lattice, high fences, low trees, etc
ntense.
B. Porch or veranda.
C. Attached carport or garage. 2. Both tall and medium trees ore
D. Awnings. needed for shade.
E. Minimum Glass Area

Solutions (in order of effectiveness)
A. Porch or veranda.
B. Awnings.
C. Reflective screens.
D. Recommended overhang.
1. Sun exposure is sustained and

intensified by day's hottest air.
2. Both tall and medium trees needed for shade
Solutions (in order of effectiveness) Solutions (in order of effectiveness)
A. Attached carport or garage. A. Recommended overhang.

B. Porch or veranda. B. Reflective screens.
C. Glass area fully shaded. C. Large glass area (if used) under
D. Storage cabinets in wall. recommended overhang.
E. Awnings or reflective screening. D. Awnings.
F. Avoid slab reflecting heat against wall. E. Avoid slabs reflecting heat against wall.
Recommended Roof Overhang* NOTE: Differences in latitude

affect the overhang required
Height of Eaves Above Window Sill
to minimize heat gain. For that
24" 30" 36" 42" 48" 54" 60" 66" 72" 78" 84" 90" 96" 102" reason a house having an over-
25° hang designed for one area

9 12 14 16 18 21 23 25 27 30 32 34 37 39 will not be effective in another.
30°.. 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51
To give you some idea of ap-
35° 14 18 22 25 29 32 36 40 43 47 50 54 58 61 proximate locations ot various
40° 17 22 26 30 35 39 43 37 52 56 60 65 69 73 latitudes, the southern tip of
Florida and Texas are at 25°,
45°. 20 25 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 66 71 76 82 87 New
Orleans 30°, Charlotte,
50° . 25 31 37 43 50 56 62 68 74 80 87 93 99 105 N. C. and Santa Maria, Calif.
'Dimensions below staggered line generally not practical as an overhang unless used as 35°, Philadelphia and Denver
porch due to added cost and structural problems. Figures apply to wall facing south. 40°, Bangor, Me. and Port-
land, Ore. are at 45°, and the
"Reprinted from National Association of Home Bui/ders Rese tilted RESIDENTIAL AIR CONDITIONING- 50° line crosses lower Canada.
A Summary Report of the Austin Air-Conditioned Village Projei
301
As stated earlier, it is a good to the ground. Tall plants help but if a client has greater inter-
idea to retain as many natural emphasize vertical lines, while ests in other activities, he should
features— such as earth contour, low spreading plants help accent be warned that any elaborate
trees, shrubs,and native top soil- horizontal lines. Therefore, if a plan will require much attention.
as possible. The method of land- building is rather tall, as a two- If lawn mowing is a chore, ground
scaping by removing all natural story house, tall shrubs will com- covers such as pebbles, crushed
features and replacing them with plement it, or if the building has stone, or a leafy spread such as
symmetrically clipped shrubs was long, low horizontal lines, spread- myrtle may be used at selected
once the fashion, but is no longer ers are preferred. intervals with Slow
plantings.
so popular. This method of land- When selecting plantings, one growing plants or ones that look
scaping requires very little imagi- should express his individuality. best without trimming can also
nation but a lot of work, and the One does not have to be a con- reduce care. Remember that most
lack of variety may be monoto- formist and have landscaping small plants grow: a yard may
nous. This is not to imply that like all others in the vicinity. be beautiful now but one must
one cannot use foundation and Choose flowers, shrubs, and trees consider how it will look in a few
other plantings; it is only urging that are your favorites, regardless years. Many new buildings look
imaginative use. of what others are using. Note: barren for many years. By mak-
If plantings are used near a Harmony with neighboring ing economical selections one may
building they should complement 'scapes is appropriate, especially obtain partially grown trees and
it. For example, if the founda- on an inside lot. A corner lot shrubs so the yard can be enjoyed
tion is high, strategically located givesmore freedom. soon rather than late. Two or
shrubs can help hide it; they may An avid gardener may choose three broad leaf trees are better
also help visually tie the building items that require a lot of care, than none at all.
Plot plan showing building outlines plus approximate planting locations.

30: Site Planning
PLOT PLANS
Preliminary landscape plan- the text, may contain technical ent methods of drawing and
ning should be done on paper data such as building location, labeling items to be included.
so changes can be made at little contour lines, and ground heights. Observe that some plans give the
cost until the desired results are Information concerning the land- names of each item while other
in mind. These can be in the scape may also be included on drawings are for illustrative pur-
form of rough sketches. The final technical plans, or other plot poses only. These drawings are
layout is drawn on a plot plan. plans may be drawn. The accom- rendered in color but may bo
Plot plans, as shown earlier in panying illustrations show differ- done in black and white.
Rendered plot plan showing roof outlines. Identification may be labeled directly on the trees and
shrubs. 303
mm?"
Plot plan showing building outlines. Code numbers refer to a schedule of plant species. You may
decide what the numbers represent when you draw your plans. They may identify any planting that
you desire.
304
Rendered plot plan showing roof outlines and approximate planting locations.
305
.
Port Two: Function and Beauty— Essentials of Planning
1 Why should a lot be selected 15. How does the sun affect
before a building is designed? orientation?
2. Having no actual lot how 1 6. What are four items used to
may you proceed with your design? block the sun's rays?
3. What are the advantages of 1 7. How does one use the circu-
a level lot? lar orientation illustration shown in
4. How do built-up city neigh- the text?

borhoods affect land availability? 1 8. From the table in the text,
5. What are some of the re- how does latitude affect the width
sults that are likely to develop? of an overhang? Why?

6. Do small lots have good 1 9. Is it wrong to use foundation
landscape possibilities? Why? plantings as your only landscaping?

7. What are the three divisions Explain why or why not.
of a lot? From previous reading, how 20. When is it best to use tall
do these compare with the three plants? Low ones?

divisions of a home? 21. Why does the author rec-
8. What is the approach? De- ommend individuality when planning

scribe. the landscape?
9. What is the service area? 22. How might the landscape of
Describe. a home for a botanist and a pro-
10. What is the living area? fessional golfer differ? Why?
Describe. 23. What are the advantages of
11. How does one determine planting grown or partially grown
whether a landscape plan is formal trees and shrubs? What are the
or informal in character? Describe disadvantages?
each. 24. Why are preliminary land-
12. From your own reasoning, scape plans done as sketches?
why is a simple, unified landscape
best?
13. What is meant by the state-
ment that the building and the ter- orientation
rain must have proper orientation? quadrant

14. How do prevailing winds plot plan
affect orientation?
306
Part Three
FROM IDEAS
TO REALITY
31 Drafting Tools and Techniques for

Developing Skill
32. Drafting Mediums
33. Architectural Lettering
34. Orthographic Projection and the
Architectural Drawing
35. Sections
36. Pictorial Drawings
37. Sketches and Renderings
38. Architectural Symbols
39. Dimensioning and Notes
40. Organization of Building Plans
41. Drawing Plot Plans
42. Drawing Floor Plans
43. Drawing Basement or Footing and
Foundation Plans
44. Drawing Exterior Elevations
45. Drawing Building Sections
46. Drawing Elevation Details
47. Drawing Framing Plans
48. Drawing Mechanical Plans
49. Working Plans for a Contemporary Home
50. Reproduction of Drawings
51. Specifications
52. Estimating
53. Architectural Models
307
Quality of work produced is improved
when you use a good drafting table.
Drafting Tools and Techniques

for Developing Skill
Drafting skill is dependent drawings present an unsightly The desk top and items to be
upon the mastery of many small appearance, emphasize erasures handled while you are drawing
details, any of which when con- and changes, and cause poor re- must also be kept clean.
sidered alone may seem relatively production. Since working draw- The drawing board must be
unimportant but, when combined ings are made to be used, but clean before the paper or other
into a finished drawing, can make an original drawing would soon drawing medium is placed upon
the difference between an aver- be spoiled if it were taken on the it. A dusting brush is needed
age or a superior result. job or into a shop, the quality of to remove loose particles of
the reproduction is very impor- dust, eraser crumbs, or lint, but
Before you can draw a plan
you must have a knowledge of tant because shows how to build
it the surface should also be rubbed
the materials to be used and how the actual object. Sloppy drawing thoroughly with a clean cloth.
usually produces a poor print, All drafting instruments must be
they fit into the total building.
You must understand something but a neat, beautiful drawing clean. Even if they appear clean,
manipulative with improper line weights also they should be wiped vigorously
of the skills re-
quired in construction work. You makes a poor reproduction. with a clean cloth. If they appear
must also know how parts are soiled before use, it may be nec-
Cleanliness essary to wash them with a mild
represented (shown) on a work-
ing drawing (plan), and then you
To keep your drawing clean solution of soap and water. Then
you must first keep yourself clean! they should be dried with a clean
must develop skill and techniques
If you are neat and orderly in cloth to prevent water damage.
for communicating these ideas
through drafting.
your appearance, this will reflect Do not submerge the instruments
itself in your drawing. Your hands in water. Use a cloth that is only
This chapter discusses the tools must be clean at all times. Even slightlydamp.
of drafting and offers guides on if no dirt is visible, your hands During use, all tools and
developing skill in using them. should be washed frequently. Oil equipment should be wiped off
Since a draftsman spends quite or perspiration will cause a draw- frequently to remove any new
a long time on each individual ing to collect dirt; this is espe- accumulation of dirt and per-
drawing (some large drawings cially true when you are working spiration. Particles of graphite
may take several days to com- on a very complicated plan and and eraser should be constantly
plete), great care must be taken if you have a high degree of removed, by brushing, from your
to keep the drawing clean. Dirty nervous tension. drawing.
308
31: Drafting Tools and Techniques for Developing Skill
Drawing Tables and

Boards
Since architectural plans may
be quite large, it is necessary to
have large tables and boards to
accommodate them.
A drafting table should have
a slanted top to make it easier
to reach the work. Large firms,
with adequate finances, may
equip you with combination
tables and boards, that are power-
operated to change table height
or angle. However, if finances are
limited, height may be stationary
and only the angle adjustable—
usually by mechanical means.
Drafting rooms frequently use
custom-made tables. An inexpen-
sive type can be provided by Drafting table with attached work surface and storage space.
mounting a flush door or heavy
plywood on a simple framework.
It is common practice to pro-
vide a flat table for the drafts-
man's books, papers, tools, and
other supplies.
Wood crossbands. Metal crossbands.
Gum, birch, or basswood is
preferred for drawing board sur-

faces because of their close grain Board cover with printed grid nes elim-
li
structure and smooth surface.

paper. If a wood board is used. inatesmuch measuring on the drawing.
Unattached drawing boards and a pad is not, the pencil tends
are usually much smaller than

to follow the grain, thus making
table models, for easy handling.
the lines slightly irregular. Drav -
They are generally constructed of
ing across the hard and soft
grain structure also keeps lines
basswood. Two methods of cross-
banding on the ends to minimize from being uniform. If a hard
surfaced boardis used (such as
warping are shown. See the draw-
ing, center of this page. a plastic laminate table top), a
Adrawing board should be

pad prevents the pencil point
handled with care; true lines can- from wearing as rapidly as it
not be drawn if the face or edges
would otherwise. Any clean,
are damaged.
heavyweight paper may serve as
a pad.
Drawing Pad Plastic-coated, paper or vinyl
It is well to place padding be- board covers make a pad un-
tween the drawing board and the necessary.
309
Part Three: From Ideas to Reality
Instruments
T Square
For architectural drafting a T
square measuring from 36" to
42" in length is recommended. T square with plastic edged blade.
The beginner frequently uses an
all-wood T square, but it is not
suitable for professional quality
work. A clear plastic edge is
needed so adjacent work is visible.
Also, the plastic edge is smoother
than wood. The blade may be of
hardwood with clear plastic on
both edges, or it may be entirely
of plastic. The blade is fastened
to a head,which is used to guide
the blade on the drawing board.
The head may be mounted per-
manently at right angles to the
blade, orit may be adjustable as
shown. Good quality T squares

have the plastic along the blade
slightly recessed to prevent ink
from running under it. A T
square with the head secured to
the blade with bolts is more
satisfactory than one secured
with glue and small wood screws.
Note: The T square should
not be longer than the drawing
board because this causes the
blade to arch ofT the paper in
the center of the drawing.
Triangles
Large 30° -60° and 45° tri-

A poorly designed T square or improper use may cause ink to run
angles are needed for architec-
under the blade.
tural drawing. They should be
large enough that all vertical
lines can be continuous. When
only small triangles are used,
lines must be spliced, and it is
very difficult to keep the splice

from showing. A 12" triangle is
suitable formost work but the
18" size is recommended. On the better T squares the head and blade are held together by bolts.
310
Drafting machine.
30° -60° triangle.

Since large triangles are in-
convenient for short lines, many
draftsmen prefer to have two
sets. The second set is usually 4"
or 6" size.
An adjustable triangle, as
shown, is very convenient for
architectural drawing. It should
be marked in degrees and also
divided for rise, run. and roof
pitch.
The quality of plastic is very
important. Inferior plastic will
become very and the edge
brittle
will chip and wear easily. A good
triangle, even though more ex-
pensive, will give much longer
and better service.
Drafting Machines
Drafting machines, as shown,

have become widely used. Their
chief advantage is the combining
of T square, triangles, protractor,
and scales into one unit.
311
to break, and graphite from the

extreme pencil wear can cause a
drawing to become smudged and
dirty.
Parallel Ruling Straightedges
Parallel ruling straightedges,

as shown, are very convenient
for drawing long, continuous
lines. However, it is difficult to
keep the edges of the paper from

being torn unless it is taped
around the entire perimeter.
These devices also rub continu-
ously on the drawing paper, so
the work is more difficult to keep
clean.
Automatic Drafting Machines
Parallel ruling straightedge. Computer operated machines

are a very valuable aid for varia-
This eliminates most of the tools chine are not rigid and the line tions in production drawing, but
that normally must be kept on or tends to drop or be forced out are not as well suited to custom
near the drawing table. of the desired position. architectural drafting which re-
Drafting machines have two Scales with transparent edges quires individual work. The ma-
disadvantages: (1) Since the pen allow the draftsman to observe chines may be controlled by com-
or pencil is guided by the scale the work it is done, and a
as mands placed on magnetic or
edge, when long, continuous lines smoother can be drawn along
line punched paper tape, or com-
are desired they must be spliced. this kind of scale. Metal scales mands may be read directly
(2) When drawing near the end are not so smooth, tend to wear from punched cards through a
of the scale, the arms of the ma- the pencil lead causing the point computer.
Handling Paper and Pencil

Placing Paper on Drawing Board drawing board. If the bottom T square because it tends to
The size of your T square and edge of the paper is closer than "give" near the unsupported end.
triangles or your drafting ma- this it is difficult to hold the in- Drawing near the free end also
chine helps determine paper lo- struments and draw accurately. makes the instruments hard to
cation. (Note: All directions are In using the T square the left hold in place while working. With
for right-handed draftsmen; if you edge of the paper should be 3" a drafting machine the paper is
are left handed, you will reverse or 4" from the left edge of the usually placed near the center
procedures.) If the sheet size per- board. This is variable, of course, of the board.
mits, thepaper should be placed but you do not want to draw too To position the drawing paper,
about 6" from the bottom of the near the right (free) end of the place the head of the T square
312
firmly against the edge of

left
the drawing board and slide it

down to locate the bottom of the
drawing paper. Place the paper
so it is against the T square.
Slide the paper to the right or
left as desired. Then when the
paper is parallel to the T square
(or straightedge of the drafting
machine) it is fastened to the
drawing board.
Fastening the Paper to the

Drawing Board
Thumbtacks were formerly
used to secure the paper, but
they made holes in the drawing
board which interfered with ac- drawing board with drafting or masking tape.
Paper is most frequently fastened to a
curate drawing. Drafting tape is
much preferred. There are two

if this is necessary for a specific such as an F or HB, is frequently
kinds: (1) Conventional drafting
drawing. used for lettering.
tape has adhesive on only one
side. A small amount is needed
Drawing pencils of the B series
Drawing Pencils and are used for architectural render-

to hold a drawing in place. Strips
approximately W x 1" are placed Lead Holders ing but are not
working drawings.
recommended for
diagonally across each corner. Drawing pencils for line work

H There If wood pencils are used the
Note: Tape should be firmly are usually of the series.
pressed down because it has a are nine gradations in this series.

wood should be sharpened to a
tendency to curl and roll up when They range from a plain H, which long conical point as shown. The
instruments are rubbed over it. is quite soft and makes a dark
best sharpening is done on a
Caution must be observed when line, to a 9H, which is very hard draftsman's pencil sharpener.
tape is removed to prevent tear- and makes a very light line. The wood on this pencil is cut
ing the paper. (2) Drafting tape Some draftsmen do all their to the proper shape.
is available with adhesive on both drawing with one pencil. How-

sides. This can be placed between ever, this is not recommended.
the drawing board and paper so At least two pencils are required,
as not to interfere with instrument one a fine grade, such as for con-
use or mar the paper surface struction lines, guide lines, exten-
when removed. sion lines, dimension lines,and
If a drawing will take several equipment lines. Either a 3H or
days to complete, some draftsmen 4H is recommended, although
prefer to put tape around the some draftsmen prefer a very
entire drawing sheet to prevent hard pencil such as a 6H for
damaged edges by the instru- guide and construction lines. A The wood on this pencil is im-
ments. Beginning students should 2H or H is recommended for properly shaped. Irregular cuts
in the lead will cause it to break
check with their instructor to see heavy lines. A third softer pencil,
easily.
313
Port Three: From Ideas fo Reality
ers are also easier to use in auto-

matic pointers.
Regardless of which is used,
wood pencils or automatic lead
with a knife if no sharpener is holders, the lead should be sharp-
available, but care must be taken ened to a long conical point as
to prevent nicking or cutting the shown. Short tapers on the cone
lead because this weakens the require more frequent sharpen-
point and it is likely to break. ing.
The wood should be cut away Every time the point is re-
from the lead until W to Vi" is shaped the excess graphite must
exposed. Pencil pointers, fine be removed before the pencil is
files, or fine sandpaper can then used; otherwise the particles will
be used to shape the point. be deposited on the drawing. A
Lead holders are preferred by small cloth or facial tissue serves
many experienced draftsmen. to wipe off and burnish the point.
The holder maintains a constant Then it is a good idea to condi-
lead length so it can always be tion the point by drawing a few

held in the same position during lines on a scrap of paper. Rotate
This is similar to a regular one use. It is not necessary to take the pencil so the point will be
except only the wood is removed time to sharpen the wood away, uniform. It makes the point
while the lead is left intact. Wood and lead can be extended quickly slightly blunt so it will not break
pencils may also be sharpened to any desired length. Lead hold- when pressure is placed on it.
llogiiuiiiig fo Draw-
Holding the T square. A T is readable; that is, toward the Holding the pencil. The pencil
square is used to draw all hori- bottom of the drawing board should be held firmly as for writ-
zontal lines. Lay the blade across with the words facing you. This ing, but the fingers should not
the paper that you have attached, places the vertical edge so it is be cramped. Stand the pencil
so the head is against the left to the left of the triangle. With perpendicular to the paper.
edge of the drawing board. Re- the heel of the left hand still
move both your hands from the firm on the T square blade, hold
drawing area. Lay the heel of the triangle with your fingers of
your left hand on the blade of the left hand so they are over the Line Weights
the T about a 45° angle
square at center of it. Do your not let Lines to represent different de-
and exert slight pressure toward fingers touch the paper where the tails are drawn to different widths.
the right. The fingers of the left triangle is cut away. Now, using The widths for each kind of line
hand are not placed on the T justyour fingers, move the tri- are to be the same on each draw-
square because they must be free angle back and forth without ing you do. Sample sets of lines
to hold and manipulate your moving the heel of your left hand. are shown, identified, and de-
triangle. Keep the base of the triangle scribed.They are drawn in ink;
Holding the triangle — right firmly against the T square. Left- the same thickness as you are
handed. Standard triangle posi- handed procedures are reversed to draw them on your drawings.
tion places the trademark so it of course.
314
Construction lines Break line for large parts
Break line for small parts
i
I
Object lines 1 I Omitted detail on same part
Guide lines for lettering
-r
Center lines Alternate position lines
nn Equipment lines
L J
Cutting plane line
i 1 I
l — J Ditto lines for repeated detail
Kinds of lines— inked in with India ink.
315
Tilt the top about 30° in the

direction the line is to be drawn.
The wrist should be held rigid

and the entire arm moved when
drawing lines. Your work will
not be smooth if you use only
your ringers or wrist.
Line direction. Horizontal lines

are drawn from left to right along
the top edge of the T square.
Vertical lines are drawn from
bottom to top along the left edge
of the triangle.
Inclined lines along the left
edge of the triangle are drawn

from bottom to top.
Inclined lines along the right
edge of the triangle are drawn
from top to bottom.
Right-handed All lines are drawn by pulling
the pencil. Pushing may cause
a line to be uneven or skip. Also,
the sharp point may injure the
paper, tear or punch holes in it.
These difficulties are emphasized

more when drawing with ink.
Note that even if you see no ap-
parent objection to pushing the
pencil you should use the proper
technique to avoid problems and
to develop good drafting habits.
Guide lines are very light pen-
cil lines (barely visible) drawn
with hard pencil. They are
a
-{»-
drawn for the bottom and top of
all lettering and figures (num-
bers). Since these lines are very
light, they do not reproduce;
therefore it is not necessary to
remove them from the finished
drawing. The lines are drawn by
"floating" the pencil along the
T square or triangle without
pressure. Practice making many
Left-handed
lineswhich you can barely see.
They should appear shadow-like.
Triangle positions and line directions, using 42" T square.
316
Construction lines are drawn riedly by professionals. Time is Try joining vertical and horizon-
in the same manner and the same very valuable. They cannot take tal lines so the corners are square
weight as guide lines. The only time to form all corners precisely. without overruns or spaces be-
difference between the two is It drawing an artis-
also gives the tween. Practice making each kind
that construction lines are used tic freedom which can make a ofline, such as construction lines,
for laying out the drawing. These pleasing appearance, if expertly dimension lines, equipment lines,
might be described as "insurance done. As a beginner, you should and object lines. Remember that
lines," because the object is first not do this. Your drawing will all except construction and guide
represented with them and then. look as though you are trying lines are to be solid so no light
when everything is correct, they for an effect that doesn't "come will passthrough when they are
are all redrawn, using the proper off." As your speed increases you reproduced. Examine the lines
line weights. Since these lines are will do this naturally. carefully; if they are fuzzy on
shadow-like and do not reproduce Practice for skill. Following the the edges they are not suitable.
it is also unnecessary to remove techniques set down on previous Hold the paper to a strong light
them. pages, practice line work. Draw to get a better idea of opacity.
As mentioned earlier, you may horizontal lines first, then verti- Your teacher may have you draw
have noticed that corners on arch- cal lines. After horizontal and practice lines on a scrap of trac-
itectural drawings do not always have been mastered,
vertical lines ing paper so they may be repro-
meet perfectly. This is because draw inclined lines on both the duced to help determine the qual-
the lines are drawn quite hur- right and left sides of the triangle. ity of your work.
Architect's Scales
Building parts tend to be large. rally the scales are those most they may not be accurate near
Since they must be represented frequently used in architectural the ends, so divisions are placed
on a set of plans it is obvious that drawing. It is necessary to learn back,away from points of wear.
all parts cannot be drawn their to readand use the scales. Turn vour scale so the # at the 1
true size. Sizes must be shown An architect or draftsman does end of the scale is in reading
reduced. An ordinary ruler could not think of the divisions on his position. Compare yours with the
be used to make reductions but scale as representing fractions or first illustration on page 318.
itwould be very time consuming parts of an inch; they are con- The # 1 means the divisions for
and mathematically involved. For sidered as lengths in feet and this scale are 1" long. Each 1"
example, if a part needs to be re- inches, at a reduction suitable for division represents 12" or l'-O".
duced from full size to ]
A"= l'-O", drawing. Notice that the scale is read from
then each A" on the ruler would
l
Reading a scale. Examine a right to left. Now look immedi-
equal 12" or l'-O"; if a wall is scale carefully. Note that mea- ately to the left of the #1; here
lO'-O" long, then it requires ten surements do not begin at the you find a 1" space divided into
Va" spaces or 2Vi". One could end. This space is reserved for 48 equal parts. Imagine the 1" as
easily become overwhelmed by identifying each scale; also, as being a foot ruler that has been
the number of calculations. An scales and rules become worn reduced to this size.
architect's scale has the reductions
already calculated. A triangular Architect's triangular scale.
scale has regular dimensions with
each inch divided into 16ths, plus
ten (10) additional scales. Natu-
317
The 3", 6", and 9" divisions

have been marked so the scale is
easier to read. Notice the smaller

divisions for 1", Vi", and A". l
The scale in the illustration is
"open divided." This means the

small divisions are not continued
the full length of the scale; the
remainder of the divisions are
open, or free of measurements.
Flat architect's scales.
Other scales may be "full divided,"
which means the small divisions, is 8; disregard this number, it continue the length of the scale.
as those to the right of the 0, are is part of the scale measuring The left end of the scale has
marked the full length of the from the other end. The next a #'/i in the space before the
scale. number to the left is a #1. This graduations. This means the Vi"
Notice the at the left end of is 1" (actual size) from the 0, so divisions represent l'-0". Since
the small divisions. This is the it represents l'-0". Likewise it is a foot must fit into a W space,
starting point for measuring. The 2" from the #2 to the 0, so this it is not possible to divide the
first number to the left of the represents 2'-0". These ratios scale into as many subdivisions
or fractions as the one just dis-
cussed. However, except for the
size reduction and fraction divi-
sions, all architect's scales are
read exactly the same.
Triangular architect's scales are
manufactured of boxwood, other
TWflWTW hardwoods, and high impact plas-
tic. Plastic has the hardest surface
and the divisions are more dis-
Study the measurements on tinct than wood scales.
the sample scales until you can Graduations are placed on the
do the readings as shown above. scale by two different manufac-
turing methods. On inexpensive
scales they are printed or stamped
all at one time into the surface.
Better scales have the graduations

Using different scales and the engine divided. This is done by
numbered vertical lines above, Some Practice Problems a machine that makes each divi-
determine full-scale measure- Scale
sion mark individually in exact
ments between lines which you Vi" 2 to 8 =? steps.
select. For example, using a W Va" 5 to 7=?

Flat scales. Except for shape
scale, the distance from 3 to 9 is 3" 4 to 1=? and number of scales, a flat scale
5'-8'/2". is the same as a triangular one.
\W 3 to6 = ?
Do several practice measure- %" 8 to4 = ? Many draftsmen prefer them be-
ments so you will master use of cause of their handy shape and
the scale. ease of locating measurements.
318
.
3?: Drafting Tools and Techniques for Developing Skill
Tools for Curved and

Irregular Forms
Protractor
Horizontal and vertical lines

and lines at 15° increments are
drawn using a T square and tri-
angles, as shown on page 316. <#<*"* 1531
When other angles are required
they are laid out with a protrac-
^V"° "*
7 °°
*&%.
tor. It may be a simple one as
shown or it may be included as
a part of a template, adjustable
triangle, or drafting machine.
Compasses
A bow compass, either large
or small, is easiest to adjust and
holds its position best. A drop
compass is used for a radius of
one and a fraction inches or less.
A beam compass is used for larger
diameters. Compasses are avail-
able to do either pencil or ink
lines. Combination compasses
have interchangeable ruling pens
and lead holders.
The stem of a compass is held
between the thumb and fore-
finger; and is inclined slightly to
the and
right. Circles arcs are
drawn clockwise with a steady,
continuous motion. When draw-
ing with a pencil, use a slightly
softer lead than for straight lines
because less pressure is exerted.
Big bow compass. Drop compass
For Expert Work
1 When a circle is completed, points of the compass are ex- 4. The compass lead is sharp-
do not stop abruptly; this causes tended approximately the same ened to a long, chisel point as
the splice to show. Instead, gently distance so the compass can be shown.
lift the pen or pencil as the circle held vertically. When the legs 5. If several circles have a
is continued. of an adjustable compass must common center, the point soon
2. Do not continue tracing be extended, or when a lengthen- drills a hole in the paper. A com-
around the circle, as this widens ing bar is attached, as shown, the pass horn can be placed over the
the line. lead or ruling pen and the needle center and the point placed on
3. Both the lead and needle point should be vertical. the plastic or metal.
319
6. When arcs or circles are
drawn tangent to straight lines,
the arcs or circles should be

drawn first and then the straight
lines constructed tangent to them.
It is much easier to impose a
straight line on an arc or circle
than it is to impose an arc or cir-
cle on a straight line.
Dividers
Dividers are very similar to the
compass except they have two
needle points and no marking
lead or pen. They are used for
quick, true measuring. A com-
pass may be converted to dividers
by replacing the lead with a metal
point. Dividers are available in
bow Fine (small) measure-
styles.
ments can be made very quickly

and accurately if they are stepped
off with dividers. It is much more
accurate than marking directly
from a scale. This is because a
pencil cannot be controlled free
Irregular curves.
Dividers.
hand closely enough for very fine Proportional dividers, shown

measurements. on page 326, can be used to en-
When dividers are used to step large and reduce.
off equal distances both points

are never removed from the Irregular Curve Templates
paper at the same time. Rotate An irregular curve template is
the divider from one point to the a clear plastic sheet with curved
other. If both points are removed line shapes cut in. A pattern of
from the paper and put back desired curves is traced onto the
again, it is no more accurate than working drawing. Examples of ir-
measuring from the scale. It also regular curves are shown in the
makes the job much slower. accompanying illustration.
320
O
DO © OS
QOO-Ob
~5 O u o a
1
ao«v
v
» Â _l A ) A
o;
iDDDD
WM^l ? 1=] [=1 1
k=: I
WtOOW TEMPLATE
ODDDDD. CD C>
oddudd: V\0'07
07
ODDDDD:
•CD a a =3SioZ) DOf):;'":
«oo4 51T0 3 b O
__________________
|| OOO ooo raaJ'SoO O

-
1 = =L Da" '
Templates.
321
Other Templates glass is frequently used. If a tem- For Expert Work

Much of the drawing of small plate is needed on the spur of When templates are used with
circles, ellipses, conventional sym- the moment and no sheet plastic technical fountain pens, ink may
bols such as doors, windows, is available, the required shape seep under the plastic. This can
shrubs, trees, appliances, bath- may be carved on the edge of a be avoided by placing drafting
room and kitchen fixtures, and standard template. Shapes may tape under the parts or the tem-
many more, that were once la- also be cut into a soft plastic can plate near the pattern to be
boriously constructed with instru- lid. traced. This leaves space between
ments, is now done with clear the paper and the plastic. Inci-
plastic templates. Examples of Caution About Using Templates dentally, this practice works
frequently used architectural Some quality is usually sacri- equally well on triangles and
templates are shown on the pre- ficed speed when templates
for Other instruments. Note: High-
ceding page, 321. are used because they are not quality, heavyweight templates
Details that must be repeated, always smooth and accurate. frequently have the pattern un-
but are not available on standard However, since most firms are dercut slightly to remedy this
templates, may be carved by the interested primarily in produc- problem. Good quality templates
draftsman to fill his particular tion, this slight loss of quality is are not brittle and thus keep
need. Soft vinyl Lucite, or Plexi- not usually considered important. their uniform edges longer.
Drawing Aids
Erasers is removed, thus reducing the are used by many draftsmen. The
Selection of erasers is very im- quality of your work. chuck on the bottom of the ma-
portant. Pencil erasers are avail- Both ink and pencil erasers chine allows the draftsman to
able in many qualities. A poor are available in block form or select the proper eraser.
quality product tends to leave a are encased in wooden holders,
Erasing Shield
film of the eraser's color on the the same as ordinary pencils.
An erasing shield is a thin
paper. Several should be on hand. Erasing Machines plate of plastic or metal with
Only trial and error will deter- of different sizes and shapes
Erasing machines, as shown, slots
mine which is most suited for cut for use on limited areas. A
the job and paper. Ink erasers
slot is placed over the part to be
have an abrasive added to the erased and the rest of the shield •
rubber. Care must be exercised

protects other areas.
to prevent damage to the drafting
surface while erasing. Underlays and Tracing Sheets
Art gum is a soft eraser used Drawing intricate details such
primarily for cleaning the draw- as section lines and symbols is
ing and removing light lines. It very time consuming. Many are
is available in solid pieces or as repeated constantly. To increase
a fine powder, contained in a drafting speed and insure greater
shaker can. The powder may also accuracy, underlays with typical
be enclosed in a mesh cloth sack patterns and parts printed on
and be used as a cleaning pad. paper or plastic film may be posi-
When they are used on pencil tioned beneath the drawing and
drawings, some of the graphite Dry cleaning pad. used as copying guides.
322
Drawing set with big bow compass and beam attachment.
Small bow drawing set. Ruling pens.
323
324
3 J: Drafting Tools and Techniques for Developing Skill
.J"" 1 r "L.
/ i
J \
-v-
y
l '-
1 \
/
* .
r-
i i
1j lJ "T.-1 L_T \i ir
325
Proportional dividers.
Technical fountain pens.
Tracing sheets of specific parts

—such as doors, windows, struc-
tural metal, and others— are
available without charge if re-
quested from the manufacturers

of such building items.
Sandpaper pad for pointing pencils.
Overlays
A draftsman may be required
to make temporary suggestions
on a drawing, show alternate
ideas and proposals, or show re-
lationships of traditional and

new materials. Such work im-
posed on an original drawing can
destroy its value. Instead, clear
plastic film may
be placed over
the drawing and the
original
changes or proposals drawn on
the film. When a copy is repro-
duced, both drawings (old and
new) appear as one, but the origi-
Pencil pointer. nal has not been damaged or
changed.
44-
+_,_—r i
-^
Slide rule.
326
Paper dispenser.
IftlS '//////Ay/////////////////////;;//////,
Pressure-sensitive overlays. Preprinted symbols on pressure-sensitive tape.
Symbols on Film can be stamped instead of drawn 7. Of what material are porta-
Much of the tedious work of on a plan. ble drawing boards usually con-
drawing symbols, shading, etc., structed? Why are they usually cross
Unusual Drafting Equipment banded?
can be avoided by purchasing and
applying adhesive backed plastic
A good draftsman needs to be 8. Why must a drawing board
ingenious; he is often required be used with care?
film with symbols printed on the
surface. This especially valu-
to draw many unusual shaped 9. Why are pads placed be-
is
able for architectural renderings.

objects, some of which may be tween the board and drawing paper?
quite difficult with conventional 10. When can they be omitted?
Rubber Stamps instruments. Ordinary objects 1 1 . From your own reasoning,
Notes and individual symbols such as buttons, washers, tin cans, why do board covers sometimes have
that are used frequently on differ- strips of plastic, hollow core sol- Vt" grid lines imprinted upon them?
ent sets of plans may be repre- der, or pieces of string can be- 1 2. What is the disadvantage of
sented on rubber stamps so they come valuable drafting aids. plastic laminate as a drawing board
(All photographs of drat in this chapter courtesy Frederick Post CoJ surface?
13. Why is a long T square rec-
ommended for architectural drawing?
14. Why should a T square have
1 . Explain the purpose of a set 4. When should drawing equip- a plastic edge?
of building plans. ment be cleaned? 15. Why is this strip sometimes
2. Why is cleanliness essential 5. What is the danger of wash- not as thick as the wood blade?
to good drafting? ing instruments with soap and water? 1 6. What is a satisfactory ar-
3. Do neat drawings always re- 6. What three kinds of wood are rangement for securing the head and
produce well? Explain. suitable for drawing surfaces? Why? blade? Why?
327
1 7. Why are large triangles a 36. Draw samples of the follow- 50. From what three materials
necessity for architectural drawing? ing lines: are scales frequently manufactured?
1 8. Why is it desirable to also Object line 51. What are two methods of
have a set of small triangles? Construction line putting graduations on a scale?
19. What is an adjustable tri- Hidden line Which is best? Why?
angle? Long break line 52. Describe five kinds of com-
20. Describe the advantages and Short break line passes.
disadvantages of using a drafting Leader 53. Why may a compass require
machine. Extension line a softer lead than a pencil on the
21. What is a parallel-ruling Dimension line same drawing?
straightedge? Equipment line 54. What shape is recommended
22. Why should you avoid plac- Cutting plane line for a compass lead? Can you think
ing drawing paper too near the lower Phantom or alternate position of a good reason why?
edge of the drawing board? line 55. What is the purpose of a
23. Why is the drawing paper Section line compass horn? Describe two kinds.
placed near the left edge of the Center line 56. What is the main difference
drawing board? 37. Describe how a T square and between a compass and a divider?
24. Explain how to position paper triangle are held to draw vertical 57. Describe "stepping off"
on the drawing board and align it lines. measurements with a divider.
with the T square. 38. Describe how a drawing pen- 58. What is an irregular curve?
25. Describe fastening drawing cil is held during use. 59. Why are templates widely
paper to a drawing board. 39. In what direction are horizon- used in architectural drawing?
26. Why are thumbtacks not tal lines drawn? 60. When drawing with ink, why
recommended? 40. In what direction are vertical should the working edge of a tem-
27. Which pencil is the hardest, lines drawn? Along which edge of plate not be touching the paper?
a 2H or 4H? the triangle? 61. Why would a draftsman
28. Which pencil draws the dark- 41. How can you tell if the tri- make a template himself?
est line, a 2H or 4H? angle is right side up or upside down? 62. What is the disadvantage of
29. Guide and construction lines 42. Why does one always pull using a cleaning pad on pencil draw-
may be drawn with a harder or the pencil or pen? ings?
softer pencil than those discussed 43. Describe how to draw guide 63. What does art gum usually
above. Why? lines and construction lines their remove?
30. How much lead should be ex- proper weight. 64. Why is an erasing shield a
posed on a drawing pencil? 44. Describe why and when lines valuable instrument?
31. Why must care be taken if sometimes cross at corners. 65. What is an underlay? De-
a wood drawing pencil is sharpened 45. Excluding the foot ruler, how scribe.
with a knife? many scales are there on an archi- 66. What is an overlay? De-
32. Why is the lead shaped to a tect's triangular scale? scribe.
long conical point? 46. Why are flat scales some- 67. Why are symbols available
33. Why are lead holders pre- times preferred? printed on adhesive-backed plastic
ferred by some draftsmen? 47. What is an open divided film?
34. Describe different methods scale? 68. Describe how a draftsman
of pointing a pencil lead. 48. What is a full divided scale? might use each of the following
35. Why must the lead be wiped 49. You should never draw along as a drafting aid?
off after it is pointed. What else the edge of a scale. From your own A button Hollow core solder
may be done to condition the lead? reasoning give reasons why. A tin can String
328

technique pencil pointer bow compass
graphite object line beam compass
basswood construction line chisel point lead
board cover hidden line conical point lead

T square break line compass horn
30° -60° triangle leader irregular curve
45° triangle dimension line template
adjustable triangle equipment line art gum
drafting machine phantom line cleaning pad
straightedge section line erasing machine
drafting tape guide line erasing shield
drawing pencil architect's triangular scale underlay
H series architect's flat scale overlay
lead holder graduation printed symbol
329
Drafting Mediums
You may have the idea that all low. The specific job and personal drawings are required, they may
drawing paper is pretty much preference dictates choice. be done in either pencil or ink on
alike. This is not true; there are Even though heavy papers are tracing cloth. Some cloths are de-
literally hundreds of papers to seldom used in a professional signed specifically for pencil,
choose from. A satisfactory fin- drafting room, their use by be- some only for ink, and others
ished drawing depends partially ginners is justified because they for both.
upon the selection of the proper seldom complete a drawing with- Analysis of tracing cloth shows
paper medium for the job to be out making errors and corrections, one side to be rather dull and the
done. A medium that is very satis- and these are best made on heavy- other glossy. Draw on the dull
factory for one use may be to- weight stock. After the drawing side.
tally unacceptable for another. is in final form, it may be copied Note: Manufacturers advertise
You are probably already famil- onto tracing paper. that ink can be erased on tracing
iar with heavyweight drawing Since this paper is seldom used cloth, and it can, but it is very
papers. These are widely used in for finished drawings even inex- difficult to do so without the cor-
schools because of ease in han- pensive butchers paper, without rection showing.
dling. Drawing paper is available a wax surface, or the back of used
in many weights and qualities, copy paper is suitable for prelimi- Tracing Film
the poorest sometimes being clas- nary drawings. Plastic film has advantages
sified as school quality. Least found no other medium. It is
in
Tracing Paper
expensive varieties are soft and very durable and its dimensional
Tracing paper is also available
porous, suitable only for pencil. stability is excellent. There are
in different weights and qualities.
Since they are porous, it is diffi- two types of tracing film; one is
cult tokeep them clean during
Inexpensive sulfite papers may be acetate and the other is a poly-
use. Better gradeshave a smooth,
made of wood pulp, while better
ester base film. The latter is one
grades are 100% rag content vel-
dense surface, suitable for both of the toughest substances known
lum. The latter are more transpar-
pencil and ink. Even the better and so is very durable. It is al-
ent and so make better copies.
papers have a slight surface matte most impossible to tear this mate-
They can also be run at faster
to hold lines in shape. This is rial. Acetate film is not quite so
speeds for reproduction work.
called tooth. If a surface is very indestructible, but it is also supe-
smooth, with no tooth, lines widen
Tracing vellum may be white or
rior to paper or cloth.
have a slightly blue color.
and spread. Both materials are suitable
Most frequently used paper Tracing Cloth for use when a high degree of
colors are white, green, and yel- If more permanent, durable permanence or accuracy is called
330
32: Drafting Mediums
Student rendering combining water color and airbrush techniques on cold press medium surface illustration board.
for. Both are available in clear material are very abrasive and with pre-printed, blue grid lines.
form, or they may have one or wear pencils or other instruments Major grids are spaced both ver-
both surfaces roughened to form quickly. Specially hardened or tically and horizontally. Inter-
a matte surface. A matte surface jewel-tipped pens are sometimes mediate grids, preferably a lighter
allows the film to hold ink or used for their long wearing shade of blue, may be spaced at
pencil lines better than a glossy qualities. 8 or 10 per inch. These serve
surface. The matte causes film Graphite pencil lines do not merely as guide lines that do not
to be only translucent, but al- always reproduce well when used copy onto reproductions because
most all light from developing on film. This is especially true they are engulfed by white light.
passes through, so exceptionally when reduced to microfilm. Parts

fast developing speeds and very of lines may reproduce while Packaging
clear prints are obtained. others do not, or the metallic Paper, cloth, or film may be
Objections: Since ink does not graphite surface may cause reflec- purchased in rolls, loose sheets,
penetrate the material, plastic is tionsand distortions. These phe- or sheets bound into pads.
more difficult to use than other nomena, called "ghosts," must
media. Even on a matte surface be avoided. When one draws on Printed Borders and Titles
lineshave a tendency to widen film, pencils with a wax core are Cut sheets of any of the mate-
because of a lack of real tooth. popular. The degrees of hardness rialscan be imprinted with bor-
Standard India ink is likely to are the same as for the H series. ders or titles to fit your require-
chip off the surface. Special ace- ment. This insures uniform line
tate inks should be used because Grids and border widths, reduces draft-
they adhere better. Any of the drafting media pre- ing time, and have thesame pres-
Matte surfaces on this tough viously discussed is available tige value as a fine letterhead.
331
Water Color Paper
paper also stretch while it is wet, Boards are available in a wide
Water color paper is relatively but when it dries they return to range of colors, some of which
soft, pliable, and usually rough
their original form. are subtle in tone while others
textured. It may be manufactured have much brilliance. Patterned
either by the hot or cold press Poster Board
surfaces such as marble or wood
method. The method used affects Poster board is semi-rigid, grain imprints are also available,
the texture of the surface, as ex- about l
/i6 " thick. As the name on one side only. The other is
plained later. Most popular colors implies it is ideally suited for
unfinished.
are white and parchment (yel- posters rather than for drafting.
lowish white), but it is available Subjects are usually sketched Illustration Board
in a wide range of other colors. lightly and then painted in with This board is used for a major-
It may be purchased in a great opaque water color. Board is not ity of all architectural render-
number of different sheet sizes, so good for heavy line work be- ings. There is a thickness for
as loose sheets or bound into pads cause the fibers are loosely almost every requirement. Thick-
for greater convenience. pressed. However, the surface is ness is determined by the number
When water is spilled on an very smooth; one can obtain sat- of plies, or layers of paper pressed
ordinary sheet of paper, the fibers isfactory results with ink provided together to form the board. Very
stretch and wrinkle it perma- very little pressure is exerted on thin boards may be single ply,
nently. The fibers of water color the drawing instrument. or heavyweights may be seven or
332
.
32: Drafting Mediums
more ply. Interior plies are of ishes. One manufacturing method is more pebbled or textured. It is
inexpensive sulfite but the fin- presses the board while the paper used primarily as a base for
ished surface is of very high qual- is hot, so the finished board is mounting other pictures or draw-
ity. Of course quality from some called hoi press illustration board. ings so they can be stood or hung
manufacturers is better than from This issometimes referred
also for viewing. It is cut larger than
others. Only experience will de- to as high surface board because the original drawing to make a
termine which is best for your the face is very smooth. The other backing and border. After con-
specific rendering, or you may method presses the board when structing guide lines for position-
rely upon the advice of an ex- the paper is cold and is called ing the original it is mounted with
perienced person. cold press or, sometimes, regular wallpaper paste, rubber cement,
Boards may be finished with illustration board. Its surface is or contact cement or laminating
only one working surface or they slightly grained or textured. machines.
may be double mounted and White is most frequently used Renderings on heavy illustra-
have two good surfaces. Gener- but others are available. tion board also look better with
ally speaking, boards with cotton matte borders. Frames are fre-
fiber faces are better than those Matte Board quently cut from large sheets of
made from other substances. This material is similar to illus- matte board and placed over the
There are two standard fin- tration board except the surface face of the rendering.
Questions To Reinforce Know/edge
1 Explain the variety of draw- which side of the material to use for 19. When parts of lines repro-
ing media available and how one drawing? duce and others do not, or when
determines which to use? 1 1 . What are the advantages of some lines appear like shadows,
2. What is school quality draw- plastic tracing film? what is this phenomenon called?
ing paper? How does this compare 12. What are two kinds avail- 20. What kind of pencil core is
with other qualities? Why is it used? able? Describe each. sometimes used instead of graphite?
3. What is tooth on a drawing 1 3. What is a matte surface? 21. Why might one purchase
medium? Why is it necessary on plastic film? tracing media with blue grid lines
4. Why are heavyweight draw- 14. How does the translucence on it? How do these show on re-
ing papers used by the beginner but (rather than transparency) of the productions?
seldom by a professional draftsman? matte surface affect reproduction? 22. What are the reasons for
5. Can less expensive materials 15. What is likely to happen if purchasing paper with titles and bor-
be substituted for this paper? Why? regular India ink is used on plastic ders already printed?
What materials? film? Why? 23. Is water-color paper smooth
6. What are two kinds of trac- 16. How can the above be rem- or textured? Why?
ing paper? Which is best? Why? edied? 24. Is it available in only one or
7. Are different thicknesses of 1 7. How does the surface of more than one color?
tracing paper available? plastic film affect drawing instru- 25. Why is poster board not
8. Are different colors of trac- ments? How is this sometimes ideally suited for ink work? Can it
ing paper available? Explain. remedied? be used for this? Explain.
9. Why is tracing cloth some- 18. When using pencil lines on 26. Describe the colors available.
times used? plastic film, why do pencil lines not 27. Most architectural renderings
1 0. How does one determine always reproduce well? are done on what kind of material?
333
Port Three: From Ideas fo Reality
28. What determines the thick- tion board? Describe its surface.
ness of illustration board? What is another name for the sur-
29. Is illustration board the same face of cold press illustration board?
all the way through? 33. From what materials are the
30. What is double mounted il- best boards manufactured?
lustration board? 34. What kind of surface does
31. What is hot press illustration matte board have?

board? Describe its surface. What is 35. How may matte board be
another name for the surface of hot used with architectural renderings?
press illustration board? 36. Describe how they are
32. What is cold press illustra- mounted.

drawing paper tracing film illustration board
tooth matte surface hot press
tracing paper ghosts high surface paper
tracing vellum water color paper cold press
tracing cloth poster board matte board
334
Good Lti rERJNG is needed on architectural drawings.
The most important reason is to include information
such as names, dimensions, or lettered notes. The
secondary purpose is appearance, to impress the client.
This is especially true for presentation type drawings

that are done for public exhibition.
Architectural Lettering
Lettering Styles
Architectural lettering is not amples of architectural lettering letter and figure. These shapes
as mechanical in appearance as and gain the impression that let- are shown on the large scale let-
the style for ordinary working ters can be formed any way you tering illustrations. To help you
drawings. The basic shape of each may choose; this is not true. achieve good, uniform shapes,
letter is the same, but a top-flight To do good lettering you must both illustrations have numbered
draftsman perfects his own free- first develop a permanent visual arrows indicating a suggested
flowing style. You may see ex- picture of the basic shape of each procedure for forming the letters.
KLMNOPQR J-tj \ 1 2/ ' v /
.1 3—
Vertical Lettering— conventional strokes.
335
Inclined Lettering— abbreviated strokes.
The first illustration, showing ver- really vertical, or if they are in- voted to smaller and larger let-
tical letters, includes the strokes clined they must all slope at the tering. You must become espe-
that are recommended for me- same angle; otherwise, the let- cially proficient at quick render-
chanical drawing. The second il- tering will not be neat in appearing of characters about W size,
lustration showing inclined let- ance. Decide on an angle such as because it is most used for names
ters, presents simplified strokes 60°, 67'/2°, or 75°; then stick to it. and dimensions.
recommended for architectural Detail lettering height must be
Height of Lettering
lettering. The novice should use appropriate to the size of the
Large letters take longer and drawing; that must neither
the recommended strokes until a is, it
satisfactory lettering technique

are more difficult to form neatly dominate the drawing nor be so
has been acquired.
than small ones; but since many small you must hunt to find it or
sizes are required on a drawing hard to use.
After you have acquired a vis- it is
ual image of exactly what each

you must be able to master all.
Practice on %" characters until Recommended Heights
letter is to look like, practice until
you can reproduce the lettering

you have mastered the strokes Identifying names and dimen-
on your drawings. and shape of each letter and fig- sions on body of drawing . V%"
ure. Note: Even practice lettering Lettered notes Vn"
Vertical vs. Inclined Lettering must be placed between guide '/<"
Sub-titles
Either vertical or inclined let- lines. Indication of scale used . . . Vw"
tering may be used. The instruc- Leave a minimum space of %
tor or the employer and— if policy the lettering height between lines Study samples on actual build-
allows— personal preference deter- (rows) of lettering. After you have ing plans and note that fractions
mine the choice. If vertical letters become proficient at doing W are about 1% the height of
are used, each letter must be lettering, practice should be de- lettering.
336
O
33: Architectural Lettering
Width
The amount of space
of Letters
available
ABCDLFGI4IJKLM
helps determine lettering width.
In a wide space, lettering may be
N OPQR5TUVWXYZ
expanded so it looks appropriate;
or if there is little space the let-
1234^67890
Expanded vertical architectural lettering.
ters may be condensed to fit. Both
individual letters and spaces be-
tween may
panding or condensing.
be adjusted by ex-
A3 CDEFGH-IJK.LM
To add to appearance,
men frequently condenseduse
drafts-
NO P QFLST UV WX YZ
lettering but use expanded spaces
between them as shown.
Lower Case Letters
234J6 7 8 9
1
Bold expanded inclined architectural lettering
Lower case letters are seldom to set a standard for the up-and-
used on architectural drawings, so
they are not shown in this book.
down strokes. Since guide lines ABCDffGrrl
are shadow lines that will not
Changing Height of Letters
reproduce when copies are made, J I L M N PQ K
in Words
word or group
All letters of a
they should not be removed from
the finished drawing.
S T UV WXYZ
of words are normally the same Consistency I Z 3 4 ^ 6 7 6 ?
height because only capitals are As mentioned earlier, lettering Condensed lettering with expanded
used; however, the first letter of cannot be done any way you space.
words or phrases may be slightly choose. Be sure individual letters must be maintained throughout
extended in height. Some drafts- fit together appropriately. Some a set of drawings. For best re-
men believe this adds to appear- should not be done in a straight sults, master one style and then
ance and clarity. Note: Avoid line style while others are very use it for all drawings. One must
tendency to broaden the stroke elaborate; they must be consis- really be an expert to do lettering
on extended caps. tent. The same lettering style satisfactorily in many styles.
Guide Lines
are
All lettering and dimensions
placed between accurately
KITCI4EN ENTRY
measured guide lines,
ual characters can be kept in line,

and to keep words parallel
so individ-
to
BEDROOM 5TAIR5
other lettering in the
tion. Failure to use guide lines
same direc-
BRICK MORTAR Architectural lettering for
will result in lettering that does titles.
not follow straight rows. If you

have difficulty maintaining the JERM0P4KE REFRIGERATOR SURFACE UNIT il CABINET BATHROOM :
INEN CLOSET HAMPER QuflRRY TILE JPL FACE ROCK L ATI-V

proper slant, or the letters are MTER\OR EXTERIOR SHEATHING ROOFING LASHING SADDLE HIP
ULUJTER JTRINGER TREAD RISER WEDGE lOiING LANDING LANDING
not vertical when they should DISHWASHER. LAUNDRY FURNACE WATER HEATER.
be, use additional guide lines Rapid free style architectural lettering for notes.
337
paper and makes the pencil hard drawing. Place the lettering so
Lettering Hints it
to control. An HB or No. 2 writ- is an open space, easy to find

in
Speed of Strokes
ing pencil is recommended. The and read. For names of rooms or
While practicing and learning
pencil should be sharpened as building parts, center the letter-
shapes and strokes, do not hurry.
for drawing. Be sure the point is ing in the space available. In con-
Strive for perfection; however, if
slightly rounded; this makes it gested areas it may be necessary
letters areformed too slowly they
easier to control. to omit part of a line or symbol
will appear shaky, as shown. After
to accommodate the lettering.
techniques have been mastered, Ink for Lettering Letters may be spaced apart,
gradually increase speed, but do
Lettering with ink is more as said, so they fill better between
not sacrifice quality. It takes much
difficult than with pencil. Do not lines of the drawing.
practice before good lettering can
letter with an ordinary dip pen; When lettering dimensions,
be done rapidly, but you can
it has a sharp point and is diffi- they should be placed above the
achieve it if you try seriously. It
cult to guide. It must be held del- dimension line about '/it.".
gives you professional prestige.
icately and it is difficult to use in
obtaining uniform lines. Use a
Freehand Lettering vs.
THIS AN EXAMPLE OF POOR
IS
round tip lettering pen, a broad-
APCHITECTUP4L LETTEPIN6 Mechanical Aids
point regular fountain pen, or a
Lettering and dimensioning on
Do not attempt to draw each letter slowly. large-size technical fountain pen.
the body of architectural working
Width of Strokes drawings is almost always done
Pencil for Lettering Do not try to make strokes too freehand, so it can be executed
Use a soft lead pencil so you fine and delicate; letters with quickly.
can obtain a firm stroke without Lettering for presentation draw-
broader, more positive strokes are
exerting much pressure. Of easier to read. ings, title blocks, and subtitles is
course, hard lead requires much frequently done using lettering

pressure to obtain an opaque line. Positioning Lettering templates or other devices. Speed
Excess pressure also dents the Do not letter over lines of the is sacrificed for quality.
Frederick Post Co.
Mechanical lettering set.
LETTERING DONE WITH

