Journal of European Industrial Training

Conflict management styles of Turkish managers

Enver Özkalp, Zerrin Sungur, Aytül Ayşe Özdemir,
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Conflict
Conflict management styles of management
Turkish managers styles
Enver Özkalp, Zerrin Sungur and Aytül Ayşe Özdemir
Anadolu University, Eskişehir, Turkey 419
Received 24 July 2008
Abstract Revised 28 November 2008
Purpose – The aim of this study is to determine Turkish managers’ conflict styles in different Accepted 20 March 2009
sectors, namely durable consumer goods, aviation, automotive and banking.
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Design/methodology/approach – A total of 130 managers’ conflict management styles were

assessed by applying the Rahim’s 1983 Organizational Conflict Inventory-II.
Findings – First, integrating and, second, compromising are found to be the most preferred conflict
styles of Turkish managers. The other important finding is that preferring obliging styles of conflict
management changes according to the status of managers. Obliging is mostly used when the conflict
partner has an upper level status.
Research limitations/implications – Additional data from cross-cultural studies are needed to
form a comprehensive understanding of conflict management styles. Also, the number of respondents
in the study is not enough to generalize the findings; additional data from different sectors could make
the findings more valid.
Practical implications – There seems to be a need for seminars or practice-oriented workshops on
evaluating and understanding the nature of conflict and learning to manage conflict as a beneficial and
creative process for the betterment of both individuals in organizations and organizations themselves.
Originality/value – The study provides a revised base for cross-cultural conflict management
studies and also highlights the national dynamics of Turkish managers’ relationships, especially for
international investors.
Keywords Organizational conflict, Conflict management, Management styles, Turkey
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
Conflict is an inevitable part of our lives. Traditionally people often regard conflict as a
negative, harmful phenomenon, rather than as a natural and pervasive phenomenon in
their experiences (Boonsathorn, 2007, p.198). Conflict in an organizational context can be
normal and healthy, lack of tension is ultimately dull and stagnant and unlikely to foster
creativity and growth. As human beings interact in organizations, differing values and
situations create tension. When conflict is recognized, acknowledged, and managed in a
proper manner, personal and organizational benefits will result (Silverthorne, 2005).
Even though some managers see conflict as something that should be avoided at all
costs, others see conflict as presenting exciting possibilities if managed in a positive,
constructive fashion (Darling and Fogliasso, 1990). Today’s effective manager seeks not
to avoid but to manage conflict within the organization (Rahim et al., 2001).
Before evaluating the conflict management style of Turkish managers, it is Journal of European Industrial
appropriate to evaluate the economic and cultural context of Turkey. Turkey’s Training
Vol. 33 No. 5, 2009
population of 70 million is young and growing, and its economy is the 17th largest in pp. 419-438
the world (IMF, 2006). The US Department of Commerce (DOC) has identified Turkey q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0309-0590
as one of the ten most promising emerging economies, and a recent World Bank study DOI 10.1108/03090590910966571
 JEIT also declared Turkey one of the ten countries most likely to enter the top tier of the
33,5 world economy. Today’s Turkey, modern and open to the world, follows a liberal
policy in economy just as in its political structure.
Evaluating the cultural context, Turkey is identified as a “society with low synergy,
with many in-groups and intergroup conflicts”. Ingroups, consisting of primary
relationships, tend to keep and maintain relationships within their closed networks and
420 tend to see the others as strangers (Sargut, 2000). These characteristics are barriers to
generalized trust and high social capital in society. A study of 600 academics from
different universities in Turkey revealed that generalized trust is as low as (10 percent)
and their social profile is that of a closed, small network (Özdemir, 2007).
The main characteristics of Turkish culture are high collectivism, power distance,
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uncertainty avoidance and conservatism (Ronen, 1986; Trompenaars and

