CHAPTER2

REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL
SETTING
2.1. Introduction
Geologically the Indian sub-co ntinent can be
subdivided into three major units: { 1) The Peninsular
Shield, (2) The Indo-Gangetic basin, and {3) The Himalayas.
The Indian shield forms the oldest part of the Peninsula and
represents the protocontinental nucleus around which the
peninsula has grown through crustal reworking and accretion
over an extensive period of time during the Precambrian
{Radhakrishna and Naqvi, 1986).
A protocontinent is a positive crustal mass composed
of nuclear cratonic elements and linear orogenic belts.
The proto-continental blocks of the Indian
continental crust, appear to have evolved around at least
three separate nuclei; namely {1) Aravallis in North-West
India, (2) Singhbhum on Eastern India and ( 3) Karnataka in
South India (Verma, 1991) {Fig.2.1).
These protocontinental blocks have rocks ranging in
age from 3.8 to 2.5 billion years and have been subjected to
geosynclinal activity involving deposition of sediments,
volcanism, granit�sation and metamorphism. As a result of
.this dynamic geotectonism evolved the Precambrian .Sargurs,
Dharwars, Eastern Ghats, Satpuras and the . Aravallis
representing large parts. of the Indian Peninsula
and were overlain by ancient gneisses, greenstone belts and
younger granitoids {Fig. 2.2).

31
 as'

GEOLOGICAL. �, STRUCTURAL

2d'
7

F BENGAL.

'7'
/ lt'-lGHBHUM
PROTO CONTINENT
. .,. 15'

Alluvium 2.Rcccnt Oeposi'C

Crctac:.cous !l. Tcritary Formatio
/:::.]
Deccan Trap Lavas
� ,t"-ondw ana 8.Rdaled Formation$
Y
1t

a·

°
60

Fig. 2-1. GENERALlSED GEOLOGICAL & STRUCTURAL MAP OF !NOIA

SHOWING DISTRIBUTION &. STRIKE OF ARCHAEAN -:-PROTERozorc FORMATIONS,&
BOUNDARIES OF PRCPOSED PROTOCONTINENTS (.�aqvi et el.; 197�)

32
 0

SIMP...IFIED GEOLOGICAL MAPC.f'

.. ... .
PENINSULAR IND!A

0 200 400K m
t:::::< b:s=d
SC ALE

0
10

lliQ.Q.
G Alluvium
[;-:;-.=l Ter1tary sediments
W Deccan Trap, Rajmahal Trap
Q Godctwona 8. other Mescnic hrrrdi
r'.;;."1 Precambrian sedime nts V indhya
,t t:.:.:.:.:.J Cuddapohs i. Equivalents
!illilIJ]j ;:>rec:ambian Met a, sediments
r;:-;:i Dharwars, Ara,allls 2. E.q\Jivalc:nts
� Precambrian volcanics
� Chornockites + ... Precambrian
c:J unclas.si1'ieo C,ran1\es
/ C,n C I.SS-e .S
TRIYANCR.JM Prominent Thrust/Major Faults
/
CAFE COMallN

88"1
NAMES OF MAJOR GEOrDGlCAL UNITS ·.'.)F PENINSULAR INDIA
A- ARAVALU; a- BAS""iARj BG-BUNDELXHAND GRANITE; C-CUDDAPAH BASIN; CH-CHHATISC,o.\RH
BASlN;CL·CLOSEPET GRANITE; D-DEL HI SERIES; DH-OHARW:lR5; OT- DECCAN TRAP;
DV -OAMCOAR V ALLEYG,,liABENS; G-GODAVARI 'IALL£'!;M -�HANADI VALLEY·, I-IRON ORE BASIN
P-PAKHAL; R-RAJ�L VOLCANICS� SG- SINGHBiUM GRANITE; V-VINDHYAN BASIN

Fig. 22 SIMPLIFIED GEOLOGICAL MAP OF !NOIA (After GSI 1963)