LETTERING DEVICE
Mechanical lettering sample.
338
APPLIQUE LETTERING
iyE*»
IAAAAAAAAABBBBBCCCCCCDD-
IDDEEEEEEEEEEEEFFFFFGGGGHH
/ mkn
HHHIIIIIIIIIIIJJJKKKLULLLLMMM
MMNNNNNNNNNNOOOOOOOOOOPP
PPPPQQRRRRRRRRRRSSSSSSSSS
TTTTTTT llllllllll VMM \N\N\AI
r
Drawing guide lines for lettering. Positioning the letter.
Cutting letters from plastic film. Removing guide lines.
V^ VV
'^
s^ v^
S
339
PRESSURE SENSITIVE LETTERING
Positioning letter on drawing sheet. Spraying fixative to permanently set letters.
Burnishing the letter with any smooth hard instrument.
233 PRRR-TIPE
pressure lettering ^^
Remove backing sheet and place letter in
transferring position rub letter with any
smooth instrument. After transferring, place
backing sheet over letter and rub with a
harder pressure. In case of error, letter can
be removed by using any soft pencil eraser.
ARTWORK
BLUEPRINTS
B "|
COMPS
DISPLAYS
LOGOTYPES
4 |
/| J
1
Dm,
MOCK-UPS V fSfr* I
PRINTING i£>
SIGNS ri f
SLIDES and many other uses
SSebp Sample of pressure-sensitive

styles and uses.
lettering
340
.
Questions To Reinforce Knowledge

1 Give two reasons why neat 1 1 . What is meant by the term
lettering is important on architectural condensed lettering?
drawings. 1 2. Why do some draftsmen ex-
2. How does freehand archi- tend the first letter of words or notes
tectural lettering differ from other above other letters?
types? 1 3. Why must you use a uniform
3. Why must you memorize the lettering style on a set of drawings?
shapes of letters and figures? 14. Why is it recommended that
4. Why should you learn the you follow the same style for all
recommended strokes? your lettering?
5. Will your strokes be exactly 15. How should experience affect
the same as for mechanical letter- speed with which freehand lettering
ing? Why? is done?
6. How do you determine 6. What
1 pencils are recom-
whether to use vertical or inclined mended for lettering?
lettering? 7. What kinds
1 of pens are rec-
7. Why must you use guide lines ommended for ink lettering?
for all freehand lettering? Why are 1 8. Why are ordinary dip pens
they also sometimes added for up- not recommended?
and-down strokes? 19. How do you determine where
8. Why is a clear space left to place required lettering on a
between rows of lettering? drawing? Explain.
9. Why should much practice be 20. Why is most architectural
done at the Vt" height? lettering done freehand?
10. What is meant by the term 21 . When are lettering templates
expanded lettering? or other devices recommended?
341
Orthographic Projection and
the Architectural Drawing
Since most beginning architec- jectson paper which are discussed

tural drawing students have had in Chapter 36. These methods
introductory mechanical drawing have serious drawbacks; they are
courses, this discussion is limited either time consuming or, because
to a review of basic principles and of visual distortion, do not give a
their application to architectural true representation of the object.
drawing. If you have not had pre- When one views an actual ob-
vious drawing experience, you ject, it is three dimensional; that
should obtain a good book on be- is, has thickness, width, and
it
ginning mechanical drawing and length. Since a sheet of drawing

study this background material paper is flat and is in one plane,
further. some method must be employed
This can be considered a review to represent the sides of this
of main points for quick reference. three-dimensional object on the
flat paper so that each view shows
Problems of Projection in full, if required for dimension- Cylinder.
There are several pictorial ing. Note: Sometimes all views
methods of representing solid ob- are necessary. one to show its height and one its
diameter.
Most objects, even the simple
Orthographic Prelection
rectangular block shown below,
The basis for representing solid The most simple object to de- require a minimum of three views
objects in working drawings is working drawing
scribe using a is to describe their dimensions ade-
called orthographic projection. a sphere, as shown. quately. Objects with offsets or
Working drawings view only one Since a simple sphere projections on several surfaces
side of an object at a time. This iscompletely round it may require additional views for
keeps each surface in the same appears the same re- clarity.
plane as the paper. To under- gardless of how it is
stand orthographic projections viewed. Therefore, it Sphere,
it is necessary to learn how to requires only one view to describe

"swing" other sides around so its outlined shape.
they are all in the same plane as A simple cylindrical object can Rectangular solid.
the front view. be described with only two views.
342
34: Orthographic Projection and the Architectural Drawing
The illustrations below show frequently shown on working the center of a glass box as shown
how the observer must look at drawings. However, as mentioned, below, outlines of the views have
each side of an object to obtain other views may be needed for been projected onto the "glass."
individual orthographic views. On complete description of an object. The next illustration shows the
each of the sides shown, the black If your center of vision is not other surfaces and right side
dot farthest from the object repre- in the center of the side being hinged into the same plane as
sents the viewer's eyes. The black viewed, you will not see an ortho- the front view. See the first draw-
dot on the corresponding surface graphic plane. The view observed ing on the next page. This rotat-
and connected to the first dot by may appear similar to the one ing of the views into the same
a hidden line represents the view- shown below. Note: An ortho- plane causes space between the
er's center of vision. The color graphic view cannot show depth; views. The space is used for
area on the pictorial drawing rep- everything must appear in a single placing dimensions as discussed
resents the only part seen in that fiat plane. in Chapter 39.
The color shaded
particular view.
orthographic view— labeled the
same as the pictorial drawing-
shows the true shape of the in-
dividual side.
Individual faces of this rectangular solid
Notice that three surfaces are plane (wrong
do not appear in a single
shown; the front, top, and right way of viewing for orthographic
side. These three views are most proiection).
Workmen need to know where

to look to find individual views of
an object. Therefore views are
usually arranged following a set
pattern of placement.
Ob|ect suspended inside glass box.
A front view is usually the one
that shows the most detail, and is
the key to all other views. Also, it
usually shows the largest horizon-

tal dimension. For this reason a
part may frequently be used as a
front regardless of its actual posi-
tion when constructed. This is
especially true for small details on

complicated surfaces. Building
elevations are usually labeled ac-
cording to their actual position on
the building.
How Projection Is Done

For determining the proper re-
lationship of views, imagine a Surface outlines projected onto the
rectangular block suspended in "glass".
343
Very few designs can be repre-
(The box on the preceding sented by three flat surfaces. Most
page opened flat.) objects have holes, offsets, or other
irregularities. Viewing and draw-
ing irregular shaped objects in
flat planes is considerably more
difficult. The object shown in the
following illustration has simple

offsets. The accompanying draw-
ing shows how the top and side
are rotated into the same plane
Unfolded glass box shows proper arrange- as the front view. See illustrations
ment of views.
top of facing page.
Another method of showing
relationship of views is found
at the bottom of the page.
When additional views are Three pictorial drawings of

necessary to describe the object rectangular objects with simple
they are arranged as shown in offsets are shown. Three ortho-
the following illustrations. graphic views accompany each

pictorial. Surfaces on each pic-
torial and its orthographic views
have corresponding letters. To
check your knowledge, even if you
have studied drawing, compare
them until you understand why
each individual view appears as
it does. See Figs. 1, 2, and 3.
Foreshortened Lines and Surfaces

When an object has a slanting
surface, as on the one shown,
lines or surfaces on the ortho-
graphic views may appear shorter
than their true dimensions. Lines
or surfaces that are viewed from
an angle and appear shorter are
Glass box with more elaborate
object insideand then unfolded
called foreshortened. The slanting
to show all six views. surface "F" is indicated with a

black tint on the pictorial drawing.
The same surface is shown on the
top and right side orthographic
views, and is also indicated with
black tint. This surface appears
only slightly foreshortened on the
top view, but has much foreshort-
ening on the side view.
344
B C
Projecting construction lines for fore-

shortened lines and surfaces.
Identification of surfaces.
C D
345
The object lines shown in black a solid portion of the object. Com- see why the hidden lines are lo-
on the orthographic views are also plete description usually requires cated as they are, and observe
foreshortened and therefore do these parts to be shown. Since that they are drawn to conform
not indicate true length. they cannot be "seen" but still to the rules discussed earlier.
must be represented, they are in-
cluded as hidden lines.
When a hidden line

terminates either per-
pendicular or at an
angle to an object line,
the hidden line touches

the object line.
When a hidden line
is a continuation of an _
object line they do not
Projecting lines to side and top views.
After the angle of the fore-

touch.
lines
Whentwo hidden
form a corner
they should meet so
|
I
&
shortened plane has been meas- the corner is closed.
When Note: The hidden lines on the
ured and established on the front hidden lines
view to repre-
front orthographic
view, one can project extension cross, no consideration _ __L.
sent the offset at the back of the
linesfrom both ends of the fore- is given as to how they I
I
meet.
object. Also, the side view shows
shortened line to the top and side
hidden lines to represent the out-
views as shown. Some hidden lines may be
line of the lower portion of the
omitted if this will add to draw-
Hidden Edge Lines front. Observe also that all offsets
ing clarity.
Offsets, surface irregularities, are visible as object lines on the
or holesmay not be visible in a Use of Hidden Lines Example top view, so no hidden lines are
view because they are hidden by Study the illustration until you required.
Curved Parts
As mentioned earlier, individ- view. Observe the omission of
ual viewsdo not always show true lines on both views. Even though
shape. Curved edges cannot be the surface changes direction, this
shown on all three views. The cannot be shown because there
illustration describes the true is no edge where two planes meet.
shape of the front view, but the The curved side is described
top and right side views do not. on the front view. Without the
The arc at the upper right corner front view the object could repre- o
cannot be described on either sent a rectangle.
Curved surfaces and hidden lines.
346
Auxiliary Views
As said, since slanting surfaces omitted on the auxiliary view if
and lines appear foreshortened they do not help clarify the shape,
on some orthographic views, it is The third illustration shows the
not possible for every view to auxiliary view as it is frequently
show true shape. To clarify the represented,
shape an auxiliary view may be
used. This view is drawn as
though the draftsman were look-
ing directly toward and in the same
plane as the slanting surface, per-
mitting it to be drawn its true
shape.
The auxiliary view may be
included with other views or it
may replace some views if it
makes them unnecessary. The

first two illustrations indicate
that all surfaces viewed on the
inclined plane are included on the
auxiliary view. Yet they may or
may not be. Surfaces in the hori- Auxiliary view showing adjoining surfaces. Auxiliary view with adjoining surfaces
zontal and vertical plane may be omitted.
Orthographic Views and Building Plans
Even though building plans part cannot be drawn. The small If a part needs to be drawn be-
show little resemblance to the scale floor and elevation
plan cause a conventional symbol is
multi-view orthographic projec- drawings with lines showing pro- not available, it is drawn as a
tions just discussed, they are jections illustrate that these are simplified version of the actual
based upon the same drawing really orthographic drawings. object. Conventional symbols are
system. Elevations, floor plans, The drawing scale does not shown in Chapter 38.
and details do not look like ortho- permit individual parts to be
graphic drawings partly because shown on floor plans and eleva- Intricate parts must be shown
building parts are so large, and tions because they are drawn to in exact detail, so they are drawn
all views cannot be placed on a scale of W W= or 1
'-0". There- to a scale of Vi" to 3"= l'-O", de-
the same drawing sheet. Also, fore the drawing must be simpli- pending upon the complexity of
buildings are complex; many fiedby the use of conventional the part. It is sometimes neces-
views of individual areas and symbols representing materials sary to draw extremely compli-
parts are necessary, but every and construction methods. Note: cated parts full size.
347
.
FLOOR PLAN
Orthographic views of building plan.
Questions To Reinforce Knowledge
1 Why are pictorial drawings scribe using orthographic drawing? 8. What happens if you do not
impractical as working drawings for Why? view directly toward the surface to
building plans? 5. How many views are required be drawn?
2. Describe the method of pro- to describe a cylinder? Why? 9. Describe the arrangement of
jection most frequently used for 6. How many views are usually views. You may do a sketch.
working drawings. required to describe a rectangular 10. How does one decide which
3. What is meant by the term solid? view is to represent the front?
orthographic projection? 7. What views are most fre- 1 1 . What is meant by the term
4. What shape is easiest to de- quently shown? Why? foreshortened?
348
1 2. What are auxiliary views? tinuation of an object line, does it
Why are they used? touch the object line? Why or why
1 3. Is an auxiliary view included not?
with other views or may it substitute 1 7. When two hidden lines form orthographic cylinder
for them? Explain. a corner, how are they drawn?
projection rectangular
14. Explain why and when hid- 1 8. When hidden lines cross, how pictorial solid
den lines are used. do they intersect?
center of vision
three
15. When a hidden line termi- 19. Are all hidden lines always dimensional flat planes
nates perpendicularly or at an angle included? Explain. single plane foreshortened
to an object line, does the hidden 20. Explain why it is impossible sphere auxiliary
line touch the object line? Explain. to show curved edges on three views
1 6. When a hidden line is a con- of a part.
349
Sections
In the preceding chapter, de- rowheads to indicate viewing di-
tails concealed by solid parts were rection of the frontal section.
drawn as hidden lines. This
method is satisfactory if the ob-
ject is solid or its shape simple.
However, if the object has a com-

plicated shape or is composed of
several individual parts the large
number of hidden lines required Now remove the front half as at Drawing D shows the completed
for complete description becomes B so the interior is visible; this is frontal section. Observe that the
confusing. a pictorial section. The ortho- crosshatching of the cut areas is
Interior views, called sections, drawn in black and all other lines
eliminate some hidden lines and of the front view are drawn in
give better shape description. blue. This is done for emphasis
Imagine the concrete block in only. On working drawings all

drawing A as being cut with a lines are the same color.
masonry saw at the line where
the grey shade penetrates the
block; this is the cutting plane.
graphic top view of drawing
has a cutting plane line with ar-
C
Mil
Full Section
If the cutting plane extends
across the entire object as in the
first two series of illustrations,
this indicates a full section.
Full section— A. Cutting plane of object

with offsets. B. Exposed by cutting plane.
^^Q^î
C. Hidden lines are required when
orthographic views are not shown in
section. D. A full section view.
350
35: Sections
Half Section
The following series of illus-
trations here shows an object
with the cutting plane extending
only halfway across. This is
called a half section. Observe
that the arrowhead or indicator
is placed only on the end of the
cutting plane line that shows view-
ing direction. The opposite end
does not indicate viewing direc-
tion, so no indicator is required.
Symmetrical objects are often
drawn as half sections so an out-
side and interior view can both
be included on the same drawing. ^m¥/s.
Hidden lines need not be included
in the outside portion of the view,
A. Half section pictorial. B. Comparison of orthographic drawing with hidden lines
since the interior shape is shown and a half section.
on the sectioned area.
If an object is symmetrical, the Offset Cutting Plane

cutting plane is placed on the
central axis. However, if details
not in the to be
centerneed
shown, the cutting plane may be
offset to include them. The two
illustrations— one of a simple ob-
jectand the other of a more intri-
cate shape— do not have any
portion of the cutting plane on
the central axis.
Broken Section
If both exterior and interior
details need to be shown, the cut-
ting plane can be offset to include
both. The first illustration on the
next page shows a cutting plane
passing through a square hole;
then it is offset so it crosses out-
Complex offset cutting plane.
side the front view to show the
horizontal hole; then it is offset
again to pass through the center
Offset cutting plane.
of the vertical circular hole.
351
Observe that the direction of

the cutting plane is indicated on
the top orthographic view. On
this top view the cutting plane is
I beam revolved section.
drawn one continuous line. It
as
might also be drawn as two sepa-
rate offset sections which are not
connected outside the view.
On the illustration observe
where the cutting plane extends
through the front surface of the
front view. It is shown as a broken
line; hence the name broken
section.
Opaque section of door detail.

Revolved Section
The illustration shows an ob-
ject with three distinct units-
two end pieces connected by a Window detail shaded section.
Offset cutting plane with broken section. center unit. The shape of the
center unit is concealed from view
by the solid ends. Instead of
either including hidden lines on
an end view or drawing a sepa-
mm —
v vyuwvw
rate complete section to describe J7Tm>,>,
the center part, its shape may be
"revolved" and superimposed
upon an existing view as shown.
Revolved sections are valuable Counter top edge with symbols in section
for showing profiles of round,

elliptical, or unusual shaped When adjacent parts are to be
parts. Since a view of this nature opaque they are separated slight-
may appear to be something ex- ly so the shape of each is defined.
tending toward the viewer, the Opaque sections may be used
part should be labeled as a re- alone or in combination with con-
volved section. ventional section drawings.
Opaque Section Shaded Section

Small, thin parts—such as alu- Parts to be emphasized may be
minum given a light shade by using very
ing,
or steel extrusions, flash-
waterproofing, or window fine pencil lines about W apart.
glazing— may become lost in a Or an even tone can be obtained
maze of lines. To make them by darkening freehand with a
stand out or be more clearly visi- blunt pencil or graphite dust.
ble they may be drawn opaque
as Care must be taken to avoid
Revolved sections. sections similar to the one shown. unintentional smudging of other
352
.
35: Sections
areas. Samples should be made included on the same drawing,

first to insure the effect desired. the section lines for each part
should be placed at different
Section Lines angles or spacing.
Section lines are fine, unbro- Because of the large variety of
ken, firm lines drawn at a 45° materials such as wood, metal,
angle and spaced Vk," apart. They concrete, stone, glass, and others
are not measured with a ruler. that must be represented on arch-
They are estimated by eye or may itectural drawings, it is not desir-
be matched to a line drawn on able to have all materials shown
the triangle as described earlier. as diagonal section lines. Each
Examples of section lines are material has its own symbol, so
included on many drawings for it can be easily Sym-
identified.
this chapter. bols for architectural materials
When two or more parts are are shown in Chapter 38.

1 What is a section drawing? opaque sections drawn as though the
2. What is a cutting plane? parts were separated by space?
3. What is a cutting plane line? 14. Must opaque sections be

4. What is a pictorial section? used by themselves? Explain.
5. What is a full section? 15. What is a shaded section?

Describe two techniques for shading.
6. What is a half section?
Why 16. Describe how to draw typi-
7. are arrowheads or indi-
cal section lines.
cators not always placed on both
1 7. From your own reasoning,
ends of all cutting plane lines?
why are section lines on adjacent
8. Are hidden lines included on
parts drawn in different directions
half section drawings? Explain.
or at different spacings? Do you
9. What is an offset cutting
think this means they can be drawn
plane?
at angles other than 45°?
10. What is a broken section?
18. Why are typical diagonal
1 1 . What is a revolved section? section lines not used for all archi-
12. What is an opaque section? tectural drawings symbols?
Why is it used? 1 9. What other methods of show-
1 3. Why are adjacent parts of ing sectioned materials are used?

cutting plane half section revolved section
pictorial section interior view opaque section
frontal section offset cutting plane shaded section
crosshatching central axis adjacent parts
full section broken section section lines
353
Pictorial Drawings
Since orthographic drawings

Non-isometric Lines
do not show a complete picture
on a single view, they are difficult Lines of an object are not al-
for the layman without drafting ways at right angles to each other
knowledge to understand. Yet in- and cannot be drawn as isometric
formation from drawings must lines. Lines not parallel to the
frequently be conveyed to people isometric axes are called non-
not familiar with drafting. Pic- isometric lines. To establish and

torial drawings serve purpose
this
draw these lines, first draw the
object with construction lines as
very well. As stated in Chapter 34,
all pictorial drawing methods are Isometric axes. though it is a rectangular solid,
not perfect solutions to every similar to the ones shown in the

in Observe that both
isometric. two illustrations. Along the edges
drawing problem.
the front and end (in this draw- of this solid locate dimension
Four kinds of pictorial draw-
ings are explained briefly. They ing the right end) aredrawn at a points for the non-isometric
30° angle from horizontal, and of lines. It is necessary to locate
are: (1) isometric, (2) oblique, (3)
cabinet, and course, all perpendicular lines are positions for each end of such
(4) perspective.
drawn vertical. Observe the three lines. The illustrations show how
Isometric Drawing black lines of the drawing, two on they are located and drawn. Ob-
Isometric drawings present a the base and the vertical line at serve the construction lines, shown
picture effect with a minimum of the closest These lines
corner. here as fine black lines parallel
drafting time, effort, and experi- form the isometric axes. Isometric to the isometric axes that are
ence. The view seems strange be- lines are always parallel to one of superimposed on the rectangular
cause visual distortion is caused these lines, receding at 30° from shape previously drawn. The
by the receding lines. When view- horizontal. ends of the non-isometric lines
ing an actual object the eye sees Note the blue isometric back- are located at the points where
parallel sides as though they con- ground lines on this and suc- the construction lines cross.
verge in the distance. Parallel ceeding drawings. They are not After all lines of the object
lines on isometric drawings are part of the drawing but serve have been established, the entire
actually drawn parallel; so they only as additional guide lines for drawing is given the proper line
appear to spread apart at the the beginner. Paper with 30° weight. Note: If the construction
back of the object. sometimes
lines, similar to this is lines were drawn as light "shad-
The illustration shows how a used, especially when doing iso- ow" lines, they need not be re-
simple rectangular solid is drawn metric sketches. moved from the finished drawing.
354
36: Pictorial Drawings
Isometric Arcs and

Circles
Carefully study the isometric
circle illustrations foran under-
standing of their construction. An
isometric circle is really four con-
nected arcs that form an ellipse.
Each arc based on the same
is
principle even though the ones

at 90° angles to each other do not
match.
Directions for Drawing an

Isometric Arc
1. Using construction lines, draw

an isometric solid to the overall
sizes of the desired object.
Note: For irregular shaped
objects, more than one iso-
metric solid will be required.
2. Set the compass to the stated
dimension of the arc.
Note: Two construction
lines form an angle in which
the arc is to be drawn. If the
arcs are to be constructed on

the top view, both lines will be
30° isometrics. If the arc is on
the front or side view, one of
the lines will be in isometric
and the other will be vertical.
3. Place the needle point of the
compass at the vertex (corner)
of the angle where the arc is
desired. Isometric arc and circle construction.
Reversed Axes
Isometric drawings may show
the front, end, and bottom (in-
stead of the top) as shown. This
is called a reversed axis isometric.
The procedure is the same as for
other isometric drawings except
the isometric lines are drawn 30°
below horizontal from the isomet-
ric axes.
Isometric arc application. Isometric circle application.
355
TOP VIEW Part Three: From Ideas to Reality
4. Using construction lines, draw The third illustration shows

an arc so it crosses the two how the finished line should
lines forming the angle. These appear. It appears to be continu-
are the points of tangency of ous with no splices showing.
the isometric arc to be con-
structed.
Note: Place your 30° -60° OBLIQUE DRAWING
triangle so the hypotenuse is Oblique drawing is very simi-
against the blade of your T lar to isometric, except that one
square, and line it up with of the axes is parallel to the plane
the object previously drawn. of the paper as shown, instead
Observe how the T square of both receding at 30°. Oblique
forms right angles to the verti- drawing has three axes; they are
cal lines of the object and the shown on the illustration as black
60° angle of the triangle forms lines. This drawing method per-
right angles with the isometric mits everything in the frontal
lines of the object. plane to be drawn its true shape.
5. Draw perpendiculars to both
legs of the angle through the
points of tangency previously
established.
6. Place the needle point of the
LINE CONNECTING THE POINTS
compass where the perpendicu-
Plotting curved lines in isometric.
lars cross and adjust it so it
touches one of the points of
tion. Using dividers, calculate
tangency. where the curved line crosses each Oblique rectangular solid.
7. Using an object line, draw an of the parallel grid lines on the
arc to connect the two points orthographic drawing and step It is very good for objects that
of tangency. these measurements onto the grid have considerable detail on one
8. If other arcs are required, re- face and very little on the others.
lines of the isometric drawing.
peat the above steps; then draw On the second illustration ob- It is also very good for objects
object lines tangent to the arcs serve how the located points having little depth or thickness
as required to complete the indicate where the line is to be. because they appear quite real-
shape. Using construction lines, sketch istic. Drawings of objects with
the proposed curved line so it considerable depth appear too
Curved Lines in Isometric passes through each of the points distorted for the oblique method.
Curved lines in isometric are previously located. Do not draw The oblique illustrations here
only a close approximation. Ob- the curved object line freehand. show the sides receding at a 45°
serve the curved line on the ortho- The results will be unsatisfactory. angle, but they may recede at
graphic drawing. The black lines Find a segment of an irregular any desired angle.
superimposed over the object curve that is the same shape as the Two important points to re-
divide it into many small squares. freehand line and draw the object member when drawing oblique
To duplicate this curved line in line using the irregular curve as a pictorials are to: (1) Use the side
isometric you must draw the same guide. If the line cannot be drawn that shows the most detail as the
grid lines on the isometric layout as a continuous one, exercise care front. (2) Use the longest side as
as shown in the second illustra- to prevent the splice from showing. the front to minimize distortion.
356
Curved surfaces of oblique drawing are

most frequently shown on the frontal Comparison of oblique and cabinet
plane. drawing.
CABINET DRAWING
Cabinet drawing is exactly the length. This helps to minimize with a cabinet drawing— show
same as oblique except that lines distortion. The two illustrations how foreshortening the receding
receding toward the back are of the small cabinet— the first done lines gives the latter drawing a
drawn only half their actual with an oblique and the second more realistic appearance.
IVr>|M*rli\ i- Drawing
Perspective drawing is a close in the distance and vanish toward study and experimentation with
approximation of what one sees the horizon. The size of the ob- others.
when viewing an actual object. ject determines how soon these The biggestproblem of draw-
It is the most realistic of the pic- linesappear to converge. ing perspective is capturing an
torial drawing methods. However, There are several different illusion of depth and space on
drawing perspectives is more time methods of drawing perspectives, the flat plane of the paper. One
consuming, so they are used only but all are very similar. This dis- must always think of the paper
to show what a proposed object cussion is limited to the common as having depth, or as space. The
looks like when other details have or method because it is
office problem then is to project the
been planned. most frequently used, and other different planes of the object into
When viewing an actual object, methods expand upon it. After their proper relationship with
all horizontal lines, or continua- you have mastered the office this space. The following instruc-
tions of them, appear to converge method, you may desire further tions tell how to accomplish this.
Two-point perspective rendering.
357
Items You Will Need spective on tracing paper and smudges easily and the lines do
then, when all lines are complete, not cover well when traced.
• A large drawing surface. graphite paper similar to carbon
common
• A floor plandrawn to an ap-
• All drafting instru- paper may be placed between
propriate scale. The plan should
ments. the tracing paper and the final
include locations of all windows
• A long straightedge. drawing sheet. If this paper is not
and doors, an outline of the roof
• Three thumbtacks to use as readily available a soft pencil may
overhang, the location of all
points for radiating lines. This be used to cover the back of the
ridges and valleys, chimneys, and
will be discussed at length later. tracing with graphite. When trans-
other items on the roof.
• Tracing or drawing paper. Any ferring the perspective to the final
drawing paper or illustration sheet a stylus or hard pencil • An elevation at the same scale
board may be used, but very satis- should be used. as the floor plan showing details
may be obtained
factory results Note: Do not use carbon paper and heights to be included on the
by drawing a preliminary per- when tracing the perspective. It perspective.
one under a carefully controlled gested that the floor plan and
DIRECTIONS FOR TWO-POINT
learning experience. In order to elevations shown in the accom-
EXTERIOR PERSPECTIVE
check results for accuracy it will panying illustration be used for
Since there are a large number be for your sample
essential the initial project. It will be neces-
of new terms to become familiar drawing conform exactly to the
to sary to use a drawing scale of
with, perhaps the easiest way to illustrated drawing upon which !4"=r-0", and redraw the
master perspective is by drawing this problem is based. It is sug- sample floor plan and elevations
42'0" I
Building plan to be used while following

directions for two-point perspective. The
following series of illustrations is mark-
ed to indicate which steps of the direc-
tions the drawings accompany.
CEILING LINE
to the sizes given. The drawing 1. Picture Plane Line. Using a 3. Vertical Plane. The area be-
should be laid out very accurately regular ruler, measure down from low the picture plane line repre-
for best results. If this proposed the top of the paper and10%" sents a vertical plane, which must
large drawing size presents a make a small horizontal dash at be considered as having depth.
problem, it is possible to cut all this location. Through this dash Imagine the drawing board sur-
stated sizes in half and use a draw a horizontal line all the way face as a window you are look-
V6"=r-0" scale instead. How- across the paper and label it pic- ing through, into space.
ever, all directions refer to the tun- plane line. Repeat the name 4. Positioning Floor Plan on
larger drawing size. After you of this line over and over because Horizontal Plane. The illustra-
have mastered perspective tech- it is essential that it be remem- tions accompanying these direc-
niques, drawings of your own bered. tions show the floor plan posi-
choosing can be done. 2. Horizontal Plane. The area tioned at a 30°-60° angle to the
Secure a large sheet of drawing above the picture plane line rep- picture plane line. However, any
paper, whose dimensions are 30" resents a horizontal plane; that is, angle could be used. Because the
high and 42" wide, to the draw- a plane that is parallel to the angle helps determine what the
ing board. Be sure the edges of ground. The floor plan, which is finished perspective will look like,
the paper are parallel to the edges a horizontal section through a it must be selected with care. It is
of the board. NOTE: To com- building, will be located in this sometimes necessary to draw sev-
plete the drawing satisfactorily, it space. It is to be used as an area eral partial perspectives to de-
is essential that the directions be from which lines for the perspec- termine the best building viewing
followed very carefully. tive picture will be projected. angle. The most frequently used
Steps 1
359
angles are 30°-60°, and 45°, be- thename of this line until you re- used, the perspective will be
cause triangles may then be used member it, because it is an essen- somewhat distorted. Observe the
easily to set up the perspective. tial term in perspective drawing. cone of vision illustration in the
The illustrations show a build- Remember that the space be- text to be sure you understand
ing corner touching the picture low the picture plane line, where what it is.
plane line. The building does not the perspective picture is to be Now draw two lines connecting
have to touch this line, but when drawn, may be compared to a the station point to both the ex-
it does, drawing procedure is sim- window glass with distance be- treme left, and extreme right,
plified. Therefore the beginner hind it and that the building only building floor-plan corners (not
will probably achieve best results touches this plane on the measur- overhang corners). Notice on the
with the floor plan placed in this ing line. Therefore this line is the illustrations that these lines en-
position. only place where sizes may be close the cone of vision.
Perspectives can be drawn with measured to their true scale. All 8. Horizon. The horizon is a
the floor plan behind the picture vertical measurements for the en- line in the distance where the
plane line. This, however, makes tire building must be made on earth seems to meet the sky. It
the perspective picture small. The this line, even though some will can be located at any convenient
plan can also extend in front of, need to be projected back into drawing position below the pic-
or below, the picture plane line, space. ture plane line. On this drawing
but this creates distortion. 6. Station Point. The station place the horizon 9" below the
Place the ruler on the picture point is the location from which picture plane line, and extend it
plane line and measure 10%" the observer is viewing. In a life- from the left to the right edge of
from the right edge of the paper, like situation, the closer an ob- the paper. Label the line horizon.
toward the left. Make a dot on the server is to an object, the larger Repeat this name to yourself un-
picture plane line at this location. it appears. In perspective drawing til you remember it. Later, when
Place the lower right-hand floor the reverse is true. As the distance projecting new lines, it is very
plan corner on the picture plane from the picture plane line to the easy to confuse this line with the
line at the location previously station point increases, the pic- picture plane line.
marked with a dot. Using a 30°- ture becomes larger. 9. Locating Vanishing Points.
60° triangle, adjust the plan lo- For best results the novice Beginning at the station point,
cation until it conforms to these should place the station point on draw a line parallel to the front of
angles. Be extremely accurate in the measuring line. the floor plan and extend the line
the positioning. Tape the floor For this drawing, begin at the until it meets the picture plane
plan in place, but do not cover picture plane line and measure line near the left edge of the
any of the building corners. down the measuring line 17%". paper. Again beginning at the
A portion of the overhang now Make a heavy dot at this location station point, draw a line parallel
covers the picture plane line. Re- and label it station point. Repeat to the side of the floor plan and
draw the picture plane line across the name of this dot over and extend it to the picture plane line.
this small portion of the floor over. It is an important term in Mark two dots where these di-
plan. perspective technique. agonal lines intersect the picture
5. Measuring Line. From the 7. Cone The cone of
of Vision. plane line. From these two dots
point where the building corner vision is what an ob-
the scope of draw two vertical lines down to
touches the picture plane line, server sees without moving his the horizon. The vanishing points
drop a perpendicular line to the eyes from side to side. The cone are located where these vertical
bottom of the paper. Near the begins at the station point and lines cross the horizon. Make
bottom of the paper, label this should not exceed approximately dots to locate the two vanishing
line as the measuring line. Repeat 30°. If a much greater angle is points. Then draw a small free-
360
hand circle around them so they the floor plan that touches the may be placed on the points for
will be easy to locate. Label the line should be centered on it. protection. Map tacks are also
left vanishing point VPL, and the (2) When the corner is at a 30°- sometimes used. They are pressed
right vanishing point VPR. Re- 60° angle to the picture plane into the drawing surface. How-
peat these names until they are line, it should be located approxi- ever, such devices leave holes and
permanently in mind. mately one-third the board width permanently damage the board;
n
On some drawings, the lines from the edge closest to the 60 so they are not recommended.
from the station point and those angle. Observe that the floor plan Whether one merely lines up
lines parallel to building edges of the perspective layout illustra- with the points previously marked
extend off the drawing board be- tion is positioned in this manner. on the paper or uses some device
fore they intersect with the pic- 10. Preparing Permanent as a marking aid, these points are
ture plane line. In such cases it is Points for Radiating Construction very important because they are
necessary to reposition the floor Lines. Thumbtacks may be placed used for radiating a large number
plan, move the measuring line, upside down over the two pre- of construction lines.
and also relocate the station point. viously drawn vanishing points 11. Eye Level. The eye-level
The following can be used as a and the station point, and taped illustration in this unit shows
general guide for determining the in place to serve as permanent three rectangular solids: one
placement of the floor plane on positions for these points. Be- above, one below, and one at eye
future drawings: (1) If it is to be cause thumbtacks can scratch or level.
positioned at a 45° angle to the puncture, they must be used with The relationship of eye level to
picture plane line, the corner of caution. Small hits of pencil eraser •'round determines whether one
Steps 9-13
361
looks up, down, or straight at the The ground line is now lO'-O" Note: All measurements, from
perspective picture. The angle below the horizon, using the now until the drawing is com-
from which the object is to be ?4"=l'-0" scale used for draw- pleted, will be drawn at the origi-
viewed is a matter of personal ing the original floor plan and nal building plans scale of V4"=
choice, to be determined by the elevations. Label this ground line, l'-0", unless otherwise specified.
way you desire the completed near the left edge of the paper. This perspective will be accom-
picture to appear. 12. Positioning an Elevation. plished in three stages:
Assume that, when standing, Using the right side elevation pre- • The basic building out-
the average person's eye level is viously drawn, position it so that lines will be drawn.
5'-6" above the ground. There- the bottom of the drawing, which • The roof and its overhang
fore if the perspective is to be also represents the ground, is on will be laid out.
exactly at eye level, the ground the ground line of the partial per- • To complete the picture,
line would be placed 5'-6" below spective. Move the elevation hori- details, such as window
the horizon, on the measuring zontally until it is approximately openings, doorways, and
line. When the drawing is com- 3" to the right of the left vanish- steps will be added.
plete, the viewer would be looking point. Now carefully tape the Compare your drawing with
ing directly at the building. elevation to the drawing surface, the one in the text before pro-
On this sample drawing, how- again being certain that no build- ceeding.Be sure that everything
ever, a slightly different measure- ing corners are covered by tape. drawn up to this time is correct.
ment is With an ordi-
to be used. 13. Place a small dot on the
Beginning the Building Outlines
nary measure 2Vi" down
ruler, drawing paper where the ground
14. Using a straightedge, po-
from the horizon anywhere along line intersects the measuring line.
its length. Then draw a light, This intersection is the location

sition it on the drawing paper so
that its edge passes through the
broken line all the way across the where the building perspective is
measuring line at the ground line,
paper. This is the ground line. begun.
and also through the right vanish-
ing point. Beginning at the mea-
suring line and drawing from left
to right, draw a very light con-

struction line to the right vanish-
ing point.
ABOVE HORIZON 15. Now position the straight-
edge so that it passes through the
left vanishing point, and also
through the intersection of the
ground and measuring line.
line
Drawing from right to left (which
CENTERED ON HORIZON
is backwards), make a light con-
struction line approximately the
same length as the front wall of
the floor plan (the wall that
touches the picture plane line).
16. The location where the

building corner touches the
BELOW HORIZON ground at the measuring line has
The relationship of the object to the horizon Is a matter of personal choice. now been established. Make a
362
dot to indicate where the two Make a dot on the paper where 19. From the intersection of
lines, vanishing to the right and this cone of vision line intersects the inclined construction line and
to the left, intersect the horizon the picture plane line. Using the the picture plane line, drop a light
line.These two vanishing lines are point just located, drop a light perpendicular to the ground.
where the building front and right perpendicular construction line to Make a small dot where this per-
side touch the ground. Erase the the ground at the bottom of the pendicular touches the ground.
left half of the original ground building. 20. Position the straightedge
line previously drawn, for it is no 18. Place the point of a pencil so that it touches both the dot just
longer needed. The position from on the building corner where the drawn, and the right vanishing
which the lines vanish at the bot- floor plan touches the picture point. Beginning at the dot and
tom of the building will now be plane line. Lift the pencil slightly, drawing to the left, make another
referred to as the ground, since following the front wall until the construction line slightly longer
this where the building touches
is corner by the doorway is reached. than the wall containing the door
the ground in the drawing. Make a dot to emphasize this on the floor plan.
17. Position the straightedge corner. Position the straightedge 21. Align the straightedge so
to pass through the station point so that it passes through this dot that it passes through the front
and also to touch the right rear and also through the station point. corner by the door on the floor
floor plan building corner. If the Beginning at this building corner plan, and through the station
straightedge was positioned cor- by the doorway, draw an inclined point. Drop an inclined construc-
rectly, it will be on the right cone construction line to the picture tion line to the picture plane line,
of vision line previously drawn. plane line. and make a. dot where the two
363
lines intersect. From this inter- drawn, now taped to the left of Note: When any remaining
section drop a perpendicular to the drawing paper. Measure the lines to be drawn are to be pro-
the line that represents the wall distance from the ground line to jected toward the vanishing
containing the door. This forms a the underside of the overhang points, the lines need to be ex-
building corner. From this corner where it touches the right building tended only to the corner where
project left toward the vanishing wall. This distance should mea- they terminate on the building, or
point with another construction sure 9'-4". From the lower build- slightly beyond an anticipated
line. ing corner on the measuring line edge.
22. Position the straightedge in the perspective, measure this 25. Reposition the straight-
so that it passes through the left, 9'-4" and make a dot at this edge so that it passes through the
front corner of the floor plan and height. left vanishing point, and also
the station point. The straightedge 24. Position the straightedge through the 9'-4" measurement
should now be aligned with the to pass through the dot just on the measuring line. Drawing
left cone of vision line. Mark the drawn, and through the right van- from right to left, project a con-
point where this line intersects the ishing point. Make another dot struction line from the measur-
picture plane line and drop a per- where the straightedge crosses the ing line to the wall by the door-
pendicular to represent the loca- right building wall. Draw a light way.
tion of the left building corner. construction line to connect the 26. Position the straightedge
Drawing Building Ceiling Lines dot on the measuring line with the to cross the doorway corner, and
23. Use the Va " scale and the dot on the right wall (back cor- also the right vanishing point.
right side elevation previously ner of the building). Now draw a construction line to
Steps 23-27.
represent the wall above the door- edge so that it passes through this 30. Place the straightedge or
way. dot on the measuring line, and triangle so that it passes through
27. Place the straightedge at also through the right vanishing the dot just drawn, and also
the upper right-hand corner of point. Draw a line from the dot through the intersection of the
the wall offset and also on the left on the measuring line to the right- ceiling line and measuring line.
vanishing point. Then draw a line hand wall. Draw a construction line between
connecting the right-hand to the 29. Position a straightedge to these two points. Repeat this step
left-hand corner. pass through both the station by placing the straightedge on
If all lines have been drawn point and the location on the floor both the dot at the roof peak, and
correctly, the ceiling line drawn plan where the roof ridge crosses on the ceiling line at the right
on the perspective is complete. the right-side wall. NOTE: This building corner. Draw a line be-
Compare your ceiling line just s against the outside wall and not tween these two dots.
drawn with the illustration in the against the overhang. Draw a line 31. Darken the following:
check for accuracy.
text, to from the intersection of the wall • The wall on the front pic-
Drawing a Roof Outline and roof ridge to the picture plane ture plane line from the
28. On the right side elevation, ine. Drop a perpendicular from ceiling line to the ground.
place a parallel rule, T-square, or uppermost
this intersection to the
• The rear wall line from
drafting machine at the underside ine on the perspective that van-
the ceiling line to the
of the roof overhang peak. Make shes to the right (the line drawn
ground.
a dot on the measuring line at this n the preceding step). Mark this
same hcieht. Position the straight- ocation with a dot. • The building ground line
Steps 28-45
365
from the measuring line mension to the perspective mea- placed on this perspective only
to the rear wall. suring line. to enclose the picture and show
• The two inclined lines 34. Place the straightedge what the basic structure would
representing the roof. If through the point look
just located and like.
all procedures were fol- also through the right vanishing 36. Hold the straightedge so it
lowed correctly, an out- point. Using the intersection passes through the left vanishing
line for the right end of where the straightedge crosses point, and also through and along
the building is now com- the front roof slope, draw a light the ground line where it meets the
plete. building corner at the measuring
construction line from right to
Projecting the Front Gable left, to a point approximately 1" line. Darken the ground line from
Wall Outline left of the measuring line. From the measuring line to the corner
32. Place a straightedge on the the point on the picture plane by the doorway.
floor plan from front to back, so line with the small circle drawn 37. Now position the straight-
that its edge is aligned with the around it, drop a perpendicular edge so it passes through the right
right building wall. If aligned until it crosses the last vanishing vanishing and along the
point
properly, it should pass through line drawn. Mark this location ground below the doorway,
line
the point at which the building with a dot. Place the straightedge and darken this short ground line.
wall intersects the picture plane on the paper through this dot and To darken the two ceiling lines,
line and measuring line. Extend through the left vanishing point. repeat the procedures for the two
this outside, end-wall line so that Project a line, from the dot steps just completed.
it protrudes into the vertical plane toward the left, past the vertical 38. Place the straightedge on
approximately the length of the wall furthest to the left. the right roof peak, and also on
front building offset containing 35. Position the straightedge the left vanishing point. Draw a
the doorway. This is a distance of on the floor plan, at the intersec- vanishing line from the peak to a
about 2" on an ordinary ruler. On tion of the front wall containing location beyond the left building
the floor plan, align the straight- the windows and roof ridge line wall. From the location on the
edge with the front wall contain- of the front building offset, and floor plan where the longest roof
ing the windows, and project the also on the station point. Then ridge crosses the left-hand wall,
wall line until it intersects the drop a construction line to the place the straightedge so it passes
right-side wall projection, pre- picture plane line. From this pic- through this location and the sta-
viously drawn. ture-plane line intersection, drop tion point. Working along the
33. Align the straightedge with a perpendicular to the last line straightedge, make a small dash
the point where the two wall pro- drawn (that vanished to the left), where it crosses the picture plane
jections intersect, and with the and mark their intersection with line. (It is only coincidence that
station point. Now draw a line a dot. this dash falls near a line drawn
from the intersection to the pic- Using this dot, and the ceiling earlier.) From the dash on the
ture plane line. Draw a circle line at both building offset cor- picture plane line, drop a perpen-
around this picture plane inter- ners, draw two inclined lines to dicular line until it passes the
section, because this point will be complete the front gable. Now vanishing roof-ridge previously
used for dropping the next verti- darken the outlines to enclose this drawn. Make a dot at this loca-
cal line. Now, using the front ele- front gable section. NOTE: If the tion.
vation, measure the distance from building perspective were to im- 39. Position the straightedge
the ground line to the underside mediately include an overhang, it on the floor plan so it follows the
of the roof overhang at the peak. would not be necessary to com- front wall that touches the picture
This distance should measure plete the steps for the roof outline plane line. Observe that the
12'-5". Transfer this height di- at this time. These outlines are straightedge also touches the lo-
366
cation where the left roof valley it crosses the vertical line con- ened because it will be necessary
crosses the left outside wall. nected to the back corner of the later to make some projections
Using this intersection on the left roof ridge at the building offset associated with these former lines.
wall, align the straightedge on the floor plan. Make a dot to (See illustration on next page).
through it and also through the mark this intersection. Place the 47. On the floor plan, place a
station point. Make a small dash straightedge on the perspective . straightedge along the right end
on the picture plane line where picture, so it passes through this wall, and lightly extend the wall
the straightedge crosses it. From dotted intersection, and also line until it touches the rear over-
this intersection, drop a perpen- through the intersection of the hang.
dicular line down to the perspec- front-wall ceiling line and the 48. Using the right side eleva-
tive picture to touch the ceiling doorway wall ceiling line. Then tion, which is attached to the
line. On this perspective, the ceil- darken a line between these two drawing paper, align the instru-
ing line is almost straight, be- intersections. ment used for drawing parallel
cause it is close to the horizon. 42. Position the straightedge lines so it touches the top of the
On other drawings, however, the so it passes through the left-hand roof peak. Place a dot on the
ceiling line would not necessarily roof peak, and also through the measuring line the same height as
appear almost straight. In such right vanishing point. This is the roof peak. Using the Va"
cases, the ceiling line that touches aligned with the roof ridge line scale, and measuring on the mea-
the measuring line would need to previously drawn. Now, darken suring line, this dot is approxi-
be projected left, to connect with this line to form a roof ridge. mately 7" above the dot formerly
the wall at the valley line. 43. Relocate the straightedge made to locate the original roof
40. The straightedge should be along the line previously labeled: height. Position the straightedge
held so it passes through the left left roof edge at the left building through this upper dot, and also
vanishing point, and also through wall. Darken this line, from the through the right vanishing point.
the ceiling line at the building roof ridge of the front building Make a new dot on the perspec-
measuring line. Make a dot where offset, to the roof line of the tive directly above the original
the straightedge crosses the last longest roof ridge. roof peak. This dot will be on a
perpendicular line drawn. This 44. Now align the straightedge perpendicular previously drawn.
dot represents the bottom of the through both the left vanishing 49. Slide the parallel instru-
left-hand roof slope. Position the point and the right roof peak and ment down until it crosses the
straightedge on the perspective darken this roof line. roof directly above the side walls
picture so it passes through this 45. Draw a perpendicular for in the elevation. Mark this loca-
dot, and also through the point of the inside building corner by the tion on the measuring line. This
intersection of the roof line with doorway. If the directions have dot should also be 7" above the
the line previously dropped down been followed exactly, the build- corner formed by the original ceil-
for the roof ridge at the left building outline is now completed. ing line and roof. Position the
ing edge. Draw a construction line The Roof Overhang straightedge through this dot, and
connecting the two locations just 46. The original building out- also through the right vanishing
determined. Label this line left linewas previously enclosed with point, and place another dot di-
roof edge at the left building wall. dark lines. It is suggested that you rectly above the rear wall.
41. Align the straightedge so it use a soft eraser to lightly erase 50. Place the straightedge on
passes through the left-hand roof the roof outline and the upper '/»" the front sloping roof of the right
peak on the perspective, and of all walls so that they will not building end of the perspective,
through the right vanishing point. interfere with subsequent lines to and extend the existing line ap-
Draw a construction line from the be drawn. These lines should not proximately 1" downward and to
roof peak toward the right, until be completely erased, only light- the left. This projection is in the
367
space below the ceiling line, and the original roof peak. From this also through the intersection on
to the left of the measuring line. new, upper, roof peak extend a the floor plan where the rear side-
Now slide the straightedge up- construction line into the space to wall extension crosses the rear
ward so it is aligned with the dot the right of the rear wall. overhang. Make a small dash
on the measuring line that is 7" 52. Align the straightedge so where the straightedge crosses the
above the ceiling line, and also it passes through the station point picture plane line. From this dash,
with the dot at the roof ridge. and also through the floor plan drop a perpendicular and darken
Project a construction line intersection of the front roof over- the distance between the upper
through these two dots, extend- hang and the right side wall ex- sloping roof line and the lower
ing to the left past the ceiling tension. Make a small dash where sloping roof line at the back of the
line approximately \" (the same the straightedge intersects the building perspective. This line,
distance as the inclined line pre- picture plane line. From this dash along with the one that was drawn
viously drawn). on the picture plane line, drop a at the front of the building, rep-
51. Align a straightedge with perpendicular until it crosses the resent the fascia location, which
the rear roof line on the perspec- roof overhang and is even with is exactly even with the building
tive, and extend the line into the right building wall. Draw a end. If these two short, vertical
space approximately 1". (This is vertical construction line to con- lines were drawn with accuracy,
to the right of the existing draw- nect the top sloping roof line to a straightedge placed at the top
ing.) Realign the straightedge so the lower sloping roof line. of the short vertical line to the
it is touching both the dot above 53. Position the straightedge left and through the right vanish-
the right wall, and the dot above through the station point, and ing point will also pass through
Steps 46-53
36: Pictorial Drawing*
the top of the vertical line to the Draw another line approximately the station point and the roof
right. This happens because both the same length as the vanishing overhang corner that is on the
the front and rear overhangs are line just drawn. floor plan and below the picture
at the same roof slope, equidistant Relocate the straightedge plane line. Then make a small
from the ground. The same is through the left vanishing point, dash where the straightedge
true for the two lower ends of the and through the top of the short crosses the picture plane line.
short vertical lines. lineon the right representing the From this dash, drop a perpen-
54. Align the straightedge back roof edge. Starting at the dicular to the two lines that van-
through the left vanishing point end of the sloping roof line, pro- ished left. Darken the corner for
and through the top of the short ject to the right about 1" with a the roof overhang.
vertical line closest to the mea- light construction line. 56. Now, with the straightedge
suring line. Beginning about 1" Realign the straightedge through both the station point and
on a regular ruler to the right of through the left vanishing point the rear overhang corner on the
the measuring line, project a van- and through the lower end of the floor plan, make a dash where the
ishing line to the left until it ex- short vertical line. Begin at the straightedge crosses the picture
tends about Vi" past the building rear building wall on the perspec- plane line. In the space to the
corner by the doorway. tive, and draw a construction line right of the rear wall, two short
Realign the straightedge so it to the right, approximately the vanishing lines were previously
passes through the left vanishing same length as the one previously drawn toward the right vanishing
point, and also through the bot- drawn. point. Drop a perpendicular from
tom of the short vertical line. 55. Align the straightedge with the last dash placed on the picture
Steps 54-66
plane line, and darken the dis- making a small dash where the Now position the straightedge
tance between the upper and straightedge crosses the picture so it passes through the station
lower lines. plane line. point, and through the outside

