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Jim Scrivenet

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 *?eap*erfr"&*avktngoalt
I This chapter offers a general introduction to ways ofworking in a ianguage
classroom and to a range ofteacher and learner roles. It also addresses some
important questions about hou,' people learn.

Classroorns at work
'.'itffiflld<. classroomsnapshots
A f r i e n dw h o k n o w sn o t h i n ga b o u t l a n g u a g et e a c h i n gh a s a s k e dy o u t o d e s c r i b ea
s n a p s h o to f a t y p i c a lm o r n e n ti n a l a n g u a g ec l a s s r o o m a p i c t u r et h a t c a p t u r e st h e
l o o k ,t h e a t m o s p h e r et,h e l e a r n e r s m
' o o d ,t h e t e a c h e r ' sa t t i t u d e ,e t c . W h a tw o u l d
y o u r i n s t a n ts n a p s h o ts h o w ?

Your image probabl_vcaptures some assumptions you hold - about what a

teacher's job is, r.vhatlearners can do and how they should u'ork, etc. If you are on
a trarmng course and haven't started teaching yet, your snapshot migbt he very
different from, sa1',a teacher who has been working for tw-enty years. In this bookJ
u'e rvill look in detail at lots oflesson ideas, activitics, methods and techniques; but
before that, it may be useful just to get a more general picture ofwhat goes on in
language teaching - to look round a ferv classroom doors and glimpse what's
going on inside.

Watching different classes

In my own teaching career,I have lbund that one of the most useful things is
simply to u'atch other people teach. I often take away tangible things from this
observation, such as ideas for specific activities, the pace they work at or a
particular 'something' that the teacher said or did. Over the years, I find that I have
incorporated a lot from this into my orvn teaching.
Some aspects oflessons can be difficult to interpret. Sometimes I feel that the
atmosphere in a room is excellent or tiat the class is particularly engaged or
working in a distinctively autonomous manner. But it isn't always easy to work out
how these apparently 'natural' things have been aclfeved.
One thing I have concluded over the years is that much of the'magic'that makes a
good lesson (often attributed purely to 'natural' skill or 'personality') is something
that is almost al$'ays acl.rievedby very specific actions, comments and atritudes -
even when the teacher isn't alvare of what he or she has done. And because ofthis.
lve can study thcse things and learn from them.

Task1.2 Differentlessons
R e a dt h e f o l l o w i n gl l r i e fs n a p s h o td e s c r i p t i o n so f m o m e n t sf r o m d i f f e r e n tl e s s o n s
i n d i f f e r e n tl o c a t i o n s .
W hi c h o n e ( i f a n y )i s m o s t l i k e h o w y o u s e e y o u r s e l fa s a t e a c h e r ?A r e t h e r e a n y
c h a r a c t e r i s t i cos r a p p r o a c h e sy o u f i n d i n t e r e s t i n ga n d w o u l dl i k et o u s e y o u r s e l f ,
or would reject?
Chapter1 Startingout

Classroorn 1: Andrea

Andrea is working with 34 fourteen-year-oldlearners.Although the large desks

are frxed in their places,shehas askedthe studentsto rnoveso that they are sitting
around both sidesin waysthat they can work in groups ofsix or seven.Each
group hasjust finished discussingand designinga youth club on a sheetof
,A.3paper and is now working on agreeinga list often good argumentsto persuade
the other groups to chooseits youth club design (rather than one of the others).
Each group will haveto make a presentationofits argumentsin front ofthe class
in about ten minutes'ti-rne.
There is a lot ofnoise in the classroom.Andrea is walking around listeningin
unobtusively to what is going on in the groups. Shesmileswhen shehearsgood
ideas,but sheisn't intervening or taking any activepart in the conversations.She
answersbasicquestionswhen a learnerasks(eg if someonewantsto know the
word for something),but sheavoidsgettinginvolved in working closelywith a
group, evenwith one group that is getting stuck- in this case,shemakesa quick
suggestionfor moving forward and then walks awayto anothergroup.

Classroorn 2: Maia

At a first glance,nothing much seemsto be happeninghere.Maia is sitting down

in a circle with her eight students, and they are chatting, fairly naturally, about
someeventsfrom the previous day'snews.Although Maia isn't doing much overt
correction,after watching the lessonfor a while it's possibleto notice that sheis
doing somevery discreet'teaching',ie sheis managingthe conversationa litde,
bringing in quieter studentsby askingwhat they think and helping all learnersto
speakby encouraging,askinghelpful questions,echoingwhat they havesaid,
repeatingone or two hard-to-understandsentencesin correctedEnglish, etc.
10
 at work
1 Classrooms

Classroom 3: Lee

t"iF*l I.ifrt'i l
ffilffi!

Lee is standingat the front of a classof elevenyoung adult students.He is

introducing gorngto asa way oftalking about predicted eventsin the future. He
hasput up a largewallchart picture on the board showinga policemanwatching a
number of things in the town centre.The picture seemsto immediately suggesta
nttmber of going to sentencessuch as They'regoing to rob the banh,He isn't going to
stopa];ldIt\ goingtofall down.Lee\s pointing at parts of the picture and
encouraginglearnersto risk trying to saya going to sentence.Whenthey do, he
gently correctsthem and getsthem to sayit againbetter.Sometimeshe getsthe
whole classto repeatan interestingsentence.It's interestingthat he's actually
sayingvery little himself;most ofhis interventionsare nods, gestures'facial
expressionsand one- or two-word instuctions or short corrections Generally,
the learnersare talking rather more than tie teacher-

Classroorn 4: Paoli

Paoli'slessonis teachingsomenew vocabularyto an adult eveningclassofolder

learnerslthe current lessonstageis focusedon learnerpracticeofthe new items
Everyonein classis sitting in a pair, faceto face.They are using a handout
designedby Paoli which givesthe learnersin eachpair (known asA and B) slightly
different information.The task requiresthem to use someof the new vocabulary
in relativelynatural waysto try and discoverinformation from their parmer.There
is a lot of talking in the room, though it's clearthat not everyoneis participating to
an equal degree.One or tr'vopairs are almostsilent,and one pair seemsto be
whispering in their own languagerather than in English.Paoli is moving round the
room trying to notice any suchproblems and encouragingstudentsto complete
the taskin the intendedway.
11
Chapter1 Startingout

$7ehaveglimpsed four different lessons.Thedescriptionsbelow summarrsesome

distinctivefeaturesof each.

Sorne typical language-teaching classes

The first classdescribedaboveinvolved groups rvorking cooperativelyon a task.
The teachersawher role asprimarily'managerial', making surethat the activity
was setup properly and being done properly'.Shetook carethat sheallowed
enough space(ie time to think and plan without interferenceor 'unhelpful help')
so that learnerscould get on and achievethe result.
In dre secondclass,we sawa reacherapparentlydoing fairly little that might be
traditionally viewedas'teaching'.However)evenat this glimpse,we havenoticed
that somethingwas going on and the teacherwas'managing'the conversationand
the languagemore than might havebeen apparentat first glance.Is this a valid
lesson?!7e'lllook at possibleaims for lessonslike the hrst and secondsnapshots
when we get to Chapter 9.
The third classinvolvesa lessontype known asa 'presentation',ie the teacheris
drawing everyone'sattentionto his focus on language.Interestingly,althoughthe
teacheris introducing new language,he is doing this without a great deal of overt
explanationor a high quantity ofteacher talk.rWelook at grammar presenrations
in Chapter 7.
In the fourth lesson,the learnersare doing a pairwork vocabularytask.The
teacher'srole wasinitially to setup the activity,and at the end it will be to manage
feedbackand checking.At the moment, he can relax a little more, asnothing much
requrresto be done beyond monitoring if it is being done correctly
Out ofthese four lessons(which I think may be fairly typical snapshotsof modern
Ianguageclassroomlife), we haveseenrelativelylittle overt 'teaching'in the
traditional manner,althoughwe haveseena number ofinstancesofthe teacher
'managing'the
seatingand groupings,'managing'the activities(stardng,
monitoring, closingthem), 'managing'the learnersand their participation levels,
and 'managing'the flow of the conversationand work.
I think it's reasonableto arguethat much of modern languageteachinginvolves
this classroommanagementasmuch or more than it involvesthe upfront
explanationsand testingthat many peopleimagine asthe core ofa teacher'sjob.
This is partly to do with the peculiar subjectmafter we work with, ie the language
we are using to teachwith is alsothe thing we are teaching.
Although thereis a body of'content'in languageteaching,the main thing we want
our studentsto do is usethe languagethemselves- and thereforethere are many
reasonswhy we mainly want our studentsto do more and thereforefor us to do
(andtalk) less.
You could now use:
ontsk 1 on the DVD to make 'snapshot' observations ofteachers at

to get a more detailed picture of classroom management in

1:
 2 Whatis a teacher?

What is a teacher?
Languagelearnersdon't alwaysneedteachers.-fhe1'can set about learning in a
variet_v of ways.Somelearn by studying on their orvn at home w-ithbooks,CDs,
DVDs, e-rvorkbooks, computerprogramsand soonl othersseemto'pick up'a
languagejust b1'living and communicating in a placervherethe languageis used
(this is known asimrnersion).
Ofcourse, many studentsdo learn in classesu,ith other studentsand a teacher-
u'hetherthat's a classthey choseto come to (for examplc,at a languageschool) or
maybea classthel' wererequircd to attend (such asin a high school).And much
languagelearningrvill involveelemcntsofall threervays:self-stud-v,'picking it up'
and classroomlvork.
But, ifit's possibleto Iearnsuccessfullywithout a teacher,then what difference
doeshaving a teachermake to the learning process?!rhl'do somepeoplepa-vto
havea teachcr?Whatdo studentsexpectfrom them?To put it blund]', what on
earth are teachersfor'?Ifyou are (or are planning to be) a teacher,it's important
to considersuchbasicquestions.

teachersyou haveknown
Remembering
T h i n kb a c kt o s o m e t e a c h e r s( o f a n y s u b j e c t )y o u h a v e h a d i n y o u r l i f e .W h a td o
y o u r e m e m b e ra b o u tt h e m a n d t h e i r e s s o n s ?T h e t e a c h e r ' sm a n n e r ?H o wy o u
f e l t i n t h e i r p r e s e n c e ?C a ny o u r e c a l la n y s p e c i f i cl e s s o n s ?S p e c i f i ct e a c h i n g
t e c h n i q u e s ?W h a t i t w a s l i k et o b e a s t u d e n ti n t h a t r o o m ?W h a tw o r d s o r
phrases characterisethe atmosphereof the classes (eg positive, encouraging,
boring, friendly,like an interrogation,sarcastic, humorous, respectful,scary,
ou iet\?
T o w h a t e x t e n td o y o u t h i n k y o u r p e r s o n a si t y l ea s a t e a c h e ri s b a s e dt o s o m e
d e g r e eo n t h e s e r o l e m o d e l s ?

\flhen I started teaching,I found that my basic image ofrvhat a teacher's job rvas
and ho$. a teacher should behave rverc drau,n largely from what I had seen my
o\\ n teachers doing. These internal images rvere quite deeply held and quite hard
to challenge. Any tcacher starting out needs to check if they have inbuilt
assumptions about teaching from this exposure to hours and hours ofobserving
your own teachers at rvork.
Ifyou think about it, you have u'atched and experienced an arvful lot ofteaching
being done to you - and this can often remain a subde and deep-scated influence.
rWhether lve acknor'vledgc it or not, much of our view of tvhat a teacher is and u'hat
a teacher should do can often be traced back to these many years oflesson
obsen'ation from thc pupil's seat. Sadl]', a lot of the teaching that has left a deep
rmpresslon on us was not necessarily very good teaching. As rvell as some
excellent teachcrs, most ofus have probably seen examples oftcachers lvho r,vere
b o r i n g . u n - k i n di.n c o mp c lc n l . \ i t r c a s L i o
cr inepL.

13
Chapter1 Startingout

'Entertainer'
teaching
Learners come to classto learn a languagerather than to be amusedby a great
show.Certainly no one would wish their lessonsto be boring, but it,s important to
checkout if the classesof an 'entertainer'style ofteacher are genuinelyleadingto
any reallearning.It's easyto get sweptup in the sheerpanacheofone's own
performance;the teacherwho constantlytalks a lot, tells storiesand jokes,amuses
the classwith their antics,etc can provide a diverting hour, but it may simply cover
up the fact that very.litdehasbeentaken in and used bv the students.The
monologuemay provide useful exporr.. to o.,. rvry oiusing language,but this
isn't sufficient to justify regularlessonsofthis kind. I,ve found that quite a number
ofteacherssuspectthat this 'performer' styleis a goal they should aim for, partly
maybebecauseof an influencefrom Hollyr,voodhlms about teaching.But there is
a fine line betweencreatinga good atmosphereand good rapport in classand
becomingan entertainer.I hope that I can persuadeyou that rapport is crucial but
entertarnmentts much lessso.

Traditional teaching
For many ofus, schoolteachingwas in a stylewe could characteriseas
'traditional'.While
the detailsmay vary considerablyfrom schoolto schooland
befiveendifferent countriesand cultures,therewill still be many aspectsof
'traditional'
teachingthat are familiar to manv.

Traditionalteaching
List some ofthese characteristicfeatures oftraditional teaching (eg Where does
the teacher stand / sit? How are students seated? How is the class managed?).
W h a td o y o u t h i n k a r e t h e d i s a d v a n t a g eosf a t r a d i t i o n atle a c h i n ga p p r o a c hf o r
l a n g u a g et e a c h i n ga n d l e a r n i n g ?

'Traditional'
teachingcomesin many varieties,but is often characterisedby the
teacherspendingquite a lot ofclasstime using the board to explain things - asif
'transmitting'
knowledgeto the class- with occasionalquestionsto or from the
learners.After t}reseexplanadons. the srudentswill oftendo somepracrice
exercisesto test whether they haveunderstoodwhat they havebeentold.
Throughout the lesson,the teacherkeepscontrol of the subjectmatter, makes
decisionsabout what work is neededand orchestrateswhat the studentsdo. In this
classroom,the teacherprobably doesmost of the talking and is by far the rnost
activeperson.The students'roleis primarily to listen and concentate and,
perhaps,takenoteswith a view to taking in the information. Often the teacher
takesasif by right (usually,but not always,benignly) permissionto direct, give
orders,tell off, rebuke,criticise,etc,possiblywith limited or no consultation.
This 'transmission'view of the role ofa teacheris relativelywidespread,and in
many culturesrepresentsthe predominant mode ofeducation. Studentswill
expectthat a teacherwill teachin this way, and fellow teachersmay be crilical or
suspiciousof teacherswho do not. In such cases,it,s important to rememberthat
 2 Whatis a teacher?

your choiceof methodologyis not simply a m'atterof what you beliet'eto be best,
imposed at any cost,but itis alsoabout what is appropriatein a particular place
with particular people.lfhat you do in any schoolor with any learnerwill often
representyour best compromisebetweenwhat you believeand what seemsright
in the local context.Youthen havethe interestingpossibilityofstardng to
persuadeyour colleaguesand studentsto your ideas. . . or maybelearning from
them about why their approacheswork better.
The processby which traditional teachingis imagined asworking is somedmes
'jug and mug' - the knowledgebeing poured from one receptacle
characterisedas
into an empty one.It is often basedon an assumptionthat the teacheris the
'knower'and has the task ofpassing over knowledgeto the students,and that
having somethingexplainedor demonstratedto you wi.lllead to learning- and if it
doesn't,it is becausethe teacherhas done this job badly or the studentis lazy or
incompetent.
In many circumstances,lectureor explanationby a teachermay be an efficient
method of informing a largenumber ofpeople about a topic. However,if our own
educationalexperiencehasmainly beenof this approach,then it is worth pausing
for a minute and questioningwhether this is indeedthe most effectiveor efficient
'explainers'at
teachingmethod.\X/hereas most teacherswill needto be good
variouspoints in their lessons,a teachingapproachbasedsolelyor mainly on this
techniquecan be problematic.

The irnportance of rapport

Interestingly,when I recallmy own teachersat school,I find it quite hard to recall
detailsofany specihcindividual lessons,but I can recall- quite strongly-the way
that the teacherrelatedto the classand how I felt in this teacher'spresence.I think
of somewhoselessonswerebright and enjoyable,somewhoselessonswere
frightening and tense,somewho seemedto bring out t-hebestin me and some
who closedme up.The way the teacherrelatedto the learners- and consequently
how learnersrelatedto eachother - was signihcandvdifferent in different
classrooms.
'What
createsthis distinctiveatmosphereof eachteacher'sclass?$?hatmakesthe
differencebetweena room where people are defensiveand anxious,and a room
where peoplefeel ableto be honestand takerisks?Teachersand tainers often
comment on the importance of'rapport'between teachersand students.The
problem is that, whereasrapport is clearlyimportant, it is alsonotoriously difficult
'being generallyfriendly to
to define or quantify. Sometimespeopleequateit with
your students'.While this is a reasonablestarting point, I thfuk we needto find a
wider defmition, involving many more aspectsto do with the quality of how
teacherand learnersrelate.
This doesraisea problem, though. If a significantpart ofa class'ssuccessis down
to how well the teacherand studentsrelate,doesthat suggestthat successful
teachersareborn, and if they don't naturally relatewell to people,then they are a
u,'rite-ofPIs your'rapport' 100%natural or is it somethingthat can be worked on
and imoroved?

15
Chapter1 Startingout

:Wi*Sit Creatinga positivelearningatmosphere

F i g u r e1 . 1 l r s t ss o m e f e a t u r e st h a t m a y b e i m p o r t a n ti n c r e a t i n ga p o s i t i v e
. e c i d ew h i c hi t e m s a r e i n b o r n
r e l a t i o n s h i pa n d a p o s i t i v el e a r n i n ga t m o s p h e r e D
a n d w h i c hc o u l db e w o r k e do n a n d i m p r o v e d .
I n a p o s i t i v el e a r n i n ga t m o s p h e r et h e t e a c h e r. . .

ehowsre7?acL
reallylie'enola
hls/ hersludenr,s clearara
Olveo
naea qooasense
?oeiLivefeeAback
of ht)rnoL)r ie?atren'
is,byand arge,
insplree
confidence auNhenlicaly her/ hlmself
non-ludAeffientral
ern?alhiseowilh
oludente' ?robleYne t r u s t a? e o ? l e doeenol complicale
lhinqounneccegsa(ily
iswellorganised
ieapproachable
igenLhusiaslic
ana
ing?iree
enlhuoiaeffl canbeaDlhariLative
withaulbeinqdiolant

Figure 1.1 Featurcsrvhich createa positiverelatiol-lshipand atmosphere

Arguable maybe, but I rvould say that all ofthese are drings that can be studied
and improved on. Some are more difficult than others.
Ofcourse, although it's a good start, a positive learning atmosphere isn't
everything. Being jokey, chatt] and easygoing docsn't necessarily lead to good
teaching - one of my teachers was very fricndly and funnr', but his lessons ended
up in confusion. Contrastingll', lcssons from one of the quieter, more scrious
teachers were often very memorable.This is simply the first building block of
teaching, but it's an important one.

Respect, ernpathy and authenticity

Carl Rogers, t1.reAmerican psychologist, suggested that there are three core
teacher characteristics that help to create an effcctive learning environment. These
are respect (a positive and non-judgemental regard 1br another person), empathy
(being able to seethings from the other person's perspective, as iflooking through
 2 Whatis a teacher?

their eyes)and authenticity (being oneselfwiihout lxding behind job titles,roles

or masks).
\?hen a teacherhas thesethree qualities,the relationshipswithin the classroom
are likely to be stronger and deeper,and communication betweenpeople much
more open and honest.The educationalclimate becomespositive, forward-
Iooking and supportive.The learnersare able to work with lessfear oftaking
risks or facing challenges.In doing this, they increasetheir own self-esteemand
self-understanding,gradually taking more and more of the responsibility for
their own Iearning themselvesrather than assumingthat it is someone
else'sjob.
Rogersand Frelberg (1994) consideredthat, out ofthese three teacher
characteristics,authenticitywasthe most important. To be yourself.Not to play
the role of a teacher,but to takethe risk of being vulnerableand human and
honest.Gaie Houston (1990) haswritten that'The foundation ofrapport is to
learn yourselfenoughthat you know what styleyou haveand when you are being
truthful to yourself.'
Although there are somepracticaltechniquesyou can learn to improve your
communicationwith others,real rapport is somethingmore substantialthan a
techniquethat you can mimic. It is not somethingyou do to other people.It is you
and your moment-by-moment relationshipwith other human beings.Similarly,
respector empathyor authenticityare not clothesto put on asyou walk into the
classroom,not temporary characteristicsthat you take on for the duration ofyour
'respect'- or any ofthe other qualities.On the
lesson.Youcannot role play
contrary,they are rooted at the level ofyour genuineintentions.
In order to improve the quality of our own relationshipin the classroom,we do not
needto learn new techniqueslwe needto look closelyat what we reallywant for
our students,how we really feel about them. It is our attitude and intentionsrather
than our methodologythat we may needto work on.
Having said all that, it alsosuggeststhat I can't teachyou how to do this in a book.
For this reason.the main subiectmatter of the book concernsthe more technical
aspectsof creatinga successfulclass.

Three kinds ofteacher

There are obviouslymany waysofteaching, and part of the enjoymentofbeing a
student in a good classroomis in sharingthe unique personalidentity, style,skills
and techniquesthat a teacherbrings to a lesson.
Having saidthat, it sometimesgivesthings a clearerperspectiveif we simplify
rather than complicate.Adrian Underhill has suggestedthat there may be three
broad categoriesofteaching styles(summarisedin Figure 1 2).

The explainer
Many teachersknow their subjectmafter very well, but havelimited knowledgeof
'explaining' or
teachingmethodology.Thiskind ofteacher reliesmainly on
'lecturing'as a way of conveyinginformation to tle students Done with styleor
enthusiasmor wit or imagination,this teacher'slessonscan be very entertaining,
interestingand informative.The studentsare listening,perhapsoccasionally
answeringquestionsand perhapsmaking notes,but are mostly notbeing

17
Chapter1 Startingout

personallyinvolved or challenged.Thelearnersoften get practiceby doing

individual exercisesafter one phaseof the lecturehasfinished.

The involver
This teacheralsoknows the subjectmatter that is being dealtwith. (In our case,
this is essentiallythe English languageand hou' it rvorks.)Hor'vever,sheis also
familiar with teachingmedrodology;sheis ableto use appropriateteachingand
organisationalproceduresand techniquesto help her studentslearn about the
subjectmatter.'Teacherexplanations'may be one of thesetechniques,but in her
case,it is onl-vone option among many that shehas at her disposal.This teacheris
trying to invoh'ethe srudentsactivelyand puts a great dealofeffort into finding
appropriateand interestingactivitiesthat u,ill do this, while still retaining clear
control over the classroomand lvhat haooensin it.

The enabler
The third kind ofteacher is confident enoughto sharecontrol rvith the learners,or
perhapsto hand it over to them entirely.Decisionsmade in her classroommay
often be sharedor negotiated.In man-vcases,shetakesher leadfrom the students,
seeingherselfassomeonewhosejob is to createthe conditions that enablethe
studentsto learn for themselves.Sometimesthis will involveher in lesstraditional
'teaching';shemay becomea'guide'or a'counsellor'ora 'resourceof information
when needed'.Sometimes,when the classis rvorkingwell under its own steam,
when a lot ofautonomous learning is going on, shemay be hardly visible.
This teacherknou'sabout the subjectmatter and about methodolog]',but alsohas
an awarenessofhow individuals and groups are thinking and feelingwithin her
class.Sheactivelyrespondsto this in her planning and methodsand in building
and a good classroomatmosphere.Her own
effectiveworking relatior.rships
personalityand attitude are an activeencouragementto this learning.

Subject matter l\y'ethodology P e op l e

Explainer

tnvotver

Enalller

Figure 1.2 Threekindsofteacher

These three descriptionsofteachers are,ofcourse, very broadly painted.There is

no way to categoriseall teachingunder threeheadings;many teacherswill find
elementsof eachcategorvthat are true for them, or that they move bet\'veen
categoriesdependingon the da1',the classand the aims ofa lesson.However,this
simple categorisationmay help lrou to reflect on what kind ofteaching you have
mostly experiencedin your life so far and may alsohelp -vouto clarify what kind of
teacheryou seeyourselfasbeing now or in the future.
On teacher-trainingcourses,Ihavecome acrossmany participantswhoseinitial
internal image ofa teacheris basedon the'explainer', but who are keento move to
becoming an 'involver' in their ou'n teaching.Such a move may be your aim in

18
 3 Teaching
andlearning

readingthis book- and the book is mainly gedredtowardsgiving you information,

ideas,options and starting points that may help you reachthat goal.Essentially,
therefore,this is a book about methodology.Throughoutthe book, I havealso
tried to keepin mind the important skills,qualities,valuesand techmques
associatedwith the 'enabling'teacherand to give guidanceand information that
may influence your role and relationshipsin the classroom.
When I think back on my own experiencesof being taught, it is the teaching
techniquesthat I rememberleast.I certainly rememberteacherswho made
subjectmatter come alive,through their greatknowledgeand enthusiasm.But the
teacherI recallwith most pleasureand respectwas the one who listenedto me,
who encouragedme, who respectedmy own views and decisions.Curiously,this
teacherwho helpedme most wasthe one who actually did least,teaching'of the
subjectmafter and was,seemingly,technique-free,being basically,himself, in
class.My memoriesof his lessonsare of what I did, rather than what he did, of mv
learning rather than his teaching.

ffi Explainer,
involvel,enabler
T h i n ko f s o m e p e o p l ey o u h a v eb e e nt a u g h tb y i n t h e p a s t . W h i c ho f t h e t h r e e
d e s c r i p t i o n sa b o v eb e s t s u i t s e a c h o n e ?T h i s m a y g i v ey o u s o m e i d e a a b o u tw h i c h
i m a g e so f t e a c h i n gy o u h a v e b e e ne x p o s e dt o a n d i n f l u e n c e db v .

Teaching and learning

Let's look outsidethe classroomfor a moment. How do peoplelearn things in
everydaylife? By trial and error? By reading a manual and following the
instructions?By sitting next to someonewho can tell you what to do and give
feedbackon whether you're doing OI(?

An experiential learning cycle

The processoflearning often involvesfive steps(seeFigure 1.3):
1 doing something;
2 recallingwhat happened;
3 reflecting on that;
4 drawing conclusionsfrom the reflection;
5 using thoseconclusionsto inform and preparefor future practical experience.

Figure 1.3 An experienrial

learningcycle
Chapter1 Startingout

Again, it is important to distinguishbetweenlearning and teaching.Information,

feedback,guidanceand support from other peoplemay come in at any of the hve
stepsof the cycle,asshownin Figure 1.4, but the essentiallearning experienceis
in doing the thing yourself.

..(o{""t'"u
K
cb, I Prepa

soldqaexf,
tlodd$9

Figure1.4 Teaching
andtheexperiential
learning
cycle

This cycle,known asan experientiallearning cycle,suggestsa number of

conclusionsfor languageteachingin the classroom.For example:
. Ifthis cycle doesrepresenthow peoplelearn,then the 'jug-and-mug'
explanation-basedapproachmay be largelyinappropriate if it dominates
classroomtime. Giving peopleopportunities to do things themselvesmay be
much more important.
. I may becomea better teacherif I worry lessabout teachingtechniquesand uy
to makethe enablingof learningmy main concern,ie the inner circle of the
diagramrather than the outer one.
. I needto ensurethat I allow my studentspractical experiencein doing things
(eg in using languagerather than simply listeningto lecturesabout language).
. It may be that being over-helpfulasa teachercould get in the way oflearning. I
cannot learn for my students.Themore I do myself,the lessspacethere will be
for the learnersto do things.
. It may be useful to help studentsbecomemore awareabout how they are
learning,to reflect on this and to explorewhat procedures,materials,
techniquesor approacheswould help them learn more effectively.
. It's OK for studentsto make mistakes,to try things out and get things wrong
and learn from that . .. and that's true for me asa 'learning teacher'aswell.
One fundamental assumption behind this book and the teaching approaches
suggestedin it is that people learn more by doing things themselvesrather than
by being told about them.This is true both for the studentsin your classesand
for you, asyou learn to be a better teacher.This suggests,for example,that it
may be more useful for a learner to work with others and role play ordering a
meal in a restaurant (with feedbackand suggestionsofuseful language)than it
would be to listen to a hfteen-minute explanation from the teacherofhow to do
it correctlv.

20
 3 Teaching
andlearning

A secondassumptionis that leamers are intelligent, fully functioning humans,

not simply receptaclesfor passed-onknowledge.Learning is not simply a
one-dimensionalintellectual activity, but involvesthe whole person (asopposedto
only their mental processessuch astl.inking, remembering, analysing,etc).\(/e can no
longer be content witll the image of the student asa blank slate.Studentsmay bring
pen and paper to the lesson,but they alsobring a whole range of other, lessvisible
things to class:their needs,their wishes,dreir Iife experience,thei-rhome background,
their memories,their worries, their day sofar, their dreams,their anger,fieir
toothache,their fears,their moods, etc. Given the opportr.ruties,they will be ableto
make important decisionsfor themselvesJ to takeresponsibility for their leaming and
to move forward (although their previous educationalexperiencemay initially
predisposethem to expectingthat you, the teacher,needto do all that for them).
New learning is constructedover the foundations ofour own earlierlearning.\fe
make use ofwhatever knowledgeand experiencewe alreadyhavein order to help
us Iearnand understandnew things.Thus the messagetaken awayfrom any one
Iessonis quite different for different people.The new learninghasbeen planted in
quite different seedbeds.Thisrs true both for your learnersmeeting a new tense
in classand for you readingthis paragraphand reviewingit in the light of your
own previous experienceand knowledge.Youcan checkthis out for yourself.Is
the information you are frnding in this book being written in your head on a sort of
'blank slate' is
or it connectingin somemanner with your previousknowledge,
ideas,thoughts,prejudices?
The two assumptionslisted aboveinform my teaching.Theyremind me that my
'performance'asa teacher
is only one,possiblyminor, factor in the learning dlat
might occur.They remind me that someof the teachingI do might actually
prevent learning.They remind me that teachingis, fundamentally,about working
with people- and about remaining aliveto the many difierent things that go on
when peoplehack their own path through the iungle towardsnew learning.
Although this book concentratesmainly on teachingtechniques,it is important to
bear in mind that knowledgeofsubject matter and methodologyare,on their own,
insufhcient.A greatdeal ofteaching can be done with thosetwo, but I would
suspectthat the total learningwould not be asgreat asit could be.However,an
awareand sensitiveteacherwho respectsand listensto her students,and who
concenffateson finding waysofenabling learningrather than on performing asa
teacher,goesa long way to creatingconditionsin which a greatdealoflearning is
likely to take place.Methodology and knowledgeof subjectmafter are imponant,
but may not necessarilybe the most important things.
Ife neverknow how much 'learning' is taking place.It is tempting to imagine that
if teachingis going on, then the learning must be happening;but in fact, 'teaching'
and 'learning' needto be clearlydistinguished.
Here is the great and essentialformula (one that all teachersshould probably
remind themselvesof at leastoncea davl):

T+L
'Teaching'does
not equal'learning'.Teachingdoesnot necessarilylead to
learning.The fact that the hrst is happeningdoesn't automaticallymean the other
must occur.Learning- ofanyd-ring,anywhere- demandsenergyand attention
from the learner.One person cannot learn an1'thingfor anyoneelse.It has to be

21
Chapter1 Startingout

done by your own personaleffort. Nobodl' elsecan transmit understandingor

skillsinto your head.
It is quite possiblefor a teacherto be putting great effort into his or her teaching
and for no learning to be taking place;similarly,a teachercould apparendybe
doing nothing, but the studentsbe learning a great deal.
As you'll frnd when you talk to somestudents(and parents),there is a surprisingly
widespreadexpectationdrat simpll, being in a classin the presenceofa teacher
and 'listeningattentively'is somehowenoughto ensurethat learningwill take
place.This suggestsa very activerole for the teacher,who is somehowresponsible
for 'radiating' knowledgeto the class.Conversely'in this viewpoint, there is an
assumptionof a more passiverole for the student,whosejob is mair y to absorb
and storetl-tereceivedlearning.But this isn't an accuratevieu' ofhow peoplelearn.
In a traditional classof, sa1,,25 students,onelessonis being'taught'. But rvecor'tld
equallythbk ofit asa rangeofdifferentlessons beingreceived,asshorvnin Figure 1.5:

eelinq.
That'e reallyinr,e? Ah- eomeofLhat,
rnakes5en9enow.
l ' m n o t i n v o l vaetda l l .
Whatfilmehall
I wonderifJenny lwatchLonight?
I haven'tr
eaid golmyf,ext,meeeaqe.
an$hinOforhoure.

l'dratrherdo I didn'tr
underetand andnowhe5
eomelhinTdifferent.. I;alking else.
aboul:someLhinq

I'mLired of elttlng I wonderif what hesaidapplies

l n t r h iceh a i r . Lophraeal verbsloo?

l'mnoldoing
anfuhinqmyeelt. Ididn't underelandf'haf'before,
but llhinkl haveanideanow.
qoingtroo
Pte's slow.
Y u pq, o t i I : n o wl ' d l i k e
lL'ean interestinq trotrryiLmyeelf.
eubiecL
He'sgoingtroo
fasf,.

Figure 1.5 Different perceptionsofdre samelesson

 3 Teaching
andlearning

Perhapssomestudentsare listeningand tryini to follow the explanations(but

only one of them is ableto relateit to her own experiences);someother students
are making detailednotes,but not really thinking about the subject;one person is
listening and not really understandinganything;one (having missedthe previous
lesson)thinks that the teacheris talking about somethingcompletelydifferent;
three studentsare daydreaming;one is writing a letter; etc.
Here, the teachingis only one factor in what is learned.Indeed,teachingis actually
rather lessimportant than one might suppose.As a teacher,I cannotlearn for my
students.Only they can do that.\(/hat I can do is help createthe conditions in
which they might be ableto learn.This could be by respondingto someof the
student complaintsabove- perhapsby involving them, by enablingthem to work
at their own speed,by not giving long explanations,by encouragingthem to
participate,tal( interact,do things, etc.

How useful are explanations?

Languagelearning,especially,seemsnot to beneht very much from long
explanations.If the explanationis done in the languagebeing learned,then there
is an immediateproblem; learnershave- by definition - limited understandingof
this new language,and thereforeany lengthy or difficult explanationin the 'target
language'will be likely to be more difhcult for them than the thing being
explained.And evenif the explanationis done in their nativetongue,explanations
about how languageworks,while of somevalue,seemto be most useful in fairly
briefhints, guidelinesand corrections;languagelearnersdo not generallyseemto
be ableto makeuse of complex or detailedinformation from lengthy 'lectures',
not in the sameway that, say,a scientistmight make activeuse of understanding
gainedfrom a theoreticaltalk.Ability to use a languageseemsto be more ofa skill
you learn by trying to do it (akin to playing football or riding a bicycle) than an
amounrofdata that you learnand then try ro apply.
Languagelearnersseemto need a number of things beyond simply listeningto
explanations.Amongst other things,they needto gain exposureto
comprehensiblesamplesoflanguage (not just the teacher'smonologues)and they
need chancesto play with and communicatewith the languagethemselvesin
relativelysafeways.If any ofthese things are to happen,it seemslikely that
classroomworking styleswill involve a number of different modesand not just an
upfront lectureby the teacher.Ofcourse, a lot ofteaching work will involve
standingand talking to (or with) students,but a teachingstylethat predominandy
usesthis techniqueis likely to be inappropnate.
Studentsneedto talk themselves;they needto communicatewith a variety of
people;they needto do a variety of different language-relatedtasks;rhey need
feedbackon how successfulor not their attemptsat communicationhavebeen,
So what's a teacherfor? Short answer:tohelp learning to happen.Methodology,
such aswe discussin this book, is what a teacherusesto try and reachthat
challenginggoal.

Leamers'expectations of teachets
lmagine t h a ty o ua r ea b o u t o s t a r ts t u d y i n ag n e wl a n g u a gien a c l a s sw i t ho t h e r
b e g i n n e r sC.o n s i d eyro u re x p e c t a t i os no f t h et e a c h e r ' sr o l e .W h a ta r es o m eo f t h e
g e n e r atlh i n g ss h ec a nd o t o a s s i s ty o u rl e a r n i n g ?

23
Chapter
1 Starting
out

4 - The subject matter of ELT

\7hat exactlyare we teaching?\Y/hatis the subiectmatter oflanguageteaching?
An outsidermight imaginethat the content would comprisetwo maior elements,
namely knowledgeof the language'sgrammar and knowledgeof lots of
vocabulary.Ofcourse, thesedo form an important part of what is taught / learned,
but it is important to realisethat someonelearning a languageneedsfar more than
'in-the-head'knowledgeof gramrnar and vocabularyin order to be ableto use
languagesuccessfully.
In staff rooms, you'll find that teacherstypically classifythe key subiectmatter of
languageteachinginto 'languagesystems'and 'languageskills'.There are other
important subjectareasaswell (including 'learning betterwaysoflearning','exam
techniques','working with and learning about other people').

Language systems
S7ecan analysea sentencesuch asPassmethebookn differentways.
!7e could consider:
. the sounds(phonology);
. the meaning ofthe individual words or groups ofwords (lexis or vocabulary);
. how the words interact with each other within the sentence (gramrnar);
. the useto which the words are put in particular situations(function).
If we extendour languagesampleinto a complete (short) conversation,eg
A: Passmethebook.
B: Marg put it in herbag.
then we havean additional areafor analysis,namely the way that communicadon
makessensebeyond the individual phraseor sentence,analysinghow the
sentencesrelate (or don't relate)to eachother (known asdiscourse). Figure 1.6
showsa briefanalysisofthe languagesamplefrom eachofthese vie\4?oints.

So we havefive languagesystems,though all are simply different waysoflooking at

the samething. If we are considering teachingan item oflanguage, one thing we need
to decideis which system(s)we are going to offer our learnersbformation about.
We might plan a lessonfocusedon only one area,eg gramrnar,or we might deal
with two, tllree or more. An exampleof a commonly combined systemsfocus in
many languagelessonswould be:
grammar + pronunciation + function
(ie how the languageis structured,how to sayit and how it's used).

21
 4 The subjectmatter of ELT

Phonological /po:smi: de'buk/or /pe s mi;he 'buk/

The stress is probablyon book, but also possible(withdifferent
meanings)on Passor me.
The words me and the probablyhavea weakvowelsound.

