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C R ITI CAL POWE R AN D E N E R GY S O LUTI O N S 1 ❮❮

PURE POWER / / WINTER 2016

Paralleling generator

contents
cover story
systems 10 ❮❮
2
When designing generator
Tying a microgrid systems, electrical engineers
to the smart grid must ensure that generators
and the building electrical
Building owners frequently integrate the utility’s
systems that they support are
smart grid into their buildings to reduce electricity appropriate for the specific
use and increase energy efficiency. Microgrids application. Engineers must
can lower costs and raise reliability. make decisions regarding
generator sizing, load types,
PUBLICATION SERVICES whether generators should
1111 W. 22nd Street, Suite 250, Oak Brook, IL 60523 be paralleled, fuel storage,
Phone: 630-571-4070 Fax: 630-214-4504 switching scenarios, and many
Jim Langhenry Patrick Lynch other criteria.
Co-Founder and Publisher, CFE Media Director of Content
jlanghenry@cfemedia.com Marketing Solutions
plynch@cfetechnology.com
Previewing NEC
Steve Rourke
Co-Founder, CFE Media
srourke@cfemedia.com
Paul Brouch
Director of Operations
2017 changes
15 ❮❮
pbrouch@cfemedia.com
Trudy Kelly The current version of NFPA 70:
Assistant to the Publisher Rick Ellis National Electrical Code (NEC)
tkelly@cfemedia.com Audience Management Director
rellis@cfemedia.com is the 2014 edition. Though this
Kristen Nimmo
Marketing Manager Michael Rotz
version has not been adopted
knimmo@cfemedia.com Print Production Manager in all jurisdictions, this article
mike.rotz@frycomm.com
Elena Moeller-Younger reviews a project that is being
Marketing Manager designed to meet the 2014
emyounger@cfemedia.com
code. A few key updates to the
NEC in 2017 and their potential
CONTENT SPECIALISTS/EDITORIAL impacts to future designs are
Amara Rozgus Emily Guenther also highlighted.
Editor-in-Chief/Content Manager Associate Content Manager
arozgus@cfemedia.com eguenther@cfemedia.com

Jack Smith Michael Smith

Managing Editor Creative Director
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Amanda Pelliccione
Director of Research
apelliccione@cfemedia.com

PUBLICATION SALES
Midwest Northeast
Matt Waddell Richard A. Groth Jr.
312-961-6840 774-277-7266
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West, TX, OK International

Tom Corcoran Stuart Smith
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U.S., Canada ON THE COVER:
Brian Gross Poland/Russia/Czech Republic
630-571-4070 x2217 Michael Majchrzak A microgrid is capable of islanding
Fax: 630-214-4504 +48 22 852 44 15 itself as needed from the larger utility
bgross@cfemedia.com Fax: +48 22 899 29 48
mike_majchrzak@trademedia.us grid, for example, during extreme
weather events or at times when
Pure Power is published quarterly by CFE Media and is mailed as a supplement with
self-generation is more cost-effective.
Consulting-Specifying Engineer and Plant Engineering magazines. Copyright 2016 by CFE Media A smart interface allows power to be
LLC. All rights reserved. Editorial offices are located at 1111 W. 22nd Street, Suite 250, supplied to and/or received from the
Oak Brook, IL 60523. Phone: 630-571-4070. grid. Courtesy: Affiliated Engineers Inc.

www.csemag.com/purepower
❯❯
PURE POWER // WINTER 2016
2 Cover Story

By Kevin Krause, PE, LEED AP, Affiliated Engineers Inc., Madison, Wis.

Tying a microgrid
to the smart grid
Building owners frequently integrate the utility’s smart grid into their buildings to reduce electricity
use and increase energy efficiency. Microgrids can further lower costs and raise reliability for owners
and the surrounding communities.

T
he need to transform the nation’s erate and store power from various DERs
aging electrical grid to enhance LEARNING OBJECTIVES including renewable electrical generation
reliability and sustainability is  Learn about smart grids, mi- sources, such as wind and solar, provid-
increasingly imperative as the crogrids, and related concepts. ing the ability for end users to function
existing grid becomes outdated and unable  Identify key considerations for in isolation from the grid. Balancing
to support or withstand current needs and integrating smart grids and supply-and-demand resources—including
microgrids into nonresidential
risks. The fundamental concepts behind buildings. thermal and electrical loads—within its
microgrids do not vary much from typical defi ned boundaries, a microgrid sys-
 Recognize key considerations
campus-scale power-production models for facility owners, engineers, tem provides resiliency (see Figure 1).
that proliferated throughout the mid-20th and contractors looking to A microgrid can operate as an “island”
century, which include paralleled local and integrate smart grids and or independently from the larger utility
utility generation with the ability for local microgrids into nonresidential grid as required, for example, during
generation to sustain a portion of a cam- building projects. extreme weather events or at times when
pus. However, the drivers for their self-generation is more cost-effective (see
application and the smart technologies available to sup- Figure 2). With the design of distributed generation on
port them continue to evolve. many campuses dating back decades, microgrids have
existed before the term was coined. However, what has
SMART GRID AND MICROGRID DEFINED changed is that now there is a smarter interface that
The terms “smart grid” and “microgrid” often become makes the supply and draw of power to and from the
interchanged, inviting a variety of different understand- grid more efficient, resilient, flexible, and sustainable.
ings. Defining these systems by scale and function will The purpose of electrical transmissions systems in
help navigate their interrelation and set a basis for how to the U.S. traditionally has been to distribute electric-
apply them. ity from large utility-scale generation plants to loads,
A smart grid is an intelligent and integrated system of i.e., consumers. Comparing it to the transportation
interregionally connected electric utilities, consumers, network of vehicular traffic, the transmission system
and distributed-energy resources (DERs). This evolving is the interstate system while local distribution con-
form of electrical transmission uses advanced metering, sists of roads and streets. The safety systems are traffic
monitoring, management, automation, and communica- controls. The variability of economic market forces, an
tion technologies to provide reliable two-way delivery and increase in climate change, and natural and human-
consumption of electric power. Real-time flow of essential made disasters demand the grid to support large-scale
information among grid components assures effective, ef- and local generation and distribution. Effectively, every
ficient operation for generators, distribution system opera- lane of the grid superhighway now must go in both
tors, and end users. A smart grid optimizes two-way traffic directions, subject to instant reassignment and change.
on the grid. A smarter electrical transmission system supports the
A “microgrid” is a localized electrical network that technical, fi nancial, and regulatory requirements for
allows campuses and other similar-sized districts to gen- microgrid development.