From this picture plane inter- overhang corner at the building
57. Hold the straightedge so it
on the plan. (The
section, drop a perpendicular un- offset floor
passes through the left vanishing
til it crosses the left vanishing line straightedge is again by coinci-
point, and through the uppermost new dence placed on the
just drawn. Make a dot at the line repre-
roof peak. Draw a construction
senting the offset corner.) Drop a
intersection. Align the straight-
line from the peak to a point ap- and darken the
edge through this intersection and perpendicular,
proximately 1" to the left of the
end over the doorway.
the upper dot with the small circle left fascia
existing left roof end. Locate the
around it; then draw a light con- 61. Align the straightedge
straightedge so it passes through
struction line to connect the two. through the left vanishing point,
both the station point and the and also through the upper edge
This is the roof edge at the left
roof ridge at the left building
overhang. of the just drawn dark, vertical
overhang of the floor plan. Place 59. Position the straightedge representing the upper fascia
line,
a dash on the picture plane line
so it passes through the station corner. Beginning Vi" left of the
where the straightedge crosses it. point, and through the overhang left building wall, project a con-
From this dash, drop a perpen- corner that is closest to the door- struction line to the left approxi-
dicular to the new roof line just
way (on the floor plan), near the mately 3A" long. Realign the
drawn, and make a dot where the van-
front wall that touches the picture straightedge through the left
two lines intersect. Draw a small,
Observe that this cor- and through the
plane line. ishing point,
light circle around this dot so that
ner is in line with the right roof lower fascia corner, and project
it can be easily located later.
valley, and with a construction another line similar to the van-
58. Lay the straightedge on line previously dropped to the ishing line previously drawn.
the drawing through the left van- picture plane line. A perpendicu- 62. Position the straightedge
ishing point, and also through the lar was drawn to the build-
later through the station point, and
upper edge of the front fascia line. ing corner on the perspective through the left, front overhang
Here, the fascia line is near the picture.This is another coinci- corner on the floor plan. Mark
ceiling line: this is only coincidence due to the floor plan posi- a dash where the straightedge
dence and one should not assume tion on the drawing sheet: these crosses the picture plane line.
that the ceiling line always aligns corners are not always aligned in From this dash, drop a perpen-
with the upper fascia line. Ob- this manner. dicular and darken the distance
serve also that the straightedge Using the perpendicular just between the two vanishing lines
passes below the dot drawn earlier referred to, darken a short verti- most recently drawn. This short,
to represent the lower edge of the cal line across the corner to rep- dark, vertical line represents the
left end roof. From below the dot resent the fascia end. left overhang corner, in space.
representing this lower corner, 60. Hold the straightedge so it 63. A roof peak for the left
project a construction line to the passes through the right vanishing building offset was previously
left, until it almost touches the point, and through the upper drawn on the perspective. From
sloping line for the front gable. fascia corner just drawn. Project this peak on the front building
Now, on the floor plan, project a line from the corner toward the wall, extend a vertical construc-
the left roof-valley line .until it left, until it extends past the cor- tion line upward into space (on
the drawing) approximately /i".
x
crosses the roof-overhang line. ner building wall approximately
Using this intersection, and the Vi". Repeat this process for the Place a small check at the top of
station point, align the straight- lower fascia edge that is above the this vertical line so it will be easy
edge through these two points, doorway. to identify later.
370
64. Lay your straightedge on before the overhang was begun.) cal dashes to the right of the origi-
the floor plan so it is on the over- Now extend this line approxi- nal roof outline. With the straight-
hang line in front of the front mately 1
" to the right of the right edge passing through the upper
windows, and make a dash on the roof peak at the right building end end of the line immediately to the
line that was projected forward wall. Realign the straightedge right of the measuring line, and
on the floor plan from the right through both the left vanishing through the upper line to the right
end wall. Observe that this inter- point and the upper roof peak, of the original roof peak, darken
section is in the space below the and extend this line approxi- the distance between these two
picture plane line. Place a mately 1
" to the right. short, vertical lines. Move the
straightedge through this intersec- 66. Position the straightedge straightedge to the lower end of
tion, and through the station on the floor plan to pass through these two lines, and draw a new,
point. Make a dash where the the intersection of the long roof inclined dark line to connect the
straightedge crosses the picture ridge at the right overhang, and lower corners.
plane line. Place a small check through the station point. Mark a 68. Position the straightedge
mark above this dash, so it will be dash on the picture plane line so that it is at the top of the short,
easy to locate for future reference. where the straightedge crosses it. vertical line at the roof overhang
65. Align the straightedge with and drop a perpendicular to the peak, and the top of the short
the left vanishing point, and with two extensions of the roof ridges vertical line farthest to the right.
the original long roof line. (This on the perspective. Darken the Now darken the distance between
is the original roof that was space between these two lines. the two lines. Move the straight-
darkened, and then lightly erased 67. There are now three verti- edge to the bottom of the two
371
short, vertical lines, and draw the drawn. A small check mark was dark line. Reposition the straight-
bottom edge of the roof overhang. earlier placed on the vertical line edge through the lower ends of
69. Use the parallel drawing at the wall offset building peak. these two vertical lines, and
instrument on the right side ele- Beginning about Vs" to the left darken the lower edge of the
vation and align it with the top of the vertical line with the check, fascia.
of the horizontal roof line of the project a construction line to the 77. Position the straightedge
offset. Make a dot on the mea- left about 5/»". through the new roof peak of the
suring line where the straight- 73. Reposition the straightedge building offset, and through the
edge crosses it. Since the fascia so it passes through the left van- right vanishing point. Beginning
width ismeasure down this
7", ishing point, and also through the at this roof peak, project a 3"
7"-distance, and make another lower edge of the short vertical construction line to the right.
dot on the measuring line. line last drawn (approximately 1" 78. Position the straightedge
Although the fascia does not to the left of the measuring line through the intersection of the
show on the side elevation at this on the perspective). Again be- two valleys and roof ridge on the
peak, it does show on the front ginning about Vs" to the left of floor plan, and through the station
elevation. the vertical line with the check, point. (Once again, the straightedge
70. Position the straightedge project to the left approximately is aligned with a line previously
through the right vanishing point, W. drawn, an event which would not
and through the upper dot just 74. Position the straightedge likely occur in other drawings.)
drawn. Beginning where the so it passes through the roof ridge Where the straightedge crosses
straightedge crosses the front roof of the front building offset, on the the picture plane line, drop a per-
edge at the fascia, draw a line to floor plan, at its intersection with pendicular until it crosses the last
the left until it is approximately the front roof overhang line, and drawn roof ridge on the perspec-
\" left of the measuring line. also through the station point. tive, and make a dot at this lo-
Again place the straightedge on Make a small dash on the picture cation.
the right vanishing point, and plane line, and drop a perpen- 79. Align the straightedge
through the lower dot that was dicular to connect the two van- through the dot just drawn, and
previously drawn. From the in- ishing lines just drawn. Darken through the fascia intersection of
tersection of the straightedge with this short, vertical line that rep- the front, and side overhang
the lower, front fascia line, pro- resents the upper building over- above the doorway. This is a val-
ject approximately 1" to the left hang peak at the fascia edge. ley line. It should be drawn as a
of the measuring line. 75. Now position the straight- dark line.
71. Earlier, a small check edge so it passes through the top 80. Draw a dark line following
mark was placed above a dash of the line just drawn and the along the roof ridge of the front
that crossed the picture plane line. short, vertical line to the left of building offset.
This dash represents the overhang the left building wall. Darken the 81. A small circle was for-
corner in space, and is in the distance between them. Move the merly drawn around a dot at the
same plane as the right building straightedge to the bottom of the left roof-ridge end. Position your
end. From the check mark, drop two short vertical lines, and again straightedge through this dot, and
a perpendicular to the perspec- darken between them. also through the right-end build-
tive, and connect the two vanish- 76. Place the straightedge ing peak. Draw a dark line con-
ing lines last drawn. through the upper corner of the necting these two points, to com-
72. Position the straightedge highest vertical line, and the verti- plete the final roof ridge.
so it passes through the left van- cal line representing the front 82. Beginning at the small dot
ishing point, and through the top overhang corner by the doorway. with the circle around it, align the
of the short, vertical line last Connect between them with a straightedge with the left roof
372
overhang. Most of this line is now ing point, and darken the two the erasures. These lines should
covered by building, but a small fascia lines above the doorway be redarkened to complete this
portion next to the left roof edge wall. Now align the straightedge stage of the perspective drawing.
remains. It should be darkened in. through the left vanishing point, Window and Door Outlines
83. Position the straightedge and darken the two fascia lines 87. Before you begin to draw
so it passes through the right van- that are parallel to the front wall the window and door outlines,
ishing point, and also through the without windows. Position the erase all construction lines pre-
left lower corner of the front straightedge through the right viously projected down to the
fascia at the building offset. vanishing point, and through the perspective. Also, erase the con-
Working from left to right, darken bottom of the fascia beyond the struction lines between the eleva-
a line to connect to the left build- left wall, and darken from the tion and the perspective.
ing edge. bottom of the short dark vertical 88. The third stage of this
84. Position the straightedge line, back to the wall. perspective drawing consists of
through the left vanishing point, 86. The original building out- drawing the window and door
and through the lower fascia cor- lines were darkened during the openings. To simplify the draw-
ner to the right of the building early part of this assignment, and ing,only the openings are to be
end. (This is the line farthest to then subsequently lightened with drawn. As you become more pro-
the right that has been drawn.) an eraser. The upper portion of ficient, you can show these items
Now draw a line connecting to wall lines, and the intersections of in detail.
the right, rear building corner. soffits with building walls, are still To begin the windows and
85. Vanish to the right vanish- probably partially visible through doors, place your T square or
Steps 87-95
drafting machine in position for the two windows and also the marked on the measuring line and
drawing horizontal lines. Project two outside vertical lines of each then remark these locations on
construction lines from the tops window. Darken each window the first wall line to the left of the
and bottoms of all windows and outline. measuring line.
doors shown on the elevation over 93. Each window still has a Position the straightedge so it
to the measuring line. Make small vertical construction line that has passes through the new heights
dashes on the measuring line to not been darkened. These were just located and also through the
indicate these locations. projected from the floor plan at right vanishing point. Draw the
89. From the dashes just the locations marked upper inside door, following exactly the same
marked on the measuring line edges. procedures as were used for
draw light construction lines van- Align the straightedge so it drawing the windows on the right
ishing to the right for the top and passes through the left vanishing end of the building.
bottom of the windows on the point and the lower rear window To draw the windows in the
right building end. corner. Draw a short dark line front building offset, transfer the
90. Align the straightedge from the construction line to the height measurements to the cor-
through the station point and the darkened window outline. Now ner in front of the door. Then
rear window edge on the floor darken the construction line from vanish these heights to the left
plan. Drop a construction line to the top of the window down to vanishing point and draw con-
the picture plane line. Repeat this the vanishing line previously struction lines for the horizontal
step five more times —once for drawn. This represents the inside window lines. These windows are
each visible window corner. edge of the window. Repeat this to be completed following the
Please observe the six construc- process for the other window. same procedures that were used
tion lines shown on the last draw- 94. Align the straightedge for the right building end.
ing in this series. These show how through the inside window cor- 96. The front step is the final
they were projected from the ners just drawn and also through item to be drawn. Position the
windows to the station point. the right vanishing point. Draw straightedge so that it passes
91. Each of these six inclined two lines to show the inside lower through the station point and the
construction lines terminates at window edges. front edge of the step where it
the picture plane line. From the 95. The longest front wall has touches the longest front build-
ends of these lines drop perpen- no windows or doors. To be able ing wall. Make a small dash
diculars onto the right building to draw the windows and doors where the straightedge crosses the
end. in the two walls of the building picture plane line. Drop a per-
92. Locate the construction offset, it is necessary to vanish pendicular onto the perspective
lines for the top and bottom of left from the heights previously and draw a lisht construction line
Step 96.
374
slightly longer than the step

height as shown on the building
elevation. Repeat this process for
the front corner of the step. Make
a small horizontal dash on the
measuring line that is the same
height as the front step shown on
the elevation drawing.
Position the straightedge
through the height just located
and also through the left vanish-
ing point. Draw a dark line to
represent the top of the step.
Repeat the above procedure
for the step end that is even with Two-point interior perspective.
the front building edge. Darken
the two vertical lines to the cor-
ners of the step. Vanish to the and touch up any object lines as shown. If your drawing is not
right and darken the top and needed so that your completed exactly the same as this drawing,
bottom of the step. perspective is identical to the last check through the procedures and
97. Erase all construction lines two-point perspective illustration make any necessary corrections.
PERSPECTIVE FOR ONE-POINT line vanish toward a single van- let you see how objects
spectives
ishing point. The vanishing point would appear when they vanish
One-point perspective is very
can be located in any position. If at different angles.
similar to two-point except the
it is in the center of the perspec- The procedures for drawing
plan view placed above the picture
tive drawing, you are looking di- one-point perspectives are almost
plane line is positioned so one
rectly toward the object. identical to those for two-point
side is parallel to the line. Draw-
The four illustrations showing except that only one vanishing
ing procedure is simplified if the
interior perspectives and the four point is used. The most important
front edge of the plan view is
illustrations showing exterior per- thing to be aware of is that one
placed on the picture plane line.
This permits the front perspective
outline to be drawn at the same
scale as the elevations and floor
plan. When the front outline is
parallel to the picture plane line

and all horizontal lines are drawn
parallel, it provides an oppor-
tunity for one to use any hori-
zontal line in this plane as a mea-
suring line.
All vertical lines are drawn

vertical on one-point perspective.
All lines of the plan view that are
at right angles to the picture plane One-point exterior perspectives. One-point interior perspectives.
375
.
can measure only on the frontal

plane and that all measurements
must be transferred back to their
proper locations.
One-point perspective is espe-
cially valuable when it is neces-
sary to show an object with three
sides visible. The accompanying
illustration emphasizes the van-
ishing lines. It also shows the
great illusion of depth that is pos-
sible with this perspective method.
One-point pen-and-ink perspective.
1 Describe isometric drawing. 16. Are perspective drawings

2. What is the main objection used as plans? Explain.
to isometric drawing? 17. What is the major difference
3. What is an isometric axis? between two-point and one-point
4. What are non-isometric lines? perspective?
5. How do you determine where 1 8. What is a picture plane line?
to draw non-isometric lines? 19. When referring to perspec-
6. Why is an object drawn first five, what is the horizontal plane?
using construction lines and then 20. What is the vertical plane?
re-drawn with object lines? 21. Is it necessary to place a
7. Is it necessary to remove floor plan so it touches the picture
construction lines? Explain. plane line? Explain.
8. What is a reversed axis iso- 22. Explain how the angle is de-
metric drawing? termined when positioning the floor
9. Draw an example of an iso- plan.
metric circle and explain briefly how 23. What is a measuring line?
it was done. Explain its use.
10. Explain how curved lines are 24. What is a station point?
drawn in isometric. What determines its location?
1 1 . What is an oblique drawing? 25. What is a cone of vision?
1 2. What are two advantages of 26. What is the horizon?
using this drawing method? 27. What are vanishing points?
13. What is the chief disadvan- 28. What is the relationship of
tage of this drawing method? the vanishing points to the horizon?
14. What is cabinet drawing? 29. In two-point perspective, how
What are its advantages? are the vanishing points established?
15. What is perspective drawing? Explain.
376
Sketches and Renderings
Preliminary Sketches tative floor plan and elevation tobe put on public display or for
As you know, building plans sketches are shown. making reproductions to accom-
must be approved by the prospec- There isno specific drawing pany newspaper or magazine
and verbal discussions
tive client, scale that must be used; the size articles, or literature to be given
do not always communicate the of the structure determines the to interested persons. Renderings
ideas of all persons involved in scale. But for the average are also usually done for tract or
the planning. home plan W'=l'-0" is usually development homes, or homes

While a project is in the forma- satisfactory. with stock plans, so brochures can
tive stages, the architect makes Determining Need for a Rendering be made available to prospective
several tentative plans based upon After a tentative plan has been clients. One-of-a-kind or custom
information supplied by the client decided upon, architectural ren- homes may have only simple ren-
and through conferences. These derings of the proposed building derings, ornone at all, if of con-
beginning drawings probably may be required. Large, elaborate ventional size and appearance.
will combine freehand and quick structures such as schools, On luxury-class homes, the client
instrument sketches. Usually the churches, hospitals, or office build- can well afford complete render-
floor plan is worked outand first ings require elaborate renderings ings so as to judge details.
then principal elevations. During

formation of the design, floor plan
drawings may be done as a heavy
single line, or wall thickness can
be added if desired.
Very little detail is included—
walls, door and window openings,
locations of major equipment, and
the name and approximate size
of each room.
Elevations are also sketched or
drawn in outline while ideas are
being developed, with very little
detail information. It is frequently

necessary to sketch dozens of pre-
liminary plans before a final de-
sign is developed. Samples of ten- Preliminary floor plan pencil sketch.
377
Port Three: From Ideas to Reality
Who Does the Rendering

Renderings may be done by the
architect, or he may have them
done by studios or individual
architectural illustrators specializ-
ing in this work.
Scope of the Chapter

The discussion of renderings
here does not treat the subject
fully. It serves as an introduction
to the topic.
Quality of Materials
If he had to pay for them, the

learning student could not al-
Pencil sketch with walls drawn as solid lines.
ways afford the best equipment
and materials. However, even a
modest school budget should per-
mit stocking of most supplies and
equipment of satisfactory range
and quality. All materials should
then be handled with great care.
Rendering Mediums
Nine different rendering medi-
ums are discussed on the follow-
ing pages, some in detail while
others are simply identified. Care-
ful study of the illustrations ac-
companying the discussions will
help show you how to develop
specific skills.
Transparent Water Colors

Transparent water colors are
available in cake or tube form.
Cakes in metal trays are economi-
Finished preliminary presentation for plan sketch.
cally packaged and sold as sets,
Pencil sketch of a front elevation. with color replacements available.

Tube colors can be purchased in-
dividually or in packaged sets.
You may feel you should use

cake colors because they are less
expensive. However, they are

harder to tone with water to just
the right mixture, they can ruin
378
37: Sketches and Renderings
a delicate brush, and therefore and a similar range of conical the cap does become sealed on
are less desirable than tube colors. shapes. Good brushes are expen- the tube it may be loosened by
To pick up color from the sive, so they must be handled soaking in warm water. Dried
cakes the brush must be dipped with care. Never allow paint to paint can also be picked from
in water and rubbed on the paint. dry in them; always wash them between the cap base and threads
This is very hard on the brush. immediately after they are used. with a sharp instrument.
Cake paint is convenient for doing They must also be washed when The best practice is never to
small areas but is difficult to use you change colors, so other hues allow paint to fill the cap or
for large-spread, even tones. do not become discolored. threads.
Standard procedure for using Brushes must be stored so the To unscrew the cap, hold the
tube color: A small dab of paint bristles do not become bent. They tube near the rigid top (where
is placed in a mixing tray, dish, can either be stored flat or in- the sides meet the cap) and turn
or jar so water can be added. verted with the handles standing gently. Do not hold the tube
Mixing in jars with tight lids per- in a tall container. where it is flexible or you might
mits storage for future use. You Handling color tubes. If tubes twist the top off.
should mix slightly more color of water color are to be used they Use of colors. Water colors are
than you think you will need be- must be handled with care be- seldom used full strength, gen-
cause it is very difficult and time cause they are of soft material. erally, only as accents to brighten
consuming to match colors pre- Don't squeeze the tube while the rendering. For example,
viously used. the cap is on because this builds shrubs, flowers, or foliage on fore-
You should have two water up pressure. When the cap is re- ground trees are sometimes ac-
containers— one for mixing paint, moved, more paint than is desired cented in very intense colors.
and one for cleaning brushes. will come from the tube.
Two half-pint or pint jars are If excess color is taken from
Four Ways of Applying
recommended. the tube don't try to hold or force
Water Color
Water color brushes must have it back in by placing the cap over
1 Flat wash.
soft, fine bristles for flowing or extended paint. This paint accu-
2 Graded wash.
washing the paint. One should mulation between the cap and
3 Laid-on color.
have at least three to five sizes tube threads makes it difficult to
4 Wet into wet.
of wide and narrow flat brushes remove for subsequent uses. If
Flat Wash
The term flat wash means that Note: Color on a large finished are to be placed side by side,
color is deposited uniformly over rendering will appear darker one should be dry before the
an entire area. To do a flat wash, than on a small sample. next one is applied.
mix the desired color with water Strong colors do not usually Flat washes can be applied to
in the mixing tray or jar. Brush flow on smoothly in a flat wash. small or large areas and a smooth
a sample onto a scrap of the same Therefore, if a strong color is de- color achieved. If the area is large,
kind of paper as being used for the sired, several light washes should the color can be controlled better
rendering. This is very important be applied until the right effect if the area is "painted" first with
because paint does not look the is achieved. For best results, a clear water.
same on all papers. If the color is wash should be dry before an- Try several sample flat washes
satisfactory, you are ready to other one is placed over it. Also, before doing your permanent
apply the wash. if two different colored washes rendering.
379
Diluted water-color wash rendering.
Strong pigmented water-color wash rendering with accents of flowers, shrubs, and exterior trim of
opaque water color.
380
.
Steps for Painting a Flat Wash on 7 Following the top outline of 10. Continue making strokes
a Drawing the part, stroke the brush back and forth across the
1 Select a flat brush of an ap- horizontally to the other side paper, always moving the
propriate size for the area to of the area. Be sure to follow puddle beneath the brush,
be washed. the outline very carefully so until the entire area is filled.
2. Lay the drawing flat on a the paint covers only the de- Note: On the last stroke,
table. In light pencil, outline sired area.With only a little turn the brush so the tip fol-
carefully the space to be practice you should be able lows the area outline.
washed. Paint with water to paint up to a line without 1 1 When the area is completely
only. leaving spaces or lapping washed, you should still have
3. Next, be sure the paint and over. If the paint consistently a puddle at the bottom of the
water are mixed thoroughly. runs over the top line, you painted area. This must be
4. Dip the brush in the middle have too large a puddle. removed. Either touch a blot-
of the paint and fill it. It
8. Following the side outline of ter to the puddle or wipe your
should not be necessary to the area, and without lifting paintbrush on a clean cloth
wipe the brush on the side of the brush, move it slightly to partially dry it and then
the container to remove part down so the tip touches and lift the puddle with the brush.
of the paint. barely laps into the wet paint Regardless of the method
5. Hold the brush at the same from the first stroke. used,do not touch the paper
angle as you would hold a 9. Check the puddle beneath because this may pick up
pencil for writing. Place the the brush; if it is about used more color than desired and
tip of the brush in one of the up, refill your brush from a light area may result.
upper corners of the area to your paint tray. You must do While the color is still damp
be washed. this quickly because the first it may not appear smooth; this is
6. Observe the puddle of paint stroke cannot be allowed to no cause for alarm if the surface
beneath the brush. To do a dry before the second one is is only slightly uneven. When it
flat wash you must always made or the splice will show dries the paint should level out
have a puddle. a darker shade. to an even tone.
Graded Wash
A graded wash is very similar shades required. Trying them 5. Using the same technique as
to a flat tone except that the color out will help you achieve this. for aflat wash, paint the first
gradually changes from light to 2. Using a mixing tray or a series area with the lightest color.
dark, dark to light, or alternates of containers prepare the If a large puddle remains at
from one tone to another. The shades required. Trying them the end, pick up most of it.
and how
allover size of the area out will help you achieve this. 6. While the first wash is still wet,
gradually the tone must change 3. Paint samples of each color to apply the second one in the
determines the number of differ- ascertain if they are correct. same manner. Lap slightly into
ent shades required. Note that 4. Divide the area to be painted the first wash so there is no
each shade or tint must be mixed into the number of required pronounced line.
separately and tested before you spaces. Make short dashes at 7. Repeat the process in each suc-
start. both sides of the area. Do not ceeding space, using the color
draw a guide line across be- mixed for it.
Steps for Painting a Graded Wash cause it will show through the 8. After the last area is painted,
1. Determine the number of finished wash. remove the excess puddle.
381
Pari Three: From Ideas to Reality
Laid-On Color shrubs,and fences cannot be short strokes can be formed. The
This technique requires much added over wash areas or any brush can also be stroked farther
less water than a wash. The color other color because the color un- to form lighter accents. With this
tends to be much stronger, of derneath will show through. It method an uneven tone, such as
course, except when very light is necessary to leave shapes blank for a shrub, may be achieved. Do
tints of pigment from the tube and unpainted for the laid-on not scrub at a spot in an attempt
are employed. effect. to make the paint smooth. All
Areas to be painted should be To apply paint, the brush is strokes should be made with a
outlined very lightly with a pencil filled and then laid or touched flowing motion. Before beginning
so colors can be confined to their onto the paper repeatedly to form a rendering, practice until you
proper areas. Since the paint is a pattern. Also, by moving the are sure that you have mastered
transparent, items such as trees, brush slightly as it is laid on. this technique.
Wet -Into -Wet

This method is entirely differ- should have only a thin film posited paint without touching
ent from those just discussed. The of water washed over it. For the paper or you may tilt the
dropped into
colors are literally medium spread, apply more paper so the paint runs to the
water on the drawing surface. The heavily by using closer pud- desired point.
surface must be extremely wet so dles. For a wide spread, apply 6. If water accumulates at edges
the paint will spread in all direc- puddles so close they touch of areas it causes lines of paint
tions toform designs. By varying each other. Then smooth light- where none are desired. Ex-
(1) the amount of water on the ly. Less water may be applied cess water may be lifted with a
paper, (2) the quantity and color close to the edges of an area blotter, brush, or other absor-
of the paint, (3) the location where so the paint won't spread into bent material. This must be
it is dropped, and (4) by tilting other areas. Note: Prolonged done with great care to prevent
the drawing slightly, one can soaking may damage the disrupting the paint pattern.
guide the pattern. paper, so one must work 7. The rendering should remain
quicklyand know what he stationary until the water dries
Steps for Painting Wet-lnto-Wet plans to do. and the paint becomes set.
1. Mix the color or colors. The When there is no longer any
4. Paint may be placed on the
mix must be stronger than de- water standing on the surface,
drawing in several ways: (1)
siredon the rendering because drying may be completed by
It may be dropped from a
the paint is thinned by the applying heat to speed the
loaded brush so it falls into
water on the paper. process. Note: If illustration
the water. (2) A loaded brush
board is painted by this meth-
2. Determine how the pattern is may be touched lightly to the
od, it may buckle from the
to appear. water without touching the
water. The back surface may
paper. (3) It may be brushed
3. Using a brush of an appropri- be pre-dampened to counter-
lightly across the surface of
ate size apply clean water to act this.
the water.
the area. (The amount of water Note: The clouds for the
determines how much the 5. To stroke color from one point opaque water color rendering at
paint will spread.) For only to another or to spread it into the bottom of page 369 are an
slight spreading, the surface designs, you may brush de- example of this painting method.
382
14MIH>
Professional opaque water-color rendering.
Opaque Water Colors
Several different names are heavy bodied paint similar in ap- a building because of their life-
used for opaque water colors. The pearance to rubber-base wall like colors, and the realistic small
most common are tempera, paints. details possible with this medium.
poster paint, and show-card paint, This medium is a favorite with These are very strong colors,
or polymer plastic. Many quali- many professionals because it ac- seldom used full strength except
ties are available, packaged in curately duplicates colors that are as accents to brighten the render-
graded sizes. Some
glass jars of used on building surfaces. Many ing. To obtain natural, lifelike
manufacturers also package small times photographs of opaque effects, they are usually cut with
quantities in tubes. water color renderings are mis- white. When mixing colors, begin
Opaque water color makes a taken for actual photographs of with the lightest one required.
Student opaque water-color rendering.

frwin H Jomes, Archil
Opaque water-color rendering done in tones of grey.
If mixing is begun with a air-tight containers so it does not Note: If the threads in the lid
strong color, an entire jar of white dry between uses. or on the jar get paint onthem it
may be needed to lighten it suffi- Before removing paint from the must be cleaned off so the cap
ciently! One could add so much original container it should be will screw on properly.
white that the rendering might well stirred, because heavy pig- Since this material is heavy
become chalky. ments settle and leave only col- bodied, water must usually be
As with transparent water colored water at the top of the jar. added so it will spread properly.
ors, a mixture is very difficult to Paint should be dipped not poured However, if good coverage is not
match, one should prepare
so from the original container so the obtained, too much water
is being
enough complete the entire

to mouth of the jar will not become used. Whenmixing or adding
rendering and still have some left caked. Always clean the object water use a stiff bristled mixing
over for touch up. being used so colors do not be- brush or a wood paddle; never
Mixed paint must be stored in come contaminated. use a paintbrush.
One-point interior kitchen perspective rendered with Two-point interior kitchen perspective rendered with
004 opaque water-color. opaque water-color.

Opaque water color is applied or shrub is to be painted in front the paint is thin, only a limited
with a stiff brush so paint can be of a building, the building may amount can be sprayed onto a
spread thin. Different sized large be painted and then the area rendering at one time. If a large
and small brushes are needed for occupied by trees or shrubs re- quantity is deposited it will form
different sized areas to be painted. moved so they can be painted bubbles or drops which will run
Since the paint covers well, it is without build-up. Not opaqueall and cause streaks. Water color is
not necessary to have a heavy paints are water soluble so some the conventional material used,
coat. Too much paint will cause cannot be removed after they but it is very slow drying, which
air bubbles, uneven texture, and have dried. makes time consuming. The
it
it will check and flake off. During Airbrush most important advantage of us-
application the brush should con- ing lacquer is that it dries very
An airbrush is a small paint
tain very little and should
paint rapidly.
sprayer manufactured exclusively
be spread as though this is all you When using water color it is
for art work. It ranges from inex-
have. A painted area should be
pensive to very expensive, de-
important to clean the gun after
perfectly smooth with no visible use, but with lacquer it is much
pending upon the quality of the
brush marks or unevenness in more important. Lacquer should
equipment. Good equipment is
coverage. not be allowed to dry in the gun
recommended for school use.
After one becomes expert at Paint or lacquer is placed in a
because it is very difficult to re-
using this medium it can be container attached to the gun and
move. If only lacquer is to be
washed on, graded, or dropped it is forced out and onto the ren-
used, it is a good idea to clean it
in; but best results are obtained dering by compressed air. The gun and then spray lacquer thinner
with flat, solid colors.
has adjustments to regulate the through the gun to clean the noz-
Since colors are opaque, zle inside. After cleaning is com-
it is air pressure and the size of the
possible to paint items and then plete, one may leave a little thin-
nozzle opening (orifice). The paint
repaint them another color with- consistency also helps determine ner in the gun's tank so there is
out the first one showing through. how well it sprays and whether
no possibility of residual lacquer's
To prevent paint build-up. a or not it is atomized into consis- drying and clogging the nozzle.
damp brush may be used to re- tently fine particles. Generally When storing, clean all equip-
move paint so a new coat can be speaking paint or lacquer must ment, including hose from the air
applied. For example, if a tree be very thin to spray well. Since tank, thoroughly.
Airbrush rendering. 385

frwin H. Jomes, Arehit*
Items for Consideration in Airbrush Rendering
• Before the actual rendering is for accurate cutting. Use a orifice is open, the coverage
begun, do a preliminary color straightedge, when possible. desired, the viscosity of the
study on inexpensive paper. Cut exactly on outlines, and do paint, and the rate of move-
This is usually a rapidly exe- not cut past lines at corners. ment of the brush all help
cuted pencil sketch tinted with After all cutting is complete, determine how much is
water colors. the frisket is removed from the applied.

• Make a very light pencil draw- area to be sprayed. The brush should be held a
ing on drawing paper showing When masking tape is used, do constant distance from the
the outlines of all items. not cut ends off flat against rendering and should be
• If a rendering is held in a ver- the surface of the rendering, moved across the area at a
tical position while it is because this will cut through uniform rate of speed. If these
sprayed, the danger of color the tape and damage the draw- are varied the color will not
dripping from the airbrush ing. Hold tape end clear while be uniform.
during use is minimized. Most cutting it. Even a small cut is Make the first pass or swath
paint tanks have an air hole very pronounced after paint is across the top of an area be-
in the top; when the brush is applied. ginning on the masking at one
tilted, paint runs out. Since all parts must be masked side and ending on the mask-
• If water color is used the paint or have frisket applied at some ing at the other side. Do not
is transparent. If lacquer is time during the rendering pro- stop at the edge of the masked
used it may be either trans- cess, it is sometimes applied area or a dark spot will result.
parent or opaque depending over painted surfaces. Broad After the first pass, the gun
upon the quantity sprayed on. strips of masking tape should should be moved down so the
• Completely mask off all areas never contact painted surfaces. spray pattern laps about half-
of a rendering that are not to The paper covering should ex- way into the first pattern pass.
be sprayed a given color to tend almost to the area where Then spray back across onto
prevent them from being tinted paint is to be applied, and then the masking at the other side.
by overspray (paint sprayed the tape lapped onto it so only This process is repeated until
where you do not wish it to be). about a '/i6" to W strip is ex- the entire area to be painted
• Masking: Large areas may be posed for adhering to the is filled.
covered with any paper and drawing. It is not always possible to

then masking tape used at Careful tape or frisket removal spray enough paint to achieve
edges of the part being is important so previously the desired density in one ap-
sprayed. Note: Gummed or painted surfaces and edges of plication. When greater cov-
plain frisket may be used in- new paint are not damaged erage is desired, additional
stead of masking tape. when the material is lifted. coats must be applied in the
• Frisket is very thin transparent Note: Some masking tape has same manner as described. For
or translucent paper or plastic a heavy adhesive coat while a more even appearance, the
that is placed over the draw- others do not. Tape with light second coat can be applied up
ing. The part to be painted is adhesive works best. and down at right angles to
cut out with a knife while it is When applying the color me- the first coat.
on the drawing. One must cut dium only experience will in- Sometimes one desires graded
through the frisket without dicate the distance to hold the tones with some areas darker
damaging the rendering. This air brush away from the draw- than others. Instead of moving
requires patience and delicacy ing. Air pressure, how much the constantly back and forth as
386
previously described, the air- darker than anticipated. It is experienced person when select-
brush may be used in a tight a good idea to apply only ing the proper pen to use for a
circular motion to apply addi- about half as much paint as desired effect.
tional paint to some areas. one feels necessary, then lift Long, straight lines are usually
It is difficult to judge exactly a corner of the masking and drawn or sketched along a
how much paint is applied. check the color with areas al- straightedge, while irregular lines
After masking is removed, ready rendered before contin- may be drawn or sketched free-
colors usually look much uing. hand. Broad areas may be filled
in with a brush.
Renderings may be either in
the form of very simple line draw-
India Ink Pens used may include ruling ings or may include much intri-
There are two different ways pens, technical fountain pens, cate detail such as individual
the beginner may render with ink, and crow quill pens, which are leaves, blades of grass, textures,
( 1 ) for line work or (2) as a wash, either sharp pointed or flat or and shadows.
or render an entire drawing in a rounded in different sizes. Colored inks may also be used
single color (usually black). Ink Since there are so many kinds as a wash similar to water color,
is applied as solid lines of differ- and sizes of pens one must check although it is rather difficult and
ent lengths and widths to form manufacturer's descriptions or requires much practice for satis-
objects, or as shading. rely upon the judgment of an factory results.
Pen-and-ink rendering.
Kramer Ond Engstrom, Architect!. Pork Ridge, III
Rendering by Forest Studios, Pork Ridge, III.
387
r*^
EIPJT-LiniT PPT
QUILDIPC
388
SECOND FLOOR PLAN
FIRST FLOOR PLAN
LAUNDRY UTILITY
ll'l 27' II' i 27'
UNEXCAVATEO
UNEXCAVATEO
RECREATION
26' I 69'
BASEMENT PLAN
Ink line drawings with water-color washes.
389
-tf
S^"-
water-color washes.
Pen-and-ink rendering combined with
Pencil rendering. Erwin H. James, Architect
390
Interesting and beautiful re- even tones by rubbing the pencil care must be taken while using
sults can be obtained by combin- lightly over the entire area to be them. After a rendering is com-
ing the two ink methods, or by colored. pleted, it should be sprayed with
substituting water colors or col- This medium is seldom satis- a lacquer fixative to hold the col-
ored pencils for the ink wash. factory when strong or opaque ors in place.
colors are desired. However, some
Pencil Renderings Scratch Board
colored pencils are water soluble.
When renderings are done in
After applying color, the drawing This medium produces a ren-
pencil,ones from the B series are may dering with a dark background
be washed with water to dis-
normally used; however, for deli-
solve and spread the tone, which and white lines. A finished render-
cate lines one may desire H series
gives a water-color effect.
ing reminds one of a photographic
drafting pencils. The pencil lead negative or a pen and ink render-
may be pointed, flat, or chisel Charcoal and Pastels ing that has been done in reverse.
shaped depending upon the kind These two mediums remind With this material, one is able
of line desired. Pressure can be one of blackboard chalk because to show very intricate detail.
varied to obtain different degrees of their soft texture. They are The basic material is heavy
of shading. applied dry by rubbing directly white paper coated with a chalk-
Colored pencil. Colored pen- on the rendering. Charcoal is like substance and then burnished
cils can be used to add highlights black, while pastels are available to a very smooth finish. The coat-
or small amounts of color to other in a wide range of colors. Very ing is about 'A:" thick. Before
mediums such as pencil or ink beautiful results, though not natu- rendering is begun the surface is
renderings, or they can be used ral or life-like, can be obtained painted with India ink (usually
for doing an entire rendering. with them. Since both mediums black) and allowed to dry com-
Colors may be shown as distinct are so soft they are difficult to pletely. The ink can be spread
lines or they can be applied as handle and smear easily. Extreme with a paint brush or an airbrush.
Scratch board rendering. 391

Ink rendering combined with pressure-sensitive applique'.
Both methods are satisfactory but wanted lines one must re-coat along a straightedge for accurate
a smoother finish can be obtained them with ink and allow it to dry straight lines. Curves may be
with the latter. before doing them over. laid either with instruments as
After the ink is dry, outlines to guides or freehand.
be rendered are traced or drawn Applique When sheet material is to cov-
onto the inked surface. Do not Continuous or broken lines, er any area, the sheet is posi-
exert a great deal of pressure repetitious patterns, or colored tioned and partially adhered by
when penciling the drawing, to surfaces need no longer be labori- rubbing where the pattern is to
avoid damaging the coating. Us- ously drawn or painted. One may remain. Using a straightedge as
ing a sharp instrument— and a purchase adhesive-backed clear a guide, square-cut around the
straightedge where required- plastic appliques with lines or pat- pattern with a sharp knife or
scratch all lines of the subject. terns pre-printed on them. Both scriber. Curves may either be cut
Note: A slight burr on the scriber transparent and opaque solid col- with instruments as guides or
will make the line "peel" out ors are also available. Individual freehand.
smoother. Line width can be lines and narrow patterns are The rest of the sheet is then
varied by exerting different pres- available in rolls, while large pat- removed leaving the cut-out sec-
sureson the scriber. If large areas terns or even tones are available tion in place. One must burnish
must be removed, the ink can be with either gloss or matte sur- the surface (rub with a smooth
scraped away with a knife, chisel, faces to fill almost any drafting instrument) to remove air bubbles
or other suitable instrument. need. and seal the applique to the
Small corrections of errors will Appliques are easy to use. With drawing.
scarcely be noticed. It is difficult only a little practice professional- Entire drawings can be done
to keep large corrections from looking results can be obtained. in this medium, but it is most
showing through. To remove un- Rolls from dispensers are laid practical as an accessory item.
392
Procedure for Rendering

There are two opposing views determined by experimentation. been decided upon, all drawings
on the order of rendering a pic- must be traced or copied onto
ture. Some artists prefer to render Beginning the Rendering the sheet. This should be done
the building first because it usu- Decide how the building is to very lightly in pencil so correc-
ally includes the most intricate be viewed; then draw a perspec- tions can be made.
detail. Then after the building is tive on tracing paper at a suitable If the composition is made up
rendered the entourage or land- scale. Also draw all required floor of several individual drawings
scape is done. The reason they plans, interior views, elevations, as described above, it requires a
feel the building should be done or other items to be included. long time to complete a render-
first is because your most careful Plan the composition of the ing. For maximum cleanliness
work is done when you begin a entire rendering. If several draw- cover the drawing and then un-
job, and the building is the most ings and fit upon
their titles are to cover only the section where
important part of the rendering. one sheet, you must determine work is to be done. For example,
Other artists feel that best re- the most effective layout for the in a composition including a
sultscan be obtained by begin- entire presentation. For example, pictorial view and a floor plan,
ning the rendering at the top and an exterior perspective, interior the floor plan should be covered
progressing down the sheet until views and a floor plan may be while the pictorial is being done.
the entire work is complete. included. Keeping drawing clean is impor-
The best way for you can be After an arrangement has tant to its final appearance.
Introduction to Rendering Details

Scope of Discussion all landscape items such as trees, clusters. Bushes and shrubs are
This book does not contain a

shrubs, pools, rocks, or others. usually shown in some detail be-
Slight changes from the proposed cause they tend to be close to
lengthy discussion of colors, their
landscape are frequently later the observer, near the front of
relationships to each other, or
how colors are mixed to achieve
made to enhance the visual im- the plan.
age. The outlines of these items
additional hues. Neither does it
should be exactly as you desire A SUGGESTED ORDER FOR
give specific instructions for
to paint them, but do not add in- RENDERING
painting individual items such as
tricate details. These are added
exterior wall coverings, roofs,
when painting. Wall Surfaces
shrubs, trees, and others using
the different media, but rather it
Remember that the farther one Since most walls have straight
is from an object the less distinct outlines, it is a good idea to out-
gives a broad overview of items
it becomes. Trees are a good ex- line them with the background
to include. For detailed informa-
tion consult a good artist's guide
ample of this. Ones in the back- color of paint to help confine it
or architectural rendering book.

ground will be only general out- to the proper area. The medium
lines, while ones in the middle being used helps determine how
Planning the Entourage for distance show some of the limb they are outlined but most paint,
Perspective Rendering and trunk Foreground
structure. if thinned slightly, can be used
If a landscape plan is avail- trees show much trunk and effectively in a ruling pen, with a
able use it as a guide for adding branch detail and may even in- straightedge. A paintbrush is also
the entourage. Very lightly sketch clude individual leaves or leaf frequently used.
393
Pari Three: From Ideas to Reality
After outlining, the base color difficult to add designs unless the simulate both horizontal and
should be applied. If you show drawing scale is quite large. vertical lines on wood shingles,
details such as individual bricks, clay tile, slate and others. Stip-
Doors
stones, or boards, the base coat pling is frequently used to indi-
Solid doors may be painted a
cate pebbles applied to built-up
need not be perfectly smooth. If
single color to match or contrast roofing.
these are not to be included, walls
with the building. If they are to Items such as soil pipes, venti-
should be smooth.
have a natural finish, grain may lators, and chimneys are shown
Using a ruling pen or brush,
be added by drawing or painting if the drawing scale and the
add lines for mortar or individual
fine lines using a pencil, colored client's need for detail warrant
boards as required. Then add de-
pencil, pen. or brush. Glass, wood their inclusion.
tails wood grain, texture,
such as
panels, divisions, moldings or Medium or dark roof surfaces
or shadow. Note: Remember that
hardware are added when desired. highlight and emphasize the
sometimes paint media require
leaving open spaces so other trans- Posts, Mullions, and Beams building and make it stand out on
parent paints can be used over the rendering.
These are best added after
the areas later. walls, windows, and doors are Fascia and Trim
Glass
complete because it is very diffi- Like posts and mullions, out-
cult to paint up to or around lines of fascias and other trim
If glass is to be transparent it
them. Their edges are also usu- are usually done first as straight
is treated as though it did not
ally straight and may be ruled lines and then their surfaces are
exist. In other words, paint in
to cover or straighten previous painted. Fascias and trim on dif-
objects such as draperies and ig-
edges. Since their sides are usu- ferent building sides should be in
nore the glass. In normal daylight
ally parallel they should be drawn slightly different tones so corners
it is darker inside a building than
or painted using instruments as are easily recognizable. They are
it is on the outside. When viewing
guides. After all edges are painted frequently light toned to contrast
an exterior this causes windows to
flat surfaces should be filled in.
with the rest of the rendering.
and appear dark. They
reflect light
Since both a face and a side are However, they are seldom painted
are usually shown as black, dark
usually shown one will be in white, even though this is a popu-
grey, dark blue, or dark green.
shadow and should be slightly lar trim color. White makes them
For very realistic renderings,
darker than the other. They may appear too brilliant. When they
items such as clouds, trees, peo-
be wood color, metal (usually sil- are to appear white, they are
ple, or any other object nearby
ver or shades of grey), or painted usually painted a light cream or
may show in the glass as reflec-
to match other trim.
light grey.
tions—not often required.
Curtains Roof Surfaces Overhangs and Their Shadows

The outline of curtains should The same techniques are used The underside of a roof over-
be sketched lightly with a pencil. for roof surfaces as described for hang is usually in shadow and
They may be painted with alter- walls. On roofs, different surfaces shows darker than its true color.
nate light and dark shades to are usually painted slightly differ- Overhangs appear quite small on
obtain an illusion of folds in the ent shades to emphasize changes a rendering and are usually
material. Folds should be uni- in direction. Composition roofing painted a uniform color. How-
form and are usually vertical, may be painted with even or ever, if drawing scale and client's
unless the curtains are closed at graded tones, or horizontal lines needs warrant, individual boards
the top and tied back near the can be added to give an indica- may be drawn, ruled, or painted.
bottom. Then the folds follow the tion of shingles. Textures and Since overhangs protrude past
outline of the tieback. It is very designs are sometimes added to the building, they may cast shad-
394
Shadows projected 45° from the left.
ows on walls. A detailed study of sketched lightly before the re- should study many species of
shadows is very complex, so a mainder of the entourage is trees in their natural surroundings
simplified method of drawing added. They may be rendered to ascertain their shapes and gen-
them, suitable for most render- before or after other items of the eral characteristics.
ings, is discussed briefly: entourage, depending upon which Perhaps the two greatest errors
To determine where shadows items are to show in front of the beginner makes are his failure
will fall on a wall one must know others. Colors may be light or to interpret tree shapes properly,
the position of the sun in the sky. dark, varying with the material and a tendency to draw more de-
Since the sun is many miles from represented and the desired tail than required. Generally, one
the earth, its rays are considered appearance. should only suggest their shapes
parallel. For convenience in plot- and not try to capture every intri-
ting shadows, the sun rays are Sky cate detail. For example, draw
frequently drawn at 45° either The sky can be rendered in only a few branches to indicate
right or left of vertical. This simu- blue using any of the media or their general shape and direction.
lates mid-morning or mid-after- techniques described at the first When adding foliage draw only
noon in the northern hemisphere, of the chapter. Itmay remain enough to suggest general shapes.
with the sun midway between unpainted, or it may have only Background trees should not
the horizon and zenith. clouds added. form a straight line or have their
One must know the overhang When planning clouds, the height taper toward the edge of
width so the rays can be plotted total rendering and its finished the rendering because this leads
onto the wall. Study the illustra- effect must be kept in mind. If the observer's eyes away from the
tion carefully.Observe the rays trees or other items protrude building, which should be given
striking the wall and how the above the horizon, cloud forma- the most emphasis. Uneven
shadow is formed by the over- tions should be planned to fit heights, or tall trees near the
hang. Note also that one wall is with or around them. If trees lap edge of the rendering, can lead
completely in shadow while the over clouds, it may be distracting. the eyes back to the building.
adjoining wall is not. Clusters of trees behind and
Trees and Shrubs
Note: Shadows formed by above the roof near the center of
overhangs radiate either right or As background
stated earlier, the building can also detract.
left toward the same vanishing

trees show general out-
usually Foreground trees can add
lines, while some details are in- much interest and give the ren-
points as the building.
cluded on middle distance trees, dering greater perspective depth.
Steps, Sidewalks, Driveways, and much detail may be shown These should be placed so large
and Streets on foreground trees or shrubs. areas of foliage do not block the
These items are usually To obtain realistic results, one view.
395
Part Three: from Ideas to Reality
Pen and ink presentation elevation.
If the building is predominate- Bare-limbed, winter foliage is two people are included they are
ly straight lined, gently curving not represented except for very usually close to the building. Peo-
trees help relieve monotony, or special renderings. ple should be engaged in some
if the building has curved out- activityand appear to have a rea-
lines such as a domed or arched Grass son for being there. Only general
roof, straight, tall trees will em- Grass may be added before, shapes are shown. Do not try to
phasize this. after, or while trees and shrubs capture minute features: thev mav
Locations of trees and shrubs are being done, depending upon prove to be distracting.
should balance with and comple- how items fit together. Careful Automobiles
ment the rest of the rendering. analysis of the renderings shown
Since automobile styles arecon-
In other words, an area could in this chapter will indicate differ-
stantlv changing, their inclusion
look too vacant without them. ent ways grass can be represented.
dates a building. Avoid especially
Trees or leafy shrubs are sel- Observe that on some renderings
on an that may be hung in the
dom painted as a solid mass. it appears smooth and flat, while
office of a corporation for years.
That is. they have spaces in them, on others the colors are graded. If thev must be included, use
and other objects show through. Contrasting tones with bold, dis-
stvhzed shapes instead of specific
Small, heavy -needled, evergreen stinct edges are also used.
details.
shrubs may be
more solid in For realistic appearance, trees,
form. Except for background shrubs,and other items should Presentation Elevations
trees, foliage is seldom a single have shadows included. Presentation elevations are
color. Sunlight makes the tops sometimes substituted for per-
appear to be very light. Sides are People spective drawings.
usually a medium color and un- Most professional renderings Landscape features are added
dersides, in shadow, are dark. include drawings of one or more to create a pictorial effect. The
Background trees may have a persons to help emphasize per- drawing rendered with any of
is
subdued color, while those in the spective and to give an idea of the media or techniques used for
foreground are usually very vivid. the drawing scale. If onlv one or perspectives.
396
397
398
/V, $
.. . -
*fPI
Growth patterns for trees and shrubs.
399
Presentation Floor Plans outside details such as garages, 31. Explain how laid-on color is
Presentation floor plans are patios, pools, complete landscap- applied.
used for illustrative purposes and ing, or other items as desired. 32. Why should one lightly draw
not as building plans. They may Any parts may be rendered in any in the outlines of objects before
show only wall outlines and major media. The examples here show painting?
items plus approximate room some of the different items that 33. What is the wet-into-wet
sizes, or they may be very de- may be included and different method of applying water color?
tailed and include furniture, floor ways of rendering them. (See pages 34. Explain how to apply wet-
coverings, shading in open closets. 397 and 398.) into-wet.
35. Why must excess water some-

times be removed?
36. What is likely to happen if
Questions To Rein force Knowledge the drawing surface is moved ex-
1. Why are preliminary sketches 16. Why must water color tubes cessively before the paint is dry?
or drawings necessary? be handled with care? Explain. 37. What
opaque water color?
is
2. How detailed are these draw- 1 7. What is a flat wash? How is 38. How is opaque water color
ings? Describe. it applied? usually packaged?
3. What are two ways walls 18. What sized areas can be done 39. Why is this medium a favorite
may be shown on preliminary floor with a flat wash? with many professionals?
plans? 1 9. Which work best, strong or 40. Why are these colors seldom
4. Does an architect ever need diluted colors? Why? used full strength? When may they
to make several drawings for one 20. How may dark colors be ap- be?
client? Explain. plied smoothly? 41 . How does one make a color
5. How does one determine the 2 1 . How may the size of your less intense?
drawing scale to use? What scale brush affect the wash? 42. When mixing two colors to-
is frequently used?
What gether why is the dark color added
22. is the position of the
6. What determines how elabo- to the lighter one?
drawing surface while applying a
rate a rendering should be?
wash?
43. Why is it advisable to mix
7. Who does the rendering? more paint than is needed?
23. From your own reasoning,
Explain. 44. What are two difficulties en-
why should a brush be dipped in
8. What does one mean by the countered if mixed paint is allowed
the middle of the diluted color be-
term transparent water color? to accumulate at the top of the
fore applying a wash?
9. What are two forms in which container?
it is available?
24. Explain how to apply a flat
45. Why is water usually added
1 0. What are the advantages of
wash. to this paint when stored?
cake water colors? Disadvantages? 25. Why is a puddle necessary? 46. How can one tell if too much
1 1 . What are the advantages of 26. What are two ways it may water has been added?
tube water colors? Disadvantages? be removed when it is no longer 47. What are two devices that
12. Why are two water containers needed? may be used for mixing paint?
recommended? 27. What happens if one paints 48. Why should one not use a
13. What kind of bristles should across an area and it dries before regular paintbrush for mixing?
water color brushes have? the next stroke is applied? 49. What kind of brush is used
1 4. What are their two recom- 28. What is a graded wash? for applying opaque water color?
mended shapes? 29. How is a graded wash Why?
When should
15. brushes be applied? 50. What determines the size of
washed? Why? 30. What is laid-on color? brush to use?
400
51. What happens if too much 70. Why is it difficult to tell 91. What effect does light have
paint is applied to a surface? how much color is being applied? on glass? Explain.
52. Is it possible to repaint a sur- 71. What are two ways India 92. Describe the colors suitable
face withopaque water color? ink is used as a rendering medium? for rendering glass in bright sunlight.
53. How can one prevent paint 72. How much detail can be 93. Are glass surfaces always
from becoming built up when re- shown using this medium? painted perfectly smooth? Explain.
painting? 73. When renderings are done in 94. Why are adjoining walls or
54. What is airbrush rendering? pencil, what series is usually used? roof surfaces that are to be the same
55. What are two kinds of colors Why? color on the actual building some-
that are widely used for airbrush 74. What are the principal ways times painted in slightly different
rendering? Which works best? Why? colored pencils can be used as a tones?
56. Why is compressed air rendering medium? 95. Are individual wall or roof
necessary? 75. What are the advantages and covering materials ever indicated?
57. What are three factors that disadvantages of using charcoal or How?
help determine the amount of paint pastels? 96. Why are roof surfaces some-
deposited on the drawing? 76. What is scratch board? times painted darker than they actu-
58. What is an orifice? 77. How is color applied to ally will be on the building?
59. What is the desired consis- scratch board? 97. Which is usually painted first,
tency of the paint? Why? 78. How are lines placed on windows or their trim? Why?
60. What happens if too much scratch board? 98. Why are the undersides of
is applied? 79. Is it possible to correct small roof overhangs usually darker than
61. When doing renderings, why errors? How? other sides that are the same color?
should preliminary color studies be 80. What is applique? 99. Why are fascias frequently
made? 81. Why must it be burnished? painted a light color?
62. Why is it advisable for the 82. Is this medium used for en- 100. Is white often used for fascias
beginner to have the rendering in a tire renderings? Explain. on renderings? Explain.
vertical position while spraying? 83. Which is usually rendered 101. For adding shadows, why are
63. Why must the entire drawing, first, a building or the entourage? the sun's rays considered parallel?
except the part being rendered, be 84. What is the entourage? 102. Why is 45° frequently used
masked with paper and tape, or 85. Why is it necessary to plan for the sun direction?
frisket? the main features of the entire ren- 103. What is the zenith? (This is
64. Why are edges masked? dering before any of its details? not answered directly in the book.)
65. Why is only a small edge 86. What are two methods of 104. What are the vanishing
strip of masking adhered to the transferring drawings to the render- points for shadows that are parallel
rendering? What is likely to happen ing sheet? to sides of the building?
if more is applied? 87. While rendering is in prog- 105. How does one determine
66. What is frisket? ress, why should parts of the draw- which items of the entourage to draw
67. Explain how frisket may be ing be protected? first?
cut and applied. What are the dan- 88. Is the landscape of a render- 106. How much detail does one
gers of using this material? ing always exactly like the actual render on trees? Explain.
68. Why must one remove tape landscape plan? Explain. 107. Why should background
or frisket very carefully? 89. Why are wall outlines some- trees not taper to the very edge of
69. For even tones, why should times drawn with paint before it is the rendering?
the airbrush be moved across the applied to surfaces? 108. How may building shape
drawing at a constant speed? What 90. If glass is to show transpar- affect the shape of foreground trees?
happens if speed is not constant? ent, how is it rendered? Explain. Explain.
401
1 09. Is there one best way to ren- 1 1 3. How may one render presen-
der grass? Describe how it may be tation elevations?
done. 114. Describe the amount of detail
1 1 0. Are shadows included for usually included on presentation
items of the entourage? floor plans. How does one determine
111. Why is a person or persons what information it is absolutely
usually included in perspective necessary to include?
renderings? 115. Is information concerning ex-
1 1 2. Are automobiles usually interior items ever included? What
cluded? Explain. kinds of information?