Lexical Pass= give;handover;present

me = referenceto speaker
the book = oqecl madeof paper,containingwords and/or pictures
and conveyinginformation

Grammatical Verb(imperative)
+ firstpersonobjectpronoun
+ definitearticle+
noun
Functional A requestor order
Discoursal Although nota directtransparent answerto the request,wecan
stilldrawa meaning fromthisreply.Thewordit, referring
to the
book,helpsusto makea connection to the request.Assuming that
l\4ary'sputit in herbagis intendedas a genuineresponse to the
request,it maysuggesta reasonwhythe bookcannotbe passed
(egI can'tbecauseMarytookthe bookwrthher).Inorderto fully
understand the meaning, wewouldneedto knowmoreaboutthe
situationalcontext(iewhois talking,where,etc.)andmoreabout
the surrounding conversation(iewhatknowledge is assumed to be
knownor sharedbetween the speakers).
Figure 1.6 Analysisofa languagesample

ffi& Recognising
tanguage
systems
lmaginethat you intendto do someteachingusingthis pieceof language:Canyou
playtheguitar?Matchsomepointsyoumightfocuson withthe correctsystem
name:
1 t h e c o n s t r u c t i ocna n+ p r o n o u n
2 the meaningof playandguitar
3 variations,eg strong/kan jur/ vs weak/kanj a/, stresson gultar,etc.
4 a s k i n ga b o u ta b i l i t y
5 t y p i c aql u e s t i o n - a n d - r espelqyu e n c ecso n t a t n i nt gh i s l a n g u a g e
a functron
b di s c o u r s e
c lexts
d grammar
e pronunciation
Answels
Ld 2c 3e 4a 5b

25
Chapter1 Startingout

W Distinguishing
languagesystems
Youwantto teacha lessoncontrastingtwo potentiallyconfusingareasof language.
C l a s s i fey a c ho f t h e f o i l o w i ntge a c hi n gp o i n t sa s Gf o rg r a m m a t i c aLl f, o r l e x i c a lP,
f o r p h o n o l o g i c aFl ,f o rf u n c t i o n a l .
Example:housecomparedto flat - L (lexical)
! | wentto Pariscomparedto I'vebeentoParis
2 Lendus a fivercomparedto Couldyou possiblylendme t5?
3 IibrarycomparcdIo bookshop
4 womancompatedlo women
5 Sorrycompared lo Excuseme
6 hut comparedto hat
7 impotentcompatedlo impottant
8 somecomparedto any
Answels
I G 2 F 3 L 4 G / P 5 F 6 P ( c h a n g i nv g o w esl o u n d )
7 P ( c h a n g i n g w osr d
t r e s s /) L 8 G

Language skills
As well asworking with the languagesystems(which we can think of aswhat we
know, ie 'up-in-the-head'knowledge),we alsoneedto pay anention to what we do
with language.Theseare the languageskills.Teachersnormally think ofthere
being four important macro languageskills:listening,speaking,reading,writing.
Listening and readingare calledreceptive skills (the readeror listenerreceives
information but doesnot produce it); speakingand writing, on the other hand, are
the productive skills. Skillsare commonly usedinteractivelyand in combination
rather than in isolation,especiallyspeakingand listening.It's arguablethat other
things (eg thinking, using memory and mediating) are alsolanguageskills.

Languagesystems Languageskills
Knowtng dorng
Phonology
Speaking
LEXIS Productive
Writing
Grammar
Function R ea di n g
Receptive
Discourse Listening

Figure 1.7 Languagesystems

andskills

The main four skillsare referred to asraacrobecauseany one of them could be

analyseddown to smallermicro skillsby defining more preciselywhat exactlyis
being done,how it is being done,the genreof material,etc.For example:
Macro skill Listening
Some rnicro . Understandingthe gist of what is heard egV/ho is talking?
skills \Whereare they?$?hatare r.heydoing?What is their
relationshio?How do thev feel?

26
 4 Thesubjectmatterof ELT

Understanding preciseirlformationre.quanrity,
referencenumbers,prices,etc when listeningto a
businesstelephonecall where a clientwants to placean
order.
Compensatingfor words and phrasesnot heard clearly
in an informal pub conversationby hypothesisingwhat
they are,basedon understandingofthe content of the
rest ofa conversationand predictionsoflikely content.

@ Listeningto a radio weather forecast

Considerbrieflyhowyou listento the radioweatherforecastin yourownlanguage.
Whatwouldbe differentif youlistenedto one in a foreignlanguage
that you have
beenstudyingfor a yearor so?

Many of the skills that we havein our own native languageare dtectly transferableto
a foreignlanguage.But we do needpracticein a number ofareas.For example,
I know how I listen to a weatherforecastin my own language:I only halfJisten until I
hear the forecasterrnention my part of the country, then I 'switch on' and concentrate
to catch t-hekey phrasesabout it, then switch off again.But when I listen to a weatJrer
forecastin a foreign country in a different language,I will haveproblems, evenifl
know all the words and all the grammar the forecasteruses.Trying to decipher words
in the seerninglyfast flow of speech,trying to pick out what is important and what is
not, is a skill that needsto be practised;it is work that needsattention in its own righ!
quite apart from the study ofthe grarnmar and vocabulary involved.

The importance of skills work

Don't underestimatethe importance of skillswork. Not everylessonneedsto
teachnew words or new grammar.Lessonsalsoneedto be plannedto give
studentsopportunities to practiseand improve their languageskills.Skillswork is
not somethingto add in at the end ofa five-yearcoursein English.Thereis no
needto wait for extensiveknowledgebeforedaring to embark on listening and
speakingwork. On the contrary,it is somethingso essentialthat it needsto be at
the heart ofa coursefrom the start. Even a beginnerwith one day'sEnglish will be
ableto practisespeakingand listeningusefully.For more on skillswork see
Chapter 9 Productiaeskilk ar,d Chapter 10 Receptiveskills.

A purpose-based view ofcourse content

Another way oflooking at possiblecoursecontent is to considerthe
communicativepurposesthat studentsneedlanguagefor.The Common
EuropeanFramework (seepage 147) focuseson what learnerscan do with
language.For example,can an individual learnersuccessfullyattendcompany
planning meetings?Or takenotesin physicslecturesat university?Or give
unambiguousinstructionsto junior doctors on a ward?An analysisof such
can-do requirementssuggestsa different kind ofcourse content,one based
around studentsplanning, undertaking and reflecting on tasksthat reflect these
real-life purposes.Thiscoursecontent would clearlyinclude systemsand skills
work, but would be organisedaround this key idea of real-world uses.
 Chapter1 Startingout

Changes of emphasis
Traditionally,languageteachingin many countriesconcentratedon grammar and
vocabularyreinforcedby reading and writing.The readingand rvriting rvas
primarily to help teachthe grammar and vocabular,vrather than to help improve
the students'skillsin reading or writing. In dle twentieth centur)',teaching
approachesbasedmainly around oral languagepracticethrough repetition and
drilling were alsou'idely used.Until the 1960s,a lot ofcourseswcre basedon
mainly grammaticalsyllabuses,but in dre late 1970sand 1980s,a number of
coursesand coursebooksuseda functional s-vllabus, grouping languageby the
purposefor rvhich it could be used (eg the languageofgreeting or ofapologising).
Nowadays,most interestis expressedin rvork on all languagesystemsand skills,
particularly emphasisinglistening and speaking(becausein everydaylife we often
do far more speakingand listeningthan we do reading and u'riting). Grammar is
typically still the languagesystemthat featuresmost prominently on coursesand
in coursebooks- and, at lower levels,is alsothe areathat man,vstudentssa-vthe]'
want or expectto study in most detail.Often coursebooksteachgrammar with an
emphasison communication of meaningrather than purel-vmechanicalpractice
Despite the continuing predominanceof grammar, the implications of a more
lexicallyorientedview oflanguage(seepage185) areincreasinglv havingan
impact on material and task design.Thegrowing influenceof the Common
EuropeanFramell'ork hasencouragedcoursedesigners,teachersand examiners
to increasinglyseesuccessfulcommunication in real-rvorldtasksasa more
important goal than that ofaccurate languageuse.

ffi, systemsandskills
Balancing
. h a t b a l a n c eo f s y s t e m sa n d s k i l l sw o u l dm a k e a
H e r ea r e t w o t e a c h i n gs i t u a t i o n s W
u s e f u lc o u r s ef o r t h e s e l e a r n e r s ?
I A24-year-oldJapaneselearner has studied grammar at school for n ine years;
s h e c a n r e a d a n d u n d e r s t a n de v e nc o m p l e xt e x t s w e l l . S h e h a s a r r i v e dl n
E n g l a n dt o t a k e a t w o w e e k i n t e n s i v ec o u r s e .I n h e r p l a c e m e n t e s t ( w h i c hw a s
m a i nl y m u l t i p l e - c h o i cger a m m a rq u e s t i o n s )s, h e s c o r e dv e r y w e l l , b u t a t t h e
r n i t i a li n t e r v i e ws, h e h a d t r o u b l ea n s w e r i n ge v e n s i m p l eq u e s t i o n sa b o u t h e r s e l f
a n d o f t e n h a l t i n g l ya s k e dt h e i n t e r v i e w etro r e p e a tt h e q u e s t i o n .
2 A g r o u po f t h r e e u n d e r g r a d u a tsec i e n c es t u d e n t sh a v ee n r o l l e df o r a n E n g l i s h
c o u r s ea t a l a n g u a g es c h o o li n t h e C z e c hR e p u b l i cT. h e yk n o wn o E n g l i s ha t a l l

The Japaneselearner clearly needs a lot ofu'ork on the skills oflistening and
speaking. As she knows a lot of grammar, the course could concentrate on
helping her activate this passive knorvledge; the main thrust of the work could
be on realistic listening and speaking activities to promote fluency and improve
communicative abilities.
Most beginners need a balanced course that introduces them to the five
systems and four skills. In their future careers, these science learners ma1'
well need to read and write English quite a lot, but may also need to visit other

28
 4 Thesubjectmatterof ELT

countries,Iistento conferencespeeches(and give them), greetvisiting

scientists,etc.If they are likely to meet English-speakingpeoplesoon,it might
be sensibleto focus on speakingand listening,alongsidework to help them read
and write more effectively.

The communicative purpose of language learning

It is important to rememberthat no one areaof skillsor languagesystemsexistsin
isolation:there can be no speakingifyou don't havethe vocabularyto speakwith;
drere'sno point learningwords unlessyou can do somethinguseful with them.
The purpose oflearning a languageis usuallyto enableyou to takepart in
exchangesof information: talking with friends, readinginstuctions on a packetof
food, understandingdirections,writing a note to a colleague,etc. Sometimes
traditional teachingmethodshaveseemedto emphasisethe learning oflanguage
systemsasa goal in its own right and failed to give learnersan opportunity to gain
realisticexperiencein actuallyusing the languageknowledgegained;how many
studentshaveleft schoolafter studying a languagefor years,unableto speakan
intellisible sentence?

Recognisingskills ol systemsaims
Everyactivityis likelyto involve
someworkon bothlanguage systemsandskills,though,
the aimis directedmoreto oneareathanthe other.ln thefollowing
usually, list,classiry
'mainlysystems'bytickingthe appropriate
eachactivityas 'mainlyskills'or box.Then
decidewhichskillsorwhichlanguage systemsarebeingworkedon.

ainly
N4 Mainly
systems skills

1 Youwritea grammarexerciseon the boardwhich

l e a r n e rcso p ya n dt h e nd o .
2 L e a r n e rrse a da n e w s p a p earr t i c l ea n dt h e nd i s c u s s
the storywitheachother.
3 L e a r n e rus n d e r l i nael l p a s ts i m p l ev e r bf o r m si n a
n e w s p a p earr t i c l e .
4 Learnerschatwithyouaboutthe weekend.
5 Learnerswritean imaginarypostcardto a friend,which
youthen correct.
6 Learnerswritea postcardto a friend,whichis posted
uncorrected.
7 Youuse picturesto teachten wordsconnected
withTV.
8 . Y o us a y' W h a tt e n s e sd o t h e s ep e o p l eu s e ? 'L e a r n e r s
then listento a recordedconversation.
9 Yousay'Wherearethese people?'Learnersthen lisien
to a recordedconversation.

29
 Chapterl Startingout

In activiry 1, the studentsdo read and write, but use few of the skillsthat we need
when we read and write in our normal life. Certainly,comprehendingthe
teacher'shandwriting and forming one'sown letterson the pagemay be quite
demandingfor somestudents(especiallyfor thosewhosenativelanguagedoes
not useroman script), butbeyond tlls, the activity'smain demandis on using
grammar correct-ly.
Activity 2 involvesthe skillsofreading and speakingin waysvery similar to those
in the outsideworld.Vocabularyand grammar will be encounteredin the reading,
but the main aim is for understandingrather than analysisand study.Compare
this with activity 3, where the samematerialis used,bur now with a specific
grammar aim. Comparethen with activities5 and 6, and 8 and 9.The aim in
activity 4 is to encouragefluent speaking.Theaim in activity 7 is to teach some
vocabulary,and the speakingand listeningand writing involved are ofless
importance.

Other areas tJrat are part oflanguage learning

The map oflanguagesystemsand languageskillsis useful to keepin rnind asan
overviewofthe subjectmatter ofEnglish languageteaching.However,it may well
be an over-simplihcation.Elsewheretn this book, you'll come acrosssome doubts
about it (for example,when we askif grammar is more fruitfirlly viewed asa 'skill'
studentsneedpracticein using rather than asa'system'to learn). And, ofcourse,
there is more to English languageteachingthan simply the languageitself:
. Studentsmay be learning new ways oflearning: for example,specificstudy
skillsand techniques.
. They will alsobe learning about the other peoplein their class,and exploring
waysof interacting and working with them.
. They may be learning about themselvesand how they work,learn, get on with
other people,copewith stress,etc.
. They may be learning a lot about the culture ofthe countrieswhoselanguage
u,s] arc rruuyurts.
. They may be learninghow to achievesomespecificgoal,for examplepassing
an exam,making a businesspresentationat an upcoming conference.
. They may alsobe learning about alrnostanlthing else.The subjectmatter of
ELI can encompassall topics and purposesthat we use languageto dealwith.
Many teachersseemto becomequite knowledgeableon the environment,
businessprotocol, the British educationsystem,desertsurvival techniques,etc.
This is probably what keepsthe job interesting!Some coursebooktexts seemto
achievenearlylegendarystatusamongstteachers!(Ask a teacherwho's beenin
the businessa few yearsif they know anything about a nun calledSister!(endy!)
If we start using English in classto do more than simplemechanicaldrills, then the
subjectmatter becomesanything that we might do with language,any topic that
might be discussedwith English,any feelingsthat might be expressedin English,
any communication that we might give or receiveusing English.The peoplewho
use the languagein class,and their feelings,are,therefore,alsopart ofthe subject
matter.This might be a little daunting and may lead you to keepthe usesof
languagein classat a more mechanical,impersonallevel,without allowing too

30

L
 5 Methods

much 'dangerous'personalinvestmentin what is said or heard.This seemssadto

me; I believethat we needto give our studentschancesto feel and think and
expressthemselvesin their new language.

Methods
Yourown teachingmethod
1 W o u l dy o ub e a b l et o n a m et h e t e a c h i n g
m e t h o d ( sy)o uu s e ?
2 Whatare the keyfeaturesof it andwhatare its underlying
principles?

A method is a way ofteaching.Yourchoiceof method is dependenton your

approach,ie what you believeabout:
. what languageis;
. how peoplelearn;
. how teachinghelpspeoplelearn.
Basedon such beliefs,you will then make methodologicaldecisionsabout:
. the aims of a coursel
. what to teach;
. teachingtechniques;
. actlvlty types;
. waysofrelating with students;
. ways ofassessing.
Having saidthat, somemethods existwithout any apparentsound tleoretical
basisl

Sorne well-known rnethods and approaches

!7ell-known methods and approachesinclude:

The Grammar-Translation Method

Much traditional languageteachingin schoolsworldwide usedto be done in tiis
way, and it is still the predominant classroommethod in somecultures.The
teacherrarely usesthe target language.Studentsspenda lot of time reading texts,
translatingthem, doing exercisesand tests,writing essays.Thereis relativelylittle
focus on speakingand listening ski.lls.

The Audio- Lingual Method

Although basedon largely discreditedtheory, the techniquesand activities
continue to havea stong influence over many classrooms.It aims to form good
habits ttrrough studentslisteningto model dialogueswith repetition and drilling
but u ith lirtleor no reacherexplanadon.

C omrnunicative LanguageTeaching (CLT) or

C omrnunicative Approach (CA)
This is perhapsthe method or approachthat most contemporaryteacherswould
subscribeto, despitethe fact that it is widely misunderstoodand misapplied.CLI
is basedon beliefsthat learnerswill learn bestif they participate in meaningful
31
 out
1 Starting
Chapter

communication.It may help if we distinguishberweena strongerand a weaker

version of CLLWith strong CLI studentslearn by communicating,ie doing
communication taskswith a limited role for explicit teachingand traditional
pracuceexercrscs.In contrastJwith weak CLT studentslearn through a wide
varietyofteacl.ring,exercises,activitiesandstudl',rvithabiastorvardsspeaking
and listeningwork Most current coursebooksreflect a versionofweak CLT'

Total Physical ResPonse(TPR)

A method devisedby DrJ. Asher,mainly useful with beginner and lower-level
students.Learnerslisten to instructionsfrom the teacher,understandand do
things in response,rvithout being required to speakuntil they are ready
(seepage182)

Cornmunity Language Learning (CLL)

A method basedaround use of the learners'first languageand rvith teacherhelp in
mediating.It aims to lower anxiet-vand allow studentsto communicatein a more
genuineway than is typically possiblein classrooms

The natural apProach

DevisedbyStephenKrashen,thisisacollectionofmethodsandtechniquesfrom
manysourccs,allintendedtoprovidethelearnerwithnaturalcomprehensible
languageso that the learnercan pick up languagein rvayssimilar to a child
learningtheir first language

Task-Based Learning (TBL)

AvariantofCLT(seeabove)whichbasesworkcyclesaroundthepreparationfor,
doing of, and reflectiveanalysisoftasks that reflect real-lifeneedsand skills

The SilentWaY
Devisedby Caleb Gattegno,tl.f s method requiresthe learnerto take active
or'vnershipof their languagelearning and to pay greatattentionto what they say
Distinctive featuresinclude the relativerestraintof the teacher(who is not
completelysilent!) and the use ofspecialll' designedwallcharts The use of
Cuisenaire rods in mainstreamELI arosefrom this method (seepage 300) '

Person-centred aPProaches
Any approachthat placeslearnersand their needsat the heart ofwhat is done'
Syliabui and u'orking methodswill notbe decidedby the teacherin advanceof the
course,but agreedbetweenlearnerand teacher

Lexical approaches
Proposedby Michael Ler,visandJimmie Hill Onthe back of new discoveries
about horv languageis really used' especialll'the importance oflexical chunksin
communication,proponentssuggestthat traditional present-then-practise
methodsare oflittle use and proposea methodologybasedaround exposureand
experlment.

32
 6 Firstlessons- hlntsandstrateEies

Dogrne
ScottThornbury's proposedback-to-basicsapproach.Teachersaim to strip
their craft ofunnecessarytechnology,materialsand aids and ger back to the
fundamentalrelationshipand interaction ofteacher and studentin class.
Someschools(or individual teachers)follow one ofthese named methods or
approaches.In naming a method, a schoolsuggeststhat all (or most) work will frt
a clearlystated,recognisableand principled way ofworking. Odter schools
sometimesadvertisea unique named method of their own, eg the Cambridge
Method. These are usuallyvariationson someof the methodslisted above,or not
a method at all but somethingelse,eg simply the name of the coursebookseries
being used (eg dre HeadwaryMethod), a way of dividing levelsaccordingto a
familiar exam system,or an eclecticcontemporarylucky dip.

Personal methodology
Despite the grand list of methods above,the reality is that very few teachershave
everfollowed a singlemethod in its entirety (unlessthey work in a schoolthat
demandsthat they do and carefullymonitors adherence).
I rememberwatching many languageteachersat work in the (then) SovietUnion,
which waswell known asa bastion of traditional Grammar-Translationteaching.
Yet I was struck by how everyteacherhad their own personalway of working in
the classroom.Therewere somesimilar factorsbetweendifferent teachers,and ifI
listed all the most frequently observablefeaturesand addedthem togetherI could
havefound a core ofthings that wererecognisablyGrammar-Translation.But the
uuth wasthat therewasno monolithic method at work.
Many teachersnowadayswould saythat they do not follow a singlemethod.Teachers
do not generallywant to take someoneelse'sprescriptions into classand apply them.
Rather they work out for themselveswhat is effectivein their own classrooms.They
may do this in a random manner or in a principled way, but what they slowly build
over the yearsis a personalmetl]odology of their own, constucted from their
selectionofwhat they considerto be the best and most appropriate ofwhat they
haveleamedabout.Theprocessof choosingitemsfrom a rangeof methodsand
constructing a collagemethodology is sometimesknown asprincipled eclecticism.

6 First lessons - hints and strategies

Key hints when planning your first lessons

. Use the coursebook (ifthere is one) Don't feel that you haveto come up
with stunning original lessonideasand creativenew activities.Ifyou havea
coursebook,then you havean instant sourceof material.It's hne to rely on the
longer experienceofthe coursebookwriter and do the lessonexactlyasit was
written.Thkeyour time before the lessonto read carefullythrough the unit (and
give the sameattentionto theTeacher'sBook, ifyou haveaccessto one).
There's a reasonablechanceyou'll end up with a workablelesson.Many
teachersalsouse ideasbooks,known as'recipe books',which do exactlywhat
that nicknamesuggests- give you everythingyou needto know to be ableto
walk into classwith the right ingredientsto 'cook up' a good activiry
. A lesson is a sequence ofactivities Thirk ofthe lessonasa seriesof
separatebut linted activities.Yourfirst planning job is to selectsome

33
Chapter1 Startingout

appropriateactivities.Read Chapter 2 and b9 clearwhat an activity is and how

you canorganiseit in class.
, Learn something about your students Ifpossible, talk to other teachers
and hnd out somethingabout the classand the peoplein it.
' Plan student-focused activities Don't plan first lessonsthat will put you
upfront in the spotlight feelingthe needto burble.That leadsto panic and
muddle. Plan activitiesthat are basedon the follo'"vingroute map:
1 Lead-in (a brief introduction to the topic, eg you shorva picture to the class
and invite comments).
2 Setup the activity (ie you give instructions,arrangethe seating'etc)
3 Studentsdo the activity in pairs or small groups while you monitor and help
4 Closethe activity and invite feedbackfrom the students
Steps 1, 2 and zl should take relativelylitde trme The heart ofthis sequence
is Step3.This route-maplessonplanis lookedat in more detailin Chapter2'
. rJ7riteout a
Make a written plan ofthe running order ofyour activities
simplelist showingthe activitiesin order'You don't needto include a lot of
detail,but make sureyou havea clearidea ofyour intended sequenceof stages'
perhapsr.vithestimatedtimings.
. Consider aims Think about what studentsrvill get from your lesson,ie rvhat
is the point of them spendingtheir time in this lesson?
. Fluency or accuracy? Decide,for eachstagein the lesson,if you are mainly
r,vorkingon fluency or accuracy- this a key choicefor many activities(see
Chapte9 r , S c c L i o4n) .
. Get the roorn ready; get yourselfready Ifthe timetabling and organisatton
ofyour schoolallou'-sit, takedme before any studentsarrive to make sure
everythingis ready before the classstarts Make surethe room rs setup asyou
lgish (eg horv rvill -vouarrangethe seating?)Make sure-vouhaveeverythtng-vou
need (eg chalk or board pens) - don't expectthem just to magically be there!
And most importantly, just feel rvhatit's like to be in that room Start to setde
into it, to exerciseou'nershipover it. For the length of the Jesson,it's your space
. Have at least one emergency activity! Prepareyour own personal
emergency'Help I've run out of things to do and still havefive minutes left'
activiiy (eg a word game,an extra photocopied gameJetc). Kecp this and add
more emergencyideasday by daY.

Key hints when starting to teach

Talk to the students as they come into the roorn

'business'while you wait for all studentsto
Don't hide or do not-really-necessary
arrive.This quickly builds up a tensionand distancebetweenyou and the students
and makesthe start of the lessonmuch more demanding lnstead,think of the
lessonas starting from tlte first moment a student arrivesin the room You can
calm your own nervesand breakthe ice with studentsvery quickly by chatting
with eachof them asthey come into the room. Try sitting with them (evenjust for
a minute or two) rather than standingin front of them.rWelcomethem Ask them
their names.You'llimmediately start to learn sometlfng about them asreal people
'students',and you'll find that you can start to relax a litLle
rather than asgeneric

3,1
 - hintsandstrateAies
6 Firstlessons

Learn narnes as soon as possible

There is a huge differencein comfort levelsifyou know people'snames.Theystop
being scaryanonymousentitiesand startto becomehumans.In everydaylife, if we
meet a number ofpeople in onego, sayat a partyJwe are often a litlle carelessabout
learningnames.But in class,it is a very important teacherskill,and you shor d aim
to intemalisenamesassoonaspossible.It is a bit embarrassingif you haveto ask
peopletheir namesoverand over again.Don't say'I'm bad at rememberingnames.'
Make learningnamesquicldyand accuratelyyour first priority. Iffor any reasonthe
pronunciationof namesis a problem,taketime to get the soundsright; if you are
teachingin anothercoumy, maybeget a local speakerto help you.
1 As you askeachstudentfor their name,write it down on a mini-sketch-map of
the classroom.Iyhenyou haveall the names)test yourselfby coveringup the
map, looking at the classand sayingthe namesto yourself.Check and repeat
any namesyou don't yet know.
2 Ask studentsto make a small placecard for themselvesby folding an ,\5 piece
of paper in half.They should write their nameson this so that every name is
visibleto you at the front. As the lessonproceeds,turn individual cardsaround
when you hink you know the student'sname. (Some teachersuse cardslike
thesethrough whole courseslthat seemsrather lazy to me!This strategyis to
help you learn names,not a substitutefor that learningl)
3 l-Isename gamesfrom Chapter 15, Section 12.If it's not justyou, the teacher,
who is new,but your studentsare alsonew to eachother,then using some of
thesename-gameactivitieswill definitely be a good idea.

Eee Learnlng namesteaching technique on the DVD

Be yourself
Don't feel that being a teachermeansyou haveto behavelike a'teacher'.As far as
possible,speakin rvaysyou normally speak,respondasyourselfrather than asyou
think a 'teacher'should respond.Students,whether children, teensor adults,very
quickly seethrough someonewho is role playing what they think a teachershould
be.Authenticity in you tends to draw the best out ofthose you are rvorkingwith.

Teaching doesn't mean 'talking all the time'

Don't feel that when you are 'in the spotlight',you haveto keepfilling all the
silences.\X/hen you are teachinga language,the priority is for the learnersto talk,
rather than the teacher.Start to notice the quantity ofyour own talk assoon as
possible- and checkout how much is really useful.High levelsofteacher talk is a
typical problem for new teachers.

Teaching doesn't rnean 'teaching' all the tirne

Don't feel drat being a teachermeansthat you hal'e to be doing things all the time.
It may feel a litde odd, but it really is quite OK to sit down and do nothing when
studentsare working on a pair or group task.Thereare times rvhenyour help will
actuallybe interference.Takethe chanceto recoverfrom your exertions,check
your notesand enjoy $'atchingyour classat work.

35
Chapter
1 Starting
out

Slow down
A largenumber ofnew teacherstend to do things much too fast.They often
seriouslyunderestimatehow difficult things are for students,or are respondingto
a fear that studentswill find tlungs boring. Learning to really slow down takes
time - but it's worth bearingin mind from your first lessononwards.For example,
don't aska questionand then jump straightin againbecauseyou think they can't
answerit.Instead, allow threetimes dre length of time you feel studentsneed (this
is sometimescalledwait time).

Key hints for starting to teach better (once you've got past the frrst
few classes)

Turn your radar on

You are likely to be a little self-focusedduring your earlylessons,but assoon as
you can, start to tune in more to the students.Start to askfor comments and brief
feedbackon things you do.Watchthe studentsat work and learn to notice what is
diffrcdt, what is easy,what seemsto engage,what seemsboring. Study your
students.

Don't teach and teach . . , teach then check

Practiceis more important than input. Checkingwhat studentshaveunderstood
and testingif they can use items themselvesis usuallymore important than telling
them more about the new items.Don't do endlessinputs.Teacha very Iitde
amount .. . then checkwhat studentshavetaken in. Give studentsthe opportunity
to try using the items, eg a litde oral practice,a wriften questionor two, or even
simply 'repeat'. (Here'sa rule-of-thumb ratio to experimentwith: input 5%,
checkingandpractice95%.)

Are you teaching the class . . . or one person?

rfitren you askquestions/ checkanswers)etc)are you really hnding out ifthey all
know the items . . . or is it just the first person to call out? Ifone person saysan
answer,doesthat mean they all know?What about the others?How can you find
out?

36
Chapter2 GlassroomaGtivities
This chapterlooks at somethings you needto considerwhen you first start
planning and running activities.Wealsolook at somebasicclassroom
managementissues,such ashow to arrangestudentsin working pairs on groups.

Planning an activity
The basicbuilding block of a lessonis the activiry or msk.We'lldehnethis fairly
broadly as'somethingthat learnersdo that involvesthem using or working with
languageto achievesomespecificoutcome'.The outcome may reflect a
'real-world' outcome (eg
learnersrole play buying train ticketsat the station) or it
may be a purely'for-the-purposes-of-learning'outcome (eg learnersfill in the
gapsin t\'velvesentenceswith presentperfect verbs).By this definition, all of the
following are activitiesor tasks:
. Learners do a grammar exerciseindividually then compareanswerswith each
other in order to better understandhow a particular item oflanguageis formed.
. Learnerslisten to a recordedconversationin order to answersomequesdons
(in order to becomebetter listeners).
. Learnerswrite a formal letter requestinginformation about a product.
. Learnersdiscussand write somequestionsin order to make a questionnaire
about people'seatinghabits.
. Learnersread a newspaperarticle to preparefor a discussion.
. Learnersplay a vocabularygamein order to help learn words connectedwith
cqrc qn.4 troncnnrt

. Learnersrepeata number of sentencesyou sayin order to improve their

pronunciation of them.
. Learnersrole play a shop scenewhere a customerhas a complaint.
Somethings that happen in the classroomare not tasks.For example,picture a
room where the teacherhas startedspontaneouslydiscussingin a.lengthyor
convolutedmanner the formation ofpassivesentences.rx/hat are studentsdoing
tl-lathas an outcome?Arguably,there is an implied task,namely that students
should'listen and understand',but, by not being explicit, thereis a real dangerthat
Iearnersare not genuinelyengagedin anything much at all.
This is a basic,important and often overlookedconsiderationwhen planning a
lesson.As far aspossible,make surethat your learnershavesomespecificthing to
do, whateverthe stageof the lesson.Traditional lessonplanning hastended to see
the lessonasa seriesofthings that the teacherdoes.By turning it round and
focusingmuch more on what the studentsdo, we are likely to think more about
the actuallearning that might ariseand createa lessonthat is more genuinely
useful. (And if you plan everythingin terms of what the studentswill do, you
might find you worry lessabout what the teacherhas to do!) Even for stageswhen
you are 'presenting'language,be clearto yourselfwhat it is that studentsare
supposedto be doing and what outcome it is leadingto.Think ofa complete
Iessonasbeing a coherentsequenceofsuch learner-targetedtasks.

37
Chapter2 Classroomactivities

W usingcoursebook
matelial
H e r ei s s o m em a t e r i af lr o ma s t u d e nct o u r s e b o o k .

Speaking
Which of these 'firsts' do vou remernber best?

your first home your first friend your first hero your first crush
your first date your first love your first English lesson your first kiss
your first dance -r'ourfirst holiday vour first broken heart

, hi c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n gw o r k i n g
I n u s i n gi t a s t h e b a s i sf o r a c l a s s a c t i v i t yw
a r r a n g e m e n tw s o u l db e p o s s i b l e ?
1 S t u d e n t st h i n k a n d t h e n w r i t e a n s w e r so n t h e i r o w n .
2 S t u d e n t sp r e p a r ea s h o r t m o n o l o g u es t a t e m e n to f t h e i r o w n v i e w sw h i c ht h e y
t h e n p r e s e n tt o t h e w h o l ec l a s s .
3 A w h o l e - c l a sd s i s c u s s i o no f i d e a sa n d a n s w e r s .
4 P a i r w o r kd i s c u s s i o n .
5 S m a l l - g r o uw p ork.
6 S t u d e n t sw a l k a r o u n da n d m i n g l ew i t h o t h e rs t u d e n t s .
7 Writien homework.

Even a simpletasklike this can be usedin a variety of \a'ays- and all the suggested
usesare possible.Combinationsofideas are alsopossible;for example,students
could first think on their or.vnfor a feu' minutes and then comparein pairs.
\Thateveryou choose,there are then further options asto how you do the task;for
example,you could askstudentsto compare,discussand questioneachother's
views or, alternatively,to reacha consensuscompromisesolution.These
variationslead to two very different types of speakingactivity.More varlauons
are possiblewhen consideringthe stagesthat immediatelyprecedeor follow the
activity.Yourchoicesasto how the taskwill be done dependpardy on the aim of
rie activity.ie what you u ant srudent\LogetouI of it .

Teacher options
Bear in mind that, evenwhere coursebooktasksinclude explicit instructions such
as Compareanswersin pairs or Workin vnall groups,you alwayshavethe option as
a teacherto give a different organisationalinstruction. For example,you may feel
that a'work in pairs' exercisemight be more interestingdone in small groups.
And evenifyou follow the book's instruction, you still havethe possibility of
manipularingtJreorgani'ationa linJe.for examp)c:
. tell eachstudent who he or shemust work with (eg'Petra,work with Cristina');
. ttre studentscan choosepartners for themselves;
. the pairings can be the result of somerandom gameor humorous instruction
(eg Find someone whoseshoesarea differentcolonrfrom your own).

-38
 1 Planning
anactivity

The coursebookprovidesthe raw materialwhich only comesalivein class.You

haveimportant choicesasto how to do this. Figue 2.1 summarisessomebasic
options you could considerfor many basic short coursebookactivities(eg for
short discussiontaskssuch asthe 'firsts' task above).

What alrangementscan you use? A few variations on the arrangements

l n d i v i d u awlo r k Studentstalk togetherandwritenothing;
theyare permittedto write.
Pairwork Youchoosepairs;studentschoosepairs;
pairs are randomlyselected(egfrom a game);
face to face: backto back: acrossthe room
(shouting);communicatingin writingonly.

S m a lgl r o u p s( t h r e et o s i xp e o p l e ) Groupshavea secretary(note-taking duty);

g r o u p sh a v ea n a p p o i n t elde a d e r ;
membersho i pf g r o up s i s o c c a s i o n a l l y
r e a r r a n g egdr; o u p sa r ea l l o w e tdo s e n d
' a m b a s s a d o r s''p/ i r a t e s ' t oo t h e rg r o up s
(to compare/ gain/ steal ideas)
Large groups (as above)

W h o l ec l a s s :m i n g l e( a l ls t a n du p ,
w a l ka r o u n dm , e e ta n dt a l k )
W h o l ec l a s s : p l e n a r y
Figure 2.1 Activityoptions
S t u d e n tms a yo n l yt a l kt o o n eo t h e rp e r s o n
a t a t i m e : g r o u pm
s a ym e e tu p l o m a x i m u m
otlhtee / fout / tiuepeople;timelimitson
meetings;you ringbell/ stop background
music,etc to forcerearrangements
Theconversation / activityis managedby
you/ a student/ a numberof students;
w h o l e - c l a swso r kw i t hb r i e f' b u z zi' n t e r v a l s
o f p a i r w o r/k s m a l l - g r o udpi s c u s s i o n .

A few more variations for running an activity

. Do it at speed,with a very tight time limit.
. \X/hena group finishes,they disperseand join other groups.
. Each personmakesa quick answerwhich is noted but not discussed;then,
when all havespoken,the discussionbegins,using the notes asa stardng point.
. Require compromise/ consensussingleanswers.
. Introduce task by dictating instuctions / problem, etc;individuals dictate
answersback ro the whole class.
. Studentspreparea report-backpresentationsummarisingtheir solutions.
. Studentspreparea role play dialogueincorporating their answers.
. Studentsdo the exerciseashomework.

39
Chapter2 Classroomactivities

Activity route rnap

Here is a basicroute map plan for running a simple activity.In somebigger
'sections'within the task,in
activities,there may be a number of clearlyseparate
which caseyou would go through Steps3, 4 and 5 a few times.

Before the lesson:familiariseyour selfwith rhe material and activity; prepare

any materialsor texts Youneed.
2 In class:lead-in/ preparelor the activiry.
3 Setup the activity (or seclionof activity), ie give instructions,make
groupings,etc.
Run the activity (or section):studentsdo the activity,maybein pairs or small
groups while you monitor and helP.
5 Closethe activity (or section)and invite feedbackfrom the students'
6 Post-activity:do any appropriatefollow-on work.

Looking at eachstepin more detail:

1 Before the lesson

. Familiariseyourselfwith the material and the activity
. Readthrough the material and any teacher'snotes.
. Try the activity yourself.
. Imagine how it will look in class.
. Decide how many organisationalstepsare involved.
. What seatingarrangements/ rearrangementsare needed?
. How long will it probably take?
. Do the learnersknow enoughlanguageto be ableto make a useful attempt at
the activity?
. rJfhathelp might they need)
. What questionsmight theYhave?
. What errors (using the language) are they likely to make?
. What errors (misunderstandingthe task) are they likely to make?
. \yhat will your role be at eachstage?
. SThatinstructions are needed?
. How will they be given (explained,read,demonstrated)?
. Prepareany aids or additional material.
. Arrange seating,visual aids,etc
. Most importantly, you need to think through any potential problems or hiccups
in the procedures.For example,what will happen if you plan student work in
pairs, but there is an uneven number ofstudents?\ l dris studentwork alone,
or will you join in, or will you make one ofthe pairs into a group ofthree?

2 Lead-in / Preparation
This may be to help raisemolivation or interest (eg discussionofa picture
relatedto the topic), or perhapsto focus on languageitems (eg items of
vocabulary)that might be useful in the activity
Typical lead-insare:
. Show/ draw a picrureconlectedto fre topic.Ask questjons'
. \(rrite up / read out a sentencestatinga viewpoint. Elicit reactions'
. Tell a short personalanecdoterelatedto dle subiect

10
 2 Activitv
routemao

. Ask studenlsifrhe5 haveeverbeen/ seen/ doneelc.

. Hand out a short text on the topic. Studentsread the text and comment.
. Play 'devil's advocate'and make a strong/ controversialstatement
(eg I thinh smokingis xerggoodforpeople)that studentswill be motivaredto
challenge/ argue about.
. !7rite a key word (maybethe topic name) in the centreof a word-cloud on
the board and elicit vocabularvfrom studentswhich is addedto dre board.
3 Setting up the activity
. Organisethe studentsso that they can do the activity or section.(This may
involvemaking pairs or groups,moving the seating,etc.)
. Give clearinstructionsfor the activity.A demonstation or exampleis
usually much more effectivethan a long explanation.

. You may wish to check back that the instructions have been understood
(eg So,Georgi,what are you going to do Jirst?).
. In some activities, it may be useful to allow some individual worx
(eg thirking through a problem,listing answers, etc) before the students
get together with others.

4 Running the activity

. Monitor at dte start ofthe activity or section to check that the task has been
understood and that students are doing what you intended them to do.

See Monitoringleaching
techniqueon the DVD

. Ifthe material waswell prepared and the instructions clear,then the activity
can now Iargelyrun itself.Allow the studentsto work on the taskwithout too
much further interference.Yourrole now is often much more low-key,taking
a back seatand monitoring what is happeningwithout getting in the way.
. Bewareof encumberingthe studentswith unnecessar_v help.This is their
chanceto work. If the taskis difficult, give them the chanceto rise to that
challenge,without leaningon you. Don't rush in to 'save'themtoo quickly or
too eagerly.(Though, having saidthat, remain alert to any taskthat genuinely
provestoo hard - and be preparedto help or stop it earlyifnecessary!)
5 Closing the activity
. Allow the activity or sectionto closeproperly.Rather than suddenly
stopping the activity at a random point, try to sensewhen ttre studentsare
ready to move on.
. If different groups are flnishing at different times,make a judgement about
when coming togetherasa whole classwould be useful to most people.
. If you want to closethe activity while many studentsare still working, give
a trme warning (eg Finish theitem1ou areworkingon or Twominutes)-
6 Post-activity
It is usually important to havesomekind offeedback sessionon the activity.
This stageis vital and is typically under-plannedby teachers!The students
Chapter2 Classroomactivities

have workeci hard on the task, and it has probabl-v raised a number ofideas'

. Groups meet up \\'ith other groups and compare ansu'ers / opinions

. Students check ansrversrvith the printed ansrvers in tl-teTeacher's Book
(which,vou pass around / leave ar lhe front ofthe room / photocopy and hand
out, etc) .
. B.io.. .lnrr, you anticipate rvhat the main language problems will be and

the-vthink is worth sharing

. \ hen checking answers, ask for groups to cxchange and compare their
answers across the room themseh'es .
...'orgetaStudenttocomeupfrontandmanagetl-reansrver-checking,ratlrer
than d"oing it all yourself (you could give tl-is student the ansn'er sheet!)
'colrecting' by odrer
. Collect in-all ansrver sheets then redistribute them for
students.lwhen everytl-fng has been checkcd, students pair up rvith those
who marked their paper and listen / explain / iustify / argue, etc
. Correct one student's ansrvers;that student then goes on to correct other
answers) etc.
. Divide the board up into spaces for answers and throrv pens to different
by a
students rvho fill the board up r'vith their ansr'vers(each ansu'er written
different student).The r'vhole group looks at the finished board and
comments / corrects.

ifffi a procedure
Planning activity
fora coursebook
P l a na b a s i cp r o c e d u r ef o r u s i n gt h e f o l l o w i n gm a t e r i a li n c l a s s ,u s i n gt h e s t e p s
d e s c r i b e da b o v e .

are impoltant for getting a iob?