33
2.2.Regional Geology of South India
Geologically, South India is demarcated from the rest
of the country by the east-west trending Vindhya-Satpura

mountains. The region south of these mountains is the south

Indian Peninsula. The Karnataka or the Dharwar craton,
represents the protocontinent around which the south Indian
peninsula evolved through accretion along the eratonic
margins.
South India consists mainly of a very extensive late
Archaean granulite terrain consisting of a varied
association of sedimentary and meta-igneous rock. (Fig.1.2).
The Archaean of South India can be divided into a northern
greenschist- amphibolite facies terrain, and a southern

granulite facies terrain. A boundary line can be drawn from

Mangalore, through Mysore, and Bangalore to Madras I to
demarcate the southern high grade rocks from the low grade
rocks of north ( Drury and Holt, 19 8 O) ( [ig. 1. 2) . The
progressive metamorphism of amphibolites south of
Bangalore to granulite facies has been due to dehydration
of an older gneiss suite by a CO2- rich vapour phase derived
from mantle outgassing (Janardhan et al., 1979, Newton et
al . , 19 8 O; Hansen et al . , · 198 4 ) .

Geothermobarometric studies of Harris et al., (1982)

have suggested Archaean crustal thickness of about 33 km

around the Nilgiri massif (Janardhan et al., 1982)

Metamorphosed mafic and ultramafic rocks from the Sargur

34
supracrustal series, based on similar P-T computations, give
crustal thickness of 35 km (Srikantappa et al., 1985).

2.3.Geotectonics Of South India

Geotectonically, the South Indian craton c an be

divided into a number of Archaean blocks separated by major
shear zones. The main Archaean blocks on South India are;
(1) Eastern Ghats and (2) Western Ghats. The Western ghats
have been divided into: ( 1) The Northern block ( 2) The
Southern block, (3) Western block and (4) The Eastern block
(Fig. 2.3 ) , {Drury et al., 1984).

The cratonic part west of the Eastern Ghat can be

divided into northern and southern blocks separated by a
large East-West, dextral, Oblique-slip shear system
(Palghat-Cauvery shear zone) occupying the Palghat-Cauvery
lowlands with a minimum lateral displacement of 70KM (Drury
and Holt, 1980; Drury et al., 1984) (Fig. 2.4 )•
/

The WNW-ESE Achankovil shear zone of Late

Proterozoic age, divides the southern block into two segments
(Fig 2.4 )•

2.4.Northern Archaean Block

The northern block has Archaeans which are similar in

lithology to the Archaean of North America, Africa and
Australia, characterized by an association of. supracrustal

35
 NB: NORTHERN BLOCK; SB :SOUTHERN BLOCK
WS 8: WESTERN SUB BLOCK; ES 8: EASTERN SUB BLOCK
: EASTERN GHATS
�- _

..=i_J_9.:l:J__rARD-!A_s_��-B�Q.CK_?___ Q[_ SO�}H_ IND!A .. _ -···--···

(Source: Drury et al-1984)
 GGT

... . ..
· · G FT
. . . .

0 100

km

� 'Phanerozoic cover
E:?J Granulite supracrystals
EI:.l Charnockite massifs
B83 Closepet granite
.,,,,,- Late proterozoic shear zones
(MO-Moyar, BH-Bhavani, PC-Palghat­
Caurvey, AC - Achankovil)

Figure 2.4 : Generalized tectonic map of the high

grade metamorphic terrain of southern
India showing major shear zones.
GGT - Granite-green-stone terrain
GFT - Granulite facies terrain
KKB - Kerala Khondalite belt
NGM - Nilgiri massif
PRH - Periyar Hills

37
volcano sedimentary belts, plutonic gneisses of tonalitic to
trondhjemitic composition and post kinematic granodi°ritic to
granitic intrusions. High-grade terrain occupies the
southern part of this block in areas such as Coorg, the
Bilirangan hills, and the Shevroi hills, the remaining part
being greenschist to amphibolite facies terrain. The Nilgiri
hills may represent a dextrally displaced continuation of
the Bilirangan massif (Drury et al., 1984) . Here the rocks
belong to the granulite facies by and large. If the Nilgiri
massif is considered as the dextrally displaced continuation
of Bilirangan hills, it may have been displaced across the
Moyar-Bhavani shearzone by at least 70 km (Fig.2.5) (Drury
and Holt, 1980). Structurally the Southern and Northern
blocks appear to be different.