rendering airbrush scratch board
transparent water color lacquer applique
flat wash orifice burnish
paint puddle nozzle entourage
graded wash color study media
laid-on color overspray stipple
wet-into-wet frisket zenith
opaque water color viscosity background
tempera B series pencil foreground
poster paint H series pencil middle distance
chalky charcoal foliage
pigment pastel stylized
fixative
402
H
Architectural Symbols
Part 1
STRUCTURAL
DETAILS ^
â
F^
7
Variations of earth in section. Concrete: (A) in elevation, (B-C) Cast stone: (A) in elevation,
in section. (B) in section.
E=
I
Rock in section.
m
Concrete block: (A) in elevation, Cut stone: (A) in elevation,
(B) in section. (B-C) in section.
~
r^: pq an
ZZ O
c I pq
I DD
B_
ODD P
I
bczj ccî
CD
DD
(A) Small scale concrete block. Rough cut stone: (A) in eleva-
(B) Large scale concrete block. tion, (B-C) in section.
So?? :--;.v.
OOO. O
—
'
o
——
o .'
-
t>
r—
O
— j
Cinders. Aggregate (A) Concrete plank. (B) Rein- (A) Random flagstone. (B) Pat-
fill. forced concrete plank. terned flagstone.
403
BB CS D&
Rubble: (A) in elevation, (B) in (A) Common brick in section. Facing tile: (A) large scale, (B)
section. (B) Face brick in section. small scale. Structural tile: (C)
small scale, (D) large scale.
V/,/,/,/,/,/,/,/,/A
c
inn in inn
(A) Slate or flagstone in sec- Face brick on common: (A) (A) Glazed or unglazed ceramic
tion. (B) Slate or bluestone in small scale, (B) large scale. tile in elevation, (B) large scale,
section. (C) small scale.
Y///////ZA o
o
o
o
o
B Q
(A) Marble. (B) Terrazzo. (A) Fire brick on common. (B) Lightweight gypsum block: (A)
Fire brick. (C) Fire brick on in elevation, (B) in section.
common.
pi 1
DIDDOD
c\—— 1
«
A ? 1
Brick in elevation. Terra cotta: (A) in elevation, Plaster: (A) in elevation, (B) in
(B) large scale sect ion, (C) small section. (C-D-E) Plaster and
scale section. metal lath in section.
bC ^^Tol
CL
Itti
Wood: (A) in elevation, (B) end (A-B) Composition shingles. Glass: (A) in elevation, (B) large
grain, (C) edge grain, (D) di- scale in section. (C) small scale
mension lumber, end grain. in section, (D) structural.
404
/
Part 1
J
STRUCTURAL (
DETAILS
Glass block: (A) large scale in
elevation, (B) large scale in
section, (CD) small scale in

section.
Horizontal siding in elevation. Rigid insulation: (A) in eleva- (A) Steel or iron. (B) Cast iron.
tion, (B) in section.
^ _
Plywood
;,
in
yv
section.
_
-J
^
Small scale metals and
flashings.
J (A)
V
//////// /A
/////// / /
////// ///
Aluminum. (B) Bronze
brass.
or
a1/>v/V/Jz: -^
7,
Plan view wood frame walls. Masonry wall: (A) with con- Common brick: (A) plastered
crete block and common brick, on one face, (B) plastered on
(B) with face brick and plaster. two faces, (C) with stucco.
IV
•• !
:
X////////A
^niyy^^
ZZ2 13
(A) Frame wall shaded for em- Brick wall: (A) common, (B)
phasis. (B) Solid color walls face.
(A-B) Concrete block with cut
for presentation.
stone. (C) Wood frame wall
with stone veneer.
405
& ///////// 3 XAL^lAÂa
,
r V//////////////////X Y- { /\.^/y -(Y

*
,/
?
Poured concrete wall. :LH

Wood frame wall: (A) with
:^S 7=Z^
(A) Common brick with cut
common brick veneer, (B) with stone. (B) Rubble with cut
face brick veneer, (C) with stone. (C) Rubble with cut
stucco. stone and plaster.
M mmmm V/,/,/,/,/,/,/,/,A lV
aE / / / / / / / / A
bE Wi i*. °i»i .E 7y///>// A/rA wwvvwv
M hn*l:1>l1°M^
Concrete block: (A) small scale, (A-B) Common and face brick (A) Wood frame wall with rub-
(B) large scale, (C) with plaster. wall, (C) with plaster. ble veneer. (B) Concrete block
wall with rubble and plaster.
(C) Wood frame wall with rub-
ble veneer.
m ooo o oo ooo o o
//// sa
B III M I I I i I III I I I \ I I I
oq
II I
Wall section with gypsum block

(A) plastered on two faces, (A) Common brick with rubble
(B) with glazed facing tile. or rough stone. Structural tile:
(B) with rough stone and plas-

ter, (C) with rough stone and
glazed facing tile.
V S/y,
^3
J I L c_
(A) Solid plaster wall with Structural metal: (A) large (A) Wire mesh reinforcement.
metal reinforcement. (B) Plas- scale, (B) small scale. Reinforcing rods or bars: (B)
ter wall with channel studs. large scale, (C) small scale.
(C) Curtain wall with mullions.
Metal: (A) large scale, (B) small

scale. Steel beams.
406
Part 2
WINDOW
SYMBOLS
Elevation of double hung window In frame wall Elevation of double double hung window in
(vertical siding). frame wall.
="
5~ L
Plan view of double hung window in frame wall. Plan view of double double hung window in
frame wall.
Elevation of double hung window in masonry Elevation of double double hung window in
wall (brick). masonry wall.
\////////£ 3
W//////A v/////y
Plan view of double hung window in brick Plan view of double double hung window in
veneer wall. brick veneer wall.
Plan view of double hung window in solid brick Plan view of double double hung window in
wall. solid brick wall.
V/////// A 'm?7ZK
Plan view of double hung metal window with
WZ% p^
Plan view of double double hung metal window
plastered returns. with plastered return.
407
Part 2
WINDOW
SYMBOLS
Elevation of casement window in frame wall Elevation of double casement window in frame
(shake or shingle siding). wall (board and batten siding).
Plan view of casement window in frame wal

Plan view of double casement window in frame
wall.
x^r -t-~[—\ ,1,1 _l ,

i
/
/
\
1
1
'
1
'
1 —V- \
\
Elevation ot casement window in brick wall. Elevation of double casement window in brick
wall.
Plan view of casement window in brick veneer

Plan view of double casement window in brick
veneer wal
Plan view of casement window in solid brick wa

Plan view of double casement window in solid
brick wall.
408
Part 2 V7Z77777fl^ = V///////A mm rî
WINDOW Plan view of metal casement window with plas-
tered returns. Plan view of metal double casement window
with plastered returns.
SYMBOLS
Elevation of sliding window in frame wall. Elevation of double sliding windows in frame
wall.
Plan view of sliding window in frame wall. Plan view of double sliding windows in frame
wall.
s Elevation of sliding window in
(rubble or rough stone).

masonry wall
Elevation of double sliding windows in masonry
I H l r
r^
6=2
Plan view of sliding window in masonry veneer Plan view of double sliding windows in masonry
wa "- veneer wall.
Br^
Plan view of sliding window in solid
PrÊg
masonry Plan view of double sliding windows
i
in
m
51
solid
wall. masonry wall.
409
Part 2 Y///////L %/////// — }y//x
ULlxif \\ V J///U.
1 r
. .
C^
WINDOW Plan view of metal sliding window with plas- Plan view of metal double sliding windows with
tered returns. plastered returns.
SYMBOLS
/ X • X
/ X / X X X
' X ' X ' X
/»X " '
7X
/ X / X / X
/ X / X
' X
/v
/ x / X. / x
/ X / x / x
' x
Elevation of awning window in frame wall. Elevation of double awning window in frame
wall.
i
n T
I !l I
Plan view of double awning window in frame

Plan view of awning window in frame wall
wall.
H Y~A
Elevation of awning window in masonry wall Elevation of double awning window in masonry
(cut stone). wall.
Plan view of awning window in masonry veneer Plan view of double awning window in masonry
wall. veneer wall.
410
Part 2
3? TT
I Jl I
Plan view of awning window in solid masonry Plan view of double awning window in solid
WINDOW masonry wall.
SYMBOLS
II
II I
I
Jl J
Plan view of metal awning window with plas- Plan view of metal double awning window with
tered returns. plastered returns.
V771
J 1>
Plan view of fixed picture window with double

hung side lights in masonry veneer wall.
^
hung side lights in solid masonry wall.
Elevation of fixed picture window with double

hung side lights in frame wall. Plan view of metal fixed picture window with
side lights and plastered returns.
<=^
hung side lights in frame wall.
Simplified Methods of Drawing
Windows in Plan View
Single window in frame wall.
Multiple windows drawn as presentation.
Multiple windows in frame wall.
Elevation of fixed picture window with double

r///A U \F=*///A
hung side lights in masonry wall (brick, stack
Picture window wi,h side M e hts in solid masonry
bond). wal1 -
411
Part 3
DOOR
SYMBOLS
1=1
Elevation of exterior panel door in wood frame Elevation of exterior sliding door in wood frame
wall. wall.
Plan view of exterior door in wood frame wall. Plan view of exterior sliding door in wood frame
Elevation of exterior door in masonry wall. Elevation of exterior sliding door in masonry
wall.
Y/////////A V////////X X//////

v
Plan view of exterior door in masonry veneer Plan view of exterior sliding door in masonry
wall. veneer wall.
412
rt 3
Part
DOOR
SVM.OLS
Plan view of exterior door in solid masonry wa
mtZK mm
Plan view of exterior sliding door in solid
masonry wall.
y////////\ Y77?7m W77\

Plan view of exterior door in solid masonry Plan view of exterior sliding door in solid
wall with plastered return. masonry wall with plastered return.
] c
~y^/\/\/\/
Plan view of interior doors: (A) hinged; (B) dou-

ble action hinged; (C) double or French; (D) by-
pass sliding; (E) pocket; (F) double pocket; (G)
bi-fold; (H) folding or accordion; (I) plastered
or cased opening.
413
Part 4
PLUMBING
SYMBOLS
Toilet stools or water closets.
Showers.
^^ T
Shower heads. Frost free and regu-
lar hose bib.
Corner water
closet.
O €
1
Floor drains. Floor drain and
backwater valve.
Corner bathtub.
Wall recesses. Vent pipes.

o
Built-in bathtub.
3 L
Wall hung lavatory.
Corner lavatory.
Square corner Built-in square

bathtub. bathtub.
414
Part 4
I I
PLUMBING
c5 J
I
I
L
SYMBOLS Built-in lavatories.
Freestanding and built-in dishwashers.
Built-in lavatories.
Washer and dryer.
Single bowl sink. Double bowl sink. Laundry tubs.

Water heater (designate
capacity and fuel).
Double drainboard sink with cabinet. Shallow bowl sink.
Part 5
RADIATORS Baseboard radiator.
RAD.
Exposed.
J I RAD. \
Enclosed, flush.
JLAD,.
Enclosed, projecting.
415
Part 6
SUPPLY PIPES
HOT WATER HEATING SUPPLY SOIL, WASTE AND LEADER (ABOVE GRADE)
HOT WATER HEATING RETURN SOIL, WASTE AND LEADER (BELOW GRADE)
LOW-PRESSURE STEAM
LOW-PRESSURE STEAM RETURN COLD WATER
-/ / / / /-
MEDIUM-PRESSURE STEAM
-+ A /- A— -h
MEDIUM-PRESSURE STEAM RETURN HOT WATER RETURN
-# # # # #
HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM
-7^ — -# -7^ — -#— -ft

HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM RETURN
AIR-RELIEF LINE PNEUMATIC TUBE
BOILER BLOW OFF SPRINKLER BRANCH AND HEAD
A
COMPRESSED AIR SPRINKLER DRAIN
FOF
FUEL-OIL FLOW SPRINKLER SUPPLY LINE
FOR
FUEL-OIL RETURN
FOR
FUEL-OIL TANK VENT
416
Part 7 Part 8
HEAT DUCTS AND REGISTERS ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
SINGLE POLE SWITCH
DUCT-NOTE SIZE AND AIR FLOW

SINGLE POLE SWITCH
DUCT-NOTE CHANGE
n IN SIZE
THREE WAY SWITCH
FOUR WAY SWITCH

DROP IN DUCT
AUTOMATIC DOOR
3E SWITCH
SWITCH WITH PILOT

LIGHT
RETURN OR EXHAUST DUCT WEATHERPROOF SWITCH
L^ SUPPLY DUCT DOUBLE POLE SWITCH
SWITCH FORLOWVOLT-
SPECIAL DUCTS-STATE SIZE AND USE AGE SYSTEM
(LABEL)
LOW VOLTAGE WIRE
BATHROOM EXHAUST- 1
8" x 10"
LOW VOLTAGE MASTER

SWITCH
HEAT REGISTER
RELAY EQUIPPED LIGHT-
HEAT REGISTER
O' ING OUTLET
DUPLEX RECEPTACLE
O- ING DUCT OUTLET
©'
OUTLET
RECEPTACLE OUTLET
OTHER THAN DUPLEX
SPLIT WIRED RECEPTA-

CLE OUTLET
&° GROUNDING TYPE DU-

PLEX RECEPTACLE OUTLET
417
Part 8
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS (continued)
a.
WEATHERPROOF DUPLEX
RECEPTACLE OUTLET ~®~ DROP CORD
GROUNDING TYPE
©="
WEATHERPROOF DUPLEX
RECEPTACLE OUTLET
RECEPTACLE OUTLET
WITH SWITCH
A
—(V)—
FAN
FLOOR LIGHTING OUT-

LET
-_-^
o
RANGE OUTLET
220 VOLT OUTLET

A CLOCK OUTLET
CHIME
SPECIAL-MUST BE EX-
PLAINED IN THE KEY TO
THE SYMBOLS
a BELL
A JUNCTION BOX
a BUZZER
A LIGHTING OUTLET
o COMBINATION
AND BUZZER
BELL
5 SQUARE RECESSED LIGHT

(SIZE VARIES)
H PUSH BUTTON
&
'&
RECTANGULAR
CESSED
VARIES)
ROUND RECESSED
LIGHT (SIZE VARIES)
RE-
LIGHT (SIZE
ELECTRIC
OPENER
DOOR
MAID'S SIGNAL PLUG
v
|
['' H HOW-SCENT LIGHT
RECESSED INTERCOM
^^
rf] | FLUORESCENT LIGHT
a
4" LAMPHOLDER
LAMPHOLDER WITH
—(TV- PULL SWITCH
JPS
—(°~ J~ PULL SWITCH LIGHT

(SAME AS ABOVE)
418
Part 8
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS (continued)
INTERCONNECTION
a BOX
/
© EXIT LIGHT
O ANNUNCIATOR
REGULAR TELEPHONE
< (ADD NOTE TO DESIG-
NATE JACKS)
ONE SINGLE POLE SWITCH TO CONTROL ONE LIGHT FIXTURE
< INTERPHONE FOR OF-

FICE COMMUNICATION
TV. OUTLET
XT.
MASTER POWER SER-

VICE PANEL
[
LIGHTING DISTRIBU- THREE-WAY SWITCHES TO CONTROL ONE LIGHT
TION PANEL (FUSED OR
1 CIRCUIT BREAKERS)
SWITCH LEG INDICATOR

CONNECTS LIGHTS TO
SWITCHES
ANY SWITCH, OUTLET,

O AB
OR ELECTRICAL DEVICE
AS MOTORS, ELECTRIC
COMPRESSORS, AIR
CONDITIONERS, OR
OTHERS SHOULD BE AS-
AB SIGNED A SYMBOL ONE SINGLE POLE SWITCH TO CONTROL TWO LIGHT FIXTURES
WITH AN EXPLANATION
a AB
GIVEN IN THE KEY TO
THE SYMBOLS.
THREE-WAY SWITCHES TO CONTROL TWO LIGHT FIXTURES
419
Dimensioning and Notes
Dimensioning states the sizes only one end. The amount of dis- brick veneer is added after the
of an object and its parts. This is tance remaining is not important. building shell is complete. Since
the only reason dimensions are it is added later, an overall di-
placed on a drawing. Dimensions Dimensions Based on mension from outside edges of the
must explain all sizes so well there Understanding of Construction brick would require calculations
isno chance for mistakes when An understanding of building to determine frame length.
interpreting them. In a building materials, methods, construction,
plan, they should be so complete and sizes of parts is important for Basis of Dimensioning Rules
that no additional mathematical locating dimensions on a drawing. There are many rules of di-
calculations are necessary to Dimensions are placed so they mensioning. It is not always pos-
understand the sizes. measure from parts that are com- sible to observe every rule because
Dimensions are placed on a pleted first to those that are com- following one may cause a viola-
drawing only if they are needed pleted later. For example, if one tion of another. One must select
to construct the object. For exis dimensioning a floor plan of a the best solution for each individ-
ample, if a window is placed brick veneer building, the dimen- ual situation. The most important
lO'-O" from one end of a build- sions are placed from edge to rule of dimensioning is to use
ing, a dimension is needed from edge of the wood frame because good judgment.
Extension and Construction Lines
An extension line is a fine, draw an extension line its correct out applying any pressure. Con-
dark line that extends at a right length, and it is necessary to have struction lines are not removed
angle from the object or part to the extension lines before one can from the working drawing.
be dimensioned. draw the dimension lines their
An
extension line begins about proper length. Both kinds of lines Estimating Space in Dimensioning
from the object and extends
'/ib"
about V%" beyond (past) the last

may be drawn as very
construction lines;
fine, light
then darken
Since the
the object and
W space between
the extension line
dimension line. One must know the portion needed. Construction is estimated rather than measured,
how many dimension lines are lines are drawn by "floating" the care must be taken to avoid plac-
needed before it is possible to pencil along the instruments with- ing the extension line either too
420
39: Dimensioning and Notes
Extension lines
close to or too far from the ob-

ject. If it is too close, the line
will appear as an overrun of the
object. If it is too far away, the
connection will not be clear.
Weight of Extension Lines
A variation of line width is
necessary to distinguish kinds of

lines. An extension line is approx-
imately half the width of an ob-
ject line. Note the variation of
line weight on the first illustration.
The second shows the
illustration
lack of uniformity and cluttered
appearance caused by using dif-
ferent line weights and poor spac-
ing at extensions of object lines.
421
Dimension Lines and Dimensions

A dimension line is a fine dark
line, the same width as the ex-
tension line. It is parallel to the
section being measured. On archi-
tectural drawings this is continu-
ous from extension line to exten-
sion line. Dimension lines are
usually spaced %" to W from the
object and are %" to W apart.
Spacing of dimension lines is de-
termined by the size and com-
plexity of the drawing. They
should not be placed so close to-
gether that drawing looks

the
cluttered or dimension figures are
crowded. Dimensions should not
be too far removed from the sec-
tion measured.
When possible, dimensions are
placed outside of the views. If
more than one view is shown,
dimensions are placed between
views. This permits the same di-
mension to serve for more than
one view. Poor application of dimension lines.
Correct application of dimension lines.
422
Kinds of Dimensions
There are two kinds of dimen-
sions. Local ion dimensions tell
how far something is from some-

thing else. Size dimensions tell
the actual size of an object. I he

same dimension may show both a
size and a location.

A dimension for a small part
Combined size and location dimensions.
is called a detail dimension. The
dimension showing the total
length of an object is called an
overall dimension. When dimen-
sions are placed above or between
views, the overall dimension is Location dimensions.
placed above detail dimensions.
When the dimensions are below
the view, the overall dimension
is below the detail dimensions. -« *
When the dimensions are between Detail dimension lines.
the front and side views, the over-

all dimension is often put to the
right of the detail dimension.
Size dimensions.
Overall dimension line.
II
Overall below detail.
Variations of dimension placement.
423
Part Three: from Ideas to Reality
^3
^
1
'
tt~H| :_
Overall dimension line to left of detail

1
dimension.
i i
Overall dimension line to right of detail dimension.
When the dimensions are to the dimension can be drawn from cross other extension lines; di-
left of a view, the overall dimen- visible parts. mension lines mar dimen-
cross
sion is usually to the left of the sion lines. If extension lines must
Relationship of Extension and
detail dimensions. cross dimension lines (no other
Dimension Lines
A dimension line may end at way it can be done), one may
an extension line, object line,
When two dimension lines join break the extension line where it
hidden Keep end to end, they are separated by
line, or center line. crosses or the line weight may be
its purpose in mind, to under- an extension line. Even though
varied slightly.
stand this. both dimension lines may be
A center line, hidden line, cut- drawn at the same time they are Dimensions for Interior Parts
ting plane line, or object line may distinct. and Voids

not be used as a dimension line. The extension line is considered Dimensions for interior parts
No figures may be placed upon as passing between the two lines and voids are sometimes placed
these lines which must be kept rather than crossing a line. If ex- outside the views. This requires
clear to show other information. tension lines were to cross dimen- the extension line to cross an ob-
It is poor practice, and confus- sion lines, one would not be able ject line. Old established practice
ing to dimension hidden parts. where lines were ending.
to tell called for a break in the extension
This should not be done if the However, extension lines may line where it crossed the object
424
39: Dimensioning and Nofes
*
| |
1 1
| |
1
1
Crossing extension and dimen- Extension lines crossing ob-

sion lines. |ect lines.
-<-
line. Architectural draftsmen usu-
ally cross the object line with the Acceptable arrows.
extension line, leaving no break.
-<r
Identifying Ends of
Dimension Lines
An identifying mark is used to
terminate dimension lines when
they end at extension lines. An
arrow is the conventional symbol.
The arrow may be either the open
or closed type. Arrow size is de-
Arrow size and shape.
termined by the size and com-
plexity of the drawing. usu-
-<
ally
W
drawn about W
wide and
long. The sides of the arrow
It is
should be symmetrical. However,

one cannot waste time when draw-
ing it. Arrows in architectural
drawing are usually free flowing
in character.
Because of the time required to 7^

form arrows, architectural drafts-
men frequently replace them with
a diagonal dash at intersections of
extension and dimension lines. Diagonal dashes replacing arrows.
425
Dimensions on symbols.
* ( the bottom of the drawing sheet.

All vertical dimensions are read
from the right side of the drawing.
I (I 1 When pictorials are used, the di-
mensions are parallel to the di-
mension lines. Architectural draw-
I
— , ings employ the aligned system.
Circles replacing arrows.
The unidirectional system
places all dimension figures so
they are read from the bottom of
the drawing sheet. Thus all dimen-
sions are parallel to the bottom
of the sheet. This system is used
primarily in the aircraft and some

automotive and ship building
industries.
Figures for Dimensions
Dimensions show the length of

the section. These figures must
Dots replacing arrows.

not be crossed by other lines.
They must be lettered so well
there is no possibility of workmen
Modern sometimes uses symbol and section mis-reading them. Lettering size
practice lines do not
dots or small circles instead of cross the figure. It is good practice
is determined by size and com-
arrows. In modular dimensioning, to add all dimensions before sec-
plexity of the drawing. Guide
combinations of dots and arrows tion lines are placed on the views. lines are drawn for all lettering.
are used. The arrows show all Extension lines and dimension One never becomes so experi-
modular measurements; all frac- lines may cross a sectioned area.

enced that they are no longer
tions and uneven inch measure- needed. Professionals always use
Dimensioning Systems them for standard plans. The
ments (non-modular) are shown
with dots. There are two systems of plac- only exception one is using
is if
ing dimensions on a working very thin tracing paper placed

Dimensions on Symbols drawing. The aligned system over a grid paper, as described in
and Sections places the dimensions so they are Chapter 31, heavy guide
or if
When a dimension is placed on parallel to the dimension line. All lines are on a sheet from which
a symbol or in a sectioned area, horizontal figures are read from a tracing is being made.
426
M^ ~~ |
t i
Combining arrows and dots for modular dimensioning.
ii 1
—
VZZZZZZZZZl
1
n=i t
1
Y////////Z//
Aligned dimensioning system.
Unidirectional dimensioning system.
427
^« —
8'-0" The lower edge of the figure is

* *
about '/i6" above the dimension
line. Standard size of dimensions
6'-2" is Vt", however, on a complex
|
working drawing such as a floor

plan, V12" may be more suitable
4'-5"
for crowded areas. Names of
rooms should be at least W. A
beginner may measure these dis-
Poor placement of dimension figures. Better placement of dimension figures.
tances, but after experience is
acquired they are estimated.

When two or more dimension
lines are closely parallel, dimen-
sions are placed so they are not
directly in line with each other.
This makes them easier to read
and helps avoid reading errors.
As mentioned earlier, dimen-
sions are not placed on a drawing
unless they are needed. Manu-
factured and pre-assembled parts
are dimensioned only where and
Dimensions for an object with one circular part.
when necessary. If a size is im-
2'/i" portant in relationship to some-
thing to be built, the size is added.
On architectural drawings,
measurements over 12" in length
are shown in feet and inches, as
7'-3'/4", 8'-0" or 6'-0'/2 ". If the
measurement is less than 12",
the dimension is shown as O'-iV*".

(If space is limited the 0' may be
Dimensions for an object with two circular parts. omitted.)
If dimension lines are on iso-
2'/2 " metric, perspective, or other pic-

— »—
torial drawings, of course, dimen-
— ^—
1V4"
— sions
manner.
are made in the same
Dimensioning Circles
,1
When parts of an object are
, 1,
-£b- -£[)-- circular, the overall
given to the center of the
dimension
circle.
is
" The circular part is dimensioned

separately.
Location and center-to-center dimensions. Location of circles is also di-
428
mensioned to the center of the

circle. Whentwo or more circular
forms are shown, such as holes,
center-to-center dimensions are
given.
When the size of a circle (solid
or void) isdimensioned, the di-
ameter is shown. If the circle is
large enough to place the dimen-
sion inside the circle, the dimen-
sion line should pass through its
center. Figures are added above

the line and are read from the
bottom or right side. If the di-
mension cannot be placed inside
the circle, outer dimension lines
penetrate toward the center.
If there is more than one circle
on an object and only one is di-

mensioned, all other circles are
the same size. If there is more
than one circle on an object and
only one location dimension is
given, the other circles are equally
spaced.
fy 7'0
^
O (O
Dimensions for equally spaced circles.

4'-0"
Dimensions for circles.
<T&
429
tween the object and extension

line as on rectangular objects),
and a dimension arc radiating
from the vertex is drawn. Angles
may also be dimensioned to show
the ratio of rise to run. This is
used to show roof slope.
Leaders and Notes

All information cannot be pre-
sented graphically. Some must be
presented as lettered notes and
symbols. If space permits or if a
note applies at only one location,

the note may be placed adjacent
jfr to the part. A pointer called a
leader shows the part being
discussed.
There are two kinds of leaders.
One is drawn freehand and the
other is drawn with instruments.

When drawn with instruments,
all leaders in a given area are
drawn at the same angle. No
prescribed angle is used; however,
30°, 60° and 45° are common be-
cause triangles have these angles.
Lettering from different leaders
is uniform.
A leader is a fine dark line the
same thickness and weight as an
extension or dimension line. If a
leader is pointing to a line, it
should touch the line. If it is
pointing to a surface, it should

end on the surface. The leader is
leading the eye from the note to
the part. The end of the leader
Arcs (at the part) should terminate with
(vertex) more clearly visible, it is
An arc is dimensioned by show-
common practice to make an + an arrow or, if dots are being
ing its radius. The dimension line used, with a dot. Thereis no arrow
crossing the center of the arc.
should terminate at the center of on the other end. There should
the arc. If the dimension line (or Dimensioning Angles be Vt" to V\b" space between the
a "leader") is placed outside the When angles are dimensioned, leader and the lettering.
arc. it must point toward the cen- extension lines are projected from Horizontal guide lines are
ter of the arc. To make the center the angle ('/i6" space is left bedrawn for lettering the note. The
430
Mechanical and freehand

leaders.
NOTE ADDED FOR DESCRIPTION
Codes referring to notes.
OMISSION OF DETAIL lettering should be of an appro-

ON SYMMETRICAL
DRAWINGS priate size. The first letter of a
note is frequently capitalized and
all other letters are lower case.
When all capital letters are used,
the first letter is sometimes made
slightly larger. For architectural
drawings, neither of the above is
stated as an absolute rule. The
lettering style is determined by
the individual firm or draftsman.
The same note will frequently
Dimensions for angles.
be used at several locations on a
set of drawings (sometimes on
different pages). When this is true,
one note may be used for all loca-
tions by placing a code letter or
figure near the end of the leader.
431
If clearly understood, the leader and whether to use letters or fig- you dimensioned a pier as 24"
may be and the code
omitted ures, is the draftsman's decision. square and it should have been
placed near the part. These codes 16" square, the workmen have no
usually refer to a series of notes Application of Dimensioning Rules way of knowing this. Extra care
that have all been grouped in one Statement of a dimensioning must be taken to be sure that all
convenient location, or they may rule does not always insure its sizes are correct and that detail
refer to charts and schedules of proper use on a working drawing! dimensions, added together, equal
building parts, sizes, or patterns If rules are not followed or if the total or overall dimension
(styles). The code letter or figure omissions of dimensions are made involved.
is usually placed inside a circle, because of an inadequate under- A complete set of working
square, rectangle, or triangle. standing of them, an incomplete drawings concludes this chapter.
This is done to bring attention to plan will result. As stated earlier, Each item discussed on the fol-
the coded part. the reason dimensions are placed lowing pages is shown on the
For example, if code letters on a drawing is so workmen can completed plans. To gain an un-
are placed on doors, all door build the object. If you omit any derstanding of the items being
codes might use letters and all dimensions or have them wrong, discussed, one should study and
might be in squares. Or if win- the work will be in error. This is make constant reference to the
dows were being coded, all codes in effect telling men to build the completed plans. It is not pos-
might use figures and be in circles. part any size they choose. Work- sible to cover all situations or all
Circles are not always used to men must follow the building methods of drawing and dimen-
code windows and squares are not plans; they are not responsible sioning on one set of plans. Other
always used to code doors, this is for correcting your errors. plans in the text show additional
an example. Whether to use a Chances are they won't know you items and other ways parts may
square, rectangle or other shape, made an error. For example, if be drawn and dimensioned.
lights, or three awning windows window or door opening. All wall

DIMENSIONING FLOOR PLANS and opening dimensioned.
in one unit), the dimension is to sizes are
Rules state that dimensions the center of the group. This does
are placed outside of the views, not imply windows or doors may Dimensioning Offsets in
However, reason says be placed anywhere one desires. Exterior Walls

if possible.
that a floor plan must have many Pre-planning places one edge of The second exterior dimension
of the dimensions inside the view. the window or door on normal line usually shows the irregular
It is common practice to place stud spacing. The window and shape of the outside walls. All
dimensions for windows and ex- door manufacturer and specific offsets must be dimensioned. If
terior doors outside the view units must be selected before the the exterior wall is straight for
(floor plan). These are usually finished and rough opening sizes its entire length, of course, a sec-
placed on the first dimension line. can be determined. For the be- ond dimension line is not needed.
ginner, an instructor may suggest On
frame construction the first
Dimensioning Windows and approximate window sizes rather dimension is drawn from the edge
Doors on Floor Plan than have you select a specific of the studding and not from the
Wood windows and doors in window. This saves time and still face of the exterior wall covering.
typicalframe construction are di- teaches the way it is to be done. Solid measured from
masonry is
mensioned from an outside wall Windows and doors modular in the outside corner.Masonry ve-
to the center of the window or construction (solid masonry, ma- neer over wood frame is mea-
door. When several windows sonry veneer, and modular pan- sured from the corner studding.
make one large unit (as a picture els) are dimensioned from an One may show the distance from
window with double-hung side outside wall to the edge of the the edge of the studding to the
432
outside face of masonry as a sep-

arate detail dimension.
E
Other Outside Dimension Lines \////////^
The overall dimension line is
Application of code notes or figures.
for the last dimension (farthest
from the view). It terminates at
the same location as detail di-
mensions of one de-
offsets, or if OUTSIDE EDGE OF STUDS; INTERIOR DI- placed on one window schedule.
sires to show overall dimensions MENSIONS ARE TO CENTER OF STUDS
Examples of door and window
of masonry veneer over wood
Code and Code Key for schedules are shown in Chapter
frame, two overall dimension
Windows and Doors 40 and on the dimensioned plans
lines mav be used.
In a previous paragraph on in this chapter.
Porches or landings, steps, and
leaders and notes an example was
areaways may require an addi- Lintel Code and Schedule
given of placing notes on windows
tional set of dimension lines. an opening
and doors. A code letter or figure
If in a masonry
These are usually placed between wall has masonry above it. lintels
system to identify each window
the window dimension lines and are required. For small structures.
wall dimension lines. Exact loca-
may be used on the floor plan or
elevations. Or. for reference pur-
the lintel size may be lettered by
tion will depend upon shape. the opening as in the illustration.
Floor plans
poses, it may be placed in both
usually require- For larger structures, or if several
locations. This saves estimators
only two overall dimensions, one lintel sizes are required, a code
and workmen from turning pages
for length and one for width. Oc- letter or figure on each opening
to find necessary information.
casionally, for reference, four
All windows and doors that are
refers to a lintel schedule. A com-
overall dimensions arc show n. one plete lintel schedule is shown in
on every side of the floor plan.
thesame size and style have the
Chapter 40.
This is not to he done unless one
same code number or letter. If a
window or door is the same size Interior Dimensions
has a good reason for it.
as another one, but a difTerent Every room or enclosed space
Overall dimension lines mas
style, the code is different. Use of must have width and length di-
be placed on each floor plan to
door and window codes is shown mensions. All offsets in rooms
save workmen time during
on the dimensioned floor plan must be dimensioned. The length
construction.
accompanying this chapter. of all stub or partial walls must
Since the scale of working
If the building is small and be shown. Distances across plas-
drawings is small, it is not always
there is not a large variety of tered or cased openings are shown
possible to tell exactly where ex-
sizes and styles, and no specific if lengths of rooms and stub walls
tension lines are pointing. Then
manufacturer is desired, the win- do not give an adequate
a note must be placed in a con-
dow and door sizes are sometimes description.
spicuous place stating where di-
lettered on the plan. This infor- Dimensions for adjoining
mensions are taken. For example.
mation is placed next to the part rooms or spaces should be kept
on a frame building with masonry
and replaces the codes. Details in line (even) with each other
veneer, as described earlier, the
note might read:
are much better than just putting when it is possible. The dimen-
the size on the plan. sion lines should be placed in a
and exterior doors are
Interior relatively open space. Consider-
NOTE: ALL DIMENSIONS ARE FROM OUT-
all coded and keyed to the same able pre-planning and trial place-
SIDE EDGE OF STUDS.
door schedule. All doors for all ment are necessary to avoid con-
Or it might read: stories are placed on the same flict with symbols and names of
NOTE: EXTERIOR DIMENSIONS ARE FROM door schedule. All windows are rooms and parts.
433
Dimensioning Interior Doors Dimensioning Equipment For example, a basement plan

If dimensions for interior doors Show location dimensions for indicates the first floor joists; a
are measured to the door centers, a//equipment, cabinets, bathroom first floor planshows the ceiling
a center line is used. If the dimen- fixtures, or any other item to be joists over it. If all joists on each
sion is to the edges of the door, or installed, unless previous dimen- level are the same size, run the
the rough opening, a regular ex- sions (as for windowed walls) same direction, and have the
tension line is used. A note should make their location obvious. De- same spacing, they need to be
be placed on the floor plan to tail dimensions for the above are indicated only once. If they are
designate how dimensions for shown only if they are not given not all the same on each story,
door openings are measured on detail drawings. When possi- every change needs to be noted.
(rough opening, finished opening, ble, it is much better to prepare
Cutting Plane Lines
center of opening). One must re- large-scale detail drawings.
member to place all codes, as Cutting plane lines, as de-
described earlier. Electrical Symbols scribed and shown in Chapter 35,

are drawn on the floor plan to
Electrical symbols show the
Dimensioning in Halls
indicate where sections and de-
general (approximate) location of
Since a hall is quite narrow, tails will fit into the completed
all electrical items. These are not
the drawing can easily become plan. Remember that the part is
dimensioned on a floor plan. If
cluttered with extension and di- to be viewed from the cutting
the exact location is required, or
mension lines and figures. If at plane line, toward the arrow or
if wiring diagrams are needed, a
all possible, only one row of di- "code key" circle. This same code
separate electrical plan is drawn.
mension lines should be used. key is also placed on the detail or
Generally it is not necessary to section drawing. Examples are
Wall Thickness
have an overall dimension for the shown on the sample floor plan.
Wall thickness is usually shown
hall. However, the width must be
on the view, rather than outside it. Heat Registers and Radiators
shown. Note how dimensioning
Illustrations on page 435
has been accomplished on the The general and the
location
show different ways of dimension-
sample first-floor plan. outline of and return
all heat
ing walls. These should be studied
sources are indicated on floor
Names of Rooms and Spaces carefully so you can select the
plans. These are not usually di-
Each room and space (closet, most appropriate method for di-
mensioned. If complete heat plans
hall, dining area, etc.) must be mensioning your own plans.
are required they are drawn
prominently identified. This is
separately.
usually done near the center of Overhead Joists
the room or in the center of its If the working drawings are to Plumbing Lines
largestopen space. Size of letter- include a complete set of framing Except for very small struc-
ing depends upon the complexity diagrams, it is not necessary to placed and
tures, these are usually
of the part. Names of rooms are show floor and ceiling joists on dimensioned on a separate plan.
usually Vt", but may be Vie" or the floor plans. However, since Examples of plumbing lines
larger if space permits. Dimension conventional framing today usu- shown on the regular working
notes and figures in a small area ally does not have framing plans, drawing may be seen on the sam-
may be as small as 'Ab". it necessary to show joist size
is ple footing and foundation plan.
Equipment not recognizable by and spacing. The symbol is placed
its shape must have the name and noted as shown on the sam- Designation of Scale
lettered on or near the object. If ple floor plans accompanying this The name and scale of each
outside the object, a leader points chapter. Each plan shows the drawing must be clearly indi-
to it. overhead joists. cated. See plans, pages 499-527.
434
1
J .. Kd
"1
"
1
^
u YA
Methods of dimensioning to walls.
[ 1 1 }
© © Different ways of drawing cutting plane

lines.
435
Title blocks with this information measured from

Pier heights are Additional stories are dimen-
are included. If not in the title the top of the pier to the bottom sioned the same as the first story.
block, name and scale must be of the footing. Complete sizes are They also require ceiling joist
shown on the plan. usually shown on separate details. and subfloor dimensions.
If they are not shown elsewhere,
DIMENSIONING AND NOTES Window, Door and Sill Dimensions
complete sizes must be dimen-
FOR ELEVATIONS sioned on the elevations.
Window and door heights are
dimensioned from the face of the
Overall dimensions are not Location and detail dimensions
subfloor to the top of the sash or
shown on elevations, since they are required for all areaways,
door and not to the top of the
are given on floor plans. porches, landings, steps, and other
casing.
Since section and symbol lines exterior parts.
do not Height and width (length) of
When the tops of all windows
cross a dimension figure,
and doors are a uniform height,
they may be omitted until all all changes in wall covering ma-
only one height dimension (from
dimensions and notes are placed terials must be shown unless their
the subfloor) is required. If
on the drawing. Otherwise con- location is obvious because of
heights vary from the standard
siderable pre-planning for dimen- their relationship to some other
used, each window or door that
sions and notes is necessary. part. For example, if stone veneer
is not the same height as others
ends at the side of a door, and
Dimensioning Footings, is dimensioned separately.
the door location is dimensioned
Foundations, and Special Details on the floor plan, a dimension is Actual window height and
distance from the floor to the bot-
When footings and founda- not needed on the elevation. Ver-
tom of the window are not usu-
tions are drawn on the plan (they tical location dimensions for parts
ally shown. If these dimensions
are not always), total footing may be taken from grade line or
depth below grade must be shown. floor line, whichever is more ap-
are needed when laying masonry
When the building is to have sev- plicable. Horizontal dimensions

walls, or to give the size and loca-
tion of stone sills, they must be
eral footing depths, each must be are taken from an outside wall or
shown. Height of stone sills and
shown. One must also show the offset (not necessarily the same
their distance above the subfloor
height (depth) and width of all one).
are shown.
footings. If most footings are the The top of foundations or bot-
Horizontal location dimensions
same size but some are different, tom of joists are dimensioned
the typical size shown and a from grade. Basement or crawl
for windows and doors are not
is
note added stating that space height is dimensioned from

shown on elevations because this
all are
information can be found on the
this size unless dimensioned dif- the bottom of the floor joists to
floor plan.
ferently. Each foundation thick- the face of the floor below. In
Glass size may be indicated on
ness (width) must also be shown. addition, a combined thickness of
each window. The width is shown
Only one dimension is required floor joist and subfloor is shown.
if all are the same size. If more
first and then the A code
height.
Ceiling height is usually mea-
one placed on
letter similar to the
than one thickness is required, sured up from the top face of the
the floor plan may also be shown
the typical one is noted and all subfloor to the bottom of the ceil-
on the window.
different sizes are shown. These ing joists. If it is measured from
dimensions may be repeated on some other
A note is needed to show the
point, a note should
size and style of window and door
two adjoining elevations when state this. Note: When typical
casings unless detailed elsewhere.
all elevations are not on the same 8'-0" ceilings are to be used, the
drawing sheet. measurement is not exactly 8'-0". Chimney Dimensions
The thickness of a basement or Allow also for the finished floor It is not necessary to show hori-
crawl space floor is also shown. and ceiling material thickness. zontal location dimensions for a
436
chimney because these are shown • Name of each elevation. Electrical Plans
on floor plans. One must include • Check plan carefully for un- Electrical plans should include
detail and overall dimensions for usual items and methods of con- the following dimensions and
the chimney. struction that may need additional notes when they are applicable:
Total height is shown from the dimensions.
• Location of entrance service.
ridge to the top of the flue liner. • A note on omissions and er-
Note for voltage, amperage, and
rors, as described in Chapter 51.
Roof Covering whether the system uses fuses or
• Scale used when it is not in-
Notes are placed on roofs to circuit breakers. Number of cir-
cluded in the title block.
describe the kind and weight per cuits to be accommodated. One
square of roofing material. Spe- DIMENSIONING may list the manufacturer and
cial features such as ridge finish Heating Plans model number.
and flashing are also indicated. Heating plans should include • Plans for large buildings may
If flashing is used in other loca- the following dimensions and require details of entrance ser-
tions and is not shown on separate notes, when they are applicable: vice. If they do, describe required
details, it is noted on the elevations. • Fuel storage size and location, parts.
when required. • Location of all convenience

Louvers or Ventilators
• Location dimensions for supply outlets, boxes for lights and
When louvers or other venti-
lines.Notes describing size (di- switches. All other electrical
lators are required, these are di- equipment such as motors,
ameter), I.D. or O.D.
mensioned or notes are added if
• Location dimensions for heat- pumps, fans, disposers, and mix-
not shown on separate details. ers must be shown and dimen-
ing-cooling source (furnace and
Other Items Requiring air conditioning). sioned when required.
Dimensions and Notes • Information about the heating- • Lines (as on a regular floor
cooling source. Notes describing plan) connecting switches and
The following items arc found
name, model, kind of fuel, system convenience outlets or lighting
on almost every plan. Your ele-
vation should be checked for their
used (forced air, hot water, steam, outlets do not describe actual
inclusion, when they apply:
heat pump, or other) and the out- wire location and are not
put in btu's. dimensioned.
• Size and kind of downspouts
• Runs for all pipes or ducts; • When wires are placed in con-
and gutters.
notes stating sizes used. duit, its location is shown if the
• Fascia and soffit materials.
• Location and size dimensions exact location is necessary.
• Amount of overhang on each
where pipes, ducts, registers, or • One should add notes describ-
side of each roof.
radiators fit into or pass through ing size of all wires used, size,
• Name and notes of all wall
a wall. type, and location of all junction
covering materials.
• Location and size dimensions boxes, and descriptions of electri-
• Indication of roof pitch. Only
for all pipe chases and recesses. cal connections.
one is required unless different
These may need to be shown on • Identification of individual
roof slopes are used on the same
regular floor plans. circuits.
building; then each slope must
• Check the plan carefully to be
• Location of low voltage trans-
be indicated.
sure all heating-cooling details
formers and relays.
• Names masonry bonds
of all
are fully described.
or siding patterns and reference • Location of door chimes and
to detail drawings of same. Note: Study carefully the transformers.
• Height of steps and offsets of sample footing and foundation • Telephone or jack locations
floor and ceiling levels, or refer- plan. Also study the heating dia- when they are to be installed dur-
ence to details. grams in Chapter 48. ing construction.
437
N T
o Check the plan carefully to be Remember: Only partial
sure all electrical details are fully plumbing plans are usually shown N
described. for small buildings and the detail
Remember: Only partial elec- information is incorporated with

trical plans are usually shown for the floor plans.
North point indicators should be attrac-
small buildings and the detail in- tive but simple.
Dimensioning Details
formation is incorporated with the
Small-scale plans do not ade- designer or draftsman feels di-
floor plans.
quately describe or allow space mensions or names of other parts
Plumbing Plans
for dimensioning intricate parts. are necessary for an adequate
Plumbing plans should include Therefore the details are enlarged description, they are added.
the following dimensions and separately. Since there are in- The code key on each detail
notes, when they are applicable: finite no attempt
possible details, must refer to the location of the
• A note is used to indicate di- will be made to show where each detailon other parts of the plan.
rection and distance from edge of dimension on every drawing is to Examples of the code on small-
building to water main and sewer. be placed. One must follow good drawings keyed to the detail
scale
• Location of water line entering dimensioning practice when plac- are shown in the illustrations.
building. Size of collar required ing all location and detail dimen- When a plan includes many de-
where it passes through exterior sions. The detail is usually set in tails, it is necessary to have sev-
foundation or basement wall. with adjacent parts. As mentioned eral letters and figures for each
• Location of water meter. earlier, manufactured parts are code. Notice the numbering sys-
• Location and size of water not usually dimensioned unless tem on the illustrations.
heater; capacity and type of fuel size or shape affects other items to Careful study of these illustra-
used. Manufacturer and model be constructed. Only the actual tions and the sample plans will
number may be shown. part being emphasized, or its help you gain an understanding
• Indication of size for all water location and relationship to other of dimensioning and coding de-
and drainage lines. parts, is dimensioned and names tails. When studying a detail, find
• Location and size of soil stacks of parts lettered or noted on the the same detail as shown on all
and vents. drawing. This is arbitrary. If the other parts of the plan.
• Sizes of all pipes and kinds of
connections noted on schematic

diagram.
• Location of all pipes passing
through floors or walls and the
size collars, when required. This
is especially important when con-
crete floors or walls are to be used.
• Note special traps and drains.
• Note, describe, and dimension
size and location of cisterns, dry-
wells, catch basins, or septic tanks.
• When drainage fields are re-
quired, the size tile and methods
of installation are noted.
• Check the plan carefully to be
sure all plumbing details are fully
described.
438
the metric system is to think in customary. However, during the

METRIC MEASUREMENT
the new terms rather than to at- transition it will be necessary to
tempt to equate metric units to make conversions. This chapter
About 90% of the world's
countries have adopted the metric
measurement system (Systeme In-
ternational d'Unites), frequently Metric Decimal Prefixes
referred to as SI. After much Multiplication Factors Symbol Prefix
study, Congress has initiated nec-
essary legislation to establish a
1 000 000 000 000 = 10 tera T
1 000 000 000 = 10 giga G
10-year metric conversion pro-
1 000 000 = 10 6
mega M
gram for the United States. 1 000 = 10 kilo k
100 = 10 :
hecto
Much headway has already h
10 = 10 deka da
been made by business and indus-
1 (Units)
try toward complete or partial = 10
0.1 1
deci d
metric conversion. Many firms 0.01 = 10 2
centi c
are now using a dual dimension- 0.001 — 10 milli m

ing system for their working plans, 0.000 001 =10 < micro M
specifications, and operating man-

0.000 000 001 = 10 ' nano n
0.000 000 000 001 — 10 pico P

uals. Dual dimensioning means 0.000 000 000 000 001 = 10 15
femto f
that both metric and customary 0.000 000 000 000 000 001 — 10 18
otto a
units are shown. In many busi-
nesses the dual system will prob-
ably be replaced by complete
Metric
metric conversion.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
When established ways of doing Relationship of
Quantity Unit Symbol
things are discarded and new pro- Units
cedures adopted, the new almost millimetre mm 1 mm = 0.001 m

always appears more difficult. It centimetre cm 1 cm = 10 mm
Length decimetre dm 1 dm = 10cm
is true that conversion from one
metre m 1 m = 100 cm
system to another is difficult, but
kilometre km 1 km = 1000 m
the metric system itself is much
square centimetre cm 2 1 cm = 100 mm
2 2
simpler than the customary sys- square decimetre dm 2 1 dm = 100 cm

2 2
tem. The metric system is based square metre m2 1 m = 100 dm

2 2
on multiples of 10. For example, Area are a 1 a = 100 m 2
the metre is the basic unit of hectare ha 1 ha = 100 a

square kilometre km 2 km = 100 ha
2
length. A 1/100 of
centimetre is
1
a metre; a kilometre is 1000 times cubic centimetre cm 3 IcmJ )
=°' 00 "
\
millilitre ml 1ml |
a metre. Conversion from one unit (
Volume ( cubic decimetre dm !