www.csemag.com/purepower

Experience with microgrid projects has shown the areas
essential to successful analysis, planning, and implementa-
tion to include:
 Identifying needs and drivers
 Developing functional requirements
 Developing system topology and operation
 Considering technical, regulatory, and financial
outlooks
 Proper commissioning, start-up, and operation.
IDENTIFYING MICROGRID NEEDS, DRIVERS,
AND FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
Campuses, municipalities, and other similarly sized re-
gional areas choose to develop a microgrid for a variety
of reasons, including resiliency, economics, flexibility,
sustainability, and reputation. At the beginning of each
project, it is important to discuss and determine the
drivers that influence implementing a microgrid in a
specific region.
With the increasing occurrence of natural disasters,
such as Hurricanes Sandy and Ike, as well as the potential
threat of human-made disasters and impact from popula-
tion growth in susceptible areas, institutional leaders and
private enterprises are seeking ways to make the electrical
grid capable of withstanding these types of events. Resil-
iency to maintain operations during such crises, and to
Cover Story 3 ❮❮
PURE POWER // WINTER 2016
Figure 1: A microgrid is a
localized electrical network
that allows campuses and
other similar-sized districts
to generate and store power
from various distributed energy
resources (DERs) including
renewables, such as wind and
solar. Balancing captive supply-
and-demand resources—in-
cluding thermal and electrical
loads—within its defined
boundaries, this type of energy
system provides resiliency. All
graphics courtesy: Affiliated
Engineers Inc.
have greater control throughout, is a driving requirement
for microgrid implementation. Mission critical functions
likely to be supported by a microgrid include health care,
research, financial operations, data centers, or providing
refuge. A robust and flexible electrical generation and dis-
tribution network must allow for these operations to con-
tinue functioning 24/7 throughout the year to maintain life
or prevent loss of critical data. The system equipment and
design must be self-healing and support recovery efforts to
get facilities and campuses back up and running following
such tragedies.
Many cities and regions see microgrids as a possibility to
create economic growth or better maintain financial stabil-
ity. As part of a microgrid analysis, it is important to evalu-
ate the mix of varying energy strategies, generation sources,
and fuel types and to develop concepts that will provide
clean, efficient, economic, highly reliable, and
locally controlled power and thermal energy. With this type
of infrastructure in place, cities and regions can increase
the recruitment and development of high-technology busi-
nesses, research and development centers, data centers,
and similar enterprises key to job creation and economic
growth. The recent advantageous price of natural gas as
well as advances in renewable energy integration and con-
trols are making microgrids more economically feasible to
construct and operate, thus increasing their rate of imple-
mentation. Microgrid planning must include investigation
of potential power purchase agreements and credits that
can generate additional revenue or provide more options for
campuses and municipalities to buy power, so they can bal-
ance a power portfolio and allow a microgrid to maximize
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❯❯
PURE POWER // WINTER 2016
4 Cover Story
its use and timing of resources for greatest efficiency and
economy.
Advances in renewable energy integration allow broader
deployment of renewable energy sources and storage tech-
nologies as part of a microgrid strategy. Proper analysis and
inclusion of these in microgrid planning efforts allow cam-
puses and municipalities to meet stated carbon reduction or
neutrality goals as well as to reduce greenhouse gases result-
ing from traditional energy-generation processes.
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is at the forefront
of energy-integration research. At the National Renewable
Energy Laboratory in Golden, Colo., the Energy Systems
Integration Facility (ESIF) uses a megawatt-scale research
electrical distribution bus and smart hardware-in-the-loop
prototyping to validate technologies and techniques that
advance the interconnection of distributed energy systems
and the seamless integration of renewable energy technolo-
gies into the grid.
Affiliated Engineers Inc. planned, designed, and en-
gineered ESIF’s primary research areas and laboratory
systems, focusing on the research electrical distribution bus
interconnecting plug-and-play testing components, hydro-
gen research exploring simpler and more scalable energy
storage, and fuel cell and cell component development. A
safety- and data-integrity-driven supervisory control and
data acquisition system deploys hardware-independent soft-
ware to govern the array of function-specific control systems
and disseminate real-time data to principal investigators
collaborating worldwide. The knowledge gained from this
www.csemag.com/purepower
research, as well as other ongoing research and development
of new microgrid technologies, informs design professionals
of the capabilities of microgrid advances and the planning
and development necessary for their success.
While developing microgrids, initial feasibility analysis
of the potential energy sources and distribution systems
that may meet the specific needs of a given project should
be completed. Basic steps include identification of equip-
ment types, equipment sizes, technical challenges, and
basic system approach. Analysis typically includes a simple
financial analysis of initial installation costs, potential
operational costs savings, and payback durations on invest-
ment. The purpose of the initial analysis, often spread-
sheet-based or using specialized software—such as the
Distributed Energy Resources Customer Adoption Model
(DER-CAM) as developed by DOE’s Lawrence Berkeley Na-
tional Laboratory—is to rule out nonviable options and set
the stage for solutions that will be technically and finan-
cially viable to support the intended performance goals for
the microgrid.
DEVELOPING MICROGRID SYSTEM
TOPOLOGY AND OPERATION
As the development of a microgrid concept advances, it is
critical to identify various possible operational modes of the
given system. With the complexity of the system being ana-
lyzed implicit, the number of possible system configurations
is substantial. To fully understand the intricacies of each
configuration or mode and the transition between modes,
Figure 2: A microgrid is capable of islanding
itself as needed from the larger utility grid,
for example, during extreme weather events
or at times when self-generation is more cost-
effective. A smart interface allows power to be
supplied to and/or received from the grid.

