LECTURE NOTES: Visual Optics

14. Ocular Correction of Ametropia – Part 2

References
Tunnacliffe A H, 1993, Introduction to Visual optics, ABDO, England, Sections 2.18
and 2.23
Keating M, 2002, Geometric, Physical and Visual Optics, Butterworth Heinemann,
Second Edition, pages 149-151 and page 517.
Obstfeld H, 1982, Optics in Vision, Butterworths, London, 2nd Ed. Chapter 20, ‘Contact
lenses’, and Chapter 21, ‘Vision underwater’.

14.3 The Contact Lens

A contact lens is a plastic lens worn in contact with the eye.

A contact lens may be hard or soft.
The hard (rigid) contact lens retains its shape when it is in contact with the eye.
The soft (flexible) contact lens essentially conforms to the shape of the cornea.
The curve of the concave surface of a contact lens is referred to as the base curve. The
base curve of a contact lens is specified sometimes in mm by the radius of curvature of its
back surface. The base curve is generally chosen for a physiologically comfortable
fit. However it has some optical significance as we shall soon see.

14.3.1 The Exploded method

Consider a surface S (of radius r ) separating two media of indices n1 and n2. Let P be the
power of the surface (see Fig. 14.6).

Fig. 14.6. The exploded method

Then, P = (n2  n1)/r = ( n2/r)  ( n1/r)

= ( n2/r)  ( 1/r) + ( 1/r)  ( n1/r)

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= ( n2  1)/r + (1n1)/r
= P2 + P1
where P1 is the power of the medium 1 in air with surface S(radius r) and P2 is the
power of the medium 2 in air with surface S(radius r) as shown in Fig.14.6. Such
consideration of surface power in which we separate the two media by an infinitesimally
thin air layer is referred to as the exploded method.

14.3.2 The Tear Lens

When a contact lens is worn, the tear film forms a liquid lens sandwiched between the
contact lens and the cornea. The tear film is bounded by the back surface of the contact
lens and the front surface of the cornea as shown in Fig. 14.7 below.

Fig. 14.7 The tear film

By the exploded method we can show this to be equivalent to

Fig. 14.8 The tear lens

Thus the tear film formed between the contact lens and the cornea may be regarded as a
thin lens in air.

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14.3.3 The Cornea and K-readings

a) b)

Fig. 14.9 Cornea modelled by a single surface with power of about 43 D.

The front surface power of a cornea on an average is about 48 D and the average back
surface power is about 5 D (Fig. 14.9a). Its thickness is around 0.5 mm. The overall
power is around 43 D. For the purpose of analysis it is convenient to assume the cornea
to be a single surface separating air and aqueous of index 1.336 (Fig. 14.9b).

The Keratometer measures the front surface radius/radii of curvature accurately. Note
that if the cornea is astigmatic then it will have a minimum radius of curvature along its
most myopic meridian (maximum power) and a maximum radius of curvature along its
most hyperopic meridian (minimum power). Keratometer readings give the power of the
single surface cornea. The power of the single surface cornea is obtained from the exact
radius of curvature of its front surface using a notional refractive index of 1.3375. Please
note that the value 1.336 is not very different from 1.3375. Sometimes one uses the
index value of 1.336 instead of 1.3375 for initial estimates. The K-readings give the
single surface corneal power along the two orthogonal principal meridians Eg. 44 @100/
40 @ 10

14.3.4 Power of the Tear Lens

The tear lens has an index of refraction very close to 1.336, the index of the aqueous.
Hence when a hard contact lens is fitted on a cornea, the tear film extends/modifies the
shape of the single surface cornea to match the base curve of the contact lens!
See Fig. 14.10.

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r1 r2 r3

Fig. 14.10 The tear film extends the single surface cornea to the back surface of the
contact lens.

For this reason the base curve of a contact lens is often expressed as the dioptric
power of a cornea that has the same radius of curvature as the back surface of the
contact lens.
Note: The front surface power of the tear lens is not the back surface power of the
contact lens!

Example1: Power of the cornea, Fc = 42 D

Base curve of the CL = 43D
 Power of the modified/extended cornea in air is 43 D

43 D

Fig. 14.11 Base curve is the power of the modified cornea in air.