Hampden-Turner, 1998; Kabasakal and Bodur, 1998a). According to the findings of
the GLOBE project, Turkey is below the world average on performance and future
orientation. Kabasakal and Bodur (1998a) have explained this qualification in the
perspective of in-group and family based relationships. Strong interdependence with
other members of their in-group reduces the importance attributed to performance and
future orientation. The high significance attached to family and other in-group members
is associated with a hierarchy of relationships. In this respect, Turkish organizations are
known for their vertical hierarchical structure, low delegation, centralized decision
making and strong personality of managers (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1998).
Findings obtained from 287 managers, especially in private sector organizations in
Turkey, revealed that managers have high scores on power distance, loyalty towards
community, collectivism and paternalism. Managers believed that employees, by nature,
did not take a proactive stance to their work and feel obligated to help others within the
organizational context (Aycan et al., 2000). Centralized decision making, autocratic and
paternalistic leadership style are the dominant characteristics of Turkish management
culture. Aycan et al. (2000) conceptualized and operationalized the paternalism construct
in a recent study. Accordingly, paternalism has been described as a subordinate-superior
relationship, whereby people in authority assume the role of a parent and consider it an
obligation to provide support and protection to those under their care. Subordinates, in
turn, reciprocate such care, support and protection of the paternal authority by showing
loyalty, deference and compliance to him/her. Kanungo and Aycan (1997) found Turkey
to carry out more paternalistic values than Canada and USA, which depend on less
paternalistic values.
Leader power is a manifestation of feudal links and has strong roots in Turkish
culture, in that leaders are expected to promote patronage relationships with their
followers (Kabasakal and Bodur, 1998a). Fikret-Pasa (2000) has found that
culture-specific leader behaviors of Turkish leaders are “granted authority” and
“sharing of responsibility of followers”; which implies the implicit benevolent
paternalistic leadership behaviors of Turkish managers Fikret-Pasa et al. (2001).
Team-oriented leadership is also perceived as the most effective leadership style in
Turkey; this finding is consistent with the family and in-group-oriented societal culture
that is dominant in Turkey. Leaders use consultation and diplomacy to hold the group
together and create a feeling of belonging to the group in Turkey (Kabasakal and
Bodur, 1998b).
 In this study, definitions and types of conflict will be examined first. The model of Conflict
conflict management styles includes two dimensions, concern for self and concern for
others with five interpersonal conflict management styles:
management
(1) avoiding;
styles
(2) dominating;
(3) compromising; 421
(4) integrating; and
(5) obliging.
Finally, conflict management styles of Turkish managers will be examined.
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2. The concept of conflict

Although there are many different definitions of conflict, there is still no generally
accepted one in the literature. Fink (1968) focused on the terminological and conceptual
confusion of social conflict. In common usage, there are plenty of terms about social
conflict (Easterbrook et al., 1993); such as:
.
competition;
.
tension;
.
dispute;
.
opposition;
.
antagonism;
.
quarrel;
.
disagreement;
.
controversy;
.
violence;
.
conflict resolution; and
.
the mode of resolution.
In a sociological meaning, Marx and Weber viewed group conflict as an inevitable
outgrowth of social class and organizational hierarchy. In the late 1960s the theme of
conflict resurfaced in organizational researches. Pondy (1967), Walton and McKersie
(1965) and Thomas (1976) contributed to the changing view of conflict. Conflict is no
longer seen as dysfunctional, but as a healthy process needing to be managed.
In his recent handbook chapter, Thomas (1992) discussed two main approaches.
The first one, following Schmidt and Kochan (1972) has focused narrowly on the
concept of conflict associated with competitive intentions. The second one on the other
hand, following Pondy (1967) and Thomas (1976) has adopted more general definitions
including conflict-handling models (Thomas, 1992, p. 265). Pondy (1967) identified the
stages of the entire conflict process and his model has been used extensively in the
relevant literature Kozan (1989). He points out the antecedent conditions of conflictual
behavior; affective states of individuals; cognitive states of individuals; and various
types of conflictual behavior (Easterbrook et al., 1993).
Putnam and Poole (1987) define conflict as “the interaction of interdependent people
who perceive opposition of goals, aims, and values, and who see the other party as
 JEIT potentially interfering with the realization of these goals...” (Easterbrook et al., 1993).
33,5 Their general definitions of conflict involve three main themes, namely;
interdependence between parties, perception of incompatibility among the parties’
concerns, and some form of interaction (Thomas, 1992, p. 265). Folger et al. (2005, p. 4)
define conflict as “the interaction of interdependent people who perceive
incompatibility and the possibility of interference from others as a result of this
422 incompatibility” (Boonsathorn, 2007, p. 198).

3. Types of conflict
There are many early classifications about types of conflict (Chase, 1951; Fink, 1968;
Dahrendorf, 1959). Pondy (1967) classifies three conceptual models in formal
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organizations:
(1) Bargaining model: conflict among interest groups which are in competition for
score resources.
(2) Bureaucratic model: conflicts among superior and a subordinate or along any
vertical dimension in the organizational hierarchy.
(3) Systems model: conflict among parties in a lateral or functional relationship, and
in particular, the problems of coordination (Easterbrook et al., 1993).