@ In your opinion, which factors below
Choose the five most important' ls there anything missing flom the list?
appearance hobbies experience sex
marltalstatus personality qualifications
intelligence
references age a s t r o l o g i c asl i g n handwriting
b l o o dg r o u p s i c k n e s sr e c o r d f a mi l y b a c k g r o u nd
contacts and connections

42
 3 Exploiting
an activity

Exploiting an activity
In this section,we look at one simple activity in detarl.Thismay help you to
similarly analyseyour own teaching material in future .

Analysinga coursebookactivity
Readthis activityfrom a studentcoursebook
andanswerthe followingquestionson
contentandclassroomprocedures.

Thinl about your life al the age of eight. You are going to tell your partner about it.
Choosefrom the list the things you want to talk about. Think about what you will say
and the l;rnguagc you *.i11need.

a l Did your life use lo be very different to how rt is norv?

. , 1 1 Where did you usc to go to school? How did you get there?
,ft Do you remember any o{ your teachers?
il Were lhere any you particularly liked or disliked? Why?
n Who were your friends?
fl What did you use to do before/alter school or during the breaks?
|:] Drd you ever do anything nauglrty? Were you caught and punished?
E What rvas your lavourite game?

\ t t s o n ,h i c , n o t t ' t
il Wha[ were your favou]ritesr!'eets?
, .:ntu$ to sdFol toda!; L] Was there one of the older children you particul;uly admired?
i.. h dreadl l pnifl.' n What rvas your greatestwish?

Analysis of Questions
1 Language
content Whatlanguage systemsandskillswillthe studentsprobably
be practising
whentheydothis activity?
2 Othercontent Whatotherpurposes (apartfromgettingstudentsto
practiselanguage)
mightthis activityserve?
3 Preparation What preparationneedsto be made?Are any special
materialsor visualaids needed?

4 Steps Aswithmanyactivities, it's important

to notethatthereare
quitea numberof separate
actually stepsbundledwithin
the singleprintedinstruction.Whatarethe stepsin this
task?
5Instructions Youcouldsimplytellthe classto readthe coursebook
instructions withoutfurtherguidance.
anddothe activity,
Butif youwantedto givejnstructions
orally,
whataresome
importantconsiderations?
6 Organisation Whatorganisational couldyouusein class?
arrangements
Chapter2 Classroomactivities

The main languageareasare:

. preparing and giving a 'long turn' monologuedescribingtheir memories of
schoollife;
. ]Jsingwould and usedto to talk abottt things tltat were regular habits in the
past but are not true now;
. using other past tenseforms (past simple and past progressive),especially
askingand answeringquestionsabout the past.
As well asworking on language,the activity involvesstudentsin:
. talking and listeningto one anotheron a personallevel.This may help to
build good relationshipswithin the classand help createa good working
atmosphere;
. recallingand reconsideringsomequite specihcpersonalmemoriesl students
may find that they are thinking about things forgotten till now This degree of
personalinvestmentand self-discoverytends to be a frequent elementin
many contemporary coursebookunits and may lead studentsto find that
they are alsolearning about themselves,othersand the world asmuch as
about the language.(Someteachersfeel uncomfortable with this kind of
work and try to keepthe focus on languagework rather than what they seeas
more intusive generaland personaleducation.But ofcourse languageis
intertwined with our livesand our understandingof the world, and any
teachingapproachwhich seeksto disentanglethe two may be hard to
implement and may miss out on someessentialelements.)
No specialpreparationis necessaryand no specialmaterialsor visual aids are
needed.
This is one possibleanalysis:
a ) S t u d e n td
s r i n ka b o u It l e i r l i f e a t t h e a g e o e
f ighr.
b) Studentsread list in book and selectsomeor all topics to dealwith in detail.
c) Studentsconsidertheir own answersfor questionsand maybemake notes.
d) Studentsplan languageto expresstheseideas.
e) Studentstell their partner about their thoughts.
f) Studentslisten to theb partner's ideas.
Other interpretationsof stagesand sequenceare possible.Thefact that there
are possiblysix sub-stepswithin a singletask reminds us that a teacherdoes
needto take carein (a) checkingactivitiesbefore offering them to students,
and (b) preparing clearuncomplicatedinstructions.
. Instructions needto be simple,short and clear.
. If a task has a number of separatestepsor stageswidtin it, it is sometimesa
good idea to give instructionsfor thesestagesone at a time, and wait till that
stageis completedbefore giving the next instruction.Iyith this task,you
could first askthe classto 'Think about your life when you were eight years
old', then allow thinking time or maybeevenelicit a responseor two from
studentsbefore going on to the secondpart ofthe task and the second
instruction. Separatingactivitiesand instructionsinto different srepsis an
important technique.At eachpoint, the learnersknow what they needto
know without possibleconfusion from instructionsfor later parts of the
activity.

14
 4 Palrwork

. Demonstrationsare often a better way ofintoducing a task than a wordy

explanation.In th.isexample,there may not seemto be very much to
demonstrate,but you could still work through an examplesentenceor two
(maybesayingyour own answersaloud), rather than simply explainingthe
instructions.By doing this, the learnersmay becomeclearerabout what the
activity involves.
6 This taskwould work in many arrangements. It is likely to start with individual
thinking and note-taking,which may then be followed by comparing in pairs,
small groups or whole class.

Pairwork

Tylre 1: pairwork information gaps

Inthe lzarningTeaclzlngResourcessectionon the DVD, you'll find materialsfor
pairwork information gapsand pairwork grammar activities(seenext section).
All are potentially suitablefor earlylessonsin your teaching;all should be
relativelystraightforwardto setup in class,yet they all stand a reasonablechance
ofnot flopping! From the students'perspective,the activitiesshould be engaging
and useful.Even ifyou don't use the specificmaterial,you may feel that you can
draw somethingfrom the generalideasand devisesimilar activitiesyourself.
The tasksare all basedaround gettingthe studentsto speakand exchange
information and ideas,ie using languageto communicate.Thereis some
possibilityfor you to input somelanguage,but speakingrather than learning new
items is the primary aim.
This sectionoffers detailedinstructionsfor using theBeachpictureresourcefrom
the IzarningTbachlngresourceson the DVD - a pairwork information exchange
suitablefor a range oflearners from Elementaryto Intermediatelevels.

W Defining'information
gap'
W h a ti s a n ' i n f o r m a t i ogna p ' ?l f y o ud o n ' ta l r e a d ky n o ww
, o r ki t o u t b ys t u d y i ntgh e
Beachpicture,OfficesceneandEuropeanholidaytesourceson the DVD.

\7hen one personknows somethingthat anotherperson doesn't,we can saythat

there is a 'gap' of information betweenthem. Most real-life communication comes
about becauseof such gapsof information (or of opinions or ideas,etc).\(/hen
someoneknows somethingwe don't, there is a reasonfor talking (or writing /
reading).By creatingclassroomactivitiesthat include such information gaps,we
can provide activitiesthat mimic this reasonfor communication,and this may be
more motivating and useful to languagelearnersthan speakingwitllout any real
reasonfor doing so.

ffi Predictingusesfor material:pairworkinformationgap

Havea lookat the Beachpicturercsourceon the DVD.Beforeyoureadthe
commentarybelow,workout yourownwayto usethe activityroutemap
( s e ep a g e3 9 a n ds u m m a r i s ebde l o w ) w i tthh i sm a t e r i a l .
Chapter2 Classroomactivities

Activityroutemap
1 Beforethe lesson:familiariseyourselfwiththe materialandactivity;prepareany
materialsor textsyouneed.
2 In class:lead-in/ preparefor the activity.
3 Set up the activity.
4 Runthe activity:studentsdo the activity(maybein pairsor smallgroupswhile
y o um o n i t oar n dh e l p ) .
5 Closethe activityandinvitefeedbackfromthe students.
6 Post-activity: do anyappropriate
follow-on
work.

Here are my own instructionsand guidelines,using the activity route map.

Routemap
Beforethe lesson:
f a mi l i a r i s ey o u r s e l f
withthe materialand
activity.Prepareany
materialsor textsyou
need.
lnstructions
The materialconsistsoftwo similarbut not identical
pictures;there are fifteendifferencesbetweenthe
pictures.Thetask is 'Spotthe difference',but each
studentwill onlysee one ofthe pictures.Students will
work in pairs.Withoutlookingat each other's pictures,
they shoulddescribetheir picturesand compare
details,tryingto discoveras manydifferencesas they
can. Photocopyenoughpicturesso that you haveone
'A' and one 'B' for evervoairof students.

I n c l a s s :l e a d - i /n D r a wa s i m o l eo i c t u r eo f a b e a c ho n t h e b o a r d .
p r e p a r feo rt h e
activity.

Ask students where it is. Ask what people do there. lf

s t u d e n t sa r e i n a c o u n t r yw h e r ep e o p l et a k e b e a c h
h o l i d a y sy, o u c o u l da s k f o r t h e i r o w n o p i ni o n s ,e g
whether they like beaches.Ask students to tell you
some things you find at the beach. Write the words
o n t h e b o a r da s t h e y c o m e u p . l f n e c e s s a r ya, d d n e w
things to the picture (eg ice cream)-lMakesure that a
number of useful words from the task picture are
m e n t i o n e d (. N BY o ud o n ' t h a v et o e x h a u s t i v e l y
' p r e - t e a c h ' e v e r l t h i n gY
. )o uc o u l da s k s t u d e n t st o
c o p yt h e p i c t u r ea n d l a b e l s .

46
 4 Pairwork

3 Set up the activity. Rearrange studentsinto pairs,facingeachother.

H a n do u tt h e p i c t u r e sm, a k i n gs u r et h a t i n e a c hp a i r
t h e r ei s o n e ' A ' a n do n e ' B ' p i c t u r eS. t u d e n t m
s ust
u n d e r s t a ntdh a tt h e yc a n n o lto o ka t e a c ho t h e r ' s
pictures.(Sayingthe wordsecretwith a 'hiding-the-
p i c t u r em
' i m em a yh e l pm a k et h i sc l e a r .E ) x p l a itnh e
t a s ks i m p l ya n dc l e a r l yi ,e t h e s t u d e n t sm u s tf i n d
what is differentbetweenthe two picturesbytalking
a n dd e s c r i b i n gn ,o tb y l o o k i n g .
Run the activity. As students start doing the activity,walk around
unobtrusively,just to check that they are following
t h e i n s t r u c t i o n sc o r r e c t l y( i e t h e y u n d e r s t a n dt h e
t a s k a n d a r e d o i n gi t i n E n g l i s h )A. f t e rt h a t , y o u c o u l d
continue with discreet monitoringor maybe sit down
a n d w a i t f o r s t u d e n t st o f i n i s ht h e t a s k . l f y o u
monitor,you could collect overheardexamples of
good or problematicsentences. Don't feel the need
to join in or take an active part in the work; this stage
is for students to work toeether.

Close the activityand
invite feedback from
the students.
Keep an eye on students as they finish (the task will
take different pairs different lengths of time). When
a b o u th a l f o f t h e p a i r s h a v ef i n i s h e d ,a n n o u n c et h a t
everyone has one minute to finish. After you stop the
activity,ask students what was easy or difficult;
h e l p t h e m w i t h e x p r e s s i o n so r v o c a b u l a r yt h e y a s k
for - or use other feedback ideas.

Post-activity: do any lf you collected any sentences while you were

a p p r o p r i a ft o
e l l o w - o n m o n i t o r i n gw, r i t et h e m u p o n t h e b o a r d .A s k s t u d e n t s
work. t o w o r k i n p a i r s a g a i na n d d e c i d ew h i c hs e n t e n c e s
f r o m y o u r l i s t a r e g o o d E n g l i s ha n d w h i c hn o t . T h e y
s h o u l da l s o w o r k o u t c o r r e c t i o n sf o r a n y e r r o r s .
Alternatively,use any other follow-onactivity,eg 'You
a r e o n e o f t h e p e o p l ei n t h e p i c t u r e .W o r ki n p a i r s
and write a paragraphdescribingyour day at the
beach.'

Decidingon the aims of an activity

When the activityhas finished, what might the students have learnedor be better
a b l et o d o , i e w h a t w a s t h e a i m o f t h e a c t i v i t y ?

47
Chapter2 Classroomactivities

Amongst other things, students ma.v be better able to:

. speak more fluendy;
. describeobjects,their location, decoration and shapein precisedetail;
. listen carefully and decide rvhich information is important;
. ask for further clarification of information;
. name some typical objects and activities associated with the sea, holidays and
beachesl
. interact effectivel-yand use time efficientJy to solve a specihc puzzle.

It's worth noting that the students are practising fluent speaking under some
degree ofpressure.They have limited time to prepare rvhat they are going to say
and cannot worry about getting their grammar 100'% accurate. Students will
become more focused on the message they rvish to communicate and on getting
that across successfull-v.This shift of values liom'getting the grammar right'to
'achieving
successful communication' is an important one for many students to
come to terms rvith.!(hile a fair degree of good grammar is necessary to succeed
in the task, successful communication is a more important real-world goal than
simply being perfect. For morc on fluency and accuracy', see Chapter 9,
Section 4.

&A ,. Planning
furtherlessonsusingthe routemap
fhe Office scene and Europeanholiday resources in the same section are similar to
the Beach picture resource and are designedaround the same idea of pairs
exchanginginformalion. ln What happened?,lhe learnersare two people who
w i t n e s s e dt h e s a m e i n c i d e n t T . h e ym u s t s h a r e i n f o r m a t i o na n d d e c r d ee x a c t l yw h a t
happened. ln What shall we do tomorrow?,the learners have information about
s o m e e v e n t so n i n t o w n .T h e ys h o u l dd i s c u s st h e v a r i o u sp o s s i b i l i t i e sa n d a g r e e
t h e i r f a v o u r i t ee v e n tt o r e c o m m e n dt o o t h e r p e o p l ei n c l a s s a s a g o o d d a y o u t .
Referto the detailed instructionsfot Beach picture above and use the route map to
p l a ny o u ro w n e x p l o i t a t l o no f t h e m a t e r i a li n t h e o t h e r r e s o u r c e s .

Type 2: pairwork gramrnar activities

This section offers detailed instuctions for using the lWqt's happening? tesowrce
on the DVD - a gramrnar lesson that involves quite a lot ofpairwork suitable for
Elementary- or Pre-intermediate-level learners.

t,tft*Eq;. Howstudentslearnto useglammar

l f y o u d o n ' t ' e x p l a i n 'g r a m m a rp o i n t st o s t u d e n t s ,w ha t o t h e rw a y s a r e t h e r e t h a t
t h e y c o u l db e c o m eb e t t e ra t u s i n gg r a m m a r ?

13
 4 Pai(wotk

One answeris that learnerscan try using languagethat they alreadyxnow - or

half-know - and experimenting with it, asin a chemistry laboratory, mixing
componentstogetherand seeingwhat kinds of outcomesarise.As we will seein
Chapter 7, studying grammar only partially involvesa need for teacher
explanation;the essentialheart oflearning grammar seemsto be that students
havelots ofopportunities to ty things out themselves.Thisis a ,trying things out
themselves'kind of lesson.

& Predicting grammar

usesfol material:
Havea lookatthe picturesin.ffi.iibf's
happening?andthinkof a wayto usethemfor
w o r K r nogn g r a m m a r .

The heart of this taskis basedaround learnersmaking sentencesand questionsin

a range of tenses(which you can specifyin the taskinstruclions).To someextent,
the activity'slevelis self-grading.If the studentsdon't know somelanguageitems,
they simply won't usethem.
The basicactivity involvespairs looking at a picture and making sentences,
passingon the sentencesto anotherpair and receivinganotherpair's sentences
(about a different picture) themselves.Each pair must now try to recreatethe
other pair's original picture from the information they havereceived.
Here are my own instructions and guidelines, using the actirity route map. By the
way,this activity hastwo sectionsand thereforegoesthrough Steps3, 4 and 5
twrce.

Routemap
1 Beforethe lesson:
f a mi l i a r i s ey o u r s e l f
with the material and
activity.
Prepareany materials
or texts you need.
Instructions
Thematerialconsistsof variouspicturesshowing
eventshappening.
Decide w h e t h eyr o uw a n ts t u d e n t tso m a i n l yw o r ko n
p r e s e npt r o g r e s s i v( e
t od e s c r i b we h a ti s h a p p e n i n g
n o w )o r p a s ts i m p l e( t od e s c r i b w e h a th a p p e n e d
yesterday).
S t u d e n tws i l lb e a b l et o u s em o r et h a nt h e s e
t e n s e sb
, u t i t ' s i m p o r t a nt th a ty o ue s t a b l i s h
whetherthe eventsare nowor in the past,
Preparea largecopyof the first pictureandcopies
of the otherpictures- onefor eachpair.lf you have
m o r ep a i r st h a np i c t u r e sr,e u s et h e m ,b u tb e c a r e f u l
notto handout the samepictureto two pairssitting
nextto eachother.

49
Chapter2 Classroomactivities
I n c l a s s : l e a d - i n/ D i s p l a tyh ef i r s tp i c t u r eo n t h e b o a r d .
preparefor the activity. T e l lL h e m
3 4 S e t u p s e c t i o n1 o f
the activity.
4A Run section 1 of the
activity:students do
the activity(maybein
p a i r so r s m a l l g r o u p s
w h i l ey o u m o ni t o r a n d
h el p ) .
5 A C l o s es e c t i o n1 o f t h e
activity.
3 B S e tu p s e c t i o n2 o f
the activity.
4 8 R u ns e c t i o n2 o f t h e
activity;studentsdo
the activity(maybein
p a i r so r s m a l lg r o u p s
w h i l ey o um o n i t oar n d
h er p ) .
50
t h a t i t s h o w sw h a ti s h a p p e n i nngo w
(or yesterdayafternoonif youwantlearnersto work
lernd n.ei iohcacl
I n v i t el e a r n e r st o t h i n k u p g o o d s e n t e n c e sa b o u tt h e
p i c t ur e .
When a student suggests one, write it up without
a c k n o w l e d g i nw g h e t h e ri t i s g o o do r b a d E n g l i s h .
Invite students to check and suggest amendments
or tmprovements.
C o l l e c t e n s e n t e n c e s .l f s t u d e n t sp r o d u c e
over-simplo e n e s , u p g r a d et h e c h a l l e n g eb y a s k i n g ,
f o r e x a m p l e f, o r ' s e n t e n c e sa t l e a s t s e v e nw o r d s
l o n g ' o r ' e x a c t l y1 3 w o r d s l o n g 'o r ' y o u m u s t i n c l u d e
Ihe word although.'
T h i s h a s e f f e c t i v e l yb e e n a d e m o n s t r a t i o no f t h e
t a s k s t u d e n t sw i l l n o w d o i n p a i r s .
P u ts t u d e n t si n p a i r s .
H a n do u tt h e o t h e rp i c t u r e so. n et o e a c hp a i r .
E m p h a s i st eh a t p i c t u r e a s r es e c r e t P
. a i r ss h o u l d
t a k ec a r et h a to t h e rp a i r sd o n o ts e et h e i rp i c t u r e .
G i v et a s k i n s t r u c t i o n s .
S t u d e n tws o r ki n t h e i rp a i r sa n dm a k et e n
s e n t e n c e(sa si n t h e d e m o ) .
Y o um a ys e t m i n i m u ms e n t e n c lee n g t h so r o t h e r
r e q ui r e m e n t s .
G or o u n da n dp o i n to u t a n yo b v i o u e s r r o r so r
p r o b l e m sT.r yn o tt o ' o v e r - h e l p ' .
lvlakesurestudentsare writingclearlyon a separate
pieceof paper.
W h e ns t u d e n t sh a v e a l l f i n i s h e d ,a s k t h e m t o t u r n
o v e rt h e i r p i c t u r e s .
A s k p a i r st o p a s s o n t h e i r s e n t e n c e s( b u t n o t
p i c t u r e s t) o a n o t h e rp a i r .
E a c hp a i r r e c e i v e ss e n t e n c e sf r o m t h e p a i rt h e y
g a v et h e i r St o .
G i v ei n s t r u c t i o n sf o r t h e n e x t s e c t i o n .( T h i sh a s n o t
b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e!d)
P a i r sr e a dt h e s e n t e n c e st h e y h a v er e c e i v e d .
T h e yh a v ea n e w b l a n k p i e c eo f p a p e r .
Students interpretthe ten sentences and work out
w h a tt h e o r i g i n a p
l i c t u r em u s t h a v eb e e n ,d r a w i n gi t
a s b e s tt h e yc a n o n t h e p a p e r .
 5 Smallgroupwork

5 8 C l o s es e c t i o n2 o f t h e Stopthe activitywhenmost pairsseemto havea

activity. r e a s o n a b lpei c t u r e .
Getpairsto meetup. Theycomparepicturesand
sentences.
Theremaybe someamusementat
misunderstand ingsandalternativeinterpretatio
ns.
Post activity:do any Youcould now extend the activityby collectinga
appropriatefollow-on range of sentences (from different pairs) down the
work. left'hand side of the board and invitingdifferent
students to draw on the right-handside, slowly
b ui l d i n gu p a c o m p o s i t ep i c t u r ew i t h f e a t u r e sf r o m
d i f f e r e n to r i g i n a l s .
Alternatively,redistributethe pictures and repeat
t h e o r i g i n aa l c t i v i t y ' l i v e ' i, e b a s i c a l l y t h es a m e , b u t
have pairs work with other pairs from the start and
say the sentences to them as they think of them
(ratherthan write them down).

ffi Exptoitingmateriatdifferen y
Can you think of any completelydifferent way to exploit these pictures?

) Small group work

This sectionoffers detailedinstructionsfor using the Sfnall-groupdiscussion
resourceon the DVD - a small-group discussiontask (board game) suitablefor a
range oflearners from Intermediateto Upper intermediatelevels.

Predictingusesfor material:boardgame
L o o k a t t h e b o a r dg a m e h a n d o u t .B e f o r ey o u r e a dt h e f u l l i n s t r u c t i o n st,h i n k h o w
y o u m i g h tu s e s u c h m a t e r i a li n c l a s s .

The activity usesa board gameto get studentsdiscussingin small groups.The

gameelementhelpsfocus aftention,and studentsmay find that it addssomething
exciting and humorous to a more seriousdiscussiontopic.The activity is
adaptablefor a wide rangeoftopics. One exampleset ofcards on general
discussiontopics for Intermediatelevel and aboveis given in the resourcessecton
of the DVD under for boardgames.

51
Chapter2 Classroomactivities
Routemap
B e f o r et h e l e s s o n :
f a m i l i a r i s ey o u r s e l f
w i t ht h e m a t e r i a l
and activity.Prepare
a n y m a t e r i a l so r
texts you need.
I nc l a s s :l e a d - i /n
p r e p a r feo rt h e
activity.
3 Set up the activity.
Run the activity:
s t u d e n t sd o t h e
activity(maybein
p a i r so r s m a l l
g r o up s w h i l ey o u
m o n i t o ra n d h e l p ) ,
52
lnstructions
Photocopyone game board for every four students in
y o u rc l a s s .Y o uw i l l n e e d a d i e f o r a l l g r o u p sa n d a
c o u n t e rf o r e a c h p l a y e r( t h e s ec o u l db e c o i n s ) .C u t
s o m e p a p e ri n t o a l o t o f s m a l l b l a n kc a r d s .D e c i d e
w h a t t o p i c y o u w a n t t h e s t u d e n t st o d i s c u s sa n d
p r e p a r ea l i s t o f i n t e r e s t i n gd i s c u s s i o nq u e s t i o n s( o r
u s e t h e s e t o f s a m p l ed i s c u s s i o nc a r d sf r o m t h e
R e s o u r c e ss e c t i o no f t h e D V D ) .P h o t o c o p ya n d c u t u p
o n e s e t f o r e a c hg r o u p .
O b v i o u s l yy,o u r l e a d i n w i l l d e p e n do n w h i c ht o p i c y o u
h a v ec h o s e n .l f y o u h a v ec h o s e na s i n g l et o p i c ( e g
globalisation),it might be an idea to first clarifyexactly
w h a t t h e t e r m m e a n s .Y o uc o u l dd o t h i s b y w r i t i n gt h e
w o r d o n t h e l l o a r da n d e l i c i t i n gd e f i n i t i o n sa n d
e x a m p l e so f o n e o r t w o a r g u m e n t sf o r a n d a g a i n s t .O r
y o u c o u l dc h o o s eo n e o f t h e m o r e e x t r e m ev i e w p o i n t s
f r o m t h e c a r d s a n d s a y i t t o t h e c l a s s , h o p i n gt o g e t a
. h i s i n i t i a lm i n i - d i s c u s s i owni l l p r e p a r et h e m
r e a c t i o nT
forthe conversation in the aameitself.
F o r ms m a l l g r o u p so f f o u r t o f i v e s t u d e n t sa n d h a n d
out a pack of cards to each group. Students keep the
c a r d sf a c e d o w n .E x p l a i nt h a t s t u d e n t ss h o u l dt a k e i t
i n t u r n s t o t h r o wt h e d i e a n d m o v et h e i r c o u n t e ra r o u n d
t h e b o a r d .l f t h e y l a n do n a s q u a r ew i t h a ' ? ' , t h e y
s h o ul d t a k e a c a r d ,r e a d i t o u t a n d a s k t h e g r o u pt o
d iscuss it for at least two m inutes. lf they land on a
' T a l k 's q u a r e ,t h e y s h o u l de x p r e s st h e i r o w n o p i n i o n
a b o u ti t f o r a t l e a s tt w o m i n u t e s .E v e r y o n ee l s e i n t h e
g r o u pc a n t h e n j o i n i n a s h o r t d i s c u s s i o na b o u tt h e
q u e s t i o n .E v e r yt i m e a l e a r n e rp a s s e s' B o n u s '
( i e h a v i n gc i r c l e dt h e b o a r do n c e ) ,t h e yg e t a p o i n t .
T h e w i n n e ra t t h e e n d i s t h e o n e w i t h m o s t p o i n t s .
l v l o n i t oars us u a l .
 5 Smallgrow
u po r k

Closethe activity I t m a yb e t r i c k yt o d e c i d ew h e ni t ' s a p p r o p r i a t o

e stop
a n di n v i t ef e e d b a c k the activity.Someteamsmightreallyget intothe
fromthe students. d i s c u s s i o no;t h e r sm a yr a c et h r o u g hi t f a s t e rT. h eb e s t
t h i n gt o d o i s w a t c ha n dj u d g ew h e nm o s tg r o u p sh a v e
h a dt h e m o s tv a l u ef r o mi t . l f a n yg r o u p sf i n i s hv e r y
q u i c k l yg,o o v e ra n dt e l lt h e mt o p l a ya n o t h erro u n d .
It seemsnaturalto extendthe groupworkinto a whole-
c l a s sc o m p a r i s oonf v i e w s( i f s t u d e n t sa r e n ' ts i c ko f
t h e s u b j e cat l r e a d y ) .
Post-activity:do any W r i t i n gf o l l o w - u p sm i g h ti n c l u d ew r i t i n ga s u m m a r yo f
appropriatefollow e a c h i n d i v i d u a l ' so w n o p i n i o n s ,p r e p a r i n ga p o s t e ro r
on work. n e w s p a p ea r r t i c l eo r w r i t i n ga l e t t e rt o a p o l i t i c i a n .
Y o uc o u l d l i n kt h e d i s c u s s i o ni n t o r e a d i n ga r e l e v a n t
magazinearticle. The topic may providea useful
context for working on some grammar points, eg
globalisationcould help introduce We should ..., The
governmentought to ,.., If we don't ..., eIc.

5-t
 Ghapter3 Glassroommanagement
This chapterprovidesthe basicsofclassroom managementfor you asyou teach
your flrst few lessons.Issuessuch asseating,gestur-es
and waysofusing the board
effectivelyare coveredsothat you are well-equrpped.Section9 then looks at some
common waysin which teacherscan inadvertentlypreventlearning from taking
place.

What is classroorn rnanagement?

Your most important job asa teacheris perhapsto createthe conditions in which
learning can takeplace.The skillsof creatingand managinga successfulclassmay
be the key to the whole successof a course.An important part of this is to do with
your attitude,intentions and personalityand your relationshipswith the learners.
However,you alsoneedcertain organisationalskills and techniques.Such items
are often grouped togetherunder the headingof'classroom management'.
Common classroommanagementareasinclude:

Activities
. Setting up activities
. Giving instructions
. Monitoring activities
. Timing actrvities(and the lessonasa whole)
. Bringing activities to an end

Grouping and seating

. Forming groupings (singles,pairs, groups,mingle, plenary)
. Arranging and rearrangingseating
. Deciding whereyou will stand or sit
. Reforming classasa whole group after activities

Authority
. Gathering and holding attention
. Deciding who doeswhat (ie answera question,make a decision,etc)
. Establishingor relinquishingauthority asappropriate
. Genirg someoneto do somedring

Critical moments
. Starting the lesson
. Dealing with unexpectedproblems
. Maintainingappropriate discipline
. Finishine the lesson

54
 1 Whatis classroommanaAement?

Tools and techniques

. Using the board and other classroomequipment or aids
. Using gesturesto help clarity of instructionsand explanations
. Speakingclearlyat an appropriatevolume and speed
. Use of silence
. Grading complexity oflanguage
. Grading quantity oflanguage

Working with people

. Spreadingyour aftendon evenlyand appropriately
. Using intuition to gaugewhat studentsare feeling
. Eliciting honestfeedbackfrom students
. Really listeningto students
Classroommanagementinvolvesboth decisionsand actions.Theactionsare
what is done in the classroom,eg rearrangingthe chairs.The decisionsare about
whether to do theseactions,when to do them, how to do them and who will do
them.
At any classroommoment, therewill be a rangeofoptions asto possibleactions.
To sayone thing or to saysomethingdifferent.To stop an activity or to let it
continue for a few more minutes.Totake threeminutes to dealwith a difhcult
questionor to move on with what you had previouslyplanned.To tell offa
latecomeror to welcomehim.To do somethingor to do nothing.These options
continue throughout the lesson;at every step,your decisionwill take you forward
on your particular route. No one can tell you the ,right' way to do something.
There is no perfect/essoz,no singlecorrect answer,no singleroute through a
lesson,though someroutesmay in tlte end prove to be much more effectivethan
others.Different peopleor different situationscreatedifferent solutions.yourtotal
lessonis createdby your choices.Youcannot know whetler alternativeroutes
might havebeenmore effective- but, post-lesson,it,s useful to reflect on what vou
did and didn't do - and let this inform your future lessons.
The essentialbasicskill for classroommanagementis thereforeto be ableto look
at and read classroomeventsasthey occur and think ofpossible options available
to you, to make appropriatedecisionsbetweentheseoptions,and to turn them
into effectiveand efficient actions.As you grow in experience,your awarenessof
possibleoptions will grow
Thus the basicskillsof classroommanagementcan be summarisedasfollows:

Look Options Actions

?
Lookingat F i n di n g o p t i o n s D o i n gt h e
lassroom ?
chosen action
minute l\4akind gecisions
?
by minute between one
o p t i o na n d ?
another ?

Figure 3.1 Basic skillsofclassroonrnranasemenr

55
Chapter3 Classroommana'gement

options
management
ChoosingGlassroom
Writetwo or moreoptionsfor the followingsituations:
1 A student says I don't want to do this exercise.
2 Youexpectedan activityto take five minutes.It hastaken20 so far, andthe
studentsstill seemto be veryinvolved.Thereis somethingelseyouwouldlike
to do beforethe lessonendsin ten minutes.
3 Thestudentsareworkingin groupsofthree.Twogroupshavefinishedthe task
youset them and are nowsittinglookingbored.Theothergroupsstill seemto
havea longwayto go beforetheyfinish.

Here are a few possibleoptions:

1 You could sayFrze.
You could sayloudly Do it!
You could askwhy the student doesn'twant to do it.
You could offer an alternaLiveexerciseor acLiviry.
You could sayC/zoosesomething you'd like to dn.
You could explain the point ofthe exercise.
Note that in all the aboveoptions,you alsohavefurther options regardingyour
attitude and behaviour: ie you could be patient or impatient, defensive or open,
sound asifyou mean it or sound asifyou don't.
2 You could stop the activtty.
You could let it continue (postponingthe next activity).
You could announcea time for frnishing (eg Twomoreminutes).
You could askthe studentshow much longer they need.
You could offer the studentsthe option ofstopping and doing somethingelse.
3 You could tell the groups which have finished that they can chat or do
somethingelsewhile the other groups finish.
You could give the groups which havehnished a short extra task to keepthem
busy until the rest finish.
You could set a time limit (say two minutes) for the others to finish.
You could bring the groups which have frnished together to compare their
answerswitfi eachother.
Selecting alternative options
Readthis descriptionof a classroomsituationandconsideranyalternativeoptions
a v a i l a b lteo y o ua t p o i n t s( a )a n d( b ) .
Youcomeintothe classroomat the start of the lesson.Thereare 25 teenage
. b o u th a l fo f t h e ms e e mv e r yi n v o l v eidn a l o u dd i s c u s s i o(ni n
s t u d e n t si n t h e r o o m A
their ownlanguage, not English)abouta currentpoliticalsituation.(a)Youshout
ou| OK,OK,let's start the lesson;you cancontinuethat later'Theroomquietens
d o w n a b i t ;s o m ep e o p l ec o n t i n u e w h i s p e r i n g a n i m a t e delayct oho t h e r N
' o w ,t o d a y
we aregoingto lookatwaysoftalkingaboutthefuture,youcontinue.Onestudent
asks, But this sutl ect is veryinteresting.Couldwe continuethe conversationif we
use English?(b) Yousay,I'm sorry, but we haveto get throughUnit 9 of the book
today.Perhapswe can havea discussionnext week.Openyour books at page47.

56
 1 Whatis classroommanaEement?

The following are a few ofthe many possibleopuons for (a):

. You sit down and wait for the classto concludethe discussionin its own time.
waiting until they indicatethat they are ready for you to start.
. You join in the conversation,but using English.
. You join in the conversarionusing English and subtly manipulatethe discussion
so that the studentsare involvedin using the languageitems you were planning
to work on in fhe first place.Youjoin in the conversationusing English.After a
while you slip into your conversationone or two examplesof the languageitems
you had planned to focus on in the lesson.Draw students'attentionto these
items and slowly changethe focus of the lessonso that the studentsget involved
in using the languageitems you wereplanning to work on in tl.refirst place.
. You stand in front of the classin a way that indicatesthat you want their
aftention (making eyecontactwith asmany peopleaspossible,looking
authoritative,etc) and wait for silence.Having establishedsilence,you put to
the classthe decisionabout what to do. lVecqneithercontinuethediscussion or do
what I haaeplannedto dolwich wouldyou prefer?
Here are someoptions for (b):
. You say OI{.
. As in the fourth option above,you askthe classto make the decisionabout what
ro oo.
. You explain your aim for the lessonand then offer the possibiliryofcontinuing
the discussionafter someother work.You suggestallowing ten minutes at the
end ofthe lessonand askthe studentsfor their opinion.

How can you decide what's best to do?

\7hat influencesand informs your decisionsbetweendifferent options?The
following are somefactors to bear in mind:
. !7hat is tl.reaim of this activity?
. What is the aim of the whole lesson?
. What is hindering the effectivenessof what we are doing?
. What haveI planned to do?
. $Vhatwould be the besrthing to do now?
. Is ittime for a changeof mood orpace?
. Are we using time efficiently?
. How do the studentsfeel?
. How do I feel?
. \7hat are the possibleoutcomesof my doing something?
I could add two further factorsthat are frequentlv involved in teacherdecisions
and actions:
. I don't know any other options,
. I know someother options,but I'm avoidingthem becausethey are diffrcult or
tr oublesomeor nerve-wracking.

57
Chapter3 Classroommanagement

Classroomdecisionsand actionsare alsogreatlydeterminedby your own

attitudes,intentions,beliefsand values.What do you believeabout learning?Vhat
is important for you in learning?S7hatis your genuinefeelingtowardsyour
students?For example,you may aska student to write on the board (rather than
doing it himself).This decisionmay havegrown from your intention to involve
studentsmore in the routine duties of the class.Thismay itself havegrown from
your belief that trusting vour studentsmore and sharing someresponsibilitywith
them is a useful way of increasingtheir involvementin the learning process.
You could now Thsk 5 on the DVD to look at the options and
decisionsmade in the classroom.

Classroorn interaction
Somecommon types ofstudent grouping in the classroominclude:
. whole classworking togetherwith you;
. whole classmoving around and mixing together asindividuals (a 'mingle');
. small groups (threeto eight people);
. palrs;
. individual work.
In any one lesson,you may include work that involvesa number ofthese different
arrangements.Varyinggroupings is one way ofenabling a variety ofexperiences
for the learners.
In this section,we examinethe rationalefor making use of pairs and small groups
aswell aswhole-classwork.There are somesuggestionsand guidelinesfor
maximising useful interaction in class.

Teacher talk and student talk

The languageclassroomis rich in languagefor learners,quite apart from the
languagethat is the supposedfocus of the lesson.Studentslearn a lot oftheir
languagefrom what they hear you say:the instructions,the discussions,the asides,
the jokes,the chit-chat,the comments.Having saidthat, it would be unsatisfactory
ifyour talk dominatedthe lessonto dre exclusionofparticipation from asmany
Iearnersasoossible.

Classroominteraction
In the list of statements below,tick any that you feel you can agree with.
1 a l t i s m o r e i m p o r t a n tf o r l e a r n e r st o l i s t e na n d s p e a kt o y o u t h a n f o r l e a r n e r st o
listen and speak to each other.
b Students should get most conversationpractice in interactingwith other
learners rather than with you
2 a P e o p l eu s u a l l yl e a r nb e s t b y l i s t e n i n g t op e o p l ee x p l a i n i n g
things.
b P e o p l eu s u a l l yl e a r nb e s t b y t r y i n gt h i n g so u t a n d f i n d i n go u t w h a t w o r k s .
3 a T h et e a c h e rs h o u l ds p e a k a s m u c h a s p o s s i b l ei n c l a s s r o o mt i m e .
b T h e t e a c h e rs h o u l ds p e a k a s l i t t l ea s p o s s i b l ei n c l a s s r o o mt i m e .

