1.

050 Engineering Mechanics I

Summary of variables/concepts

Lecture 27 - 37

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 Variable Definition Notes & comments
f (x)

secant

∂f Convexity of a function
f (x) | (b − a) ≤ f (b) − f (a)
tangent ∂x x=a
x
a b

v r v r
Wd W d = ξ ⋅ Fd +ξ d ⋅ R External work

Ni ∂ψ i ∂ψ i* Free energy and

Ni = δi =
∂δ i ∂N i complementary free energy

ψ i* Complementary
free energy
1 2 3
ψi ψ i* ψi N1 N2 N3

Free energy δ1 δ2 δ3
δi P

∑δ Ni
i i =ψ (N i ) + ψ i (δ i )
*
i
ξ0

Lectures 27 and 28: Basic concepts: Convexity, external work, free energy,
complementary free energy, introduced initially for truss structures (see schematic
show in the lower right part).

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 Variable Definition Notes & comments

Truss problems

( )
v r ! v r
− ψ * − ξ d ⋅ R =ψ − ξ ⋅ F d
At elastic solution: Potential
− ε com = ε pot energy is equal to negative of
Complementary Potential complementary energy
energy energy
=: ε com =: ε pot

Upper/lower bound
⎧ max (− ε com (N , R ) )⎫
' '
At the solution to the
⎪⎪ N i' S. A. ⎪⎪
i
elasticity problem, the upper
− ε com (N i , R ) ≤ ⎨
' '
is equal to ⎬ ≤ ε pot (δ i , ξi )
' '
and lower bound coincide
⎪ min ε (δ ' , ξ ' ) ⎪
Lower bound ⎪ ⎪⎭ Upper bound
⎩ δ i' K. A.
pot i i
Consequence of convexity of
elastic potentials ψ ,ψ *

Lectures 27 and 28: Introduction to potential energy and complementary energy,

definition at the elastic solution, upper/lower bound, example of energy bounds for
truss structures. The upper/lower bounds of the expressions are a consequence of
the convexity of the elastic potentials (see previous slide).

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 Variable Definition Notes & comments

Complementary free energy

ψ* (1-D)

ψ Free energy (1-D)

vd r r d rd
W ,W * W= ∑F i ⋅ ξi
W= ∑R i ⋅ ξi Contributions from external
i=1..N i=1..N work

ψ=
2
(W + W )
1 *
Clapeyron’s formulas

ψ * = (W * + W )
1 Significance: Enables one
calculate free energy,
2
complementary free energy,
ε pot = (W * − W )
1 potential energy and
2 complementary energy
ε com = (W − W * )
1 directly from the boundary
2 conditions (external work),
at the solution (“target”)!

Lectures 27-29: The equations for free energy and complementary free energy for
truss structures are summarized. Lower part: Clapeyron’s formulas, used to
calculate the “target” solution, that is, the results at the solution. These equations
are generally valid, not only for truss structures (but the expressions of how to
calculate the individual terms that appear in these equations are different).

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 Variable Definition Notes & comments

⎧ max (− ε com (σ ' ) )⎫

⎪⎪σ ' S. A . ⎪⎪ r Upper/lower bound for 3D
− ε com (σ ' ) ≤ ⎨ is equal to ⎬ ≤ ε pot (ξ ')
r r elasticity problems
σ ' S. A . ⎪ rmin ε (ξ ' ) ⎪ ξ ' K.A.
⎪⎩ ξ ' K . A . pot ⎪⎭

Lower bound Solution Upper bound

Complementary energy Potential energy
approach approach
Displacement
r contribution
ε com (σ ' ) = ψ (σ ' ) − W (T d )
* *
Complementary energy and
r r potential energy
ε pot (ξ ' ) = ψ (ε ' ) − W (ξ d )
Volume force Stress vector
External work contributions
contribution contribution

1 σ ⎛
s2 ⎞ 2

ψ* ψ * = ∫ ⎜⎜ m +
⎟dΩ
Ω ⎝
2 K G ⎟⎠ Complementary free energy
(3-D, isotropic material)
s 2 = (σ : σ − 3σ m2 )
1 1
σ m = trace(σ )
3 2

ψ ψ =∫
1
2
(Kε v2 + Gε d2 )dΩ Free energy
Ω (3-D, isotropic material)
⎛ 1 ⎞
ε v = trace(ε ) ε d2 = 2⎜ ε : ε = ε v2 ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠

Lecture 30: Energy bounds for 3D isotropic elasticity. Note that the external
work contribution under force (stress) boundary conditions involves a volume
integral due to the volume forces (gravity). The lower part summarizes the
equations used to calculate the free energy and complementary free energy, as well
as the external work contributions (external work contribution part).