a matrix of generation and load configurations should be
developed. State diagrams provide a clear snapshot of each
operating mode (see Figure 3). Using transitional analysis
and fault-clearing analysis, the design engineer can identify
the required safeties, communications, and sequences of
operation required for smart microgrid operation.
Potential modes or configurations of microgrid operation
include:
 Grid mode—local generation is connected to the util-
ity grid and operates in parallel
 Intentional island mode—local generation is delib-
erately disconnected from the utility grid and can
operate independently. Generation is typically sized to
support the total load of the microgrid.
 Emergency island mode—local generation is discon-
nected from the utility grid following a grid outage
and can operate independently. Generation may or
may not be sized to support the total load of the mi-
crogrid. Load shed may be required.
 Load-shed mode—turning off load/demand response
to prevent failure of a system when demand exceeds
available generation
 Power-purchase-only mode—all
loads are being supplied com-
pletely by power purchased from Utility interconnection
the utility. No local generation is
operating. constraints are stipulated by
 Power purchase and self-gen-
eration mode—loads are being
the IEEE 1547 standard.
supplied by a mix of power
purchased from the utility and local generation
 Power-export mode—loads are being supplied com-
pletely by local generation, and there is excess power
from local generation being sent back to the utility
grid
 Micro-renewable generation—microgrid installations
comprised of less than 50-kW electrical or less than
45-kW thermal resources
 Multiple versus single utility feed—system is consid-
ered single or redundant utility feeds for resiliency
 Varying self-generation dispatch—local generation is
turned on or off, or power output is adjusted based on
a number of factors that may include load matching,
optimized source selection, economics, or redundancy
Cover Story 5 ❮❮
PURE POWER // WINTER 2016
 Storage dispatch—local energy-storage devices are
placed in energy-collection, generation, or idle mode
based on whether there is an excess or shortage of
local or utility generation.
A number of events can affect the operating mode of
the microgrid. Anomalies that must be investigated and
planned for include:
 Utility loss
 Generation asset loss
 Transformer loss
 Feeder loss
 Switching-node loss
 Momentary utility-voltage sag/brownout
 Utility underfrequency event
 Momentary utility loss
 Sustained utility loss
 Fuel interruption
 Resynchronization to the utility.
Distributed generation (DG) that uses a microgrid al-
lows any combination of local fuel-based or renewable
energy sources, such as natural gas generators, micro-
turbines, fuel cells, solar photovoltaic (PV), distributed
wind, and combined heat and power (CHP) cogenera-
tion systems, to serve the loads of a facility, campus,
city, or another defi ned district.
Often implementing renewable
energy sources or energy-produc-
tion technologies with less envi-
ronmental impact than the power
produced by a traditional central
power plant, DG is more efficient in
transmission to its nearby served
loads.
A typical foundation of many microgrid systems is
a CHP source comprised of a natural gas combustion
turbine generator. This form of cogeneration generates
electricity with the combustion turbine and captures
wasted heat using a heat-recovery steam generator
(see “Putting combined heat and power to work” on
page xx). The steam can be used for heating buildings,
operating chillers, supplying other process loads, or
additional
power generation by the use of a steam turbine genera-
tor. CHP can save facilities considerable money on their
energy bills due to its high efficiency and provide a
hedge against electricity cost increases. Depending on
the technologies implemented, CHP systems can typi-
cally achieve total system efficiencies of 60% to 80%
for producing electricity and useful thermal energy.
This is a great improvement over the average efficiency
of fossil-fueled power plants in the U.S., which is 33%.
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❯❯
PURE POWER // WINTER 2016
6 Cover Story
Fuel cells provide another CHP source to consider,
because of their smaller carbon footprint as compared
with traditional CHP, with operating efficiencies that
can achieve rates greater than 95%. Affi liated Engi-
neers Inc. has evaluated a number of fuel cell applica-
tions, including their consideration in the distributed
power-generation analysis for a microgrid in North
Carolina, which, in addition to fuel cells, also
included exploring rotary motor/generator
units, flywheels, and batteries for uninterrupt-
ible power. Fuel cells are not in widespread
use primarily due to their fi rst cost, but as
production of these systems increases or as
alternative funding/buy-back arrangements
are developed, their installations may
become more economically viable.
The extent of renewable ener-
gies, such as PV or wind turbines,
connected to the grid is increasing.
Production from these renewable
Figure 3: A state diagram provides a clear snapshot of each
operating mode. Using transitional analysis and fault-clear-
ing analysis, the design engineer can identify the required
safeties, communications, and sequences of operation required
for smart microgrid operation.
technologies is subject to weather conditions.
For those times when the renewable source is
not producing energy, the utility, local
fuel-based generation assets, or stored
energy must be available to carry the
load. As more DG sources connect to
the grid and supply power, multiple
forms of storage will be necessary
to ensure that loads can be served
reliably at any time. Evolving storage
options include flow batteries, which offer virtu-
ally unlimited longevity by pumping externally
stored liquid (electrolytes) to create electrical
current, and hydrogen electrolyzers, which
convert electricity to hydrogen for storage. In
turn, hydrogen can supply fuel cells and offers
advantages over batteries, which must be electri-
cally recharged. As smart buildings and even smart
vehicles interconnect with the grid, over time, they too
may be able to store and return power by virtue of their
batteries. For example, their onboard controls’ ability
to automatically control when a vehicle is charging or
using the batteries may power the grid based on predic-
tions of occupant behavior.
Smart buildings can improve the operation of a mi-
crogrid by which they are served. As load centers in a
given locality, buildings that are technologically enabled to
monitor their own energy consumption can be further en-
www.csemag.com/purepower
abled to reschedule certain power usage to off-peak hours,
improving the overall efficiency of a microgrid. These
intelligent buildings also can monitor and adjust building
performance to reduce load and bolster cost savings.
TYING A MICROGRID TO
THE SMART GRID
To respond fully and most effectively to the need
for more sophisticated demand-and-supply mon-
itoring and control, electrical energy manage-
ment must be addressed. Increased monitoring
and reporting of actual demands and behaviors
of the end user, as well as further educat-
ing the end user on the amount and pattern
of their electrical usage, is essential.
There are elements of personal privacy
that must be considered and a certain
level of user-maintained control over
the collection, use, reuse, and sharing
of personal information that must be
protected. Without this knowledge be-
ing collected, however, electrical energy
suppliers delivering to the grid are
challenged to meet demand or adjust to greater
fluctuations in demand due to optimized facility
operations or the variable nature of many of the
distributed renewable energy sources being inter-
connected. With a more sophisticated smart grid,
concurrent data across users and genera-
tors will allow for additional demand
control, adjustment, or curtailment,
with the goal of changing behaviors
of consumers. If a user is better in-
formed of the impact and cost of using
energy during peak times, they could be
more inclined to adjust the time when they
run a given appliance or charge such devices as
portable electronics or electrical vehicles.
A number of groups have been working on
developing standards to integrate control and
communication technologies into the grid. These
include ASHRAE and the National Electrical Manu-
facturers Association—who jointly sponsored devel-
opment of Standard 201P: Facility Smart Grid Information
Model—as well as The Smart Grid Interoperability Panel
(SGIP), a public-private partnership originally established
by the National Institute of Standards and Technology,
who saw the standard through to release and approval in
May 2016. The model facilitates integration of objects and
actions within the electrical infrastructure, such as onsite
generation, demand response, load control, load shedding,
submetering, load prediction, and energy storage. Standard
201P promotes the effectiveness of smart facilities, support-
ing the optimum functionality of a national smart grid.
 Cover Story 7 ❮❮

PURE POWER // WINTER 2016

Figure 4: The new hot-water
distribution system at the Uni-
versity of Texas Medical Branch
in Galveston connects the two
plants to buildings throughout
the campus with more than
5 miles of piping, directly
buried wherever possible. To
counter Galveston Island’s high
saltwater table, acidic soil, and
flood-prone location, Affiliated
Engineers Inc. selected a highly
corrosion-resistant, factory-
insulated, thin-walled steel pip-
ing system with a high-density
polyethylene outer jacket.

Advanced power electronics and communication

❮❮
technologies increasingly enable large numbers of DG
sources to link to the grid through highly controllable
power processors, allowing efficient and reliable dis-
tributed power delivery during regular grid operation
and powering specific islands in case of faults and
contingencies, such as the natural disasters men-
tioned previously. SGIP also has been instrumental in
developing IEEE P2030.7: Standard for the Specifica-
tion of Microgrid Controllers (requires membership to
read), which speaks to the technical issues and chal-
lenges associated with the operation of a microgrid
and presents control and testing approaches for safe
system operation.
Power electronics facilitate the efficient and seam-
less conversion of dc to ac power and vice versa. An
example of the scale of such power electronics is the
multiple-megawatt solar inverters required for utility-
scale PV power stations installed in places like South-
ern California. These inverters have been developed
to maximize allowable dc string voltage and tested
to meet requirements of NFPA 70: National Electrical
Code (NEC) Articles 690.11 and 690.12 for dc arc fault
protection and rapid shutdown, as well as IEEE 1547:
Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources
with Electric Power Systems (requires membership to
read) standards for voltage and frequency response
and UL 1741: Standard for Inverters, Converters,
Controllers, and Interconnection System Equipment
for Use With Distributed Energy Resources (requires
purchase to read).
Utility interconnection constraints are stipulated by
the IEEE 1547 standard. The limitations outlined therein
relate to power quality and the impact of microgrids on a
commercial power utility and, subsequently, its custom-
ers. Utility interconnection rules are defi ned and regu-
Putting combined heat and power to work
Implementation of 15 MW of onsite combined heat and power (CHP) to supple-
ment outside electrical utilities was a central component of Affiliated Engineers Inc.’s
approach to strengthening utility systems at the University of Texas Medical Branch
(UTMB), Galveston, in the aftermath of Hurricane Ike. The hurricane flooded more
than 1 million sq ft of campus buildings to depths of 6 ft, interrupting and damaging
electrical infrastructure, emergency generators, and natural gas service, as well as
chilled water, municipal water, and sewer distribution.
Rather than replacing in kind, Affiliated Engineers Inc. and UTMB established an
approach that would protect utility sources by elevating boilers and chillers or protect-
ing them with floodwalls, supplement outside electrical utilities with 15 MW of onsite
microgrid CHP, and replace much of the existing steam system with a more resilient
and efficient district hot-water system (see Figure 4). CHP islanding capability will re-
duce the threat of hurricane disruption to UTMB operations. With 50% more efficiency
than conventional systems, UTMB’s two new CHP plants also will save approximately
$3 million annually, with a 5-year simple payback. The 7.5-MW east plant is elevated
18 ft above ground level (30 ft mean sea level), and includes two 3,550-ton electric
centrifugal chillers, a 5.5-MW gas combustion turbine, a 2-MW condensing-extraction
steam turbine, a 75,000 lb/hour heat-recovery steam boiler, one 1-MW diesel engine-
driven, black-start generator, and 2 million gallons of chilled-water thermal storage.
Hardening of the existing west plant included a 5.5-MW gas combustion turbine,
two 1-MW diesel generators, a 75,000 lb/hour heat-recovery steam generator, and a
2-million-gal thermal storage tank (see Figure 5). The entire existing plant, CHP, and
thermal storage will be protected by a 14-ft (20-ft sea level) floodwall.
lated by individual state jurisdictional bodies referred
to as public utility boards, public service commissions,
and consumer utility boards. The IEEE 1547.4-2011 util-
ity interconnection standards were specifically updated
to accommodate microgrids and their unique frequency