58
 2 Classroominteraction

The argumentsfor statement1ausuallygrow from the idea that you know more
of the target languageand that by listeningto you, the learneris somehow
absorbinga correct picture of the language;that by interactingwith you, the
learneris learning to interact with a competentuser ofthe language;that this is far
more useful than talking to a poor user.Thus,by this argument,time spenttalking
to anotherlearneris not particularly useful time.This is OK asfar asit goes,but
tlere are a number of challengesto the statements.Some are to do with available
time: if you talk most of the tirne,how much time will learnersget to speak?If the
only conversationpracticelearnersget is one-to-onewith you, they will get very
Iittle time to speakat all. In a classof 25 learners,how much time will you have
availableto speakto individuals?Divide a one-hour lessonby 25 and you get just
over two minutes each.That doesn't sound very much.
Statement1b suggeststJratwe could maximiselearnerspeakingtime at certain
points of the lessonby putting them into pairs or small groups and getting them to
talk to eachother.Thus, insteadof two minutes' speakingtime in a whole lesson,
they all get a lot of speakingpracticewithin a short spaceof time.You could use
this time effectivelyby discreetlymonitoring what the studentsare sayingand
using the information collectedas a sourceof material for future feedbackor other
work. (I am, of course,making other assumptionslI'm assumingthat it is
important to give learnersopportlmities to haveuseful interaction with others.)
Statements2a and 2b are about different waysoflearning. I believe,from my own
learning experiencesand from observingteachersat work, that the most efficient
way oflearning is for a studentto be really involvedin a lesson.Explanations,
especiallylong onesJtend to leaveme cold; I get bored; I switch off. (A learner
might alsohavereal problemsin following what is being said.) But challengeme,
give me a problem to do or a task I want to complete,and I will learn far more - by
experimenting,by practising,by raking risks.
I think you can guessmy views on statements3a and 3b by now. (Neither the
extremesof (a) nor (b), but closerto (b) than (a).) Observerswho watch new
teachersat work often comment that they talk too much. An essentiallessonthat
every new teacherneedsto learn is that'talking at' dre learnersdoesnot
necessarilymean that learning is taking place;in many cases,TTT (Teacher
ThlkingTime) is actuallytime when the learnersare not doing very much and are
not very involved.\forking on waysto becomeawareofunnecessaryTTT is
somefiinBto add ro your list of prioriries.

W Increasing
student-student
interaction
W h e nw o r k i n gi n a w h o l ec l a s s s t a g e ,a l a r g ea m o u n to f i n t e r a c t i o nt e n d s t o g o f r o m
t e a c h e rt o s t u d e n ta n d s t u d e n tt o t e a c h e r ,a s s h o w n i n F i g u r e3 . 2 . H o wc o u l dy o u
get more student-student interaction?

59
Chapter3 Classroommanagement

St St St St St St St
St St St St St St St
St JT St St St St St
St St
JL St

Figrre3.2 l n t e r i l c l i o n b e n r e e nr e a c h e r a n o. t u d c n t .

Some ideas for maximising student interaction in class:

. Encourage a friendll., relaxed learning environment. If there is a trusting,
posrtlve, supportive rapport amongst the learners and benveen learncrs and
you, then t1-tereis a much better chance ofuseful interaction happening.
. Ask questions rather than giving explanations.
. Allorv time for students to listen, think, process their answer and speak.
. Really listen to \.vhatthe_vsa-v.Let what they sa-vreally affect,,r'hat you do next.
!7ork on listening to the person and t1-remeaning, as r.vellas to thc languagc and
the mistakes.
. ,Allorv thinking time without talking over it. Allo$i silence.
. I n c r e a s eo p p o r r u n i L i e f. o r S T T l S r u J e n t T a l k i n gT i m e ; .
. Use gcstures(seeSection 6) to replaceunnecessar_v teachertalk.
. Allow students to finish their ou'n sentences.
. Make use of pairs and small groups to maximise opportunities for students to
speak. Do this e\ren in the middle oflonger u'hole-class stages,eg ask students
to break off for 30 seconds and talk in pairs about their reactions to what you'\'e
just been discussing and also allo\\, them to check ansrversto tasks before
conducting feedback .
. If possible, arrange seating so that srudents can all see eacl-rother and talk to
each other (ie circles,squaresand horseshoesrather than parallcl rows). (See
Section 3 on seating.)
. Rememberthatyou don't ah.vaysneed to be at the lront of the class.Trl out
seating arrangements rhat allow the $'hole class to be the focus (eg you takc one
seatrn a circle).
. If a student is speaking too quietly for you to hear, u,alk furthcr arvay,rather
than closer to theml (This sounds illogical, but if you can't hear them, rhen it's
likely that the other students can't eithcr. Encouragc thc qujet speaker to speak
louder so that the others can hear.)

&+ quietstudentsteaching
SeeEncouraEing techniqueon the DVD

60
 3 Seating

Encourageinteraction betweenstudentsrather than only betrveenstudent

and
you, and you and student.Get studentsto askquestions,give explanations,
etc
to eachother,rather than alwaysto you. IJse gesturesand facial expressionsto
encouragethem to speakand listen to eachother.
Keep a diagram like the one in Figure 3.3 in your head asa possiblealternative
to the one in Figure 3.2.Think,How can I get studentsspeakingand listening
to
eachother aswell asto me?,

St St St St St St St
St St St S St
St St St t
S St St
St St St St St
T
Figure 3.3 Interaction betweenstudents

W Yourskillsin enabling
interaction
C a r r yo u t a s e l f - a s s e s s m ecnot ,mp a r i n gy o u r s e laf g a i n sst o m eo f t h e g ui d e l i n e o
sn
t h e s ep a g e sw . h a ts k i l r sd o y o uh a v ei n e n a b r i negf f e c t i v e
crassroom interaction?
W h a td o y o ui n t e n dt o w o r ko n ?
Y o uc o u l dn o wu s e T a s k4 o n t h e D V Dt o a n a l y s ei n t e r a c t i o ni n a n
o b s e r v e dc l a s s r o o m .

Seating
However your classroomis laid out and u,hateverkind offixed or moveable
seatrngyou have,it is worth taking time to considerthe bestwaysto make use
ofit.
. rWhatdifferent seatingpositionsare possible
without moving anyding?
. Are any rearrangementsofseatspossible?
. Which areasofthe room are suitable
for learnersto stand and interact in?
. Is there any possibilitythat the room
could be completelyrearrangedon a
semi-permanentbasisto make a better languageclassroomspace?
Important considerationsare:
. Can learnerscomfortably work in pairs
with a range of different parmers?
. Canlearnerscomfortably rvork in small groups
with a range of other learners?
For eachactivity you do in class,considerwhat grouping, seadng,standing
arrangementsare most appropriate.Changing seatingarrangementscan help
studentsinteract with different people,changethe focus from you when
appropriateand allow a range ofdifferent situationsto be recreatedwrrhin
the
classroom,aswell as simply adding variety to the predictability ofsitting in the
sameplaceevery dme. It's difficult to sit still for a long time; it;s worth including
activitiesthat involve somemovement,evenif or y to givc peoplethe chanceto

6l
Chapter3 Classroommanagement

stretchtheir legs.Studentsmight not like it if there is a constantmovement every

five minutes,but somevariety ofworking arrangementsis often helpful.
In somecultures,studentsmay haveclearexpectationsasto what is acceptable.
For example,askingstudentsto sit on their desksmay be taboo;a teacherwho sits
on the corner ofhis deskmay be consideredunprofessional.Respectcultural
constraints,but don't let them put you off experimentinga little. Be clearabout
what is genuinelyunacceptableand what is merely unknown or unexpected.
Remain awareof the possibilitiesof using the spaceyou are inl sometrmesa
completechangein the room can make all the difference.Even with the most
immovableof fixed seating,it is often possibleto be creativein someway.

Fixed, serni-frxed and large seating

You could askstudentsto:
. turn around and sit backwards,working with the peoplebehind them;
. sit on the endsoftheir row and work with peoplein the next row;
. sit on their desksand talk with peoplenearby;
. standup, move around and return to a different seat;
. standin the aislespacebetweenrowsl
. all come to the front (or anotheropen space)to talk.
In the long term, ifyou haveexclusiveuse ofa classroom,or shareit with other
languageteachers,it's worth consideringwhether a longer-term rearrangemem
might be useful.
Figure 3.4 showsa schoolI worked in that had large,one-pieceseats/ desksfor
tlree peoplefrxed in every classroom.Theywere alwaysusedin rows because,
althoughonly lightly hxed, there seemedto be no other way to arrangethem.

EE
L]

-l -r
E
Figure 3.4 Originalseatingplan

However,when we startedthinking about it, we found a number of other

arrangementswerepossible(seeFigure 3.5).The horseshoearrangement)
particularly,proved very suitablefor the English classes.

-EE
tr
Et-E ilE!i
Figure 3.5 Alternative seatingarrangements

62
 3 Seating

ffi standing
andsittrng
1 Whymighta circleor horseshoeshapebe moreeffectivefor language teaching
than stralghtrows?
2 Whatdifferencedoesit makeif you sit in a circlewiththe studentsratherthan
standingin front of them?

In a circle or horseshoe,learnerscan make eyecontact with evervoneelsein the

group and thus interact much more naturally.There is alsoa much greater
senseof equality.lTeakerstudentstend to hide awaylessand strongerstudents
to dominateless.
Having you in the circle helpsto clarify your role asan equalratler than as
someoneseparateand different.

Moveable seating
Someideasfor investigatingand exploring the possibilitiesof moveableseating:
. Ask studentsto move seatswhen you createpairs or
small groups.Don,t
let studentsget stuck in unsuitableseatingarrangementswhen a move
is preferable.
.Ifit'sreallytoonoisy,makethediscussionofthar(andthefindingofasolution)
part ofthe lessonaswell.
. Figure 3.6 showssomepatternsto think about.
. If the studentsnormally sit in rows, try forming
a circle.
. TLrn the classroomaround so that the focus is on a
different wall from normal.
. Make seatingarrangementstltat reflect specificcontexts,
eg a train carriage, an
aeroplane,a town centreor whatever.
. Push all seatsup againstthe wall and make a large,
open forum spacein the
middleof the room.
. Deliberatelyplaceyour seatoff-centre (ie not at
the front).This is an interesting
subversionofexpectationsand immediatelychallengesexpectatronsabout who
a teacheris and what a teachershould do.
. Divide the classinto separategroups at far corners
of the room.
. Ask Hozucan we reorganisethis classroomto mahe
it ctnicerplacen be?Letthe
classdiscussiLand agree,tren do ir.
. Push the seatsor desksup againstthe wall. Sit on the
floor (only ifit,s cleanl).

W Seatingoptionsin the classroom

L o o k a t F i g u r e3 . 6 . W h i c ho f t h e s e i d e a sf o r a r r a n g i n gs e a t i n gh a v ey o u n o t t r i e d ?
W h i c hw o u l db e w o r t h t r y i n g ?D r a wa s i m p l es k e t c ho f y o u rc l a s s r o o m .M a r k i n
s e a t s f o r o n e n e w a r r a n g e m e n tW . h e nm i g h ty o u u s e s u c h a n a r r a n g e m e n t ? How
c a n y o u o r g a n i s ei t i n c l a s s ?W h a t m i g h t b e t h e b e n e f i t s ?T h e p r o b l e m s ?

63
Chapter3 Classroommanagement

oo oo ooo oooooooooo
oo oooo
oo oo ooo
O.l
60oo%
06 OO Oo"
o o-o oooooooooo
0atr9
'enemy
cotnerg' oP?o6tn4Neafi5

ooo
\, | \_-/
oooooooooo oo
oooooooooo oo
oo
^ /)
"nva\ r-r"
a\v
\, /-\ ^ a\ \_/
\J \_/
\ _r

lace-lo-+ace '?anel'
(or back-Lo-b
ack)

---'--->
oo
-
o.ro
O OO ^r'?\.-
oooooo t" 7"'oo o'"1
oo oo
oooooo \.-o o o^/
oooooo \,-'o
ro
oc-- oo "'-o*-"
'p
?ublic ' b u z zg r o u p e ' 'wheele'
meetin6
O' '
(PeoPe o h a n q4er o u P o (Lheouter\,thee\ can rYove
a c c a oo n ayl ) r a u n Ac,h a n q i npqa 1 6 )

Figure 3.6 Seatrngpossibilitiesin a standardclassroom

Giving instructions
In a multilingual classyou haveto useEnglish for instructions.But, in
monolingual classesyou havea choice:English,nativelanguage- or somemixture
of both. I havemet a number of teachersr,vhosaythat they would like to give
instructionsfor activitiesin English rather than their students'ou'nlanguage,but
find that there are often so many problemsu.ith comprehensionthat it seems
impossible.It is certainly possibleto use only English (and it's often really helpful
in creatingan 'English' atmospherein the classroom),but it's often problematic
becauseof the quantity and over-complexityoflanguageused.

61
 4 Givinginstructions

W complexinstructions
W h yd i dt h e c l a s sh a v ep r o b l e mw
s i t ht h e f o l t o w i nign s t r u c t i o n ?
OK,everybody,wouldyou, Maria, sit down.Now whatyou haveto do is, whenyou,
you takethis sheetof paperthat I'm handingout nowandkeepit secret,andsome
of you are 'A', it's writtenat the top, and some are labelleil 'B'. Ol<,canyou see
that?Don'tshowyourpaperto anyoneandthenyou haveto describeto your
partner; sit face to face. Couldyou moveyour chairc aroundand describewhat's on
your paper so that your partner can find out what's different, andyou must agree;
whenyou find something,drawit on yout paper?OK.Doyou understand?

This may sound like a joke,but in fact ir's quite rypical ofan unplanned
instruction.Teachersare often unawaretltat they are talking in this way until they
stop and toy to listen to what they are.saying.A video (or audio) recording of them
in acdoncan be veryhelpfulhere.
It is clearthat this type ofinstruction is very hard for studentsto follow. The
essentialinformation about what to do is embeddedin confusing and unnecessary
babble.An essentiallysimple activity can becomeimpossible,not becausethe
studentscouldn't do it, but becausethey didn't understandwhat to do. Often
studentsare iudged to havefailedwhen it is actuallvthe teacherwho failed to
clarify what wasrequired.

How can I give clearer instructions?

I proposefir e slepstowardsbefler instrucLions:
1 Becomeawareofyour own instruction-giving (listen to yourself;record
yourself;askothersto watch you and give feedback).
2 For a while, pre-plan essentialinstuctions. Analysethe instuctions beforehand
so asto include only the essentialinformation in simple,clearlanguage,and
sequenceit in a sensibleorder.Use short sentences- one sentencefor eachkey
pieceof information. Don't saythings that are visible or obvious (eg I'm giuing
you a pieceofpaper).Don't give instuctions that they don,t needto know at this
point (eg what they'll do after this activity is hnished).
3 In class,separateinstructions clearlyfrom the other chit-chat,telling off, joking,
etc that goeson. Createa silencebeforehand,make eyecontactwith asmany
studentsaspossible,hnd an authoritativetone,make surethey are listening
before you start.Use silenceand gesturesto pacethe instructions and clarify
their meaning.
4 Demonstraterather than explainwhereverpossible.
5 Check that studentshaveunderstoodwhat to do. Don,t assumethat everyone
will automaticallyunderstandwhat you havesaid.Get concreteevidencefrom
the studentsthat they know what is required.Getting one or two studentsto tell
you what they are going to do is one very simpleway ofachieving this.
Planningsimplerinstructions
Look back at the example instructiongiven in Task 3.8.
1 ldentifythe essential instructionsthe teacher wanted to give.
2 Delete unnecessarylanguage.
3 Write out the instructions in the right order.
Chapter3 Classroommanagement

Here is a preplannedversionofthe instruction inTask 3.8.

. Say Sit oppositeyour partner.
. lyait while they move.
. Someof you are .l' (gesture to letter A on the handouts) .
. Someare'B' (gestwe).
. Don't showyour pdperto anyone(mirne hiding).
. Distribute the handout.
. Somethings in pirture A are differentfrom picture B.
, Describe your pirture.
. lX4rcnyoufind somethingdifferent,drazr it (mkne) .
. Check understanding of instruction'. What areyou goizg to do?Students answer
with brief explanation.
Here is anotherversionof the sameinstruction.This time. it involves
demonstrationrather fran insuucLion:
. Ask one studentto come out in front ofthe classand sit oppositeyou.
. Give the handout to the student and take one yourself, making a big show of
keepingthe handoutssecretfrom eachother.
. Pretendto be studentA and do one completeexamplewith student B so that
the whole classcan hear (egA: IIaz elou got a treein tour picture?B: Yes.
A: Is therea bird on topof thetree?B'. No.A: Oh,sothat'sonedffirencein m1t
picture: thereis a bird on the ffee.).
. Disuibute handouts to the class:Now gou dn thzsame.A andB. Find tendffirences.
lmploving instructions
or a gesture.
Simplifythe followinginstructionsusinglessconfusinglanguage
1 NoWactually, I wouldreallylikeyou,if youcould,nowstandup,yeseveryone, please.
2 l t ' s t h e u n i to n ,e r ,t r a v e ls, o m e w h e r-ei t ' s n e a rt h e m i d d l ep, a g e s3 5 a n d3 6 ,
canyoufind that? Haveyougot it? No,notthat one,the nextunit,andtake a
lookat the introduction, readit throughquicklyandjot downyouranswersto the
questionsat the top of the pageoverthere,abovethe illustration.
3 lf I wereto ask youfor youropinionon smoking,whatdo youthinkyou mightsay
to me in yourreply?
4 Wouldyou liketo tell everyonethe answeryouwerethinkingof againbecauseI
d o n ' tt h i n kt h e yh e a r di t w h e ny o us p o k es o q u i e t l ya, n dI ' m s u r ew e ' da l l b e
interestedin hearingit if youcould,please?
5 Well,thatwasn'treallywhatI washopingyou'dsaywhenI askedthatquestion.I was
actually looking forthe nameofthe verbtense,notanexample sentence, butwhat
yougavemewasfine,onlydoesanyoneI wonderhavethe answerI'm looking for?

1 Geswe (or Smnd up).

2 Page35. fiVait quietJy till they have found page.)
Readthesequestions. (Show questions.)
Readthis.(Show text.)
Write your answers.
3 What dogou think aboutsmoking?
4 Louder.
5 lX/hat\ thenameof thetpnse?
66
 5 Monitoring

How to get the learners' attention

One important reasonwhy learnersmay not successfullyfollow activity
instructions (or understandyour explanationsof something)is that they didn,t
actuallyhear them, perhapsbecausethey weren,tfully paying attentionwhen they
were given.Whereasteachersoften investenergyinto finding befter waysto word
their instructions,they may overlookthe need to win attentionbefore the
.instructionis given.It's a vital step.An instruclion given over student chatter,or
when studentsare looking the other way, standslittle chanceofworking.
If this hasbeen a problem for you, here is one stategy for getting learners,
attentionthat you might wish to experimentwith.
. Start making eyecontact with asmany peopleaspossible.
. Establisha gesturethat meansyou want to speak(eg cupped
hand to your ear
or holding your hand up).
. Just wait.
. Don't look tmpatient or anxious.Keep moving your eyeshround
the room from
person to pe.rsonrpatiently.
. Think of this as'gatheringattention,.Enjoy it.
. $7aitaslong asnecessaryuntil there is silenceand peopleare looking your
way.
.Ifthisdoesn'twork,don'talteritdramatically.Justaddinaclearattention-
drawing word such as O1(.Sayit onceand then go back to the waiting.
In general,you need to establishyour authority and use it appropriately.project
your voice clearly,but speakrather than shout.Control the quantity and
complexity ofwhat you say.Saywhat you needto as simply and clearlyas
possible.

Monitoring
Yourrole in pair and group activities
What is your role once you have set up an activityin which students will mainlVwork
o n t h e i r o w n i n p a i r so r g r o u p s ?
a Sit down and read a book?
b Go out ofthe room and have a coffee?
c W a n d e rr o u n da n d l o o k a t w h a t s t u d e n t sa r e d o i n g ?
d S i t d o w na n d w o r kw i t h s e p a r a t eg r o u p so n e b y o n e ,j o i n i n gi n t h e t a s k s a s a
participant?
e Listen carefullyto as many students as possible, going over and correc ng
mistakes when you catch them, offering ideas when students get stuck, etc?

!7ell,I think all ofthese answersare possible,eventhe fust two (u,hichyou may
havedismissedasunlikely). It all depends,of course,on the nature ofthe specific
activity and on its aims.The next sectionsuggestsa generalsuategyfor making
decisionsabout what to do.
Chapter3 Classroommanagement

Deciding on your role while students do an activity

Let's distinguishtwo steps.
Step 1: The first 30 seconds: are they doing the task set?
Immediately after you havegiven the instructions for a task and studentsstart
doing it, there is often an immediateneedto checkto make surethat studentsare
doing the activity that you askedthem to do and haveunderstooddre basic
instructionsand the mechanicsof the activity.
You could do this by quietly and relativelyinconspicuouslywandering around dte
room, listeningin briefly to snatchesfrom many groups and assuringyourselfthat
studentsare doing what they are supposedto.rWecould call this 'monitoring to
checkthe mechanics'.
Step 2: The task itself
In many activities,the prime aim is for learnersto get a chanceto work on dreir
own, speakingfluendy and trying out things without too much interferenceand
correction.Ifthey are doing rhe task correctly,then possiblythey don't needyou
any more oncethe taskis under way.Yourpresencemight actuallybe an
interference.Ifyou are around and very visible,they might look to you for
languageitems and help wheneverthey hit a problem, whereasit might be more
useful for them to strugglea little and learn to makeuse oftheir own resources.So
once an activity is safelyunder way,your options often boil down to the following
choices:monitor discreetlyor vanish.
In sometasks- especiallythosein which studentsmight not move forward
quicldy,but need ongoing advice,supportJinput and encouragement- you may
hnd that somekind of more activerole is calledfor. In thesecases,your best
oprionsareprobablymonitor acdvelyor parLicipate.
Monitor discreetly
Discreetmonitoring is when you maintain a presencein the room, but do not
overtly offer help, interfere,correct,etc.Youraim is that the studentsknow you are
there,but your watching and listening doesnot in any way disturb them.They will
not feel tempted to call on you unlessthereis a significantproblem- and when
they do askfor help, do this swiftly and effectively,then return to the discreet
monitoring role.Youare sendinga messagethat you are interested,but that the
main task is for them to do using their own resourcesasmuch aspossible.
Vanish
There are caseswhen any teacherpresencecan actuallyinterferewith and
diminish the usefulnessof work being done. Sometimesthe best option for you is
to vanish,ie get out of immediate eyeshot.Youcould go into a corner of the room
and sit quietly.
It is often an idea to havesomethingconcreteto do (eg read something)in order
to prevent yourselffrom constantlyworrying about how studentsare doing and
getting drawn back into it.You needto keepa small percentageof attention on the
room, in order to know when the activity is reachingan end or a crisispoint, but
otherwiserestrainyourself from doing too much. Relax and stop being a teacher
for a while.

68
 6 Gestures

In a few specificcases,you might want to emphasisethe point that studentsneed

to work without your help, and in such casesevenleavingthe room for a few
minutes may be an option. (\TheneverI havedone this, I havebeeninterestedto
learn tlat most studentsdo not evennotice that I havebeenout of the room!)

Monitor actively
You can monitor as describedabove,but be more visible and allow studentsto be
more awareofyour presenceand of the possibility of calling on you for help and
advice.A teacheru'ho is activelymonitoring will be walking around,viewing and
listeningin to many different groups and frequently offering spontaneousadvice
and corrections,aswell asrespondingto requestsand questionsfrom students.

Particifrate
You may sit down and join a group (temporarily or for the whole task) and take
part asifyou were one ofthe group, offering ideas,helping u,ith questions,joining
in discussions.Youcould quietly move on to anothergroup. By the end of the
task,you might haveworked rvith a number ofgroups. Ofcourse, while you are
monitoring or r,vorkingwith one group, you will needto remain alert to what
othersare doing and if there are any problems.

Givingfull
attentionteaching
techniques
on the DVD

Gestures
Try to developa range ofgestures(and facial expressions)to saveyourself
repeatingbasicinstructionsand to increaseopportunities for learnertalk. For
example,I haveseenmany teachersusing a setofgesturesto indicate,time'.This
helpsthem quicldy correct learnerswho use tensesinaccurately.Pointing to the
ground indicatesthe present;pointing aheadrs the future; pointing behind, over
the shoulder,indicatesthe past.
Rememberthat learnerswill need to learn the meaningsof your gestures;they will
not magicallyknow that your pointing means'IJsethe past tense,,but ifyou give
the oral instuction a few timeswhile alsogesturing,they will soonassociatethe
gesturealonewith that instuction.
Bear in mind that gesturescan mean different things in different countries.Ifyou
are teachingawayfrom your own culture,learn rvhich gesturesto avoidlAnd
alwayskeep alert to the possibilitl' that you might be giving offence!

W cestures
T hi nk o f g e s t ur e s y o u c o u l du s e f o r t h e f o l l o w i n gi n s t r u c t i o n s :
1 S t a n du p .
2 W o r ko n y o u ro w n .
3 Five minutes left.
4 Q u i e t e nd o w n .
5 Listen to me.
6 Listen to her.
7 G i v ea l o n g e ra n s w e r .
8 P l e a s es t o p t a l k i n gn o w .
9 S t o p a n o i s ys t u d e n tt a l k i n g( t o e n a b l es o m e b o d ye l s e t o s p e a k ) .

69
Chapter
3 Classroom
management

Now watch the teaching technique on the DVD.

CreatinEnewgestures
Nowdecideon somepersonalgesturesfor eachofthe following:
1 A s k t h eo t h e rl e a r n e r s .
2 Repeat.
3 T h ei n t o n a t i ow
n a sv e r yd u l l .
4 Pleasestoptalkingnow.
5 Comehere!(polite)
6 Listento eachother.
7 Don'tshowyourinformation sheetto yourpartner.
A lot of teachersalsodevelopanduse gesturesquitespontaneously,
evenwithout
noticing.Doyou?If so, which?

Using the board

Organisation
One resourcethat almost everyteacherhasis a board, whether it is a small board
on an easel,a wide chalk board, a pen board or an interactivecomputer board.
Although it is possible to write randomly on the board asthings occur in class,
you'll often find that it's worth paying a little attention to organising items. I'm not
naturally a very tidy board user, but I've found that the following idea does make
a difference .
At the start of the lesson,draw a few dividing lines on the board, eg to form three
working areas,like this :

Review Scratchpadfor drawing, displayingwords as Key vocabulary

sectron they come up, etc and grammar
(for key
pornts
from last
lesson)

IJse these areasto help you organise different content asyou write it up, keeping
different kinds ofthings to separatesectionsofdte board, for example:
. a vocabularycolumn for new words,with a secondcolumn for example
sentencesand notes;
. a substituLiontable lor a new grammar item;
. a spaceto sdck up sketch pictures to help when telling a story;
. questions for students to think about when listening to a recording.

70
 7 Using
theboard

Here are a few more board thoughts:

. Try to avoidlong teacher-writingtimes rvhilestudentsare
iust watching and
waltrng.
. \ heneverpossible,find opportunities to writc things up on the board while
studentsare working on other things, so that you are readywhcn thcy finish.
. It seemsnatural enoughto rvrite standingin front ofthe board.Unfortunatell.,
this blocksthe vier.vofwhat vou're writing for the classand they can't read it till
you've finished (Figure 3.7a).Youalsocan't talk ro them easily.\X/hen you get a
chancein an emptl' classroom,practiseI'riting on the board in a wa1'thal youl
body doesn'tblock the viervfor everyoneand you can make eyecontactvl'ith
the class(Figure 3.7b).This requiresa slightly sidervaysposition,t'hich will
feel odd at first, but it allou.'syou to talk to students,askquestionsand lool(
around, all ofwhich can be very helpful in maintaining a goodlvorking
atmosphere.

See Writingon the boardleachingtechnique on the DVD

(a) (b)

po.iLion,
Figure3.7 Allernati\-e rvhenrvriringon rhebuard

Rememberthat it's not only teacherslvho can rvrite on boards- where

appropriate,get learnersto write up ansrversand ideas,drar,vpictures and
timelines,etc.The division of the board into sectionscan alsohelp rhem to write
more tidill-.
\Watchout that you don't useyour or'"'nwriting on the board asa lengthy
time-wastingway to avoid realteaching.

Board drawing
Don't sayvou can't drau'!No mafter how un--\,1onet-like -vourartistr) Jone picrurc
is often worth many unnecessarywords.For the quick explanationofvocabulary
items,Ibr settingup a discussion,a dialogueor role pla]! for storl'-building, vou
needpictures.
Clearly the basicskill is to draw peoplein someform, anCstick peopleare in many
waysbetter than detailedhguresbecausetJrey'reso quick to do.

71
Chapter3 Classroommanagement

Add character b1'giving different shapes

o f h c a d . f a n e n i n gu p t i c b o d i e sa l i n J e .
drarving in simple clothes, adding
expression in the mouth and eyes.

Add locationsby a feu'simpleprops:for

example,a railway line and a platform
makesa stationla table,knife and fork and
a vaseofflorvers makesa restaurant.

Remember that the pictures alone are usually onl-v a starting point.They don't
need to do all the r'vork- build from them u'ith questions and discussion. And
even if the-vend up looking like nothing on earth, badly drawn pictures can
actually be a rich source oflanguage and humour in the classroom If ther, don't
understand r,vhaton earth you'vc drau'n, whisper the word to a student and get
fhem to dra$' rt.

See Drawing people teaching technique on the DVD

72
 8 Eliciting

W Practicein quickboardsketches
1 D r a wq u i c kp i c t u r e (ss i n g l ei m a g e so r a s e q u e n c et o) i l l u s t r a t seo m eo f t h e
following:swimmingpool,London,happy,escalator,mouse,exhausted,robbery,
whale,planet,overtake.
2 W h a tq u e s t i o ncso u l dy o ua s ky o u rl e a r n e r a s b o u t h e s k e t c h etso e s t a b l i s thh a t
theyactuallysee whatyou intendthemto?

Eliciting
'Eliciting'means
drawing out information, language,ideas,etc from the students.
It is a techniquebasedon the principles that:
. studentsprobably know a lot more than lve may give them credit for;
. starting with what they know is a productive way to begin new work;
. involving peoplein a question-and-answermovementtowardsnew discoveries
is ofien moreeffecriverhansimplygiving'lectures'.
Eliciting enablesme to startfrom wherethe learnersareand then to work forward
from there.The learnershavea realeffecton the outcomesof the lessonin terms of
ideas,language and pace.\Vithconstantlearnerinvolvement,Icanwork more at their
speedrather than my own. I can find out where the real difficulties and problems are.
There are three stepsto eliciting:
1 I conveya clearidea to the students,perhapsby using pictures,gesturesor
questions,etc.
2 They then supply the appropriatelanguage,information or ideas.
3 I give them feedback.
I can elicit:language,ideas,feelings,meanings,contexts)memoriesretc.I can,t
elicit:things they don'r know
Here is an examplefrom a )esson
The teacheris working on the presentsimpletensefor dajly routines.On the board,
shehaswritten the wordsEaeryday anddrawn a house.Sheaddsa bed to oneroom.
Shelooks at the studentsand gesturesthat shewants the word. One says6ed.
The teacherdoesnot repeatit, but getsother studentsto repeatthe word.
Studentswho didn't hear askthe hrst studentto repeatit.
The teacherdoesthe sameprocedurewith a clock and with the time (sezerl
o'clocft).Shethen drawsa stick man and mimes yawning and climbing out of bed.
Shelooksto the studentsand gesturesto encouragethem to saya sentence.I1ege,
up seaeno'clock,saysone student.The teacherthankshim for the sentence,but
doesn'trepeatit. Instead,sheusesfinger correction (seeChapter 12, Section 1)
to establisha correctedversionfrom him (with the help ofother classmembers).
rJ7henit is correct,shegetsthe classto repeatthe
sentencea number of times.
In that samplelesson,the teacherdid not model the vocabularyor grarnmar
herself;in fact, shedidn't evensaythe vocabularyor sentencebeing worked on.
The vocabularywasknown by at leastone student.The grammar,though not
accurate,was closeenoughto be useful to work on. Ifno studenthad known 6ed
or chck or getup,then the teacher$'ould havesaid theseherself,having found out
that tiey werereally new and needed.As it was,shewas ableto elicit most of the
languagefrom the studentsand hardly neededto speakat all herself.
Chapter3 Classroommanagement

\7ith this technique,thereis a reduction in unnecessaryteachertalk and a

maximisationof studenttalk.The studentstake an activepart in the learning,being
involvedevenin the part ofthe lessonthat might otherwisebe only teacher
explanation.Theteacheris ableto pinpoint preciselywhat studentsknow and what
they still needto work on.The languageis learnedthrough a processof guided
discovery,and it seemslikely that it will be more memorablebecauseof the degree
of studentinvolvementin the learning.Confidenceis built becausetheir use ofthe
languageis continuousand doesnot haveto wait for the end ofteacher exposition.

Advicewheneliciting
H e r ei s s o m ea d v i c ef o r e l i c i t o r sT. w oD i e c e isn t h e l i s ta r es o u r i o u sw: h i c ho n e s ?
1 G i v es u f f i c i e nitn f o r m a t i o n E.l i c i t i ndgo e s n ' tm e a n ' G u e sw s h a t ' si n m yh e a d ' .
D o n ' t r yt o e l l c i t y o u rg r a n d m o t h e r ' s
m a i d e nn a m e .
2 Usehandgesturesto indicatewho is beingaskedto speak,eithera gesturefor
' a n y o n eo' r t o a s p e c i f i ci n d i v i d u allf.e v e r y o nsep e a k sa t o n c e ,i t c a nb e h a r df o r
studentsto knowwhichanswerwas OKandwhich not.
3 Giveveryclearfeedbackon eachstudentutterance.Theywantto knowif what
t h e ys a i dw a sa c c e p t a b l e Y.o uc o u l du s es i m p l eg e s t u r e o s rf a c i ae l x p r e s s i o nt os
r e g i s t e r ' O Ko'r ' N o tO K ' t os t u d e n t s .
4 If someonegivesan incorrectanswer,getthemto repeatit two or threetimes
andthen saythe correctansweryourself.
5lftheycan'tprovideananswer,don'tstretchtheelicitingouttoolong.Sile
w r o n ga n s w e r a s r ee v i d e n cteh a tt h e yn e e dy o u ri n p u t .
6 W h e ny o uh a v ea n a p p r o p r i a taen s w e rm , a k es u r ei t i s c l e a r l e
y s t a b l i s h eads a
g o o da n s w e rp, e r h a p sb yg e t t i n gi t r e p e a t e b d ya v a r i e t yo f i n d i v i d u a l s .
7 D o n ' tu s ee l i c i t i n w g i t hm o n o l i n g ucalla s s e s .
8 l J s ee l i c i t i n rge g u l a r lays a b a s i ct e c h n i q u ien m o s tl e s s o n sf o r k e e p i n g your
classactiveand involved,

Points 4 and 7 are the wrong answers.

'Lead-in'questions
g l e s s o no n l a n g u a gues e dw h e nm e e t i n gp e o p l ea t p a r t i e sW
Y o u ' r ep l a n n i n a . hat
q u e s t i o ncso u l dy o ua s ka t t h e s t a r to f y o u rl e s s o ni n o r d e rt o i n t e r e stth e I e a r n e r s
a n dt o e l i c i ts o m eo f t h e i rp e r s o n af e
l e l i n g sa n dr e a c t i o n s ?

Planningquestionsto elicit specificthings

Considerthe nextlessonyouneedto teach.Writedownone specificitem of factual
information that the studentswill needto know:maybea grammarrule,a fact
a b o u t h e t o p i c ,w h a ta p i c t u r eo n t h e b o a r dr e p r e s e n t se,t c .W r i t ea s e q u e n c oe f
q u e s t i o ntsh a ty o uc o u l du s et o l e a dt h e s t u d e n t s t e pb y s t e pt o w a r d sf i n d i n go u t
t h a ts a m ei n f o r m a t i of no rt h e m s e l v e s .
l f p o s s i b l ew, o r kw i t hs o m e o n e l s et o t r y o u ty o u rs e q u e n coef q u e s t i o n sP, r a c t i s e
drawing o u tt h e i n f o r m a t i orna t h e trh a ne x p l a i n i nygo u r s e l f .

71
 - somepopulartechniques
9 Howto preventlearning

How to prevent learning - some popular techniques

Here are somewa,vsthat teachersunintentionally hinder or preventlearning.

TTT (Teacher Talking Tirne)

TsecnrR.: Il/hennothingelseis happeningin theclassroom,Iopenmy
ruotLth.
I'xe no ideawhatI saymostof thetine. Bul it stopsthose
horriblesilences.It\probablgusefulJorthentto listento nte
speahingEnglish.After all,I . . .
The more you talk, the lessopportunity thereis for the learners.They need
time to think, to preparewhat they are going to sayand how they are going to
sayit. Allow them the time and the quiet they need.Don't feel the needto fill
everygap in a lesson.Explore the possibilitiesof silence.

Echo
SrunsN.t: I wentto thecinemu.
Trecngn: Youwentto thecinema.Good.Youwerctto thecinema.
V/ho getsmore languagepracticehere- the student or the teacher?Ifyou become
awareofyour echoingand then start to control it, you r.villfind that learnersget
more talking time and tltat they start to listen to eachother more.! hen you echo,
they soonlearn that they don't needto listen to anyoneexceptyou, becausethey
know that you'll repeateverl'thinglThat has a dramaticallynegativeeffect on
interaction patternswitl.rinthe classroom.

Helpful sentence cornpletion

SruorN'r': I think that smokingis . . .
Theculn: . . . a badthing.Yes,lagree.lYhenI wenrinto thepub . . .
You can be so desperatefor a studentto saywhat you want them to say (so that the
Iessoncan move on to the next stage)that you are alreadypredicting the words the
studentwill produce and eagerlyu'ishingfor them to be said- so much so that you
often find yourself adding 'tails' to sentenceafter sentence.But this kind of 'doing
the hard work for them'is often counter-productive.Peopleneedto finish their
own sentences.If studentscan't completethe sentencethemselves,they need
help - but help to produce their own sentence,using tireir own r,vordsand their
own ideas.By letting studentshnish what they are saying,you alsoallow yourself
more time to really listen to the student and u'hat he is saying.

Cornplicated and unclear instructions

TErcsrn: Well,whatI'w gorutado is I\n gonnaaskltou n getinn pairs,but
beforethat therearesomethingswe'uegottaworhout.Sojust jor
downif yott'xegota pen,could you write this,thenuhen we'ae
Jinishedthat we'regoitlg to do thenext tlung uthichint-tolaes
more. . .
Unplanned, unstructured instructions are extremelyconfusing to students.They
probably understandor. y a smallpercentageofwhat you say- and guesswhat
you want them to do from one or two key words they did catch.\rork out what is
essentialfor them to know and tell them that, u'ithout wrapping it up in babble.
Chapter3 Classroommanagement

Not checking understanding of instructions

Teacnsn: Mt instructionsweresoclear- but all thestudentsdid dffirent
things,and noneoJthemdid.what I askedthem to do.
Even the clearestinstuctions can be hard to grasp so,after you've given them, it's
worth checkingthat they havebeenunderstood.A simpleway is to aska student
or two to repeatthem backto you: So,Josi,what areyou goingto do?Inthrs way,
you satisfyyour self that the taskhas beenunderstood.Having done that, make
sureyou monitor the start of the activity to seeif they really do what you wanted!

Asking Do you understand?

Taacngn: Do gou understancl?
SrrneNr: ...er... tes ...
\X/henyou want to checklearners'understanding,questionssuch asDoyoz
unfurstand?are often useless.Ifyou get a Yesreply, it could mean 'I'm nervous
about seemingstupid' or 'I don't want to wastedle class'stirne any more' or 'I
think I understand,but . . .'. You often needto get clea.rinformation about what
studentshavetaken in.The bestway to do this is to get studentsto demonstrate
their understanding,for exampleby using a languageitem in a sentence,or by
repeatingan instruction, or by explainingtheir interpretation ofan idea.This
providesreal evidence,ratlter than vague,possiblyuntrue informarion.

