Professional Documents
Culture Documents
3, MARCH 2003
Invited Paper
Abstract—This review of design principles for implementation inductors on silicon, as far as current solutions go, is their ex-
of a spiral inductor in a silicon integrated circuit fabrication cessive area consumption. Since inductors are built at the wafer
process summarizes prior art in this field. In addition, a fast surface, by using multilevel interconnect layers, they share the
and physics-based inductor model is exploited to put the results
contributed by many different groups in various technologies and same complex processing as that of the active devices. Place-
achieved over the past eight years into perspective. Inductors are ment of the passive over the active devices to overcome this
compared not only by their maximum quality factors ( max ), but disadvantage is not a viable option in planar silicon technology.
also by taking the frequency at max , the inductance value ( ), The small vertical spacing between interconnect layers and from
the self-resonance frequency ( SR ), and the coil area into account. the metal to the substrate prevent one from taking that approach
It is further explained that the spiral coil structure on a lossy
silicon substrate can operate in three different modes, depending [1]. This makes the spiral inductor on silicon a rather costly
at first order on the silicon doping concentration. Ranging from component. Unlike the classical radio coil, where a ferrite core
high to low substrate resistivity, inductor-mode, resonator-mode, was used for size reduction, ferrites cannot be applied at fre-
and eddy-current regimes are defined by characteristic changes quencies beyond 1 GHz due to high polarization losses and low
of max , , and SR . The advantages and disadvantages of permeability [2]. Soft ferromagnetic cores may be applicable in
patterned or blanket resistive ground shields between the inductor
coil and substrate and the effect of a substrate contact on the the future in that frequency regime, provided that eddy current
inductor are also addressed in this paper. Exploring optimum losses in those electrically conductive films can be suppressed
inductor designs under various constraints leverages the speed of [3], [4]. This currently leaves one only with the option to build
the model. Finally, in view of the continuously increasing operating an inductor on silicon with an air core, consuming excessive
frequencies in advancing to new generations of RF systems, the chip area.
range of feasible inductance values for given quality factors are
predicted on the basis of optimum technological features. In this paper we therefore concentrate on the spiral air core
inductor integrated on a silicon substrate and optimized in a
Index Terms—Capacitance, electromagnetic induction, HF tradeoff between area consumption and electrical parameters.
radio communication, impedance matching, inductive energy
storage, inductors, integrated circuit fabrication, losses, magnetic We will not only provide a review of the research on integrated
fields, magnetic microwave devices, microwave circuits, microwave inductors in silicon technology, which has been pursued with
resonators, passive circuits, factor, resistance, resonance, thin- great intensity since 1995 and is now maturing, but it is also
film inductors. our intention to put those results into perspective. Furthermore,
we will shed light on the task of inductor optimization through
I. INTRODUCTION process technology and layout options. This will be achieved
by using a fast physics-based and predictive inductor model to
(a) (b)
Fig. 2. Cross sections of a four-level metal interconnect stack with (a) all metal layers shown and (b) only a thicker top metal layer; the thickness of the metal
layers and insulating oxide layers are indicated.
Fig. 4. Comparison of inductances and quality factors versus frequency of a square and a circular spiral aluminum inductor designed for identical inductance
values near Q (Momentum simulations); also shown is a simulation of the circular coil by using Rejaei’s model (R = 120 m; W = 13:7 m; S = 10:3 m;
N = 4; T = 1 m; T = 4 m; = 5
cm). 0 1
coil and the substrate (discussed in Section V-B). Such a metal
shield is generally grounded, as indicated by the connection to
, and can cause eddy currents due to the close proximity to
the spiral coil. The resistance shunts the bulk resistances
and can thus have a strong effect on the inductor character-
istics if .
B. Quality Factor
In Fig. 7(a), the frequency dependences of the measured (data
(a)
points) and modeled ’s of a sample inductor are shown. We use
the conventional definition of , being the ratio of the stored to
dissipated total energy in the component. Both the desired mag-
netic and the parasitic capacitive energy components are consid-
ered in this definition. This is in contrast to other definitions of
that relate to the stored magnetic energy only [19], [20]. In RF
circuit design, however, consideration of the total energy stored
in the component and of the total loss is relevant. The related
quality factor can simply be calculated as ,
with being the impedance of the inductor. While the induc-
tance only shows a weak dependence on frequency (not included
in Fig. 7), exhibits a distinct maximum at a certain
(b) frequency [see markers in Fig. 7(a)]. This can easily
Fig. 5. Cross sections of (a) a single spiral coil and (b) two stacked spiral coils be understood from the lumped-element model in Fig. 6. At low
over a silicon substrate. frequency, is small and and are large, so
that the RF signal essentially passes through the path of ,
i.e., the spiral metal coil. With increasing frequency, grows
initially as . At frequencies beyond but below
resonance, is larger than but is
still smaller than . This situation occurs since, due to
the planar spiral coil structure, , . The larger
part of the RF signal now passes through the substrate, i.e., the
path of , causing to decay with frequency. Note that also
the skin- and current-crowding effects lead to a limitation of
, but are in most practical design cases overshadowed by
those substrate RF losses. This becomes evident from the com-
Fig. 6. Lumped-element model of a spiral inductor on a lossy silicon sub-