Putnam and Poole (1987) regard conflict from the communicational perspective.
Communication is treated as one of the five components of “conflict situations”; the
others being actor attributes (e.g. beliefs, skills, cognitive style), conflict issues,
relationship variables (trust, power, interdependency), and contextual factors
(organizational norms, history of conflict) (Easterbrook et al., 1993). They categorize
organizational conflict in four types: interpersonal (e.g. between co-workers or
superiors and subordinates), bargaining and negotiation (e.g. between labor and
management), intergroup (e.g. between departments), and interorganizational (e.g.
between companies) (Boonsathorn, 2007, p. 199).

4. Conflict management
Conflict resolution and conflict management are distant concepts (Robbins, 1978);
resolution implies reduction, elimination or termination of conflict. The needs of
organizations are not the focus of conflict resolution; but conflict management, which
involves effective macro-level strategies to minimize the dysfunctions of conflict, could
improve the functions of conflict (Rahim, 2002). The reason for management of conflict
could be described from the point of functional and dysfunctional outcomes of
organizational conflict. Conflicts in organizations are usually inevitable, because of this
it is vital to organize conflict strategies and manage conflicts in organizations.
One of the problems of managing conflict is that the two dimensions of conflict,
namely affective and substantive conflict, are positively correlated (Wang et al., 2007;
Rahim, 2002). Affective conflict, known as inconsistency in interpersonal relationships
which occurs when organizational members become aware that their feelings and
emotions are incompatible, impedes group loyalty, group performance and work
commitment (Jehn, 1995). On the other hand, substantive conflict, identified as
disagreement between organizational members’ tasks or content issues, improves
group performance through better solutions and alternative breakthroughs.
 5. Conflict management styles Conflict
The theory of Blake and Mouton (1964) is based on the dual concern model that conflict management
is managed in different ways (namely withdrawing, smoothing, forcing, problem
solving, compromising) based on high/low concern for production and high/low styles
concern for people. Thomas (1976) extended this model by focusing on the desire to
satisfy your own concerns and the desire to satisfy the other’s concerns. Based on
Blake and Mouton (1964) and Thomas (1976), Rahim and ve Bonoma (1979) 423
differentiated the styles of handling conflict in two dimensions. The dual concern
model shows conflict behavior to focus on whether a person has high or low concern
for one’s own outcomes or high or low concern for the other’s outcomes. Five different
styles of conflict management are involved in crossing these two dimensions (Figure 1):
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(1) integrating;
(2) obliging;
(3) dominating;
(4) avoiding; and
(5) compromising.
Integrating style, high concern for self and the others, is characterized by a willingness
to exchange information openly, to address differences constructively, and to make
every effort to pursue a solution that will be mutually acceptable (Rahim, 1992). This
style is the most desired one because it is most likely to yield a win-win solution,
especially in a situation identified with long-term dependency on the other party.
(Aycan et al., 2000; Pruitt and Carnevale, 1993). Additionally, this style also reduces the
level of task conflict and relationship conflict (Friedman et al., 2000). Dealing with
complex problems requires the use of an integrative style. Utilizing the skills,
information and resources possessed by different parties helps to redefine and
formulate problems and find alternative solutions (Rahim, 2002).