1 dm 3
(
to another is easy. Compare this

litre n = ,ooomi
I 1
S
to the customary system, in which cubic metre m' 1 m = 1000
3
1
there are 12 inches in a foot, 3

milligram mg 1 mg = 0.001 g
feet in a yard, and 1760 yards in gram 9 1 g = 1000 mg
a mile. Mass kilogram kg 1 kg = 1000 g
method
metric ton t 1 t= 1000 kg
The best for learning
439
includes conversion charts as well frequently used. These are: milli- (but not accurate enough to be
as tables of metric units. Study metres (mm) and metres (m). used for calculations).
these tables to become familiar (In technical practice, centimetres
1 mm = approx. 0.04" (3/64")
with the terms used. As they re- are seldom used.) The following 1 cm= approx. 0.4" (13/32")
late to building construction two list gives an initial approximate 1 m = approx. 3.3' (3'-3 3/8")
linear measurements are most size comparison of these units 1 m = approx. yd. (39 3/8")
1 .1
Metric Measurement
BASIC AND DERIVED UNITS
Quantity Unit Symbol
BASIC UNITS
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A

Temperature kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol
DERIVED UNITS
Area square metre m 2
Volume cubic metre m 3
Force newton N (kg -m/s

2
)
Pressure pascal Pa (N/m 2 )
Work, energy, quantity of heat joule J (N -m)

Power watt W (J/s)
Electric charge coulomb C (A-s)
Voltage, electromotive force volt V (W/A)
Electric field strength volt per metre V/m
Electric resistance ohm 11
(V/A)
Conductance siemens S (A/V)
Electric capacitance farad F (A -s/V)
Luminance candela per square metre cd/m 2
Illumination lux lx (lm/m 2
)
Thermal conductivity watt per metre kelvin W/m K

Radiant intensity watt per steradian W/sr
Activity (of a radioactive source) 1 per second s"
1
440
39 Dimensioning and Notes
Approximate Conversions from Metric Measures
Symbol When You Know Multiply By To Find Symbol
LENGTH
mm millimetres 0.04 inches in
cm centimetres 0.4 inches in
m metres 3.3 feet ft
m metres 1.1 yards yd

km kilometres 0.6 miles mi
AREA
cm' square centimetres 0.16 square inches in 2
m 2 square metres 1.2 square yards yd 2

km 2 square kilometres 0.4 square miles mi 2
ha hectares (10,000 m 2 ) 2.5 acres
MASS (weight)
9 grams 0.035 ounces oz
kg kilograms 2.2 pounds lb
t tonnes (1000 kg) 1.1 short tons
VOLUME
ml mlllilitres 0.03 fluid ounces floz
1 litres 2.1 pints Pi
1 litres 1.06 quarts qi
1 litres 0.26 gallons gal
n3 cubic metres 35 cubic feet ft
3
m3 cubic metres 1.3 cubic yards yd 3

TEMPERATURE (exact)
"c Celsius 9/5 (then Fahrenheit "F
temperature odd 32) temperature
Approximate Conversions to Metric Measures

Symbol When You Know Multiply By To Find Symbol
LENGTH
in inches •2.5 centimetres cm
ft feet 30 centimetres cm
yd yards 0.9 metres m
mi miles 1.6 kilometres km
AREA
in J square inches 6.3 square centimetres cm 2
ft
2 square feet 0.09 square metres m2
yd 2 square yards 0.8 square metres
mi 2
square miles 2.6 square kilometres km 2
acres 0.4 hectares ha
MASS (weight)
oz ounces 28 grams g
lb pounds 0.45 kilograms kg
short Ions 0.9 tonnes t
(2000 1b)
VOLUME
tsp teaspoons 5 mlllilitres ml
tbsp tablespoons 15 millilltres ml
II oz fluid ounces 30 millilitres ml
c cups 0.24 litres 1
pt pints 0.47 litres 1
qi quarts 0.95 litres 1
gal gallons 3.8 litres 1
«3 cubic feet 0.03 cubic metres

Yd 3 cubic yards 0.76 cubic metres
TEMPERATURE (exact)
"F Fahrenheit 5/9 (after Celsius C
temperature subtracting temperature
321
441
WOO 8
443
wOO 6
u
-ll-'Mhi.nH^HTri
t^L
c
—
~" *
444 ZOl
vuOt
446
447
448
449
450
39: Dimensioning and Nofes
: i I 1
4
ij
-
1
S91
1
'
4
z
O
I
oc 08 I
013
451
80
} 1
62 mm
POLISHED
PLATE
MIRROR
^r
ie:
.46
.
47 . . -48 . .53m
BATHROOM ELEVATION
1.42
Zt^
SECTION
©
DRYER VENT
r~r
,
ii
1.55
SECTION BATHROOM ELEVATION ^\

452
453
ALTERNATE FLOOR CONSTRUCTION
NAILER
-FLY RAFTER
7x 7mm SQ. WIRE MESH
NOTCHED SHIM
.20 m
BEVEL SIDING
LOUVER DETAIL
SECTION
454

1 . Why is an understanding of 20. May extension lines cross 40. A dimension line inside a
building construction methods impor- extension lines? Explain. circle passes through the
tant for placing dimensions on a 21. May dimension lines cross of the circle.
working drawing? dimension lines? 41. If the dimension line is out-
2. What is the most important 22. May extension lines cross side the circle, it points toward the
rule of dimensioning? dimension lines?
3. What is an extension line? 23. Are there exceptions to the 42. The vertex of an arc is
4. How much space is allowed three questions above? Explain. marked with an
between the outline of the object 24. Explain placement of dimen- 43. Dimension lines for arcs ter-
and the extension line? sions inside and outside of the views. minate at the
5. What determines the length Which is preferred? 44. What is a leader and when
of an extension line? 25. What are four methods of is it used?
6. How much does an extension marking ends of dimension lines? 45. What are two methods of
line extend past the outside (overall) drawing leaders?
26. Approximately how large is
dimension line? an arrow on the end of a dimension 46. At what angle are leaders
7. What is a dimension line? Is
line?
drawn? Explain.
it drawn the same for architectural
27. Explain some of the ways it
47. Describe the line weight used
and machine drawings? may be drawn. for leaders.
8. On architectural drawings, 28. May an extension or dimen-

48. How are leaders terminated?
what is the approximate spacing of 49. Explain dimensioning for
sion line cross a symbol or sectioned
adjacent dimension lines? What con-
area? wood windows and doors in wood
trols their spacing? frame construction.
29. Do symbol or section lines
9. Describe the weight of dimen- modular construction, how
cross a dimension figure or note? 50. In
sion lines.
30. What is the aligned system is dimensioning done?
10. Which is drawn first, an ex-
of placing dimensions? 51. What dimensions are usually
tension line or a dimension line?
31. What is the unidirectional placed outside the view on a floor
1 1 . Why are construction lines
system of placing dimensions? plan?
drawn for extension and dimension
32. Which system is used on 52. Why are overall dimension
lines?
architectural drawings? lines farthest from the view?
1 2. Are construction lines re-
33. What is the standard size of 53. Small size of floor plans
moved from a drawing?
lettering on a working drawing? makes it impossible to tell exactly
13. Does one measure the spac-
When may this vary? where an extension line is pointing.
ing and line length of extension and
dimension lines? 34. When are guide lines used How is this remedied?
14. What is a location dimen- for letters and figures? 54. What is a code letter or fig-
sion? What is a size dimension? 35. What is the difference be- ure? Explain use.
15. What is an overall dimension? tween a guide line and a construc- 55. How many window schedules
tion line? are there on a complete set of work-
Describe. Is it a size or location
dimension? 36. Are guide lines removed after ing drawings? How many door
lettering is complete? schedules?
16. What is a detail dimension?
1 7. May one use an object line 37. Are dimension figures placed 56. What is a lintel schedule?
as a dimension line? Explain. directly above each other? What information is included?
1 8. Dimension lines may end at 38. Circlesaredimensioned show- 57. What dimensions are re-
what kinds of lines? ing their quired in each enclosed space?

19. Are dimensions measured 39. Arcs are dimensioned show- 58. Explain two ways interior
from hidden parts? Explain. ing their doors may be dimensioned.

455
59. What notes or codes are 66. Are plumbing lines placed on 73. How is glass size indicated
placed by each door? a first floor plan? Explain. on an elevation?

60. Why are only minimum di- 67. Where may the scale of a 74. How is roof pitch (slope)
mensions placed in a hall? drawing be shown? Explain. indicated?

61. Explain lettering sizes to be
68. Are overall dimensions
75. How is roof covering
placed on floor plans. indicated?
placed on elevations? Why?
62. Are exact equipment sizes 76. How is exterior covering for
69. How many times is footing
walls indicated? How are changes
usually shown on a floor plan?
or foundation width shown on an materials indicated?
63. How are joists indicated and in
elevation? Footing thickness or
noted on a floor plan? What infor- 77. What chimney dimensions
height?
mation is included? are required on elevations?
70. Are all ceiling heights shown 78. roof overhang shown on
64. What is a cutting plane line? Is
How on elevations? Explain. elevations? Explain.

is it drawn? How are the codes
used with these lines? 71. Window and door heights 79. How does one determine
65. Are heat registers or radia- are dimensioned to what location? what dimensions to place on in-
tors indicated and dimensioned on 72. Are vertical window dimen- dividual detail drawings?
a floor plan? sions usually shown? When are they? 80. How are details coded?
Terms To Speff and Know

dimension detail dimension modular construction arc
dimension line overall dimension modular dimensioning vertex
extension line object line symbol leader

building shell center line section note
overrun hidden line unidirectional schedule
line weight cutting plane line grid sphere
location code key perspective cylinder
dimension symmetrical pictorial rectangular solid
size dimension arrows center-to-center prism
456
—
<a®
Organization of Building Plans
Building plans will not always complete, it is trimmed to a final light and fine. The page is later
fit onto standard sized sheets. size of 8':"xl 1". All standard untrimmed along them.
Therefore sheets arc sometimes trimmed and trimmed sheets are
Borders
made to fit the drawings. Natu- multiples of these two sizes. Every
Borders are used to frame the
rally, all sheets in a set of plans standard sheet size is twice as
drawings and give them a finished
are the same size. one preceding it. On
large as the
appearance. Their marginal width
Use standard sizes if possible. the diagram of sheet sizes, the
is variable, but they are usually
They permit more economical numbered rectangles the
purchasing and also aid in han- smaller or trimmed sizes
list
and
first
drawn between W" and W wide,
except for the left border which
dling and filing. then give the larger, untrimmed
SI/CS.
isfrom 1" to /:" wide to permit
l
1
Standard Sheet Sizes binding individual drawings into

Sheet sizes are standardized by Trim Lines sets. Of course, all borders in a
numbers. The smallest is a No. 1, Regardless of which is used- set of sheets should have the same
the next larger size a No. 2. and standard or non-standard sheets- ratio.
so on. The untrimmed No. 1 size trim lines must be added to show
is 9"xl2". After the drawin° is the final size. These are drawn Border Lines
There is no standard border
line width. The size of the draw-
8'/2"x 11" ir x 17" 17"x22" 22" x 34"
ing sheet helps determine it. The
larger the sheet the wider the
border Note
line. that border
9" 12" 12" x 18" 18" x 24" 24" x 36"
*~-
x lines more prominent than
are
No. 1
other lines on the drawing. Natu-

rally, in a set of plans they should
all be the same width.
When one measures and draws
trim and border lineson each
sheet, the slightest misjudgment
can cause them to be different.
4 —- For best results, do one sheet lay-

out and then trace all others
Standard trimmed and untrimmed sheet sizes. from it.
457
Titles
STEVEN'S GENERAL HOSPITAL
Every sheet should have an 4423 RIVERSIDE DRIVE REVISED ON
TAMPA, FLORDIA
appropriate title. There is no one
best way all titles should be A. R. JONES, ARCHITECT
drawn. The information to be in- 1357 SUNVIEWAVENUE SHEET NO.
TUCSON, ARIZONA
cluded in the title and description 1
PLAN N0.| 357 I DATE
is variable, but some firms use the
same conventional title for all

DRAWN BY
their drawings. The three most
CK'D BY
common locations for are:
THOMAS CAVANAUGH
titles DATE
701 INDEPENDENCE BOULEVARD
( 1 ) the lower right-hand corner of DRAWING NO.
CHICAGO 24, ILLINOIS
the sheet. (2) across the bottom of
the entire sheet, or (3) at the right REVISIONS JOHN DUMBKOWSKI, ARCH. SHEET NO.
end of the sheet. 2016 HICKORY DR.

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
The sample titles show a vari-
ety of ways they may be drawn
and information to be included.
The samples with much informa-
REVISIONS - DATE BY
tion are from plans for large
buildings. Plans for small build-
DESCRIPTION
ings frequently have abbreviated
JOB NO
titles which contain little DR. BY
information. TR BY
On large, elaborate sets of CH. BY
DATE
C.W. HEATH, Assoc. SHEET NO
plans, each sheet has a full title.
APPROVED
216 NORTH PARK AVE.
Simple sets may have a formal
MONTEREY, CALIF.
titleon the first sheet only.
Both complex and simple sets
have all their sheets numbered.
HOUSE FOR SAMUAL WARNER
On large sets the number is in-
470 61 ST COURT
cluded in the title block. On small
SAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA
sets the numbers are inserted at
DRAWING NO. MAOE BY /?JXr?
the lower right-hand corner of 927-43
FRONT ELEVATION
CK'D BY /f ./*&
each sheet, as in the illustrations REVISIONS SCALE %" = r OATE
on the right. PAGE NO.
DELUXE PLAN SERVICE 7 of 12
For a professional appearance,
the main body of a title is seldom
lettered freehand. When pre-
HOUSE FOR
printed titles are not readily avail- MR. a MRS. J. PRIBBEN
able, they may be lettered with
PLAN NO.
ARCHITECT
a mechanical lettering device or
EDWARD P DIETER
®
template. Information concerning 370 DATON STREET 56
the individual drawing— such as ATLANTA, GEORGIA SHEET NO.
the name of the client, his address, 767-0193
or the name of the project— may
9
be lettered freehand. Titles for building plans.
458
40: Organization of Building Plans
Remember that all drawings

have auxiliary information that
must be included. Dimensions,
notes, titles, indication of draw-
ing scale, leader lines, and letter-
ing all require space, and must
be considered when planning the
sheet.
If different drawing scales are
used on an individual sheet, each
must be indicated near the ap-
propriate drawing. If the sheet
contains only one drawing scale,
it need be indicated only once.
The indication may be in a prom-
inent place on the body of the
drawing or it may be placed in
the title block, but one should use
the same method of indicating
the scale which he is using,
throughout the set of plans.
Arrangement of sheets.
Schedules
Arrangement of the Plan always placed on separate pages. Since most building plans are
There are seldom exactly the If these plans are simple, they drawn to a very small scale and
same number and kinds of sheets may be placed on the same sheets most items are only symbolized,
in a set of plans, so one cannot as other drawings. For example, it is not possible to include all
establish an absolute order. floor plan sheets may contain all necessary Chapter
information.
Nevertheless, plans may be cate- related detail drawings, or eleva- 39 discusses how to identify and
gorized so all similar information tion sheets may contain details use code letters and figures. These
isgrouped properly. The illustra- pertinent to them. codes frequently refer to sched-
tion showing a set of plans has ules where detailed information
sheets numbered in the following
Sheet Layout about items such as doors, win-
order: Every drawing sheet must be dows, iintels, room finishes, and
1. Schedule of symbols and plot organized to make good use of others are organized into lists
plan. its space, but information should which give specific details about
2. Footing and foundation or be as clear as possible. When a each item.
basement plan. sheet contains only one drawing, When plans are drawn for a
3. Floor plans. it is centered on the page. If more specific building, the items to be
4. Elevations. than one drawing is included, included determine what sched-
5. Sections they should be related. For ex- ules are used. No
two different
and ample, if a front and rear eleva- building would call for
plans
6. Details. tion are above one another, their exactly the same schedules or
7. Framing plans. extremities should be in line. direct information.
8. Mechanical plans. Spaces above, between, and below Good schedules are an impor-
Sections and details are not them should be the same. tant part of any building plan.
459
Binding
LINTEL SCH EDULE A building plan should have a
PRECAST CONCRETE LINTEL
STEEL LINTELS REINFORCING PER 4" WALL
cover page to enclose the set and
CLEAR LINTEL STEEL LINTEL SIZES CLEAR LINTEL LINTEL REINF.
protect it. This may be an ex-
SPAN LENGTH • "THICK WALL 4" THICK WALL SPAN LENSTH HEIOHT TOP.BOT. panded version of a title block or
2'-0" 3'-4" 2-3'/i"x3'/i"x 5/i6" 3-3'/!x3'/!"x s/u" 2'-0" 3'-4" 7'/i" l-#3 it may also display a copy of a
4'-0" 5'-4" "
2-3Vi"x3'/i"x s/i s 3-3'/ix3'/!"xyi«" 4'-0" S'-4" 7>/»" l-#3 rendering. After necessary prints
6'0" 7'-4" 2-3 /7"x3 /!"x 5/is"
l l
3-3'/?x3'/)"xVi6" 6'-0" 7M" 7 /."
s
l-#4 are reproduced and assembled
8'0" 9'-4" 2-5"x3'/i"x s/,«" 3-5x3 J4"x¥i«" 8'0" 9'-4" 15 !/i" l-#4
10' -0" 11 '-4" 2-6"x3W"x%"
into sets of plans, they are bound
3-6x3 '/i"x s/,6" lO'-O" ll'-4" 15 s/." l-#5
or stapled (usually along the left
12'-0" 13'-4" 8l-18.4 + 12"xV 12'-0" 13'-4" 15V." !-#«
14'0" 15'-4" 8l-18.4 + 12"x>/." edge) together and distributed to
those who are to use them.
Questions to Reinforce
DOOR SCHEDULE Knowledge
KEY QUAN. SIZE MTL. DESCRIPTION FRAME
A 2 3'-0"x7'-O" ALUMINUM EXTRUDED ALUMINUM ALUMINUM
WOOD
1. Are all building plans drawn
8 4 3'0"x7'0"xl V," 1 LT. BIRCH SOLID CORE WHITE PINE
C 1 3'-0"x7'-0"xiy." BIRCH
on standard sized pages? Why or
D 2 2'-6"x7'-0"xl J/." BIRCH BIRCH HOLLOW CORE WHITE PINE why not?
1A- 44- 2. As a rule, all sheets in a set
of plans aremade the same size.
From your own reasoning, do you
suppose there is ever an exception
ROOM SCHEDULE to this?
AREA WALLS CEILING FLOOR BASE TRIM REMARKS 3. What are the advantages of
ENTRY PLASTER ACOUST. ASPHALT RUBBER W.P. using standard sized drawing sheets?
CORRIDORS 4. What is the size of a No. 1
EQUIP. RM. BLOCK RF. DECK untrimmed sheet? A No. 1 trimmed

# ) sheet?
5. How are other standard sizes
Like details, they may be shown based upon these sizes? Explain.
on sheets with other details when 6. Explain what is meant by the
ELECTRICAL they apply, or they may all be term trim

7. Why
line.
are borders not the

grouped in one location. Several
KEY DESCRIPTION
sample schedules are included to same size on all four edges of a
^ CEILING OUTLET
DUPLEX CONVEN-
illustrate the kinds of information
found on them. However, they
sheet?
8. What are the minimum and
©= IENCE OUTLET are to serve only as a guide to maximum recommended border
widths?
M TELEPHONE OUTLET
formulating necessary schedules
and information for your plans, 9. Why does the author recom-
* and are not to be considered an mend that you measure trim and
absolute way an individual sched- border layouts on one sheet and
Sample schedules. then trace other pages from
ule must be handled. it?
460
40: Organization of Building Plans
10. What are the most frequently placed on sheets with other draw-
used locations for title strips? ings, what determines their location?
1 1 . Are they always drawn ex- 16. Explain how one determines
actly the same way? Explain. where to locate drawings on a sheet.
1 2. From your own reasoning 1 7. Explain the different ways
why must all sheets be numbered? the drawing scale may be indicated.
13. Why are pre-printed or me- 18. Why are schedules of infor-
chanically lettered titles more desir- mation necessary? Explain how one
able than those done freehand? determines what schedules to in-
14. List an order in which plans clude and what information should
may appear in a set. Is this an ab- be in them.
solute order that cannot be changed? 1 9. What are two reasons why
Explain. a bound set of plans should include
15. When sections or details are a cover page?
The following nine chapters are designed to serve as a

guide and check list while drawing your building plan.
The chapters do not give complete step-by-step explana-
tions for drawing all items because building plans differ
and do not require exactly the same information. However,
the chapters do set forth procedures to guide you.
Chapters 41 through 48 include very few illustrations
because they are to serve only as a drawing guide and are
not intended for presentation of information relating to
building parts. Such explanations and illustrations are
presented in other chapters.
Chapter 49 is a set of working plans for a split level
home. It may be used as a guide for drawing your plans.
Another set of plans is included in Chapter 39. These
should also be consulted.
461
<aa
Drawing Plot Plans
This chapter presents a de- Drawing Scale sumed or supplied by an
of plot plans and ex- instructor.
scription The plot-plan drawing scale is
plains how they are drawn. It is determined by the property size Positioning a Plot Plan
to be used as a check list and and building complexity. Plans on a Drawing Sheet
guide for drawing your plot plan. for small buildings may be drawn
If a plot plan is to be drawn
The chapter cannot be all- as large as W=V-0" but larger
approximately the same size as a
inclusive because it is concerned buildings are usually drawn to a
drawing sheet, it may be centered
with special factors, only applied scale of 1
" = 20' or smaller. Draw-
on the page. However, if it is to
to plot plans. Likewise it is prob- ing sheet size is also an influenc-
occupy less space it may be
able that some information in- ing factor because each sheet in
positioned to one side so other
cluded here may not be required a set of plans must be the same
data, as a key to all symbols used,
on your plan. size yet property has many sizes
can occupy the sheet.
As with other chapters, you and shapes. If the property and/
cannot expect to read the entire or building are extremely large, Beginning the Drawing
unit and then put it aside and two plot plans may be necessary. Secure a drawing sheet and
remember every item to include When two are drawn, one is to draw the tentative page layout.
on your plan. Study small sections a very small scale, showing the Determine the plot plan location
at a time and then draw each item entire property and the building on the sheet and then draw all
required. Naturally, youafter location upon it. Uniformly property lines. Verify all symbols
become proficient you will modify spaced grid lines are drawn and to use because many could be
the procedures to suit your own identified to pinpoint locations. new to you. Draw all adjoining
needs. The second plot plan includes streets, roads, alleys, and public
only those grid sections occupied sidewalks. Also draw lines repre-
The Plot Plan
by the building. It is drawn to a senting all utility easements. Then
Plot plans for presentation pur-
large scale so detailed information draw the center lines of all streets
poses are discussed elsewhere in
can be included. or roads.
the text. Featured in this chapter
are working drawings and techni- Determining Plot Plan Shape Building Lines (See page 464)
cal information required during Plot plan size and shape can Localordinances frequently
actual construction. These plans be determined from a legal de- state where a building may be
are aerial-type views showing the scription or from a plat of the located on a lot. For example, an
entire building plot, all building area. Note: A student draftsman ordinance may require buildings
outlines, and related features in- may not have an actual building to be at least from a
30' street
fluencing construction. site, so specs are frequently as- and 10' from side property lines.
462
95.0 ^-94.7
-94.0 ^-93.0 LOT 17 BLOCK 5
MANCHESTER GROVE-ELIOT, WISCONSIN

Plot plan with proposed elevations at building corners.
These established minimums are given consideration. After build- neys, and all roof surfaces, are
called building lines. Draw them ing location is determined draw drawn on the plan. Symbols for
first as construction lines; then allcorners on the plot plan. Then roofing add to appearance and
after all building outlines are remove the template and draw all help define building shape.
drawn in, superimpose hidden building outlines. 3. Building outlines may also
lines near building corners to There are several ways to de- be drawn with object lines and the
show that the building fits within scribe building outline shape: entire structure shaded as in sec-
Such lines
the prescribed limits. 1. Exterior wall outlines may tion. This procedure is frequently
are shown on the accompanying be drawn to show all wall thick- used as a supplement to other
plot plans. nesses. These are filled in as solid methods to distinguish between
color. Doors, windows, and all existing and new construction.

Building Outlines (See page 464) interior walls are omitted. This
Construction Outside the Building
You may draw your building method usually omits all roof
outline on scrap paper or card- overhangs. Note: If the overhang If sidewalks, driveways, fences,
board and cut a template to this influences building location, draw carports, walls, patios, outdoor
shape. The template can then be it as a hidden line. fireplaces, or other features are to
positioned and re-positioned on 2. Another frequently used be included as part of the build-
the plot plan until a suitable loca- method describes exterior wall ing construction, or if they in-
tion is achieved. Of course, there outlines with hidden lines and de- fluence construction in any man-
are other influencing factors such scribes roof outlines with object ner, they should be drawn on the
as contour and other buildings or lines. Construction features, such plot plan. If these items are not
obstructions. These must also be as ridges, valleys, dormers, chim- influencing factors omit them.
463
226.0 225.8 223.6
EX. 224.0/EX. 224.0 100 -0' PROPERTY LINE
r-
223.6 I
GARAGE
FLOOR ELEV. ELEV,
224.0 223.8
17-0
224 |
-\_ k .A
QE 223.5
Tv LINCOLN ST. '
BLOCK 23 HILLSIDE SUBDIVISION

WABASH COUNTY, ILLINOIS
Plot plan with existing, and proposed, elevations at building corners.
The same is true for trees, shrubs, relations to sea level should be Utilities
or other plantings; these may or indicated. If the terrain changes

Each utility line— for water.
may not be shown depending elevation abruptly, as at opposite
gas, sewer, septic tank and its
upon their relationship to actual sides of a retaining wall, only the
field,and others— should be drawn
construction. highest and lowest contour lines
with their proper symbol. These
Contour Lines are drawn. Closely spaced con tour
lines extend from the building to
If the terrain or has a
hard to read and detract
lines are
the corresponding utility
is flat in the
from the drawing.
gentle slope, contour lines may street, alley, or easement. Exact
be omitted. However, when the Since buildings require surface locations of all such connections
plot is irregular or has steep water drainage, the lotmust be to public utilities should be di-
grades, contour lines should be graded to provide it. Observe the mensioned. Note: The city or
included. Vertical grades of one swales shown on the sample plot other branch of local government
foot are usually shown. Later plans designed to deflect or guide and public service companies
when lettering the plan, vertical water away from the building. usually provide connecting points.
464
.
41: Drawing Plot Plans
It is seldom possible to select your Lettering may not be presented in this list.
own points of entry into the avail- Information on plot plans is These statements are only to aid
able utilities. variable,so you should study you in establishing an orderly draw-
samples to observe the kinds of ing procedure.

Elevations Above Sea Level
information frequently included. After you have drawn the item
In addition to the contour
The following list may serve being discussed, check it lightly on
heights discussed earlier, other
as a guide for lettering to include: the list and move on to the next one.
elevation notes are needed. Indi-
• Complete title block, as on 1 Secure your drawing sheet and
cate the elevation at each building
other pages in the set of plans. fasten it to a drawing surface.
corner, each property corner, and
• Name of the drawing, as PLOT 2. Using construction lines, draw
at either the curb or crown of the
PLAN. your border and trim lines. Be
street at both lot edges. A corner
• The drawing scale. sure to include the title block.
lot requires three such elevations.
• Identification for property 3. Calculate the overall dimensions
If existing grade level and fin-
lines. of your building and the lot;
ished grade level are to be differ-
• Identification for building then choose an appropriate
ent, both elevations must be
lines. drawing scale.
indicated on the plan. Plot plan
• Names of streets or roads. (In- 4. In the lower center of the sheet,
#2 shows both elevations at
dicate center lines when drawn or in the title block, letter the
building corners.
m.) drawing name and scale used.
Observe also that all tloor
• Major building parts— as first 5. Either center the drawing on the
heights are shown.
floor, garage, fence, or terrace. sheet or determine its best loca-
Dimensions for Plot Plans • Legal description, including lot tion elsewhere.
Place overall dimensions for number, block number, name of 6. Using construction lines, draw
property lines. Place the dimen- the addition or subdivision, name all property lines.
sion adjacent to the property line. of the city or town when appli- 7. Draw all streets, roads, alleys,
(It is not necessary to draw ex- cable, name of the county, bor- public sidewalks, and easements.
tension and dimension lines for ough, or parish, and name of 8. Draw a center line for all streets
this.) If the lot is rectangular only the state. and roads.

two such dimensions are required. • Other technical data unique to 9. Draw all building lines as estab-
If the lot is irregular in shape. this building, if any. lished by local ordinances.
each side must be dimensioned. 1 0. If necessary, cut a template to
North Point Indicator
Dimension the distance from your building shape.
For orientation purposes draw
the street edge or curb to the out- 1 1. Mark the building's location on
in a North point indicator. For
side edge of all public sidewalks. the plot plan.
working drawings this should be
Then dimension sidewalk width. 12. Using one of the prescribed
functional rather than artistic.
Also dimension the distance from methods, draw building outlines
Keep it simple.
the sidewalk to the property line. on the plot plan.
Using good dimensioning prac- 1 3. Draw in symbols, roof features,

Condensed Outline to
tices, describe the building's size, section symbols, and other re-
Reinforce Knowledge
shape, and position on the proper- quired items to complete the
ty. Then add dimensions for side- The following statements present building.
walks, driveways, patios, walls, a brief outline or system that may 14. Draw outside features that are
screens, or other exterior features. be used when drawing plot plans. a part of, or influence,
Wells and drainage systems Statements in this list may not apply construction.
must also be described with to all plot plans. Likewise, some re- 15. If the terrain is irregular, draw
dimensions. quired items on individual plot plans in contour lines.
465
Drawing Floor Plans
This chapter presents a system surface parallel to the ground how large the drawing sheet must
of procedures for drawing floor cutting through all walls so the be. Be sure it is large enough to
plans. It is to be used as a guide windows and doors are cut in include an appropriate border
and check list for items to include half. When the top half of the and title block.
on your plan. It cannot be all in- building is removed, the remain- After your drawing paper is
clusive, other features not dis- ing lower half will reveal the positioned and secured to the
cussed might be required on some floor plan to the observer. As board, draw construction lines for
drawings. with other orthographic sections the border and trim lines. To do
One cannot expect to read the discussed earlier, one must this it may be necessary for you
entire chapter and then lay it imagine himself directly over the to refer to sheet layouts and page
aside and remember how to draw part being viewed. (A floor plan sizes in your text. Make it a
a completed floor plan. You may is a modified orthographic section point of referring back to find
skim-read to gain an overall idea drawing, with most construction needed information.
of its content. Then, starting at details shown in symbol form Using your rough sketches and
the first and reading one sentence rather than fully drawn.) It is preliminary sizes, calculate exact
at a time,perform the indicated necessary to draw parts for the building dimensions and decide
operations— or simply hold some upper half of the building even its best location on the drawing
information for future use. Re- though it has been removed. All sheet.
peat this process for each suc- items above the cutting plane are
ceeding sentence. Note: The be- shown as hidden lines or symbols. Technical Data
ginner is advised to lightly check Before you can draw a floor
Drawing Scale
off all drafting steps as they are plan you must know the con-
Floor plans for average-size
completed. This will prevent you struction method of the outside
homes or other small buildings
from becoming lost as you pro- walls; that is, whether exterior
are usually drawn to a scale of
ceed down the list of things to do.
Naturally, after you become pro-
W= l'-O". However, if the build-
walls are solid masonry, masonry
ficient you will modify the pro-

ing is larger, a scale of W= l'-O"
veneer,
curtain, or
frame, post and beam,
any other. You must
own is used. The scale must be indi-
cedures to suit your needs. also know the construction meth-
cated on the drawing, either be-
neath the floor plan or in the od for all interior walls. It is a
How a "Floor Plan" Is Viewed good idea to note each wall type
title block.
Imagine you are observing a and thickness on the preliminary
completed one-story building from Drawing Page sketch or drawing. Determine
the top. Also, imagine a plane Your building size determines exact wall thicknesses so they are
466
42: Drawing Floor Plans
available for future reference. opening sizes for each required Drawing Stairs
These will be required when plac- item. Do draw window or
not Before drawing stairs, consult
ing dimensions on the plan. door symbols at this time; show stair data to be sure yours con-
Many draftsmen allow 10" only their locations. form to one of the accepted types
(full scale size) when drawing and that all sizes are satisfactory.
Other Openings in Walls
exterior masonry wall thickness Draw a break line across the stair
and 6" for both interior and ex- Draw construction lines for all
well in the middle of the stair
soil stacks, vents, heat registers—
terior frame walls. These are not run. Using actual tread width,
exact measurements; they repre-
when required on this plan— pipe
and equipment line weight, draw
sent close approximates. If this
chases, and all other items that
in steps from the head of the
are to be recessed into walls.
rounded-off wall thickness is stairs to the break line. Then add
used, the slightmust beerror an arrow to indicate either up or
Wall Object Lines
compensated for when showing down. Using either a very hard
Using good drafting techniques
dimension figures on the plan. pencil, or a blue one that will
and satisfactory line weight,
Dimensions must state true sizes not reproduce, roughly note up
broaden object lines for both faces
and not these approximates. or down direction. Do not letter
of all walls. Do not draw object
lines across door openings. They it at this time. All lettering will be
Drawing Wall Outlines done later.
ma) be drawn across windows
Using the wall thicknesses and
on (he wall interior when the
approximate room sizes as noted Drawing the Chimney or Fireplace
jambs are flush with the wall. Do
on your rough sketch or drawing, The chimney and fireplace out-
not draw object lines across the
draw construction lines represent- lines should be completely drawn
window exterior unless the sim-
ing all exterior and interior walls. in. All details such as the hearth,
plified non-standard symbol is
Draw these as continuous lines;
going to be used, or unless the ash dump, liners, fire brick, com-
do not leave spaces for door, win-
window face is flush with the wall
mon brick backing, fireplace fac-
dow, or other openings. These ing material, and all other parts
exterior.
are drawn as construction lines; are added. Outlines should be
they are not darkened until later. Drawing Window, Door, drawn as construction lines and
and Opening Symbols then darkened, but very intricate
Drawing Door, Window, To help you establish an ac- details may be drawn their proper
and Opening Locations curate visual memory of each line weight the first time.
Select each door, window, or symbol them up in
to use. look Information about chimneys
opening from catalogs, manu- the text and draw yours exactly and fireplaces is very technical
facturers' literature, the text, or as shown. Beginners should draw and should be studied carefully
from information supplied by window and door symbols first as before any drawing is begun.
your instructor. List all informa- construction lines; then, when all
tion about each item on a sepa- are correct, redraw to their proper Drawing Closet Parts
rate sheet of paper and keep this. Be certain doors have
line weight. Closet wall outlines and all
It isneeded now and will be used the proper swing for most con- doors are drawn later with other
again later. Note: It is a good venient use. Lap sliding doors so walls and doors. However, if some
idea to keep all information re- the door edge is not visible from are not to be complete, they may
lating to your building plan in the most used portion of the room. be drawn now. Identify the
in
an organized folder so it is readily Draw lines for thresholds, sills, shelves, rods, drawers, compart-
available when needed. and differences in floor materials ments, or other special features.
Draw construction lines across when needed. Identify with notes Study sample drawings showing
appropriate walls to represent when lettering the drawing. these drawn as symbols.
467
Many draftsmen make a chart or other similar items are to be systems, built-in television, spe-
showing all shelf lengths and the included in any room their out- cial appliance centers, built-in
number of each required. When lines should be drawn on the floor mixers, or any other electrical
this is done, a reference must be plan. Such items are usually item not of a portable nature.
made directing attention to the drawn using equipment lines. If Each of these is to be identified
chart. You are not to letter the conventional symbols are not by abbreviations or special notes.
note at this time. Write yourself available, items should be drawn Draw in all switches and add
a reminder and put it in your to show an orthographic top view. notes to designate special ones.
folder so the note can be com- Draw lines connecting switches
Room and Area Lighting to their appropriate outlets. Lights
pleted when other lettering is
done. For large buildings, it is cus- or switches that have points of

tomary to draw a separate elec- origin or termination on another
Drawing Kitchen Equipment trical plan. For the average-size floor plan should be drawn as
Kitchen items such as all cabi- home or other small structure, in- continuing from this other plan.
nets, refrigerator, stove, sink, and dicate electrical items on the floor For example, if a stairway has
all equipment should be
special plan. a light in the center of the stair-
selected from manufacturers' lit- Calculate amperage of en- well and switches both at the top
erature, catalogs, or other sources, trance service and the number of and bottom, only one switch is
and the pertinent information re-
circuits required. Add to your included on this plan. A line con-
corded your folder so it can be
in folder for inclusion as notes on nects the switch with the light
added to the drawing later. the plan when doing the lettering. and then continues on .to the
Draw all equipment
kitchen Draw outlines and fill in the sym- break line across the stairs, but
using construction lines and then, bol for the entrance service panel. the switch on the other living
when all details are complete, Draw in the electric meter at a level is not shown.
trace as equipment lines. convenient location. Check local You must include a schedule
codes to determine the code for of electrical symbols, showing

Utility or Laundry Rooms
interior and exterior installations. those used throughout the plan.
If such rooms are included on The schedule may be placed on
Actual wiring placement is
this living equipment
level, all
another page, if a note is added
usually decided by the electrical
outlines should be drawn in. A to indicate where is located.
contractor. Symbols for receptacle it
furnace and its chimney flue may

outlets and fixtures refer only to Special Note: When work is
be located room. These
in a utility
their approximate location. All completed to this point, a careful
are frequently concealed behind
desired locations of electrical study of dimensioning is required.
louvered doors for a neat appear-
items should be drawn in. Do not Dimensions should be added to
ance. A ceiling opening for access
mistake these symbols for actual the drawing, based on the princi-
to the attic, or a floor opening for
electrical fixtures, which are not ples set forth in Chapter 39. If
access to a crawl space, may also
shown on the floor plans. If selec- you have already studied dimen-
be included.
is made,
tion of individual fixtures sioning, the principles should be
Bathrooms their symbol may be keyed to a reviewed before you proceed.
After careful study of bath- separate schedule, noted on the There are still many symbols
room fixtures and their functions floor plan close to the symbol, or and all lettering, such as names
draw symbols for each item electrical fixtures may simply be of rooms, parts, and special notes
listed in the specifications. to be added to the floor plan.
required.
Draw in all special symbols Their inclusion must not crowd
Built-in Storage for chimes, chime buttons, fans, or make dimensions difficult to
If storage cabinets, bookcases. intercom, stereo or high fidelity read.
468
Lettering cating finishing materials for

all tomary to draw a separate heat-
Using lettering of a size appro- each. ing plan. For an average-size
priate to the space in which it is The amount and complexity of home or other small structure,
to be located, letter the names of dimensions and linework can give draw in the location of registers
all rooms and areas of the plan. the drawing a cluttered appear- or radiators on the floor plan and
(Appropriate lettering sizes are ance. In this "maze," masonry leave placement of heat ducts
established in the chapter on let- walls are easily distinguished only and piping to the heating con-
tering.) Each room or other space because of the addition of appro- tractor. Use notes to identify the
is to be identified. Abbreviations priate symbols. Frame walls are kind and size of each heat source.
are permitted for small areas such not as prominent because a sym- Of course, these additions to the
as closets, entries, halls, and stairs. bol is seldom used. To remedy floor plan do not represent a true
It is difficult to locate the name this, one may use a very hard, heating plan, but furnish only
of a room not placed promi- in a sharp pencil to draw a series of minimum information.
nent position. The favored loca- parallel lines in the wall area. An
example of shown in "wall Ceiling Joists
tion is in the center of an open this is
area. Be sure to draw guide lines symbols" in the left column on It is necessary to include the
for all letters, and follow good page 405. ceiling joist size, direction, and
lettering practice. Remember that Another method of making spacing on the floor plan. Ex-
the only reason lettering is placed walls more clearly identified is to amples are shown on the featured
on drawing is to convey infor-
a reverse the plan and coat the wall plans in Chapter 49. If the ceiling
mation to others. It must be so with a light application of graph- joist size is the same for the en-
legible that there is no possibility iteon the back of the sheet. tire building, and all joists run
of it being misread. Note: A fixative should be placed this same direction, the indicator
over the graphite to prevent need be shown and noted only

Symbols smudging. Pressure-sensitive or once. If the ceiling joist size or
Many symbols have already applique line screen may also be direction is not the same for the
been added to the drawing. How- used for wall shading. entire building, the symbol and
The symbol for finished lum- note is repeated for each change.
ever, at this time, you must be
sure all symbols for all materials ber was formerly used to repre- See page 504.
to be used are included on the sent frame walls. This practice is
Access to Attic or Crawl Space
plan.Symbols for floor materials rarely followed today. It is time
Attic access is placed in an
have been omitted to this point, consuming and costly. Artistic
inconspicuous area. When access
to accommodate equipment and extras of this nature have been re-
is by ladder only, hidden lines
resulting lines, dimensioning, and placed with clean-lined simplicity. are used to outline the opening
lettering. All wall symbols, except
size. Add a note or reference to a
for recessed items such as medi- Exterior Items on Floor Plan detail to explain actual construc-
cine cabinets, vents, and others, Porches, patios, garages, out- tion features. When a disappear-
have been omitted for the same door fireplaces, fences, pools, and ing stairway or ladder leads to
reason. Using the proper symbol trees— when they affect or become this space it should be indicated
for each material, these must now a part of the building— are to be on the floor plan by a note, calling
be added. Be sure to compare included on your floor plan. Be attention to it.
your symbols very carefully with sure they are a part of the actual
thoseshown elsewhere in the text. construction. Elevation Indicators
Symbols for floor finish materials Study the sample building
may be omitted, provided a sepa- Room Heat Source plans in Chapter 49 to see how
rate room schedule is used, indi- For larger buildings, it is cus- elevation indicators are used.
469
.
Part Three: From ideas to Reality
They are shown as triangles with tion drawing is located in the the upper half circle refers to the
one obtuse angle slightly building.Each cutting plane has page number in the set of plans,
rounded. Each indicator has a a code number or letter and the as "1", "2", or "3". The letter in
code number that refers to an corresponding section drawing the lower half circle refers to the
elevation elsewhere in the plans has the same code. This is shown drawing location on the page, as
that is similarly marked. on the building plans mentioned "A". "B", or "C". Drawings let-
above. On these plans, the code tered "A" are at the tops of the
Cutting Planes circle touching the ends of cut- pages, while "B" is below or to
Cutting plane lines are re- ting plane lines are divided into the right. See Chapter 39 for ex-
quired to show where each sec- two equal parts. The number in ample on plans.
Condensed Outline to Reinforce Knowledge
The following statements present 8. Draw construction lines for items 1 8. Draw the gas meter and all gas
a condensed order or system for located in the walls: A, soil outlets, if required.
drawing building floor plans. Items stacks; B, vents; C, exhaust 19. Draw all receptacle outlets, in-
presented in this list may not be fans; D, heat registers or radi- cluding weatherproof outside
found on all floor plans. Likewise, ators; E, pipe chases; F, medi- ones. Then add necessary code
items not mentioned here may be cine cabinets, and other items letters to identify special outlets.
required on other floor plans. The that must be recessed into walls. 20. Draw locations of all lighting
list is to aid you in establishing an 9. Excluding door openings, outlets and code them.
orderly drawing procedure. broaden object lines for both 21. Draw all special electrical items
To use this list most effectively, faces of all walls. and add appropriate code let-
draw the part discussed and then 10. Draw the proper symbol for ters.
check it lightly when drawn. each window or door. 22. Draw all electrical switches and
1 Secure your drawing sheet and 1 1 . Draw thresholds, sills, and code to designate special ones.
fasten it to the board. changes in floor coverings. 23. Draw in all telephone outlets.
2. Using construction lines, draw 1 2. Draw the symbol for stairs or 24. Draw hidden lines from switches
your border and trim lines. Also steps and roughly indicate up to lights.
make a layout of your title block. or down. 25. Add dimension lines, figures,
3. Calculate the overall dimensions 13. Draw chimney or fireplace out- and notes. Follow good dimen-
of your building and choose an lines and fill in all details of sioning practice, using the plans
appropriate floor plan drawing construction. in your text as a guide.
scale. 14. Using construction lines, draw 26. Draw in symbols for wall ma-
4. Letter the name of the drawing, in all kitchen cabinets and equip- terials.
and the scale used, in the lower ment. Broaden these lines as 27. Add appropriate notes for all
center of the drawing sheet, or equipment lines. symbols shown.

in the title block. 15. Draw in bathroom fixtures and 28. Letter in the names of all rooms
5. Center your drawing on the cabinets. Draw other accessory or other areas.
sheet or determine the best lo- items as mirror, screens, linen 29. Draw and designate all floor
cation elsewhere. closets, or others. covering materials and finishes.

6. Using construction lines, draw 16. Draw built-in storage units for 30. Shade frame walls.
all wall outlines. all rooms, where used. 31. Draw all porches, patios, ga-
7. Draw door and window open- 1 7. Draw the electrical entrance ser- rages, carports, or other exte-
ings but not their symbols. vice panel and the electric meter. rior items to be constructed.
470
32. If a furnace, water heater, 38. Unless a separate ceiling fram-

washer, dryer, and other utility ing plan is to be drawn, draw
items are to be included on this in all overhead beams or girders
living level, draw them in. and necessary supporting posts.
33. Draw the locations and add ap- 39. Draw cutting plane lines to re-
propriate notes for all heat regis- fer to all section drawings.
ters or radiators unless a sepa- Code to identify.
rate heat plan is to be drawn. 40. If your building has required
34. Indicate the ceiling joist direc- items that are not included in
tion and add appropriate notes. this list, draw each and identify.
35. Draw in hidden lines for access 41. Check your drawing carefully
to the attic and add appropriate for omissions and errors; make
notes or codes. all necessary corrections.
36. Add code letters or figures for 42. Clean your drawing.
doors, windows, lintels, and 43. Broaden border and title strip
header schedules. lines and trim the drawing on

37. Add hidden lines and a special your trim lines. Letter in all in-
note for plastered openings. formation in the title block.
471
Drawing Basement or
Footing and Foundation Plans
This chapter is to serve as a Construction Materials walls are required, draw them as
guide and check list of items to and Methods construction lines.

draw on your plan. All building Before you can draw the plan Drawing Wall Footings
plans do not include the same you must know all required build-
For conventional construction,
items, so the information here ing materials and their sizes.
all exterior walls and each load-
can serve only as a general guide. Note: For convenience, begin-
bearing interior wall require a
To make most effective use of ning draftsmen may use approxi-
footing. Using data obtained in
this chapter, draw a building part mate sizes supplied by others.
other parts of the text, calculate
and then check off each item from
the size of each, and then draw
the list as you proceed. This will Beginning the Drawing
construction lines toshow all foot-
let you know when all items have Re-position and fasten your
ing widths. Note: The sample
been drawn. first floor plan to the drawing
building plans in the text show
Basement, footing, and foun- board. Be sure it is aligned these as hidden lines, but you are
dation plans are viewed the same perfectly.
not to broaden them in this man-
way as a first floor plan, except Place a new sheet of tracing ner until after other construction
that when walls are visually cut paper or vellum over the floor features are drawn in.
halfway between the bottom and plan and fasten it to the drawing
top some features are hidden be- surface. This permits you to see Wall Openings
low the ground. All such are through and trace from the first Draw the location of each win-
drawn with hidden lines or floor plan. dow, door, foundation vent, or
symbols. Using building outlines shown other wall openings. Then look up
Drawing Scale on the first floor plan, draw con- the appropriate symbol for the
struction lines for all building item and draw it in its proper
These plans should be drawn
outlines. (That is, draw only the location. Broaden symbols to the
to the same scale as the floor plan
outside face of each exterior wall.) breadth of equipment lines to
for your building. That is, if the
Then calculate all foundation or make them clearly visible. Then
floor plan was drawn to a scale of
basement wall thicknesses and draw a code symbol near each
V4"=l'-0", then this plan should
draw them to their proper size. opening. Be sure that code letters,
be drawn to that scale.
When a garage is attached to the figures, or their enclosures do not
Drawing Sheet Size building draw a foundation wall interfere with proposed extension
Draw on the same size sheet between the main structure and and dimension line locations, to
as others in the same set of plans. the garage. If interior basement be added later.
472
43: Drawing Basement or Footing and Foundation Plans
While searching through man- and then complete the stairs to then be supported by posts, piers,
ufacturers' or other literature for the bottom of their run. You must pilasters, or foundation walls.
information about doors, win- then indicate stair direction in the Using data found in your text,
dows, or other building parts. same manner as on the first floor or supplied by others, calculate
record pertinent information in plan. If the stairwell is enclosed the sizes of these parts and draw
your notebook for inclusion on b\ walls and they were not pre- them in their proper locations.
schedules and specifications. viously drawn, do this now. If Add notes to describe each part,
When arranging schedules, infor- your stair design requires foot- or refer to detail drawings. (Nat-
mation about doors from all liv- ings, be sure they are properly urally, if several identical parts
ing levels is combined and in- drawn. are required, the descriptive note
cluded on the same schedule. is used only once.) When letter-
Access to Crawl Space notes, be sure they do not
Information to be included on ing
window or other schedules is also If your plan is to include an interfere with future extension
done in this manner. access door to crawl space, and dimension line locations.
through the first floor, draw it
Pilasters Furnace
with hidden lines.
If exterior walls require pilas- If you specify a furnace located
If an access door is to open
ters and their footings, draw them through a foundation wall, draw in the basement, be sure it is
in their proper locations. it using equipment lines. Consult

drawn to the proper size and
manufacturers' literature and location. Draw lines to connect
Areaways the furnace and chimney. If a
select an appropriate one. If work-
When areaways are required.
men are to build this door, you fuel supply pipe or fuel vent is
design and draw them in their

should refer to detail drawings or needed, draw them as pipe sym-
proper sizes and locations. explain its construction with notes.
bols. If the furnace requires foot-
ings, a raised concrete base, or
Chimney or Fireplace
Broaden Wall Outlines other concrete work, draw as hid-
Study about chimneys and den lines when parts are below
fireplaces; be sure yours are prop- To make walls or other struc-
floor level or hidden from view.
erly designed. Then draw con- tural outlines more prominent.
If parts have visible outlines,
all construction lines previously
struction lines to outline the draw them as equipment lines.
chimney or fireplace. Also draw drawn are broadened as object,
Add a descriptive note to de-
all footing or foundation outlines.
equipment, or hidden lines. Be
scribe the furnace type, size, fuel
sure to study the sample building
If descriptive notes are needed, required, and the number of
letter themLines may be
in.
plans in the text and use them as
British thermal units the furnace
broadened as object, equipment, your guide.
will produce. This information
or hidden lines; use the plans in can be obtained from manufac-
Floor Supports
the text as a guide. turers' literature.
When basement has a ma-
a
Stairway sonry wall below a bearing wall Water Heater
If a stairway is needed draw on the first floor level, supporting your water heater is in the
If
it in its proper location. The first beams, girders, or posts are sel- basement, its outlines should be
floor plan, previously drawn, in- dom required. Bearing walls on drawn as equipment lines. Obtain
cluded several steps (if a base- upper living levels that are not descriptive information from
ment was required) leading down supported on basement or crawl manufacturers' literature and note
to the lower level, but they were space masonry walls usually re- it on the plans. Be sure to include
drawn only to the break line. quire beams or girders for sup- the fuel required and the tank's
Copy the break line onto this plan port. Each beam or girder must capacity in gallons.
473
Draw exhaust vents on water When local building codes re- masonry walls should have a
heaters that burn combustible quire catch basins, grease traps, larger diameter collar around
fuel. Vents extending through the or other special equipment, draw them to permit expansion, con-
roof are usually required by build- them in an inconspicuous loca- traction, and pipe movement. All
ing codes. Air venting into chim- tion outside the building. Waste collar sizes should be noted on
nevs used for other purposes is lines lead to and through these the plan.
seldom permitted. Include notes items and then continue to city
Electrical Outlets
to describe vent material and size. sewers, septic tanks, drainage
Electrical items are shown in
fields, or other disposal systems.
Laundry Facilities Drains for heavy wastes fre-
the same manner as on first floor
plans. Be sure to add notes or
If laundry equipment is lo- quently bypass catch basins and
code letters to indicate special
cated in the basement, draw out- connect to the sewerage system
electrical equipment. Also, specify
lines for each required item, such beyond them.
individual circuits for items re-
as a washer, dryer, laundry sink If your building plan is a hypo-
quiring large power loads, such
or tubs, cabinets, water softeners, thetical problem and you have no
as clothes dryers, furnaces, water
or others. If the items are not actual building lot with all utili-
heaters, or heavy power tools.
identifiable by shape, include de- ties in place, then sewer and other
Lighting and receptacle out-
scriptive notes or explanations. utility locations must be assumed.
lets should be provided in crawl
Perimeter foundation drain tile
spaces so the area can be illumi-
Plumbing discussed in earlier chapters may
nated if repairs are necessary.
If plumbing fixtures such as be required. If so, draw it on your
Indicate on your plan whether
water closets, showers, lavatories, footing and foundation plan with
flush or surface mounted recep-
or others are desired, they should hidden lines. Draw them about
tacles or lighting outlets are
be drawn in their proper size and 6" outside the footing line so they
required.
location. Vents for fixtures should will be clearly visible. Since foot-
If telephones, telephone exten-
be drawn inside the walls in the ings are also drawn as hidden
sions, intercom units, or other
same manner as on your first floor lines, draw these double length
plan. Drains or vents from upper (approx. W long) so they will be
electrical devices
cluded, be sure they are drawn
are to be in-
levels extending below- the first different from those previously

in their proper location and that
floor should be drawn on this drawn. Damp locations— requir-
appropriate notes or code sym-
plan. ing foundation drain tile around
bols are added.
If your building needs floor the inside perimeter or beneath
drains (in the basement or crawl the floor or crawl space— should Dimensioning
space) water meters, or sump be drawn when needed. Dimensioning practices for
pumps, they should be drawn Manv building codes do not footing and foundation or base-
and identified by notes. permit a person to connect foun- ment plans are similar to those
If you are to draw a separate dation and floor drains to a city followed for other floor plans.
plumbing plan, no additional sewer. If city storm sewers are However, there are slight differ-
plumbing information is required available, connect your drain tile
ences, so you should review di-
here. However, if this plan must tothem. Foundation drain tile mensioning procedures and study
also serve as a plumbing plan may also terminate at dry wells sample plans in the text. Be sure
(and it usually does for small (lined pits to contain water), or to include detail and overall di-
buildings), all waste lines should lead into drain fields similar to mensions for all structural parts.
be drawn as symbols and identi- those used for septic systems.
All supply or drain pipes pass- Lettering
fied with notes as described in
Chapter 48. ing through concrete floors or Use the same procedures for
474
.
43: Drawing Basement or Footing and Foundation Plans
lettering this plan that you used fer to section drawings. Code and to individual elevation drawings
on the floor plan. Include names identify these to correspond with in the set of plans.
of rooms or other areas, and all the same ones shown on the
equipment and special features floor plans or elevations. Draw Finishing the Drawing
such as closets, shelves, or others. elevation indicators to show Clean your drawing and
Throughout this chapter many where and how elevation detail broaden all border lines. Fill in
notes have been mentioned; he- drawings are viewed. Chapter 49 the title block; letter in the name
sure each of these is lettered on shows elevation indicators num- of the drawing and the scale used.
the drawing as needed. bered and lettered to key them Then trim your drawing to size.
Symbols
Draw wall symbols, using the
sample plans as your guide. Then
draw symbols for floor covering Condensed Outline to Reinforce Knowledge
materials and/or the surface
finish. If a vapor barrier is to
The following statements present footings and draw them as con-
cover the earth in a crawl space.
a condensed list of procedures for struction lines.
indicate the material used.
drawing basement or footing and 8. Draw construction lines across
Room Heat Source foundation plans. Items presented walls just to locate all door,
Unless you have a separate in this list may not be required on window, or other openings.
every plan. Likewise, other items not 9. Using the proper symbol and
heating plan, draw the locations
discussed in the chapter may be re- appropriate line weight, draw
of all heat registers or radiators.
quired. The list is to aid you in symbols for door, window, or
Include notes to indicate their
establishing an orderly drawing other openings.
type and size. It is not necessary
procedure. 10. Draw a code symbol near each
to draw steam or hot water lines
To use this list most effectively, opening and fill in appropriate
or air ducts on this plan.
draw the item or items mentioned, identifying letters or figures.
Floor Joists check them lightly on the list, and 1 1 . Draw all pilasters and their
You should show the floor then proceed to the next item. footings.
and
joist direction (or directions) 1 Obtain a sheet of tracing paper 1 2. When areaways are necessary,
add notes to indicate joist size or vellum the same size as other draw them in their proper
and spacing. Note: If your set sheets in the set of plans. locations.
of plans is to include separate 2. Re-position and fasten your first 13. Draw all chimney or fireplace
floor framing diagrams, do not floor plan to the drawing outlines and their footings.
indicate floor joist direction on surface. 14. If a stairway to this level is re-
basement or footing and founda- 3. Align and fasten the new tracing quired, draw it on the plan.
tion plan. sheet over the floor plan. Include surrounding walls and
4. Calculate all basement or foun- all necessary footings.
Checking the Plan
dation wall thicknesses. Copy 15. Foundation or floor access doors
Study your drawing carefully exterior wall outlines from your opening into a crawl space
to be sure special items not in- first floor plan. should be drawn and identified
cluded in the discussion are 5. Using construction lines, draw with notes.
shown. 16. All construction lines previously
in wall thicknesses.
Cutting Planes and 6. Draw interior and garage walls drawn should be broadened as
Identifying Codes as required. object, equipment, or hidden
Add cutting plane lines to re- 7. Calculate the width of all wall lines.
475
17. Using the proper symbol, draw 27. Dimension the entire drawing.
all beams or girders and indicate 28. Add all of the necessary letter-
their sizes with notes. If addi- ing to the drawing.
tional detail drawings are neces- 29. Draw all floor covering ma-
sary, refer to these. terials and show where changes
1 8. Draw each post or pier required in materials occur. Add identify-
to support the beam. Then draw ing lettering or notes.
footings for each. If beam ends 30. If the floor is to be of reinforced

are recessed in pockets in the concrete, or has a vapor bar-
foundations, be sure these are rier, indicate this. (This item
shown. may be omitted if the set of
1 9. Draw furnace outlines; then plans is to include a concrete
show necessary footings or other reinforcement detailing sheet.)
required concrete work. 31. Draw all radiators, heat regis-
20. Draw pipes, vents, or other ters, or other room heat sources
equipment necessary for furnace and identify with notes.
operation, and identify each. 32. Draw joist direction indicators
21. If a water heater is on this and add notes to show joist size
level, draw it to size and add and spacing.