2.5. Regional Metamorphism Of South India.

The less strained supracrustals in the Western

sub- block of the Northern block are characteristically of
greenschist (Chlorite + actinolite + epidote + albite) to
lower amphibolite facies (hornblende + epidote + garnet)
assemblages. In highly strained supracrustal belts, the
pelites have been metamorphosed from amphibolite to granulite
facies assemblages (biotite + muscovite ± chloritoid ±
staurolite ± kynite ± SiLlimanite (Viswanatha and
Ramakrishna, 1975). In the Sargur supracrustals, to the
south of th e Western sub-block, the metapelites display

38
 7rf 76 °

INDEX
0 SJIL �LUYIUM
B LATE.RITE
1cf
II OUILON e.w.AR<.AUJBED Co
� B\SIC DYKES Arc.haean

t2:J

� =:::
D HAN'HAR GR) UPS
l..oN er J:( o\ e l'Cl20i : :
T 0'\ ·:\
m\N
}�
0 KHCNDALI ES
T
[I] CORDIERITE GNEISS

.::=::- LINEAM EH TS

77

Fig� Z.S GEOLOGICAL MAP CF KERALA (c;...s:t.!9!�),

39
polymetamorphism with garnet + hypersthene + Sillimanite +

biotite ± kyanite ± staurolite.

The northern parts of the Nilgiri massif have been
metamorphosed to the highest pressure granulite in South
India, suggesting a minimum crustal thickness of 30 km at
the time of granulite metamorphism (P = 8.3 ± 1.0 Kb, T=760
± 40 ° C) . Medium pressure granulites characterize the
central Nilgiris (Harris et al., 1982). In general, it may
be said that the Archaeans of South India have been
subjected to polyphase metamorphism attaining equilibrium
assemblage characteristic of amphibolite to granulite facies
conditions and have been locally subjected to
migmatisation, dehydration and retrogressive metamorphism.

2.6. An Outline Of The Geologic Setting Of Kerala.

The Kerala region is geologically a well demarcated

narrow strip of land bounded by the Western Ghats in the east
and the Arabian sea in the west. It constitutes the south-
western part of the South Indian peninsula (fig.2.5} �

Although some Tertiary to recent sedimentary

formations are found close to the present shoreline on some
areas, the oldest and the most predominant rocks of Kerala
are the Precambrian crystalline rocks;

40
2.7. Stratigraphic Succession Of The Rocks Of Kerala
The rock types found in Kerala region can be
classified into four major age groups belonging to
Archaeozoic, Proterozoic, Cretaceous and Cenozoic (table 2.1)
(Soman, 198 O ) .
Table 2.1
Geological Succession of Kerala Region.
(after Soman, 1980)
Geological formations Age

Soils,Beach sediments, shell

limestone, claybeds,and Laterite Recent to Subrecent

Warkala beds: grit, sandstones,

black clays with lignite. Upper Miocene
Quilon beds: fossiliferous limestones,
clays and sand. Lower Miocene
Granite, Pegmatite,quartz veins,
and basic dykes. Late Proterozoic
Vengad group : quartz mica schist,
conglomerates Proterozoic
Khondalite group
garnet - biotite - Sillimanite -
Cordierite - Graphite gneiss, Early Proterozoic­
leptynite, calc silicates and - Late Archaean.
quartzites
Charnockites, migmatitic Early Proterozoic­
ortho-gneisses Archaean.

Wynad -Sargurs:
kyanite-sillimanite schist,
calcareous bands,
quartzite, banded iron ores,· Archaean
hornblende - biotite gneisses

41
2.8. Precambrian Crystalline Rocks Of Kerala

The Precambrian rocks of Kerala are represented by

eight rock groups namely (1) Charnockite, (2) Khondalite,
(3) Biotite gneiss, (4) Wynad - Sargurs, (5) Dharwar, (6)
metabasic and ultrabasic rocks including anorthosites and
dunites, and (8) syenites, (Rao, 1976), (Fig. 2.5).
The high-grade Archaean supracrustals, characterised
by polymetamorphism and poly-phase deformation, consisting
of bands of metasediments, granulites and gneisses occur
towards the northern part of Kerala (eg: between Tellicherry
and Manantoddy). The Archaean rocks include (1) shelf facies
sedimentary group characterised by magnetite - quartzite and
carbonate - pelite association (2) mafic - ultramafic group
comprising amphibolites and ultramafites (3) migmatitic
banded hornblende - biotite gneiss (generally referred to as
the peninsular gneiss.