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❯❯
PURE POWER // WINTER 2016
8 Cover Story

Figure 5: Elevated 18 ft above ground level

(30 ft sea level), the new 7.5-MW east plant
at the University of Texas Medical Branch
includes two 3,550-ton electric centrifugal
chillers, a 5.5-MW gas combustion turbine,
a 2-MW condensing extraction steam tur-
bine, a 75,000 lb/hour heat-recovery steam
boiler, one 1-MW diesel engine-driven,
black-start generator, and 2 million gal of
chilled-water thermal storage.

stability issues along with synchronization requirements. structures, future cost of fuel, environmental permitting,
With the number of distributed-generation sources, technical limitations of available distributed-generation
storage, and loads connected in a microgrid, the system technologies, and sheer complexity of the systems being
frequency becomes a bit more challenging to control in evaluated must be weighed simultaneously and reconciled.
situations such as the transition from grid mode to island
mode. High-speed microgrid switches have been devel- REGULATORY AND FINANCIAL OUTLOOK
oped by many manufacturers to handle these transitions Policymakers, regulators, and grid operators are at the
and protect critical loads connected to a microgrid from beginning of new rules that will govern the next phase of
power-quality anomalies by quickly isolating from the microgrid development and operation. Many states and lo-
utility grid. It is critical that the calities have yet to cross the bridge
specific utility-interconnection of what a microgrid might mean to
requirements in effect at a specific In addition to regulatory and their regions. Existing utility regu-
project site are understood and lations originally were intended to
analyzed for their impact on the
possible microgrid solutions.
financial factors, still-evolving protect the consumer and the sup-
plier, but the relationship between
As any project is being evalu-
ated for a microgrid, redundancy
technologies pose challenges utility operators and microgrids is
largely undefi ned. These anachro-
of local distribution systems and
the optimal location of generation to microgrid development. nisms can make the reality of a mi-
crogrid very difficult in some areas.
sources and utility interconnections The northeast portion of the U.S. is
must be investigated to be optimally configured in support leading reform efforts to increase resiliency to natural di-
of microgrid goals. Techniques that can be applied include sasters. Ongoing policy discussions play a critical role in
loop distribution in place of radial, primary selective the siting, interconnection/demarcation, utility franchise
distribution, redundant feeders, and strategic placement rules, fi nancing, and regulatory approvals necessary for
of fuel-based generation and storage infrastructure. These any microgrid development. Facility owners, engineers,
concepts and technologies are building blocks of successful and contractors must be prepared to work through these
microgrid and smart-grid design. potential hurdles to arrive at systems that can ultimately
be constructed and operated.
FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS IN A Microgrid development can be expensive, depending
MICROGRID-DEVELOPMENT PROCESS on existing utility grid infrastructure and rates in a given
Several aspects of planning are universal to the develop- region. The investment payoff is directly related to the op-
ment of a microgrid, regardless of location. Utility and eration of the assets. Microgrids have a high rate of fi nan-
other regulatory statutes, initial capital investment, rate cial success in areas with high electricity prices. Onsite

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10 Paralleling Generators

By Leslie Fernandez, PE, LEED AP, JBA Consulting Engineers, Las Vegas

Paralleling
generator systems
When designing generator systems, electrical engineers must ensure that generators and the building
electrical systems that they support are appropriate for the specific application. Whether providing standby
power for health care facilities or prime power for processing plants, engineers must make decisions
regarding generator sizing, load types, whether generators should be paralleled, fuel storage, switching
scenarios, and many other criteria.

EDITOR’S NOTE: Because of the extent of this This article examines standby systems
topic, this article is divided into three parts: LEARNING OBJECTIVES in which generators serve as backup to
 Learn best practices for paral- the main utility source, such as those
PART 1: Covers the need for backup leling generators, touching on commonly installed in airports, data
power, code requirements, why dependability, cost savings, centers, hospitality complexes, water-
diesel is preferred, generator rat- efficiency, synchronization, and treatment facilities, and in most life safety
other aspects.
ings, and the benefit of parallel- institutional applications.
ing generator systems.  Know the requirements for
emergency, standby, and
backup power loads. THE NEED FOR BACKUP POWER
PART 2: Covers paralleling switchgear, Interruptions of electrical power, even for a
 Explain the benefits of parallel
their components, and common power-generation systems. short duration, can introduce the potential
paralleling modes. for situations that could imperil public
health and safety. Extreme weather-related
PART 3: Covers installation considerations, intercon- disasters often disrupt power to hundreds or thousands of
nection with the utility, and generator sizing. people and businesses, potentially for days. When these
Also, two existing parallel generator systems situations occur, they call attention to the vulnerability of
will be presented and their paralleling elements the nation’s electrical grid and the importance of alterna-
highlighted. tives. Hospitals, airports, data centers, water and sewage

E
xpertise in generator power design for emergency,
legally required standby, and business critical
loads is an essential skill for an electrical engineer
to master. When designing generator systems, elec-
trical engineers must ensure that the generators and the
building electrical systems can support the critical loads
reliably and effectively. Building codes will dictate the
prescriptive requirements for these systems (see Table).
For business critical loads, the owner or client must be
consulted to identify the nonemergency loads that require
backup power. When the business needs outlined by the
client require increased reliability, a paralleled diesel-
generating system and electrical paralleling switchgear
(PSG) typically are employed (see Figure 1).
facilities, fueling stations, communication, and transporta-
tion systems require alternate-power sources to limit the
impact and ultimately save lives during times of crisis. The
loss of electrical power due to storms, natural disasters, or
high-power-demand issues are increasingly common. The
loss of business and the associated economic impact from
power outages are significant. Emergency generators are
necessary to provide the reliable power required to main-
tain operations during primary supply system failures.
WHY DIESEL-POWERED GENERATORS ARE USED
Diesel-powered generators are considered among the
most reliable approaches to providing backup power.
When compared with alternative fuels and technologies,
diesel-powered generators provide a steady supply of

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 Paralleling Generators 11 ❮❮