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 Variable Definition Notes & comments
⎡ 1 N 2 1 M y2 ⎤
∫
ψ* = + Complementary free energy
ψ* ⎢ ⎥dx
x =0.. l ⎣
2 ES 2 EI ⎦ (for beams)

⎢⎣ 2 ES (ε xx ) + 2 EI (ϑ y ) ⎥⎦dx
⎡1 1 0 2⎤
ψ ψ= ∫
0 2
Free energy (for beams)
x = 0.. l
Note 1: For 2D, the only
contributions are axial forces
P & moments and axial strains
and curvatures

l/2 δ l/2 Note 2: Target solution using

1 Clapeyron’s formulas
ε com = Pδ δ = unknown displacement at
Target solution
2 point of load application

External work by prescribed

r r
[ ] [
W * = ∑ ξ d ( xi ) ⋅ R + ω y ( xi ) M y ,R = ∑ ξ xd ( xi ) R x + ξ zd ( xi ) Rz + ω yd ( xi ) M y ,R ] displacements
i i

W = ∫ξ
r0 r d r r
[
⋅ f ( x )dx + ∑ ξ 0 ⋅ F d ( xi ) + ω y M yd ( xi ) ] External work by prescribed
x = 0.. l i
force
= ∫ [ξ ] [
f xd ( xi ) + ξ z0 f zd ( xi ) dx + ∑ ξ x0 Fxd ( xi ) + ξ z0 Fzd ( xi ) + ω y M yd ( xi ) ]
0
x densities/forces/moments
x =0.. l i

Lecture 31: How to calculate free energy, complementary energy and external
work for beam structures.

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 Variable Definition Notes & comments

⎧ max (− ε com (Fx ' , M y ' ) )⎫

⎪⎪ Fx ',M y 'S. A. ⎪⎪
− ε com (Fx ' , M y ' ) ≤ ⎨ is equal to ⎬ ≤ ε pot (ξ x ' , ω y ' )
Fx ',M y 'S. A. ⎪ min ε pot (ξ x ' , ω y ' ) ⎪
ξ x ',,ω y 'K. A.
⎪⎩ ξ x ',ω y ' K . A. ⎪⎭

Lower bound Solution Upper bound

Fx ', M y '
Complementary Potential energy
that provide
energy approach
absolute
“Displacement
approach max of − ε com
“Stress approach” approach)
ξx ' ,ωy '
Work with unknown that provide Work with unknown
but S.A. moments and absolute but K.A.
forces min of ε pot displacements

Step 1: Express target solution (Clapeyron’s formulas) – calculate complementary

energy AT solution
Step 2: Determine reaction forces and reaction moments
Step 3: Determine force and moment distribution, as a function of reaction forces
Step-by-step procedure –
and reaction moments (need My and N) how to solve beam
Step 4: Express complementary energy as function of reaction forces and reaction
moments (integrate) problems with
Step 5: Minimize complementary energy (take partial derivatives w.r.t. all unknown
reaction forces and reaction moments and set to zero); result: set of unknown complementary energy
reaction forces and moments that minimize the complementary energy
Step 6: Calculate complementary energy at the minimum (based on resulting forces approach
and moments obtained in step 5)
Step 7: Make comparison with target solution = find solution displacement

Lectures 31-32: How to solve beam problems using the complementary approach.
This slide shows the overview over the upper/lower bounds. The lower part
summarizes a step by step procedure of how to solve statically indeterminate beam
problems with a complementary energy approach.

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 Variable Definition Notes & comments
• For any homogeneous beam problem, the minimization of
the complementary energy with respect to all hyperstatic
forces and moments X i = {Ri , M y ,r;i } yields the solution of the
linear elastic beam problem:

∂
(ε com ( X i ) ) = 0
∂X i
1
2
(W − W * ) ≡ min
Xi
ε com ( X i )

Example: 1 ⎛ l3 2 5 3 1 3 2⎞
ε com ( R' ) = ⎜⎜ R ' − l R ' P + l P ⎟⎟
2 EI ⎝3 24 24 ⎠

∂ε com ( R' ) 5
=0 R' = P
∂R ' 16
Hyperstatic force
P 5 7
ε com ( R ' = P) = l 3P
16 1536 EI
M y (x )
+ 1 5 7
ε com = P δ ≤ ε com ( R ' = P) = l 3P
2 16 1536 EI
7
M y (x )
R’ δ = l3P
768 EI

Lectures 31-32: Corollary, how to solve statically indeterminate beam problems

using the complementary approach. Summary of the concept that the minimization
of the complementary energy with respect to hyperstatic forces and moments
provides the exact solution of the linear elastic beam problem.

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 Variable Definition Notes & comments

Euler beam buckling

Different boundary
conditions

Example: Euler buckling

of a frame structure

Lectures 33: Buckling of beam structures under compressive load. The lower part
summarizes the experiment presented in class.

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 Variable Definition Notes & comments

Properties and
characteristic of instability
phenomenon

Images removed due to copyright restrictions: Introduction: Fracture –

photograph of fault line, World Trade Center towers, application and
shattered wine glass, X-ray of broken bone. phenomena

Lectures 34: Summary – characteristics of buckling phenomenon (equivalency of

divergence of series, nonexistence of solution/bifurcation point/loss of convexity).
Introduction to fracture.

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 Variable Definition Notes & comments

P P

2γ s bEI
Pmax =
l2 P P

Out-of-plane thickness: b

Useful scaling laws

∂ε pot lb = Γ
G = 2γ s G=− = unit Griffith condition for
∂(lb) crack crack initiation
area

Lectures 34 and 35: Fracture mechanics. The most important concept is the
Griffith condition. The example on the top summarizes the derivation done in class,
representing two beams that are pulled away from each other. This

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 Variable Definition Notes & comments
σ0

πaσ 02
G = 1.122 = 2γ
E
a Fracture in a
continuum
2γE Initial surface crack of
σ0 =
1.12 2 πa length a

σ0

Lectures 35: Fracture in continuum. The equations summarized in the left side
provide the energy release rate G for the geometry shown on the right. At the point
of fracture, the energy release rate must equal the surface energy. This condition
can then be used to determine the critical stress at which the structure begins to fail.

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