Figure 1.
The dual concern model of
the styles of handling
interpersonal conflict
 JEIT Obliging style, low concern for self and high concern for others, focuses on protecting
33,5 and maintaining relationships rather than pursuing an outcome that meets the
individual’s own concerns. When the other party is right and the issue of conflict is
much more important to the other party, it makes more sense to use an obliging style.
When a party has a weak position and believes that giving up the conflict will
engender more beneficial outcomes, it is reasonable to use this style (Rahim, 2002).
424 Also, some conditions – like time pressure – may be the reason for adopting an
obliging style (Rubin, 1994).
Dominating style, labeled as “competing” is identified as a win-lose strategy.
Ignoring the needs and expectations of the other party and pursuing one’s own
interests through the use of forceful tactics is suitable, when the conflict issues involve
routine matters or require speedy decision-making (Rahim, 2002).
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Avoiding style results from having little concern for either one’s own or the other’s
interests. When the issue of conflict is important and requires taking on the
responsibility of quick decision-making, withdrawing from conflict could generate
harmful outcomes for the party (Rahim, 2002).
Compromising style reflects a moderate concern for one’s own interests and a
moderate concern for the other’s interests. An outcome that is mutually acceptable for
both sides is a desirable strategy to solve conflict. This style involves give and take.
When both parties have equal power and consensus cannot be reached, it makes sense
to use this style. The most important point in using this style is that it generates failure
in identifying real, complex problems (Rahim, 2002).
There has been considerable debate about whether conflict management styles are
dispositional or situational (Friedman et al., 2000). For example, the findings of Antonioni
(1998), indicated that there is a strong relationship between Big Five personality factors
and the styles of conflict management. On the other hand, Goodwin (2002) found that
auditors resolve conflicts according to the nature and seriousness of the conflict issue.
Also, recent research findings suggest that styles are partly dispositional and partly
situational (Rahim et al., 2001; Graziano et al., 1996). Beyond all these arguments, there is
a great need to understand what is universal (etic) and culture specific (emic) about
conflict management theory. Conflict is inevitable in all cultures, but every culture has its
own way to struggle with conflict (Brett, 2000; Chiu and Kosinski, 1994). As a culturally
bound event, conflict management is affected by cultural values.
The concept of individualism and collectivism provides one means of
distinguishing broad differences in cultural values (Hofstede, 1980). People from
individualistic cultures tend to be concerned with individual images, task
accomplishment, and individual goals relative to the group’s interests; they also
tend to exhibit more self-face-saving conflict styles, such as dominating. On the other
hand, people from collectivistic cultures tend to see themselves as part of the group,
place the group’s goals over the individual’s goals, and focus on maintaining harmony.
From a review of extant literature, it is apparent that many studies have revealed
individualists tend to prefer confrontational and competing conflict management
styles, whereas collectivists appear to prefer harmony-enhancing conflict management
styles (Ting-Toomey et al., 1991, 2000; Morris et al., 1998; Wang et al., 2007).
Individualistic cultures prefer to use forcing, rather than collectivist cultures. On the
other hand, collectivist cultures choose withdrawing, compromising and problem
solving (Rahim, 1983; Holt and DeVore, 2005; Kozan and Ergin, 1999).
 When we analyzed the extant literature in this context, we were confronted with Conflict
many studies. For example, Thai participants indicated a greater preference for management
avoiding and obliging styles of conflict management than the American participants
did. Furthermore, the study showed that, the longer the time Thais spent in other styles
cultures, the more they reported using a dominating style, and the less they reported
relying on avoiding and obliging styles (Boonsathorn, 2007). According to Kagan et al.
(1982), Mexicans (as a collectivist) reported using withdrawing and smoothing more 425
than European Americans, who chose more active, confrontational styles, such as
forcing and problem solving. Also, Cai and Fink (2002) found that avoiding was
preferred by individualists rather than collectivists. Individualists did not differ from
collectivists in their preference for the dominating conflict style, but prefer
compromising and integrating more than individualists do, whereas
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individualism-collectivism had no significant linear effect on preference for the

obliging style. Elsayed-Ekhouly and Buda (1996) found Middle Eastern executives to
display more integrating and avoiding, while US executives used more obliging,
dominating and compromising styles. The results of this study suggest that persons
with a tendency for independence choose direct, whereas persons with a tendency for
interdependence seem to prefer indirect conflict behaviors.
Kozan (1989, 2002) found that hierarchy played a significant role in impacting
Turkish conflict management styles. Overall, the tendency was to be more
accommodative towards one’s superiors (respect for authority); suppressing/and or
avoiding competition between peers (focus on collectivism and group harmony); and
imposing solutions on subordinates (analogous to a parent-child relationship).
According to the relevant studies, Turkey has been found to be relationship and
consensus oriented in negotiations (Metcalf et al., 2006). In group-oriented cultures, a
“third party” would be used frequently in resolving most conflicts to maintain
harmony in organizations (Kozan et al., 2007). Especially, in mediational third party
strategy, Turkish leaders seem to use their power position not only to manage the
process, but also to solve the conflict (Kozan and İlter, 1994). Managers and colleagues
are involved in resolving conflicts unrelated to them in order to preserve group
solidarity in organizations. In a study conducted with 435 Turkish respondents, Ergin
(2000) reported that a third party was involved in more than 65 percent of conflicts in
organizations. While individuals in other parts of the world would remain passive in
situations unrelated to them, managers and colleagues are expected to get actively
involved in resolving disagreements among others. The behaviors and styles of
colleagues and superiors in conflict resolution ranged from giving advice to making a
final decision in an authoritarian manner (Kabasakal and Bodur, 1998b).