PURE POWER // WINTER 2016

EMERGENCY AND LEGALLY REQUIRED STANDBY POWER REQUIREMENTS
Type of Equipment Max. Time to Min. IBC Section IFC Section
Energize Duration
Emergency Power Systems-Note 1
Exit signs 10 seconds 2 hours 1011.6.3 604.2.14 604.2.15, 1011.6.3,
2403.12.6.1
Exit illumination 10 seconds 2 hours 1006.3 1006.3, 604.2.14, 604.2.15

Any emergency voice/alarm communication including area of 10 seconds 4 hours for 402.7.3, 402.7.4, 604.2.13, 604.2.14, 604.2.15,
refuge communication systems (barrier-free and horizontal generator 907.5.2.2, 403.4.9 907.2.1.1
exits) 907.2.1 NFPA 72

Fire detection and fire alarms 60 seconds 2 hours 403.4.9, 405.9, 604.2.14 604.2.15, 907.2.11
909.20.6.2, 907

Smoke control systems in high-rise buildings, underground 60 seconds 2 hours 403.4, 404.7, 405.9, 909.11
buildings and covered mall buildings including energy 909.11
management systems if used for smoke control or smoke
removal

Fire pumps in high-rise buildings and underground buildings 10 seconds 8 hours (NFPA 403.4.9, 405.9 604.2.14 NFPA 20, 604.2.15,
20) 913.2
Smokeproof enclosures and elevator shaft pressurization 60 seconds 4 hours 403.4.8, 909,
pressurization 909.20.6.2,

Any shaft exhaust fans required to run continuously in lieu of 60 seconds 4 hours 717.5.3
dampers

Fire service or occupant evacuation elevator car operation in 60 seconds 4 hours 3003, 3007, and 3008 604.2.14,
high-rise and underground buildings (including control system, 604.2.15
motor controller, operation control, signal equipment, machine
room cooling/heating, etc.)
Elevator car lighting and communications in high-rise and 10 seconds 4 hours 3003, 3007, and 3008 604.2.14, 604.2.15
underground buildings 604.2.18
Lights, heating, and cooling for building fire command center 60 seconds 24 hours 604.2.14
and mechanical equipment rooms serving the fire command
center

Power (other than lights, heating and cooling) for building fire 60 seconds 4 hours
command center

Mechanical and electrical systems required by IFC 27 60 seconds 4 hours Chapter 27

(hazardous materials including UPS rooms)

Legally Required Standby- Note 1

Exhaust fans for any loading dock located interior to a building 60 seconds 4 hours
Transformer vault ventilation equipment 60 seconds 4 hours
Heat tape for sprinkler lines and heating in sprinkler riser rooms 60 seconds 24 hours

Fuel pump system for any legally required system 60 seconds 4 hours

Note 1: The fuel pump and associated systems for the emergency or standby systems shall be provided with power from the generator to maintain fuel supply.

Table1: Emergency and legally required standby power requirements, JBA Consulting Engineers
IBC Emergency and Legally Required Standby Power Requirement Table
high-quality power and superior performance for tran- NFPA 70: National Electrical Code (NEC), Article 517.30,
sient or fluctuating power demands due to the high-torque as well as the California Electrical Code require hospitals
characteristics of diesel engines (see Figure 2). Many and critical care facilities to have standby power systems
international building codes and standards effectively that start automatically and run at full capacity within 10
require diesel generators for code compliance because of seconds of power failure. Natural gas-powered generators
the need for rapid response time, load-carrying capacity, generally are not acceptable as a source of power for gen-
fuel supply and availability, and reliability. One of the erators due to fuel-source reliability. During disasters, such
most important and unique features of diesel-powered as an earthquake, gas lines are immediately turned off to
generators, as compared with other technologies, is quick avoid the risk of fire and explosion in case of a rupture.
response time and block-loading capability within sec- Lastly, diesel generators are available in a range of sizes to
onds of normal source-power failure. meet facility power needs.

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12 Paralleling Generators

GENERATOR RATINGS 
When evaluating generator sets for parallel operation,
ratings are important because the rating directly affects
the efficiency and effectiveness of the selected generator 
set based on the application (see Figure 3). It is especially
important to understand the specific application, as this
will help in selecting the proper rating. Specifically, the
following factors should be taken into consideration:
 Average load factor
 Maximum required load
 Typical load variation
 Annual run time per genset.

ISO 8528-5-2013: Reciprocating internal combus-
tion engine driven alternating current generating
sets, Part 5: Generating sets defi nes generator ratings.
These rating defi nitions were created for gaseous and
diesel generator sets and were developed to provide
consistency across manufacturers. ISO 8528 should be
considered a minimum standard for all generator set
ratings. If the manufacturer determines that a product
is capable of higher performance than that of the ISO
defi nition, the manufacturer’s rating should be used.
Defi nitions relevant to this discussion are power factor,
standby power rating, prime power rating, and continu-
ous power rating.

Power factor: The standard power factor for a 3-phase
generator is usually 0.8.
Standby power rating: The generator set is capable of
providing emergency power at times when no other
source is available. ISO-8528-1 limits the 24-hour
average load factor to 70% of the emergency name-
plate rating. No overload capacity is available for the
standby or continuous-power-rated generators. The
ISO standard gives no limit to run time in the event
of a utility power outage; however, manufacturers
have limits on their generator run time typically in the
range of 200 to 500 hours for an entire year. Standby
generators typically operate around 50 hours/year
with maximum expected usage of 200 hours/year.
Prime power rating: Generator sets rated for prime
power are designed for supplying electric power in
lieu of commercially purchased power from a utility.
These include applications like rental generator sets
supplying power for temporary use as well as applica-
tions that are typically remote from a utility grid, such
as wilderness outposts, remote mining, and petroleum
exploration operations. ISO limits the 24-hour average
load factor to 70% of the prime rating nameplate.
Prime-rated power is capable of providing the power
for an unlimited time period to a varying load. Over-
load is also allowed but only at 10% of the rated value,
which is permitted to only once in 12 hours.
Continuous power rating: With a continuous power
rating, the generator can again provide a power supply
for an unlimited period—but only to a non-varying
load. But the average output power comes out to be
between 70% to 100% of the rated power output. The
load should be “relatively steady,” which means that
there should be no significant variations in it; other-
wise, the prime power rating could be a better option
to consider. A continuous-rated generator usually does
not have any overload capability.

USING LOW-VOLTAGE GENERATORS IN

Figure 1: The photo shows a paralleled diesel-generating system and
electrical paralleling switchgear (PSG) for a large Las Vegas casino. All
graphics courtesy: JBA Consulting Engineers
MEDIUM-VOLTAGE SYSTEMS
For generators rated 2,000 kW or less, it is common to
install 480 V 3-phase generators and step up voltage trans-
formers. The cost of medium-voltage generators is signifi-
cantly higher—in the order of an additional $80,000 to
$150,000 per unit. Additionally, medium-voltage generators
generally do not have the UL listing necessary to support
emergency power loads.
For medium-voltage standby generation systems that un-
dertake closed-transition transfer operations, the medium-
voltage side of the step up transformers must match the
utility’s distribution system voltage.