2.8.1. Khondalite Group

The Khondalites are metamorphic rocks comprising

essentially of garnet and sillimanite with varying amounts of
quartz, orthoclase, and with or without graphite (Walker,
1902; Jacob, 1965; Murthy et al., 1971) . A large part of
South Kerala is occupied by this group of metasediments
called the khondalite group. Recently they are referred to
kerala khondalite belt (KKB). The rocks are typically high
grade granulites (Chacko et al.,1987),

42
2.8.2.Charnockite Group

According to Holland (1900 ), Charnockite is

hypersthene granite composed of · hypersthene, microcline,
quartz and accessory iron oxides. Chattergy (1974), defines
charnockite as an orthopyroxene quartz - feldspar rock with
or without garnet, characterised by a greenish blue feldspar
and greyish blue quartz. The rocks of the charnockite group
are the predominant rock type in Kerala (Subramoniam, 1959;
Mahadevan, 1964; Damodaran, 1958). Charnockite is the
granulite facies anhydrous equivalent of the granitoid
(quartz - two feldspar - mica ± hornblende) mineralogy,
and has the characteristic assemblage quartz - orthoclase -
plagioclase - hypersthene.

In Southern India, orthopyroxene bearing

charnockites cover extensive areas comprising most of the
upland regions of the shield, particularly in the Nilgiri
and Periyar Hills and are commonly designated as massive
charnockite (Santosh, 1991; Yoshida and Santosh, 1987). In
contrast to this, charnockite sometimes occurs as
bands and patches in intimate association with amphibole
and/or biotite gneiss on a decimeter scale at many places in
Kerala. They are considered to represent an arrested stage
of transformation of the gn�isses to granulites and are
termed in cipient charnocki te ( Santosh and Yoshida,
1986;Janardhan et al., 1989). The conversion of gneisses to

43
charnockites is thought to provide direct evidence for the
role of fluids in effecting such transformation (Santosh,
1991) The dehydration is characterised by conversion of
biotite and/or amphibole to orthopyroxene under reduced
water activity (Santosh, 1991). This dehydration is a
consequence of carbonic metamorphism (Newton, 1989), where
the ultimate source of co2 is sought in the upper mantle.

2.8.3. Dharwar Group

Bruce Foote (1885), designated the term Dharwar group

to include all the crystalline schists comprising both
metavolcanics and metasediments. But recently the Dharwars
of Bruce Foote have been subdivided into the Sargurs
representing the metamorphically higher grade, migmatised
and tectonically complex older formations of Dharwars (Nair
et al., 1975) and the Dharwars representing the younger
rocks (Viswanatha and Ramakrishna, 1975). The younger
Dharwar schists, overlying the Sargur schists consist of
oligomict conglomerates, quartzites, quartz-mica-schists and
biotite quartzites forming an interlayered sequence. At
Holenarsipur in Karnataka, there is a distinct unconformity
separating the Dharwars from the Sargurs. The Dharwar
schists grade from lower amphibolite to greenschist facies
conditions of regional metamorphism.

44
2.8.4. The Sargurs

The Sargurs are predominantly a high grade gneissic

terrane, intruded by ultramafic and basic rocks which have
been metamorphosed to pyroxene granulites and amphibolites
and some late granites. They have been intensely deformed,
subjected to atleast three phases of folding and polyphase
migmatisation. Hence primary stuctures are absent. The
Sargurs, stratigraphically underlie the Dharwars and contain
huge enclaves of metasediments represented by khondalites and
banded magnetite quartzite.
The Sargur rocks show a regional NS to NNE-SSW trend,
with a regional northerly plunge of 15 to 20 ° . The
metasediments occur as linear enclaves with isoclinal folds
which are tightly folded (Janardhan et el., 1989). The field
setting, mineralogy, grade of metamorphism ranging from upper
amphibolite to granulite grade, and tectonic characteristics
of the Sargurs are distinctly different from the Dharwar
supergroup.
The gneisses , which are the predominant rock type in
the Sargur, and infact all the gneisses of the South Indian
shield, have been often referred I to and discussed as "the
peninsular gneiss". (Ramakrishnan et al., 1976; Sreenivas et
al• I 1976) •
The gneisses of the Sargurs show mineralogical
variations at places. Throughout the Sargur type high-grade