appropriate lettering. 33. Check your plan carefully for
22. Draw and identify all laundry other items requiring inclusion.
equipment. Also, check it carefully for er-
23. Draw all other plumbing fixtures. rors and make all necessary
24. If draw a
you do not intend to corrections.
separate plumbing plan, draw 34. Add cutting plane lines for ref-
all waste lines, using appropri- erence to section drawings.

ate symbols. 35. Draw elevation indicators to
25. Draw all foundation or floor show how elevation detail draw-
drains, and connect them to a ings are viewed.
storm sewer or other disposal 36. Add border lines, title blocks,
system. and complete all lettering.
26. Draw all electrical items as de- 37. Clean your drawing and trim it
scribed for the first floor plan. to size.
476
441
Drawing Exterior Elevations
This chapter presents a system large, a scale of !4"=l'-0" may the same sheet. Then the front
of procedures for drawing build- be used. The scale must be indi- and rear elevations should be
ing elevations. Also, the topics cated on the drawing in the same drawn stacked and in line with
presented may be used as a check manner as on the floor plan. each other. The same is true of the
list of items to include on your When drawings of different scale side elevations, which are also in
plan. are located on the same sheet, the line with the front and rear eleva-
scale should be indicated beneath tions. If the left side elevation is
What Are Elevations?
each. placed with the front elevation, it
Elevations are separate draw-
is drawn to the left. If the right
ings of each exterior building side.
Locating Elevations on side elevation is drawn with the
Like those described in the two
Drawing Sheet front, itdrawn to the right. If
is
preceding chapters, they are mod-
If your drawing board is large
the left side is drawn with the
ified orthographic drawings with
enough, the floor plan may be rear elevation it is drawn to the
many of the details shown in sym- right. If the right side is drawn
positioned above the elevation
bol forms.
drawing sheet. This permits con- by the rear elevation, it is placed
A simple house plan usually
to the left. The reasons for this
struction lines to be projected
requires four elevations, one for
from the Moor plan onto the extra will be clear if you study a set
each side. However,
depends this
of drawings.
drawing sheet. Lines for building
upon the building's shape and
edges, offsets, windows, doors, or If elevations are placed on
opening arrangements in exterior
other parts may be projected onto more than one sheet, the drawings
walls. All exterior wall surfaces
the extra sheet without measuring. on any one sheet may be aligned
must be shown on a completed
If the floor plan is too large to either vertically or horizontally.
set of plans, unless there are two
fit above the elevation drawing Adequate space must be allowed
identical building sides. Then,
sheet, lines must be transferred between views and adjoining
they do not require duplication.
with dividers or by measuring. borders to prevent the sheet from
The fact that they are identical
Naturally, sizes shown on an in- having a cluttered appearance.
should be clearly stated on the
dividual drawing must correspond Note: Remember, the title
plans.
with those of the same item shown block, which is added later, occu-
Drawing Scale elsewhere in the plans. Always pies space at the bottom or lower
As with floor plans, elevations keep a close check. right-hand corner of the sheet.
are usually drawn to a scale of If drawing sheet size permits, Allowance should be made for
W"=l'-0", or if the building is all elevations may be placed on this when spacing the views.
477
Beginning the Drawing Grade Line hidden lower edge of

lines to the
When front and side, or rear Determine the distance from floor joists. Below grade, hidden
and side, elevations are placed lower edge of the floor joists to lines are placed on the drawing
horizontally in line at the same the finished grade (ground). to show the foundation width and
time, drafting procedure is sim- Note: Minimum standards and the interior basement walls. These
plified. Measurements and con- elements of good design discussed too, are drawn to meet the lower
struction points can be transferred in previous chapters should be edge of the first floor joists. Lines
directly from one elevation to the the determining factors for this showing footing widths are drawn
other. height. beneath all bearing walls.
If the ground is irregular- Areaways, piers, posts, pilas-
Floor Line
rough or sloping— the grade line ters, chimney and fireplace foun-
The floor line at the foundation may be drawn with instruments, dations, stairways, and their foot-
level good reference point
is a
as a construction line. Then, when ings are drawn on the nearest
from which drawing may proceed.
broadening lines, draw this free- two elevations. For example, a
Drawn as a center line, it extends hand show stairway in the exact center of a
to irregularities. Ex-
past the edges of each elevation.
tend the line past the walls similar building is shown on the elevation
Itshould be labeled F.L. on each.
to a floor line, and label G.L. which is next to the stairway land-
This line ordinarily represents
ing when the observer is facing
the top surface of the subfloor. Footings
the stair opening. The rise and
Determine the depth of all
Ceiling Line run of stairs are shown as hidden
footings, using directions given lines on one adjacent elevation.
Determine all desired ceiling inChapter 3. If no basement is
heights, if they vary. Calculate planned, standard minimum Determining Which Roof
the actual distance from your sub- depths or local codes will govern. Elevation to Draw First
floor to the bottom of the ceiling For a basement, determine the As stated earlier, drawing ele-
joists. Draw a center line to rep- desired clearance from the base- vations is simplified if two adja-
resent the finished ceiling and ment floor to the bottom of the cent views are drawn at the same
label it C.L. The ceiling line ex- first floor joists. Then draw con- time. Layout work should begin
tends past the edges of the eleva- struction lines representing the on the largest gable end, if you
tions, similarly to the floor line basement have a choice. Gable ends must
floor and the top and
described earlier. bottom of all footings. If footings be drawn on elevations before
are at different depths, or if they roof height can be determined
First Floor Joists
must be stepped to conform with on adjacent views. Study the il-
Using the predetermined floor
uneven terrain, drawings of these lustration showing how this is
was decided when
joist size (this
must be included on the appro- done.
developing the floor plan), draw
priate elevation.
a horizontal center line to repre- Beginning to Draw the Gable End
sent the lower edge of the joists. Walls in Elevation Locate and mark the points
If different sizes are required be- Location of construction lines where the ceiling line meets the
cause of changes in joist height representing visible outside walls outside walls. Then measure to-
due to different joist spans, be are determined from the floor ward the inside of the building
sure this is shown. Label the end plan and placed vertically on the the width of the bird's mouth
of the line with a descriptive ab- appropriate elevation. Above (notch) in the rafter that permits
breviation. For example, for a grade, only visible edges are it to rest on the top plate. For
basement, this line is labeled shown for wall corners, except example, on a frame building,
B.C.L. because it represents the that basement and foundation stud width is 3%", sheathing
basement ceiling. wall thicknesses are drawn as might measure W
thickness, and
478
Projecting lines from gable end to show roof height on an ad|oining elevation.
'4" overhang width. The opposite end normally

exterior covering might be surfaces slant at the
thickness. If building parts equal- of the line should extend past the same angle. When viewing a sin-
ing these sizes are used, their building center. gle elevation one cannot tell
total dimensions would be 5'/s", Repeat the above procedure whether a roof is a gable or a hip.
so measure from the outside walls for the bottom edge of the rafter Two views are required to show
toward the center of the building on the opposite side of the build- that roof surfaces are slanted in
this distance and mark the points ing. N011: These lines do nor Note: A hip
different directions.
on the ceiling line. represent roof lines. Calculate the roof for an irregular shaped
The lower edge of the rafters combined thickness for the raf- building requires more than four
will pass through these points. ters, sheathing, and roofing. Then surfaces.
Using each point established, draw lines parallel to those just All roof outlines should be
measure along the ceiling line established, to represent the up- drawn as construction lines on
toward the building center a dis- per roof edge. Using the gable each of your elevations before
tance of 12'-0". Do this even if elevation, repeat the amount of continuing toother building parts.
the building is less than 24' wide. the roof height on the adjacent
This represents the proportion of elevation and draw construction Drawing a Chimney
the run. At these points, construct lines for roof height. If more than Terminating on the Roof
a perpendicular above the ceiling one gable is required, locate and Using local codes or recom-
line equal to the rise per 12'-0" draw additional construction lines mended upon
standards, decide
of run. (If you do not understand and transfer heights to adjacent the chimney height— including
these terms consult the chapter elevations. liner or pot— and draw horizontal
on Roof Construction where If the gable is perpendicular construction lines on each eleva-
drawing examples are shown.) to the ground, the outlines just tion. On views showing gable
For example, if the roof pitch is drawn complete the roof. If the ends, draw your chimney sides
5/12, make perpendicular lines gable is not perpendicular, mea- as shown in the illustration. Ob-
5'-0" high. Draw the bottom edge sure the additional overhang at serve that one chimney face
of the rafter so it touches the up- the ridge and connect this with touches the roof before the other
per end of the perpendicular and the outer edge of the overhang at because the roof slants.
passes through the point repre- the lower roof edge. Transfer a line from the lower
senting the inside edge of the top edge of the chimney onto the ad-
plate and rafter intersection. Ex- Hip Roof joining elevation, as shown, to
tend the line past the outside wall A simple hip roof is one with find where the chimney passes
slightly more than the anticipated four slopes and one ridge. All through the roof surface.
Projecting lines for chimney layout.
479
Pari Three: From Ideas to Realify
Chimney Pot, Liner, or Cap downspouts, they must not inter- vation, show only visible window
The chimney height must rep- fere with a window or door and door parts; do not draw hid-
resent its actual highest point, opening. den parts. Study sample window
including a liner or pot. The chim- elevations before drawing yours.
Object Lines for Parts
ney cap below the liner. Con-
is
Indicate the finished opening size
Previously Drawn
struction lines are added to all of the door or window sash by
It is well for the beginner to
elevations for these parts.
drawing a rectangle at the cor-
broaden object lines for all parts
rect scale. Individual door and
Saddle previously constructed, except
window parts, and mullions be-
As previously said, a saddle is vertical wall lines. This will help
tween units, are then added. Cas-
like a miniature roof in the acute eliminate later confusion of lines ings or brick mold are usually
angle formed by the main roof and parts.
placed at the sides and above
and chimney. It leads water away openings; sills are drawn below.
Gable Louver or Ventilator
from the chimney. Study the il- If a drip cap or flashing is re-
lustration to see how it is drawn.
Determine the size, material,
quired above, draw it in. Note:
Flashing details at the chimney
location, and style required. Then
Glass block windows do not nor-
and roof intersection must be draw the layout with construction
mally have the wood trim de-
lines and broaden as equipment
drawn on each elevation. scribed above.
lines. Follow the manufacturer's
Other Items on the Roof Small details such as width of
description and draw all parts as
stiles, rails, muntins, mullions,
Dormers, ventilators, and soil accurately as possible. For ex-
and glass are drawn as described
stacks should be drawn as con- ample, the size of fins and sur-
in manufacturers' literature. If
struction lines simultaneously on rounding trim should be drawn
you do not understand all techni-
adjacent elevations. to an accurate scale.
cal terms consult the index at the
Additional drawings will be
Gutters and Downspouts back of this book, and then look
needed when doing the building
Determine the size and style them up in their appropriate
details. Study the sample illustra-
required. Locate high points of chapter.
tions to see how these are drawn.
the gutter on the fascia. Then lo- Templates are frequently used
cate low points. Draw the tops Window and Door Line for drawing doors and windows.
and bottoms of gutters through Since most framing methods Caution: One cannot copy blind-
these points. Gutters extend ly from a template, but must keep
place tops of windows and doors
around some roofs. For example, at the same way
height, the easiest the object's shape clearly in mind.
a hip roof might have a gutter to secure this alignment is to
Since much detail must be
around the entire perimeter. Also, make a horizontal construction drawn in a relatively small space,
on gable roofs, when a cornice re- line across each elevation at the
broaden all window and door
turn is used the gutter may extend desired height. The lower face of lines as equipment lines.
around the return. a head jamb is considered the

Downspouts are angled from Object Lines for Walls and Sills
window or door height. (Do not
the gutter to the face of the build- Construction lines for walls
use the top of casing as your
ing. Then they follow the wall to height.) All casings and exterior and all other parts previously
grade. If a splash block is used, trim are above the window or
drawn should be broadened as
the downspout ends at the grade object or equipment lines. All
door line. This line is sometimes
line. If the downspout drains into other structural parts, such as
broadened as a center line.
a sewer pipe or dry well, hidden covered patios, terraces, or posts
lines are used to show the below- Door and Window Openings —should be drawn as construction
grade drain. Note: When locating When you are drawing an ele- linesand then broadened to de-
480
44: Drawing Exterior Elevations
sired width. Add footings and of course, more than one dimen- The distance from the floor
foundations for the above, when sion is required.) At all wall off- line to the bottom of sill may
required. sets,dimension the distance be- be shown.
Roofing Symbol tween the grade line and finished
Symbols of Wall Materials
floor line. If a wall is long but
Draw in the appropriate s\m- Place the appropriate symbol
has no offsets, place dimensions
Note:
bol for your roof covering. on each surface or item shown
at both ends of the building as
Be sure to provide open space in on the drawing. Note: These are
the symbol for adding a note to
described earlier, and another
usually drawn as a finished sym-
near the building center.
describe the roofing material. bol the first time you draw them.
The depth and size of footings
Dimensions for Elevations It is not necessary to draw each
and foundations are dimensioned.
Only a minimum number of minute detail as a construction
If steps in footings or foundations
dimensions are drawn on eleva- line and then be required to draw
are required, dimension these.
tions. Eliminate unnecessary du- them again. Use the symbols in
Basement floor thickness must
plications. Follow good dimen- the text, and the sample plans, as
also be dimensioned.
sioning practice as shown and your guide. Add notes for each
Areaways, piers, posts, pilas-
discussed in Chapter 39. Also, material symbolized. If a note is
ters,chimney and fireplace foun-
study the building plans following not on the surface of a part, add
dations, and their footings, are
these chapters. a leader line pointing to the ma-
dimensioned only if not detailed
Place a dimension on at least terial described.
elsewhere in the set of plans.
one elevation to show each differ- Show location dimensions for Cutting Planes
ent ceiling height. Of course,
louvers or ventilators. Add cutting planes to corre-
if all ceiling heights are the same,
Roof pitch must also be in- spond with those on the floor
only one dimension is required.
dicated on at least one elevation, plan.
Letter a note stating points used
using the symbol. The amount of Check your drawings carefully
foryour measurements. For ex-
riseand run is indicated as shown for omissions and errors; make
ample, the note might read:
on the sample elevations. all necessary corrections.
CEILING HEIGHTS MEASURED FROM SUB- Dimension the distance from
FLOOR TO BOTTOM OF CEILING JOISTS. the floor line to the lower edge of
Condensed Outline to
Or the head jambs of doors and
if it applies, the note might Reinforce Knowledge
read:
windows.
Indicate overhang width and The following statements present
CEILING HEIGHTS MEASURED FROM FIN-
thickness of fascia. If a gutter is a condensed check list for use in
ISHED FLOOR TO FINISHED CEILING.
used, add a note to specify the drawing building elevations. Items
Basement ceiling height is dimen- material, its size and shape. Also, presented in this list may not be
sioned and noted in the same add a note to describe the shape found on all elevations. Likewise,
manner. When both dimensions and size of downspouts. other items not mentioned here may
are on the same elevation, place Chimney height is dimen- be required on a specific elevation.
them in line with each other, sioned from the highest roof The list is to aid you in establishing
to follow good practice. Note: ridge. Both width and depth of an orderly drawing procedure.
One dimension may be used to the chimney are indicated. Di- To use this list most effectively,
denote combined thickness of mension the amount of exposed draw the item or items discussed and
floors and joists. flue liner height and the thick- then lightly check them off the list
Dimension the distance from ness of the chimney cap. The as you complete them.
the grade line to the finished floor amount of wash on the chimney 1 . Secure your drawing sheet and
line. (If the ground is not level. cap should be shown. fasten it to the board.
481
2. Using construction lines, draw 1 8. Draw footings and piers as and draw as shown on the build-
your border and trim lines. Also, required. ing plans in Chapter 49.
make a layout of your title block. 1 9. Draw footings and posts as 37. If ventilators or louvers are
3. Choose an appropriate drawing required. required, draw them in their
scale for your elevations. 20. Draw pilasters and their foot- proper location.
4. Letter the drawing scale and the ings as required.
38. Draw a center line to establish
name of the drawing either in 21. Draw chimney and fireplace
allwindow and door heights. If
the lower center of the drawing footings and foundations as
some heights are different, be
sheet or in the title block. required.
sure all are drawn.
5. Decide how many elevations 22. Draw stairways on two adja-
39. Draw all window and door de-
can be drawn on each sheet. cent elevations if needed.
tails following manufacturers'
6. Determine the best location for 23. Draw roof gable ends.
literature or other information.
each elevation. 24. Transfer roof heights onto other
40. Broaden all object or equipment
7. Position the floor plan above elevations.
lines not previously completed.
the proposed location of the 25. Draw the roof overhang on ap-
41. Draw all sills and drip caps,
first elevation, or place it propriate elevations.
nearby.
plus their flashings when re-
26. Draw the chimney on elevations
quired.
8. Using construction lines, draw showing gable ends.
42. Draw the roof pitch symbol and
lines on the first elevation to 27. Transfer the chimney height to
indicate the pitch.
show building edges, offsets, other elevations.
43. Add the proper symbol for the
door and window sides. 28. Transfer a line from where the
roof covering.
9. Re-position your floor plan and chimney passes through the roof
44. Add all dimension lines, figures,
draw the same kinds of items to adjacent elevations.
and notes. Follow good di-
on the other elevations. 29. Draw in the chimney liner, cap,
mensioning practice and use the
10. Draw floor lines on each eleva- or pot, if required.
plans in Chapter 49 as a guide.
tion; extend them past building 30. Draw chimney saddles.
45. Draw symbols for
edges about W. Letter the ab-
31. Draw roof dormers.
all wall ma-
terials.
breviation F.L. at an end of
32. Draw roof ventilators for ex- 46. Letter the notes for all symbols
each line.
haust fans or attic ventilation. used.
1 1 . Draw all ceiling lines, and letter
33. Draw all soil pipes or other 47. If your building has required
to identify.
items protruding through the items not included in this list,
1 2. Draw a center line for the bot-
roof. draw and identify each one.
tom of the floor joists and letter
34. If your building has gutters, 48. Draw cutting plane lines to cor-
to identify.
13. Draw grade lines on each ele-
draw them in. respond with those shown on
vation and identify with an 35. If you have gutters, draw down- the floor plan.
abbreviation. spouts for them. 49. Check your drawing carefully
14. Draw construction lines for the 36. Door and window openings still
for omissions and errors; make
bottoms and tops of all footings. do not have bottoms or tops; all necessary corrections.
1 5. Draw steps in footings and foun- other construction lines should 50. Clean your drawing.
dations when required. form completed parts. Broaden 51. Broaden border and title strip
16. Draw the basement floor, if outlines for all parts whose lines and trim the drawing to
your building has one. shapes are completely defined final size. Check the title block
1 7. Draw footings and foundations with construction lines. Use ob- to be sure it is completely let-
for all areaways. ject, equipment, or hidden lines, tered.
482
Drawing Building Sections
Methods of viewing and draw- more desirable. For maximum with the section drawing deter-
ing sections were discussed in clarity a suggested size for wall mines which ones to include.
Chapter 35. This chapter does sections is %"=l'-0". Study the sample set of plans to
not attempt to describe how build- see the kinds of dimensions likely
ing parts are drawn, but rather it SECTIONS TO INCLUDE to be required.
prescribes necessary sections to
Section Through a Typical Wall Other Wall Sections
include. Of course, before you can
draw building sections you must A building plan should include If any wall is to be constructed
a section through a typical wall. in a different manner from the
be familiar with materials and
construction methods. If you are
The drawing should show all typical one, each variation must
not so informed, specific infor-
items from the bottom of the be drawn. For example, if part of
footing to the upper face of the a dwelling to be entirely frame
mation may be obtained from is
roof. However, a large scale construction and another section

earlier chapters or other reference
drawing that presents entire walls is to be covered with brick ve-
sources.
may extend higher than the draw- neer, then two wall sections are
Drawing Scale ing sheet. It is permissible to use same dwelling
required. If this
There is no one suitable draw- break lines and omit middle por- has an attached garage with foot-
ing scale for all building sections. tions of walls. Drawings in the ings, floors, or other construction
Each section through a building set of plans shown
in Chapter 49 differentfrom those of the house,
shows the arrangement of many are done in this manner. additional section drawings are
building parts. The size and com- If drawing size permits, in- required.
plexity of these parts help deter- clude the proper symbol for each
mine the scale. Each drawing material used. Major building Sections for Different Levels
should describe the parts in ques- parts, such as studding, sheath- If a structure contains more
tion and make their construction ing, joists, or others— may be iden- than one living level or a differ-
understood. The drawing scale tified with leaders and notes. ence in floor level between the
may vary from 14" = l'-O" to 1" = Minor items, such as flashings, home and a garage, then addi-
l'-0", as you have learned, and in floor coverings, interior trim, and tional section drawings are re-
rare instances may be drawn full others may be identified if their quired to show how the materials
scale or larger. inclusion is deemed necessary for at each level change are joined
Minimum drawing scale for the specific situation. Some sys- or assembled. If footings are re-
most sections is %" = 1 '-0", how- tem of dimensions is recom- quired below walls joining differ-
ever, a larger scale is usually mended. The story you are telling ent levels they should be drawn in.
483
Sections for a Finished Attic from the bottom of the footing kitchens. Include section drawings
A section through a finished to the top of the chimney. The of lavatory cabinets, built-in
attic should include locations, drawing should include adjoining clothes hampers, linen cabinets,
and methods of joining knee walls framing for floors, ceilings, and dividers, or any other special
to other structural parts. Floors, the roof. Indicate materials used items. Sections through lavatory
ceilings, wall coverings, and in- and show methods of joinery. cabinets should show mirror or
sulation should bedrawn in. In- The plan should include the medicine cabinet locations.
clude dimensions to show size hearth, complete with all its Built-in bathtubs requiring
and locations of all walls and dimensions. door enclosures, drop ceilings,
other parts. soffits, or other special features
Kitchen Cabinets should be shown in cross-section.
Stairwell A section through a typical
Chapter 15 presents detailed kitchen cabinet is to be included. Other Cabinet Work
information about different kinds If manufactured cabinets are All other cabinets or shelving
of stairways and their construc- called for it is unnecessary to show in the building should be drawn
tion. Your plan should include all construction details; only gen- as described for kitchens and
information pertinent to your eral outline shapes need to be bathrooms.
stairway. drawn. Be sure to include all
Draw a section through the shelving. Dimensions for all in- Closets
stairwell showing structural fram- dividual cabinet heights, distances Draw a section through a typi-
ing plus rise and run of individual between upper and lower cabi- cal closet to show the width and
steps. Dimensioning should in- nets, and soffit heights should be height of all shelves. Also, draw
clude both total rise and run as shown. Dimension all shelf spac- and dimension the clothes pole
well as individual step rise and ings. Note: This plan should also location. Letter a note describing
run. But since all steps in a typical include an overall floor-to-ceiling the materials to use, such as par-
set are the same size, you need to dimension. ticle board shelving or iron pipe
dimension only one. If custom-built cabinets are for the clothes pole. Then draw
If footings are required below called for, they usually require in support members for shelves
the stairs or at side walls, be sure the inclusion of all construction and rods and identify the parts.
they are included on the plan. details, such as for face frames, Show clothes hooks when they
Draw a ceiling line above and doors, drawers, toe boards, and are to be included.
include dimensions to show the all other parts. These require
amount of head room. Note: Be complete dimensioning. Custom Sections Through Doors and
sure to consult minimum stan- kitchen cabinets usually require Windows
dards when designing such parts. additional section views because Plans for large buildings al-
When landings are required, be several different items are in- most always include sections
certain they are properly drawn volved. For example, in addition through each different type of
and dimensioned. Also, draw and to the typical cross-section, plans door and window. Little informa-
dimension the stair rail (bannis- may also be required for the sink tion except general shape and an
ter). A second duplicate rail need cabinet, oven cabinet, surface unit identifying number is usually in-
not be drawn in detail. and hood arrangement, drawer cluded. Door and window types
units, or others. may be omitted from plans for
Fireplace small structures unless the infor-
Your plan should include a Bathroom Cabinets mation is necessary for actual
section through the fireplace, if bathroom cabinets should
All construction. When these must be
you have one. This plan extends be drawn as was explained for shown, one may copy their shapes
484
6
45: Drawing Building Sections
from the manufacturers' detailing beams, steel beams, supporting

sheets which are supplied for this posts, framed openings, or any
purpose. other basic structural part.
A working plan frequently in-
Miscellaneous Section Drawings cludes large scale section draw-

Working plans should include ings of millwork items. The ones
construction details o{~ all impor- most frequently shown are base-
tant or critical framing members. boards, base shoe, ceiling mold-
showing how thev arc joined to ing, moldings at soffits, all door
oilier building parts. These ma) and window trim, and exterior
include built-up girders, box moldings.
Condensed Outline to Reinforce Know/edge
The following presents a brief 8. Draw a section through a typi-

resume of section drawings to in- cal kitchen cabinet, including
clude on a set of working plans. lower cabinets, upper cabinets,

Every item in the list may not apply and a soffit if specified.
to all plans. Likewise, some items re- 9. Draw sections through each
quired on a specific plan may not be kitchen cabinet that is different
included in the list. from the typical one.

1. It is necessary to determine an 10. Draw sections through each
appropriate drawing scale for bathroom cabinet or special
each section to be done. Try to feature.
keep as many drawings the 11. If the building contains cabinets

same scale as you can. or shelving in other rooms, draw
2. Draw, letter, and dimension a sections through these.
typical cross-section through an 12. Draw a section through a typi-
exterior wall. (Most are drawn cal closet to include shelves,
as longitudinal sections showing clothes poles, and other special

roof slope.) features.
3. Draw sections through each ex- 1 3 Draw sections through doors
terior wall that is different from and windows when their con-
the typical one. struction needs to be shown.
4. Draw wall sections through 14 Draw sections through each
changes in floor levels, as for critical construction point, such
split levels, garages, or second as built-up girders, framed
stories. openings, or post and beam
5. Draw a wall section through a connections.
finished attic. 1 5 Draw sections through millwork
6. Draw a section through the items such as baseboards, mold-
stair well, showing all construc- ings, and other trim.
tion features. 1 Include a name, the drawing

7. Draw a section through the scale used, and an identifying
fireplace. code for each section drawn.
485
Drawing Elevation Details
Elevation details are similar to not, page layout requires more windows, but having no cabinets,
exterior building elevations ex- careful planning to give an order- are seldom drawn in elevation.
cept they usually show features ly appearance. For a better un- Include only information neces-
inside rooms. They show facings. derstanding of appropriate eleva- sary for construction; do not clut-
They are drawn to a larger scale tion sizes and scale, study those ter the drawing with trivia.
than exterior elevations so more shown in Chapter 49.

Bathroom Elevations
information can be included.
WHAT TO INCLUDE Smooth walls with nothing on
Since these elevations describe
them need not be shown. All
specific items in an individual Plans for large buildings have walls requiring cabinets, fixtures,
building it is impossible to give many elevation drawings; almost
mirrors, medicine cabinets, wall
exact instructions for drawing every detail is drawn. However,
tile, or accessories should be
them. As discussed in the pre- plans for small structures such drawn and dimensioned. Be sure
vious chapter, one must be famil- as homes frequently include only
to include heights and locations
iar with building materials and a few elevation detail drawings. of accessories such as soap dishes,
construction methods. There are
towel bars, paper holders, or
Kitchen Elevations
many elevation details shown in
others.
the sample set of plans: study A working plan should contain
them before drawing yours. elevation drawings of each wall Shelves or Cabinets
containing kitchen cabinets or
Every wall requiring shelves or
Drawing Scale appliances. Manufactured cabi- cabinets should be drawn and di-
There is no one suitable draw- nets require only general outlines mensioned. This statement ex-
ing scale for all elevation details. plus those for shelves, drawers, cludes closet shelves and walls
Each drawing must be large and doors. Custom cabinets are because these are not always
enough to give a complete de- drawn in detail. drawn. The closet cross-section
scription. Elevations with uncom- If appliances are to be included usually supplies adequate infor-
plicated parts may
be drawn to as part of the construction, their mation for their construction.
a small scale but those with in- outlines should be drawn and di-
mensioned. If they are to be sup- Fireplace Walls

tricate construction features must
be drawn The scale is
larger. plied by others, their outlines Fireplace walls usually include
usually between A"=\'-0" and

l
should not be drawn, but rather much detailed information. In
l"=l'-0". For best appearance, the space they are to occupy should addition to showing all visible
all drawings on a sheet should be shown and dimensioned. construction features, fireplace or
do Walls containing doors and chimney elevations also include
have a uniform scale. If they
486
.
46: Drawing Elevation Details
hidden lines to outline all flue drawn as elevation details. These roof framing and other struc-
shapes. If a fireplace isopen on should show how framing mem- tural parts may be shown with
more than one face, each must bers are fitted and connected to- section views.
be shown. gether. If metal connectors are
Exterior Elevation Details
used for joining structural parts,
Special Construction Features Chapter 44 discussed exterior
large scale drawings showing their
Each wall containing special shape may be building elevations. As stated,
included. Dimen-
features such as planters, screens, most of these are drawn to a small
sions and technical data neces-
dividers, soffits, alcoves, or similar scale. This cannot include intri-
sary for construction should be
items must be fully drawn and given.
cate detail necessary for the con-
dimensioned. struction of complicated parts.
Structural Elevation Details Therefore it is sometimes nec-
Roof Framing Working plans should include essary to draw special items to a
A working plan should contain elevation details of all critical large scale to show their construc-
an elevation detail showing truss framing members, showing how tion. Screens, fences, planters,
design and construction, if these they are joined to other building entrance door details, outside fire-
are to be used. Conventional roof parts. places,and similar items are fre-
framing systems should also be Note: The elevation details of quently done in this manner.
Condensed Outline to Reinforce Knowledge
The following statements serve as to give a complete description 6. All other shelves or cabinets
a reminder of elevation drawings to of work to be done and that throughout the structure (in-
be included on building plans. Some necessary dimensions and tech- cluding the basement and attic)
elevations called for may not be re- nical notes are extremely im- are to be shown as elevation
quired on every plan. Likewise, some portant. details.
plans may require items not included 3. Draw elevations of each kitchen 7. Draw fireplace elevations; show
in the list. wall containing cabinets or ap- all flues as hidden lines.
pliances. Island or peninsula 8. Draw elevations of all special

1 It is necessary to determine an cabinets not fitted to walls also features such as dividers, plant-
appropriate drawing scale for require elevation drawings. ers, screens, or similar items.
each elevation to be included. 4. If laundry or utility room cabi- 9. Draw details to describe roof
Try to keep the scale consistent nets or fixtures are required, framing or truss systems.
for similar drawings. That is, draw all walls to show these. 10. Draw elevations of all critical
if several kitchen elevations are 5. Draw each bathroom wall con- construction features.
required, draw them to the same taining cabinets, fixtures, medi- 1 1 . Draw necessary exterior eleva-
scale. cine cabinets, or accessories. tions of items not fully described
2. Remember that each drawing is Blank walls may be omitted. by other views.
487
m)
Drawing Framing Plans
This chapter describes fram- be the same scale as other floor Framing plans include very
ing plans frequently included in plans in the set, preliminary line- few dimensions. However, critical
a set of working drawings. It does work can be copied from a fin- locations, such as positions of
not attempt to describe construc- ished basement or footing plan. double framing that must fit be-
tion methods; construction details Naturally, if it is to be drawn neath walls from above, should be
are discussed in other chapters. to a different scale, a new layout dimensioned. Locations of framed
Sets of plans for large struc- must be made. openings, and their sizes, should
tures almost always include fram- Using construction lines, first also be dimensioned.
ing plans (or diagrams, as they draw all exterior walls; then draw
Ceiling Joist Framing Plan
are sometimes called) but they interior bearing walls, plus all
A ceiling joist framing plan is
are frequently omitted from plans posts or piers. Broaden wall out-
drawn in exactly the same manner
for small buildings. Note: Their lines as hidden lines, or they may
as a floor framing plan. In addi-
inclusion is always an asset to be shown as equipment lines.
tion, it is also necessary to show
construction. When solid lines are used to rep-
non-bearing walls when they re-
These drawings, as the term resent walls, they are usually not
quire special framing to hold
framing plan implies, simply de- added until after all structural
them in position.
scribe the shape, location, and framing is drawn in. This permits
method of joining structural parts. omission of wall lines through Roof Framing Plan
structural members. The major difference between
Drawing Scale Using recommended spacings a roof framing plan and those
Framing plans may be drawn for framing (as 16" o.c), draw previously discussed is that the
to the same scale as the building all structural members. These may roof overhang must be shown as
floor plan or, if little detail is to be shown with heavy center lines a solid line. If the framing on this
be included, they can be drawn or, if the scale is large enough to plan is drawn with double lines
to a smaller scale. permit it, their thickness may be to show thickness, then the roof
Drawing Sheet Size

drawn in. When themethod
first edge framing (fascia) should also
is used, all double framing must be shown in thissame manner.
These plans should be drawn
on the same size sheets as others be indicated with notes. When When describing post and
in the set.
the second method is used, all beam roof construction, both the
double framing beneath walls beams and their supporting posts
Floor Framing Plan and at openings should be drawn and all roof planks should be
If a floor framing diagram is to shown.
488
Plank and beam roof framing diagram for a transverse beam system.
_ """"'
T
-'wrjsiT'b [ i^:i 7 zi 7 z: 7 ^: ^z"^
7 7 z.Z 7
A ~~^VJIZ 7 Y~7T7 S.JS SS SJ\ 1"7A\—'-
Hi
i iv
r 7
~'Yi [ I IZ JY."/y\ '7i% $tA 4f":
p 1 5
Plank and beam roof framing diagram for a longitudinal b(
/
'V/././.l V// //
489 J :._._.__.! .-
.
f
_J [
10 WF. 33 f
®
~l
h %
DO. mj 8 WF. 40
[
T w
SI -»-| p«- S-2
r S-3
*i
p«- S-3
10_WF._33 |
10 WF. 33 A I L 1 0WFJ3 ! | | L '0 WF. 33
S-l rn i
a ^ S-2 < S-2
DO. | I DP,_11- _l |
DO I
DO.
17'-0"
'n 7-0'
1
\m. T*"
Ir-fl S-2 S-2
j_-3l pg__ :_ J!ll i_-2P-_

Tl
Tl!
S-2 S-2
J _DO-_ _ j I L DO. |! |
DO.
Steel beam floor

\~
framing plan with beams encased
r^ r in concrete for fireproofing. Addition of hidden
lines at beam edges indicates concrete fireproofing.
Steel or Concrete Framing Plans because of costs, complete fram- frequently included on working draw-
Whenany of the above are to ing plans for such buildings are ings. It is improbable that all fram-
be of metal or concrete, or a com- seldom drawn. Persons experi- ing plans mentioned would be in-
bination of both, the framing plan enced in building framing can do cluded on any one set of drawings.
is slightly different. To illustrate studding layouts without them. Use only those needed and omit
this difference, a sample framing Only walls requiring special fram- all others.
plan showing steel beams with ing are usually included in a set 1 Determine an appropriate draw-
concrete fireproofing is shown. of plans. ing scale for each framing dia-
gram to be included.
Wall Framing Diagrams
2. Remember that each diagram is
Wall framing diagrams of con- Condensed Outline to to give a complete description of

ventionally framed buildings as work be done or parts be
Reinforce Knowledge to to
shown in Chapter 7 that include assembled and that necessary
all structural members are a defi- The following statements are to dimensions and notes are very
nite construction aid. However, serve as a reminder of framing plans important.
490
47: Drawing Framing Plans
3. Floor framing plan all outlines of the roof overhang.

• Draw exterior and bearing • Draw all ridges, gables, and
walls as construction lines. valleys with construction lines.
• Draw all posts, piers, or other • When roof beams are required,
supports. draw them.
• Using suitable framing spac- • Make layouts of all structural
ing, make layouts for all struc- framing.
tural parts. Be sure to include all • Draw all framing including the
double framing. roof edge, using either center
• Draw center lines for, or outlines or showing framing thickness.
lines of, all framing. • If roof planks are required,
• Broaden lines for walls, using draw them.
either hidden or equipment lines. • Add necessary extension and
• Add necessary extension and dimension lines.
dimension lines. • Add necessary dimension fig-

• Add necessary dimension figures, notes, or other lettering.
ures, notes, or other lettering. • Indicate the scale used and
• Indicate the scale used and name the drawing.
name the drawing. 6. Steel or concrete framing plans
4. Ceiling joist framing • Using the proper symbol for
• Draw as described for floor each material required, draw
framing plans. structural framing as described
5. Roof framing plan for other plans.
• Draw exterior and bearing 7. When wall framing diagrams are
walls with construction lines. required, draw all structural parts
• Draw other walls if they in- in their proper locations. Use
fluence roof construction. notes, lettering, and dimensioning
• With construction lines, draw to give a complete description.
491
Mechanical Plans
Mechanical plans are drawings ELECTRICAL PLANS

presenting information and instal-
lation instructions for electrical,
Electrical information is pre- dom used for homes and is most
sented in Chapter 17, and sym- often reserved for use on plans
plumbing, heating, air condition-
bols for individual electrical items for large buildings.
ing, ventilating, vacuum cleaning
system, compressed air. or other
are shown in Chapter 38. Chapter 1 . Electrical information is
42 sets forth electrical items that most often included on regular

similar needs. Each mechanical
plan usually contains drawings
may be included on a floor plan. house floor plans as described in
relating to only one such installa-
This discussion is to serve as a Chapter 42 and shown in Chapter
reminder for including electrical 49. (The lower level floor plan has
tion; however, such plans may be
items on your plan. There are electrical items shown in this con-
combined if space permits.
As stated elsewhere in the three different ways electrical ventional way.) Study it carefully
text,
comprehensive mechanical plans

information may be presented in as a guide for drawing your own
are very specific and complex.
house plans. The first two are electrical plan if you are includ-
Drawing each one requires a widely used, but the third is sel- ing electrical information.
thorough knowledge about the

specific trades involved.
Mechanical plans for each type
always drawn for
installation are
large structures, but only limited
mechanical plans are drawn for
homes. General information is
most often shown on other draw-
ings already included in the set;
then technical problems are solved
by the contractor responsible for
each installation. Yet, even
though only limited mechanical
information is included, specific
information is always more de-
sirable because it leaves less
chance for mistakes and mis-
EE
Electrical wiring circuits. Wires leading from switches represent individual circuits.
understandings.
492
48: Mechanical Plans
1. Floor plans often become that such plumbing lines serve. pipes extend (usually in walls)
difficult to understand when That is, if lines are beneath a from one living level to another,
much information is drawn in a first floor they serve this living note this on the plan. If shutofls
small space. To remedy this it is level. are to be provided at fixtures, in-
permissible to trace the original Plumbing information may be dicate this on the plan.
floor plan to show only wall out- drawn on footing and foundation, Notes. Add notes to all supply
lines and major features, and then basement, or floor plans. Or if and drain pipes, as indicated
add all electrical information to inclusion of such information will earlier, to describe their diameters
this tracing. Chapter 49. the
In result in overcrowding, more
it is and materials used.
middle and upper level floor plans desirable to trace the plan and Gas pipe. If a vertical gas pipe
were traced and electrical infor- add plumbing information. extends through a floor, draw an
appropriate sized circle and add
mation added. Compare the two Drawing Tips
a note to describe. If the gas line
drawing methods to determine
Chapter 18 presents plumbing terminates at this point with a
which is best for your plan. Re-
information and Chapter 38 valve and supply to an appliance,
gardless of the one chosen, fol-
shows pipe symbols for different
indicate this with the gas symbol
low the steps for items to include
uses.
rather than a circle.
as outlined in Chapter 42.
Plumbing fixtures, such as Water heater. Draw a top view
3. Also as described in Chapter
bathtubs, sinks, or lavatories, of the water heater in its appro-
42. lines connecting switches and
need not be drawn. NaturalK. if priate location, and add a note to
outlets indicate only which switch
any plumbing fixture diagrams describe its fuel and capacity. If
controls a given fixture; they do
are drawn on an existing floor vents are required for combustible
not actually show wire placement.
plan, they will remain. fuels, draw and describe.
If your electrical system is quite
Study each plan in your set to Sillcock or hose bib. If standard
complex, complete diagrams for
determine if the inclusion of or frost-free hose bibs are re-
each electrical circuit may be
plumbing lines will result in over- quired, draw the symbol for these
drawn on a traced floor plan.
crowding. Trace the plans, if nec- in their proper locations. Add
Such a partial plan is shown.
essary, for this. explanatory notes when necessary.
Note: This method is almost al- Indicating drains through floors. Sprinkler systems. If outside
ways required for large buildings For each footing and foundation, stationary sprinklers are to be in-
but seldom for homes. basement, or floor plan, draw stalled, draw these on a large-
Electrical items to include. Since
pipe size circles (approximately scale plot plan.
step-by-step procedures for in-
same diameter to scale as the pipe Floor drains. If floor drains for
cluding electrical information on required for the drain) at all loca- a basement or garage are re-
floor plans are given in Chapter where vertical drains extend
tions quired, draw them in their proper
42, and the same information is through floors. location.
included with all three methods Draw Sump pump.
Indicating drains in walls. If your building
described earlier, the steps are not pipe size circles in walls for all requires a concrete pit and sump
restated in this chapter. soil or vent stacks. Examine each pump, draw Both size and
these.
wall to be certain its thickness is location dimensions should be
PLUMBING PLANS
designed to accommodate the given for the pit. Describe the
As you know, horizontal pipe diameter. cover if one is required. Unless
plumbing lines are most often in- Branch supply lines. For each your specifications contain a de-
stalled beneath a building or hot and cold branch supply line scription of the sump pump, add
between its Plumbing in-
floors. serving all fixtures, draw ver- notes to describe.
formation (called a plumbing dia- tical pipe size circles where they Water meter. Draw the water
gram) is drawn on the floor plan extend through floors. When such meter and/or shutoff valve.
493
Water softeners. If water soft- Plumbing lines. Each of the On your plot plan draw lines
ening equipment is required, draw items previously drawn must be connecting from the building to
it in and add notes to describe or connected to supply or drain lines. the city sewer main, water main,
refer to specifications. Study the symbols of plumbing and gas main, if required. If your
Pressure reduction or booster lines in Chapter 38. Study your plan requires a septic tank, draw
devices. If pressure reduction or plan to determine how all lines this in its chosen location and
booster devices are to be installed, can best be located to use a mini- connect to distribution boxes and
draw these to conform tomanu- mum of pipe and conform to good the absorption field.
facturers' descriptions and add plumbing practices. Perimeter drain tile. Using the
appropriate notes. • Draw construction lines to con- appropriate symbol, draw foun-
Protective devices. If your plan nect all hot water supply pipes. dation drain tile as required. If
requires a catch basin, grease • Draw construction lines to con- this connects to a dry well, storm
trap, cistern, dry well, or similar nect all cold water supply pipes. sewer, or sanitary sewer, draw the
device, draw it on your footing • Draw construction lines to con- connecting lines.
and foundation plan (or tracing) nect all building drains. Check your plans carefully for
in its proper location to conform Broaden all lines with their omissions and errors and make
to local code requirements. appropriate symbol. corrections as needed.
Heating and Air Conditioning Plans

Heating and air conditioning Chapter 43 and is mentioned either be a part of the furnace or
information is presented in Chap- here as a reminder for its inclu- it may be a separate unit. Include
ter 19,and symbols for individual sion if the heating plan is being descriptive information.
items are shown in Chapter 38. drawn on a tracing. Window air conditioners. If
As was true for electrical plans, Radiators or registers. On each these are to be installed perma-
heating and air conditioning plans floor plan requiring registers or nently through walls, draw their
for homes may be limited, or radiators, draw all such items to outlines and add appropriate
elaborate information may be size. If chases or recesses are re- notes. If they are window mounted
presented. The information may quired in walls, draw and dimen- but not permanently installed do
be added to regular footing and sion these. Location dimensions not draw them in,or draw them
foundation, basement, or floor for radiators or registers are not as hidden lines and include a
plans. If existing plans are too required unless their exact place- note stating that they are sup-
congested to permit inclusion of ment is critical to other construc- plied by the owner. (Be sure elec-
additional information, a plan tion features. Either notes, code trical connections are included
may be traced and the informa- letters, or figures may be added on the electrical plan.)
tion included on the tracing. at each to describe. If fuel lines connecting to a

First this discussion covers in- Air conditioning condenser. If supply source were not drawn
formation almost always included a central air conditioner is with the plumbing plans, draw
on house plans. Then detailed planned, draw the outline of the them now.
information sometimes included condensing unit on the plot in its Thermostats. For each heating
on house plans, but almost al- desired location. Letter descrip- or cooling zone draw a thermostat
ways included on plans for large tive notes, code letters, or figures. in an appropriate location. Add
buildings, is given. Air conditioner evaporator. descriptive notes, model numbers,
The furnace. Drawing the fur- Draw the outline of the air con- or identifying codes.
nace outline was described in ditioner evaporator. This may Other items. As stated earlier,
494
.
48: Mechanical Plans
all air ducts or supply pipes may Condensed Outline to Reinforce Knowledge
be drawn on house plans if
The following statements review 7. Draw pipe size circles for all
deemed necessary, and they are
items to include on mechanical plans. soil or vent stacks in walls.
almost always drawn on plans
Even though discussions of how to 8. Draw pipe size circles for all
for large buildings. Symbols for
draw furnaces, water heaters, elec- branch supply lines extending
these items are shown in Chapter
trical symbols, and other mechanical through floors.
38. If all required valves, fittings,
items were presented in other chap- 9. Draw gas pipe extending
or mechanical accessories are also
ters, they are restated briefly here through floors or use gas outlet
to be shown on the plan, further
to help avoid omissions when you symbol.
study of technical books and
wish to include them on separate 10. Draw the water heater.
manufacturers' descriptive litera-
mechanical plans. 1 1 . Draw sillcocks or hose bibs.
ture is necessary.
1 Decide what mechanical plans 12. Draw heads for sprinkler sys-
are required for your building. tems when required.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
2. Determine the scope of the in- 1 3. Draw floor drains as required.
Since separate mechanical formation to be included. 14. Draw sump pit and pump.
plans are drawn for footing and 3. For detailed information to in- 15. Draw the water meter and/or
foundation, basement, and floor clude on electrical plans, refer shutoff valve.
plans, it is often difficult to deter- to Chapter 42. 16. Draw water softening equip-
mine how such information shown 4. Determine which drawing sheets ment.
on separate sheets fits with or is in your set require plumbing 1 7. Draw all other pumps or mo-
a part of similar information on plans. tored apparatus related to the
other sheets in the set of plans. 5. Trace sheets as required. plumbing system.
To show this relationship clearly, 6. Draw pipe size circles for all 18. Using the appropriate symbols,
schematic diagrams— in the form drains through floors. draw all drain and supply lines.
of simplified pictorial drawings
of individual building mechanical
systems— are often drawn. These
omit all structural building parts
to more clearly describe the sys-
tem being explained.
Schematic diagram of a hot-water heating system
495
19. If your system requires a septic 27. Draw all radiators or registers.
tank and absorption field, draw 28. If required, draw the air con-
them. ditioning condenser.
20. Draw perimeter foundation 29. If required, draw the air condi-
drain tile and related items, such tioner evaporator.
as catch basins, cisterns, storm 30. Draw window air conditioners,
sewer connections, or lines to if specified.

the sanitary sewer. 31. Draw symbols for all thermo-
21. Add all necessary descriptive stats.
notes to describe the system. 32. Draw all ducts or hot water sup-
22. Check your plan for omissions ply pipes to be included on your
and errors, and make necessary plan.
corrections. 33. Add necessary descriptive notes
23. Determine which sheets in your and code designations.
set of plans require heating or 34. Check your drawing for omis-
air conditioning information. sions or errors, and make all
24. Trace the sheets as required. necessary corrections.