By the exploded method this implies that a tear lens of power 1 D is formed (see Fig.
14.12 below)

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Fig. 14.12 The front surface power of the tear lens is given by the base curve of the
contact lens. The back surface power of the tear lens is the negative of the power of
the cornea. (For your understanding the various surface powers are indicated in the
figure).

Example 2: Power of the cornea, Fc = 42 D; Base curve of the CL = 41D

(1 D)

Tear lens power = 1 D. In this case a negative tear lens is formed.

In the alignment fit of rigid lenses, the back surface of the rigid lens aligns with the
anterior corneal surface. A tear film of zero power is then formed.
If the corneal surface is astigmatic and the base curve of the contact lens is spherical, then
the tear film alters the corneal surface to the spherical shape of the contact lens and thus
removes the corneal astigmatism!
Thus
Base curve in dioptres (BC) = Corneal Power + Tear Film Power.
(or)
Tear Film Power = BC (in dioptres)  Corneal Power.

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14.3.5 Principle of contact lens correction:

In contact lens correction, the tear lens provides partial correction. The remaining
correction comes from the back vertex power (BVP) of the contact lens. Therefore
BVP + Tear lens power = K
Adding the corneal power Fc to both sides we get,
BVP + Fc + Tear lens power = Fc + K
Fc + Tear lens power = Modified power of the cornea = Base curve of the contact lens
Fc + K = Ideal power of the cornea required for clear vision.
BVP + BC = K + Fc
The above equations are useful in contact lens design.
When a hard contact lens is used in the alignment fit, the tear lens power is zero.
Therefore the BVP of the contact lens should be equal to the refractive error K for clear
vision.
When a soft contact lens is used, the back surface conforms to the shape of the cornea,
and so again the BVP of the contact lens should be equal to the refractive error K for
clear vision.

14.3.6 Correcting Astigmatism

When a soft CL is used to correct astigmatism the front surface has to be toric. The
principal meridians of the lens should be aligned with the principal meridians of the eye.

When a hard CL is used to correct astigmatism, a spherical back surface would

automatically correct the corneal astigmatism through the tear film which extends the
cornea to the spherical surface. In the alignment fit the back surface of a hard CL has the
same radii of curvature as the cornea and is fitted with the principal meridians aligned
with that of the cornea forming a tear lens of zero power. Astigmatism is removed by
appropriately shaping the front surface.

The following exercises include essential optical considerations when prescribing hard
lenses.

Clinical aspects of contact lenses will be dealt with in the courses on Clinical
Optometry.
Exercise 14.3 The spectacle correction of a subject is Fsp = -3.00/-1.75x180. The
spectacle is worn at 13.5 mm from the cornea. The radius of curvature of the cornea
along the principal meridians are, r3(90) = 7.85 mm, r3(180) = 8.15 mm, and the index of the
aqueous, n3 = 1.336. Determine the required back vertex power F'V of a hard contact lens
assuming (i) an alignment design in which r2 = r3 and (ii) a spherical design in which
r2 = 7.70 mm. Assume that the liquid lens is thin. Ans. -2.88/-1.58x180; -5.30DS

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14.3.7 The Effect of Base Curve

Steepening the back surface of the contact lens will affect the correction it provides in
two ways. It will increase the back surface power and the BC (front surface power of the
tear film) at the same time. This will result in changing the required back vertex power
for correction.

As the back surface radius of a contact lens would always lie fairly close to the average
radius of the cornea which is around 7.8 mm, a given amount of steepening of its back
surface would result roughly in a fixed amount of change in the back vertex power.
Working out a few numerical examples (see tutorial problems) enables us to arrive at the
following rule of thumb:

For every 0.05 mm reduction (steepening) of the back surface radius of the contact
lens, -0.25D must be added to FV.

14.3.8 The Effect of Tear Lens

The ideal vergence required just behind the cornea for clear vision is Fc + K. If the tear
film thickness is negligible then, BVP + BC = K + Fc = Fci the ideal power of the cornea
for clear vision. If the tear film thickness is not negligible then find the distance at which
the rays go to focus from the extended location of the corneal surface and hence find the
modified ideal corneal power, F'ci. For correction, BVP + BC should then be equal to F'ci.
Working out a few numerical examples (see tutorial problems), we can confirm the
following approximate tear thickness rule:

For every 0.1 mm increase in tear thickness, -0.125D must be added to F'V.