45
terrain quartzo-feldspathic tonalitic gneisses are common.
Generally they show a highly deformed fabric. The field
relations and mineralogy of these gneisses are similar to
those in Greenland (Amitsoq-Nuk) and Labrador (Janardhan et
al., 1989)
The metabasics show amphibolite to pyroxene granulite
grade of metamorphism. The pyroxene granulites of Sargur
show a smooth calc alkaline trend. From structural,
stratigraphical and petrological differences, the Sargur
high-grade rocks can be considered distinctly different from
the Dharwar supergroup.

2.8.5. Intrusives

Different periods of basic and ultrabasic igneous

intrusive activity have been reported from the Precambrians
of Kerala (Murthy et al., 1976).
A number of granite and syenite plutons with alkaline
affinity intrude the Precambrian crystallines of Kerala.
Most of these are spatially related to regional fault­
lineaments. Based on geochemical, petrological and
geochronologic studies, these granite/syenite plutons have
been correlated to distensional tectonics ,and attendent A­
type magmatism in the Pan-African times, as a part of the
Pre-lift tectonics which operated in . the Gondwanian
continents (Santosh and Drury, 1988).

46
2.9. An Outline Of The Structure And Tectonics Of Kerala.

The Archaean crystalline rocks of Kerala hawe often

isoclinally folded general structure (Rao, 1974). The
various rock types of the Precambrians have a foliation
trending NW-SE in the southern part of the state while in the
northern part, it locally swings to NE-SW.
Based on the analyses of fold patterns and facies of
metamorphic rocks Rao(1976), established five periods of
tectogenesis for the Archaean rocks of Kerala.
More recent structural studies based on Landsat
imageries and airphotos reveal numerous tectonic lineaments
and related fault and shearzones cutting accross the
Precambrian crustal rocks of Kerala (Drury et al., 1984
Drury and Holt, 1980; Santosh et al., 1989). The Precambrian
ore genesis in Kerala is structurally controlled by these
Proterozoic fault/shearzone lineaments (fig. 2.6).
The East-West trending Palghat-Cauvery shearzone is a
prominent structural and geomorphologic feature that
separates the Northern block from the Southern block (See
section 2.3). This extensive shearing has dextrally rotated
the Nilgiri massif for over 70 kms. This Late-Proterozoic
shear zone appears to be connected to the N-S thrust system
of Eastern Ghats by many small arcuate shears at its eastern
extremity.

47
 ?ff 7

INDEX
---MAJOR LINEAMENTsl FAU..TS
--MINOR LINEAMENTSlfAULTS CAPE COMARIN
°
76 77

Fi�.2�6 Proterozoic fault/shearzone lineaments of Kerala

(Source : Soman, K.1980 )"

48
2.10. Regional Geology Of Wynad

The Wynad plateau which limits the Nilgiri in the

North is an important geomorphologic feature of Kerala. This
plateau rising from 900 to 950 m, with a general slope
towards east and north - east, forms part of the most
extensive land systems of peninsular India. The Wynad plateau
may have been successively uplifted from great depth as
evidenced by their hyper-granulite facies character
(Radhakrishna, 1968).
Wynad in north Kerala represents a vast Prcambrian
tract comprising of the hills and high ranges that form the
western flanks of the Western Ghats. Biotite-hornblende
gneisses form the major rock type in north Kerala. The Wynad
gold field is occupied by rocks of the charnockite series
with associated biotite and/or hornblende gneiss,
garnetiferous gneiss, magnetite quartzite and talc-tremolite
schist. They are occasionally intruded by pink
and grey granites (Narayanaswami, 1976). In Wynad bands of
massive charnockites sometimes cross the foliation of the
older gneisses and these are mainly intermediate and basic
varieties.