25. Draw your furnace outline and 35. Draw schematic diagrams of
connect supply line to its source. plumbing, heating, or other sys-
26. Draw all chases or recesses for tems if clarifications are nec-
radiators or registers. essary.
496
,
AUt
LWorking Plans for a Contemporary Home
Much of book has been devoted to information necessary

this
for building planning and design. Construction features have also

been discussed and drawn as they should appear on working plans.
Additional emphasis has been placed upon methods of communicat-
ing ideas to others through working plans. Such verbal descriptions,
or drawings of individual construction features of items requiring
inclusion on working plans may not always be clearly understood by
the novice. He may not know how to visually show the required
technical information by lines, symbols, and notes. A set of plans
for a contemporary home (the same home shown and described in
Chapter 53, Architectural Models) therefore is included in this chapter.
These plans are to supplement the printed text and individual draw-
ings in the book to help clarify by illustration the separate drawings
required, the information to be included, and to show how the
finished drawings should appear.
This set of plans is not exactly the same as any you may draw
because each building requires plans different from others. Yet these
plans can be used as a general guide for information or kinds of
lines to include on yours. Careful analysis of the plans may also
serve as a standard by which you may judge the quality of your
work. Compare this set to those shown at the end of Chapter 39.
Observe that the plans here are much more elaborate in detail than
the previous set. Naturally, the building complexity determines the
amount of detail required. On small structures, only the most im-
portant detail is shown, but on large commercial structures or
expensive, custom-built homes almost every detail is included.
497
498
1
o b
m
>'
CM
2
PLOT PLAN
SCALE VM "= l'-O"
499
n J
o
---=fc4--j--
r=Tfp
1,8^
-t
fl f4-- Ht 4. 1
——tir.d
i
Uh'-8"
H
r-
-ti
t
u
LE\
l"
4—8"
1
"3 L~
U^
f— 10"
I J_l -?l — r:
10"
5 '-4'
TTT
FOOTING AND FOUNDATION PLAN

SCALE V»"= t'-O"
NOTE: VERIFY ALL DIMENSIONS MATCH

DURING CONSTRUCTION LINE
500
--=4-
ft
j-*@
4- 1
—
I I 4 —
•
1X7
,
FIREPLACE FOOTING |— T
—
T
U, -i
I- -T-
1i
t
UNEXCAVATED
LEVEL AND TAMP
L""
4— 8"
1
" :__J
5 '
r
1
UNEXCAVATED
-^ r-
LEVEL AND TAMP
MATCH
LINE
Ui __ _^ __ -^- _^ -
^-A; II n
501
BASEMENT PLAN
SCALE '/."= l'-O"
WINDOW SCHEDULE
KEY QUAN. MODEL NO. DESCRIPTION REMARKS
A 1 1N4 CASEMENT W/AL STORM & SCREENS D/S GLASS
B l 2N4 CASEMENT W/AL STORM & SCREENS D/S GLASS
C 3 W3N5 CASEMENT W/AL STORM 8. SCREENS D/S GLASS

D 2 W4N5 CASEMENT W/AL STORM & SCREENS D/S GLASS
E 1 W5N4 CASEMENT W/AL STORM & SCREENS D/S GLASS
F 1 CUSTOM-SEE PLANS W INS. GLASS
G 1 CUSTOM-SEE PLANS /a" INS. GLASS
H 1 CUSTOM-SEE PLANS 1" INS. GLASS
502
DOOR SCHEDULE
KEY QUAN. SIZE MATERIAL DESCRIPTION FRAME
1 3 2'-6"x7'-0"x 1%" WOOD SOLID CORE BIRCH WHITE PINE
2 1 2-6"x6'-8"x 1%" WOOD SOLID CORE BIRCH WHITE PINE
3 4 3'0"x6'-8"x P/i" WOOD HOLLOW CORE BIRCH WHITE PINE
4 10 2'-6"x6'-8"x 1%" WOOD HOLLOW CORE BIRCH WHITE PINE
5 2 2'6"x6'-8"x 1H" WOOD HOLLOW CORE WALNUT WHITE PINE
6 1 2'-2"x6'-8"x 1%" WOOD HOLLOW CORE BIRCH WHITE PINE
7 2 2'0"x6-8"x 1%" WOOD HOLLOW CORE BIRCH WHITE PINE
8 4 l'-6 "x 6-8"x 1%" WOOD HOLLOW CORE BIRCH WHITE PINE
9 2'10"x6'-8"x7%" WOOD HOLLOW CORE BIRCH-FOLDING WHITE PINE
10 5'-0" x6-8"x \W WOOD HOLLOW CORE BIRCH-BI-FOLD WHITE PINE
11 2 l'-10"x6'-8"x !'/•" WOOD HOLLOW CORE WALNUT-CUSTOM WHITE PINE
12 6'0'x 6'-8"x \W WOOD LOUVER-BI-FOLD WHITE PINE

LEFTPANEL FIXED-RIGHT ALUMINUM
13 6-0"x6'-8"x 1H" ALUM. PANEL SLIDING. '/. CRYSTAL
U 7-0'; x 6'-8" WOOD 3 PANEL OVERHEAD WHITE PINE
15 18'0"x7'-0" WOOD 4 PANEL OVERHEAD WHITE PINE
16 4-0" x 8'0" x 1 W WOOD PARTICAL BOARD-PLASTIC

LAMINATE COVERED
POCKET ASSY.
NO FRAME
17 2'0" x 6'-8" GLASS FROSTED GLASS SHOWER DOOR ALUMINUM
LINTEL SCHEDULE
PRECAST CONCRETE LINTELS
CLEAR LINTEL LINTEL LINTEL REINF.
KEY QUAN. LENGTH TOP & BOT.
SPAN WIDTH HEIGHT
1 1
6'0" 4" 7%" 7'-4" \-»4
2 1 2'10" 4" 7W 4'-2" 1-Jt4
3 2 2'-6" 4" 7W 3'-10" l-#4

4 1
2'-6" 6" 7W 3'10" 1-^4
STEEL LINTELS
CLEAR LINTEL
KEY QUAN. SIZE
LENGTH
SPAN
r-6" 3"x 3" x 3/16" 2'-2"

5 1
6 1 r-8" 3" x 3" x 3/16" 2'-4"
7 1
3'-6" 3" x 3" x %" 4'-2"
8 1
2'3" 2Vi"x P/i" x 3/16" 2'-3"
503
NOTE: OUTSIDE WALL DIMENSIONS AND
LEFT LIVING ROOM WALL
INDICATE EDGE OF STUDS.
OTHERS ARE TO CENTER
OF WALLS.
504
§> ® ©
EDGE OF STUDS
18-8'
2" x 6"
CEILING JOISTS SEE DETAIL 28
LIVING ROOM ;
DINING §
SEE ROOF FRAMING DIAGRAM ROOM -
BEDROOM 9 3
NOTE: SEE ROOF TRUSS

DETAIL.
ENTRANCE
<g SERVICE -•
PANEL
505
I
ELECTRICAL FLOOR PLAN

SCALE '/,"= l'-O"
506
507
SEE SECT. 27-B
_, ' 1 . L L 1 'I
— I
[— 1'-4" - y
r-8"-— |
^—
REAR ELEVATION
NO SCALE AFTER REDUCTION
508
SEE SECT. 27-A
ik = = = = = = = = ==
8"—
-J
RIGHT ELEVATION
509
LA L>Ut
~24 " C
2" x 10" RAFTERS
II FILLER STRIP w |
2" x 6" RAFTERS 16"O.C. T)
|r-9
_il '-7.",
4" x 12" PLYWOOD BOX

BEAM
"
2" x 10" RIDGE BOARD—! 1
'
1 II 1
T — J
L/ DDER FRA MING

2" x6" 1" O. C.
ROC }F FRA Mir DIA G R> \M MATCt 1

LINE
SCAL : '/b" = r- 0"
510
LADDER FRAMING 2" x 6"
24" O.C.
^3
2" x 10" RAFTERS 16" O.C.
QI
I 1
BUILT UP GIRDER
SEE GARAGE TRUSS DETAIL 29-A
MATCH
LINE
511
BUILT-UP ROOF
WITH GRAVEL
512
1" x 8" W.P. JAMB
%" PLYWOOD DOOR

W SIDE SPRING HINGE
W.P. DOOR STOP
SCALE W=V-0"
513
BASEMENT LAUNDRY
CHUTE DOOR DETAIL
SCALE W' = l'-O"
514
SCALE %" = 1
'-0"
515
SCALE Vi" = 1
'-0
Vi»" LEAD EXPANDERS

516
SUPPORT FOR PAN
SECT
SCALE iy2 "=r-0"
SCALE Vi" = 1
-0"
\W x 2" x V*" T
517
i
- 6'- 7'h"
— 5% ^— 3' 0"
b FORMICA DIAMONDS
- / W/ BLACK PLASTIC GROUT
MIRROR
o
^
^j
vvKAA/
1
i ii i 1
L-Jl-J 1
1 1
CO 1 1
i
—
w
(25\
3'-0" 3'-7'/j" 3'-5'/."
10'-0 3A"
ELEV zd\
r -11" i"
" PLYWD.-x
p'A", '— — I"
\_ ___ 1
% r
o p>FL. LT.& M RROF .
>
o
! i
00 __
1
1
I
o 1 1
Tj *o
CO
CN
;•
1 — 1
1'-3"
'-2" ^
^ 5' '
8"
— 1
SECT
SCALE '/2"=1'-0"
518
SEE WIRING PLAN -,,
4V4" x 4'/4" CERAMIC TILE
SEE TYPICAL
CLOSET SHELF
AND ROD DETAIL
^
CHANGE
Ll
TO
CERAMIC
COVE BASE
3_t
12-6%"
ELEV.Z2\
SEE LIGHT TROUGH DETAIL I

ALL MIRRORS
'/, POLISHED PLATE
Do
M\ l
-^f^J
J £ < >» O £
is: : o - 5 g- ss
'2 u y > 3 s
ELEV./3\ 519
SCALE 3A" = l'-O"
SCALE W= l'-O"
I ,.
B. ;;::
ELEV. /^\
5\ SCALE %"= i'-o"
1 T
f ^ //
520 ELEV. /4\

'.z£\ SCALE %"= l'-O"
2" x 4" NAILERS
KITCHEN CEILING
AND SOFFIT MOLDING DETAIL
SCALE W= l'-0"
SCALE W= 1
'0"
CLOSET DETAIL
TYPICAL CLO. DETAIL
521
-
ELEV .z£\
SCALE %" = 1
'-0"
lO'-O"
3" WALNUT VALANCE
S I
m
=n=
.J
I
\
I
'
522 ELEV .^\

—
ALL SOFFITS EXTS. 1

-I
;=oi
</," WALNUT PLY PANELS
FIFV /K
SCALE >/•" = 1-0"
2'-3"
8 -0"
o
—
o
ro
-— %"
1
6
CORK BOARD
h
D S. GLASS A
v /
o
o
CM
UJ
—— 1
—I
1 1
— — — -
— 1 1
o
- CO
-
1 1 1 1 1
1'.7" 2'-4" 4'0" 2'-0"
FIFV /K 523
^ im
Ê
ELEV. /fo\
SCALE W= 1
'-0"
7'-8'A"
i
T
CUSTOM
HOOD
I I
I I
1 '-7W
524 ELEV.ZlK
SCALE 3
/a" = 1
'-0"
2'-7"
"
?w^ r-0" -9
)
'
/l
1 I t.
m
.1 i
'
n w A. *
'
I
1-8
r 8" x
LINER
1 2'J
|
' <
SCALE W= 1
'-0"
525
NOTE: ALL CABINET FACE
FRAMES V*" x Vt" EXCEPT
1
BOnOM RAIL %" x 1"
FIREPLACE
DETAIL 28
SCALE %" = 1
'-0
526
ALL BRACING
IS 2" x 4" %" PLYWOOD
GUSSETS
. "A" ALUMINUM BACKED

©PLASTER BOARD
1 HOUR FIRE RATING
UUA BtAM
CONSTRUCTION DETAIL TYPICAL GARAGE
%" scale ROOF TRUSS
STAIR DETAIL
SCALE %"= l'-0"
SCALE '/." = 1
'-0"
527
Since many different people are involved in the
planning, bidding on, and constructing a building,
copies of plans must be reproduced from the original
drawings.
Reproduction of Drawings
Blueprints and Semi-dry Prints
Blueprinting was for many After exposure, the blueprint be satisfactory after twenty or
years the only method of repro- paper must be developed in much more years.
ducing working drawings. It be- the same manner as a photograph. Semi-dry print. Introduction of
came such an important and After development the paper the semi-dry method made print-
widely used process that when must be washed with water and making much easier than by the
other systems were later devel- dried. Older methods relied upon blueprint method. The tracing
oped many people called every hanging the copy and air-drying and sensitized paper are exposed
drawing reproduction a blueprint, it. This is very time consuming in the same manner, but the de-
even though some other repro- and not in keeping with today's veloping process is greatly simpli-
duction method was used. Al- ideas of speed and progress. Air- fied. A roller in a long tray is
though this is not technically cor- dried prints are always wrinkled immersed in the solution and an-
rect, it is accepted practice. and must be flattened before use. other roller is in contact with it.
The quality of a blueprint is Automatic machine drying may The lower roller becomes coated
very satisfactory but it has dis- be employed. However the size, with developer; the exposed, sen-
advantages that frequently make complexity, and cost, of automatic sitized paperis fed between the
it less desirable than newer blueprint machines has led to rollers, and the solution is de-
methods. widespread use of other methods. posited onto the paper, thus de-
About the print. Chemically A blueprint is a reverse print. veloping it. The paper is only
treated, light-sensitive paper is The background is blue and all dampened slightly so it does not
placed beneath a tracing and ex- lines and lettering are white. The wrinkle as it dries. This method
posed to light, either natural or on the
intensity of the white lines can produce clear, sharp prints
Most exposures are
artificial. blue background makes them very but they have a tendency to turn
made by machine so the intensity easy to read. yellow and the lines fade with
and exposure time can be con- Blueprints have permanent age. Aging is gradual and does
trolled. Pencil or ink lines prevent quality, so they are very good for not interfere with legibility for
light from passing through the prints that must be used over a several months. Prints stored in
tracing, so areas under them are long period of time. If they are a dark place when not in use,
not exposed. handled with care they may still should be legible for years.
528
50: Reproduction of Drawings
A 111 111 on in Vapor

Machines
The ammonia vapor process is
method of
the most widely used
reproducing working drawings.
The tracing and sensitized paper
are exposed to an ultraviolet light
source and then the sensitized
paper is developed with ammonia
vapor.
The versatility of the many
machines designed to use this
process, and the relatively low
cost of basic models, make them
available for any business estab-
lishment.
Simple machines consist oi' a
light source and a metal container

with a heating element to vaporize
the ammonia and develop the
print. machines permit
Larger
very rapid development. Some
machines automatically develop
any specified number of prints
from one original tracing.
These machines have many de-
sirable features. The prints are
dry and are ready to use as soon
as they are ejected. Use of large
rolls of developing paper permit
any sheet length. New copies are
clear and sharp, and lines are in-
-'
tense. Developing papers are
I266T DEVELOPING TUBE
available in many colors. Some of
the more common are blue, black, Frederick Post Co
red, brown, and green. Prints can A developing tube and separate light source can be used when only a limited quan-
be developed onto many different tity of prints is required.
mediums such as different weights

of paper, transparent paper, plas-
tic coated paper, transparent and There are two principal objec- too, these prints tend to discolor
opaque plastic. Beautiful overlays tions to this process. One is a and fade with continual exposure
can be obtained by printing parts human objection. Many persons to light. However, they can be
of a drawing on different sheets familiar with blueprints simply preserved for several years if they
of plastic with different colored cannot or will not change to the are stored in a dark place when
lines. use of the newer method. Then, not is use.
529
Frederic* Pes, Co '^^•^M
This white printer is ideal for offices or other institutions that require a small number of large size
prints.
ing plans for them. They sell these

plans to individual builders. Fre-
quently a builder desires to have
the name of his own company on
all the drawings. Instead of buy-
ing regular prints he obtains
sepia masters and then inserts
his own business name on the
titles before having them printed.
Plastic Film
Sometimes sepia masters can-

not produce the quality of print
that is desired. There are many
plastic films that produce photo-
graphic negatives suitable for
making prints. On some, the lines
are permanent, while on others
they can be removed or washed
off so changes or corrections may
Frederick Post Co
be made.
An automatic white printer can produce letter or legal size prints in any desired
Some films must be exposed in
quantity.
direct contact to the original,
Sepia Masters handling could damage it. Equip- while others permit reductions or
An intermediate print called ment is sold by many companies enlargements. Some are transpar-
a sepia master— which is a brown under various trade names. Sepia ent while others have a matte or
line print on a special translucent masters are also very useful when frosted surface to make addition
paper— can be developed and tracings must be forwarded to of lines easier.

used as a tracing instead of the other departments or companies. Films are especially useful for
original. Sometimes so many For example, there are several combining information from sev-
prints must be made from one large companies that specialize eral drawing sheets. Information
original tracing that the excessive in designing homes and develop- can be assembled and photo-
530
ChoHes Sruning Co
A production machine is capable of high volume output.
graphed: then when printed it such as wood, metal, glass, or They also may not copy photo-
appears as one drawing. plastic. This can be done by graphs or other materials pro-
spraying a light-sensitive solution duced by similar methods. In
Photo-copying
onto the item and then placing a other words, you cannot always
When very tine quality copying
exposed. Ap- make a copy of a copy. Printed
tracing over it to be
is required, as for reproduction of
plication of developing solution or drawn subject matter in both
legal documents and other im-
then completes the print. pencil and ink reproduces well.
portant papers, photo-copying is
Some machines will make spirit
frequently used. This process is Electrostatic Machines process masters for duplicator
similar to the film copies just
Small electrostatic copying copying, masters for offset print-
described except the copy is re-
machines are very popular for a ing, or reproduce on plastic film
produced upon opaque paper.
wide variety of reproduction jobs. for overlays and projection.
Since it is a one-exposure process,
Sheet size is limited. Maximum Line quality and permanence
the copy is reversed from the
width is usually about 9". Some are often not as good as when
original; that is, everything on
machines are belt driven which ammonia vapor is used.
the original that is white is black
permits additional sheet length,
on the print, and everything that Direct Copying
while others require a fixed ex-
is black on the original is white
posure over a glass plate. The Temporary prints such as shop
on the print. If the final copy must
biggest advantage of these ma- drawings may be produced with-
look exactly like the original, it
chines is that almost any drawn out developers. Exposure of spe-
is necessary to make another
or printed matter can be copied, cial paper through a tracing pro-
print from the reproduction.
regardless of the kind of paper duces the finished print. This
Printing on Anything the original is on. However, many print is a kind of blueprint; that
Sometimes it is necessary to machines will not reproduce blue is, it is a reverse print with a blue
make prints on unusual materials lines, as from a ball point pen. background and white lines.
531
.
Storage and Retrieval
When an organization needs tically. These protect the tracings isphotographed onto a very small
many tracings, their storage for but are cumbersome to handle. film, sometimes less than Vi"
future use becomes a problem. Storage on Film square. When it is to be used, an
They occupy considerable space; image is projected onto a screen
Since tracings may be large
and they must be accessible for or a large size copy is made. There
and difficult to store and use with-
use without being damaged. are automatic machines available
out damaging them, other stor-
Rolling tracings and storing that project the desired image
age-and-use systems have been
them in tubes makes them very onto a TV-like screen for easy
developed. Many firms record
Some of the more sophis-
accessible but it damages the viewing.
their tracings on film and then
fibers of the paper. When they ticated machines are combina-
use the film for reproduction pur-
are unrolled, they wrinkle easily tion reader-printers. If a copy is
poses. There are several film sys-
which reduces their quality. They desired the machine will auto-
tems in general use.
soon become unsuitable for use. matically reproduce one.
Very simple systems use con-
Tray Storage
tact film, as described earlier, There are two basic systems.
Tracings may be stored in flat
which makes the negative the In one system using roll film in
trays or drawers. This preserves cartridges,the film is passed
same size as the original tracing,
them in good condition if the through a projector until the de-
but more durable and easier to
compartments are kept orderly. store and use. sired frame (individual picture)
Trays are not always orderly, espe- A non-contact system copies is reached. The other system has
cially if several people must use the tracing so the film is only Vi negatives mounted in key punch
them; then it is necessary to hunt the original size. Copies are the cards, called aperture cards. They
through many drawings to find the same size as the negative. are run through a sorter for re-
one desired. Miniaturization is also being trieval, projection, and copying.
Folders used for copying and reproducing Many companies have developed
Giant size folders are frequent- drawings. The best known system systems that are variations of the
ly used for storing tracings ver- is called microfilm. The tracing above.
1 Why must many sets of build- 6. Why do blueprints wrinkle 1 2. What is the capacity of am-
ing plans be reproduced from the and require flattening before use? monia vapor machines?
original tracings? 7. What is meant when a blue- 13. Describe a very simple am-
2. For many years what was the print is called a reverse print? monia vapor machine.
best method of reproducing working 8. What advantages does a 14. How much drying time is re-
drawings? semi-dry print have over a blueprint? quired for ammonia vapor prints?
3. Why are some prints that are 9. Does this method produce 15. Is it true that only blue and
not blueprints called by this name? clear prints? Explain. white prints can be made on these
Do you feel this is permissible? 1 0. Describe the permanence of machines? Explain.

4. What are some of the disad- these prints. 16. What is an overlay print?
vantages of blueprints? 1 1 . What is the most widely used 1 7. What are the two principal
5. What are some of the ad- reproduction process for making objections to ammonia vapor repro-
vantages of blueprints? copies of building plans? ductions?
532
50: Reproduction of Drawings
18. What are sepia masters? may be made and finished without
Why are they used? being developed.

19. Describe some of the ways 26. What are the disadvantages
that plastic films can be used as in-

of rolling tracings for storage?
termediate prints. What is an inter- 27. What is an advantage of roll-
mediate print? ing tracings for storage?
20. What is photo-copying? Is

28. What are two disadvantages
this an important process? Why? of storing tracings in large trays or

drawers? Any advantage?
2 1 . How can a print be made on
wood, metal, glass, or plastic?
29. Why are many firms record-
ing copies of their tracings on film?

22. Describe two kinds of heat-
machines.
30. What is miniaturization?
light
31. What is microfilm?
23. What are some of the advan-
32. How may it be projected for
tages of these machines? viewing?
24. What are some of the dis- 33. What is a reader-printer?
advantages? 34. How are key punch cards
25. Explain how a reproduction used for reproductions?
copy or reproduct on sepia master light sensitive
blueprint intermediate print electrostatic

reverse print photographic negative storage and retrieval
sensitized paper wash-off film miniaturization
developer contact negative microfilm
ammonia vapor matte reader-printer
ultraviolet light photo-copying aperture card
533
Specifications
A set of building plans cannot

communicate all incidental ideas, SPECIFICATIONS— GENERAL COVERAGE
detail analysis, quality conditions, Title page
and materials such as nails or Titled as: Specifications for (Name
paints required for the construc- kind of building as school, church, residence, or factory.)
tion of a building. This additional Name of owner.
information is included in the Complete address of the proposed building.
specifications. Specifications are Name of architect.
seldom written by the profession- Official title of architect.
al draftsman but he must be ac- Complete address of architect.
quainted with them. Seal of official registration of qualifications.
Every set of building plans
Table of contents
should be accompanied by a set
of specifications. Large architec- This is usually quite specific as to where items appear in
tural firms have employees who the specifications.
devote all their time to writing
Instructions to bidders
them. In small firms the architect
Location of building to be constructed.
is responsible for their compila-
Explanation of how bid is to be made and presented.
tion. Large firms frequently have
Allowances for alternate materials or methods of construction.
them compiled, and then printed
Qualifications of bidders.
by a spirit duplicator or office
Time for receiving bids.
size offset press. Small firms may
Responsibility of successful bidder for insurance, social secur-
type them on 8':"xll" tracing
ity, workman's compensation, fees, taxes, bonds, labor, and
paper and then print them with
materials.
the same process as used for the
Proof of payment of the above items from successful bidder.
building plans.They are bound
in booklets and accompany the Contract between owner and contractor(s)
working drawings. They are a Scope of work included.
legal part of a contract, as are the The contract price.
official plans, and are binding Signed, sealed, and witnessed.
upon all parties involved.
Specifications for large, com- General specifications applying to all trades
plicated structures include much Explanation of how detailed specifications for individual
trades are subdivided into different groupings.
534
5 J : Specif/cations Specifications (continued)
detailed information. They may Statement that a contractor may or may not subcontract part
of the construction.
have 75 to 100 typewritten pages.
For small, simple structures the
Responsibility of a contractor for the work he subcontracts.
State the necessity of consultation with the architect if there
specifications are much briefer,
are errors or omissions from the plans or specifications.
containing only "stock" informa-
However, Statement that the architect is the legal representative of the
tion. if full information
is included, there is lesschance
owner and the contractor is responsible to him.
for disagreement or misunder- Statement that all manufactured items are to be installed
according to the manufacturers' specifications. They automatically
standing between the owner and
contractor as to exactly what is
become a part of this contract.
to be done. Statement that the contractor may not substitute materials or
Many firms use standard construction methods other than those specified, without a written
request and approval.
printed forms, filling in the blank
spaces with the appropriate Statement that damaged work must be repaired.
information. How payments for labor and materials will be made.
Space does not permit a book Shop drawings to be furnished by the contractor and approved
of this nature to include a com- by the architect before any work is begun.
plete set of long, involved specifi-
Construction schedule:
cations. The outline given here

Amount of time allowed.
Penalties for failure to maintain schedule.
covers many of the key details
that are a general coverage—usu-
Amount of cleanup required.
Guarantees on work performed.
ally included in a standard form:
Detailed Specifications — Short Form

Work performed by each contractor or subcontractor is outlined in the
to be
detailed specifications. So you can see how they are written, an excerpt from a set
of specifications for a small residence follows:
Excavating and grading

This contractor shall excavate for all work as required
by the plans, and shall keep all excavations dry during
progress of the work. Bottoms of all trenches are to be
kept level and free from loose earth. Scrape away all
topsoil from the area to be excavated and pile separately
for use in grading. All earth is to be piled so it does
not interfere with material deliveries or construction.
535
Concrete
This contractor shall install all footings, foundation
walls, concrete floors, sidewalks, and driveway to street.
Shall waterproof outside of all basement and foundation
walls from the grade line to the bottom of the footing
using sprayed-on asphalt waterproofing.
All concrete floors must have a trowel smooth finish.
Driveway and walks are to have a broom finish and are to be
finished with an edger at all joints and edges. Basement
side of the foundation is to be dampened and smoothed
with a cement and sand mix using a wood float finish.
All concrete to be ready-mix 1:3:5.
Basement and garage floors are to be poured on 4" of
gravel fill.
Visqueen film with sealed joints and all damaged areas
repaired shall be placed over the gravel fill.
Masonry
This contractor shall furnish and install all masonry.
Construct fireplace as shown with No.
liner. Install all flue liners and flues as shown.
Structural steel contractor shall furnish all steel angle
lintels but this contractor shall install same above
each opening.
Face brick: Entire building to be faced with $65.00 M,
face brick, color and pattern to be selected by architect.
Backup for all stone and face brick is concrete block.
Overhead doors: Set f" x 8" threaded bolts 24" o.c. on
each side of door for wood plate.
Sash: This contractor shall furnish and install all
aluminum casements. aluminum or equal.
Plate anchors: Install j" x 18" anchor bolts around
perimeter of building, spaced 8'-0" o.c. All sill plates
shall have at least two anchor bolts regardless of
their length.
Cleaning: All stone and face brick are to be washed
with diluted acid or cleaning solution. No discoloration
of the cut stone is permitted.
536
.
5 1 : Specifications
Carpentry
This contractor shall do all wood framing. All framing
lumber shall be #2 Southern Yellow Pine or Douglas Fir.
Wall sheathing is to be bituminous coated, 25/32" insulating
board siding. Roof sheathing is to be £" sheathing grade,
unsanded fir plywood. Subfloor is to be f" sheathing grade,
unsanded fir plywood, of quality.
Install all necessary ground and furring strips. Install
3" wood bridging following F.H.A. recommendations.
This contractor shall install all millwork, wood frames,
windows, doors, and trim. Furnish and install 1|" thick
white pine overhead garage door as shown on the plans
complete with necessary hardware.
All floors are to have |" BD fir plywood on saturated
felt, nailed securely with ringed nails to subfloor,
except where composition floors are required; these are to
be screwed with 1^" #8 flat head steel wood screws spaced
6" o.c. except at edges of sheets, where the screws are to
be spaced 3" o.c.
Insulation: Furnish and install 4" full-thick rockwool
bats on all ceilings. All exterior walls are to have 2"
half-thick bats.
Caulking: Caulk all steel and wood frames at all exterior
openings
Closets: Install 1" steel pipe for clothes pole in all
closets. All closet shelves are to be f" of quality.
All edges are to be filled and sanded. Linen closet shelves
and divisions in double closets are to be of f" AA fir
plywood, all edges are to be veneered with Weldwood wood
trim, secured with one coat of contact cement on the tape
and two coats on all plywood edges.
Doors and trim: All inside doors are to be Weldwood white
birch. Stay Straight, book matched, hollow core, flush
doors. All baseboards, jambs, and other trim are to be
select white birch. Front door is to be solid core white
birch. Kitchen cabinets are to be select white birch,
prefinished with frost white lacquer. Counter top is to be
White Spindrift, postformed Formica.
537
.
Bathroom vanity is to be select white birch, prefinished

with smoke grey lacquer. Counter top is to be Pink Nassau
Formica with self edge.
Hardware: Install aluminum interlocking thresholds on
front and rear doors. Allow $200.00 for finish hardware,
not including the above items. Use sterling track for
all sliding doors.
Windows: Windows are to be Pella casements with wood
brick molding, complete with screens and storm panels.
Window and door openings on inside of building are to be
finished with metal corner bead.
Structural Metal
This contractor shall carefully examine the General
Conditions
This contractor shall furnish and erect all structural
beams and columns.
Furnish all steel angle lintels for window and door
openings. Masonry contractor will set all angle lintels.
All steel must be primed with red lead or equal.
This contractor is to furnish the fireplace liner.
Sheet metal
This contractor shall furnish and install all sheet metal
work as shown on the plans. All sheet metal work is to be
26 gauge galvanized iron. All gutters and downspouts are
to be aluminum. Furnish and install galvanized duct for
kitchen hood as shown on plans.
Install metal roof vents as shown.
Install metal vent in basement for clothes dryer.
Install 36" exhaust fan with motorized
louvers in bedroom hall.
Roofing
All roofing is to be 235 lb. 3 tab, self sealing, asphalt
shingles installed over 15 lb. felt, with Boston ridge
and hips.
All shingles are to be white, of quality.
538
5 J : Specifications
Lathing and Plastering

This contractor shall check all grounds and furring
strips before lathing.
All ceilings on first floor are to have rocklath and
three-coat plaster.
All walls on first floor to have rocklath and three-coat
plaster.
Garage ceiling to have metal lath and three-coat plaster,
with one hour fire rating.
All inside corners are to have 9" wide metal lath
reinforcing bent to lay flat in the corner.
All arches or outside corners are to have Expanded
Cornerite, metal corner bead.
Expanded metal lath is to be applied diagonally above
each corner of all windows and doors. Expanded metal lath
stripping is to be nailed to the ceiling, centered under
all beams and built-up girders.
All doors are to have metal bull nose trim, mitered and
soldered at corners.
All windows are to have corner bead on three sides.
Glazing
This contractor shall furnish and install all glass as
required on the plans. All glass shall be D.S.A., except
glass areas larger than 24" x 30" are to be Thermopane
or equal.
Glazing compound must be the best for metal or wood sash.
Replace all broken glass after construction work is
completed.
Ceramic tile
Install 4" x 4" ceramic tile in master bath as shown on
the plans. Install ceramic mosaic tile floor in master bath
All colors and patterns are to be selected by the
architect.
Composition floors
Kitchen is to have vinyl tile, of quality. Stairs
539
. . .
to basement are to have standard grade linoleum treads

and risers, edged with aluminum bullnosing.
All colors and patterns to be selected by the architect.
Plumbing
This contractor is to install complete plumbing, sewer,
water, and gas services in the building. Install 1^-" water
service to the building. All sewer lines are to be
cast iron.
This contractor is to install and connect the clothes
washer and dishwasher.
Install 4" field tile around the perimeter of the
building leaving f" joints between each tile. Joints are
to be covered with 15 lb. saturated felt strips 4" x 12"
and covered with 8" of clean washed gravel.
Gas service is to be provided at two locations in the
basement
All bathroom fixtures and kitchen sink are to be of
quality.
Electrical
This contractor shall install a complete electrical
system as per these plans and specifications.
All receptacles as shown shall be duplex. Install
telephone outlets and television jacks as shown. Connect
dishwasher, surface unit burners, built-in oven, clothes
dryer, clothes washer, exhaust fan, furnace, and others
as shown.
Furnish and install 16 circuit, circuit breaker box. All
equipment described above, and the refrigerator, deep
freeze in the basement, air conditioning unit, and
calcinator, are to be on separate circuits.
Each room shall have receptacles and lights on at least
two separate circuits.
All switches are to be of the mercury, silent type.
Provide 100 amp., 230-115 volt entrance service.
Make alternate bid for underground neoprene entrance
service
Allow $300.00 for electrical fixtures, excluding
installation
All fixtures to be selected by the architect.
540
5 1 : Specifications
Heating
Install electric radiant heat in ceilings of all rooms
and basement according to Westinghouse layout. Each room
is to have an individual thermostat.
Contractor must guarantee system to heat all rooms to
75° when the outside temperature is -10°.
NOTE: The following specifications are of the long-form type, used

when you wish to be quite specific.
Painting and decorating

Scope of work: A finish is to be applied to all surfaces
not factory pre-finished, throughout the building.
This contractor shall supply all labor, materials, tools,
scaffolding, and other equipment necessary for completion
of this work.
Materials used are to be exactly as hereinafter specified
in brand and quality. No claims by the painting contractor
as to the unsuitability or unavailability of any material
specified, or his unwillingness to use the same, or his
ability to produce first class work with them will be
entertained unless such claims are made in writing and
submitted with his bid.
Paints, enamels, and similar materials must be delivered
in the original containers, with seals unbroken'and
labels intact.
Use materials only as specified by the manufacturer's
directions on the container.
Do all necessary puttying of nail holes and cracks after
the first coat, with Swedish putty of a color to match
the finish. Strike putty flush with adjoining surfaces in
a neat and workmanlike manner.
Tint priming coat on plaster to approximate shade of final
coat. Touch up suction spots or ''hot spots'' on plaster
or cement after application of first coat to produce an
even result in the finish coat.
Tint undercoats of paint and enamel to the approximate
shade of the finish coat; each coat is to be slightly
darker than the preceding one unless otherwise directed.
Each coat must be inspected and approved by the architect
before application of the next coat; otherwise no credit
541
for the coat applied will be given and the contractor

automatically assumes responsibility to recoat the work
in question. The architect is to be notified when each
coat is applied.
Clean all paint or other finishing materials from
other finished surfaces.
Before painting, remove all hardware, accessories, plates,
lighting fixtures, and similar items or provide ample
protection of these items.
Secure color schedules for rooms from the architect
before priming the walls. All colors are to be selected
and approved by the architect.
1. Why are building specifica- 0. What kinds of information

1 tween a long form and a short form
tions necessary? may be found in the instructions to detailed specification?
2. What building plans should the bidders? 15. From your own reasoning and
have a set of specifications? 1 1 . From your own reasoning, your study of the sample specifica-
3. Who writes the building spec- why is a contract between the owner tions, why are the detailed specifi-
ifications? Explain. and contractor a necessity when cations subdivided according to the
4. Are printed and bound spec- building even a small home? different trades?
ifications superior to simpler kinds? 12. What are general specifica- 16. From your study of the sam-
Discuss. tions? ple specifications, try writing a spec-
5. What is meant when one 1 3. What are detailed specifica- ification for one of the trades using
says the specifications are legal? tions? a building plan you have developed
6. Explain why some sets of 14. What is the difference be- or one provided by the instructor.
specifications are written to include

much detail and others may contain
only limited information.
7. How may standard printed
specifications be used for different Terms to Spell and Know
buildings?
specifications subcontract
8. What information is to be in-
contract construction schedule
cluded on the title page of the
general specifications short form detailed specifications
specifications?
long form detailed specifications
9. Why is the table of contents
usually quite specific?
542
Estimating
The term estimating is used come proficient at it, one must method-is based upon the small
book to mean an organized
in this be thoroughly familiar with build- home plan is Chapter 39. This
method of determining required ing materials and their costs. One house is 28'-0" x 50'-0", so it has
amounts of materials, labor, or must also be familiar with differ- 1,400 square feet of floor area.
money necessary to construct a ent construction methods and the Observe that the total area is in-
building. labor required. This book can cluded, not just the actual room
Construction estimating can be onl) give a summary to show the areas. If $10.00 per square foot
a full-time occupation. To be- problems of estimating. economy construction is used.
its estimated price $14,000.00.
is
The carport is 15'-0" x 22'-0" so
it has 330 sq. ft. At A the regular

l
Approximate Methods price, which is $2.50 per sq. ft.,
its total price is $825.00. The

pe
There are two quick methods s ft combined cost then is $14,825.00.
of estimating approximate build- Low-cost economy The lot. its preparation, and land-
ing costs. building $10.00 scaping is about 20% of the home
Square foot method. The meth- cost, or $2,965.00, which gives a
od most often used relies upon Good, sturdy combined total cost of $17,790.00.
the number of square feet of floor construction $15.00
area. To find an approximate
Variation of square foot method
building cost, multiply the num- High quality Many appraisal agents use an
ber of square feet by the esti- construction $20.00 extension of this method. They
mated cost per square foot. Of determine a price based upon the
course, the cost per square foot Maximum luxury number of square feet and a na-
varies with the construction meth- features $25.00 tional average price per square
od and degree of luxury desired. foot as scaled earlier. Then, since
To use this method effectively If the building has a basement, building costs vary in different
one must base the square foot garage, or carport with storage localities, they add or deduct the
price upon known local costs for shelter, calculate them at one percentage variance from the
buildings that have used similar fourth the square foot cost used norm. For example, if a city's
construction. for the living area. building costs are 10% above
One might use the following Example: The following esti- the national average, this amount
scale: mating example— using the above must be added to the base price.
543
MDDKtVIMMUINi OT LUfVIDCK I CKIVI9
AD Air-dried. Fac. Factory (lumber). Also Fact, and Fcty.

AST Anti-stain treated. F. G. Flat grain. Also slosh grain and plain sawed.
BIS Beaded one side. Fig. Flooring.
B2S Beaded two sides. f. o. b. Free on board.
bd Board. ft. ... Foot or feet.
bd. ft. Board foot. ft. b. m. Feet board measure.
bdl Bundle. G. R. Grooved roofing,
Bev. Bevelled. hdwd. Hardwood.
81 Bill of Lading. Hrt. Heart.
b. m. Board (foot) measure. KD Kiln-dried. Also K/D.
Btr Better. Ibr. Lumber.
c. i. f Cost, insurance and freight. I. c. I. Less than carload.
c. i. f. e. Cost, insurance, freight and exchange. Igth. Length.
Clg. Ceiling. lin. ft Lineal foot; i. e., 12 inches.
Clr Clear. Also CI. M . . Thousand.

Com Common. M b. m. Thousand (feet) board measure.
CM. ... Center matched; i. e., the tongue and groove joints Merch Merchantable.
are worked along the center of the edges of the Mldg. Molding.
piece. Pat. Pattern,
Csg. Casing. rdm. Random.
Ctg. Crating, Rfg. Roofing.
cu. ft Cubic foot. r. I Random lengths. Also R/L.
•D&CM Dressed (one or two sides) and center matched. S&E Surfaced one side and edge.
•D&M Dressed and matched; i. e., dressed one or two sides S1E Surfaced one edge.
and tongued and grooved on the edges. The match
S2E Surfaced two edges.
may be center or standard.
SIS Surfaced one side.
•D&SM Dressed (one or two sides), standard matched.
S2S Surfaced two sides.
D2S&CM Dressed two sides, center matched.
S1S1E Surfaced one side and one edge.
•D2S&M Dressed two sides and (center or standard) matched.
S2S1E Surfaced two sides and one edge.
D2S&Sm Dressed two sides and standard matched.
S1S2E Surfaced one side and two edges.
Den Dense.
S4S Surfaced four sides.
Dim Dimension.
S2S&CM Surfaced two sides and center matched.
D/Sdg. Drop siding. Also D/S and D. S.
S2S&SM Surfaced two sides and standard matched.
E Edge. Also Ed. and Edg.
S2S&CG2E Surfaced two sides and center grooved two
EB1S Edge bead one side.
Sdg. Siding. Also Sidg. and S/G.
E&CB1S Edge and center bead one side; e., surfaced one or
i.
Sel. Select.
two sides with a longitudinal edge and center bead
on a surfaced face. Also B&CB1S. S. E. Square-edge.
S/lap. Shiplop. Also Ship.
Edge and center bead two sides; e., all four sides
i.
surfaced and with a longitudinal edge and center SM Standard matched.

bead on the two faces. Also B&CB2S. snd. . . . Sound.
E&CV1S Edge and center V one side. Also V&CV1S. sq. Square.
E&CV2S Edge and center V two sides. Also V&CV2S. SE&S Square edge and sound. Also Sq.E&S.
EG Edge Grain. Also VG (Vertical grain), rift-sawed; Std. Standard.
comb grain and quarter-sawed. stnd. Stained.
EM . . End Matched. Str Structural.
EV1S Edge V one side. T&G Tongued and grooved.
exp. Export (lumber or timber) V. G. (See E. G.)
f. a. s wt Weight.
Free along side vessel.
Abbreviation indefinite either as to surfaces dressed to type of matching. Use other abbreviations which are more specific.
Courtesy, Southern Pine Assoac
LUMBER TERMS
BOARDS— Yard lumber less than 2 inches thick and 8 or more bark, which contains living elements, usually lighter in color than
inches wide. Narrower material is usually referred to as "strips." heartwood.
DIMENSION— All yard lumber except boards, strips, and timbers; SOFTWOOD— The group of trees which have needle-like or scale-
that is, yard lumber 2 inches to but not including 5 inches thick, and like leaves, often referred to as conifers. The term softwood has
of any width. no reference to the softness of the wood.
HARDWOOD— The botanical group of trees that are broad-leaved.
STRUCTURAL LUMBER— Lumber that is 2 or more inches thick and
The term has no reference to the actual hardness of the wood. more inches wide, intended
4 or for use where working stresses
SAPWOOD— The outer layers of growth in a tree, exclusive of are required.
544
MENSURATION WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
Area of a square = length x breadth or height. APOTHECARIES WEIGHT 1 metric ton 0.9842 English ton
Area of o rectangle = length x breadth or height. 20 grains 1 scruple 1 ounce 28.35 grams
Area of a triangle = base x Vi attitude. 3 scruples 1 dram 1 pound 0.4536 kilogram
Area of parallelogram = base x altitude. 8 drams 1 ounce 1 English ton 1.0160 metric tons
Area of trapezoid = altitude x Vi the sum of parallel sides. 12 c 1 pound
SQUARE MEASURE
Area of trapezium = divide into two triangles, total their areas. The , i and pound an
in this the
Troy Weight 1 sq. centimeter 0.1550 sq. in.
Circumference of circle = diameter x 3.1416. e as in
0.1076 sq. feet
Circumference of circle = radius x 6 283185 AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT 1 sq. meter 1.196 sq. yds.
Diameter of circle = circumference x .3183. 27 '
Vjj grains I drarr 1 3.954 sq. rods.
Diameter of circle = square root of area x 1.12838. 1 6 drams 1 hectai 2.47 acres
Radius of a circle = circumference x .0159155. 1 sq. kilometer 0.386 sq. mile
Area of o circle = half diameter x half circumference. 25 pounds 1 quarter I sq. inch 6.452 sq. centimeters
= square of diameter x .7854. 4 quarters 1 cwt. 1 sq. foot 9.2903 sq. decimeters
Area of a circle
= 2,000 lbs 1 short ton 1 sq. yard 0.8361 sq. meter
Area of a circle square of circumference x .07958
2,240 lbs. 1 long ton 0.259 acre
Area of a sector of circle = length of arc x Vi radius.
1 acre 0.4047 hectare
Area of o segment of circle — area of sector of equal radius— area of tri- DRY MEASURE sq 2.59 sq. kilometers
angle, when the segment is less, and plus area of triongle, when
segment is greater than the semi-circle. 8 quarts 1 peck
= sum 4 pecks I bushel CUBIC MEASURE
Area of circular ring of the diameter of the two circles x difference
of the diameter of the two circles and that product x .7854. 36 bushels 1 chaldron s 1 cubic foot
wood
Side of square that shall equal area of circle
Side of square that shall equal area of circle
= diameter x .8862.
= circumference x .2821.
LIQUID MEASURE „
27
V"",
cubic feet.
1 corcf
4 gills 1 pint 40 cubic feet 1 ton shpg.

Diameter of circle that shall contain area of a given square = side of square 2 pints quart
I
2,150.42 cu. in. 1 standard bushel
x 1.1284 4 quarts gallon
1
268.8 cu in.
1 standard gallon dry
Side of inscribed equilateral triangle = diameter x .86. 31 V, gallons 1 barrel 231 cu. h . standard gallon liquid
1
Side of inscribed square = diameter x .7071. 2 barrels 1 hogshead 1 cu. ft. about 4/5 of a bushel
Side of inscribed square = circumference x .225. LONG MEASURE 1 Perch A mass 1 6'A ft. long, 1 ft.
Areo of ellipse = product of the two diameters x .7854. high and 1 '/i ft. wide, con-
1 2 inches 1 foot
Area of a parabola = base x 7h of altitude. taining 24V. cu. ft.
3 feet I yard
Areo of a regular polygon = sum of its sides x perpendicular from its center 5'/) yords 1 rod
to one of its sides divided by 2. 40 rods 1 furlong
Surface of cylinder or prism = area of both ends plus length x circumference. 8 furlongs 1 sto. mile
1 decimeter
Surface of sphere = diameter x circumference. 3 miles 1 league
1 meter 1.1 yards
Solidity of sphere = surface x 1/6 diameter. SQUARE MEASURE 1 kilometer Vs of mile
Solidity of sphere = cube of diameter .5236.
x hectare VI, acres
144 sq. inches 1 sq. ft.
1
Solidity of sphere = cube of radius x 4 1888. 9 sq H 1 sq. yard I stere, or c meter '/. of a cord
Solidity of sphere = cube of circumference x .016887. 30V. sq. yds I sq. rod 1 liter
Diameter of sphere = cube root of 1.2407. 40 1 .06 qt liquid or 0.9 qt. dry
solidity x sq. rods 1 rood
hektoliter 2 8 bushels
Diameter of sphere = square root of surface x .56419.
1
4 roods 1 acre
1 kilogram 2.2 pounds
Circumference of sphere = square root of surface x 1.772454 640 acres 1 sq. mile
I metric ton 2,200 pounds
Circumference of sphere = cube root of solidity x 3.8978. SURVEYOR'S MEASURE
Contents of segment of sphere = {height squared plus three times the tquore METRIC EQUIVALENTS-
7.92 inches 1 link
of radius of base) x (height x .5236). LINEAR MEASURE
25 links 1 rod
Contents of a sphere = diameter x .5236. 1 chain 1 centimeter 3937 in.
Side of inscribed cube of sphere = radius K 1.1547. 10 sq. chain s or 160 sq. rods 1 decimeter 3.937 in. or 0.328 ft.
Side of inscribed cube of sphere = square root of diameter.