14.3.9 The Effect of Contact Lens Thickness

As the radii of curvature of the contact lens are quite small its surface powers are quite
large in magnitude and hence often we need to treat a contact lens as a thick lens. The
thickness would affect the back vertex power of the contact lens. While decreasing the
thickness of a given contact lens would decrease its weight, it will alter its back vertex
power. Again, working out a few numerical examples (see tutorial problems), we can
confirm the following approximate lens thickness rule:

For every 0.1 mm reduction in the thickness of a contact lens, +0.25D must be added
to the front surface power in order to restore the required F'V.

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14.5 Bifocal Contact Lenses

Bifocal contact lenses are made in a similar manner to the bifocal spectacle lenses.
However, unlike in a spectacle lens, subjects cannot choose to see through a selected
portion of the contact lens. Rays from distant objects entering the lens through the near
portion and the rays from near objects entering the lens through the distance portion
would cause some blur and reduce the retinal image contrast. For this reason, the
subject’s vision is compromised. Hence these lenses must be prescribed with caution.

14.5.1 Fused Bifocal

Fused bifocal contact lenses are made in the same manner as fused bifocal spectacle
lenses. A higher index material is fused in a segment of the main lens either on the front
surface or on the back surface. The front and back surface radii are not affected in the
region of the Add. The segment having the higher index material simply provides a
higher power.

14.5.2 Front Surface Solid (One-Piece)

This contact lens is made of a single solid material. The front surface is shaped so as to
have relatively steeper and flatter curvatures in different regions to incorporate the Add.
The lens thus has a higher power in the region that has a steeper front surface radius.

14.5.3 Back Surface Solid (One-Piece)

The back surface of a single solid lens is shaped to have a reading portion and a distance
portion. A change in the back surface would therefore affect the BVP as well as the BC
of the lens. Hence these factors must be taken into consideration while designing an Add.
The power of the Add in air will be higher than the power of the Add on the eye.

Exercise 14.4 The radius of the back surface of a CL, r2 in the reading portion is 8.00
mm, n2 = 1.490, n3 = 1.336. The Add power = +2.50D. Determine the required r2 in the
distance portion and the Add power measured in air.
Ans. 7.08 mm, +2.50D; +7.95D.

Hence confirm the following approximation:

For a back surface solid bifocal, the Add measured in air is 3.18 times greater than
the Add required on the eye, assuming typical refractive indices.

14.5.4 Diffractive Bifocal

A Fresnel zone plate is attached or fabricated on the main contact lens to form a

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diffractive bifocal Add.

14.5.4.1 The main Lens

The main lens provides the distance correction.

14.5.4.2 Fresnel Zone Plate

The Fresnel zone plate is a plano lens with delineated concentric rings.

Theoretically, the zone plate has an infinite number of discrete "focal points".
The rings are worked mechanically to enhance the first of these focal points, F.

For F, each ring in the plate represents a half-period zone (hpz).

Alternate zones are treated so that all hpz are in phase and interfere constructively.

The distance to F is the "focal length" of the zone plate = 1/Add.

The other enhanced "focal point" is at infinity.

Therefore, the zone plate has two "powers", 0 and the Add.

Exercise 14.5 A diffractive bifocal contact lens has a power of -6.00 D and a bifocal add
of +2.50 D. If the diffractive area has a diameter of 4.8mm, calculate how many full
wave zones it contains and the diameter of the central zone assuming the lens has a
design wavelength of 555 nm.
Ans. almost 13, 1.33 mm

14.6 Soft Contact Lenses

14.6.1 Required Power

Essentially, soft contact lenses flex to conform to the contour of the cornea.
There is apparently little or no tear lens.

It may be expected, therefore, that the required FV is the ocular refraction.

However, several largely unpredictable mechanisms affect soft lens power in situ.

Unlike hard contact lenses, therefore, required FV cannot be calculated satisfactorily.

14.6.2 Wet and Dry Soft Lenses

The hydrated lens in situ is a swollen transformation of the dry manufactured state.
All lens parameters are subject to a swell factor when hydrated.