The regional strike is NW-SE to WNW-ESE with steep

foliation dipping 50-85 ° to almost vertical towards SW and
SSW. There is a swerve in the above regional strike to ENE-
WSW and then to NE-SW in Wynad area flankinig the hill

49
range. Gold bearing quartz reefs or veins occur in the
gneisses and amphibolites of south and south west Wynad.

2.11. Lineament Tectonics

An analysis of the lineaments of Kerala region

reveals three sets of major fractures trending (1): NW-SE to
WNW-ESE, (2)NNW-SSE to N-S, and (3) NE-SW (Boss and
Kartha,1977). In the Wynad region, especially in Nilambur ,
shears belong to the NE-SW set (Rao, 1976).
On a regional scale the Wynad belt falls along the
Calicut lineament, a major splay of the Moyar -Bhavani shear
zone (Drury et al., 1984) (Fig 2. 7).

2.12. Description Of Old Gold Workings

The numerous isolated zones of gold mineralization in

the Wynad gold field are widely scattered between Gudallur
in the east, extending westwards beyond Cherambadi, both in
Tamilnadu and to Kerala side upto Nilambur (Fig. 2.8).
Though there were many old gold mines in this area the most
prominent among them were ( 1) Alpha, (2) Harewood, (3)
Solomon and (4) Phoenix. These mines were in operation
during the days of the English East India Company, but are
now abandoned.
2.12.1.Alpha-Victoria-Nadughani Lodes

These extend over an area of about 1700 m long and

1600 m wide to the South-East of Devala (Fig.2.8). Numerous
50
 75 7 7

80Kms

-- .

11 11

0
10 10
COCHIN
INDEX
A GOLD
CL. CALICUT LINEAMENT
NS. NILAMBUR SHEAR ZONE
MO. MOYAR SHEAR ZONE
SH. BHAYANI SHEAR ZONE
0 - FAULT-LINEAMENT 0

7 76 7

Fig.2.7 Calicut, Nilambur lineaments and Hoyar-Bbavani shear zones

of Kerala

51
quartz reefs are found traversing sheared biotite and/or
hornblende gneiss interbanded with amphibolite (Ziauddin and
Narayanaswami, 1974). The quartz veins trend due to
NE-SW and ocassionally due NNW-SSE (Rao, 1965 ; 1968). Rao
(1968), had identified three zones of old workings viz: (1)
Alpha reef (Skullreef) zone, (2) Alpha extension zone and (3)
Nadughani zone. The reefs in the first two zones strike at
N300E and dip at 30 0 to S600E. In the Nadughani zone the
reefs strike at N50° to 60° E with northerly dip. The reefs
in all three zones are generally 1 to 3 m thick. The lodes
are generally quartz-sulphide vein. The grade of ore was
less than 3.5g/t.

2.12.2.Harewood-Solomon-Devagiri Lodes

This area is situated on the NE-SW trending hills, to

the NW of Devala. In Harewood mine, gold is found associated
with magnetite quartzite bands. It is in the pinch and swells
boudins that the auriferous reef is developed (Ziauddin and
Narayanaswami, 1974 Sengupta and Sengupta, 1950
Mahadevan, 1965).

Solomon mine is situated about 2km north-west of

Devala, which forms the SW extenstion of the magnetite
quartzite band of the Harewood. In the underground workings,
two systems of quartz veins are developed (Crookshank, 1940).
Devagiri mine and Danl)ar mine located to the west of Devala

52
contain low grade ore. Here quartz veins occur in biotite-
gneiss.
Rousdenmalai mine, about 3km South of Devala,
Richmond mine about 2.5km to the S.W of Pandalur and Glenrock
prospect about 2km to the west of Pandalur are some of the
other prominent old workings.

2.12.3. Other Old Gold Mines

Besides Devala-Pandalur area, other old gold mines

and prospects based on the ancient workings of the local
inhabitants include (Fig: 2.8) (Ziauddin and Narayana Swami,
I