strate; a planar substrate contact (Sub) and an ideal substrate contact (Sub ) are parisons in Fig. 7(b). With suppressed substrate losses and in-
indicated. The spiral metal coil is represented by L , R , and C , the leakage creased conductivity and thickness of the metal, the skin- and
current through the substrate by C , R and C , and eddy currents in the current-crowding effects on become very significant. For the
substrate by L 0 M and R (including eddy currents in a ground shield). The
resistor R indicates the electrical effect of a ground shield layer inserted typical inductor configuration [ in Fig. 7(b)], the decay
between the spiral coil and the substrate (excluding eddy currents). of beyond due to capacitive substrate currents domi-
722 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON DEVICES, VOL. 50, NO. 3, MARCH 2003
If one aims at maximizing , then and need to be As explained above in Section III-B, the modes of operation
minimized and should be as large as possible. In the case of a spiral coil structure on silicon can vary depending on the
that should appear at a low frequency, comparably more substrate resistivity. We had simulated , , the
attention should be paid to the reduction of . The effect of inductance at , and of the sample inductor
a metal resistance on that is four time lower is illustrated in in Fig. 7 as functions of the silicon resistivity. The results
Fig. 7(a) . The optimization of and , are shown in Fig. 8(a) and (b). In the simulations the impact
in contrast, is most important if should be shifted to a of eddy currents in the conductive silicon was illustrated by
high-frequency value. This is illustrated in Fig. 7(a) for the cases turning this loss component on or off (solid versus dotted lines
of an oxide that is two times thicker between the metal coil and in Fig. 8). The results in Fig. 8 illustrate three distinct domains
silicon , as well as for a 10 higher sil- of operation, which we named “inductor mode,” “resonator
icon resistivity . Modification of the silicon mode,” and “eddy current mode.” These operation modes have
resistivity is a quite practical means for improving , while an a counterpart in the TEM, slow-wave, and skin-effect modes of
BURGHARTZ AND REJAEI: ON THE DESIGN OF RF SPIRAL INDUCTORS ON SILICON 723
Fig. 13. Envelopes of maximum quality factors versus inductances at 0.9, 2.4,
1
and 5.8 GHz for a 10-
cm substrate, derived from simulations with random
0
variations of W , S , N , and R (R < 200 m; W , S > 3 m; N = 1 8) and
with the structure depicted in Fig. 2(b) (T = 2 m).
Fig. 12. Envelopes of maximum quality factors versus inductances at 2.4 GHz
for 0.1-, 10-, and 1-k
1 cm substrate resistivities, derived from simulations
with random variations of W , S , N , and R (R < 200 m; W , S > 3 m;
0
N = 1 8) and with the structure depicted in Fig. 2(b) (T = 2 m; (Al)).
the widest range of inductance values for a given can be pro- [20] K. K. O., “Estimation methods for quality factors of inductors fabricated
vided near 2.4 GHz. RF circuit design based on discrete inductor in silicon integrated circuit process technologies,” IEEE J. Solid-State
Circuits, vol. 33, pp. 1249–1252, Aug. 1998.
components can safely be expected up to 10 GHz, while far be- [21] M. Soyuer, J. N. Burghartz, K. A. Jenkins, S. Ponnapalli, J. F. Ewen, and
yond that range a transition to distributed passive components W. E. Pence, “Multilevel monolithic inductors in silicon technology,”
may be required. Electron. Lett., vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 359–360, 1995.
[22] J. N. Burghartz, M. Soyuer, and K. A. Jenkins, “Microwave inductors
and capacitors in standard multilevel interconnect silicon technology,”
ACKNOWLEDGMENT IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. 44, pp. 100–104, Jan. 1996.
[23] J. N. Burghartz, M. Soyuer, K. A. Jenkins, and M. D. Hulvey, “High-Q
The authors wish to acknowledge the DIMES integrated pro- inductors in standard silicon interconnect technology and its application
to an integrated RF power amplifier,” in IEDM Tech. Dig., 1995, pp.
cessing laboratory, and in particular H. Schellevis, for fabrica- 1015–1018.
tion of the test inductors used to verify the validity of the con- [24] J. N. Burghartz, M. Soyuer, and K. A. Jenkins, “Integrated RF and mi-
centric-ring inductor model. The development of the inductor crowave components in BiCMOS technology,” IEEE Trans. Electron
Devices, vol. 43, pp. 1559–1570, Sept. 1996.
model was sponsored by Philips Semiconductors. [25] K. B. Ashby, W. C. Finley, J. J. Bastek, S. Moinian, and I. A. Koul-
lias, “High Q inductors for wireless applications in a complementary
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IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. 49, pp. 2093–2098, Nov. Professor at the Technical University of Delft, Delft, The Netherlands, where
2001. he has set up a research program in RF silicon technology, including topics in
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[57] J. M. Lopez-Villegas, J. Samitier, C. Cane, P. Losantos, and L. Bausells, degree in theoretical condensed matter physics from
“Improvement of the quality factor of RF integrated inductors by layout the University of Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands,
optimization,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. 48, pp. 76–83, in 1994.
Jan, 2000. He was a Post-Doctoral Research Fellow in the
[58] W. B. Kuhn and N. M. Ibrahim, “Analysis of current crowding effects in Theoretical Physics Department at the University
multiturn spiral inductors,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. of Leiden in 1994 and 1995 and in the Department
49, pp. 31–38, Jan. 2001. of Applied Physics at the Technology University of
[59] I. J. Bahl, “Improved quality factor spiral inductors on GaAs substrates,” Delft from 1995 to 1997. Since 1997, he has been
IEEE Microwave Guided Wave Lett., vol. 9, pp. 398–400, Oct. 1999. with the Department of Information Technology and Systems at the Delft
[60] L. F. Tiemeijer, D. Leenaerts, N. Pavlovic, and R. J. Havens, “Record University of Technology, where he is currently an Associate Professor. His
Q spiral inductors in standard CMOS,” in IEDM Tech. Dig., 2001, pp. research interests are in the area’s of electromagnetic modehng of integrated
949–951. passive components and physics of ferromagnetic devices.