6. Research questions and hypotheses

The aim of this study is to examine the preferences for conflict management styles of
Turkish managers. Besides this critical aim, specifically, three research questions were
formed:
RQ1. Whether women and men have different conflict management styles.
RQ2. Whether conflict management styles change according to the status of
managers.
 JEIT RQ3. Whether conflict management styles change, according to the status of the
33,5 conflict partner.
Our aim in doing so, was to obtain multiple individual determinants about conflict
management styles, and to build a relationship between these determinants and
cultural context.
Previous researches have addressed the question of whether men and women have
426 different management styles of conflict. However, the results are contradictory, some of
the studies indicate the potential differences come from cultural stereotypes of women
(Rubin, 1994). On the other hand, some studies show that there is no difference between
men and women concerning conflict management styles (Renwick, 1975, 1977; Eagly
and Johnson, 1990). For example, according to Korabik et al.’s (1993) research,
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managerial experience makes a differentiation between styles and gender. Among

participants without managerial experience, women are reported to prefer more
integrating, obliging and compromising styles than men. Also Brahnam et al.’s (2004)
findings report that women are more likely to utilize collaboration, whereas, men are
more likely to utilize avoiding. Chusmir and Mills (1989) found that there is no
difference between gender and conflict resolution styles when the hierarchical status is
controlled.
In Turkey, women are still underrepresented in managerial positions. According to
2006 data, the percentage of at top levels of organizations is just 2.7 percent (Toksöz,
2007). Although the rate of women in professional occupations is high and satisfactory,
this rate declines sharply in decision-making and strategic positions (Kabasakal et al.,
2004). Under the male-dominated organizational structure, women encounter some
barriers to enter social networks in organizations (Örücü et al., 2007; Özdemir, 2007). In
this way, they could experience some difficulties in gaining social support from their
colleagues. Also, another critical aspect of organizational relationships in Turkey is
that female colleagues report that they prefer to work with male managers instead of
female ones. There is a common prejudiced opinion which implies that women do not
have the capability and competence to manage conflict, and also to manage an
organization (Anafarta et al., 2008; Özdamar et al., 2000). These implications for female
managers can produce a different approach to conflict management. Having discussed
the previous researches about gender and conflict management styles, let us now
consider our first hypothesis in this research.
H1. There is a significant difference between gender and preferred conflict
management styles of managers.
According to the literature debate, imbalance in status of conflict partners reveals itself
in the gaining and utilizing of power. Kabanoff and Van de Vliert (1993) cite that as the
imbalance in power relations grows the utilization of collaboration decreases.
Munduate et al. (1997) state that managers prefer to use integration more often with
superiors than peers; compromise more with peers than superiors; and domination
more with subordinates and peers than superiors. In the Turkish cultural context, as
stated before, vertical collectivism engenders compliance and respect for the top
management. Hierarchical organizational structure and centralized management shape
and form the relationships in a formal manner.
In Turkey most Turkish managers would like to maintain their power and status in
their organizations this is because traditionally it is not easy to become a manager and
 gain a power status in organizations. This is mainly because in a power culture Conflict
personal relations are more important than individual qualifications. People mostly
gain power according to their social capital namely their interactions with top
management
managers. According to this fact status of the manager and status of their conflict styles
partner may determine the conflict management styles. According to this argument we
have formulated two hypotheses. In our second hypothesis we have asked our
respondents their status in the organization namely top, middle and lower. According 427
to their status we have tried to find out the relationship between managers’ statuses
and their conflict management styles. Then our second hypothesis is:
H2. There is a significant difference between managers’ status and preferred
conflict management styles of managers.
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In our third hypothesis we have asked our informants about the statuses of their
conflict partners. These conflict partners are namely managers, peers or subordinates.
The relationship between status of conflict partner and conflict management styles are
investigated. Our third hypothesis is:
H3. There is a significant difference between the status of conflict partner and
preferred conflict management styles of managers.

7. Research methodology
7.1 Sample
The research for this study was carried out in cities, like İstanbul, Ankara and
Eskişehir, which are identified as having a dense and dynamic organizational life. We
cannot claim that the managers in these cities totally represent the Turkish sample;
however, we can build up a general picture of how managers manage conflict in
organizations. Convenience sampling was used to select respondents. During the
period of November-December 2007, managers filled up a questionnaire via the internet
and some managers from different sectors were interviewed. Responses from almost
130 managers from different organizations and various sectors were analyzed in this
study. One of difficulties we came across during our research was to find and reach the
managers of the organizations at all levels. This is mainly because they are too busy to
spare time to complete the questionnaires. This is why our sample size is rather limited
for this research.
The questionnaire provided information about the reasons of conflict, the conflict
partner and the managers’ approaches to conflict. However, the primary objective of
the questionnaire was to identify the preffered styles of conflict management.
Respondents’ interpersonal conflict management styles were assessed using the
translated Turkish version of the 28-item Rahim Organizational Conflict Inventory-II
(ROCI-II) as it was developed and employed by Kozan and Ergin (1999). Answers were
obtained on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from (1) Strongly disagree to (5) Strongly
agree. The instrument is composed of seven items for integrating, four items for
compromising, six items for avoiding, six items for obliging and five items for
dominating style assessment. Individual responses to these items are averaged to
create subscales for styles, where a higher score on a subscale refers to a greater use of
that specific style by that specific respondent. Several researches have reported
satisfactory test-retest and internal consistency reliabilities for ROCI-II (Rahim, 1983b),
and convergent and discriminant validities for the style subscales (Rahim, 1983).
 JEIT The reliability of the Turkish translation of ROCI-II was checked through retranslation
33,5 into English by two bilingual colleagues. Data were analyzed by SPSS 15.00. In this
research Cronbach a was 0.72 for the Turkish version of ROCI-II.