1974): (1) The Cherambadi area, comprising of the previously

well known Mangorange, Kerangod, Doraisnikod, Wentworth 1 and
2 , (2) Meppadi area, Comprising of Rippon 1 and 2, (3)
Chundale-Vayittiri area, comprising of 1. Kottanad, 2.
Bangala Mattam, 3. Thalimala, 4. Vayathiri 1 and 2, 5
Kallur, 6 Pazhuthana, 7 Elamalai, 8 Koothakavu, (4) Tariyod
area comprising of : 1) Ladysmith, 2 Thandiyod, 3 Vattam, 4
Kattimada, 5 .Kurambanthod, 6 Karikanni (5) Manantody area
comprising of : 1 Tharingal 1 and 2, Venmani, 3 Palerikunnu,
4 Nellattakunnu, 5 Kallumuttamkunnu, 6 Kannancherry 7
Tatamalai, 8 Charakara, 9 Makkimalai, and (6) Nilambur area
comprising of 1 Maruda, 2 Chungathara, 3 Aruvikod, 4 Kappil
(Fig . 2.8) (Mahadevan, 1965).

53
 760 15' 30'
:_i_.:.::!;---;-:-�
Cherambadi
..--�������� �ttll��������������.z-L�:::-����-,11 0
1200 0'
o13 INDEX
1 o 2o
3
• Pandalur
01 O 0
8 s0 o 4 3 �evala 1. Alpha
� 1 , 06 07 o1 o2 2. Nadughani
3. Harewood
4. Solomon
Devagiri
Dunbar

Area of alluvi al
gold deposits Glenrock
Aruvikod
Kappi l

• ND.mtx.cr
011 11 0
'
15
012
Kapil

°
76 15'

Fig. 2.8 : Location map of sarre old gold mines in the Jlynad-Nilambur
Region

54
2.13. Geology Of The Area Of Present Study

Detailed geological work and mapping in this area

face certain difficulty because of the poor rock exposure due
to soil and laterite cover, thick vegetation, dense forests

and bamboo jungles and recent conversion of land into

private plantations and estates.
The Nilambur-Wynad gold field is very extensive
comprising the plains, hills, valleys and high ranges of
mainly the Malappuram district of Northern Kerala.
(Sawarkar, 1980).
The area selected for the present study includes a
part of this gold field, extending from kappil (Fig. 2.9)
to the old gold mining areas of Devala and Pandalur of
Gudallur district (Alpha, Phoenix mines), belonging to the
State of Tamil Nadu, across the Western Ghats. The two
latter mentioned places are approximately 30km North-East of
Nilambur town (Fig . 2. 9). This area is approximately 100
sq.km in extend. At many places in this area gold panning
and mining works by the local inhabitants can be seen at
present.

2.13.1.Accessibility

The Nilambur-Devala gold field is accessible from

Kerala State either through Calicut or Manjeri. The Calicut­
Sultan's battery-Gudallur road passes through this area. The

55
Manjery-Nilambur-Nadughani-Gudallur-Ooty trunk road also
passes through this area (Fig. 2.9).
2.13.2.Geographic Location:
The area of study is located between longitudes
76 °15' and 76 ° 26' and latitudes of 11 ° 20 1 N and 11 °30'N (Fig.
2.9). Toposheet no:58A/1 and 58/A/3 cover this area.

2.13.3.Climate

The area experiences the typical tropical monsoon

climate characterised by two seasonal rains one during June­
August (South-West Monsoon) and the other during September­
October (North-East monsoon) months (Pascoe, 1965). The
maximum day temperatures are reached during the months of
March-April-May and low temperatures are experienced
generally throughout the year in the high ranges and Devala
area.

During the Monsoon months of June to October, the

heavy rains, flooded rivers, rejuvanated growth of
vegetation, and the risk of snakes and wild elephants, make
any visit to the area unproductive. The ideal field season
here is from late Noverber to early February.

2.13.4.Vegetation

The study area is mostly under the Reserved Forests

of Kerala and Tamilnadu; The Nilambur forests are typical

56
tropical mixed jungles. The Teak trees of Nilambur are world
famous.

2.13.S•Drainage

The area is very well drained by numerous youthful

and mature streams. The two major rivers are Chaliyar and
Punnapuzha. The numerous tributaries of these rivers have
carved an impressive dendritic drainge network which has
moulded the topography of the Nilambur valley. The streams
of the Nilambur area flow westwards towards the Arabian
sea, whereas the streams of Devala and Pandalur area flow
eastwards. The Western Ghat is the divide that seperates the
two drainage systems. The drainage system of Devala-Pandalur
region is relatively poor.