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 Paralleling Generators 13 ❮❮

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WHAT PARALLELING IS
Paralleling is the operation in which multiple power sources,
usually two or more generators, are synchronized and then
connected to a common bus. Also, with closed transition
back to the utility, PSG will parallel the generators and
synchronize the generator output with the utility source for
a short duration before transitioning back to utility power.
When connecting the generators in parallel or synchroniz-
ing with the utility, the following criteria must be met:

 Matched/proper frequency

 Matched/correct phase rotation

 Phase voltages in phase and within specified
voltage range.
Typical parameters that determine synchronization
include a voltage difference of less than 5%, a frequency
difference of less than 0.2 Hz, and a maximum phase angle
of 5 electrical degrees between the sources.
Closed transition is used when it is desirable to transfer
loads with zero interruption of power when conditions
permit. It is used when the generator system transfers back
to the utility and when load testing the generators with
building loads. Closed transition can be either a soft load
transfer or a make-before-break transfer. The PSG soft-
load transfer synchronizes and operates the generators in
parallel with the utility and transfers loads in increments
between the two sources, thereby minimizing voltage or
frequency transients on the generator plant and utility
distribution system.
The typical soft-load-transfer overlap time is around 2
seconds. The make-before-break transfer will parallel the
generators and perform a transfer of load from the genera-
tor to the utility. This can be the transfer of one large
block load or the transfer of multiple block loads having
time delays between the block loads. Time-delay transfer
can either be programmed through the PSG or the down-
stream automatic transfer switches (ATS). Typical ATS
make-before-break transition overlap time is usually less
than 100 milliseconds.
BENEFITS OF PARALLEL
POWER-GENERATION SYSTEMS
Paralleling multiple sources provides increased reliability,
flexibility in load management, and maintenance capabili-
ties with little to no disruption. Multiple generators paral-
leled to a common bus can better serve emergency and
business critical loads, particularly for system response
time and dynamic load response once in operation. How-
ever, more complex, parallel generator standby systems
have significant advantages with respect to reliability
and redundancy. These advantages include redundancy,
Figure 2: Diesel-powered generators, such as the unit in this photo,
provide a steady supply of high-quality power and superior performance for
transient or fluctuating power demands due to the high-torque characteris-
tics of diesel engines.
Figure 3: This photo shows an exterior generator yard with two paralleled
generators with weatherproof exterior enclosures, subbase tanks, and a
step up transformer for medium-voltage distribution. In addition, these
enclosures are equipped with a load center wired to block heaters, battery
chargers, lights, and convenient outlets.
efficiency, expandability, and ease of maintenance and
serviceability.
Redundancy: The redundancy inherent in the parallel
operation of multiple generators provides greater reli-
ability than a single generator unit for critical loads. If
one unit fails, the backup loads are redistributed among
other generators in the system on a priority basis. In
many environments, the emergency loads that need the
highest degree of reliable backup power usually account
for only a fraction of the overall power generated by
the system. In a parallel system, this means that most
emergency elements will have the redundancy necessary
to maintain power even if one of the units goes out. If
an N+1 confi guration is adopted, one generator can be
offl ine for maintenance while serving the required loads.

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14 Paralleling Generators
Figure 4: In addition to multiple breaker configurations, this photo shows
redundant dual 125 V dc battery systems, each sized to operate the paral-
leling system for at least 3 hours.
Furthermore, providing a running spare, an N+1 gen-
erator confi guration will increase the reliability of the
generator system from 98% to 99.96% reliability.
One of the primary purposes of redundancy is to elimi-
nate single points of failure. The objective is to remove
the single points of failure, and caution must be exercised
to ensure they are not simply moved to another part of
the system. The controls enabling redundancy must also
be analyzed to avoid failure modes that compromise reli-
ability. For example, paralleled generator sets that rely
on a single master control for signals to start and close to
a paralleled bus actually replace one failure point with
two, as the master control and the communication link
between the master and the generator sets each represent
single points of failure. A well-engineered paralleling sys-
tem will have dual hot-backup control systems, redundant
communication pathways, redundant best battery select
dc power supplies, multiple breakers, multiple power
pathways, and a well-documented procedure for system
recovery whenever a component fails (see Figure 4).
Efficiency: A more efficient system provides more sta-
bility and reduces cost and losses. Loads do not remain at
a constant level in most installations. Variations in power
demand can cause a single larger generator to run at loads
of less than 30% of capacity, which could cause wet stack-
ing. The optimum operational point for prime movers is
between 75% and 80% of its rated value. At this point,
the generator will be at its maximum efficiency. Fuel and
maintenance costs will also be reduced. The paralleling
control system can be equipped with a generator load
control that can add and remove generators in response
to the actual load/demand of the system. This functional-
ity is enabled by a generator removal time delay, which
can initiate generators being removed from the bus as a
function of the acceptable generator percentage loading
selected by the operator. If the load changes and demand
reach 90% of running capacity, for example, an additional
generator can be started, synchronized, and paralleled to
the bus with no time delay.
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Figure 5: Provisions have been made for a third unit to the right of the two
paralleled generators shown in this photo in case the client requires the
capacity in the future.
Expandability: When sizing generators to match
system load requirements, it is often difficult to accu-
rately project increases in load and adequately plan for
unanticipated additional requirements. If load projec-
tions are aggressive, the initial investment in a generator
may be higher than necessary. On the other hand, if load
projections are inadequate, reliable standby power may
be compromised or expensive post-installation system
upgrades may be required. Parallel systems offer a level
of scalability and modularity that allows for variations
in load over time and optimum operation of the installed
units. If physical space planning is executed appropri-
ately, generators can be added for additional power supply
when required (see Figure 5).
Ease of maintenance and serviceability: In an N+1
paralleled generator system, if a generator in the system
fails or requires maintenance, individual units can be
dismantled and serviced without disrupting the function
of the remaining units. Furthermore, the redundancy
inherent in a parallel system provides multiple layers of
protection and ensures an uninterrupted supply of power
for critical circuits.
It is important to match all of the new paralleled system
generators with the same manufacturer, ratings, and type.
When modifying an existing system, matching the existing
generator manufacturer, type, pitch, and ratings is highly
preferred. This matching will avoid load sharing issues
between the generators. Moreover, standardizing on one
model type will also enhance maintenance and simplify
operations of the generator system.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Leslie Fernandez is senior project engineer, electrical at
JBA Consulting Engineers. He has more than 30 years of
engineering, design, and field experience including medium-
voltage distribution systems for military, mining, tunneling,
food manufacturing, power production facilities, high-rise
facilities, and casino-resort complexes.
 National Electrical Code 15 ❮❮

PURE POWER // WINTER 2016

By Brian Martin, PE, CH2M, Portland, Ore.

Previewing
NEC 2017 changes
The current version of NFPA 70: National Electrical Code (NEC) is the 2014 edition. Though this
version has not been adopted in all jurisdictions, this article reviews a project that is being designed
to meet the 2014 code. A few key updates to the NEC in 2017 and their potential impacts to future
designs are also highlighted.