Fear of genuine feedback

Teecnsn : Did.yu like ruy lesson?
STLTDENT: ... er .., yes ...
In an active,forward-moving class,the learnerswill constantlybe giving you
feedbackon what tley haveunderstood,what they think, what they need,how
they feel,etc.Many teachersbelievein the importance ofopen, honestfeedback,
but hnd that, in practice,it can be hard to get.This is pardy to do with the
classroomatmosphere,partly to do with the questionsasked,and mainly to do
with the attitude and responseto feedbackreceived.Themore you seefeedbackas
a threat to you and to your position and your conhdence,the more you will
aftempt to avoid feedback,or to defend yourselfagainstperceivedattackwhen
you do get feedback.Ifyou can open yourselfup to the possibilitiesofreally
listeningto what studentshaveto saywith a view to simply hearing them - without
self-defence,justificationsor arguments- then you may find that you can stafi to
find out what they are reallythhking, and that you can work on responding
appropriatelyto that.

Insufficient authority / over-politeness

Tt,A.cHsn: So if you don't mind,it wouldbeoeryniceiJ3toucouldjuststop
theactiattyif youfeelthat\ OK.
This kind of pussyfootingis a common way in which teachersundermine
themselves.Be clear.Saywhat you needto saywithout hiding it. If you wanr ro
stop an activity,say Stopnow,please.
Feel your own natural authority and let it
soeakclearlv.

76
 - somepopulartechniques
9 Howto preventlearning

The running comrnentary

Te.q.cHsns: SonowwhatI1ngonnadoisI'm gonnamoxemychairoaerhereand sit
downandjustgetcomfortable and nowI'm gonnatearup these piecesoJ
paper,andI had to usethesebecause get
I couldn't ang card,soI found
theseat thebackof theteacher's
roont,and I'n gonnatearthemu.pnow
and whenI'ae donethat whatI'm gonnaaskyou to do is i;fyou don't
mind...
Don't give a running commentary about the mechanicsof past,presentand
future activities.Boring, hard to follow, unnecessary.Tellstudentswhat they need
to know - and stop.

Lack of confidence in self, learners, material, activity / making

it too easy
TEacssn: I wonderwhlt thegloohsobored?
A common causeof boredomin classroomsis when the materialusedis too difficult
or too easy.The former isn't hard to recognise- the learnerscan't do the work. A
more difficult problem is whenwork is simply not challengingenough.Teachers
often haveratherlimited expectationsaboutr.vhatpeoplecan do, and keeptheir
classeson a ratherpredictablestraightline through activitiesthat are safeand
routine.Try to keepthe levelofchallengehigh. Be demanding.Believethat they can
do more ttranthey are awareofbeing ableto do - and then help them to do it.

Over-helping / over-organising
TsecHgn: Yes,nozoyou canaskheryour question. Mmm, rhat\ a good
question.IY/hat dolou think?What\ your answergoingto be,
Sih.tia?Yes. Go on - tellher what it is . . .
When you give studentsa task to do in a group, it's often bestto let rhem ger on
with it. A lot of'teacher help', althoughwell intentioned,is actually'teacher
interference'and getsin the way ofstudents working on their own. As long asyou
are around,they rvill look to you for guidance,control and help.Ifyou go awaS
they are forced to do the work themselves.Thatis when learningmight happen.It
can be a difficult lessonto learn,but sometimesour studentswill do much better
without us, if only we havethe courageto trust them.

Flying with the fastest

TgacHgn: So- what'stheq,nswer?
SrureNrA: Onljt onTuesdayunlessit'sraining.
TsecHen: Yes,aerjtgood- so,eoery)one
got thqt?And wlry did hebuy the
elasticband?
SruDsNr A: So hezpouldn'tlosehis letters.
Teacgrn: Good.Exeryoueunderstands
then!
Ifyou only listento the first peoplewho speall it's very easyto get a false
impressionof how difficult or easysomethingis.Youmay find that the strongest
and fasteststudentsdominate,and you get liftle idea of how the majority of the
classfinds the work.This canleadyou to fly at the speedof the top two or three
studentsand to losethe rest completely.Make sureyou get answersand feedback
Chapter3 Classroommanagement

from many students.Trydirecting questionsat individuals (eg Wat dotou think,

Dominic?)and sometimesactively'shh!' the loud ones- or simply'not hear' them.

Not really listening (hearing language problems but not the message)
SrunsNr: I amfeelingbad.My grandfatherhedie l,zstweehctndI qm . . .
Tsacnsn: it's in thepast.
No,not'd)e'- sa9'died'because
SrurENr: . . . h e d i e d l a s t w e e. .h.
Tpr.cssn: Excellent.Now,did aqtoneeke\ grandfatherdie lastweek?
Becausewe are dealingin languageasthe subjectmafter ofour courses,it's very
easyto becomeover-concernedabout the accuracyofwhat is said and to fail to
hear the personbehind the words.The exampleaboveis an exteme one,but on a
minute-by-minute basisin class,teachersfrequently fail to hearwhat learnerssay.
The only point in learninglanguageis to be ableto communicateor receive
communication- it is vital that work on the mechanicalproduction ofcorrect
English doesnot blind us to the messagesconveyed.Check yourself occasionally-
are you really listeningto your students,or only to their words?

Weak rapport: creation ofa poor working environrnent

TEACHER: I t1n benice- but my classes
alwaysseemsoduli.
Ifrapport seemsto be a problem, then plan work specificallydesignedto focus on
improving the relationshipsand interaclion within the class(rather than activities
with a mainly languageaim). Until the relationshipsare good within a class,the
learning is likely to be of a lower quality, so it's worth spendingtime on this. Bear
in mind the threeteacherqualitiesthat help to enablea good working
environment:authenticity,respectand empathy.
Don't be too worried by this terrible list!These are the kinds of problemswe all
have.You'11find yourselfdoing thesethings, so notice yourselfdoing them and
note the waysin which they do or don't seemto 'prevent' learning.But alsoaccept
that this is a part ofthe natural processofyour own learning and development.As
your awarenessand confrdencegrow, you'll find that you not only becomemore
ableto recognisesuch problemsin your own teaching,but that you can alsostart
to find effectivealternativeoptions that enablerather than hinder learning.

10 Intuition
Use ofintuition is fundamentalto teaching.It is the skill ofspontaneously
understandingsomething,bypassingttre supposedconventionalroute ofthinking
carefullyand reachinga considereddecision.Although it soundssomewhat
'magical',it is a quite down-to-earth,if rather unexplored,part of our teaching
work. It is somethingthat all teachersexerciseto a greateror lesserdegree,and it is
learnableand improvable.
Intuitive responsesare important in teachingbecausethings happen so fast in
lessontime and there is so much to notice,flying at us all at once:how the activi5
is proceeding,how eachstudent is reacting,etc. On-the-spot in class,you don't
havemuch thinking space.Fluent teachingdependson being ableto quickly read
the classroomsituationmoment-bv-moment and respond (or choosenot to
respond) appropriately.
78
 10 lntuition

Intuition
Doyou recognise
yourselfin anyof the followingexamples?
a Y o ua r et e a c h i n g ( oprl a n n i ntge a c h i n ga)n d k n o w s u d d e n l y o r i n s t i n c t i v e l y w h a t
to do or howto do it.
b I n c l a s s y, o ud e c i d et o d o / n o tt o d o s o m e t h i nw g i t h o uht a v i n ge x p l i c iy t h o u g h t
t h r o u g h' w h y ' ;s o m e t h i n g j u sc to m e st o m i n d .
c Youhavean understanding of whatthe learnersneedthat doesn'tseemthe
resultof logicalreasoning.
d Youmakea connectionbetweentwo aspectsofthe lessonthat hadnot seemed
connectedbefore.
e Yousuddenlyrealisea sensethat thereis an overallsystem,structureor pattern
to somethingsthat you previously thoughtunrelated.
f P i e c e so f a s o l u t i o nr e v e atlh e m s e l v eass m e t a p h o r si m, a g e sp, u n s ,e r c .
g Youknowsomethingthat you had no apparentwayof knowing.
h Youget a suddenunderstanding or insightinto a student'scharacter.
i Y o ul o o ka t a s t u d e n(t o rs t u d e n t sa) n d g e t a s e n s e o f w h a t t h e y a r e t h i n k i n g .
j Youfeel someembarrassment, becauseyourwayof workingseemsto run
counterto trainingandto messagesyouget from respectedpeers.

Origins of intuition
!7here does intuition come from? How can it be improved? I think intuition is
your ability to smootily accessthe quantity ofexperience you havestoredinside
you to help you interpret what is happeningin the presentmoment.\)fecan get
bener at it by gaining more (and a wider range of) experienceand storing it away.

We do things.

W er e c a l l t h e ma n dr e f l e c ot n t h e m .
T h i sa d d st o o u rs t o r eo f e x p e r i e n c esdi t u a t i o n s .

Processed
andunprocessedmemoriesmix,overlap,
get confused,cross-fertilise,
synthesise, etc.

Intuitiveinsights

Figure 3.8 How we useintuition

79
Chapter3 Classroommanagement

ffi Howyoulearned
to teach
R e c a lhl o wy o ul e a r n e dt o b e a t e a c h eor n y o u rt e a c h etrr a i n i n g c o u r s eI. d o n ' t
m e a nh o wy o ul e a r n e d t h et h e o r yb, u tw h a ty o u rf i r s tl e s s o n sw e r el i k e ,h o wm u c h
y o uc o u l da p p l yw h a ty o u rt r a i n e r sh a dt a u g h yt o ut o d o i n c l a s s .

Intuition and teaching

If your initial experienceofteaching wasanything like my own, you had a whole
pile ofthings weighing on your shoulderswhen you went into class:books you'd
read (like this onel), seminarsyou'd attended,helpful adviceyou'd beengiven.
Yet on steppinginto the live, real-time situationin class,you probably found that
you couldn't just apply all thesethings,like assemblyinstructionsfor putring
togethersomebookshelves.It didn't work Iike that, becauseteachingisn't like dc-
it-yourselfor cookery.IfI'rn learningto cooK I can read someTV chef's book and
find out precisestep-by-stepinstructions for making a new dish. If I follow thosc
instructionsprecisell'',I am quite likely to get somethingsimilar to the original
target dish.There will be somecall on my intelligenceand somedegreeof luck
and somelocal variation in terms ofwhat my cookeris like, what ingredientsare
like, etc, but it is by and large a relativelypredictabletask.
Teachingisn't like that.The instruction book doesn'twork, becauseevery
teachingeventis significantlydifferent.And it happenstoo fast before your eyes-
You very quickly find that you haveto use somethingelse,from Lesson one
onwards,when the handed-downguidelinesbreak down in the face ofreal people
with real unpredicted responses.You are alreadyworking on intuition: taking ris[s.
trying things out,learning not to be frightened,realisingthat this is the way to
move forward, that the things that go wrong contribute to you being better ablero
do it next time. And recallingand reflecting on what you do after you do it seems
to add to the pool from which this intuition draws.Youdon't haveto processthe
learningvery deeplyto draw specihcconclusions- it may often be enoughjust to
recallit, sift through it.
So,new teachersstarting out make a lot ofuse ofintuitive decisions- decidingto
do somethingon the spur of t]-lemoment.\(/hat happensasa result then itself
feedsinto the stockof data availableto them for future decisions.
New teachersalsomake intuitive readingsof how peopleare reacting.
Interestingly,their intuitive readingsare often incorrect;for example,trainees
often tend to misreadwhether studentsare bored with an exerciseor how difficulr
a listeningtask is.New teachersoften transfertheir own nerves,doubts, worries
and expectationsabout how studentswill respond and then find what they
expectedto find in the learners'faces,body language,voices,etc.
There is a dangerthat such incorrect readingsmay get setin concrete.One needs
to constantlychallengeand consciouslyupgrade one'sintuition - and I suspect
that much of the processoflearning to be a better teacheris a processof collecting
concretefeedbackand information (about learners,language,teachingideas,etc)
in order to becomemore spontaneouslyand accuratelyintuitive in class,ie
becominga 'learning teacher'.Training coursestend to expecttainees to put into
practicecertainwaysofworking propounded by the course.Teachersoften try to
do what they are askedto do and come badly unstuck - tripping up on the sheer

8A
 10 lntuition

difficulty of following prescribedstepsthrough a dancethat in reality has no fixed

pattern.The 'painting by numbers' approachto teachingis possible,but with very
limited outcomes.
Yet, sometraineesdareto put the training requirementsto one side- muffling the
trainer'svoicesin their head- and manageto reachbackto their own natural
intuitive skills.They start to feel that buzz thar teachingbrings; the shiverof
excitement when an activity starts working, rhe thrill that pushes them on to
experimentmore and to enjoy it more.This isn't an argumentagainsttraining or
againstacademicinput, but it is a reminder that, iust asteacherscan,t do the
learning for their students,trainerscan neverdirectlv hand over therr own
teachingskillsto their trainees.
\7e need to study things,butwe alsoneed to put them to one side;we needto
forget things,we need to losethings insideus, we needto worry lessabout the
exactinstructions.If we hold other people'sguidancein front ofus asinfallible
route maps to follow, we are likely to get lost.And that,sprobably true ofcooking
aswell - maybewe won't be a real cook till we can leavethe book closed.Thissame
process,I thin\ is how we then go on to becomethe teacherswe are.
Most peoplewill discoverthat they didn'tlearn to be teachersfrom seminarsor
books or conferencesor observationfeedback,though all ofthese havea very
definite impact.Youlearn to teachby teaching.Youlearn to teachby doing ir.

Youruseof intuition
As a teacher,howmuchdo you makeuse of intuitionto knowwhatyourstudents
a r et h i n k i n gt ,o r e a dt h e i rr e a c t i o ntso t h i n g st,o d e c i d ei f t h e yl i k ea t a s ko r n o t ,
t o d e t e r m i n ief t h e ya r eb o r e de, t c ?W h a ti n f o r m sy o u ri n t u i t i o n ?

81
 Ghapter4 Whoare the learners?
This chapterlooks at waysthat learners(and classes)differ, and askswhat you
can do to work with such differences.

Individuals and groups

First meeting with a class
Y o uw a l k i n t o t h e r o o m , a n d t h e r e i n f r o n t o f y o u i s y o u r n e w c l a s s .
1 W h a t c a n y o u l e a r na b o u ta c l a s s a t f i r s t g l a n c e ?
2 How can you learn more about them and what they might be thinking about you?
3 What kind of relationshipdo you hope to achievewith them?

At first glance,we can discoversomebasicfacts,such as:the apparentageof

Iearners,how many there are,the male / femaleratio, whetler or not they have
books,materials,pens,how they are seated,whether they are silent or talking or
activelydoing something,what they do in reactionto your presence.
Beyond this, we can gain a number of more inungible, intuitive impressionsbased
on our interpretation ofeye contact,body posture,commentsoverheard,etc.
Do they know eachother?Do they like eachother?Are they happy and positive?Do
they seemto be readyfor a languagelesson?Does their reactionfeel challengingto
me in a positive way or threatening in a negativeway?Are the leamers waiting for
me to sayor do something?Is therea'good buzz' aboutthe room?
Of all these,teachersare often initially most concernedwith their perception of
what the learnersthink of them.'Do they like me?'and'\fhat do they expectfrom
me?' seemto be fundamentalissuesfor many teachers- and until they havebeen
positivelyresolved,teachersoften feel unableto work successfully.Meeting a
is an important moment. It involvesmeeting a number of peopleat once,and
many initial impressionsmay be formed, by both teachersand students,in those
lust few seconds.

I wanted them to love me

Hereis Yvette- an experiencedteacher- talkingaboutwhatshe usedto worry
aboutwhenshe first met a class.Doyou relateto herfeelingsat all"
'WhenI started teaching,I seemedto spend a lot of my time worryingabout
whetherthe classlikedme or not-well, I couldalmostsayI wasdesperatethat
they should love me. I felt as if I couldn't do anythingunless they wereon my side.
as it wete. I think this got me spending too much time trying to entertain the
which led to some funny lessons and we all had a good laugh - but I'm not sure
gotwhatthey rcally needed from me. lthink nowadaysI still wantto have a good
relationship with my students, but somehow I've come to terms with the fact thaa
whateverI do, some people probablywon't adore me or what I do. That sort of
me free to worry about the lessonsand the students and what they are IearninE-
more than worryingtoo much about my own feelings.'

82
 1 Individuals
andgroups

ffi changesin ctassmood

Listsomepossiblefactorsthat mightexplaina changein classmoodfromone
teacherto the next.

ffi croupcharacteristics
1 D o g r o u p sh a v ea c h a r a c t e rd i s t i n c tf r o m t h a t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l si n i t ?
2 I n w h a t w a y sa r e p e o p l ei n a l a n g u a g ec l a s s s i m i l a r t o e a c h o t h e r ?
3 H o w m i g h t a t e a c h e r ' sd e s c r i p t i o no f a , h o m o g e n o u gs r o u p ' b e a s i m p l i f i c a t i o n ?

Groups do havecharactersand moods.I,m sure you,veheard fellow teachersin a

staffroom saying thingsl:,ke Oh, theg'rea lovelygroup or Thegroup seemsto haae
gelledor They are soopen- hqppy to &) anything. Of course,you might also hear
negatrveinterpretationsofgroup characteraswell: Ilt hkesrirrinp mu,d, in there
todayor They'reztery negatiac.
It is interestingto notice how different teachersmay evokea markedly different
responsefrom the samegroup. Such variation can be particularly noticeableon
tlalnrng courseswhen maybetwo or three teachersteachttre sameclass,one after
tJ-eother.Youcan sometimeswatch the classthat hasjust beenactiveand engaged
'closedown'
when a new teacherstarts- speakinglessand looking down all the
time asif someswitchhad beenturned off insidethem
It's tempting for a teacher(or a school) to view a classas a fairly homogenous
group with a single'level' and similar behaviour,preferences,interestsand wavsof
working.
The individuals in a classmay havea number of things in common wifh each
other. Somemay be friends with others;they may come from t}le same
geographicaldistrict or work in the sameplace.The one thing that everyonehas in
cornrnonis that they are in a language-learningclass(though of courserney may
not havechosento be there). Often thesepeopleare in the sameroom at the same
time with strangersonly becausethey havebeenplacedrhereby the school.
Beyond any common features,there will be significantdifferencesbetween
people;it's not only ageor levelthat differs in learners- they may alsohave
different:

83
Chapter4 Whoarethe learners?

reasorsfor ?revious
beliefsa,arI learning preferences
needlnq€rq\\6h 't\rhal
2I'eacher experience for classroom
caf or 6hould'da meLhodoloqy

percafa\\l\eaand preferences
wa'Joof re\attrq for whatr speedsof
La andworktrq c o m e n LL a workingand
v|fth alher wark on in cla55 learning
difficdr'\eo
ar ?hystcal
disabillLleg tapicsLheyfind
ab\\'fiJro interesLing
I'h\Y\q6
f e|Y1e$1ber \eve\s\nvarroug degrees
languaqe offocus. beliefs,politica!
sYel'eYn;and view3,ideas
,.application,
5kill5 atoLracLion, aboultrnarality,
etc
?reludices,etc
of skills,apLitudes
know\edqe ,
ana andabiliLies
Nhe',"rar\d sensesofhumour,
ePec\a\areaa
res?on1eto
practicaljokes,
5arca5m, etc

Figure 4.1 Individual differences

Motivation
Many learners have strong external reasons why they u'ant to study (to get an
exam pass)to enter university, to get a promotion, to please their parents, etc)
This is often called.external motiDatlon. Others may be studying iust for rewards
lvithin the rvork itself (the fun oflearning, setting oneself a personal challenge,
etc). often referre dto as internal motiaation.In eithet case,the strengd-roftheir
motivation will be a factor in determining how seriously they approach the work.
horv much time they set aside for it, how hard they push themselves, etc.You mal'
seethis reflected in things such as how often homework is done, how thoroughl-v
'tuned in' students are during lesson
new items are revised betr,veenclasses,how
times. A frequent cause ofdifficulties within classesis r.vhenthere is a significant
mismatch of motivation levels amongst tie course participants, eg some studenis
u'ho desperately need to pass an exam next month alongside others who want a
relaxed chance to chat and play games in their new language.

84
 andgroups
1 Individuals

Multiple intelligences
The traditional idea ofhumans having a single,unified 'intelligence'may be
rather limiting. Howard Gardenerhas suggestedthat peoplecould haveseven
'intelligences'(maybe
more!):
1 linguistic
2 visual
3 musical
4 logical / mathematical
5 bodily / feeling
6 interpersonal(contactwith other people)
7 intrapersonal(understandingoneself)
Gardenersuggeststhat we probably all havethesesevenintelligencesbut in
different proportions. So one person might be strongin musical and bodily
intelligence,while anothermay be strongerin languageand understandingother
people.Traditionaleducationsystemsmav havetended to focus on some
intelligencesover others,especiallyon languageand logical intelligences.

Sensory preferences
\0riters in the field of NLP (Neuro-Linguistic Programming) havenoted rhat
humans tend to havedifferent sensorypreferences,ie somepeoplerespondbest
to hearingthings (auditory), othersro seeingthem (visual),while otherslearn best
when they can touch and feel tangible,physicalobjects (kinaesthetic).\7hen
planning classes,you may natutally biaslessonideastowardsyour own sensory
preferences,so it's worth rememberingto ensurethat, over time, there is a range
ofworking modes appealingto visual,auditory and kinaestheticlearners.

ffi workingwith individual

differences
Whatimplicationd s o e s t h e l i s t o f i n d i v i d u adl t f f e r e n c e sa b o v eh a v ef o r t h e
t e a c h e r ?H e r e a r e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t e a c h e r s 'v i e w s .A s a g e n e r a l i s a t i o nd,o y o u f e e l
m o r e i n c o m m o nw i t h G y o r g yT, r b o ro r E d i t ?

Y o uc a n ' t r e a l l yt a k e a l l t h e s e i n d i v i d u adl i f f e r e n c e si n t o a c c o u n t .
T h e i m p o r t a n t h i n g i s t o ' t e a c ht h e c l a s s ' .

I t e a c h v e r y l i t t l et o t h e c l a s s a s a w h o l e- b u t m y c l a s s h a s l o t s
o f i n d i v i d u atla s k s a n d s m a l lg r o u pw o r k . l t h j n k t h e c l a s s r o o mi s
alwaysa set of privatelessons- as many as there are individuals.

Edit

Y o uc a n a d a p tc l a s s l e s s o n st o r e s p o n dt o m a n y i n d i v i d u anl e e d s
a n d d i f f e r e n c e sw i t h i nt h e g r o u p .

85
Chapter4 Whoarethe learners?

There is no right answer,but classescertainly seemto havetheir own character-

one often surprisingly different from the sum total of individuals in ir. Many
teachers(like Gydrgy) pitch their lessonsat the perceivedcharacter,level,needs
and likes of a generalisedfeeling of this group identity.They may not be
concernedwith any individual differencesand feel their primary taskis to work
with the class'as a whole', maybeusing a supplied syllabusor coursebookand
interpreting their job asaiming'to cover'the requ.iredmaterial in a certain period
of time. Such teachersmay be responsiveto somekinds offeedback from the class
asa whole,mainly tending to pick up on whether the majority ofstudents are
keepingup or not and perhapsproviding exua practiceifthey aren't or lessif
they are.
They expectand acceptthat someofwhat is done will be unsuitableor
uninterestingor impossibleto follow for somemembersof the class,but they feel
that that is 'the price to pay'. Especiallywith large classes,the prioriw seemsto be
to maintain the senseofprogress and to hope that asmany peoplecan keepup as
possible.Such an approachmay be problematic,asthere is a dangerin'teaching'
without closereferenceto the individuals that are doing (or not doing) the
learning.
Tibor takesthe oppositeposition - that whole-classlessonsgenerallywon't
work becauseofthe variety ofpeople in a class.Ifhe can pull it off, such an
'individualised'
approachwould probably be a very valuableclassto be a part of.
Many other teachersmight find that his goal of trying to respondto the range of
different individuals in a room quite demandingfor a teacher,requiring a greater
quantity ofplanning beforehandand, in class,perhapsa constantmoving around.
with somecarefullistening and focusedindividual help.
Edit's solution is a compromiseposition that involvesworking with the classasa
whole while attemptingto alsotake individuals into account.
Teacherssuch asEdit may aim to teachthe classby pitching the lessonsto what
they perce.iveasthe majority of the group, but 'keepingin touch' with ttre others-
by askingquestions,adding extra commentsand explanations,offering special
tasksfor somestudents,dividing the classto work on different things at some
points, choosingtopics that appealto different groups oflearners,designingtasks
that appealto different learning stylesand preferences,etc.
Edit's position is one ofthe classicbalancingactsofteaching - to maximise
working at everyindividual's level,fulfilling asmany wishesand needsaspossible
while alsokeepingthe entire group engaged.
How can we pull offthis balancingact?Thereare no easyanswers,but it probablr.
involvesa combinationofgathering useful feedbackfrom learners(seeSection4)
and using your intuition (seeChapter 3, Section 10).
It is hard to know how bestto work with individuals ifyou know nothing at all
about them. However,evento find out a litde basicinformation (sayevenabout
one tenth ofthe items in the 'individual differences'list above)for eachperson in
our classmay seeman overwhelming,unrealistic,unachievabletask.It might still
takethe whole schoolyear to just do that! And evenif we did know the answersfor

86
 2 Whatlevelaremvstudents?

the entirelist, theremight seemto be no way we could effectivelyapply d.ris

knowledge.
However,many impossiblethings turn out to be all right rvhenI try theml Despite
the apparentlydaunting nature of the task,it's still worth a go - asevenlearning
one new thing about a learrer can dramaticallyaffect future classes. And the more
I manageto find out, the better tured my lessonsbecome.Ifyou would like to quiz
your studentsabout their differences,try using the Questinnnairefor learners
resourceon the DVD.

What level are rny students?

ffi organising
studentsintolevels
1 W h a ti s y o u rs c h o o l ' s t r u c t u r oe f c l a s sl e v e l s ?
2 D oy o uk n o wo f a n yo t h e rw a y so f o r g a n i s i nsgt u d e n t si n t oc l a s s e s ?

Cornmon level structures in schools

Many schoolsdivide learnersinto classesat named Ianguagelevels,often using
coursebookslabelledfor thoselevels.A common structure is:
Advanced
Upper intermediate
Intermediate
Pre-intermediate
Elementary
Beginner
Each ofthese levelsmay be subdivided,eg into Intermediate 1, Intermediate2,
etc. Schoolsoften plan progresson an assumptionthat it will taketlte average
learnera certainperiod of time to mo.l'efrom one levelto the next, eg 45-60 hours
of classroomtime (plus homework) to move through a third of one of the named
levels.Just to add to the confusion,an 'hour' may mean different thngs rn
different places:for example,a 'period' of 45-50 minutes is referredto asan
'hour' in many
countries.
There are other level systemsyou may come across.An influential one from the
Council ofEurope categoriseslearnersasfollows (with approximateindications
of dreir correlationwith the earlierlevel scheme);
C2 Mastery (= Nearly native-speakerlevel)
C1 Operationalproficiency (=Advanced)
B2 Vantage (= Upper intermediate/ Post-intermediate)
B1 Threshold
'Waystage
(= Intermediate)
A2 t'= Pre-i nrerme,liqtc t

A1 Breakthrough (= Beginner/ Elementary)

Other educationalinstitutions may structure classlevelsaround examsthat
studentstake,naming classesafter the exam they are preparing for, eg using the
Cambridge ESOL exam suiteof KET, PET, FCE, CAE, CPE, erc.
IELTS is anotherimportant exam,often takenby peopler,vhowanr ro go ro
anothercountry for employmentor to study.However,unlike the earlierexamsit

87
ChaDter
4 Whoarethe learners?

aims to test a broad rangeoflevels - so a learnerwho is in an IELTS preparation

classmight be an1'wherebetweenIntermediateand Advanced.
\7hereas,with adults,classmake-up is typically organisedon the basisoftheir
perceivedlanguagelevel,in children'scoursesclassesare more often basedon
students'ages.
Of course,all ofthese conceptsof level are quite broadly painted.We now needto
Iook more closelyat the idea of'level'.

Mixed-levelclasses
1 Haveyou ever said fhis c/ass is vety mixed level?What are some of the causes
of mixedJevelclasses?
2 D o s t u d e n t s i n y o u r s c h o oa
l u t o m a t i c a l lm
y o v e u p f r o m l e v e lt o l e v e la t t h e e n d o f
a p e r i o do f t i m e ? W h a t o r o b l e m sc a n t h i s c a u s e ?

It is tempting to seeall learnersin one classasat a certain named level,eg

Pre-intermediate.Yetteachersoften come out ofclass complaining that the
studentsseemto be very mixed in level,and they may blame teacherswho
designedthe placementtestsor the schoolpolicy of classcreation.Themost
comrnon reasonsare:
. Grouping by age: In secondaryschools,studentsare often grouped by age,
and this seemsvery likely to lead to problemsif somelearnersare significantly
suongeror weakerthan otiers.
. Keeping groups together: A typical problem in many schoolsis causedby
the fact that it is often lesstroublesomefor schooladministrationto keep
learnerstogetherasa class,courseafter course,rather than to keep separating
them and mixing them up. Becauselearnerswill progressat different speeds,
this meansthat, evenifa group was similar in level at the start of a course,there
may be very different 'exit levels'at the end. IftJrat classnow continuesen
masseto the next courselevel,the differencesbetweenparticipantswill become
more and more pronounced.
. Placerrrent testing: Placementproceduresare anothercauseof'mlxed-level'
problems.Placementby languagelevel soundssensible,but eventhis can be
problematic,becausean overall'level' only givesa very generalidea asto how
good sorneonewill be at, say,listeningto a universitylecture or how much
vocabularyfrey canuse.PlacementteslerssomeLimes giveprioriry to
friendship or personalrequfuementsrather than levelwhen creatingclasses.
. Insuflicient levels: Learnersmay be togetherin tJresameclassbecausethe
schooldoesn'thavesufhcientlevelsto hne-tune the classesmore.
'What level is the class?'

\7hen I hear a teacheraskingabout the level of a class,I am reminded of the

question'How long is the coastJineof Britain?', to which the answeris 'It depends
how long your ruler is.' The more closelyand carefullyyou measure,the more
complex the answerbecomes.
So, concerninglevel,how closeare you looking?If you look from a kilometre
away,maybe seeingthe classasa group ofpeople when we can't make out any of
the individuals,then calling a class'Pre-intermediate'can make sense-it's a

88
 3 Learners
andtheirneeds

useful generalclassificationthat givesa reasonableoverallpicture ofwhar they

might know and what they might be ableto do. It suggestsmaterialwe can use and
activitieswe can plan, and will probably allow us to teach (and survive) at least
until we havea more accuratepicture to guide us.
However,assoonasrvemove in a bit closer,say,to stand a few metresawayfrom
them, we notice that this group ofpeople is madeup of somevery different-
Iooking individuals.If we checkthe overallabilitiesofeach person,we find that
someare 'weakPre-intermediate',some'mid-Pre-intermediate'and some,strong
Pre-intermediate'.Maybe there are evensomepeoplervho seemto belongto
anotherlevel classihcation,say'Elementary'or,Intermediate,.
If we move in evencloserand standnext to one of tiese people (and talk to her),
we might find out evenmore.\(/emight discoverthat this person,sgeneral,level'
masksthe fact that shehas a rangeoflevels over the different languagesystems
and skills,eg perhapsher knowledgeof grammar is very good, her vocabularyis a
litde lveakerand her speakingand listeningare very much poorer.
Ve could look evencloserthan this, ofcourse, and hnd the specifickinds oftasks
that sheis competentin or weakin, eg shecan fill in an applicationform, but uses
an inappropriate stylefor writing a formal letter requestinginformation.

F*'"*""li."""-*;-l
I
ofoverall
Individuals'
I o f n d i v i d u a t ls levelsin varioLts
classlevel leves systemsand skills
I I I

-- - - .)
closer

Figure 4.2 Level:horvcloseareyoustanding?

Conclusions about level

!flhat conclusionscan we drar,v?
. Every learnerhas an individual rangeoflevels.
. Every classis a mixedlevel class.
V/hen we plan lessons,we needto rememberthat we areplanning somethingthat
may not be appropriatefor someand may be easyor diffrcult for others,etc,which
is why the planning is only one part of structuring a lesson.In the act ofteaching,
we needto constantlynotice and respondto feedbackin order to adjust and
redirect work moment by moment to make it aseffectivefor eachindividual as
possible.

Learners and their needs

Learners have distinct, individual reasons for being in a class and learmng
English - even when these are not consciousl-vknown or recognised.lUe can
teach better if we know more about these.

89
Chapter4 Whoarethe learners?

Waysto find out aboutlearners'needs

W h a ta r es o m ep r a c t i c awl a y st h a tw e c o u l df i n do u t u s e f u dl a t aa b o u tl e a r n e r s '
n e e d sf o r l e a r n i n a
g language?

The various tools,proceduresand materialsused for finding out about learner

'NeedsAnalysis'.Often a Needs
needsusually come under the headingof
Analysisincludesnot only information about why learnersmight need Ianguage
in the future, but also information about:
. wherelearnersare startingfrom: their presentlanguagelevel,current problems;
. what learnerswould like to learn (which may be different from what they need);
. how they want to study it (peoplehavevery different preferencesabout how
therr lcorn th in oc)

rwemight use formal gatheringprocedures(eg settingquestionnairesor tests) or

approachit more informally (eg gleaninginformation from chatsand activities
over a period of time).
Somekey tools would be:
. writing: the learnet writes comments,information, answersto questionsletci
. speaking: the learnerspeakswith you or with other students;
. observing: you observethe learner at work (in classor at the workplace).

If we expand on thosegeneralheadings,we can generateideasfor cqeatinga

variety of NeedsAnalyses(NB you're likely to want to combine a few ideas,rather
than use one exclusively).

Needs Analysis
Writing
The learnersare askedto:
. frll in a questionnaire(eg about their work, interests,previous study);
. choosethe best answerfrom a selection(eg 'I like doing written work for
'I
homework ' 'I like to do readingfor homework,' like to go over classworkfor
'I
homework,' don't like homework');
. gap-frll (or complete) sentences(eg 'In class,I particularly enjoyworking
on...');
. deletethe things that are not true for you (eg 'I never/ sometimes/ often haveto
wrrlc ur LuBrJrr /)
. takea languagetesq
. tick the picture / diagramsthat representtheir use of English (eg pictures of
office telephoning,greetingcustomers);
. write a paragraphabout topics setby teacher(eg'Your successes and
diffrcultieswith speakingEnglish');
. write a letter / an email / a note to your teacher(eg'Your hopesfor this course'):
. write a homework essayabout what you want to learn and why

90
 3 Learners
andthetrneeds

Speaking
You can:
. interview learnersindividually or in pairs;
. plan activitiesto focus learnerson specihcissues,leadingto discussron;
. asklearnersto select(and reject) items from a menu or a set
of cardsJdiscussing
their reasonswith eachot}rer;
. askinformally for adviceabout what would be useful to work
on next lesson;
. collect oral (or written) feedbackcomments (eg about the usefulness
ofwork
you are doing) at t}reend oflessons;
. showthe intended coursebookfor the courseand discussit tosether
with the
class1egS/ral/taei tseit?How?How much?Pace?etc):
. get learnersto helpplan f:e course,tl.eweekor tre nexr lessont
. organisea socialeventat which informal discussionson needsarise;
. asklearnersto describe draw make a model oftheir workplace
/ / or a diagram
of theircompanl srucrure,erc.

Observation
You can:
. setthe studentstasksto do in classthat will allow you to observethem
working,
speakingand using language.Thiswill give you a chanceto diagnosetheir
Ianguage/ skillsproblemsand discovermore about what they need;
. if you havea one-to-onestudent,it may be possibleto observehim at his
,
workplaceand get a realisticidea ofwhat he needsto do with English;
. askeachlearnerto bring in samplesof materialthey work with (or expecr
ro
work with in the future): leaflets,letters,tasks,professionalmagazrnes,erc.
NB If the learners'languagelevelis low, many of the NeedsAnalysisideas
could be usedin their mother tongue. Or here'sa quick answer!Copy the
NeedsAnalysis cardsor rJteNeedsAna$tsisquestionnaire resourceson the DVD to
help you find out more about your learners.

Usingdata fiom a NeedsAnalysis

Y o u ' v ed o n e a N e e d sA n a l y s i sw i t h y o u r l e a r n e r s u , s i n ga f e w o f t h e i d e a sf r o m t h e
l i s t a b o v e .Y o u ' r eh o p i n gt h a t t h e d a t a w i l l b e u s e f u lt o y o u , b u t y o u a r e a l s o a w a r e
t h a t N e e d sA n a l y s e sc a n b e p r o b l e m a t i c .
1 Think of some reasons why the informationyou have obtained might be unhelpful
o r e v e nu n t r u e .
2 l f t h e i n f o r m a t i o ni s u s e f u l ,w h a t c o u l dy o u d o w i t h i t n o w y o u ' v eg o t i t ?

value ofwhat they are doing and take an appropriate amount of time to complete it.
One useful purpose in doing a NeedsAnalysis (evenifyou entirely ignore the
resulting data!) is to allow learnersto discoverthat other peoplein the room have

91
Chapter4 Whoarethe learners?

different views,expectationsand needsthan themselves.It's natural that a student

might imagine that everyone in classhas approximately similar ideas to his orvnl to
discoverthe breadth of different views can be an important 'light-bulb' momcnl
and thus a NeedsAnalysiscan be a vital awareness-raising activiry quite apart
from any data that comesout ofit.

'But, teacher - you know best'

Studentsmay find the concept and practiceof NeedsAnalysisdifhcult. They mar

greeta NeedsAnalysiswith commentssuch as Youare theteacher-you hnowbest,
or Youdecide.ItuslSorz,This may be becausethe learnergenuinelydoesn'tknol-
what he wants or needs,or it may be becausehe can't be bothered or doesn'tthink
tharit is a srudent'sjob ro think aboutthingslike fiis.
Many studentsmay havespenttheir whole educationalcareerbeing told what to
do all the time, constantlypresentedwith work that hasincluded minimal elements
of choice.Theymay neverhavestoppedto realisethat what they learn and how
they do it involvestheir own personalchoice,and that it is their own time and
energyttrey are investing.It may be a real surpriseto be askedwhat they want or
need,and not surprisinglythey might needa clearexplanationasto the purposeof
it - and guidanceasto how to start thinking about and conveyingtheir ideas.
Humans don't necessarilythink first and then write down their ideas.Often I
don't know what I think about somethinguntil I start writing my ideasdown; then
I find during the processof writing that my thoughts are becoming clearerand
more stuctured. Maybe then I haveto crossout the hrst two paragraphs,but I
neededto write tl]em to get me to paragraph3 (which is a crackerl).Yourstudenrs
may find that the samethi-nghappensto them when they start to wonder what
their needsare.The processof writing (or talking) about things helpsto give somc
form to thoughtsthat maybe didn't exist in any claritl until then. (I often find
myself sayingsomethinglike the content of this paragraphto suspiciouslearners:
it sometimeshelps!)
You may still comeacrossthe 100%'abdrcatrng'student- onewho givesup the right
to make any decision about his own future. It's worth pointhg out to such a student
that he is crediting me, the teacher,with magical,wizard-like 'mind-reading' abilities.
Myresponsewill probablybe to statethat,yes,I do know somethingaboutlanguagc
and teaching,but I am not an expert on him and haveno insight into the inside of hi.
head,his pastlife and learning,his preferencesor his future plans.
I hope - by meansof explainingwhy it is important- to encouragethis learner
to realisethat'learning' is not anotherproduct that one buys ready-madeoff the
'living'
shelf,but is somethingthat hasto be adjustedand remadeeverytime. It is a
thing, not a pieceofdead meat.I don't alwaysmanageto persuadeeverylearner.
but it's worth trying! Curiously,the hard-line abdicatoris often the very same
studentwho complainsat the end ofcourses,sayinghow unsuitableand useless
the coursewas,and how the teacherknows nothing about what studentsneed.