2.13.6.Population

The Devala-Pandalur region and the Nilambur-Maruda

region of the study area are moderately populated. The
intervening high ranges are not inhabited. Along the
Nilambur-Gudallur trunk road, there is no human habitation
between the forest check-post at Vazhikkadavu in Kerala and
Nadughani in Tamilnadu. The sharp difference in language,
culture and traditions accross this forested high range pass
is amazing.

57
 2.13.7.Topography

The topography of the Nilambur-Devala area is clearly

divisible into three zones.

1) The Nilambur-Vazhikkadavu-Maruda-Mannucheeni zone,

2) The high range, and
3) The Devala-Pandalur zone. The Nilambur- Vazhikkadavu-
Maruda-Mannucheeni area represents, fertile plains with low,
highly weathered (lateritised), isolated hill ranges and
hillocks. The rivers are mostly mature and · with
floodplains. The river beds are of thick and laterally
extending gravel, sand and clay beds.
Indurated ancient gravels have developed terraces
which have been referred to as high level terrace and middle
level terrace (Sawarkar, 1965 1980). Many loccations in
the river sand beds are places of active panning by the local
people.
Beyond Vazhikkadavu and Mannucheeni, begins the high
ranges with very thick tropical forests. The higest point
. towards the Vazhikkadavu direction from Nilambur town is the
Battankattai-malai. From Vazhikkadavu, the ghat or the
mountain section of the trunk road begins and goes uphill
steadily upto Nadughani, which is on the other side of the
highrange.

58
 The highranges are characte rised by very rugged
topography, youthful streams, rock cliffs, gravel and cobble
filled stream beds and dense forests.
The Devala-Pandalur-Nadughani areas are at high
altitude but relatively flat terrains, with occasional
sharply rising hills and thick forests. The drainage density
here is relatively lesser and the occasional streams are
east flowing unlike the west flowing streams of Nilambur
plains.

2.14. Structure Of The Area Of Present Study

Thick tropical forests, dense bamboo jungles, and

thick soil and laterite cover due to intense tropical
weathering cause numerous problems to detailed structural
mapping. Neverthless, relying greatly on the outcrops in
stream beds, weathered outcrops, road cutting and local
quarries a reasonably dependable map could be made (Fig .2.9)
covering an area of approximately 100 sq:kms in the scale 1
cm. to 1 Km; which also shows lithologic variation, and
important gold prospects by place name.

Lithologically, the terrain comprises of Archaean

gneissic complex comprising of hornblende and biotite gneiss,
lenticular bands of amphibol i te, and banded magnetite
quartzite, and metapelites which are representatives of the
Wynad Sargurs and talc-tremolite schist correlated with the
Dharwars.
59
 The gneisses and schists have a foliation trend of
roughly NE- SW. The gneisses are well foliated with
alternating bands of quartzo-feldspathic minerals and
ferromagnesian minerals. The bands are 1 to 2 cm in
0
thickness. The regional foliation trend is N40 to NSO E
and dip due SE at angles varying from almost vertical to as
low as 40 °. The foliation planes have been subjected to
minor folds and kinks. The foliation bands are faulted and
traversed by quartz veins. Amphibolite appears to
have an interbanded relationship with gneisses. Highly
stretched, narrow and broken enclaves of amphibolite found
within hornblende-biotite-gneiss suggest extensive shearing
and migmatisation. Sometimes amphibolite is found
boudinaged within the gneisses. The predominant gold
quartz veins show a trend NE-SW but are slightly oblique to
the foliation. This cross cutting relationship shows that
emplacement of gold bearing quartz veins are not conmtrolled
by foliation planes of host rocks.

Towards the Devala-Pandalur region the quartz reefs

become very extensive and thicker. Here the occurrence of
sulphides is more than what is seen in the Nilambur region in
Kerala.
Gold bearing quartz-sulphide veins generally dip at
steep angles averaging 70 ° due SE. The quartz veins,both gold
bearing and gold barren are not structurally affected by way
60
of folding. The fact that the veins often cut across
the regional trend of foliation of the gneisses suggests
that these veins were emplaced in a post tectonic and post
metamorphic episode of distensional crustal shearing and

silica vein emplacement.

61