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Exercise 14.6 Hydrated parameters on the eye are r2 = 8.00 mm, t = 0.20 mm, n = 1.43,
FV = -3.00 DS. Given a swell factor of 1.25, calculate FV in the dry state for which
n = 1.60.
Ans. -5.08 D

14.7 The Eye Underwater

Our vision under water becomes drastically blurred as the water neutralises the corneal
power completely. Our vision under water is therefore chiefly due to the eye lens.
Consider an average cornea (index =1.376) with a front surface radius of 7.7 mm. The
power of the front surface of this cornea in air is equal to 376 / 7.7 = 48.83D. The front
surface power underwater becomes (376333)/7.7 = 5.58 D. The average back surface
power of the cornea is  5 D. Thus the total power of the cornea under water is almost
zero. We become high hyperopes underwater (K = 48 D!).
To design a spectacle lens for distance correction under water, we may consider the water
between the lens and the eye as a liquid lens like the tear lens in contact lens design.
Consider a planoconvex lens providing correction underwater. In the exploded method
(see Fig. 14.13), the back surface of the liquid lens will have the same radius of curvature
as the cornea. We can therefore find the power of the water surface. For clear vision, the
vergence of the rays leaving the water surface and reaching the cornea should be K. By
step back analysis, we can find Fspw for clear vision. Note that the power of the correcting
lens will be much higher in air as in the case of the implant lens!
A much simpler solution for correcting vision underwater is to provide water tight plane
glass/plastic goggles with air trapped between the goggles and the eye. As the cornea is
now in air, its power is not neutralised. The spectacle correction can be worn inside these
goggles or attached behind the flat glass/plastic plate of the goggles. The goggles with the
distance correction inside can be used both underwater and in air. However objects
underwater will appear closer due to the effect of apparent depth!

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Fspw

Fig. 14.13 Exploded method applied to find the power Fw of the water surface. Distance
correction underwater can then be obtained by step back analysis.

Exercise 14.7 : r1 = 7.70 mm. nwater = 1.3333. In air, Fsp = -3.00 DS at 16mm.
n(spectacles) = 1.523. i) Calculate the power of the correcting lens under water at 16 mm
from the corneal apex. (ii) What will be the power of this lens when measured in air? iii)
What will be the power of the correcting lens in air placed just behind the flat face-plate of
sealed goggles which is at 16 mm from the eye? In this case comment on the appearance of
objects seen under water
Ans. i) +27.19D ii)+74.84D iii) -3.00D, objects will appear closer.

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Appendix: Revision of Zone plate

Fresnel Zone plate

Circular aperture

R2 l +
P0
R1 l +/2

P0 l P

Fig. A1 Fresnel Zones

Consider a plane wave falling on a circular aperture placed at a distance l from the point
P as shown in the Fig. A1. The circular aperture is divided into several concentric circles
such that the distances of adjacent circles from the point P differ in length by /2. The
areas between the subsequent circles are termed as Fresnel zones. The area covered by
the inner most circle is the central Fresnel zone. Light from the subsequent Fresnel zones
arrive out of phase at the point P. If we have even number of Fresnel zones within the
aperture no light will reach the point P. We can show that the areas of all the Fresnel
zones are equal. Now, if we make the alternate Fresnel zones opaque, then light from all
the transparent zones would add in phase at P and we will have a very bright focused spot
of light at the point P. This specially designed aperture is called a Fresnel zone plate
(see Fig. A2). The point P is the primary focal point of the Fresnel zone plate. There
will be more points between the aperture and the point P at which constructive
interference can take place. These points are called the secondary focal points of the
Fresnel zone plate.

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Fig. A2 Zone Plate

Instead of making the alternate zones opaque, we can make the alternate zones have
greater thickness (by optical coatings or by shaping the surface) to acquire an additional
path difference of /2. This would make light from all the Fresnel zones add in phase at
the point P and we will have a brighter focus. Such a plate is called a Fresnel lens.

Primary Focal length

From the Fig.A1 we can see that the radius Rm of the mth circle is related to the distance
l by,

Rm = [ (l + m/2)2 - l2 ]1/2 = (ml)1/2

Here, we have ignored the term (m22)/4 as this term is much smaller than l.

Thus the radii of the Fresnel zones are proportional to the square root of the natural
numbers i.e.

Rm  m and, l = (Rm)2/m

Practice problem: The 4th circle of a Fresnel zone plate has a radius of 0.8 mm. For
light of wavelength 550 nm, calculate the primary focal length.
Ans: 29.1 cm

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