Other problerns with Needs Analyses

Other problemsr,vithNeedsAnalysesmay arisewhen the learnershavenot
themselveschosento do the course(egbecausethe studentshaveto aftend
secondaryschoolor becausea coursehasbeenchosenand paid for by an
employee'scompany).Of course,in thesecircumstances,a NeedsAnalysismay
92
 3 Learners
andtheirneeds

servean additionalpurpose:encouragingthe courseparticipantsto start taking

ownershipof their course,making choicesaboutwhat they want or need (radter
than assumingthat everlthing hasalreadybeendecidedand is cut and dried).When
peoplefeelthey havesomepolveror responsibilityoverwhathappensto them,it
can reallychangetheir anitudeto it. Ofcourse,with any NeedsAnalysis,there
might be a dangerthat,in askingpeoplewhat they want or hope for, you might lead
them to expectthat everlthing they askfor will happen.Having saidthat,I guessit's
much betterto find out ratherthan to pretendthat the differencesdon't exist.

What can you do with the data?

Anyway,let's assumethe information you get is true and useful.There are still
potential problems.Whatcan you do with it? Maybe you considerthe learners'
wishesare inappropriate or not realisticor not possible,or that the range ofneeds
statedare too wide-rangingwithin the group.\ hat are the options for making use
of this data?

ffiffi courseplansandneeds
Balancing
l m a g i n ea s i t u a t i o nw h e r ey o u ' r ea c l a s st e a c h e ra n d y o u ' v ea l r e a d yd e v i s e d( o r
been presentedwith) a course plan before the course starts. How could you let the
d a t a o b t a i n e df r o m a N e e d sA n a l y s i si n f l u e n c eo r c h a n g et h a t p l a n ?

This largelydependson your own attitude as a teacher:how much do you want

the courseplan to be changed?Do you havetie time or resourlesto takeup all
the ideas?Thereare a range ofpossibilities,someofwhich are listed below in an
approximateorder from'taking leastaccountoftlte data'to'taking most account'.

Least T a k en o a c c o u n to f t h e N e e d sA n a l y s i sd a t a . C o n t i n u ew i t h t h e
c o u r s ea s i f t h e d a t a h a d n ' tb e e n c o l l e c t e d .

R e v i e wt h e d a t a , b u t d e c i d et h a t y o u ro r i g i n a cl o u r s ep l a n i s l i k e l yt o
a c h i e v es o m e t h i n gv e r y c l o s et o t h e d e s i r e do u t c o m e s ,s o c o n t i n u e
u s i n gt h e o r i g i n a p
l lan.

C o n t i n u ew i t h t h e c o u r s ea s b e f o r e ,b u t a l l o wt h e d a t a t o i n f l u e n c e
s m a l l a s p e c t so f h o w y o u h e l po r d e a lw i t h i n d i v i d u a l si n c l a s s .

C o n t i n uw e i t ht h e c o u r s ea s b e f o r eb u ta d di n a l i m i t e dn u m b eor f
extraactivities,lessonsor variationsto satisfysomestatedneeds
s d o f o r h o m e w o r(ko ri n c l a s s ) .
o r f o rc e r t a i ni n d i v i d u atl o
R e p l a nt h e c o u r s e ,m u c h a s b e f o r e ,b u t a i m i n gt o c o v e rt h e m a t e r i a l
i n f a s t e rt i m e ( o r d r o p e l e m e n t s )i n o r d e rt o a d d i n a l a r g e rn u m b e ro f
extra activities or lessons to satisfv some stated needs-

R e p l a nt h e c o u r s et o i n c o r o o r a t es u b s t a n t i a el l e m e n t so f t h e n e e d s
a l o n g s i d er e l e v a n te l e m e n t sf r o m t h e o r i g i n a p
l lan.

P u tt h e o r i g i n a cl o u r s ep l a nt o o n e s i d e a n d b a s e a n e w c o u r s ep l a n
l\4ost entirely.

93
Chapter4 Whoarethe learners?

Ofcourse, your original NeedsAnalysismay itselfhaveincorporatedan element

in which learnersthemselveshelpedreplan the course,in which case,your best
option is probably to try using thatl
The options towards the top of the list will probably seemto be (initially, at least)
less'troublesome'toyou. In many cases,you will considerit simplerand more
'tn rcqch direetlv fr
ru d'6r ruur wdru
with only minimal (or no) referenc
sadsfactorycoursewilJensue,achi
But, althoughthereis this chance
produce learnerfeedbackat the er
really what I wanted.'You will onl'
or needifyou hnd out what this is
themselves) andby doingcoursev
That's not to saythat addressingr
new materials,varying cherishedI
apparentJy conflicringwishesold
learnerswill probably notice and :
whar drey need,radrertran simpl

4 Getting feedback frorn ler

Teachingis primarily an acrof ale
are ableto understandthe group,

The classroom you create

Many teachersoperatetheir lessc
raw materialscan be fed and whir
producepredicLable outputs.Thi
a c o u r s e b o ookr s y l l a b u sb.u t m a
useful for many of the individual
teachersoperateon a day-by-day
are sufficient to run a coursern a
authorities may be satishedat rec
syllabuscovered,examspassed,r
largely illusory. It is all too easytc
ofteaching and never to risk the 1
another kind of class,where you :
as a machine. It is this secondkin
towards.
In observinglessons,it often seerr
thosewho:
. work'al right angles'rotie clas
needsand wishesof the learner
own choiceofways);
. createa physicaland psycholog
. do nor pick up lsomerimessubr
what they want;

94
 4 Getting
feedback
fromlearners

. do not elicit feedbackabout opinions on course,content,methods,working

sttles, etc;
. do not deviatefrom their own plan / agenda;
. keepup their own 'radio babble' (ie a constantstreamof space-filling,though
often low-quality, talk) to block out the incoming signalsfrom the class;
. find trme-filling activities (such aswriting at length ori the board) to savethem
from having to communicatemore with learners.
Ineffective,unhelpful teachingis teachingthat proceedsfor-ward(perhaps
accordingto a plan, accordingto what you wanted to do, accordingto what the
book says,accordingto a syllabus,accordingto whatever)without referenceto
what impact this is having on the learnersin class.
The essentialengineof a richer, more productive learning environmenris
communicatron,two-way feedbackfrom learnersto teachersand vrceversa.
You could now useObservationThsk6 on the DVD to examinethe teacher'srole
in the learning environment.

Why is it hard to tune in?

When you start teaching,it's hard to think very much about anyoneother than
yourself.If you're anything like I was,you might havea tape recorderofworries
echoingin your head,evenmore so ifyou are being observed.!7henI watch new
traineeteachersin the classroom,I often nodce how they haveso many concerns
about their own actionsand words as a teacherthat they hnd it very hard to tune
in to the other peoplein the room
These are a few ofthe worries you may feel: -
. I hope I don't sayan1'thingsilly.
. What on earth can I do next?
. Do they like me?
. That activity only lastedthree minutes,and I thought it'd Iast45.
. This is lastingforever,and I thought it would taketlree minutes.
. I feel so confused.
. I don't really understandthis thing I'm teaching.
. Is the observergoing to catchme out?\)fhat's shewriting?
. This activity is so boring.
Finding a way to turn offthis internal noiseand start listeningto ttre genuinevoice
offeedback from outsideis often a difficult, slowly acquiredbut important
teachingskill. In gaining feedbackinformation from learners,we learn to adjust
and fine-tune our intuitive responses.

Avoiding feedback
Many teachersneveraskfor feedbackfrom learners.Someteachersaskfor
feedbackoccasionallnoften in a way that elicitswhat they want to hear.Some
teachersget feedbackthat they allow to affect and alter what they are doing.
Teachersmay avoid feedbackbecausethey fear hearing commentsabout their
work.The more they avoid it, the more dangerousit becomes,becauseungiven
feedbackpilesup like floodrvaterbehind a dam.\Vhen they do requestfeedback,it
can be mostly 'token', to feel asif they have'done somefeedback'and found out
what thev wanted to hear.

95
Chapter4 Whoarethe learners?

o
o

Ofcourse, dreremay be many reasonswhy learnersdon't give useful,honest

feedback.

o
o

oo
oo
ll I really said
all the thinge I
want, il woul^
sound greedy or
loo negalive,
/\

Feedbackis probably only reallyuseful when the channelsare open all dre time,
which suggestsa different way ofworking from many traditional teaching
situations- and a different relationship.Can you imagine a coursein which the
studentsgenuinelydirect or influence or affect the prografirme on a consistent
basisand with positiveoutcomes?How could this come about?

96
 5 Learnertraining

Getting useful feedback - sorne starting points

. Don't think offeedback asa once-a-termthing or just asa formal requirement
from your school.Visualiseit asmoment-by-moment needto find out whether
you and the classare on track.
. Clearly,you can overdo it - you don't want the classto groan at being asked
How us{ul wasthat actioiry?agatnand again- but don,t let this worry prevent
you from evenstarting to exploretheir reactionsand responses
. \Thether you go for oral or written feedback,vary it. Don,t turn it into a r.itual.
. Somecommon feedbackopportunities:feedbackat the start of a lesson,at the
end ofa lesson,at the end of a week,at t}te start ofa new coursebookunit. at
the end ofa unit, before the classdoesan activity,after an activity,asthe core
topic of an activity,written at home.
. Ask small quesions (eg lY,4tichactiai4t todaStwasmosrdiffituh
for jtou?) as well
asbig ones (eg How usefulis thecourse for gou?) .They are easierto answer.
. Ask simple,factual questions(eg How marryuords todaywerenew you?) as
for
well asevaluativequestions(eg lY,4tich actiztitydid you enjoyrnost?).
. Design a simplefeedbackform. Photocopy and hand it out (or dictateit to
students).Youcould allow them classtime to discussthe questionsbefore they
write, or askthem to fil1it out at home.
. Ask studentsto write you a letter about the course.Specify exactlywhat youd
Iike them to discuss,or leaveit open for studentsto raiseany issuesthat they
want to.
. Set asidesometime, askopen questionsthat enablethem to saywhat they want
to say,and gearyourself simply to listen and learn (rather than to defend
yourself,argueor contradict).Ask them what they really think. Ifyour intention
is only to hear 'nice things', then rhat is probably all you will ger.
Doing feedbackof any sort may be difhcult for you the hrst time, but the end
result ofincreasedhonesty,opennessand mutual respectwill almost certainly
havea greatlong-term beneht,the more so ifyou implement changesin yourself,
the classor the coursethat are responsesto the feedback.

Learner training
For me,learnertaining means'raising student awarenessabout how they are
Iearningand, asa result,helping them to hnd more effectivewaysofworking, so
ttrat they can continue working efficiently and usefully,evenwhen awayfrom their
teacherand the classroom'.More simply,it means,working on teachinglearning
aswell asteachingEnglish'.
Learner training, therefore,includes:
. work on study skills,eg use of dictionaries,referencematerial,workbooks,
notebooks,filed material:
. studentexaminationofthe processoflearning and reflectionon what is
happening,eg ofteaching strategiesyou use (and the reasonswhy you usethem).
In both cases,it seemsimportant to include theseasstrandsthroughout a course.

97
Chapter4 Whoarethe learners?

Three ideas to start learner training

1 Integrate study-skills work
Include study-skillswork asan integratedfeatureofyour lessons,eg when
working on vocabulary,include a short exercisethat involvesefficiently looking
up information in a dictionary. Similarly,when the studentshavefound somenew
words to learn,you could make them awareof the variety ofways of recording
vocabularyin their notebooks(seeChapter 8, Sectron6).

2 Let them into the secret

Teacherssometimesprefer the 'surprise' approachto teachingmethodology;
often studentsdon't really know why they followed a particular procedure or did a
particular activity.Teachersoften assumethat their own reasoningwill be
transparentlyobviousto their students,but it rarely is. So it can be very useful to
tell studentsbefore a lessonwhat's going to happen and why. At the end of the
lesson,you can review not only the content,but alsothe way that it was studied.
For example,after a listening skillslesson,talk through the procedurewith the
students:W4t dtd I seta taskfirst?Wasit necessartto understandeueryword?llhat
did wedo next?IX4rathelpedyou lnarn?IX4tatdidn't help?
In this way,they will alsobe learning a methodologythat they can repeatfor their
own usewhen they listen to audio recordingsat home or in a languagelaborator)'-

3 Discuss process as well as content and procedure

'procedures'are your
The content of your lessonsis the English language.The
methodology (which, asI suggestedabove,is worth talking aboutwith students).
The thirdarea is 'process'.By this,I mean the lessonasviewedfrom the learner's
point of view.You'redoing certain things asa teacher,but what is going on for
eachindividual student?
It can be very valuableto setasidetime in classsimply to discussthe subjectof
'learning on this course'in
order to recallwhat'shappening and reflect on it.This
'processreview'will allow you and the learnersto clarify what is happening.
Simply talkrngabout what is going on seemsto havea very benehcialeffect,quitc
aDartfrom anv new ideasor solutionsthat arisefrom it.
You could now useSbservationTask 7 on the DVD to examinea lessonfrom a
learner'snoint of view.

98
 Ghapter5 l-anguageanalysis
This chapterprovides a basicintroduction to analysinglanguage.Even ifyou
know relativelylitde about grammar,the next secdonwill showyou a way ro
analysegrammaticalform for teachingpurposesthat doesn,tdepend on
knowing grammaticalterms. Secdon3 then givesa brief introducuon to the
actualterminology.

Analysing gramrnar: an introduction

Before teaching a grammatical item, it is essential that you understand it well.This
usually involves some research and careful thinking. Even after many years
teaching, the night before a lesson I still hnd myself checking my grammar books,
books on usage, a dictionary or two - and then making a few notes. Different
teachers will consider different things, but my own thinking and research typically
includes the following steps.
. Select the grammar items I want to teach.
. Fine-tune the selection: am I clear about precisely what is isn,t
/ included, eg if
it's a verb tense, am I dealing with one meaning or more than one? Affirmative
form? Negative? Questions? Exceptions? Typical student problems? etc.
. List situations, places and relationships in which the language
is typically used.
. Brainstorm between hve and ten typical everyday sentences
that use the
grammatical item in a natural way-
. Select one ofthese sentencesas a 'target sentence,:it
should be realistic and
natural. (Choosing one target sentence helps me focus my planning so I know
exactly what language I am aiming to work on; it doesn't mean tltat my students
will only meet this one example of the language item.)
. Decide on a situational context (that I could describe, draw, mime,
etc) or a
possible text (reading or listening) that I could use to focus on the language. See
page 161 for an example ofthrs.
. Analyse the form ofthe target sentence.
. Analyse the meaning -with concept questions -
ofthe target sentence.
. Analyse the pronunciation ofthe target sentence.
. Analyse typical student problems likely with the target sertence.
. Decide what I hope learners could achieve in a lesson on this
item.!7rite this as
a 'main aim' for ttre lesson.

Analysing language: grammatical form

Traditionally, a form analysisfor classroomteachingpurposeshasbeenbased
around sentences,and most grammar studiedin coursebooksis still at sentence
level.This is despitethe fact that, in recentyearsjresearchershaveshown
increasinginterestin languagebeyond sentencelevel.
Here is a sentenceI'nt playing tenniswith Paul thisexenrze.\What do I needto
know about this sentence?Whatdo my studenrsneed ro l<now?If I takethe
sentenceapart, what haveI got?
Firstly, there are a number ofwords - vocabularyitems- that I needto know the
rneaning of: pkying> tennis,u)ith, eDening,etc.In fact,the whole sentenceis in one
sensenothing more than vocabulary- words in a particular order. Somewords
Chapter5 Language
analysis

comnonly go together:you p/4, tennis (you don't do tennis or ruaAetennis).

Similarly,you play tennis zuirftsomeone,not d, someone,and not (in this case,
at any rate) Wosite someone.These'going together'patterns (or 'collocations')
needto be understood and learnedby students.Seepage202 for more on
collocations.
Similarly, we might saythat I'm often goestogether with a verb ending with -izg
(ie it's not usualfor I'ru to be paired with a presentparticiple).This pattern of
I'm + -ing is, infact, a regularpattern that we can use with many other verbs.IfI
understand how to conslruct I'm play + -ir?&then I can soon learn to use other
verbs: I'm working,I'm eaing, etc.I can also learn that changing the pronoun and
the'm (to t or 're)has other generalisableresults.Thepattern itselfgeneratesa
wide rangeofdifferent possibilitiesquite separatefrom the vocabularyit uses.By
changingthe vocabulary,I can utilise the pattern to talk about a variety of
different things.Wehavenow, ofcourse, startedto look at the areaof gramrnar.
Grammar is concernedwith the form of the language:that is, dre patterns,the
regularities,the nuts and bolts you connecttogetherin different ways.Some
common items havenames:the past progressivetense,reported speech,
uncountablenouns,relativeclauses,etc.
In the sentencef{e wasgoingto arriae at teno'clock,wecanrsolatewasgoingto asa
grammaticalitem. It hasa consistentmeaningthat remains,evenwhen we change
the other items that surround it: -Mike wasgoing to cleanthe wholegarage,The
agencywasgoing to cqncelall contracts.There is only one variation in form: zoas
sometimesbecomeszuere, and it is not too hard to pin down the reasonwhy this
happens.It is also clearrhatwasgoingto must normally be followed by a particular
kind of word. For example, boohshelf,undetwater,laughed,cookingand by are not
usuallypossible,whereasswim,lnughandcookare.Ve cannow sufi[nanse our
understandingofthis pieceof grammar asfollows:

arflve
was
goingto cook
were
swtm

The samesentencescould be summarisedin grammaticalterms asfollows:

subiect+ 6epast simple + presentparticiple go + to + infinitive
I hnd the hrst versionbodr easierto understandand easierto manipulate and use;
knowing that arrzzre and,cook are infinitives is sometimes essential,but, at least at
low levels,studentsseemto find'patterns' (asin the table) more user-friendly
than Eramrnaticalterms.
Analysinggrammatical patterns
S u m m a r i s et h e u n d e r l i n e dg r a m m a rp a t t e r n su s i n ge i t h e ra t a b l e o r g r a m m a t i c a l
terminology.
a lMichaelused to work in lMoscow.
b l ' l l h a v ef i n i s h e db y m i d n i g h t .
c H o w m a n ya p p s h a v ev o u d o w n l o a d e d ?
d Did vou flv over the Alps?
e I ' m o l a v i n gt e n n i sw i t h S i l v i at h i s e v e n i n A .

100
 2 Analysing grammaticalform
language:

Substitution tables
lvlary
flas Juan
he book
bought
cnrps
eaten rne chocolate ?
you
story
HAVE they
magazine
y o u rf r i e n d s

This is a substitution table. By readingfrom left to right, choosingone word

from eachsection,you can make a large number of grammaticallycorrect
sentences(althoughthe meaningmay require a litde thought). A table such asthis
could be both a stimulus to practiceactivitiesin ttre classroomand a way of
recording the studiedgrammar in notebooks.After working on new grammar, I
often get learnersto help me construct a substitutiontable on the board, which all
the classcan then copy into their books.
Simple variationson a table can alter the level ofchallenge involved:for example,
removing the horizontal line in the substitutiontable abovemakesan activitv that
requiresmore thought on the snrdent'spart.
Similarly,blanking out a column or leavingspacesin a column and gening
studentsto invent words to go there addsto the difficulry (and probably the
interest):

N4ary
JUan book
HaS
he chrps
tne 2
you
ii ave they
yourfriends

Oral practicein the form ofdrills (seeChapter 7, Section4) is often basedaround

substitutiontables.

Writinga substitutiontable
The followingsubstitution table is for Wh-questions (Who, Where,When, Why,How,
What)in the past simple tense.
Where you go
What he eat
HOW did she see ?
When Karolina do
whv the teachers run

Usea grammarbookto helpyouwritea substitutiontablefor lth- questionsusing

the 'interrupted'past progressive
tense(egWhatwashe doingwhentheguests
arrived?).

101
Chapter
5 Language
analysis

An introduction to Engtsh grammar

This introduction to grammaticalterminology can only provide a starting point
and a few signposts.It may be ofuse to you ifyou feel you are starting out without
any bearingsat all. It's likely to be most relevantto nativeEnglish speakerswho
have never studied their own language much and fdel adrift amongst the quantity
of terminology.But bear in mind that this isn't any more than a quick summary.To
do any teachingof grammar, you'll need to usegrammar books and other
referencesources.

Verbs

Recognisinggrammatical items 1
Find at least one example of each of the following in the text below: a past
participle, a base form, an auxiliaryverb, an imperativeand a multiworoverD.

broadbandlnlernel haobecomemuch
chea?erovarthe lasi fewyears.lakeuVour
e?ecialoffer in'he nexl sevendays,and
we'llLhrowin a freeNhree-monIhsubscription
Nothe best virus-?rolecLionservice.

Past pariciple: become

Bzseform: throw
Auxiltary vetb: has, will
Imperaive: take
Multiword verb: lakeup,throw in
Verbsareusually listed in coursebooksand grammar booksin t}ree columns
which show:
1) the baseform, 2) the past form, 3) the pastparticiple.
. The base form is usedto make the presentsimple (eg theywalk or sheruns).
. Puting the word to in ftont ofthe baseform makesan infinitive
\eg rc rury.
Infinitives without to are called bare infinitives.
. A present participle is made by adding -ing to the baseform (sometimes
requiring spellingchanges).It is usedin progressivetenses(eg we'rearriz.tingor
he wassinging).
. The past forrn is usedin the past simpletense (eg I coughed).Thereare regular
past forms (ending in -ed) and irregular ones (with variousforms).
. The past participle is usedin perfect tenses(eghe'sgoneor theyhad begun).
The most commonly studiedtensesand verb forms are:
. presentsimple
. presentprogressive(alsocalledpresentcontinuous)

102
 to Englishgrammar
3 An introduction

. presentperfect
. past simple
. past progressive(alsocalledpast continuous)
. past perfect
. will
. golng to
. conditionals
. usedto
Many tensesrequire use ofauxiliary verbs.Theseare short verbssuch asdo,be
and haaewhich areusedtogetherwith other main verbs.For example,lZe're
ruakingbreadincfudesthe auxiliary verb are (contractedto 're) and the main
verb ruaking.
Modal auxiliariesare the auxiliary verbs may,ruight,must,shall,shoud,will, would,
can, could (pltts some other semi-modals such as oag&rto and haae to) that show
the speakeror writer's attitude or interpretation ofthe topic being discussed.
\7hen teachingverbs,you needto make surethat you cover not only affrmative
statementforms, but alsonegativeforms and questions.Studentsalsoneedto
know how to form imperatives(telling someoneto do something),passives
(focusingon the thing done rattrerthan the doer) and conditionals(1/. . ., etc).
Many English verbsare not simply singlewords but multiword, comprising a
main verb and one or more particles.For example,the sentenceHerflight tookoJf
ar 3.40 includesthe multiword verb toaAol Studentsand coursebooksoften
classifytheseasphrasalverbsor prepositionalverbs.

Nouns and noun phrases

Recognisinggrammatical items 2
I nt h et e x tb e l o wf,i n da t l e a s to n eu n c o u n t a b nl eo u n ,a p r o n o u na, c o m p o u nndo u n
a n oa n o u np n r a s e .

HeylWhenyouoaiaft,.waoiuol,a lif,Ile
etudioflat, I neverexpectedlhislfhere's
oo r(iuchliqht,andihat ?anoramic view
overthe riverioiuol amazinql

Uncountable noun: /zglzr

Pronoun: you, it, I, this
Compound noun'.studiofiat, panoramtcatew
Noun phrase:/sr a little studioflat, somuchlight,panoramicaiezuouertheriver

103
Chapter5 Langl4a anai/sis

An important grammatical distinction with English nouns is whether they are

countable (ie we can count fhem: ,rzepencil, twopencils,etc) or uncountable (ie
we can't count them: oftes)ea+ke\i#e aeed+ers).Some nouns (eg paper) can be
countablewith one meaningand uncountablewith another.For example Zfteret
somepaper on the tablevs He readstwopapersexeryda1t.
Compound nouns are made oftwo or more words, eg noun + noun or adjective+
noun, but act asift-lrey were a single, one-word noun. Exarnples are streetlight,first-
aid.kit, aideorenrder.
Noun phrases are combinationsofwords that act asifthey are nouns (ie we
could substitute a noun for them) . For example, in the senrenceI sawa reallt
strangeanimal with aertical blackand white stripesall down irs sdde,all the words
after the first two make up a noun phrase which could be substituted (with some
lossof information) by the words a.zebra.
Pronouns can be usedinsteadofnouns or noun phrases,usuallyin caseswhere
we alreadyknow what is being referredto, eg in the sentencelohn sawit,the word,
it is a pronoun.

Prepositions

Recognisinggrammatical items 3
Howmanyprepositions
canyoufind in this sentence?

?ut l..heladdernexIIo the cu?board,

LheLoolbox
underlhe sf,airoanaihe hamsterin hercage?

next to, und,er,xn

Prepositionsare generallyshortwords (or phrases)that tell us about:
where somethingis (prepositionsof plzce),eg on thetable,at thebussrop,against
the wall
the movement of something (prepositions of movement) , eg towardsMadrid.,
over thebridge;
when somethinghappens(prepositionsof time), eg ar half pasteight,on
Christmas Day, in theafternoon;
relationshipsbetweenthings, such ascauseand effect,eg because of.
Many words require the use of a specificpreposition.For example,in the
Chenlistenedm thenews,the vetb listezrequiresthe preposition lo.Youlisten ro
news.nol atot oaerrt.
Prepositionsalsooccur asoarticlesin multiword verbs (seeabove).

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 to Englishgrammar
3 An introduction

grammatical
Recognising items4
Finda comparative, a gradableadjective,an ungradableadjective,an indefinite
article,an adverbof frequencyanda relativepronounin the followingtext.

Heqeleto Ihe caf4altabaul,r,en andalwayslakes

the corneroeat u?of,airo.lI'9 gmokierandralher cold,
choice- r,heonly
buI;from his poinr,of view,it'Ea brillianf,
oeatrthatrha5a viewovertrhewhole5treetr.

Comparaive: smokier
Ungradableadjecldve: brilliant
Indefinite article:a
Adverb of frequency'.alway
Relativepronoun: rlzal

Adiectives
Adjectivesgive us more information about a noun or a noun phraselfor example,
in the sentenceThere'sa tall treenextto thehostel,theword ral/is an adjective.
lyhen we comparethings,we usethe comparative form of an adjective.For most
words, this is made by adding -erto the adlecive,eg taller (sometimeswith
spellingchanges).Longer adjectivesmake the comparaivewrth more,eg more
delightful.Thetearea few irregular comparatives,eg zuorse is the comparativeform
of bad.
To saythat somethingis 'the most' or'the least',we use the superlative form. For
most adjectives,you add -esr(sometimeswith spellingchanges)and put /zebefore
the adjective.Longer adjectivesmake superlativeswith themos4egtheruost
asmnishing.Again,there are irregular ones,eg theworst.
Some adjectivesare gradable, ie we can uset}Iem with modifiers to saythere are
different amountsor degreesof sometbtng,eg It's a bit hot,h\ ratherhot,h\ aery
hot,It\ extrerneb/
hot,elc.
Some adjectivesalreadyshow extremeconditions or describethings that can only
be one way or the other with no intervening area.Thesecannotnormally be
gradedin any further way,ie they are ungradable. Examples areexcellent,
huge
and essential.

Determiners
Determiners arewords that come in front ofnouns or noun phrases.Theterm
includesarticlesand quantifiers.
?fte is the definite atttcle. A and an are the indefinite article. Uncountable
nouns nevertakethe indefinite article.rwhenwe havenew information to state,we
generallyintroduce it the first time with the indefinite article.The definite article is
usedwhen our listeneror readeralreadyknows what we are talking abouq tre
noun it intoduces is not new information.The followins sentencesshow

105
Chapter
5 Language
analysis

examplesof both: Thereis a aery interestinglibraryjust outsideBudapest.The

library
has ooertwo million books.
Beyondthis, the guidelinesfor use are quite complex!
Quantfiers tell us how much of somethingthere is, eg /otsof cake,afew bogs,some
Wle$ not TnuchinteresL

Adverbs
There are someeasilyrecognisablekinds of adverbs.They are words that:
. tell us how somethingis done (adverbsof manner), eg quickly,angrily;
. tell us when somethingis done (adverbsoftime), eg soon,nowadays;
. tell us how often something is done (adverbs of freque ncy) , eg regularly,usually;
. tell us where somethingis done (adverbsofplace) ,eg there,nearb);
. tell us how much thereis of something (adverbsofdegree), eg aerg,rather;
. indicate an opinion or attitude, eg /z ckilg, surprisingly.

I neverget on with adverbs.Theyalwaysseemlike the word classfor everything

that no one knows how to classify.Ifyou can't work out what word class
somethingis, it's probably an adverb!

Relative clauses
Relativeclausesare parts ofsentencesthat tell us more information about
someoneor something,eg in the sentenceCanyou seethecar thqt'sparkedoutside
thechurch?the relaive clause that'sparhed outsidethechurch tells ts rr.ore
information about which car is being discussed.
Relativeclausesoften start with a relativepronoun, eg that,who,which,zuhen,
where,why, what, whose.

Where to go from here

. Don't try and sit down with a grammar book and learn it; better to integrare
your learning with your teaching.If you are going to teachthe past perfect
tomorrow, then sit down and researchit tonight. Readand takenotes.Make
friends with the item.
. Slowly build up your grammar knowledgein this way,lessonby lesson,
item by item.
. Make good use of the notesinTeacher'sBooksthat accompanyall major
coursebooks.There are often a lot ofhelpful hints about the lesson'sgrammar.
But don't rely on only this information.Youmust get and use your own
grammar referencesaswell.
. I often find that I need to refer to two or three different sourcesto really get mv
head around an item of grammar.It's interestingthat grammaticaldescription
isn't hxed and setin stone.Different books can takevery different angleson
things, often classifyingin different waysand giving different names.Youneed
to gatherand sort all this out in your head and decidewhat is most useful and
helpful from your perspective.
. Having researchedand got comfortable with a new grammar item,let it settlei
your head and then think coolly and caknly asto what small part of that you car
dealwith in a sinslelesson.

106
 4 Analysing
concept:the
meanings
of words

. Somenew native-speakerteachersget'grammar drunk' when they start

teaching.Having previouslyknown litde about their own language,they do
their researchand then find it so exciung that they go into classwanting to tell
their studentsabout all that they havelearned.Remember,you needto know as
much asyou can about grammar.But your studentscannot absorbit all in one
go. Good researchshould not lead to a ,1O-minutelecture on 'Everlthins I know
about the presentperfect'.
It's worth noting that there are different kinds ofresource book that may be
helpful, including:
. Traditional grammars,written mainly for academicsor native speakers,can be
a bit overwhelmingfor the teacher.
. Pedagogicgrammarsare written specihcallyfor teachers.Theseoften include
helpful notesabout typical errors and studentproblems.
. Usagebooks are guidesto how the languageis used.They refer to grammatical
points, but alsoinclude information on vocabularyand pronunciation issuesJ
style,idioms and so on.The items may be organisedalphabeticallyor according
to meaningsor functions rather than by grammaticalclass.
. Studentgrammarsand workbooksoften presentbite-sized(or one-page-sized)
nuggetsof grammaticalinformation alongsideexercisesto practisethosepoints.
Studentsoften like working through these,exerciseby exercise,at home.They
are alsoa useful resourcefor teachersbecauseoftheir clear,straightforwardand
short explanations,often with usableteachingexamplesand contexts.

Analysing concept: the rneanings ofwords

Meaning isn't aspreciseaswe might feel it to be.At what point exactlydoesa
st€afl?stop being a strearzand becomea rixer ot a brookor a creekor something
else?Are therefixed and definabledifferencesbetweenthesemeanings,or is there
a degreeof'fuzziness' here?Is it pard_\r
down to personalinterpretauon,ro our
own feelings?
Even where the dividing lines betweenone meaning and anotier seemclear,are
they in the sameplacesin other languages?Does languageX interpret and name
things in the world in fhe sameway aslanguageY?Does it, for example,see leoflet,
bookletand brochureasdifferent things or asone thing - or evensubdividethem
further into more names?Translationsofwords cannot be exactbecausedifferent
cultureshaveinterpreted the world around them in different ways.
These are obviouslydifficulties for learnersand teachers.In order for us to help
our learnersrit's going to be important for us to analysethe meaning oflexical
items aseffectivelyaswe can.In this sectionJwe'll considerthreewaysofdoing
this,looking at the componentsof meaning of lexical items,the meaningof lexical
items in context,and meaningin relation to other words.

Cornponents of rneaning
Imagine that a student is readinga text and comesacrossthe sentenceIiz tookher
uellingtonsoff.He asksyou'Ifhat doeswellingtonsmean?'.\(/ell,what does
wellingtonsrnean?A dictionary written for native speakerssays:

107
Chapter5 Languageanalysis

1 Alsocalled'gumboots'.Brit.knee-lengthor calf-length
rubberor rubberizedboots,worn esp.in wet conditions.
Often shortenedto 'wellies'.
2 Militaryleatherbootscoveringthe front of the kneebut
cut awayat the backto alloweasierbending of the knee.
[C'19: namedafter the lst Dukeof Wellington]
(CoIIi ns Eng Iish Dicti onary)

OK, that's clear,and relativelyeasyfor a good user ofEnglish to follow, but it is

more problematic for a learner.for a number ofreasons:
The definition is wrinen in languagemore complex than the item being defined:
if the readerdoesn'tunderstandwellingtons,then it is possiblethat he will also
not understand Aflee-length,ca[, rubber,rubberized,worn, esp.,shortened.The
whole entry is in a 'dictionary style',which may be hard to interpret.
There is no distinction bet",veen the everydaymeaning ( 1) and the much rarer
secondusage(2).
Thete are no examplesof how thesewords might be used.
Commor5 everydaylcrowledge,feelingsand reactionsthatwe carry around in our
headare ignored,egwelliesareoften blackor green;welliesareassociatedwidr
farmers,ramblersand fishermenlwelliescan getvery smelly;you haveto pull them orL
In a classroomwhere a studenthasjust askedTeacher,what means'wellingnns'?,1
can help the studentunderstandthe meaningby:
. avoidinglanguagemore complex than the word I'm trying to explain;
. focusing on the most important usages;
. using examples;
. using my own and the student'sknowledgeand feelingsto focus on what we
understandby this word.
One way to make languagelesscomplex is to avoidwords that the studentsare
unlikely to understand.Another way is to avoid complex grammar.Another waf i
to keepyour sentencesshort. In the examplebelow,I havecombined information
from the dictionary defrnition with my own knowledge,and then segmentedthis
information into small,bite-sizedchunks,eachchunk very simply staringone
featureofthis information in simplelanguage:
Wellingtons
You wearthem on your feet.* You wear them when you don'twant
.'^". f--r r^ --t *,-t
You wear them when it rains.
You wear them in the snow You wear them so that your feet will
be dry.
They're made of rubber.*
They are difficult to take off.
You wear them when you walk in or
nearwater. They are often black or green.
You weart-hemwhen you walk in mud.* They are quite tall.
Farmersoften wearthem. Sometimesthey are smelly!
Fishermenoften wearthem. My sockscome off in them.
lTalkersoften wearthem.

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 4 Analysing
concept:the
meanings
of words

I haveput an asteriskbesidethe three sentencesthat seemto carry the essenceof

what welliesare;I would usethesesentencesifl had to explainthe rneaningto a
foreign student.However,a combinationofany four or five ofthe sentencesabove
would probably give a student enough information to understand what wellingtons
are.After all,in many cases,we won'tbe teachingthe studentwhat welliesare (they
may well have them in their own counuy); we are simply trying to allow them to
recognisethat thesenew words are the Englishway of describingsomethingthat
they know in their tongue. (Conversely,somestudentsmay notknow what they
are,and we may haveto teacha new conceptaswell asa new word.)

Analysingmeaning
S e g m e n t h e m e a n i n go f t h e f o l l o w i n gw o r d s i n t o t h e i r c o m p o n e n tp a r t s , u s i n g
languagethat is less complexthan the words themselvesi a calf, a watch, a clock,
a poster,

a calf It's an animal.It's a cow It's young.

a watch It lellsyou tie rime.Youwearit on your arm.
a clock It tells you the time.You seeit on a wall, or a table,or a cupboard.
aposter It has a big picture or an advertisement.It's made ofpaper.You can
put it on a wall in your house.Youcan seevery big oneson buildings
or besidethe road, Many advertisecars,airlines,frzzy drinks, etc.

Meaning in context

Findingmissingwords
I n t h e f o l l o w i n gs h o r t t e x t ,f i l l e a c h g a p w i t h a n y a p p r o p r i a t ew o r d .

there was(1) _tnffic al)thewaytrc,mbhe

air?or, to town and,whenweevenLualy arrivedal
the hotel,it wao (2) 1a1,e.
Luckily,we
haa phanedthat rnornin7and (3) a
roorn,oa the receryionlelwas (4) uo.

Unlessyou decidedto be poetic or dramatic or to createany other specificeffect,

you will probably havefound that eachgap suggesteda small set of likely
alternativesto you, perhaps:(1) heqal; (2) quitef ratherf veryI really;(3) reseraedI
boohed;(4) expecting.These arenot'right' answers,they are simply someofthe
most common or natural words for thesecontexts.Youprobably chosesomeof
them becausethey seemedto 'go together'naturally (eg heaz.ty trffic rather than
crowdedtraffic).Othersyou may havechosenbecauseof the meaning of the text
(eg toolntemighthave seemedgrammaticallypossible,but in the context of the
secondsentence,it made no sense).

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Chapter5 Language
analysis

Collocation
'go together'with certain other words, we can saythat
When words tlpically
they collocate.Thus fteazy collocates with trclzc; so do jLun' coq and light. Slrch
collocationsare an essentialkey to using English well. It may be that knowledge
of collocationsis more useful to a studentthan an understandingof the fine
differencesof meaningbetweenwords. Perhapsit doesn'treally matter exactly
what the detailedmeaning of booharoorzis(ie doesithappen differently in
different countdes?);it's much more important to understandits generalmeaning
and to know that it is the normallv usedword in this context.
rwecan help studentsbetter understandmeaningin context by:
. pointing out collocationswhen they occur;
designrngactivitresthat focus aftentionon tlte collocationsofparticular lexical
items (eg finding a number of words t}at might come after ftrglz);
encouragingthe use ofdictionary researchto checkwhether a collocationis
typical or no!
settingtext gap-fill exercises;
askinglearnersto guessmeaning from cluesin the context,rather than always
relyingon explanations or dicrionaries;
getting learnersto predict likely meaningsor lexicalitems before seeingor
hearing a text (eg This storg is about twopeopleqrriaing in q strzngetoun at nighl.
lX4ratwordsd.oyou think might bein thesnry?) .
You'Il find more ideasin Chapter 8.

Findingcollocations
F i n do n eo r m o r ec o l l o c a t i o nf os r e a c ho f t h e f o l l o w i n g :
safety,blonde, feel, bad

Relations between words

The meaningofwords is often clearestwhenyou can seethem in relation to other
words.