1 meter 39.37 in. or .0936 yords 1
= 640 acres 1 dekameter .... 1.9884 rods

Surface of pyramid or cone circumference of bose x Vi of the skint height
36 sq. miles or 6 miles sq. 1 kilometer 0.62137 mile
plus area of base.
1 inch 2.54 centimeters
Contents of pyramid or cone = area of bose x Vi altitude 3.048 decimeters
Contents of frustum of pyramid or cone = sum of circumference at both WEIGHTS 0.9144 meter
ends x Vj slant height plus area of both ends. 1 gram 0.03527 ounce 1 rod 0.5028 dekameter
Contents of frustum of pyramid or cone = multiply areas of two ends to- 1 kilogram 2.204622 lbs. 1 mile 1 6093 kilometers
gether and extract square root. Add to this root the two areas x '/» altitude.
Contents of o wedge = area of base Vi altitude. ACREAGE AND AREAS
• Courteiy, A. C Horn Co., Inc
SQUARE TRACTS OF LAND
One Side
Square Tract
FREQUENTLY USED CONVERSIONS 66.0 lin. ft. 4,356 i
73.8 " 5,445

1 Cubic Foot 1 94-Lb. Sock Cement 85.2 " 7,260
1 Cubic Foot 7.48 Gallon* 104.4 " 10,890
1 Cubic Foot 1,728 Cubic Inches 120.5 " 14,520
1 Mile 1,760 Yards 5,280 Feet 147.6 " 21,780
1 Aae 4,840 Sq. Yds. 43,560 Sq. Ft. 180.8 32,670
I Kilowatt 1.34 Horsepower 208.7 " 43,560
I Horsepower 0.746 Kilowatt 255.6 " 65,340
1 Gallon 231 Cubic Inches 295.2 " 87,120
1 Gallon Water 8.35 lbs. 330.0 " 108,900
1 Cubic Foot Woter 62.52 Lbs. 361.5 " 130,680
I Bushel 1.24 Cu. H. 2,150 Cubic Inches 466.7 " 217,800
545
Appraisals are also adjusted to velopments. FHA appraisers look must be based upon known build-
compensate for items that add to for standard qualities. ing costs of similar structures.
the building's value, such as built- Cubic foot method. Another Note: An average cost of $1.75
in kitchen equipment, hot water method of securing a tentative per cu. ft. can be used for pre-
heat, extra fireplace, full insula- estimate is to determine the build- liminary estimation in lieu of an
tion, and many others. In addition ing's cubic foot content and mul- estimate based upon buildings of
to such considerations, appraisals tiply this by an approximate cost similar construction. This rough
of older buildings must also allow per cubic foot. As with the square approximation is suitable only in
for age or for neighborhood de- foot method, the approximation learning how to estimate.
Estimating by Determining Exact Quantities
The most accurate way to esti- vary in different localities, accu- of recording detailed estimates,
mate is to list every item needed. rate results demand they be se- with many variations of each. All
In addition, one must know how cured for a specific locality. Tables labor and materials can be re-
much the actual sizes will vary showing labor requirements are corded in one listing; or material
from the stated dimensions, the available in books or magazines and labor can be compiled into
percentage of each material to be devoted to estimating. Individual separate lists. Sample estimating
allowed for waste, shrinkage, or manufacturers also describe meth- sheets done both ways are shown
cutting. One must also know the ods of estimating materials and here to illustrate what information
unit cost of each item, the num- labor for their products. For your is frequently included and how it
ber of labor hours required for use, if you do not have the infor- is compiled. The first excerpt
installation,and the labor costs mation described above, you may from an estimate combines labor
per hour. One must determine secure building material cata- and materials, while the second
the amount and cost of super- logues from large retail firms, one is for materials only. The
vision and allowances for over- especially those that call them- titles at the top of each sheet
head expenses. After each item is selves discount houses. If these help you identify them. The com-
calculated and recorded, the re- are not available in your locality, pany name and address is usually
sults must be totaled to determine general merchandise firms fre- placed in this location.
their combined costs. quently include building material Quick pre-estimate of labor
To select materials and deter- listings in their catalogues. costs. Since the above method is
mine their cost, use catalogues, Estimating procedure usually so detailed and must rely upon
manufacturers' specifications, and follows or approximates the con- labor tables, an abbreviated form
current price lists. For labor esti- struction sequence. That is, ex- for pre-estimating is handy. It
mating, secure charts and tables cavations are estimated first, then consists of estimating all materials
that show labor requirements for footings, foundation, floor fram- and then doubling the sum to
individual jobs. It is necessary to ing, subfloor, and so on until all compensate for labor. Of course,
know prevailing wage scales for items are calculated. this is not as reliable as estimating
all trades involved. Since they There are two different ways actual labor requirements.
546
52: Estimating
PHEPAIED BT ESTIMATING
APPBOVEO »y MATERIALS & LABOR
UNIT OR COMBINED
NO. QUAN. NAME DESCRIPTION JOB HOURS
MR. WAGE COST COSTS
258 go Machine Excav Hours Req
1/3 .85 12 00 10 20
1
for footing Per 100 Lin Ft

Lin Hd Labor Excav Hours Req.
258 5 12.90 2 50 32 20
Ft for footing Per 100 Lin Ft
Total Footing Excav 42 40
Wood Forms for No Purchase -
footing Use Framing Lumber
Lin Labor for Wood Hours Req
258 Forms Per 100 Lin Ft 2 5.16 2 50 12 90
Ft
Lin Skilled Labor Hours Req. 20 64
258 ||Per 100 fin Ft
2 5.16 4 00
pt Wood Forms
Total Form Labor 33 54
Lin Reinforcing
516 Ft Bars #4 Deformed 11 56 76
Hours Req
Per 100 Lin Ft iA 1.29 2 50 3 63
Total
Rein Mat & Labor 60 39
Lin Cone Footing 8" x 16" 15 00 105 00
206 7 Yd
Ft
Lin Hours Req
206 Ft Labor Per 100 Lin Ft 4 8.24 2 50 20 60
Lin skilled Hours Req 4 00 k 12
206 1/2 1.03
Ft [Labor Per 100 Lin Ft
Total Cone Footing 129 72
Lin
138 Ft Field Tile
Lin Hours Req
138 Ft Labor Per 100 Lin Ft 1 1.38 2 50 3 1*5
Cu
5 Yd Gravel Fill Washed 2 00 10 CO
15 lb Felt Cover Joints 1 00
Labor Hours Req Per Yard iA 1.25 2 50 3 13
Total Found Drain 31 38

Wood Forms for No Purchase
Foundation Use Roof Sheath
sq Labor Hours Req 2 50
390 Ft Per 100 Sq Ft 2 7.80 19 50
390
Sq
Ft
Sq
-. j-.-. j , -u
Skilled
!|Hours Req
Labor L,, 100
j
^n 2 3/4 10.72 It 00 42 98
96 Ft Wood Forms Heat Registers & Furn 25 2k 00

Heat 10.00 4 00 4c 00
Skilled Labor Registers and Planter
126 48
ilCdvID ir
547
PIEPAIID IT ESTIMATING
tPMovEO »r MATERIALS
NO. QUAN. NAME SIZE DESCRIPTION UNIT COST EXTENSION COST
137 Ea Studs 2" x 4" x 8' Outside Walls 15 00 105 46

Lin
4ll Ft Plates 2" x 4" x Outside Walls 15 00 4C 84
144 Ea Studs 2" x 4" x 8 1

Inside Walls 15 00 115 20
Lin
U32 Ft Plates 2" x 4" x Inside Walls 15 00 22 00
Lin
96 Ft Headers 2 x 10 Outside Walls 15 00 24 00
Lin
96 Ft Headers 2x6 15 00 14 40
66 Ea Clg Joists 2" x 6" x 14' 15 00 128 60
1 Ea Porch Post 6" x 6" x 8' Const. Grade 22 00 5 18
2 Ea Beam 2 x 10 x 12" Built Up 16 20 6 48

Lin
44 Ft Ridge Board 2x8 15 00 8 78
66 Ea Rafters 2" x 6" x 18' 16 20 192 46
24 Ea Studs 2" x 4" x 12* 15 00 38 80

Sheathing
2,000 % Roof Sheathing 5/8" x 48" x 96" Grade Plywood 19 380 00
Si
1,096 Ft Wall Sheathing 25/32" x 48" x 96" Fiberboard 13 75 150 70
1 Ea Door Frame 3/0 x 6/8 - 1-3/4 0. S. - Wp. 18 00 18 00
1 Ea Door Frame 2/8 x 6/8 - I-3/8 0. S. - Wp. 17 40 17 40

Lin
160 Ft Fascia 1" x 8" w.P. Rip to size 30 00 32 10
Lin
90 Ft GI Starter Stp 10 9 00
1 Ea Windov #C-13 Single Alum Awning 35 94 35 94
1 Ea Window #C-24 Triple Alum Awning 152 36 152 36
3 Ea Window #C-24 Twin Alum Awning 100 10 300 30
4,000 Ft Rock Lath 3/8 - 16 x 48 6 00 240 00
65 Bags Plaster Lite Mix 1 82 118 30
35 Bags Finish Lime 1 05 36 75
8 Bags Gauging Plast 3 00 24 00
aiciivto ar
548
52: Estimating
1 . What is construction estimat- 1 1 . Describe the cubic-foot ap- is the total cost for machine exca-
ing? proximate method of estimating. vation?
2. Why must one have much 12. Explain difference between 20. How many lineal feet of re-
information to do it? approximate and detailed estimating. inforcing bars are required for the
3. From your own reasoning 1 3. When estimating materials, foundation? What size are they?
can you define when estimating why must one specify a quantity What is their price per foot?
might be a full-time occupation, and larger than needed for the actual 2 1 . How long must one allow for
when it might be only part-time? size of the area involved? installing all foundation reinforcing
4. Since this chapter does not 14. Where may one secure in- bars?
cover the subject fully, explain how formation concerning manufactured 22. What is the unit of measure
to get additional information. products? for purchasing concrete? What is
5. Describe the square-foot ap- 15. Where may one secure data its cost per yard?
proximate method of estimating. pertaining to labor requirements? 23. What are the dimensions of
6. How can one be reasonably 16. How may general merchan- the porch post? What grade mate-
accurate when using this method? dise catalogues be of value when rial is required? What is its cost per
7. Is a garage or carport esti- doing estimating? board foot? How does this compare
mated at the same square foot price 1 7. Describe a logical order for in price with other dimension lumber?
as the rest of the building? From estimating. 24. What is the price of a bag
your own reasoning, why or why not? The following questions are taken of gauging plaster? How much will
8. What is the approximate re- from the sample estimating sheets be needed?
lationship of garage cost to house in the chapter.
cost? 1 8. How much time is required
9. Explain how appraisal agents for machine excavating the footings
elaborate upon the square-foot esti- of this house? How much time is re- construction estimating
mating method. quired for excavating 100 lineal square foot method
10. What other items — in addi- feet? cubic foot method
tion to the cost and number of square 19. What is the hourly cost of appraisal
feet — do they consider? the trencher and its operator? What
549
Method of assembly. Small models may be glued
Larger ones are usually fastened with glue
together.
and modelmakers' pins. Pins permanently secure
parts and also simulate nailing.
Architectural Models
Architectural models are small Roof overhangs, balconies, ter-
scale structures that duplicate races,and similar items help make Presentation Models
features of proposed buildings. appearance more lifelike. Land- Presentation models are the
There are three general types: scape features give the model most appearing of any
realistic
small scale solid models, structural group a finished appearance. type. Therefore all materials se-
models, and presentation models. Solid model scale. The size of lected must be similar in appear-
Each type shows different kinds a proposed building or complex ance to their counterpart.
and amounts of detail. determines model scale. Solid Presentation model scale. Pre-
Models are usually constructed models are seldom larger than sentation models are frequently
prior to the actual building so Vi"=\'-0", and many are '/i6" = built to a scale of Vi"=\'-0" or
final form can be previewed and l'-0" or less. smaller. The appropriate scale is
analyzed before construction be- model base. All parts are

Solid determined by how large the
gins. Models may also be used mounted on a rigid base such as model is to be and the amount
as sales tools for securing an plywood or particle board. This of detail to be included.
architectural commission. holds individual pieces in position
Scope of the Discussion
and makes the assembled unit
Small Scale Solid Models This chapter discusses the plan-
easy to handle. Models are fre-
Small scale solid models show quently attached directly to table ning and procedures necessary for
how a proposed structure will
tops, which can have folding legs constructing one featured model
fit into a total group. They may to make them portable. which is the presentation type
show sections of a city (as an with some structural features
area to be redeveloped), a college Structural models shown. The front, both sides,
campus, a factory complex, or Structural models show fram- and landscaping are done as
similar areas. ing features, and frequently in- presentation. The back portions
Amount of detail. Since solid clude all such building parts. All of the roof, and some interior
models are small they usually in- materials are cut to scale size and finishing materials are omitted
clude only general shapes and assembled in the same order as a to show structural parts.
show little intricate detail. Models full-size building. Like solid The model featured in this
may be rectangular blocks, painted models, these are assembled upon chapter is of the same building
a solid color. Simplified outlines a rigid base. featured in the house plans of
of doors, windows, and other fea- Structural model scale. The this book. It is a split three-level
tures add to their appearance most frequently used scales are home. It is constructed to a scale
and create an 2 "=l'_0" and l" = l'-0".
i/
illustion of reality. of '/2 "=l'-0".
550
Presentation model of a light company
Forest Studios, Park Ridge, Illinois
Residence hall complex, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois
Determining Suitable Base Size Floor finishes are exposed con-

Careful study of the prelimi- crete in the workshop and tile in Note: Floor areas were covered
nary color rendering and the the laundry and recreation rooms. temporarily to prevent damage
working drawings indicate a base To prevent plywood grain pattern during model construction.
size of 36" x 56" as suitable for from showing through the floor
the model and its landscape. finish, poster board that con- The working plans specify con-
formed to lower level outlines crete block for lower level walls,
Location of Model on Base was contact-cemented to the base. covered on the exterior with cut
With the long dimension of All wall outlines were then drawn stone. The plans also show
the base as the front, the model on the poster board. stepped footings and foundations
is centered in this space. However, The workshop floor was painted with stone positioned on the
the back wall is only 5" from the light grey to simulate concrete. steps; to simplify model construc-
rear edge of the base, to permit Latex paint was applied with a tion the stone covering begins
maximum landscaping in the stiff bristled brush for a textured at floor level.
front yard. appearance. Wall heights and lengths were
on the laundry and recrea-
Tile determined from the working
Building the Lower Level tion room floors was painted light plans and individual walls drawn
The lower living level uses the beige. Floor tiles were drawn on heavy illustration board. Open-
plywood base as the house floor; 9" x 9" with a 4H pencil and ings for doors and windows were
therefore no foundations are re- drafting instruments. All floors drawn in their proper location.
quired. Building outlines for this were then sealed with a clear Walls and all openings were then
level are drawn on the plywood. fixative to protect the coating. cut to size.
552
m
tW
were also secured with wood

screws.
floors
553
walls.
mortar joints o. concrete oloc,
shows the scribed and P a,n«ed
This photograph c enlargement
,
Illustration board may be cut cut from basswood, and then on the counter top and a hole
with a knife, paper cutter, or small given a clear finish. Doors may be cut to receive the sink. Next, a
table saw. Since all lower level secured in place with cellophane coppertone laundry sink made of
walls on this model are the same tape or, if a more elaborate ar- sheet metal and paper was glued
height, these were cut quickly on rangement is desired, small hinges into the counter top cutout.
a table saw. Window and door can be used. A washer and dryer were also
openings were cut with a knife. Floor plans of laundry and formed from sheet metal and
One may purchase paper or workshop cabinets were drawn painted coppertone to match the
thin wood with concrete block to a scale of '/4"=l'-0" to serve laundry sink. A backsplash for
pattern printed on it for a dec- as guides for construction. Cabi- the counter top was cut to size
orative wall finish. However, for net bases were cut from birch and all edges filed and sanded.
a more realistic appearance, mor- lumber. All cabinets were made Cabinets and equipment were
tar joints on this model were cut in sections so toe boards could then glued into position.
into the illustration board. This be easily cut on each base. The work bench and its wood
produced a shadow line effect Finishing procedures for lower top were completed in the same
similar to actual concrete block level cabinet work and furnace manner described above.
walls. room doors required much pa-
Each wall was given a coat of
Close study of the accompany-
tience. After all items had been
sealer to prevent paint absorption.
ing photographs will show each
sanded, sealed, and sanded again,
detail described.
All lower level walls were the toe boards were painted black.
painted with light green latex Next, outlines for all doors and
paint to blend with the overall Middle Level Floors
drawers were drawn in pencil
color scheme. Before assembling on cabinet faces. Stiles, rails, and This house was designed to be
the model, fine dark green lines louvers were then drawn on fur- built upon a hill, so the second
were drawn in each mortar joint nace room doors. To make frame- level is approximately 4' above
to further emphasize the shadow work more clearly defined, all the lower one. This is shown on
effect. Note the effect in the pho- faces were masked so only frames the right half of the working plans.
tograph of the block walls. were exposed. These were then Floor outlines for this level
Using outlines previously sprayed with color tinted clear were drawn on W plywood and
drawn on the floor, all walls were lacquer. Masking was removed cut to size. "Lumber" strips rep-
glued to it and to each other. All and all exposed parts given a resenting the foundation walls
wall intersections were secured clear, three-coat finish. were ripped to width to bring
with modelmakers' pins to hold Modelmakers' pins were used floors to the proper height. These
them in position while the glue as door and drawer hardware to were cut to proper lengths and
was drying. give the cabinets a realistic fastened to the floor. The entire
After assembly, all exposed appearance. unit was then fastened to the
surfaces were given an additional Since the laundry sink required original base.
coat of latex paint for a final fitting into the counter top and Floor coverings for each room
finish. cabinet, the cabinet interior was on this level were selected. Hard
Door and window frames for cut away to accommodate it. surfaced floors in the powder
the lower level were constructed Outlines of the laundry room room, foyer, kitchen, and bath-
of basswood and glued in place. counter top were drawn on pat- room are composition tile. A
(More information concerning terned plastic laminate and cut small mosaic pattern was used in
doors and windows will be given to size. All exposed edges were the kitchen and bathroom, and a
later). Doors were fitted for all filed and sanded smooth fin-
to a pebbled pattern was used in the
required openings. These were ish. The sink cutout was drawn powder room. These finished
554
Floor framing is secured to lower level walls.
floors were cut to shape and ce- manner as for the middle level sills were glued into shape. These
mented to the raised plywood floors. parts were held together with tape
base. Since part of the foundation while the glue was drying. After
Slate floors for the foyer and wall is above grade level and all removing the tape, the box sills
fireplace hearth were cut from of the garage floor is visible, these were temporarily pinned to the
embossed vinyl asbestos tile. In- were painted light grey to match floor framing diagram so other
dividual stone shapes and mortar those done earlier. structural parts could be posi-
joints were cut into the surface tioned and secured to them. In-
Upper Level Floors
and filled with light grey paint. terior wall plates were cut to
For color variation, some stones A floor framing diagram of the length and pinned to the framing
were tinted slightly different upper was drawn on paper
level
diagram. Next, all floor joists were
tones. This color variation can be W'= l'-0" and taped
to a scale of
cut to length and glued and
to a plywood work surface. The
seen in the early model photo- pinned to the box sills and wall
framing diagram was covered Naturally, spacing con-
graphs. plates.
with transparent plastic film to
formed to the framing diagram.
Garage and Walk Level protect it while gluing framing
Next, floor bridging was cut to
The garage floor and outside members together.
size, glued and pinned in place.
front walk of the actual structure Box sills. Box sills, consisting of
The entire floor framing system
are 4" lower than the kitchen bed plates and headers, were the was then removed from the dia-
floor. Bases for these were con- first floor framing members gram and glued and pinned to
structed and fastened to the origi- needed, so small scale lumber
lower level walls. See the illustra-
nal plywood base in the same was cut to length and the box tion above.
555
Cutouts in the plywood subfloor permit one to view floor framing construction.
Subfloor. The subfloor for this unit was then glued and pinned ding could be aligned. However,
level is constructed of %"x48"x96" to the floor framing. walls and gables were constructed
plywood panels. To simulate full- independently as an aid to con-
Determining Wall System to Use
size panels, these were cut to scale struction. Each diagram indicated
from birch veneer. All panels
On this model all walls indi-
studding placement, splices in
cated on the plans as "frame"
were contact-cemented to the sole and top plates, plus all double
were constructed as the plans
floor framing diagram. This made framing at doors and windows.
prescribed. However, this is not
the entire subfloor a one-piece
always necessary. Other wall ma-
unit for easier handling. All panels
terminate above joists, with no
terials, such as sheathing, and Building Frame Walls
two adjoining ones ending on the
interior wall coverings may ob-
Each model wall was con-
scure the framework; so presenta-
same joist, as on a full-size structed individually as on an
tion models that do not show
building. actual building and then set or
Outlines of upper level walls
structural parts are most easily
"raised" into position and secured
constructed with solid walls.
were drawn on the finished sub- to the floor and other walls.
floor. Lines for the cutaway sec- Wall Framing Diagrams
Framing diagrams were fas-
tions, to permit viewing the lower The model featured in this tened to a plywood work surface
level were also drawn in. Subfloor chapter required separate fram- and then covered with transparent
cutouts were made on a jigsaw. ing diagrams for each wall. Walls plastic film. Walls were tempo-
Next, the entire subfloor was then with gable ends above them were rarily attached to these during
sanded and sealed. This finished drawn as one single unit so stud- assembly.
556
I
/
/
All floor and wall framing required framing diagrams.
557
This model wall is an exact duplicate of the framing diagram.

Straightedges about Vk," thick, ings to complete the frame wall. sparingly to the outside face of
W wide, and slightly longer than After the glue had dried, all pins one wall frame and lay the sheath-
the wall being framed were fas- were removed, excess glue ing in its proper location. Place
tened above and below the dia- trimmed away, and the completed the sheathed wall on a flat surface
gram to hold plates and studding wall frame put aside for future and put another flat surface over
in alignment while gluing. The use. Caution: Do not remove it. (Scrap plywood or a large book
upper top plate was not fastened the bottom plate at the door open- works well.) Apply sufficient
to the wall at this time so wall ings until the walls are set in weight to press all parts into con-
corners could be lapped to place. This plate gives the wall and permit
tie tact to remain in this
adjoining ones together. rigidity while applying interior position until the glue is dry.
Before construction began, all and exterior coverings. Continue applying sheathing to
small scale framing lumber was Wall Sheathing walls until all those requiring
cut to proper length, sealed, and For display purposes, some it have been completed. Then
sanded. model walls show exposed sheath- make all necessary cutouts for
Note: Before constructing ing. The rear wall on this model door, window, or other openings.
model walls, review information does not require sheathing since
Interior Wall Coverings
on wall framing, as corner stud- only structural parts are to be
ding, wall intersections, window After selecting interior wall
shown. All other walls are cov-
openings, or door openings. Con- coverings, they are cut and ap-
ered on the outside with heavy
sult the Index for reference to black paper to simulate wall
plied in same manner as
the
appropriate pages. sheathing.
sheathing. Most walls on the mid-
Assembling frame walls. Sole From the working plans, cal-
dle and upper levels of the model
plate and lower top plate mem- were covered to simulate plaster;
culate the exact height and
bers were positioned onto the length of each wall that requires a lightweight cardboard was used.
framing diagram and pinned to sheathing. Then check the mea- Three walls on the lower level
the plywood work surface and surements of the small scale walls required wood paneling; this was
straightedges described earlier. cut from walnut veneer. Veneers
just assembled and compare them
Built-up corner studs were pre- with the working drawings. were measured, cut, and fitted to
If
assembled and secured in their each wall. Then they were glued
discrepancies exist between the
proper locations. Studs for wall in place and weights applied to
stated and actual sizes, make the
intersections were then con- insure perfect contact at all points.
necessary corrections. Using
structed and added where re- After the glue had dried, door
drafting instruments and proper
quired. Headers were placed and window openings were cut
techniques, draw the outlines of
above all door, window, or other out as described for sheathing
each sheathed wall onto the black
openings and glued to the top openings.
paper and cut to size. Note: Do
plate. Double studding was then not cut door or window outlines Cased Openings
positioned, glued, and pinned until after all sheathing is glued Door and window jambs were
in place to complete rough to the wall frame. Sheathing will
cut to size, finish applied, and
openings. conform more closely to framed then glued into their openings.
Studding locations shown on openings if cut with a knife after
the diagram that were not oc- the sheathing is applied. Wall Installation
cupied by corner studs, wall in- Before gluing the sheathing to Individual walls, complete with
tersections, or framed openings the wall frame, pin the upper top their coverings appliedand all
were filled in with single studs and plates temporarily in place so door and window trim installed,
secured in place. Crippled studs sheathing can be aligned with were then glued and pinned to
were added below window open- their upper edges. Apply glue the subfloor and to each other.
558
After wall frames were assembled they were covered with sheathing and exposed coverings.
559
A center bearing wall, with a "let-in" ribbon across the studs, supports ceiling joists and roof rafters.
(Hi
--:
Wj
K
ZTntT^^
ll iliU3
:
™«!»*
1
î^r 1^^
i
hû^
Gable framing and roof trusses, a part of wall installation, bring the model one step closer to
completion.
Walls were permitted to remain upper level stairs require carpet, walls. Soffits above the mirrors
undisturbed until the glue was both were formed of lightweight were fashioned from cardboard
thoroughly cured. Wall intersec- cardboard rather than wood. All and pre-painted before installa-
tions required additional finishing risers and treads were made from tion. Joints at wall intersections
to achieve a smooth appearance; one cardboard section. Lines were were filled and smoothed with
so all joints were filled and scored with a knife to aid in plastic putty. The soffits and put-
smoothed with white plastic putty. bending the steps to shape. tied areas were then painted to
Closet were fitted and
shelves Formed risers and treads were match existing surfaces.
glued in place. Walls were masked glued to a rigid backing to hold Water closets and the bathtub
along all floors and around door their shapes. Lower level ones were shaped from potters' clay
and window trim to minimize were painted concrete color while and finished with colored lacquer.
painting effort. Each wall was upper level stairs were completed They were glued in place.
given three coats of colored latex by contact-cementing carpet to all
Fireplace and Chimney
paint. were then
Sliding doors steps. Each stairway was then
glued in place and hinged doors Fireplace and chimney parts
glued into its stairwell.
were hung in their openings with were shaped from heavyweight
Bathroom Fixtures illustration board and glued into
transparent tape. Doors were left
partially open and tape applied Bathroom cabinets and counter a finished rectangular unit. The
to the face of each door and to tops were constructed in the
same fireplace interior was painted
the door jambs.

manner as those for the laundry black to simulate a used appear-
room. After completion they were ance.
Stairways glued in place. Mirrors behind All exposed surfaces were to
Since the stairway to the lower the lavatory cabinets were cut to simulate cut stone. Each surface
level simulates concrete while size and contact-cemented to the was coated with contact cement
560
53: Architectural Models
and covered with W of plastic joists were then cut to size, glued, are smaller than those on the ply-
putty. Stone outlines were cut into and pinned in their proper wood to permit gluing of roof
the surfaces while the putty was locations. framing.
still Stone surfaces were
pliable. To frame the left-hand or
Exterior Stone Walls
then painted with a solid color smaller roof, a ridge board was
Exterior wall surfaces requir-
latex paint to give a uniform back- first fastened across the plywood
ing stone veneer were first cov-
ground color. Mortar joints were cutout. Rafter spacing was laid
ered with heavyweight illustration
painted a contrasting color. Tints out on the board, and this same
board to give a smooth joint free
of different colors were brushed spacing was duplicated along
surface. They were then finished
onto individual stones to give var- the lower roof edge. Rafters were
with contact cement, plastic putty,
iation in appearance of cut stone. cut and conform to the
fitted to
and fixative, as described for the
The entire chimney was sprayed spacing, then glued and pinned
chimney.
with fixative. in place. The entire unit was glued
The chimney cap was shaped Windows, Doors, and to the model walls. While drying,
from potters' clay and glued onto Exterior Trim weights were applied to insure
the chimney. Cardboard flue lin- perfect contact of all parts.
Clear plexiglass was fitted and
ers were constructed, painted, and
glued into window openings. The A plywood and cardboard
glued to the chimney cap. The roof, as described earlier, com-
garage door and other exterior
completed chimney unit was then doors were fitted, painted, and
plete with cutout spaces, was con-
glued to the house floor and to structed and glued over the rest
glued in place. Remaining win-
an adjoining wall.
dow and door trim and all sills
of the model. Girders and headers
Kitchen Equipment were then fitted and glued in
were constructed and installed as
place.
shown on the roof framing dia-
All kitchen cabinets were
gram. Individual rafters were cut
shaped from solid walnut to match Roof Construction and fitted to their proper locations.
wall paneling previously installed.
All garage roof trusses were Garage roof truss spacing was
Finishing procedures, counter top
pre-assembled, using the working marked on the roof surface; then
construction, and installation
plans as a guide. Each truss was pre-assembled trusses were cut
were done the same way as for
constructed from the same dia- and fitted into the plywood open-
laundry room cabinets. All soffits
gram so that all parts would be ing. Each truss was glued and
were pre-assembled and installed
identical. pinned in place.
at the same time as other cabinet
The basic roof structure con- Cardboard roof surfaces meet-
parts. The range hood was made ply-
sists of two pieces of A" l
fir ing at the ridge were filled and
entirely of cardboard. Rectangles
wood. These were cut to conform smoothed with plastic putty to
representing the oven, surface
to the overall roof shape and obscure the joint. The entire roof
unit, and refrigerator were also
serve as the finished lower face surface was given two coats of
cut from lightweight cardboard.
of the overhang. Most of the ply- colored latex paint.
Each item was coated with colored
wood over the house itself was The painted roof surface was
lacquer. Outlines for doors, mold-
cut away to reveal structural coated with clear adhesive and
ings, and surface unit burners
framing. (The roof cutouts are small crushed-stone chips sprin-
were drawn with India ink. Each
shown in photographs of the com- kled onto it. After brushing the
completed item was then glued
pleted model.) The plywood was excess stone from the dry roof
into the finished cabinet work.
then covered on the top face with surface, all exposed framing mem-
Ceiling Joists thin cardboard to serve as a bers were covered with masking
Ceiling joist spacing was laid smooth base for the roof covering. tape. The stone roof was then
out on the top wall plates. All Note: Cutouts in the cardboard sprayed with colored lacquer.
561
Part Three: From Ideas fo Reality
This lacquer is tinted to match

the base coat color. This final coat The Entourage
also serves as a sealer and affords
additional durability. Early model photographs show to the foundation walls and to
the foundation walls protruding the finishing boards around the
Painting Fascia and Exterior Trim
above the plywood base. The fin- plywood base. Two wood strips
To complete the model, two
%" thick were shaped to the drive-
ished grade had to be raised to
coats of latex paint were applied
conform to the level shown on the way contour but were cut V\t"
to the fascia, soffit, and all ex-
working plans. less than the total finished height.
terior wood trim.
The rear terrace and all side- A line was drawn down the center
The Base walks were raised to their proper of the strip so the middle could
A wood frame conforming to levels by building a wood frame- be aligned with the driveway
the land contour as described in work and covering it
for this use edge. This alignment also per-
the working plans was cut, fitted, with plywood and cardboard as mitted the strips to serve as a
and fastened around the plywood described for the garage and mid- solidedge for the lawn. Driveway
base. The frame was then sanded, dle level floors. width and length were drawn on
sealed, and coated with clear Wood nailer strips conforming Vt" untempered hardboard and
finishing materials. to the finished grade were fastened the piece cut to size. A cardboard
Views of the finished model with entourage. (Also see next page.)
53: Architectural Models
finishing surface was cut and contact with the nailer strips. A paint was dry, the area was coated
contact-cemented to the hard- thin coating of plaster was ap- with clear adhesive and model-
board base. plied to the screen. When dry, makers' grass sprinkled on. For
The driveway, terrace, and a second thin coatingwas applied. greater coverage and a more life-
walks were painted light grey to Note: Papier mache or other like appearance, a second coat of
match other concrete surfaces. wet covering materials may also adhesive and grass was applied.
Screen wire was cut and stapled be used and still maintain the Trees, shrubs, flowers, and
to the nailer strips to cover the same finished appearance. Since automobiles were purchased from
entire lawn. The staples were plaster is porous, the entire lawn a hobby shop (in kit form), as-
driven about %" apart to prevent surface was coated with sealer. It sembled, and fastened in their
buckling and to hold the screen in was then painted green. When the appropriate positions.
563
1 1
INDEX
Beam Chimney
plywood box, 84, 85 cap, 221
Abstract, 14 sizes (table), 129, 130 corbel, 225
Adjustable triangle, 31 supports, steel posts, 61 elevation, 479
Adulterants, 44 Beam compass, 319, 323 prefabricated, 219
Aggregate, exposed, 30 Beauty and design, elements of, Chimneys and fireplaces, 219
Aggregates, lightweight, 26 249-252 Churches, 295
Airbrush, 385 Bed plate, 71 Circuit requirements, 186
Air conditioning, central, window, Bedrock, 22 Client's financial ability, 256
216 Bedroom requirements, 268 Climate control, 202-218
Aligned dimensioning, 426, 427 Bench mark (See Grade line) Closet
American Standard I Beams, 55 Bevel siding, 235, 236 requirements for FHA, 264, 268
Ammonia vapor machines, 529 "Bird's mouth," 107 section, 484
Ampere, 184 Bituminous fiber, 43 Cloth, tracing, 330
Angles Blocks, concrete (illustration) 32, 33
, Codes, building, 15
equal, elements of (table), 64 528
Blueprints, Column caps, 63
unequal, elements of (table), 65 Boards and battens, 237 Columns as beam supports, 61, 62
Arch, three-hinged, 132 Bond beams, 92, 93 Communities, kinds of, 293
Architect, the, 244-246 Bonds for brick, 95, 96 Community factors to be considered,
duties, 245 Bow compass, 319 293-297

training, 244 Box cornice (See Closed cornice) Compass
Architect's scales, 317 Box sill, 71 beam, 319, 323
Architectural beauty, 248 Brick, 94-96 bow, 319
335-341
lettering, mold, 163 combination, 319
symbols, 403-419 Bridging-spacing (chart), 69 horn, 319
Architecture, three obligations of, 248 British thermal units (BTU), 21 Concrete, 26-35
Areaways, drawing, 44, 457 Building blocks, 34
Art gum erasers, 322 code, 15 (illustrations), 32, 33
Ash chamber, fireplace, 222 material sizes, 137 expansion joints, 30

Ashlar, 98 paper, 119 floors, crawl spaces for pipes, 52
Atrium, 255 plans, organization of, 457-461 monolithic beam and floor, 50
Attic span, 105, 107 suspended, 49-52
opening framing, 104 stone, 96-98 ingredients of, 26
section, 484 mixing and pouring, 29-31
roof, advantage of, 116
slab, definition of, 47
B surfaces, 30
"C" factor, 211 temperature, 26
Backfill, 22
Cabinet drawing, 357 Conduit, 186
Balloon framing, 71, 72, 84
Cap, chimney, 221 Cone of vision, 360
Balusters, 171
Casing, 153, 163 Contour lines, 18
Banister, 171
Ceiling joists Conversion tables, 441, 545
Base blocks, 84
and fascia, relationship of, 229 Coping, 99
Basements, 285, 286
Bathrooms, 269-273 and roof construction, 101-115 Copper roofing (See Roofing)
484 plans for, 469 Corbel, chimney, 225
cabinets, section, 271,
sizes and spacing (chart), 103 Corner bracing, 84
doors, 270
spacing, 104 Cornice, 226, 228, 230
floors, 273
splices, 102 Cove siding, 237
size and number of, 269
Cement (See Concrete) Crack method, 213
Bathtubs, 271
Channels— American Standard Crawl space, 52
Batter board, 20
(chart), 67 Crippled studs, 84
Battered stone foundation, 42, 43
565
1 1 1
General Architectural Drafting
Curtain wall, 135, 141 Door types (continued) Electrostatic copying machines, 531
(illustration), 142 entrance, 155 Elevations, 343
Curved surfaces, projections of, 346 exterior,147 above sea level, 465
folding, 150 dimensioning notes, 436
garage, 155 drawing, 477
hinged, 147 indicators, 469
Damper, fireplace, 223 hollow core, 145, 146 interior, 486, 487
Damp-proofing, 94 interior, 147, 434 End-matched lumber, 117
Deed, 15 solid core, 145, 146 Engine divided scale, 318
Dehumidification, 217 special-purpose, 151 Entries and halls, 263
Den or study requirements, 267 Downspouts, 232 Erasers, 322
Design Drafter, the, 247 Erasing shield, 322
applications of, 252-255 Drafting Estimating, 543-549
flexibility of, 254, 255 instruments, 310, 319 approximate methods, 543
for today's living, 248-260 machines, 3 1 by determining exact quantities,
temperatures, 213 mediums, 330-334 546
Dimensioning tools and techniques for developing materials and labor (sample), 547
angles, 430 skill, 308-329 square foot method, 543
arrows, 425 Drain tile, 43 Excavating, 22, 23
chimney, 436 Drawing Expansion joints, concrete, 30
circles, 428, 429 aids, 322 Extension and construction lines, 420
detail, 423, 438 basement or footing and Exterior
electrical plans, 437 foundation^ plans, 472-476 planning the, 258, 259
elevations, 48 beginning, 314-317 trim, 153
equipment, 434 building sections, 483-485 wall coverings, 259
footing foundations and special elevation details, 486, 487 Eye level, 361,362
details, 436 checklist, 481,482
leaders and notes, 430 exterior, 477-482
lines outside, 433 floor plans, 466-47
location of, 423 framing plans, 488-491 Face brick, 89, 94
rules, application of, 432 pad, 309 fireplace, position of, 223
systems, 426 paper, 330 Facing
unidirectional, 426,427 paper borders, 457 masonry, 90
window, door and sill, 436 size, 457 stone, 98
windows and doors, 432 trim line, 457 Fascia, 227, 228
Dining room requirements, 265 pencils and lead holders, 313 Federal Housing Administration, IS
Direct copying, 531 pictorial, 354-376 Fees, architect's, 245

Dividers, 320 plot plans, 462-465 Fiber glass bathtub, 271
Door printed borders and titles, 331 Fieldstone (See Rubble)
applications, 147 reproduction of, 528-533 Filler strips, 278
classification of, 145 tables and boards, 309 Film, tracing, 330
interior, 434 titles and title blocks, 458 Fireplaces, 222-225
jamb, 151 Drip cap, 153, 163 flues, effects of (diagram), 224
pocket, 148, 149 Drop siding, 237 opening and liner dimensions
sills, 153, 154 (table), 223
sizes, 146 section, 484
swing, 147 Fire protection, 294
symbols, 412, 413 Earth base, prepared, 47 Firestop and nailers, 84
Door and window Electrical Flashing, 92, 123, 124, 221
line,480 abbreviations, 185 Flat wash, 379-381
section, 484 plans, 191, 192 Floor joists, 73-78
Door types requirements, 184-193 framing, 488
bi-fold,150 symbols, 417-419, 434 supports, 473
bypass sliding, 147 Electricity, distribution, 185 Floor plans
double-action hinged, 148, 149 Electric service, 184 bathroom, 468
566
1
Index
Floor Plans (continued)

Housed stringer, 169
chimney of fireplace, 467 Humidity control, 217
cutting planes, 470 Gable and overhang, 230
defined, 466 Gang boxes, 187
development of (illustration), 253 Garage or carport, 285, 286 I
scale,466 Girder (See Post-and-beam)

I beam
symbols, 469 Glass
kinds and uses of, 55-69
utility or laundry rooms, 468 block, 166
shape, 127
Flue liners, 219 installation, 163
size factors that influence, 53
Footing insulating, standard size (chart),
utilities, provisions for, 133
foundation and reinforcement, 41 165 weight calculation sample, 58
definition of, 36 patterned, 166
Illustration board, 332
requirements of, 36, 37 structural, 166 India ink, 387
shapes, 37-39 Glazed brick, 94 Ink erasers, 322
(illustrations), 38, 39 Grade line, 18
Insulating glass, 164
Footings, 22 Grade, wood parts, height above, 45 Insulation, 179-183
foundations, 36-46 Granite, 96
Interior elevation, outline, 487
in elevations, 478 Greek golden rectangle, 249 Intermediate grid (See Paper grid)
Forms, 27 Grey glass, 164 Isometric
Foundations, 40-45 Ground line, 362 arcs and circles, 355
anchor 45
bolts, Guide lines, 316 directions for drawing, 355, 356
battered, 42, 43 Gutters, 232
axes, 354
bituminous fiber, 43 downspouts, 480 curved lines, 356
brick, concrete block, stone, 42 drawing, 354
definition of, 36
wall materials, 41
H
waterproofing foundation walls, 44 "H" 69
joists,
Foyer, 264 Half-bath, 269 "J" joists, 69

Frame wall construction, 79-87 Halls, 258 Jamb
Framing, 74 dimensioning, 434 head (See Door jamb)
attic, 104 Header, 71,84 width, 152
balloon, 71, 72, 84 courses, 88 Joining inside and outside walls,
diagrams, 85 Head jamb (See Door jamb) 82,83
wall, 490 Hearth, fireplace, 222 Joists
gable (illustration), 105 Heat bar, 69
fiat roof (illustration), 108 distribution methods, 202 ceiling,102-104
floor, 71 lossand gain, 211-215 lapped and spiked ceiling, 102
for masonry, 77 methods of transfer, 179 precast, 50
ladder (illustration), 105 Heating spacing, 69
longitudinal, 126 circuit, 207 steel (illustrations), 48
plan, ceiling joists, 488 conduction, 179, 211
drawing, 488-491 ducting, 204
ducts and registers symbols, 417
K
floor, 488
platform, 71 duct work (illustration), 205 Kilowatt, 184
roof lookout, 230 hydronic, 206 King-post truss, 114
systems, 126 infiltration, 212 Kitchen, 274-284
western floor, 7 radiation, 179 appliances, traditional, 277
requirements, 210 equipment, plans for, 468
Frieze board, 230
source, shown in floor plans, 469 designing, 278
Frisket, 386
systems, 203, 206-209 layouts, 274-276
Frost line (depths), 40
Home, areas of— private, public,
Furnace capacities and sizes work, 257
(table), 215 Horizon, 360
Furniture, sizes and illustrations, Horizontal siding, 235, 237 "L" stairs, 171, 172
289-292 Hose bib, 195 Laid-on color, 382
567
Genera/ Architectural Drafting
Landing, stair, 176 Louvers, 230 N

Landscape (illustrations), 16, 17 Low voltage systems, 191
requirements, 300 Lumber Nailers for soffit materials, 228
Lap siding, 235 strength and span (chart), 75 Nailer strip, 228
Leaders or downspouts, 232 terms, abbreviations of, 544 Newel post, 171
314 North point indicators, 438, 465

Lead holders,
Legal description (See Property Nosing, 170
boundaries) M
Lettering, 335-338
floor plan, 469 Major and minor modules, 137
plot plan, 465 Major grid (See Paper grid) Oakum, 166
"Letting in," 71 Marble, 96 Object lines, 467
Lighting Masonry Oblique drawing, 356
fixtures (illustration), 190 construction, 88 Offset cutting plane, 351
requirements, 187 fireplace (illustration), 220 Ohm, 184

shown in floor plans, 468 materials, 88 One-point perspective, 375, 376
special requirements, 191 with clay flue chimney lining, 219 Opaque, 383
Lightweight aggregates for floor and (illustrations), 221 Open cornice, 226
roof construction, 52 veneer, 90 "Organic" architecture, 258
Limestone, 96 walls, weep holes, 91 Orthographic projection, 342
Line wall construction, 88-99 Outlet
ceiling, 478 thickness and height, 91 boxes, 186
construction, 317 Master builder, 244 requirements, 187
contour, 464 Materials, estimating of (sample), Overlays, 326
cutting plane, 434 548
dimension, 422 Matte
direction, 316 board, 333
extension, 346, 421 surface, 331 Panel doors (See Door
floor, 478 Measuring line, 360 classifications)
grade, 18, 478 of rafter, 107 Paper and pencil handling, 312-314
ground, 362 Mechanical plans, outline for, 495, Paper, drafting, 330-332
measuring, 360 496 Parallel ruling straightedges, 312
object, for walls and sills, 480 Mensuration table, 545 Parapet, 99
picture plane, 359 Metric house plans, 442-454 Parging, 91
types and weights (illustration), Metric measurement, 439-441 Parks, recreation, culture, 295
315 Microfilm, 532 Pencil, 314
314
weights, Model assembly, presentation, erasers, 322
window and door, 480 550-563 Perspective
Lines Models, architecture, 550-563 drawing, 357
foreshortened, 344 Modular office method, 357
guide, 316 construction, 135-144 one-point, 375, 376
hidden edge, 346 components, 135 two-point, 358-375
non-isometric, 354 "filler" panels, 139 Photo-copying, 531
Lintel standardization, 136 Pictorial drawings, 354-376
blocks, 93 coordination, 137 Picture plane line, 359
(illustrations), 33 design and drafting, 143 Pilasters, 41
code and schedule, 433 house elements (illustration), 138 drawing of, 473
definition of, 93 panels, 81 Pipe, 63
fireplace, 223 window panel construction steel filled with concrete, 63
size, 67 (illustration), 140 Pipe columns, standard steel
spans, 64 Module, major, minor, 137 (chart), 62
Live load, 67 Mortar joints, 99 Pitch, 108
Living room requirements, 265 Mullions, 162 Plan
Load table, 55 Multi-purpose rooms, 284 binding, 460
Local ordinances, 15 Muntins, 162 electrical, 492
568
1
Index
Plan (continued) Polymer plastic, 383 Rendering (continued)

plot, 462 Post points of consideration, airbrush,
plumbing, 493 kinds of steel, 63 386
Planes plank and beam construction, procedure, 393
cutting,350 126-134 Resolved sections, 366
horizontal andvertical, 359 wood, 126 Reversed axes, isometric, 369
Planned obsolescence, 277 Post-and-beam, 101 Ribbon, 71
Planning, considerations of, 256 Poster Rigid insulation, 180
Plans board, 332 Rise, 108, 170, 175
arrangement of, 459 paint, 383 Riser, stair, 170
complete house, 442-454 Prefabricated metal showers, 272 Risers, water pipes, 195
heating and air conditioning, 494 Prefabrication, 135 Roof
mechanical, 492-496 Preservatives for floor framing, 72 coverings, 1 19
working plans for a contemporary Printing on anything, 531 decking, 131
home, 497-527 Prints elevation, hip, 479
basement plan, 502 originals, storage of, 532 elevations, 478
door schedule, 503 semi-dry, 528 gable, 478, 479
electrical floor plan, 506, 507 sepia masters, 530 framing, 101-104, 488
elevations, 518-520, 522-524 Projection lookout, 230
fireplace detail, 526 method of, 343 plank and beam (illustration),
floor plan, 504, 505 problems of,342 489
footing and foundation plan, Property boundaries, 14 gable, 105
500, 501 Proportional dividers, 320 gypsum, advantages of, 116
front elevation, 508, 509 Protractor, 319 overhang and exterior trim,
kitchen ceiling and soffit Purlins, 132 226-233
molding detail, 521 Pythagorean theorem, 20 plank insulation, 3 1 1
left 509
elevation, requirements (chart), 118
lintel schedule, 503 shapes (illustration), 106
outdoor fireplace and patio sheathing, definition of, 116
detail, 516 slope, 126, 258, 259
plot plan, 499 Rafter trusses, 101, 113
rear elevation, 508 angle, 108 types, 105-110
removable fire plan detail, 517 molding for fly, 230 wood shingles, 121
right elevation, 509 run, 107 Roofing, 116-125
roof framing diagram, 510, 51 (chart), 112 aluminum shingles, 122
roof truss, 527 Rafters, 104 asphalt 120
roll,
stair detail, 527 sizes and spacing (chart), 10 1 built-up, 116, 119
typical closet detail, 521 sizes and spacing for low slope clay tile, 121
wall sections, 512-515 (chart), 109 corrugated or ribbed, galvanized,
window schedule, 502 span, 107 122
Plaster, sprayed, 1 82 conversion (chart), 111 slate, 121
Plastic film negative, 530 tail, 107, 226 translucent panels, 123
Plate glass, polished, 166 Rail, stair, 171,176 Room-by-room planning, 263-288
Platform (See L stairs)
stairs Receptacle outlets, 187 Rooms and spaces, names of, 434
Plot plan, 18, 19 Reflective insulation, 181 Rubber stamps, 327
information given on, 465 Reinforcement (concrete slabs), 47 Rubble, 96
shape, 462 Reinforcing Run, 107, 170, 175
Plot plans, 302-305 bar size (chart), 55 Rural community, 293
Plumbing, 194-201 concrete, 27, 28
absorption trench, 199, 200 Relative humidity, 217
drawing, 474 Rendering, 377
percolation test, 199 applique, 392 Saddle, chimney, 221
symbols, 414, 415 charcoal and pastel, 391 Safety glass, 166
Plywood box beam, 84, 85 details of, 393-400 Sandstone, 96
siding, 238 pencil, 391 Scab, 102
569
1 1
Scale Specifications (continued) Tile facing, 98

building sections, 483 short form, 535-541 Top plate, 81
318
flat, general coverage, 534, 535 Top soil, 22
"open divided," 318 Sprayed plaster (See Plaster, sprayed) Tracing paper, 330
reading of architect's, 317 Stairs Traffic pattern, 257
Schedules, 459, 460 "L", 171 Transom, 151
Schools, 295 "U", 173 Transportation, 294
Scratch board (See Rendering) framing, 169-178 Transverse framing, 126
Screeding, 31 headroom, 176 Trap, 196
shaded, 352 main, 175 Tread, 170
Section of land, 14 service or basement, 175 Treads and risers, number and size,
Sections, 350-353 shown in floor plans, 467 176
broken, 351 string, open and closed, 171 Trees and shrubs, growth pattern of
lines, 353 structural details, 175 (illustrations), 499
350
pictorial, winders, 174 Triangle
Semi-dry print, 528 Stairwell section, 484 adjustable, 3 1
Sepia masters prints, 530 Staking out, 20 holding of, 314

Septic systems, 98 1 Station point, 360 Triangular scale, 317
Service companies, public, 293 Stone, purchasing, 98 Trim, doors, 153
S4S, 117 Stores and shopping centers, 294 Truss spacing, 114
Shakes, wood, 121 Stories, number 256
of, T-square, blade, head, 310
Sheathing Stratified stone (See Rubble) holding, 314
concrete of gypsum base, 116 Stringer, plain, 169 Tub and shower, 27
fiberboard, 234 Structural Two-point perspective, 358-375
plywood, 118, 234 metal, 53-70
solid, 117 models, 550
u
Shield, grout or mortar, 73 steel member joining, 63
Shingles tiles, 98, 99 "U" factor, 212
asbestos cement, 120 Stucco, 238, 241 "U" stairs, 173, 174
asphalt,120 Studding, 82 Under-floor fill, 47
wood, 117 Stud intersections, 83 Underlays and tracing sheets, 322
Shoring, 50 Subfloor, diagonal, tongue and Unidirectional dimensioning, 426,
Show-card paint, 383 groove, 76 427
Shower, luxury, 273 Subsill, 162 Urban community, 293
Side jamb (See Door jamb) Suburban community, 293 Utilities, 464
Siding, 235-238 Supply pipes, symbols, 416 government supplied, 293
Sill and floor construction, 71-78 Surface, foreshortened, 344 Utility rooms or laundries, 284
Sill cock, 195 Switching diagram, 188 Utility services, 293
Symbols used in architecture,
Sills,71,99
403-419
window, 163
window and door openings, 467
Site
Vanishing points, 360, 361
orientation, 300
Vapor barriers, 47
planning, 298-307
Ventilation, 217
(illustration and table), 301
Tangency, 356 attic, 230
Sketches and renderings, 377-402
Taxes, real estate, 294 of roof spaces (illustration), 231
Small town, community, 293
Tempera paint, 383 Vents, drainage, 196
Soffit, 176, 228, 283 foundation, 45
Temperature design, inside, outside,
molding, 230 213 Vertex, 369, 430
Sole plate, 79, 80 Templates (illustration), 321 Vertical lines, 316
Solid masonry, 88 irregular curve, 320 Views
chimney, 219 Termite shield, 73 auxiliary, 347
Sound conditioning, 182 Terne (See Roofing) interior (See Sections)
Specifications, 534-542 Thermal resistance, 212 orthographic and building plans,
detailed, long form, 542 Thresholds, 154 347, 348
570
1
Index
Vision, cone of, 360 Water (continued) Windows (continued)

Visqueen film, 536 space, 270 plastic, 157
Volt, 184 colors, opaque, 383 requirements, 167
transparent, 378 steel,157
w wet-into-wet, 382
distribution system, 194
symbols, 407-41
trim, exterior, 163
"W" truss, 1 14 lines, branch, 195 types, 157-160
Wall supply, 194 wood, 157
curtain, 135, 141, 142 Watt, 184 Windows and glass, 157-168
footing, drawing, 472 Weather Window symbols, 407-411
load bearing, 102 boarding, 235 Wiring, 186
materials, combination of, 258 proofing, 155 Wood float (See Concrete troweling)
outlines in floor plans, 467 Weep holes in walls, 91 Wood piles, 42
Wall board, 181 Weights and measures (table), 545 shakes, 121
Wall coverings, exterior, 259, Welded wire fabric, 53, 54 shingles, 1 17
234-241 Window and door siding, patterns of, 237
Wall materials, symbols of, 481 code and code key, 433 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 249, 255
Wall section, 483 line, 480 Wythes, 88, 89
for different levels, 483 section, 484
Wall sheathing, 234 Windows
Walls aluminum, 157
in elevation,478 bars or muntins, 162
masonry (See Masonry walls) descriptions, 163 Zone classification, 15
Wash, graded, 381 hardware, 164 Zone, heat, 207
Waste removal, 196 parts, sizes, and elevations, Zoning and building codes, 297
Water 160, 161 Zoning laws, 15
closets, 270 picture, 162 Zoning request (public), 15
571
1 8 1
Tables and Charts
Abbreviations of lumber terms, 544 Measurements, 545

Acreage and areas of square tracts of land, 545 Metric conversions, 441
Metric decimal prefixes, 439
Bridging-spacing, 69 Metric measurement: basic and derived units, 440
B.T.U./H Furnace capacities and sizes, 215 Metric units of measurement, 439
Ceiling joist sizes and spacings, 103 Rafter run, 112

Conversions, 441, 545 Rafter sizes and spacings, 1 10
Rafter span conversion diagram, 1 1
Elements of equal angles, 64 Reinforcing bar sizes, 55

Elements of unequal angles, 65 Roof overhang, 301
Roofs— minimum thickness, spans, and nailing
Fireplace opening and liner dimensions, 223 schedules for plywood, 1 1
Floor joist sizes and their spans, 75 Room heat loss schedule, 215
Spans for floor beams using 2" plank subfloor, 129
Glued laminated beam and purlin sizes, 130 Spans for roof beams using 2" plank decking, 129
Standards for individual sewage— disposal system,
Header schedule, S7 198, 199
Header size and span, 86 Standard steel pipe columns, safe load, 62
Heat loss data, 21 Structural metal shapes, 58
I beam load distribution, 60 Truss chord, 1 14

Insulating glass— standard sizes, 165
Weights and measures, 545
Load bearing ability of soils, 36 Weights, dimensions, and data of standard steel
Loads in kips for beams 57
laterally supported, 56, angles, 66
Loads in kips for channels laterally supported, 67 Weights, dimensions, and data of standard steel
Load tables for open web-steel joints, 68 I beams, 63
Low-slope rafter sizes and spacings, 109 Wire size, 54
572
':% I

General Architectural Drafting - 1976 - William E Wyatt

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

General Architectural Drafting - 1976 - William E Wyatt

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

THIS BOOK IS THE PROPERT YOF:

Library of Congress Catalog No. 75-964.

John Deere Corporation his special thanks to Mr. Raymond

• Part I describes building ma- printed entirely in blue, it is drawn

It is the author's belief that a working drawings

person must be familiar with in the book are usually drawn to

illustrations are related to homes used on floor plan and elevation

buildings of heavy construction. are drawn to their smallest allow-

construction except that many mally used, so they fit on book

a given subject! Rather, the book valuable study guide.

Chapter 16: Insulation 179 Chapter 23: The Architect 244

and Foundation Plans 472 Diagrams, Condensed Outline to Reinforce Knowl-

and Methods, Beginning the Drawing, Drawing

planning area, 276

1 Laying Out and Excavating

Selection of Building Location on the Lot

In choosing a building loca-

property boundaries of the build-

might read as follows: Va = Northeast quarter of section.

single family, (2) second residen-

locality to another. Many areas

a variety of buildings, constructed

struction of at least a part of the Zoning Board of Appeals

of the building can be adjusted barren wasteland. If this happens pages.

16 The beauty of this home is enhanced by nature's landscaping.

working plot plans are included vision is made to prevent mois-

The grade or relationship of high above grade, it is likely to

stake in the ground at the exact triangle. This an application

mark the exact location. The stakes sum of

"L" shaped batter boards.

Straight batter board.

1 : Laying Out and Excavating

Using the 6-8- 10 right-triangle

Batter boards and string layout for an irregular shaped building.

Leveling the construction site with a landscape rake.

Questions to Reinforce Knowledge

struction begins? building construction? "terrain"?

Excavating a trench with a backhoe-loader.

Terms To Spell and Know

property neighborhood terrace adjoining

form its For ordinary con-

crete, such as in basement floors, materials. However, extreme warmth can

Most larger jobs require the use

NOTE: round posts are to be

set, the forms are then removed

This reinforcement is either has been welded into square or

pendent upon the amount of Chapter 5, Structural Metal. Re-

Steel stair forms being prepared Wire mesh reinforcement

Complex forms for a foundation wall

Mixing and Pouring Concrete

crete is then shoveled into a

consistency water from a tank on

attached for dumping the con-

Vibrating straight, shallow, grooved— face

filling the space. Voids or pockets Exposed Aggregate

Exposed aggregate concrete is used for this patio floor.

not to present an objectionable terials is the cause. When figuring

concrete 3'x3'x3'. This represents too much concrete than not

Standard concrete block size.

(See page 34)

BULLNOSE CORNER BLOCK

STANDARD BLOCK, 2 CORE

BULLNOSE JAMB BLOCK

Vi HEIGHT BLOCK DOUBLE CORNER BLOCK