D
esigning industrial facilities requires diligence,
long hours, close adherence to the National
Electrical Code (NEC), and often, coordination
with the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ).
For industrial facility electrical designs to be safe and
economical, the engineer plays a critical role in de-
signing a properly sized system that avoids waste and
oversizing.
An approach CH2M is taking on a recent industrial
project includes steps to gather necessary client data,
size the service in coordination with the AHJ, and
ensure that the 2014 NEC is properly applied. A few key
updates to the NEC in 2017 and their potential impacts
to future designs are also highlighted.
GATHER FACILITY
DESIGN BASIS INFO
The fi rst step in the process is to gather the fundamental
design information from the client so that a functional
and code-compliant design could be achieved. After
several client meetings and extensive data gathering, the
client provided the following major design criteria:
 The design is for a greenfield facility that closely
resembles an existing plant.
 Outages can be tolerated once a year, with the
objective of limiting complete outages to one event
in 5 years. This must be counterbalanced with the
expense of construction.
 Energized work is to be avoided; where possible,
provide the ability to reduce the incident energy to
less than 1.2 cal/cm2.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Liquid-filled outdoor trans-
 Understand NFPA 70: National
formers are preferred Electrical Code (NEC) and when
over larger (1-MVA and to apply it.
larger) transformers.  Discover how to work with the
authority having jurisdiction to
 Provide 2 MVA of service apply the NEC in specific cases.
capacity for future expansion  Learn how to size a service to an
industrial facility using alternate
 The location of the site has methods allowed by the NEC.
not been confirmed, but  Recognize upcoming changes to
based on the probable loca- the 2017 NEC.
tion, the design must
follow the 2014 NEC.
SERVICE SIZING
When the design boundary conditions have been deter-
mined, the next critical step is to determine the service
size. The NEC has prescriptive rules for calculating the
size of new services. In practice, it is rare to calculate the
service size for an industrial facility using the standard
methods shown in the NEC. These would more typically
be used for commercial applications. For most industrial
processes, sizing the overall service for anything close to
the connected load would result in a system that is much
larger than required, costly, and wasteful. Chapter 2 of
IEEE 141: IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power
Distribution for Industrial Plants discusses this topic in
more detail and is an excellent reference.
There are several sections of the NEC that can be used
to justify a smaller service size. The most important sec-
tion is Article 90.4, which states, “By special permission,
the AHJ may waive specific requirements in this code
or permit alternative methods where it is assured that
the equivalent objectives can be achieved by establish-

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16 National Electrical Code

ing and maintaining effective safety.” If this section is
used, it is incumbent upon the engineer to provide con-
crete evidence that the system he or she has designed
is safe and the size can be justified. In the case of our
plant, we are fortunate that there is an existing plant
that runs a nearly identical process. Using 12 months
of utility data, existing client metering, and collected
field data, we’ve determined the loading on the existing
facility to be:
 Connected load: 5.0 MVA
 Maximum demand: 3.0 MVA
 Average demand: 2.5 MVA.
However, there are several key differences existing
between the two sites that prevent us from using the
existing facility information without modification:
 The new site has different climactic conditions that
increase the cooling load due to increased use of
chillers. Our helpful mechanical engineer was able
to estimate the increase in mechanical loading as a
20% increase in peak mechanical loading over the
design basis and an approximately 10% increase
over the average.
 Due to process-control changes, there will be a
higher use of process equipment. As a result, the
ratio of the anticipated
average demand over the
maximum demand is great-
er for the new facility. In
practice, this makes little
difference to the design
internal to the plant, but it
is important information to
provide to the utility.
At this point, it should be obvious that the connected
load has nearly tripled, yet all of our demand numbers
have increased; i.e., we do not appear to be taking credit
for additional load diversity. After closely examining the
loads in the new facility, we determined that the major-
ity of the equipment would operate coincidently and
would not result in an increase in diversity. Based on the
collected data and allowing for the additional 2 MVA for
future load growth, our service is sized for 12 MVA.
Most AHJs will allow industrial services to be sized
under engineering judgment using similar methods, as
described above. In the event that you do not have an
AHJ that is willing to approve an approach similar to
this, there are several code sections that may allow you to
reduce the size of both services and feeders.
NEC Article 220.60 allows you to use the largest load of
two or more noncoincident loads for both feeder and ser-
vice calculations. In addition, NEC Article 430.26 allows
“ … [for] motors operating on duty cycle, intermittently,
or from all motors not operating at one time, the authority
having jurisdiction may grant permission for feeder con-
ductors to have an ampacity less than specified in 430.24
… ” Lastly, for existing services, the engineer can use the
provisions of Article 220.87 and calculate the service load
by multiplying the maximum measured demand over the
last year by 125% and then adding the new load.
INITIAL DESIGN DECISIONS
Based on the client’s desire for reliability, reduced
maintenance intervals, and arc fl ash reduction, sev-

 The new plant will be

larger, and additional lines
of similar equipment will
be installed.

The projected load data for the

new facility is expected to be:

 Connected load: 14 MVA

 Maximum demand: 10 MVA

 Average demand: 9 MVA. Figure 1: The diagram shows the initial power system design. Note that medium-voltage breakers and
downstream transformers have been removed for clarity. All graphics courtesy: CH2M

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The 2017 NEC includes
significant changes, new
articles, and editorial changes.
Several changes have been
incorporated that will impact
the design of new facilities.
eral initial design decisions were made.
These decisions (in bold), along with the
key reasoning behind them, are briefly
explained below:
 Medium-voltage switchgear configured Figure 2: The diagram shows the initial emergency power system design.
in a main-tie-main configuration allows
for loss of a utility service, utility maintenance, and
maintenance of medium-voltage breakers and bus
(see Figure 1).
 Outdoor liquid-filled 12.47-kV to 480 V ac transformers 
reduce building cooling loads and the building foot-
print. However, this created two issues to address:
1. Long taps—the taps from the transformer to the
switchgear were approximately 110 ft (see Fig-
ure 1). The provisions of NEC Article 240.21(C) 
(4), Outside Secondary Conductors, were used
to allow for the long secondary taps, which
included installing the conductors under at least
2 in. of concrete when under the building until
the conductors were terminated on the main
breaker.
2. Incident energy levels—the arc flash incident
energy levels were extremely high, so differen-
tial protection was added. The differential zone
was designed to include the medium-voltage
cable, the 12.47-kV to 480 V ac transformers, 
and the secondary of the transformers. The
differential function is shown as ANSI device
number 87 in Figure 1.
 Due to the 30-cycle rating, low-voltage switchgear al-
lows the engineer to disable instantaneous trips on the
main breaker. This results in greater selective coor-
dination with downstream feeder breakers, but does
increase the arc flash incident energy.
National Electrical Code 17 ❮❮
PURE POWER // WINTER 2016
 Adding infrared (IR) windows to electrical equipment
allows for IR scanning of breakers and terminations
without opening equipment doors.
Zone-selective interlocking (ZSI) at the switchgear
level allows the trip devices to communicate so that
the nearest upstream device to the fault operates with-
out intentional delay. This can significantly reduce arc
flash incident energies.
High-resistance grounding (HRG) allows continuous
plant operation during a single line-to-ground fault
and reduces the probability of an arc flash event. The
transformers shown in Figure 1 were specified with a
5-amp HRG system. For more discussion on this topic,
refer to “Choosing between grounded and ungrounded
electrical system designs” (Pure Power, Fall 2013,
p.20) and “Well-grounded facilities.” Refer to NEC
Articles 250.36 and 408.3(F)(3) for HRG system code
requirements (referred to as high-impedance ground
in the NEC).
NEC Article 240.87 requires arc energy reduction for
breakers that can be rated or adjusted to 1,200 amps
or higher via one of five methods:
1. ZSI
2. Differential relaying
3. Energy-reducing maintenance switching with
local status indicator
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PURE POWER // WINTER 2016
18 National Electrical Code
Figure 3: The diagram shows the revised power system design. Note that
additional downstream transformers have been removed for clarity.
4. Energy-reducing active arc flash mitigation
system
5. An approved equivalent means.
Differential relaying and ZSI have already been applied
as previously discussed. In addition to those methods, the
electronic trip units specified also include energy-reducing
maintenance switching. The application of energy-reducing
maintenance switching may impact selective coordina-
tion as required in Articles 700, 701, and 517. Use of other
methods, such as ZSI, may be more appropriate on those
systems. At the time of specification, breakers and trip
unit manufacturers were not known, so the actual incident
energy value that can be achieved is also unknown. The
energy-reducing maintenance switching can be used to
further reduce incident energy if the ZSI and differential
protection do not achieve a sufficiently low value.
In addition to the typical process loads connected to
the system in Figure 1, the new facility also contains
emergency (NEC Article 700), legally required standby
(NEC Article 701), and optional standby (NEC Article 702)
loads. Article 700.10(B)(5)(a) requires that wiring from an
emergency source to supply emergency and other loads is
in, “Separate vertical switchgear sections or separate verti-
cal switchboard sections, with or without a common bus,
or individual disconnects mounted in separate enclosures
shall be used to separate emergency loads from all other
loads.” This segregation is shown in Figure 2. The 2014
NEC introduced Article 700.8, which requires surge-pro-
tective devices on or in all emergency system switchgear,
switchboards, and panelboards, so these were incorporated
into the emergency system.
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DESIGN REFINEMENT
As what sometimes happens for these projects, the
initial estimate came back with a higher cost than the
client could support. To align the project budget with the
client’s business case, several critical modifications were
made:
 Modify medium-voltage main-tie-main to a simple
radial system, as shown in Figure 3. This reduced
complexity, removed two 1,200-amp breakers, and
reduced the building footprint. While a simpler sys-
tem, this came at the expense of system redundancy
and maintainability. Removal of the additional utility
feed and the redundant main breaker will require
that the plant take an outage for routine maintenance
or in the event of loss of utility.
 Simplify the 480 V ac system to a radial system,
which involved removing one 5,000-amp breaker per
switchgear, transfer controllers in the switchgear,
and the associated tie bus. Simplifying to a radial
system allows for full use of the 12.47-kV to 480 V ac
transformers because spare capacity does not need
to be maintained to allow for supporting loads from
both sets of switchgear on one transformer.
 Remove the emergency switchgear section.
Because the NEC Article 700 switchgear section
only supported emergency lighting loads, a listed
lighting inverter was used instead to support the
emergency lighting requirements. Placing the
emergency lights on a lighting inverter allowed
for removal of the emergency switchgear section,
emergency automatic transfer switch, and associ-
ated cabling. Refer to Figure 2 to view the original
confi guration and Figure 4 for the revised standby
power confi guration.
LOOKING AHEAD TO THE 2017 NEC
The 2017 NEC is scheduled to be shipped on Nov. 19, 2016,
and is available for viewing on the NFPA website now. It
includes significant changes, new articles, and editorial
changes. Several changes have been incorporated that will
impact the design of new facilities.
ARC FLASH HAZARD WARNING, NEC ARTICLE
110.16(B): SERVICE EQUIPMENT
“In other than dwelling units, in addition to the require-
ments in (A), a permanent label shall be field- or factory-
applied to service equipment rated 1,200 amps or more.
The label shall meet the requirements of 110.21(B) and
contain the following information:
 Nominal system voltage
 National Electrical Code 19 ❮❮