Relationshipsbetweenwords
What is the relationshipbetweenthe words within each group below?
I hot, cold
2 on, off
3 stroll, amble
4 drink, Iemonade
5 flower, pot, spade, seeds, weedkiller
6 nation, national, international, internationalist
7 fair, fair, fair
8 fair, fare

1 Hot and coldare oppositesor antonyms.Becausewe can vary their meaning

with words such asaerytor quite(eg aeryhot,quitehot),theyare known as
gradableantonyms.Hot and,cold conld be representeddiagrammaticallyas

110
 grammatical
5 Analysingconcept: meaning

points on a straightline representinga scaleof temperatures.STe could add

other words at various points alongthe samescale,egy'eezing,warm,boiling.
2 Another type of opposite.In this case,we cannot grade the degreeof
oppositeness:a thing is normally either onor oJf.Lexicalitems such astheseare
known asungradableantonyms.
3 These nvo words havea similar meaning;we could saythey are synonyms.In
fact, hardly any words havean exactsynonym;the fact that two words exist
usuallymeansthat thereis somedistinction betweenthem.
4 One word includesthe other.lrzz onaders a 4,pe of drink.We can imagine this
asa family-tree diagralrr,with drinh asthe'parent' (superordinate)and
lemonade, whisky,water,milh, etcbeing the'children' (hyponyms).
5 This group ofwords are all to do u'ith the subjectofgardeningor.farming.
6 If vte take natioz asthe root word, it is possibleto form the other words by
adding prehxes (eg inter-) or suffixes (eg -al or -nr).These often changethe
grammar (noun, verb, adjective,etc) of the lvord (usuallythrough adding a
suffix) and / or the meaning (by adding a prefix). Many of the effectsare
generalisable; for example,adding -al can make a noun into an adjective(eg
nation,nationa\ music,musical,etc). (The study of such piecesand how they
combine togetheris morphology.)
Relationshipssuch asthe onesin 1-6 are useful both in assistingan initial
understandingof the meaning ofnew items and asa key to recording and
rememberingthem. A group of relatedwords is likely to be more memorablethan
a list ofunrelated items.Diagrams)such asscalesor trees,can provide a useful
visual hook for mernory.It may alsobe useful to analyserelationshipssuch as
7 and 8 in order to help clarify confusionsand problems:
7 Words can havemore than one meaning,somedmesquite unconnected.
Context and collocationsare essentialcluesto decidingwhich meaningis
intended (Jair hair, afair rrial, tlrc coun4tJair) .
8 Different words, with different spellings,can be pronounced the same.

Analysing concept: grammatical meaning

7 I'm plaltingtenniswith Paul rhiseuening.
2 I had thecar repaired.
3 Helenusedn smohe.
What do thesesentencesmean?How can I statethe meaningsassimply asI can,
asclearlyasI can and, ifpossible, using languagethat is itselflesscomplex than
the languageI am trying to explain?
Do thesecriteria sound familiar?\fe are going to dealwith the meaningof
grammar items in the sameway that we looked at vocabularyin Section4, by
attemptingto split sentencesup into dreir component concepts-

ffi grammatical
Analysing meaning
Here is sentence 2: l had the car repaired.
F i r s to f a l l , l e t ' s d i s t i n g ui s h t h e g r a m m a rf r o m t h e s p e c i f i cv o c a b ul a r y u s e d .A t t h e
m o m e n t ,w e a r e n o t p r i m a r i l yw a n t i n gt o h e l p s t u d e n t su n d e r s t a n dt h e m e a n i n go f
car or repaired. Let's assume they know those for the moment, Rather,we want to

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Chapter5 Language
analysis

helplearnersunderstand the grammatical

concept,in this casethe ideaof haye
somethingdone.We needa wayof analysingconceptthat will be applicableevenif
t h ev o c a b u l a ri yt e m sc h a n g e .
Lookat the sentencesbelowandunderlinethe onesthat containpart of the
essentialmeaningof the sentence/ had the car repalred. Crossout thoseones
that youfeel arewrongor do not apply.
1 | repairedthe car.
2lboughtacar.
3 S o m e o n ree p a i r etdh e c a r .
4 T h ec a rh a da n a c c i d e n t .
5 | usedto havea car.
6 l d i d n ' tr e p a i ri t m y s e l f .
7 | paidmoneyfor the repair.
8 | took my carto a garage.
9 | arrangedfor this to happen
10 N4y car runswell now

Sentences3 and 9 carry the essential mearing of I had thecar repaired.Sentence6

is also true and might help to make the meaning clear.rJTedon't know if sentences
2,4,7,8 and 10 are true.They may be, but the essentialmeaning ofl had rnjtcar
repairedd.oesnorrell us this information. SentencesI and 5 seemunnue.

The lexis changes bul the concept remains

Consider some variations on I had thecar repaired,keeping the grammar, but
changing the vocabdary, eg I had nnyhair cut, I had a new lockfitted, I had the
swimmingpool empaed.The situations are all different, but the core meaning is
alwaysthere.If we changethe appropriatevocabularywords, in the concept
sentencesthey still work:
Someone
cut mg hair. I didn't cut it myself;
I arrangedfor this to happen.
Someonefitted a neu lock. I didn't fit it myself;
I arrangedfor this to happen.
Someoneemptindtheswimmingpool. I didn't empty it myself;
I arrangedfor this to happen.

Creatingstatementsthat focuson concept

F o c u so n t h e m e a n i n go f t h e f o l l o w i n gs e n t e n c e s( a n de s p e c i a l l yo n t h e u n d e r l i n e d
words) by making two, three or four clear, simple statements.
1 S h e ' s b e e n r e a d i n gs i n c es h e c a m e h o m e .
2 I'd rather have a lemonade.
3 H e l e nu s e d t o s m o k e .
4 I ' m p l a v i n gt e n n i s w i t h P a u lt h i s e v e n i n g .

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 concept:grammatical
5 Analysing meaning

Once you havedecidedon your sentences,it's simple enoughto turn them into
conceptquestions.Theseare basicallythe sameasthe statements,but in question
form, with very simple answers- often no more than 'yes'r'no' or 'perhaps'.
Again, they focus aftention on the core meaning.
Consider dre conceptquestionsfor t had thecar repaired:
Did someonerepair the car? (yes)
Did I arrangefor thrsto happen? (yes)
Did I repair the car myselP (no,

Makingconceptquestions
T u r ny o u rs e n t e n c efso rT a s k5 . 1 2 i n t oc o n c e pqt u e s t i o n s .

I She\ beenreading sinceshecame home.

Is shereadingnow? (ves)
!7hen did she start reading? (when she came home)
Was she reading all the time? (yes)
Will shestop readingnow? (perhaps;I don't know)
2 I'd ratherhaxea lemonade.
Dolwantalemonade? (yes)
More than somethingelse? (ves)
A lot more? (probably not)
Is it very important to me? (no,
3 Helenusedm sruoke .
Did Helen smoke? (yes.)
On a number ofoccasions? (yes.)
Regularly?Often? (perhaps)
Does shesmokenow? (no.)
4 I'm plating tunnisuith Paul rhis euening.
!7ill I play tennis with Paul this evening? (yes)
Have I alreadyarrangedthis? (yes)
Why analyse concept?
\fhat are the reasonsfor being so clearabout rneaning?Ifyou understandwhat
the meaningis and can focus on it in simpleand clearways,then it is obviously
more useful to the studentsthan when you explain at length,fail to pinpoint the
essentialcomponentsof meaningand use complex language.
By askingconceptquestions,you can alsoestablishwhether studentsare clear
about meaning.Youcould, ofcourse, ask'Do you understand?'every time you
teach something,but whether the answerwas'yes'or'no', it would actuallytell us
almost nothing (studentssay'yes'for fear of seemingstupid, becausethey don't
want to wastetime, becausethey don't want to be askedany more questions,etc).
Perhapsone other reasonfor doing this kind ofanalysisis alsobecoming clear.
The gramnatical name for the I2 + -rzg structure in sentence4 aboveis the
presentprogressive.Yet,in tl.reanalysisof meaning,we discoveredthat tlte

113
Chapter5 Language
analysis

meaning is not really to do with the present - in fact, it's a sentenceabout *re
future (and, to some extent, about the past, when the tennis date was actually
arranged).It's worth noting that the grammaticalnamesof languageitems can
actually get in the way ofunderstanding the meaning.A student who believesthat a
presenttensemust talk aboutthe presentmay need someconvincingthat it can
alsorefer to dre future! Similarly,a teacherwho doesnot clearlyseparatethe issues
of form and meaningmay confusestudents.A focus on form is useful,but it will
haveconsiderablylessuseif there is no parallelfocus on meaning.

onthe DVD

Analysing comrnunicative function

'Why
do peoplespeakor write to eachother?To show off their ability to make
grammaticallycorrect sentences? Obviouslynot.There is no point making
perfectly formed sentencesif we do not succeedin getling our point across.We
speakor write becausewe havemessagesto communicateor thereis somethingwe
hope to achieve.Thesepurposesarethe communicativefunction ofwhat we say.

Communicativepurpose
lf I saythe followingto you,whatarethe likelyresults?
I Couldyou pass the sugar?
2 Hey! Timeto get up! Comeon!
3 CanI helpyou?
4 Cheers!
5 A day retum to Brighton,please.

1 You passme the sugar.

2 You wakeup, then get up (quite quickly).
3 You (a customer) seeme (a shop assistam),reply and maybegive me a chancc
to sellyou something.
4 We raiseour glassesand drink.
5 You sellme a uain dcket.

IIow we convey our rneaning

It's worth noticing that we don't expli citly say'I requestyouto passthe sugar to rnc-'
The comnunicative function is not alwavsdirecdv statedor transDarent.Its
is achievedbecauselistenersareusedto interpretingwhat suchexchangesmean-
can clarify the purpose of many statementsby adding back in the 'missing' verbr
For example,dre other sentencesinThsk 5.14 could be rewordedlike this:
I alert yolJ wilh'I{ey' and inform yott drat it's time to get up! Lrge you to
up with'Come on!'.
3 I ofler youhelp.
4 I celebrateorlxbeing together and invite you to start drinking.
5 I rcquesta d.ay-ret.)rntain ticket to Brighton, please.
In many cases,it's hard to decideexactlywhat the communicativefunction is
unlesswe know the context and who is speaking.
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 6 Analysing
communicative
function

Analysingfunctionallanguage
For each of the following,suggest one possible context and who might be speaking
t o w h o . W h a t m i g h tb e t h e s p e a k e r ' sp u r p o s e ?
1, Phew. It's cold in here.
2 The fish is vety good today.
3 Well,actually l'm a bit busy atthe moment.

Sentence Possible context Who? Possible meaning

Phew. It's cold arnome husbandto wife | (politely) requestyou

in herc. t o c l o s et h e d o o r .
The fish is very ina restaurant waiterto I recommendthat you
good today. customers o r d e rt h e f i s h d i s h .
l o o k i n ga t m e n u
Well,actually in the office b u s r n e s sw o m a n I suggestwe
l'm a bit busyat t o c o l l e a g u ew h o c o u l dt a l ka n o t h e r
the moment. h a sj u s t a s k e d t i m er a t h e trh a nn o w .

Contexts and meanings

Of course,many other contextsand meaningsare often possible.It is worth
working with your studentsto make suretiey understandhow languagetakeson
different meaningsdependingon the context and how'it is said,and that they get
practicein making and interpreting language.Nfecan use a grid such asthat above
to provide an interestingawareness-raising
exerciseby including only a part of the
information and askingstudentsto speculateon possibleother elements.

Sentence Possible context Who? Possible meaning

Willyouclosethe door,
pl e a s e ?

The fish is very waiterto

good today. customers
in the office Couldwetalkanother
timeratherthannow?

e A fullerversionof thistaskis givenin the'fuinitinnalworksheet resolJrce on the DVD.

Making e ors with function
W h a ti s t h e p r o b l e mi n t h e s es i t u a t i o n s ?
l A foreignstudentstayingas a guestwith an Englishfamilysaysl wantbreakfast
at seveno'clock.I wanttwosandwiches anda cup of chocolate.
2 Student2 stopssomeonein the streetand asks Whathaveyougot on your
watch?

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Chapter
5 Language
analysis

Although eachsentenceis grarnmaticallycorrect, eachseemswrong in a different

way.What is correct and suitablein one setofcircumstancesis partially or
completelyinappropriate in another.Example 1 might justbe acceptablein a
hotel, but as a guest in a family, it is plain rude.
!7e might ask a friend to Passus that newspaper,uillyou?, but to a stranger in the
dentist'swaiting room) we are more likely to sayE ccLtJ
e ma Couldtou ?assmethat
paper?Knowtngthe grammar of the language backwards is often litde help in
forming expressionssuch asthese;studentsneedto discoverwhat.isappropriate
in a particular situation.They alsoneed to learn somecompletefixed expressions.
Thus, for exampl e,in senlence2 Haaeyou got the tinxeonyou? or Can you tell me
the time? wonldbe cofiect

Functions and their exponents

Examplesoflanguageusedto achievea particular function are known as
exponentsof a firnction.Thus l{aue y ougot thetimeon!oz? is an exponentof the
function of'asking for information'. Someexponentsare hxed formulae that
allow for litde or no alteration: you can't really change any word in Have tou got the
timeonyou?without losing the meaning.Other exponentshavemore generadve
possibilities:Could1ou tell metheuay to thestatian2is usablein a variety of
situations by substituting different vocabdary for station.
For classroompurposes,teachersoften think of communicativefunctions under
generalheadingssuch as'complaining', 'askingfor information', 'sympathising',
etc and plan lessonsto introduce studentsto setsofuseful exponentswhich they
can practisein activitiessuch asrole plays and communication games.

Functionsand exponents
l\4atch the functionsbelowwiththe exponentson the right.Theremaybe none,
o r m o r et h a no n ee x p o n e nut n d e re a c hh e a d i n g .
1 G i v i n gi n s t r u c t i o n s P u ti t i n t h e b a g .
2 Refusing b T h a n k sb, u t l c a n ' t .
3 Apologising c I d o n ' tt h i n ky o u ' r er i g h t .
4 Disagreeing d Surelynotl
e W e l l t, o m ym i n d t, h e U Nh a st h e b e s l
chance.
f I'm awfullysorry.
We regretanyinconvenience caused.
h ldoapologise.
N o .I w o n ' t .
j Writethe answerin yourbook.

116
 6 Analysing
communicative
function

r a'l
z b,i
3 f,e,h
4 c,d,e

Stress and intonation in functional exponents

Howimportantare stressandintonationto the correctuse of the exponentsin
T a s k5 . 1 7 ?

Stressand intonation are very important. A changeofstressand intonation (in

relation to the specificcontext) can make an exponentchangeits function. For
example,I'm awful$tsorrl cortldbe agenuineapologyor a sarcasticexpression
of anger;It's mid.dagcould be a reminder, information, a warning, an invitation,
a demand to hurry up, etc.

Fillingin a functiontable
T r y f i l l i n gi n t h e f o l l o w i n gv e r s i o no f t h e f u n c t i o nt a b l e :

Sentence Possible context who? Possible meaning

It's midday. R e m i n d i n gh i m t o p h o n e .

It's midday. W a r n i n gh e r t o d o i t n o w .

It's midday. Invitinghim to have some food.

It's midday- H u r r yu p !

There are no right answersto this sort oftask (though someanswersseemless

likely than others). Studentsoften enjoyfinding convincingbut funny solutions.
Everyday contextsare probably the most useful to explore,eg the first could be a
girlfriend to boyfriend who hashad a job interview and wastold to call back at
twelve o'clockto hear the results.Asking studentsto considerhow to saythis in an
appropriateway (and to practiseit) is very useful.

Working on appropriacy
A lot of work in the areaof function is to do with common senseand common
politeness- and most of all to do with an awarenessof audience.This,ofcourse,
is partJycultural.Wecan help studentsbecomemore awareof appropriacy by
getting them to consider:
. !(/ho are you talking / writing to? How well do you know them?
. How formal / informal is the relationship?
. \X&ereare you?I7hat unwritten rules or codesofconduct apply?

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Chapter5 Language
analysis

Someideasfor integratingfunctional work into a course:

. focusing on a functional areaand studying a number ofexponenrsl
. role plays:consideringwhat to sayin particular relationships;
. listening:working out relationshipsbetweenspeakers;
. decidinghow different situationsmake one sentencemean different things;
. building dialoguesand picture-story conversations;
. acting out play scripts;
. writing lettersto different people;
. altering written conversationsto changethe relationship.

Relationshipsin functional exchanges

W h a ti s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
o f t h e s p e a k e r si n t h e f o l l o w i n gc o n v e r s a t i o n K
? e e p i n ga s
m u c ho f t h e o r i g i n a m l e a n i n ga s p o s s i b l e ,c h a n g et h e d i a l o g u et o m a k e i t s o u n d
l i k e a n a t u r a le x c h a n g eb e t w e e n( a ) t w o c l o s ef r i e n d s ;( b ) p a r e n ta n d y o u n gc h i l d .
A: I'm sorry to interrupt, but I was wondering if you wanted to break for lunch yet?
B: I'm afraid I'm still rather busy. But thank you very much for asking.
N Perhaps l'll see you in the restaurant later.
B: Yes.That would be nice.

English and English teaching in the world

World Englishes
English is a countablenoun.There are many Englishes.
Only a few yearsago,teacherscould work on an assumptionthat there was
essentiallyone English languagewhich was'owned' by a small number of
countrieswhere it was spoken(with somewidely known variations) asa native
language:theUSA, the UK Ireland,Australia,New Zealand,Canadaand a few
more.Teachersviewedtheseas'correct' models and could choosewhether to base
their courseon, say,UK English or US English.
But there are alsomany odrer varietiesofEnglish. In someplacesEnglish has a
second(or third) languagestatusand may be usedfor education,law or
government,for example:SingaporeEnglish,Nigerian English,Filipino English.
Kenyan English,PakistaniEnglish.
In addition,Englishis widelyusedasa linguafranca (= a languagein common)
betweenpeopleftom different countrieswho do not speakeachother's nativerongues
whether in face-to-faceinteraction or via phone or the Intemet. So,for example,when
a Greekbusinesswoman meetsavietnamesebusinessmarlthe onelanguagethey
are most likely to both know (evenifit is only at a very elementary level) is English.
In 1985 Braj Kachru proposedvisualisingthis usageastluee concentric circlesof
English,seeFigure 5.1.
The inner circlerepresentsthe countrieswherepeoplewould considerEnglishas
the first language.Ttre outer circle contains all those countries where English is nor r
first languagebuthas historic roots,for example,countriesofthe Commonwealth
The expandingcircle representsall the countrieswhere English is not formalll' a
cental part ofthe country's systemsbut where many people still study ir asa

118
 7 Englishand Englishteachingin the world

Figure 5.1 Kachru's cirlcesofEnglish

foreign languageand use it asa lingua franca.This circle is expandingconstantly.

It is probably more than twice the sizeof eitherthe inner or outer circles.
Kachru suggesteddrat the modelsofcorrect languageare mainly setby the inner
circle but that the outer circle is starting to createits own norms. David Graddol
arguesthat the situationhas alreadychangeda lot since 1985 and that many
supposedforeign languageusersare now so proficient in English that it is more
like a secondlanguagefor them. He proposesthat we should considerlevelsof
profrciencyin English rather than country oforigin - with an inner circle
containingthe highly proficient users- the 'functional natives'.In somecountries
where English is neither a hrst nor a secondlanguage(eg many northern
European countries)there may be very large numbers ofhighly proficient near-
native speakerEnglish users.

English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)

The vast majority ofEnglish-languageinteraction in the world is not between
native speakers,but betweennon-native speakers.Having a native speakerjoin a
conversationbet\'veennon-nativespeakersis often actuallya hindrancefor them.
The native speakermay be lessexperiencedat understandinga rangeofvarieties
ofEnglish,lessawareof his own languageuse and lessableto adjust its complexity
and cultural referencesto make it more accessiblefor peoplefrom other countries.
!7hich raisesan increasinglyimportant (and increasinglydifhcult) questionfor
teachers:what English is it appropriateto teachmy students?Is an'inner circle'
native-speakermodel still appropriate?
Somewriters and researchershaveproposeddrat we should no longer be teaching
English basedon native-speakermodels ofcorrect grammar,pronunciation and
they argue,is the point of forcing studentsto practise
cultural conventions.rWhat,
sayingweakforrn schwapronunciationsofauxiliary verbs zoasand a,erein the way
that someonein the South of England might do?If the majority of non-native
speakersmeetingtogetherdo not usethesefeatures,might it actuallybe hindering

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Chapter5 Languageanalysis

intelligibility to work on these?Thealternativemay be to work out what the lingua

franca core is - an internationalversionofEnglish, a standardGlobal English.
This would not be invented,but discoveredby researchingand analysinghow
non-natrveusersspeakwhen they come together.

Yourstudents'interactionneeds
Dothe studentsyouworkwith needEnglishto communicate with English
mother-tongue speakers?Or aretheymorelikelyto be usingEnglishas a language
to interactwithothernon-nativeusers?Howdoesthis impacton yourapproach?

In many places,languageteachinghas for sometime seemedquite Ul(-centric

(or US-centric), with coursebooksdrawing a lot on UK/US culture and with
languagesamplesmainly using one variety ofpronunciation.There may alsobe
an unstatedassumptiontJratlearnerswitl visit the UI( or USA and need Enslish
mainly to communicatewith localsthere.
But many learnerswho study the languagehaveno intention ofgoing to these
places,and they may well not be learning English to communicatewith native
speakers,but in order to use it asa lingua franca,enablingthem to meet (and
maybedo businesswith) peoplefrom all over the world.
So,would IJI( or US English be appropriatefor them?How mighr your
studentsfeel aboutlearning a simpler internationalEnglish that would present
far lessofa challengeto them and which they might realisticallybe ableto
masterand use?

Choosingwhichvarietyof Englishto teach

lmagjneyouare a Brazilian teacherof Englishwho hasjust starteda contractto
w o r ki n a r u r a ls c h o oiln T a n z a n i a
W_h a tv a r i e t yo f E n g l i s ihs i t a p p r o p r i a t o
e base
g n - y o u ro w n ?E a s tA f r i c a nE n g l i s hU
y o u rt e a c h i n o ? KE n g l i s hU ? SE n g t i s hA?n
i n t e r n a t i o nE
a ln g l i s h ?

'What
can I teach?'isa questionthat many teachersface,especiallyif ttrey take on
work outsidetJreirhome country.There is no simple answer,and there may be
many constraintson what you choose(eg which coursebookyou have).
My brief, perhapssimplistic,answeris that I think you needto be awareof:
. what your studerts need and expect;
. what you are realisticallyableto do;
. the impact your choicesmight havein the long term, personally,locally,
nationallyand globally.
Your learners'needs,such ashaving to takean exam that requiresa cernin varien
ofEnglish or needingto communicatein a particular context,are probably
paramount concerns.
One approachI haveseena number ofteachersadopting is that ofbeing
completelyopen about acknowledgingthe range ofEnglishesavailableand raising

120
 7 English
andEnglish intheworld
teaching

it for discussionand choice;for example,after playing a recording, saying'!fell,

the person on the recording said ... but, myself,I say... and here in this town,I've
noticed that peoplesay ...'.
As yet, there is no agreement on what the lingua franca core might be.There
is no standard international English, no single accepted Globish. But there
might be one day.And in the meantime, we need to decide how these
arguments affect our attitudes to things like correctnessof grammar and
pronunclauon.

Appropriate rnethodology

ffi tt's impossibte

I n r e a d i n tgh i s b o o k ,h a v ey o uc o m ea c r o s si d e a so r t e c h n i q u etsh a th a v em a d ey o u
s t o pa n dt h i n k' T h a t ' sc o m p l e t e luyn s u i t a b lfeo r m ys t u d e n t so' r ' T h a ti s j u s t
i m p o s s i b lien t h i s l o c a l i t y / c u l t u r e ' ?

I rather hope you have,becausethe book isn't intendedto offer any all-purpose
solutions,but to suggestsomepossibilitiesand encourageyou to enquireinto how
they might frt with your own teachingand its context.The kind of techniquesand
teachingstrategiesdiscussedin this book representmy version ofwhat seemsto
me current good practice and thinking. But it is one person'sview basedon my
experiencein the kinds of schoolsand countriesI haveworked in. It may well not
be appropriatemethodologyin other schools,odrer places,other cultures.
There may be seriousdangersin trying to 'export' en massean approachthat
works in one placeand assumingit will alsowork elsewhere.Theright
methodologyis the right methodologyfor a context.It isn't a universalanswer.
This is not to saythat the right mefhodologyis automaticallywhateverthe status
quo happensto be or what conservativethbkers in a localebelieveto be best.Some
teachersor managersmay havea stakein maintaining things just asthey are and
reject any innovation or suggestionfor improvement.In thesecases,the teacher
who feels that they have something important to offer has a difficult dilemma asto
whether it is right to implement their innovation and how to do it most effectively.

Global issues
Beyond concernsabout languageand methodology,maybeteachersshould also
be askingabout their role on the planet asa whole.

My role
You might like to try out some of these questions on yourself.
. W h a t c u l t u r a li m p a c td o e s m y t e a c h i n go f E n g l i s hh a v eo n t h e d e v e l o p m e not f t h e
country and on the use of its own languages?
. S h o u l dI b e c o n c e r n e da b o u tt h e i m p a c tm y t e a c h i n gh a s o n t h e w o r l d ,t h e
p e o p l e so f t h e w o r l da n d t h e g l o b a lf u t u r e ?
.lfIbelievethatsomeaspectofIanguageeducationlocally,nationallyorglobally
is bad (or not helpful)for my students (eg the exams they have to take are poorly

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Chapter5 Languageanalysis

designedor not relatedto anyrealneeds),shouldI tell them,keepquiet,

c a m p a i gbne h i n dt h e s c e n e se, t c ?
Howawaream I of the impactof whatI do andsayon otherpeople'slivesand
haooiness?
H o wm u c hs h o u l dl t a k e a r o l ei n e d u c a t i nlge a r n e r sn, o t j u s ti n l a n g u a gbeu t
also in raisingawarenessaboutprejudice,exploitation, environmental issues
a n di n t e r d e p e n d e n cl se t?h i sp a r to f m y j o b ?
Whatrightdo I haveto take a standon issuesI believein?
C a nI p l a ya r o l ei n e s t a b l i s h i nnge ws e t so f v a l u e sa m o n gl e a r n e r s(?A n ds h o u l d
l? Andwhosevaluesam I promoting,anyway?)

122
Ghapter6 Planninglessonsandcounses
There are many waysto approachthe planning oflessonsand coursesand this
chapter exploresa number ofthese in detail.Thinking about the aims of the lesson
you are about to teachis a fundamentalskill for a teacherand one which impacts
on the choicesyou make asthe lessonprogresses. The role ofEnglish asa world
languageis alsoexaminedin Chapter 5 Section7.

Planning is a thinking skill

Beforeyou go into a lesson,ithelpsto be clearaboutwhatyou want to do.Alotis
going to happen on the spot in the class- you can't ever completely predict how
learnerswill respond to anl,thing - but the better prepared you are,ttre more likely it is
that you will be readyto copervithwhateverhappens.It is possibleto teach(verygood
lessonssometimes)without any pre-planning, but planning increasesthe number of
your options- andin doing so,increases your chancesofa successfi.rl lesson.
Although haining coursestend to askyou to preparedetailedwritten plans,it's
important to realisethat planning is essentiallya thinking skill.Planning is
imagining the lessonbefore it happens.It involvesprediction, anticipadon,
sequencing,organisingand simplifying. I sometimeswonder if the key planning
skill is an ability to visualisebefore classhow things might look, feel and sound
when they are done in class.
A wriften plan is evidencethat you havedone that thinking. It can alsoserveas
a useful in-lessonreminder to you ofyour pre-lessonthoughts.Beyond that,
however,it is not holy writ. It is not setin concrete.As a generalrule: Prepare
thoroughly. But in class, teach the learners, not the plan.What this meansis
that you should be preparedto respondto the learnersand adaptwhat you have
planned asyou go, evento the extent of throwing the plan awayif appropriate.
A carefullyworked-out plan is the end result of riinking logicallythrough the
content ofthe lessonbefore the lesson.It then informs your teachingin class,
whether you actually follow it completelyor not.Thinking through possible
content and problemsbefore classprovidesyou with informed choicesthat
setyou free in class.But a teacherwho is mainly concernedwith following a
lessonplan to tie letter is ur ikely to be respondingto what is actuallyhappening
in class.
There are a number ofgeneral areasto think about:
. Atmosphere
Can you visualisethe characteristicatmosphereand look of the lesson?
Can you imagine what the experienceof the lessonwill feel like for any one
<nerifin cnrrlant?
. The learners
How will the lessonengagetle learners?
\fill they enjoy doing the lesson?
STillthey benefit from it?
. The aims
rJThatwill the learnersachieve?
What are you hoping to achieveyourself?

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Chapter6 Planninglessonsandcourses

The teaching point

'$Vhat
is the subjectmatter of the lesson- the skills or languageareasthat will be
studiedand the topics you will dealwrth?
The tasks and teaching procedures
\rhat are the things that the learnerswill do?
\X/hat activities will you use?
\Xrhatsequencewill they come in)
The challenge
'$(/hat
in the lessonwill challengethe learners?
Materials
\X/hattexts,recordings,pictues, exercises,role cards,etc will you use?
Classroom management
lfhat will you say?
How will the seatingbe arranged?
How much time will eachstagetake?
Can you picture the working groups/ the movement/ fhe changingpaceofthe class?
when planning
Gonsiderations
T h e l i s t b e l o ws h o w s s o m e m o r et h i n g sy o u m i g h tc o n s i d e rw h e n p l a n n i n ga l e s s o n -
Decidewhich items go with each ofthe above headings
. How manv seoarate activities will there be?
. W h e r ew i l lI s t a n do r s i t ?
. W h a td o l e a r n e r n seed?
. W h a ts k i l l sw i l ll e a r n e rbs e w o r k i n g
on?
. H o ww i l lI c o n t r otli m i n g ?
. Whatare someofthe thingsthat couldcausedifficultiesor go wrong?
. Howam I goingto dealwith mistakes?
. ls theregoingto be varietyof activityin the lesson?
. Howdo the lessonaimsfit in with longer-term goals?
. W h a td o t h e yk n o wa l r e a d y ?

Irnportant considerations when planning

The two key questionswhen planning are often consideredto be:
. \fhat is my procedure?(ie $7hatsequenceoftasks and activitieswill l use?)
. lx/hataretheaimsofthelesson?
However,ifyou can answerthe latter question,ie ifyou can be clearabout what
you hope your learnerswill haveachievedby the end of the lesson,then perhaps
the other questionswill becomeeasierto answer.If your aim is, for example,'81'
the end ofthis lesson,my learnerswill haveimproved their ability to hear and
pronounce the vowel sounds\r\ and \i:\', then you are alreadyclearaboutwhere
the lessonis going and you can begin to think more clearlyabout how you can go
about achievingthis end,what materialsyou need,how you will arrangethe
chairs,etc and you can start to selector invent sorneinterestingactivitiesto help
reachthis aim. (There's more on aims in Section5 of this chapter')
My own experienceof planning is that it or y becomesa linear,logical thing in
later stages.Earlier on, it's a processof trying to think how certain material miglt
work with my studentsor what material is neededto allow them to do something
specific.Initially, at least,a lot of this thinking tends to be unfocused,following
vaguelines of thought or jumping from ideato idea.The semi-chaosmay not lal
124
 2 Howdopeople
learnlanguages?

long, but allowsmy personalityand creativityto start owning the material.It

usually coalescesfairly sooninto somethingmore concreteand usable.
Ifyou're having trouble planning, here'sa possiblestarting point:
Look at the next unit ofyour coursebook(or whatevermaterial you intend to
teachwith).Think about your students.Don't start wdting yet! Let your mind
wander and explore a number ofways that the two (material and learners)can
meet.Don't dismissthe impossibleor ludicrous ideasif they come;just enjoy
them and keepwandering.Imagine having a conversationwith one (or some) of
your studentsabout anything that appearson the coursebookpage.!7hat do they
frnd interestingor problematic in terms oftopic, activity,language?
After a while (one minute? ten minutes?),start organisingyour thoughts more
systematically.Can you get a senseofthe whole lesson?You'llprobably need to
start wdting around this point!
Planning becomesa lot easierifyou havea clearidea asto how you think that
peoplelearn.!7e will look at this in the following sections.

How do people learn languages?

If we want to plan lessons that are more than simply random entertainment, we
need a clear idea ofhow we think people learn language.The activities we plan can
then closely reflect those things that we believe are an important part of the
learning process.

ffi A student'sprogresswhenlearninga newitem

T h e f o l l o w i n gl i s t c h a r t s o n e p o s s i b l ee x p l a n a t i o no f a s t u d e n t ' sp r o g r e s sw h e n
learning a new item of language(eg a new piece of grammar).lvlatchthe labels to
the numberedstages listed below.

Activeuse Noticing lgnorance Practice Exposure lJnderstanding

1 T h e l e a r n e r d o e s n ' tk n o wa n l t h i n g a b o u t t h ei t e m .

2 T h e l e a r n e rh e a r so r r e a d se x a m p l e so f t h e i t e m
( m a y b ea n u m b e ro f t i m e s ) ,b u t d o e s n ' t p a r t i c u l a r l n
y o t i c ei t .

3 T h e l e a r n e rb e g i n st o r e a l i s et h a t t h e r e i s a f e a t u r eh e / s h e
d o e s n ' tf u l l yu n d e r s t a n d .

T h e l e a r n e rs t a r t s t o l o o k m o r e c l o s e l ya t t h e i t e m a n d t r i e s t o
w o r k o u t t h e f o r m a t i o nr u l e s a n d t h e m e a n i n g ,p o s s i b l yw i t h t h e
h e l p o f r e f e r e n c ei n f o r m a t i o ne, x p l a n a t i o n so r o t h e r h e l p .

T h el e a r n etrr i e st o u s et h e i t e mi n h i s / h e ro w ns p e e c ho r
writing(maybehesitantly,probablywith manyerrors).

The learner integratesthe item fully into his/her own tanguage

a n d u s e s i t ( w i t h o u t h i n k i n g )r e l a t i v e l ye a s i l yw i t h m i n o re r r o r s .

125
Chapter6 Planninglessonsandcourses

From top to bottom, the labelsare:

1 Ignorance;2 Exposure;3 Noticing;4 Understanding;5 Practice;6 Active use
Ignoring'Ignorance', we could put the other items togetherin a slightly expande;
diagram showinghow they might all ht together (seeFigure 6.1).

Input Learning Use

U n d e r s t a ni ndg

l\4emory

RESTRICTEDEXPOSU RE
R ea di n g Reflection
Listening

RESTRICTED
OUTPUT
Speaking
Writing
OTHER DATA
C o u r s e b o oi nk f o r m a t i o n
Teacherexplanations Preparing AUTHENTIC
G r a m m abr o o k s e, t c (to speak/write) OUTPUT
Sp e a ki n g
Writing

The processoflearning

'Restlicted'and'Authentic'exposure
T h e d i a g r a mi s a l i t t l em o r e c o m p l e xt h a n t h e s h o r t e re x p l a n a t i o n
g i v e ne a r l i e .
E x p o s u r ei s s e p a r a t e di n t o ' R e s t r i c t e d ' ' A u t h e n t i c ' -
and exposure whatmigh:'.ir
mean?

Exposureto languagemay come through texts that are speciallypreparedar:.:

simplifredfor students(restricted)or are unadapted,authentictexts from
non-specialistsources(authentic).The following sectionlooks at these
distinctionsin detail.

126
 2 Howdo peoplelearnlanguages?

Exposure
The distinction between authentic and restricted is whe*rer the exposure comes
from a text that is realistic - or reasonablylike a normal natural text (= authentig
exposure) - or if it is ftom a text that is recognisably simplifred or perhaps including
an unnaturallyhigh number of examplesof a specifictargetitem (= restricted
exposure).From a teachingperspective,the distinctionis important, aswe may
needto adopt differentapproachesto a text that is not specificallylearner-friendly
than towardsmaterialwritten to achievespecificteachingpurposes.

Authentic exposure
This is exposureto languagewhen it is being usedfairly naturally.For example:
. Readingmagazines,books,articles,product labels,etc
. Listening to small talk and listeningto recordings,radio, etc
. lTatching English films or televisionchannels(eg Cartoon Network)
. Living in a placewhere the languageis used
. Hearing incidentallanguageusedin class
. Readingpiecesoflanguage on notices,posters,etc around the classroorn
Restricted exposure
Exposureto texts specificallydesignedto be accessibleto learners- and probably
to draw aftentionto specifrclanguagepoints.
The texts will often:
. be speciallydesignedfor learners,providing clearexamplesoftarget language
items being usedin context;
. be simplified through use ofgraded language;
. haveunusuallyhigh quantitiesof specifictarget languageitems.
Learnersmay:
. listen to you saysentencesthat exemplify the languagepoint you are aiming to
work on;
. read or listen to coursebooktexts designedto presentfeaturesof certain
lanorrqoe itemq'
. read examplesofparticular featuresoflanguagein a grammar book.
A passionfor'authentic materials'(eg newspapers,advertisements,letters,etc)
has dominatedlanguageteachingfor someyears.Thiswasa natural reactionto
the previously very unnatural texts of many earlierteachingmaterials.However,
it's probably lessimportant to strive for authenticityin classroommaterialsin
favour ofselectingmaterial that is intinsically interesting,engagingand relevant
for your specificgroup oflearners.
StephenKrashen hashypothesiseda distinction betweenacquisition (ie
languagethat we pick up subconsciouslywhen we are engagedin communicating
and understandingmessages)and learning (ie languagewe consciouslystudy
and learn about,for examplein a classroom).
Krashen suggeststhat acquisitionis the significantprocesshere,and that
Ianguagewe learn is only of any use to us in monitoring and checkingour
communication.In order to acquirelanguage,we needto be exposed

127
Chapter6 Planninglessonsandcourses

to comprehensible input, ie real messagescommunicatedto us that are

comprehensiblebut iust a litf.leaboveour current level.Ifistands for a
learner'scurrent level,then ideal comprehensibleinput would be z+ 1 (ie just
abovethe current level).This suggestsan important role in the classroomfor
exposurethat is restricted (ie graded) in order for it to be at an appropriatelevel.
ie nottoo simple,but just abovethe level of the learner.

Output
We can make a similar distinction betweenoutput that is deliberatelysimplified
or controlled- maybebecauseof a teacherinstruction or by the nature ofa
particular taskthat makesthe load on the learnerlessdemanding (= restdcted
output) - and freer or more natural interaction which might have many stresses
and pressures(= authenticoutput).The focus on restrictedoutput tendsto be on
getting language right, whereas the emphasis on authentic output is more often
the quality of communication of messages.

Authentic ouqrut
Speakingor writing using the full range oflanguagelearnershaveat tieir disposal
For examnle:
. Discussions . lTriting a postcard
. Meetings . Negotiations
. Small talk in a caf6 . Chaning in class

Restricted ouqrut
Speakingor writing that requireslearnersto uselesst}Ian the full quantity of
languagethey k.now.Learners get a chanceto practiseusing languagein waystlar
are controlled or deliberatelysimplified (maybeby a teacherinstuction or by the
nature ofa particular task) in a way that makesthe load on the learnerless
demanding.For example:
. Drills
. rJTrittengap-fill exercises
. Grammar practiceactivities
. 'Repeatwhat I say'
. Simple gamesbasedon sayingvery similar sentences(eg 'Simon says')

This analysisonly definessomebroadly different types oflearning stages.In

reality,it's not alwaysclear-cutasto which categorythings fall into - and for both
exposureand output,'authentic' and'restricted' are really end points on a
continuum, rather than two all-excludingcategories!
Figure 6.1 alsoaddedother elements- showingthings that go on inside the
learner'shead,such asnoticing, understanding,memory and preparing.For the
moment, we'll iust addressone of these:nolicing.

Noticing
Recalla specific example from 'real life' or from a class you have taught or
observed - that shows someone 'noticing' or havingtheir attention drawn to an
item of language.