7.2 Descriptive statistics of data sample

The demographic findings indicate that 27 percent of the managers are female and 73
428 percent are male respectively. Of the respondents, 28 percent are between 35-39 years
of age, 22 percent between 30-34. In our sample 76 percent of our respondents are
married. Of the sample 53 percent have graduated from a university and 38 percent
have an MBA degree. Of the sample, 62 percent have been working in their
organization more than ten years. Of the sample, 28.5 percent is from durable consumer
goods sector, 21.5 percent is from aviation, 10.8 percent is from banking and the rest
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are from automobile industry, construction, information and communication systems,

education and the other sectors (Table I).
There are different views about conflict in organizations. One of the perspectives
about conflict suggests that conflict is a harmful phenomenon that diminishes
cooperation and harmony in organizations. In contrast, the other perspective indicates
that conflict supports creativity and innovation in organizations, and enhances
organizational performance. In this research, related to these different perspectives, a
question was asked to managers to find out their perspectives related to conflict in
organizations. 56 percent of the respondents indicated that conflict is a beneficial
phenomenon for organizations due to its positive effect on creativity and innovation; 35
percent of them responded that conflict is harmful since it diminishes cooperation and
harmony in organizations and 9 percent of managers find conflict neither positive nor
negative for organizations (Table II).
Conflict management in organizations has different styles and results relate to the
status of conflict partners, especially in Turkish culture, which is identified with power
distance and high hierarchy. In this context, 38 percent of managers responded that
their most frequent conflict partners are their upper level managers; 40 percent of
managers responded that their most frequent conflict partners are their peers and the
rest indicated that their conflict partners are mostly their subordinates (Table II). It is
so hard to solve or manage conflicts in organizations without determining the reasons
of conflict. Of the managers, 33 percent of managers indicated that the cause of conflict
is different views related to job content; 26 percent of them responded that the main
cause of conflict is different working styles. Personality differences (17 percent) and
lack of communication (15 percent) are the other reasons indicated by managers
(Table II).

8. Data analysis and findings

Reliability estimates for the five scales of conflict management styles and their means
are shown in Table III. Internal consistency reliability estimates were satisfactory.
Coefficient Alphas ranged from 0.57 to 0.84 (Table III).
Turkish managers are most likely to choose an integrating conflict style (M ¼ 3.80)
at first, compromising (M ¼ 2.91) at second, and dominating (M ¼ 2.63) finally.
Obliging (M ¼ 2.42) and avoiding (M ¼ 2.28) styles are the least used by managers.
The differences between these overall means were tested using paired t-test with the
styles in order of their preferences. Because we used multiple comparisons and ten
 Conflict
Demographic characteristics Frequency %
management
Age styles
25-29 5 3.8
30-34 29 22.3
35-39 37 28.5
40-44 21 16.2 429
45-49 24 18.5
50 and above 14 10.8
Total 130 100.0

Gender
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Female 35 26.9
Male 95 73.1
Total 130 100.0

Educational status
High-school 11 8.5
Graduate from university 69 53.1
MBA degree 50 38.5
Total 130 100.0

Marital status
Married 99 76.2
Single 23 17.7
Divorced 8 6.2
Total 130 100.0

Work experience in current positions

Less than four years 22 16.9
5-9 years 25 19.2
10-14 years 21 16.2
15-19 years 38 29.2
20 years and above 24 17.5
Total 130 100.0

Status
Top level managers 29 22.3
Middle level managers 60 46.2
Low level managers 41 31.5
Total 130 100.0

Sector
Banking 14 10.8
Automobile industry 9 6.9
Durable consumer goods 37 28.5
Construction 6 4.6
Information and communication systems 6 4.6
Education 6 4.6
Aviation 28 21.5 Table I.
Others 24 18.5 Managers’ demographic
Total 130 100.0 characteristics
 JEIT
Frequency %
33,5
Conflict . . .
Is positive 73 56.2
Is negative 46 35.4
Neither negative nor positive 10 7.7
430 Total 129 99.3
Conflict with my . . .
Manager 49 37.7
Peer 52 40.0
Subordinate 29 22.3
Total 130 100.0
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Reasons for conflict