PURE POWER // WINTER 2016

 Available fault current at the service overcurrent 1. ZSI
protective devices
2. Differential relaying
 The clearing time of service overcurrent protective
devices based on the available fault current at the 3. Energy-reducing maintenance switching with local
service equipment status indicator

 The date the label was applied.
Exception: Service equipment labeling shall not be
required if an arc flash label is applied in accordance with
acceptable industry practice.”
Analysis: This is a modification to the previous
requirements for arc flash hazard labeling to require ad-
ditional information for services. This information will
make additional information available to field personnel
for determination of short-circuit and arc flash personal
protective equipment requirements.
CARTRIDGE FUSES AND FUSE HOLDERS, NEC
ARTICLE 240.67: ARC ENERGY REDUCTION
“Where the ampere rating of the fusible switch is 1,200
amps or higher, Articles 240.67(A) and (B) shall apply. This
requirement shall become effective Jan. 1, 2020.
(A) Documentation shall be available to those autho-
rized to design, install, operate, or inspect the in-
stallation as to the location of the fusible switch(es).
4. Energy-reducing active arc flash mitigation system
5. An instantaneous trip setting that is less than the
available arcing current
6. An instantaneous override that is less than the
available arcing current
7. An approved equivalent means.”
Analysis: The language of this section is clarified, and
items 5 and 6 have been added as methods for achieving
arc flash energy reduction. Setting an instantaneous trip
or overriding a setting that is below the arcing current
will open the breaker with no delay, thus providing rapid
breaker opening and minimizing arc flash energy.
SIZE OF EQUIPMENT GROUNDING CONDUCTORS,
NEC ARTICLE 250.122 (F): CONDUCTORS IN
PARALLEL
“(F) For circuits of parallel conductors as permitted in
310.10(H), the equipment-grounding conductor shall be
installed in accordance with (1) or (2).

(B) Method to reduce clearing time. One of the follow-

ing shall be provided:

1. Differential relaying

2. Energy-reducing maintenance switching with local

status indicator

3. Energy-reducing active arc flash mitigation system

4. A fuse that would open the circuit in 0.07 seconds or

less, at or below the available arcing current

5. An approved equivalent means.”

Analysis: This is a new section added to the NEC in

2017, designed to provide similar methods for arc flash
reduction as was already provided for circuit breakers in
the 2014 NEC. Note that this change does not become ef-
fective until 2020 to allow for manufacturers to design and
produce practical solutions.
Circuit breakers, NEC Article 240.87: arc energy reduc-
tion “(B) Method to reduce clearing time. One of the follow-
ing or approved equivalent means shall be provided: Figure 4: The diagram shows the revised emergency power system design.

www.csemag.com/purepower
❯❯
PURE POWER // WINTER 2016
20 National Electrical Code

(2) Multiconductor cables ment-grounding conductor in each multicon-

(a) If multiconductor cables are installed in parallel,
the equipment-grounding conductor(s) in each
cable shall be connected in parallel.
(b) If multiconductor cables are installed in par-
allel in the same raceway, auxiliary gutter,
or cable tray, a single equipment-grounding
conductor that is sized in accordance with
250.122 shall be permitted in combination with
the equipment-grounding conductors provided
within the multiconductor cables and shall all
be connected together.
(c) Equipment-grounding conductors installed in
cable trays shall meet the minimum require-
ments of 392.10(B)(1) (c). Cable trays complying
with 392.60(B), metal raceways in accordance
with 250.118, or auxiliary gutters shall be per-
mitted as the equipment-grounding conductor.
ductor cable shall be sized in accordance with
250.122 based on the overcurrent protective
device for the feeder or branch circuit.”
Analysis: The requirements for parallel equipment-
grounding conductors in raceways and multiconductor
cables have been separated into two subsections, and the
sizing requirements for multiconductor cable equipment-
grounding conductors have been reduced when installed
in the same raceway tray or gutter—with an equipment-
grounding conductor sized using Article 250.122. In
previous versions of the NEC, the equipment-grounding
conductor for each parallel multiconductor cable would
be sized per 250.122. This cable was an expensive cus-
tom order with long lead times.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Brian Martin is the manager of the electrical department
in the Portland, Ore., office of CH2M. He is a member of the
Consulting-Specifying Engineer editorial advisory board.

(d) Except as provided in 250.122(F)(2)(b) for

Read more at www.csemag.com/purepower
raceway or cable tray installations, the equip-

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