Different ideas related to job content 44 33.8
Differences in working styles 34 26.2
Table II. Personality differences 22 16.9
Descriptive items related Lack of communication 20 15.4
with conflict Total 130 100.0

Scales of conflict management styles Cronbach alpha Mean SD

Integrating 0.84 3.80 0.80

Table III. Obliging 0.75 2.42 0.67
Reliability analysis, Dominating 0.71 2.63 0.71
means and standard Avoiding 0.70 2.28 0.79
deviations Compromising 0.57 2.91 0.76

pair-wise tests are possible, the cut-off level for statistical significance was adjusted to be
0.05/10 ¼ 0.005. We found that integrating was significantly preferred over
compromising, t(129) ¼ 11.81, p , 0.001; compromising was significantly preferred
over dominating, t(129) ¼ 3.250, p , 0.001; dominating was significantly preferred over
obliging, t(129) ¼ 2.440, p , 0.001; obliging was not significantly preferred
over avoiding t(129) ¼ 1.832, p , 0.001.
To analyze H1, an independent t test was used. There was a statistically significant
difference in compromising style between female and male managers (F ¼ 1.584,
t ¼ 0.635, p , 0.05). Females resort to a compromising style to a higher degree
(M ¼ 3.10) than males (M ¼ 2.80). Results partly support H1.
To analyze H2, an independent t-test was used. There was a statistically significant
difference in dominating style between top and middle level managers (F ¼ 1.875,
t ¼ 2.085, p , 0.05). Top-level managers prefer (M ¼ 2.80) to use a dominating style
more than middle level managers (M ¼ 2.40). Besides dominating, integrating is also
more preferred by top level managers (M ¼ 4.00) than low level managers (M ¼ 3.58).
Results partly support H2. The results can be seen in Figure 2.
To analyze H3, one-way Anova is used. There was a statistically significant
difference in obliging style according to the status of conflict partners (F ¼ 4.144,
p , 0.05). Obliging is the most preferred style (M ¼ 2.63), if the conflict partner’s
status is higher than the individual’s status. There is not a significant difference in
 Conflict
management
styles

431
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Figure 2.
Profile of preferences of
conflict management
styles by levels of
managers

preferring obliging style if the conflict partner’s status is lower (M ¼ 2.27) or equal
(M ¼ 2.29) to the individual’s status. Results partly support H3.

9. Conclusion
Conflict is an inevitable condition in all cultures and organizations; but the important
point is to understand the emic side of conflict management styles of managers. Under
the impact of globalization, the number of multinational organizations is rising and
international management theories are needed to enhance performance of
organizations. Unless international theories and knowledge about national cultural
differences are renewed, it is hard for organizations to survive and be a leader in
international markets. Therefore, acquiring a perspective about conflict management
styles of Turkish managers is a prerequisite for global organizations and markets
which manage their relationships and maintain social networks with Turkish
organizations. As organizations adjust to globalization, frequent shifts in strategy and
general management practice, occur worldwide, and conflict during strategy
implementation is increasing (Beechler and Yang, 1994). Too much conflict can slow
down and impede successful communication and strategy implementation (Hall, 1991).
Preferred conflict management styles are changing. If convergence theory is correct,
than Eastern and Western management will converge, resulting in a realignment of
cooperative and individualistic behavior (Misawa, 1987). Thus, strategy
implementation will suffer if managers do not clearly understand how employees
 JEIT handle conflicts. Consequently, businesses need to make the right changes which may
33,5 often create conflict, rather than cooperation (Hutt et al., 1995).
Turkey is a good example for cross cultural studies for understanding unique styles
of conflict management. This is mainly because Turkey is a bridge between Eastern
and Western culture, and also collectivist in nature. It is useful to study managers in
Turkey, while highly collectivist, they also have cultural heritages that lead us to
432 expect them using differing conflict management styles. The choice of styles is affected
by organizational hierarchy and whether the organization is publicly or privately
owned.
According to the extant literature, collectivist cultures prefer to use integrating or
compromising; whereas individualistic cultures prefer to use forcing or dominating
conflict management styles. In this study, integrating first, and compromising second,
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are found to be the most preferred conflict styles of Turkish managers. This finding is
compatible in a sense of the collectivist culture of Turkish society. The main feature of
collectivism is to foster social harmony and protect relationships; in this context
Turkish managers’ mostly using integrating and compromising styles may reflect
social desirability since both styles can be considered positive ones, involving a
moderate high concern for self and the other.
The other important finding is that preferring obliging styles of conflict
management changes according to the status of managers. Obliging is mostly used
when the conflict partner has an upper level status. According to Kozan’s study,
hierarchy played a significant role in affecting Turkish conflict management styles.
Subordinates are forced to accept the views or interests of their superiors due to a
formal and fear based relationship with their superiors. As a result, obliging style of
conflict may enhance harmony and social desirability, but diminish the potential of
creativity and innovation. It is clear that flexibility, adaptability and a willingness to
compromise and solve problems are necessary for successful conflict management and
effective organizational relationships.
The results of this study confirm the assertion that national cultural dynamics serve
as predictors of conflict management styles of Turkish managers. Additional data
from cross-cultural studies is needed to form a comprehensive understanding of
conflict management styles. Also, the number of respondents in this study is not
enough to generalize findings; additional data from different sectors could make the
findings of this study more valid.
Conflict is a major issue in HRD discipline to improve the quality of human
problems. Therefore, HRD researchers have to know the nature of conflict management
and how to eliminate managerial conflict in organizations. Therefore, this area needs
more research and studies performed by HRD scholars.
The results of this study have important implications for human resource
management practices. First, there are many reasons for conflict in organizations;
however when the ideas or views about work or working styles are the sources of
conflict, to suppress or to eliminate conflict in organizations can create a barrier for
creativity and innovation. Instead of struggling to eliminate conflict, revealing the
most appropriate conflict management style can enhance the success of employees and
organizations.
In organizations, there seems to be a need for seminars or practice oriented
workshops on evaluating and understanding the nature of conflict and learning to
 manage conflict as a beneficial and a creative process to the betterment of both Conflict
individuals in organizations and organizations itself in particular. The implementation management
of a different insight into the nature of conflict and the practice of conflict management
will render organizations as more multicultural and therefore, more desirable business styles
partners in international markets. The impact of conflict management styles and
processes is significant. In each of these areas, the manager has an important role to
play, so a good understanding of cultural differences and expectations, in these areas 433
will help organizations and managers to become more effective and successful when
managing across cultures (Silverthorne, 2005).
Many studies of organizational conflict demonstrate that creating common goals
between employees may enhance social cohesion and interpersonal trust in
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organizations. When employees lack common goals, they tend to be close-minded

and more likely to misinterpret one another. In such a situation it is the managers’
responsibility to solve this close mindedness and misinterpretation. At the same time
the manager needs to collect more information about sources of conflict and decide on a
management style. This research may help managers and researchers to see, especially
in Turkey, how these conflict patterns appear in a different cultural context.
Managers need to create an informal environment with their employees from
different statuses. This should increase the quality and quantity of between employee
relationships in an organization. Communal events surrounding national and religious
days’ celebrations should help people to become more involved with their peers and
managers and in this way encourage them to solve their conflict based issues. This
would also help to improve communication channels and create opportunities for
understanding different ideas and thoughts amongst the managers and employees.
In this study conflict management styles in Turkey, between people from the same
culture have been analyzed. However, how Turkish managers react and the conflict
managerial styles they adopt when conflict partners come from different cultures,
especially from multinational or global organizations has not been addressed. More
research needs to be done in this area. Turkey needs more cross-cultural studies and
workshops conducted by HRD researchers to identify managerial and human resource
problems under the impact of globalization.

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About the authors

Enver Özkalp is the head of the Department of Labor Economics and Industrial Relations at
Anadolu University in Turkey. His PhD is at Exeter University, UK. He teaches under-graduate
and graduate level sociology, psychology and organizational behavior classes. His current study
interests include sociology, organizational behavior and sociology of work. Enver Özkalp is the
corresponding author and can be contacted at: eozkalp@anadolu.edu.tr
Zerrin Sungur has worked in the Department of Labor Economics and Industrial Relations at
Anadolu University in Eskişehir for 14 years. She is coordinator of the LLP-Erasmus in the same
 JEIT department. She teaches undergraduate level sociology, sociology of work, social structure of
Turkey and research design and methodology classes. Her current study interests include
33,5 sociology of work, sociology of risk and natural disasters.
Aytül Ayşe Özdemir has worked in the Department of Labor Economics and Industrial
Relations at Anadolu University in Eskişehir for ten years. She is the apprenticeship coordinator
of the LLP-Erasmus in the same department. She teaches undergraduate level organizational
behavior. Her current study interests include social capital in organizations, knowledge creation
438 and social networks.
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