128
 lessoncomponents
3 Sequencing

Noticing is seeingor having one'sattention drawn to the meaning,form or use of

languageitems.For example:
. !7hen a learneris readinga text, shestopsand thinks 'I've seentiat stucture
before- I wonder why it hasthat ending?'
. In class,a teacher says Look at line three- is that aerbin thep ast or prcsent?

What isyozr theory oflearning?

It's important to rememberthat Figure 6.1 representsone generalised(and
possiblyincorrect) theory ofhow a languageitem is learned.It's important that
you checkout whether this theory fits with your own personalidea ofhow people
learn - and then, when you read any other book on this subject,checkthe theory
out again.Quite a few teacherslaugh at or rejectthe idea that'theory' should play
any part in what they do in class.I d saythat, at the very least,you do needto
tackleone basicquestion:hor,vdo you think peoplelearn language?Without some
personalanswerto this, the work you do in classis hit-and-miss.Youneedto sort
out why you are doing the things you do. (And make sure you keep doubting and
questioningl)
Figure 6.1 only showsthe processoflearning. It doesn't describeholv that might
be brought about,eg in a classroomlesson.It isn't a lessonplan! So,dre next
problem is to decidewhat we can do asteachersto help such a learning process
happen.And obviouslywe will want to deviseclassroomwork that hts in rvith our
personaldescriptionofhow we think learning comesabout.

Sequencing lesson cornponents

How can you decidewhat to plan and what order to put the stagesin? For lessons
where therewill be a substantialfocus on languagestudy (eg grammar,lexis,
function), one straightforwardway is to think ofparts (or'stages') ofa lessonas
'building brick' components(using featuresfrom the learning diagramwe looked
at in the previous section).\7ecan build different lessonsby putting the bricks
togetherin various sequences.
Figure 6.2 showsa lessonprocedurebasedon three bricks.

Cl a r i f i c a t i o n

procedure
Figure6.2'Buildingbricks'lesson

This is a popular lessonshapefor many teachers.Let's look at it more closely.

. In the first stage,the learnersget to seeor hear examplesof languagebeing used
(maybein a readingtext or by listeningto a recording).
. Clarifrcation refersto a lessonstagein which the learnersfocusin on a piece
oflanguage,to seeit, think about it and understandit, to becomemuch clearer
on its form, meaningand use.It can be done in a variety of different ways

129
Chapter6 Planninglessonsandcourses

(eg studentslook itup for *remselvesin a grammar book). For the moment, in
'teacherexplainsthe languagepoint'.
this lessonexample,let'sassumeit means
. After this, the learnerstry using the languagefor themselvesin relatively
unthreateningways.
This t,pe oflesson is often called'present- practise',ie first the learnersmeet
(or are 'given') new languageitems,then they practiseusing them - then they
produce them in freer,more fluent ways.
Of course,the building-brick metaphor is somethingof a simplification.In
practice,aspectsofthe bricks are likely to interweave,overlapor happen
simultaneously;for example,in this lesson,the explanationsdo not occupy one
long block of time, but are shorter and more integratedwith the exposureand
output stages(seeFigure 6.3).

Clarification

procedure
Figure 6.3 Breakdownof'buildingbdcks'lesson

However,althoughthis rnay be a more realisticview,it can still be helpful, for

'thinkrng through' purposes,to plan lessonsin terms of sequencingbuilding
bricks accordingto the maior aspectofeach stage.
Figure 6.4 showsthosebuilding bricks plus othersthat reflect different aspectsof
the learning diagramwe looked at earlier (Figure 6.1).

Input Learning Use

NoteiThe two symbolsin the

Exposureboxesare remindersof ways

w
o r p l a n o i n gr e c e p t i v se k l s l e s s o n s ,

represems rop.downressons Understanding

{see Chapter 10, Section 3)

o representstask based

(see chapter l0, Section2)

Figure 6.4 Expandedlearning diagram

130
 lessoncomponents
3 Sequencing

These bricks are purely a working tool to help you plan. $7hich bricks you choose
to label and use is up to you; there is no magic in the number of them. Maybe
you'd like to add some of the following to your set, as shown in Figure 6.5.

Activities Activities Activities Activities

that promote that promote that promote that promote
'memory 'noticing' 'reflection' 'preparation'

Figure 6.5 Additionalblocks

Whatever the components we choose,we now have a way to plan out a number of
different lesson shapesin a fairly tangible, approachable way.

Alternativesto plesent-practise
Look at the following lesson sequences.
1 C a n y o u i m a g i n eh o w t h e y m i g h t l o o k i n c l a s s ?
2 How do they differ from the present-practise lesson above?

Lesson 1

Clarification: Restricted
Restricted
Ieacner ourpur
ourpur
explanation

Lesson 2

Activities Clarification:
Authentic Restricted
that promote guided
ourpur
exposure 'noticing' discovery

Lesson 3

Activities
Authentic
that promote
'preparation' output

Ire'll saymore about ttreselessoncomponentsin Chapter 7 on grammar.

131
Chapter6 Planningr essons
anocourses

Formal lesson planning

On teachertraining courses,traineesare often expectedto produce a written
lessonplan for eachlessontaught.This is not becauseteachersin the real world
alwaysdo this for everylesson,but as:
. raining in'planning-fiinking'l
. evidenceto your tutors that you havethought about the lesson;
. a chancefor trainersto understandyour thinking and find out how to help you
better if things go wrong in the actuallesson.
Formal plans often divide into three distinct sections:
. backgroundinformation about the class,the teacher,the materialsand the
overallaims of the lesson;
. languageanalysisof items that will be worked on in class;
. a detailedchronologicalstage-by-stagedescriptionofthe intended procedure
for the lesson.
In most formal lessonplans,the following are required:
. a clearstatementof appropriateaims for the whole lesson;
. a clearlist of stagesin the lesson,with a descriptionof activities,their aims and
estimated timing;
and, if it is a lessonthat includeslanguagesystemwork:
. a list of specifictarget languageitems (or a statementabout how and when ther.
will be selected).

EID Aformat ptan

tesson
Figure6.6 showsa samplebackground informationpagefor a lessonwrittenby a
trainee-teacher. lf youwantto try the sameformat,thereis a blank photocopiable
form@Wklcssonplan resourceonlhe DVD),as wellas a shorterversion. you
c a na l s os e ea l e s s o np l a nt o a c c o m p a nt h
y e l e s s o no n t h e D V Di n t n e L e s s o n
obseryatlon section.
R e a di t a n df i n da n s w e rtso t h e f o l l o w i nqgu e s t i o n s :
1 l s t h e t e a c h eor n a t r a i n i n g
c o u r s ea t t h e m o m e n t ?
2 W h i c hl a n g u a gsey s t e m so r s k i l l si s t h e l e s s o nm a i n l yw o r k i n g
on?
3lmagineyouarethetrainerobservingtheclass.W y ohuabtewmi lol s ti n t e r e s t c a
to lookout for?

Teacher's name C el i a

Observer'sname lvlike
Class name Pre-intermed
iate3
Room B7
Date 2 2 n dO c t o b e r
Lessonstart time 7 . 3 0p . m .
Length of lesson 90 minutes

132

Obselvationstart time
Length of obselvation
Obselvation agenda
(observe0
Obselvationagenda
(teacher)
Teachingpoint(ie What
y o uw i l lb e w o r k i n g
onin
termsof language
i t e m s/ s k i l l s . )
Target language items
Main lessonaims
(ie Whatyou hopethe
learnerswill achreve/ be
able to do better after
y o u rr e s s o n . )
E v i d e n c e( i e H o ww i l l
y o u k n o wt h a t t h i s h a s
b e e n a c hi e v e d ? )
Personalgoals (ie What
are you trying to
rmproveIn your own
s k i l l sa s a t e a c h e r ? )
Class plofile
4 Formallessonplanning
7. 4 5 p m
60 minutes
l\4ikesays he is interestedto see how my
c o n f i d e n c eh a s g r o w ns i n c et h e l a s t f o r m a l
observation.
. I d o n ' t f e e l v e r y g o o d a t ' d o i n gg r a m m a r -' s o I ' m
g o i n gt o d o a g r a m m a rl e s s o nf o r t h e o b s e r v a t i o n !
C a ny o u g i v e m e s o m e a d v i c eo n w h a t I ' m g e t t i n g
right and wrong?
. S o m e t i m e sI f e e l t h e p a c e o f t h e l e s s o n sd r a g sa
l l i t . l s i t s o m e t h i n gI ' m d o i n g- o r i s i t t h e
students?
. l \ 4 o n r k a n d G a b is e e m v e r y q u i e t d u r i n gt h e
l e s s o n .C o u l dy o u n o t i c ew h a t t h e y d o ? G i v em e
a n y i d e a s ,c o m m e n t so r s u g g e s t i o n s .
. G r a m m a r / S p e a k i n gG: i v i n ga d v i c ea n d w a r n i n g s
u s i n gT y p e1 c o n d i t i o n a l s
. L e x r s :E v e r y d a yh o u s e h o l do b l e c t sa n d e l e c t r i c a l
items
. lf you touch the dog, it'll bite you.
. lf you use the washing machine after 10 pm, they'll
complain.
B yt h e e n do f m y l e s s o nl e a r n e rw s i l lb e b e t t e ra b l et o :
. g i v ea d v i c ea b o u tl i v i n gi n a h o s tf a m i l y ;
. form accurateoralandwrittensentencesusing
T y p el c o n d i t r o n at lose x p r e s ws a r n i n g so,f f e r s ,
t h r e a t sa n dm a k eb a r d a i nisn c o n t r o l l eedx e r c i s e s .
. S t u d e n tws i l lr e s p o n da c c u r a t e il n
y d r i l l sa n di n
wr'ttenexercises.
. S t u d e n tws i l lb e a b l et o i n v e nst e n t e n c eosf t h e i r
o w nf o l l o w i ntgh e s a m ep a t t e r n
I t e n d t o e x p l a i na l o t ; I ' d l i k et o e i c i t m o r e a n d
g ui d e s t u d e n t st o f i n d i n go u t a b o u tt h e l a n g u a g e .
l \ 4 yd r i l l sa r e r a t h e rd ul l . l ' l l t r y a n d m a k e t h e s e
m o r ed y n a m r c .
1 3 s t u d e n t s( m a i n l yy o u n ga d u l t s ;n i n e f e m a l e ,
f o u r m a l e ) .T h e c l a s s i s a s t r o n gP r e - i n t rem e di a t e
g r o u p ,t h o u g hR e l l ii s n o t i c e a b l yw e a k e ri n g r a m m a r
k n o w l e d g et h a n t h e o t h e r s .T h e c l a s s w o r k sw e l l
together and usually participates actively,though
s o m e a r e q u i e t . l \ y ' i x h a i l g e et sa s r l yd i s t r a c t e da n d
c a n w a s t eo t h e r s ' t i m e .
133
Chapter6Planning
lessonsand courses

Timetablefit Studentshaverecentlybeenworkinga lot on

talkingaboutthe future;talkjngabouthypothetical
eventswill be a usefulnextstep
Assumptions(aboutwhat Studentsknowthe presentsimpleand wil/verbforms
the studentsknow/ relatively
well.
canoo)

Predictedproblems WronEly using wi /'ll in the lf clause.

Pronunciationofthe contracted '// form.

Context(forteaching) Storyof whenI visitedthe UKandstayedin a family.

Matelials used Ownmaterials:oralstory(basedon a storyin
tabrei
g::'::tr;i:i:llilsubstitution exercises
I
Fipre 6.6 Lessonpian

Findingthe right paft of a plan

q trainee
A teacheron an initialtraining
traineete courseis usingthesamebackground
nformationformatfor her plan.Decidewhichheadingsthe followingitemsshould
information
go
gounder.
1 . . Reducing
R e d u c myTTT
. Gettingstudentsto listenmoreto eachother
2 Usedifferentprepositions of placeaccurately in spokenEnglishto describe
-
wherethingsare
33 on the table
on top of the cupboard.
It's nextto the book.
under t h ec h a i r .
opposite the window.
44 Studentsarefamiliarwith somebasichouseholdvocabulary, suchas table,
fridge, eIc
5t . Confusionaboutthe meaningof opposite
. Pronunciation of weakformsto, of, the, eIc
6i A mouseis loosein the house!Whereis it? Frightened husbandwantsto know.
7/ Preposltionsof place: nextto, on, on top of, near,beside, undeLopposite-
8I . Theywill be ableto completethe information-exchange activitysuccessfully.
. T h e y w i lpl r o d u c e t h lea n g u a gaec c u r a t e a
l yn da p p r o p r i a t ei lnyd r i l l sa n di n
responseto questions.
) My ownmaterial:pictureson boaro

134
 5 L e S S O na l m s

Writing a lesson-plan procedure

Once you've written the backgroundinformation, the other essentialpart ofa
plan is a statementof the intended procedureof the lesson.Thisis often done asa
list of separatestages,with indicationsofwhat you will do, what the studentswill
do, how long you expectit to last,what kind ofinteraction therewill be, what the
aims of t}Ie stageare,etc.It is possible,though not essential,to give a name to each
'presentation','practice','feedback',
stage,eg etc.Personally,Ifind numbering the
stagesto be sufficient.
How much detail doesa plan need?! hat are the criteria for whether it is a good
plan or not? I think there'sone key test asto whether your plan is OK or not: could
someoneelse,who hasnot talked with you about the lesson,pick up your plan and
say'Ah, yes- I seeexactlywhat fhe teacherintended' and be ableto go in and
teachyour lessonherselfl
To achievethis, you need a plan that simply and clearlyoutlinesthe intended
stages- in enoughdetail to be 'imaginable'by someoneelse.
Include:
. the essentialstepsofeach stage;
. classroommanagementinformation, such aswhat sort of groupingsyou'Il use,
who will talk, etc;
. things that may be particular problems or hiccups (eg a note about making sure
seatingis in a particular position, the text of a particularly licky insuuction or a
sketchofa difficult board diagram).
For the most part, do not use:
. long prosedescriptionsof everythingthat will happen;
. detaileddescriptionsofroutine actionsthat any competentteacherwould do
naturally on the spot in class,eg'stand up';
. shorthandnotesthat may be too cryptic for a readerto unravel;
. word-for-word texts of all your instuctions and explanations,etc.

Lessonafuns
For everylessonyou teach,and for every activity within that lesson,it is useful to
be ableto statewhat dre aims are,ie what's the point of doing it?What will the
studentsget out ofit? It is important to separatementally:
. the materialyou usel
. the activitiesthat will be done;
. the teachingpoint (ie the languageskills or systemsthat you will work on);
. the topics or contextsthat will be used;
. the aims of the lesson.
On training courses,or when you are being observedby a director ofstudies or
other supervisor,you will often be expectedto offer a clearstatementof aims
before you start teachinga lesson.Thiscan be a useful training discipline,forcing
you to concentate on decidingwhat activitiesand proceduresare most likely to
Chapter6 Planning
lessonsandcourses

lead to specificoutcomesfor the learners.It alsoenablesan observerevaluating

your teachingto make that assessment againstcriteria t}tat you havedecided
yourself (rather than againsttheir own).
But the the detailedformal lessonplan (like the pre-lessonstatementof aims) is
basicallya training tool. Most teachersin their day-to-dayteachingdo not usualll'
make such a formal statementof what they hope to achieve.Sometimesthey ma-v
formulate and changethe aimswhile they are teaching;sornetimeswhat was
achievedmay only really becomeclearafter the lessonhas come to an end.
However, teacherswho have been through a training processthat required
them to do this may be much more aware of why they are doing something in
class.They are probably able to make more informed decisionsbetween
optionsJchoosing the ones that are most likely to lead to a useful result. Most
effecdve teachers,if gently pushed, will be able to explain what they believe
their students have achievedin class.This is an important thing to be able to
do; the writing-out of aims on a training course is one route to help you learn
to do this. The rest of this section is about aims that have been set before a
lesson.
You may have aims ofvarious kinds for the actual running of a lesson,to do
with yourself ('I will tuy to talk less'), to do with the classroom ('I will make sure
the seatingis rearranged appropriately when the activity changes') or to do
with individuals ('I will keep an eye on Maria to check that she isn't getting
lost').The most important aim usually concerns intended student
achievements:things that they will have learned, skills they will have improved,
points they will have reachedby the end ofthe lesson.This is often called the
'main aim' of a lesson.

Procedureaims and achievementaims

Some teachers write aims that are only statements of procedure(ie what students
will do duringthe class) rather than stating what the teacher hopes the students
w i l l a c h i e v eb y d o i n gt h e m . I n t h e f o l l o w i n ga i m s , d e c i d ew h i c ha r e p r o c e d u r ea i m s
a n d w h i c ha r e a c h i e v e m e nat i m s .
1 S t u d e n t sw i l l b e b e t t e ra b l et o a s k a n d a n s w e rs i m o l e i n f o r m a lq u e s t i o n sa b o u ta
p e r s o n ' sl i f e . l i k e s a n d d i s l i k e s .
2 Students will have done a role play about meeting new clients.
3 Students will be better able to use the phone to order food, call a taxi, etc.
4 P r e s e n ta n d p r a c t i s ec o m p a r a t i v e s .
5 Listen to coursebook recording16.4.
6 Students will be better able to assess different people's attitudes when listening
to a Dhone-in d i s c u s s i o no n t h e r a d i o .

Aims 1, 3 and 6 are achievementaims.If you had trouble distinguishingthese,

keepthinking about this questionwhen you read the sectionsbelow.
 c Lessonatms

Achievement aims
Although many aims in traineelessonplans are written asprocedureaims,I feel
that the achievementaim is considerablymore useful for teacherswhen planning.
Imagine a lessonin terms ofa cross-countryhike (seeFigure 6.7).you may not
havebeento this part of the countrysidebefore,but you can still imagne
somethingabout the journey and predict things you needto preparebeforehand.
You know where you probably want to end up, eventhough you perhapscan,t see
the end from the starting point. Gefting to that end point is your main aim.you
may havevarious decisionsto make about the way that you get to that goal:the
speedyou walk at, the route you take,what map you use,where you will rest,what
aids you taketo help you, whether you need a picnic lunch, etc.All thesedecisions
are relatedto the main decisionabout the aim; if this is not clear,the walk could
still be enjoyable,but you will probably passby fewer interestingsires,meera
number of unexpectedproblems,and are more likely to get completelylost.And if
you havebeento this placebefore,you can make better predictionsabout the
excursion,though neverwith 100%chanceofbeing spot-on,dsso many variables
can alter things
oblecrive

Figure 6.7 Gettingto theobjective

A lessonmight involvelearnersindividually readinga text like the one in

Figure 6.8 and writing the answersto somecomprehensionquestions.The
material is the text itself;the activity would be 'learnersreading a text and
answeringquestions'.The teaching point - the subjectmatter of the lesson.in
terms oflanguageskills- is 'reading comprehensionof information or advertising
leaflets'and 'writing answersto questions'.Thetopic is .tourist information'.
The achievernent airn requiresa little more thought.Youknow how the
mechanicsof the activity will work, but why are the learnersdoing it? How will
doing this activiry using this material,help their English?Aims are the resultsof
the lessonfrom the learner'sperspective.It can be helpful to startwith a phrase
like 'By the end of the lesson,the learnerswill have . . .' or ,By the end ofthe lesson,
the learnerswill be better ableto . . .'
Chapter6 Planning
lessonsandcourses

Here aretwo exampleaimsbasedon the readinglessondescribedabove:

. B.vthe end of the lesson,the learnersr.villbe bener ableto find specific
information in tourist information leaflets.
. By the end ofthe lesson,learnersrvill havehad practicein completing timed
exerciseson readingcomprehensionin preparationfor their exam next week.

Shiverat the ancient oubrette- the bottomlesshoie

g 'l0lr ir'! iiS'J CCI;-ii17.-*, whereenemieswereleft to die.
TTIEONARD'T
CAtTtE
Green,nearBostiam.EastSussex
Leonard's
Meet and talk to soldiers in full medievalcostume.
(Jury& August\,v€ekendsonly)
. Explorethe dank,ancientcellars.Willyoumeet the
ghostof Theobald the Lost?
. Cheerat out specialmedievaltournamentson
Sp ng and Autumn bank holidays.
Op€n:
Tue-Sun10:0O-5:OO
lv,larchlst-September 3oth; weekendsonly
October 1st-Novernber 30th)
Discoverone of the best-keptsecrets on the south Closed:
coast. This delightfuland exceptionallywelfpreserved Dec-Feb.Gift Shop and Cafd open allyear except
small castle is a hiddentreasure-houseof history and ChristrnasDay.
legend. Admbsion:
' Marvel at the amazingstoty ofthe castle, i1s .€1-2.95Adurts,t4.95 Children(3-14).
battles,scandals,decline6nd reconstruction, Concessionst8,95,
' Discoverthe cosy family home hidden awayin the Tournaments:t17,0O-no concessions,
old castle kitchen.
. Clirnbthe spiral siarrcasesup the towers to the
'fi1
Dogs welcomeon leads.

ol
battlementsfor thril|]ngviewsoverthe Hamer
Valleyand the South Downs. o\
Figure 6.8 Museum leatlertext

ffi Samematerial,
differentaims
T h e e x a m p l ea b o v eu s e dt h e l e a f l e tf o r t w o q u i t e d i f f e r e n ta i m s . B e a r i n gi n m i n d
t h a t t h e t e x t c o u l d b e u s e d i n m a n yd i f f e r e n tw a y s i n c l a s s , n d i f f e r e n ta c t r v i t i e s ,
w i t h d i f f e r e n ta i m s ,w h i c ho f t h e f o l l o w i n ga i m s c o u l d i t b e a n a p p r o p r i a t ep i e c eo r
m a t e r i a lf o r ?
1 B y t h e e n d o f t h e l e s s o n ,t h e l e a r n e r sw i l l h a v e a c l e a r e ru n d e r s t a n d i n og f t h e
u s e o f i m p e r a t i v ev e r bf o r m s .
2 B y t h e e n d o f t h e l e s s o n ,t h e l e a r n e r sw i l l h a v e h a d p r a c t i c ei n l i s t e n i n g t oa n d
g i v i n gi n s t r u c t i o n s .
3 B y t h e e n d o ft h e l e s s o n , t h e l e a r n e r s wbi lel b e t t e ra b l et o u n d e r s t a nadn d u s e
t h e D a s to e r f e c tt e n s e ,

This aim is possible .The activities you devised for using the material would b -
very different from the ones used rvhen'reading to find spccihc information
was the aim.The activities rvould draw on specific items of language in dre t.
and analyse or focus on them in rval's that made the students clearer about dr-
form, meaning and uses.
This aim may seem inappropriate at a hrst glance, but bear in mind that you
could use thc material in many different rvays.Ifyou devised a role plal-, gir-inc

138
 5 LeSSOnarms

the text to only someof the students(the 'information office') and askrngthe
otler ones(the 'tourists') to hnd the answers,then the aim would be appropriate.
3 This is a much more unlikely aim; I'm sure it would be possibleto invenran
activity that usedthis material and involvedwork on the past perfect,but there
are surelymore obviouspiecesof material to use.
Conclusion so far: a pieceof material can be usedin many ways,in different
activities,with quite different aims.Yourdecisionasto what your aim is will
determinethe way in which you work with the material.With a pieceof text, for
example,if your aim is to improve students'ability to read fast,dten you might set
a time limit to force them to read quickly, or you might turn it into a team game
where quick answerswin points. But ifyour aim is to focus on the use ofa
particular tense,you might want to allow time to discussthe problem, to use the
boardto drawsometimelines,etc

Matchingmaterialto aims
Here are th ree aims for th ree separate activities.Which of the followingpieces of
m a t e r i a l( a , b , c ) m i g h t i t b e p o s s i b l et o u s e i n o r d e rt o a c h i e v ee a c h a i m ?
1 B y t h e e n d o f t h e l e s s o n ,t h e l e a r n e r sw i l l h a v e h a d o r a l p r a c t i c eo f s i x o r s e v e n
examples of the function of apologising.Theywill be better abte to use them
a c c u r a t e l ya n d i n a p p r o p r i a t es i t u a t i o n s .
2 B y t h e e n d o f t h e l e s s o n , t h e l e a r n e r s w i l lh a v er e v i s e dt h e u s e o f i r ) c a s e a n d
p r a c t i s e du s i n gi t o r a l l ya n d i n w r i t i n g .
3 B y t h e e n d o f t h e l e s s o n ,t h e l e a r n e r sw i l l h a v eh a d w r i t t e np r a c t i c ei n u s i n g
going to Io express future events.

M o n a a y4 -

€ €e,& Md+'nen's ttLfih,la')

Seadflou,'?,fi "
Ta*a-c,nf,la u{f 4.3a
pnf q. iir"+ /i"n
,t/u'oQa/)efs
J4JAyry Tueeaay
5
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Wedne7aay 6 9unaa y1 O
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DPnt45.lt 12 15 V+A
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M€ET TO 6PM _ a+a45n cp
,1./4-EkLoO lA"q t4oags
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Lu,ac,hiume - sLtrm
7 30 Y%a a,r,ru^4

Ifyou have a clear aim for a lesson, you can bear this in mind all the way through
the class.Klowing where you are going enables you to make moment-by-moment
decisions about different paths or options to take en route, while keeping the main
aim always clearly in front ofyou (which you are far less free to do ifyou have only
set aims that are descriptions ofintended procedures). Good lesson planning, and
especially good specifying of aims, does not therefore restrict you, but in clarifying
the end point you intend to reach, sets you free to go towards that point in the
most appropdate ways in class.Thus Figure 6.9 complements Figure 6.7 at the
start of this section.

139
Chapter6 Planninglessonsandcourses

abieclive
+

Figure 6.9 Options and objecrives

W Lessonaimsandcontent
L o o ka t F i g u r e6 . 1 0 , s h o w r n ga s a m p l eo f a s t a g e dp r o c e d u r ef o r a 5 0 - m i n u t e
l e s so n .
1 W r i t es o m e m a i n a i m s f o r t h e w h o l el e s s o n .
2 L i s t l a n g u a g ei t e m sy o u t h i n k m i g h tb e w o r k e do n i n t h i s c l a s s .
3 D e c i d ew h a t s o r t o f ' s t o r y ' y o u t h i n k t h e t e a c h e rh a s p l a n n e d .

Stage Plocedure Tasks lnteraction Aims Time

( W h a tt h e t e a c h e r (Whatthe students
willdo) w i l ld o )
L Draw a picture on N a m ei t e m so n T&Sts L e a r n e r sw i l l 6 mins
t h e b o a r do f a picture. u n d e r s t a n da n d
l a n d s c a p e( f o r e s t , Noteand practise b e a b l et o u s e
v i l l a g e s ,r i v e r ,h i l l s ) . l e x t sn e c e s s a r y
rtemsthat are new,
for the story in
E l i c i tv o c a b ul a r y . P r o n onuc el e x i s Stage 3.
w i t hc o r r e cst t r e s s .
2 Use cut-out paper T e l la n d r e m e m b e r T&Sts L e a r n e r sw i l l 12mins
c h a r a c t e r( a n d s t o r yo f t h e w a l k . t e a r na n o
sticky tape to attach Practisesaying
t o b o a r d )t o e l i c i t prepositional prepositional
details of a story of p h r a s es .
a w a l k t h r o u g ht h e
tanoscape,
e s p e c i a l l yi n c l u d i n g
prepositional
phrases (over the
bridge, around the
/ake).Get students
to repeat frequently.
Concept check new
itemsas they
appear.

110
 5 Lessonaims

3 Askstudentsto Studentsnarrate Pairs L e a r n e rw sill 8 mins

r e c a pb ya s k i n g newroute. becomemore
studentsto c o n f i d e nat n d
describea new accurateat using
touIe. Howwould
you get from A to B? language.
1 Writeup ten prompt Studentsread Small L e a r n e rw s illget 12 mins
questions( What's q u e s t i o n sd,i s c u s s groups P r a c t i c es i n g
u
the nameof the togetherand targetlanguage
hero?Wheredoes negotiatetogether morecreatively
theJourneystart?). to inventa new to inventa story.
Askstudentsto story.
drawtheir own
l a n d s c a paen d
inventa story
according to the
p r o m pqt u e s t i o n s .
5 Ask students to Studentsform new Small Learnerspractise 1 2 m i n s
swap groups and g r o u p sS. t u d e n t s groups f o r m i n ga n d
s h o wt h e i r asKyes / no a sK r n g
l a n d s c a p et,h e n q u e s t i o n sS. t u d e n t s
(a) ask yes / no hypothesise. Learnerspractise
q u e s t i o n st o e l i c i t Studentstell narratingstories
s t o r y ; ( b ) h e a rt h e stories, usrngtarget
story from new items.
partner,
Optional: re-swap
partners so that
people have to now
tell a story that was
n o t o r i g i n a l l tyh e i r s .

Figure 6.10 Stagedlessonplan

1 Here are two possiblemain aims:

By the end of my lessonthe studentswill be better ableto . . .
1 narrate a story about a walk through a landscape;
2 describethe rnovementofpeople using prepositionalphrasesmore
accurately.
2 The lessonmight include someof the following languageitems:
Landscapelexis: trees,wood,Jorest,stream,riaer,lake,pond,waterfall,lane, path,
r izterbank,hill, ruountain,ualley,beach,Jield, suburbs,garden,Jence,zoall,island,
bridge,buil.ding,cottage,street,road.
Prepositionalphr asesithroughtherteld,dozanthelane,round thelake,alongthe
rioer bank, by the riaer, around the building, over the wall, dawn theqtath,around the
pond, oaerthe bridge,up to thehouse,under a tree.

141
Chapter6 Planninglessonsandcourses

3 A possiblestory:
Shewalked through thef.eld, down the lane,round the lake and along theriaer bank
Shesat down by the riaerJor a drink from her thermos.
ThensheLoohedaround and sighed.
Shesawa high wall in front of her.
Sheualked all aroundthewall lookingJor a uay in,but shecouldn'tfind one.
So shetooka ladderout o:fherpocket*,leanedit againstthewall and climbedouer.
In the beautifulgarden,sheutalkeddown thepath, around thepond and touards the
house.
A man wassitting at a deskunder a treepl.t4tinga gameon a computer.
Shestoodnext to hhn, watchinghis game,fora long thne.
On the screen,shesawa girl.
Thegirl walked,throughafield, downthelane,roundthelakeand abng theriaer
bank...
+There's no harm in occasionallyshockingyour studentswith a bit of surrealism!
It'll rnakethem askquestions- and there'sa good chancethey'll alwaysremember
ladder afterwards.

Alternatives to forrnal planning

'taditional' formal lessonplan
Justbecauseyou may havebeentrained into using
formats,don't assumethat they are the beginning and end of planning.There may
'aims-plus-procedure'plan.For
be good reasonsfor notusing a standard
example,you may feel:
. you haven't got the time;
the lessonmethodologyyou wish to use cannot easilybe characterisedusing
this formag
it doesn't seeman economicor helpful way of describinga lesson'sway of
working;
it might restrict your freedom to respondto learnersin class;
the lessoncontent and / or aim will emergeduring the classrather than being
pre-decided;
your priority is to createa specificatmosphere,a certaintype ofrapport, etc;
you want to experimentor work on specificaspectsofyour teaching.
Here are someideasfor other approachesto planning. You may ljke to choose
or more and try them when preparing lessons.

A brief 'running order'

The simplesttype oflessonplan, and one usedby many teachers,is a basic
'running order' of activities,perhapswith a note ofspecihc languagepoints or
materialsthat will be used (seeFigure 6.11).This plan hasthe advantageof
somethingyou can do on the bus in to work or on the back ofan envelopein the
staffroom hve minutes before going into class!

142
 to formalplanning
6 Alternatives

1 @ <--
ne)
7 ,rd,-.,
CoAed as fu'roc* sPwr'h 611board
3 PARS t'-ttrn utf,r; roportld speach (ttrte)
uP - t!1L eark o-flte.rakar*l,astrughLusulg
+ STAND
faPdra'ng \lerDs
5 Focus

uu (/)uKsE6oo
/^ i^
o ^*
K oy . 3 .1+
7 Ftl/e,rga.rne- {ur*ous q/'of.atL(ns Qft'-";
Figure 6.11 Informalrunningorder

Flow chart
!7rite your procedurenotesin sketchboxes,rather than in traditional linear
down-the-pagefashion.Show a variety ofdifferent possiblerunning orders
and routesthrough the stagesby drawing lines betweendifferent boxes
(seeFigure6.12).

b dafio il./.,ter'ri?N
ngsclt(r+ oaet)

rl sfu&rts n;rr;d - 3o or
to gbbelis<horl
witl irrtewiew'tbfic aditg +e*l

Figure 6.12 Flowchart

Dream through the lesson
Don't write anlthing. Repeatedlyimagineyour way through the lesson,perhaps
with your eyesclosed.Think up possibledifferent routesthat you might initiate -
or that learnersmight. Seewhere eachleads.(You might want to try this iust
before you fall asleepat night!)
Focus on the 'critical learning rnoments'
Rather than planning the entirelessonprocedure,before classdecideon a number
ofspecific key things you hope learnerswill gain from the class(eg being ableto
pronounce a set ofnew words well, being ableto replay a difficult recording until

143
 lessons
chapter6Planning andcourses

they canunderstandthe main message.).For eachof these,decidewhat the

'critical learning moment' will probably be, ie which thing you or they do (lasting
no more dran 30 seconds)that is likely to make the most significantimpact on
their success- and why.Think through eachof thesemomentsvery carefully.
Even if you are writing a formal lessonplan, you may still firrd it useful to mark
critical momentswith 'C' and perhapsgive more detailedinformation about how
thesewill be dealtwith.

Half-plan
This idea is for more experiencedteachers,or odrerswho feel confident
about their own language awarenessand of their ability to quickly think of
mini-activities.Put your energyinto planning how your classwill do skillswork
(eg reading,speaking,etc). Don't plan any languagesystemswork (eg lexis,
grammar, etc). In class,spontaneouslywork on languageissuesasthey come up if
they areuseful,interestingand appropriatefor students.
NB 'Work on' doesn'tjust mean 'explain' - can you invent on-the-spotpractlce
tasksaswell?

Where's the rneat?

'teachingpoints' for your lesson.Go back and list the inherent
List the main
'challenges'in eachofthese for the studentsyou are working with:
. Ifhat do you expectthem to find important, diffrcult, or hard to pick up?
. lfhere will they makemistakes?
. \7hat mistakesand problems are likely?
'challenge'.(NB this referr
Focus 95% ofyour planning on paying anention to this
to the challengein the teachingpoints themselves,not in the activitiesor tasksyou
useto focus on them.) Decide on your teachingsffategiesto'getto where the
learnino iq onino nn'

Plan the 'critical teaching moments'

'cri.tical moments'
Which instructions, explanations, feedback stages,etc will be
for you, the teacher,which may needto be preparedin detailin advance?

Lesson irnages
Draw sketchpictures of the classat severalkev momentsin the lesson.Show
learnersand teacherare doing. (Not appropriatefor a'sit down and write all the
time'kind of lesson.)

The iungle path

. . . or perhapsdon't plan anlthingl
Most lessonsinvolveyou pre-planning a sequenceof activities,predicting what
languageareaswill be worked on, what problems are likely to ariseand what the
studentsmav achievein the lesson.An alternativeaDproachwould be to not
predict and prepare so much, but to createthe lessonmoment by moment rn
with you and learnersworking widr whateveris happeningin the room,
respondingto questions,problemsand options asthey come up, and hnding

144
 to formalplanning
6 Aliernatives

activities) materials and tasks in response to particular situations.The starting

point mrght be an activity or a piece of material, but what comes out of it will
remain unknown until it happens. You are working more with the people in the
room than with your material or your plan.
I imagine a group ofpeople hacking their way through the jungle towards new
experiences, new learning. Sometimes the teacher may lead, sometimes the
students. Everyone would be encouraged to think, make connections, ask
questions and draw conclusions for themselves.
The main pre-planning for a lesson ofthis kind would involve you using your
knowledge ofthe learners and of the available resources to choose some activities
and materials that are likely to prove challenging and raise important questions
and issues.You would have an intuitive sense ofvarious potential links between
activities, based partly on previous experiences ofthe outcomes oflessons using
similar activities.
In class, some of these activities and materials may be used, some not. You may
also feel the need to find other materials as the lesson proceeds, some from a
coursebook, some from your head, some from the staff-room library. Although
you may be clear about a number ofpossible directions the lesson might take, it
will be impossible for you to state the lesson's aims until after it has finished.
After a lesson like this, many teachers are surprised to find that they come out
feeling that they have taught particularly well; this may be to do with the fact that
they have had to listen and respond to sflrdents far more carefully than tiey
usually do.
Here is an example lesson description;

LessonA
1 You take a communication game (concerning different atdtudes to smoking)
in Loclass.The 'rudenrs do riis in pairs.
2 \Vhen they have finished, some students ask about some language problems
they had.The students discuss and work out some answers to the problems.
3 You invent a quick practice exercise that \\'ill focus on one ofthe language
points that arose.
4 \X/hen that has finished, a student asks about the pronunciation of some words
in the exercise.You work through some examples on the board and then tell
them to turn to a page in fheir coursebook u'here there is a game to help raise
students' awareness ofword stress.The class decides that thel' don't want to do
this now, but will do it for homework.
5 Some students remind you that they har.'en'tyet discussed smoking as a u'hole
class and they d like to hear what some of the rest of the class thought, etc.
Here are three common examples of a'jungle path'lesson where you start without
any materials:

Lesson B
You ask I1ozuzuasthe weekend?(or a similar question) and, after listening to a
number ofanswers,lead this into a discussion based on something a student said.
At some point, you select particular items oflanguage that a student has used,
focus on these (perhaps considering grammar or pronunciation), invent a simple
exercise that will help students work on thrs, etc.

145
Chapter6 Planning
lessonsandcourses

Lesson C
A studentasksa questionat the start of the lesson.Thisleadsinto somework on
the board (perhapsyou setthe classa problem to soLvethat will help to clarify the
languagedifficulty).\ hile the studentsareworking on the puzzle,you go to the
staffroom and collect a further exerciseon the samelanguagearea.Youretum
and offer the studentsthe new exercise,but they saythey feel clearnow about the
languageitem. However,there is anotherquestionwhich has ar.isen. . .
The final exampledemonstrateshow a competentand confident teachermight
hand over responsibilityand decision-makingentirely to dre class:
Lesson D
You start the lesson by asking \Y,41at
shall wework on todalt?You then wait while the
classdecides,taking carenot to manipulatethem into deciding somethingthat
you want them to do. Once the decisionsare made,you do whateveryou have
been askedto do.
The 'jungle path' lessoncan look artlessto an observer,yet to do it successfully
requiresexperience.It is not simply a 'chat' or an abdicationofresponsibility,
though in inexperiencedhandsit might well be simply a muddle and a 'lazy'
alternative to careful planning. In fact, for a competent teacher, it involves working
minute by minute with the class,activelyplanning and replanning asyou go,
constantly basing the work around the students and their needs,statements,
problems,questions,etc.
rWrhendoing this, you needto be awareboth of the peoplein the room and of the
wide variety ofoptions open to you.You needto be ableto make decrsions,
moment by moment, about which route is the best one to follow.Youneed to be
familiar with all the resourcesof material and information availableto vou.
The need for teachingexperienceand awarenessofresourcesavailablesuggests
that lessonsof this type are more appropriatefor teacherswho are alreadyfairll'
competentin planning and executingmore traditional lessons.For this reason,it
the Iessonyou don't normally learn to do on teacher-trainingcoursesl

Planning a course
I can plan a lesson.But how can I plan a da1t,a week,a ruonth,a term,a year?
There are two main considerations:
. \7hat will I teach (ie what is the syllabus) ?
. How will the separateitemsbe sequenced(ie what is the work plan or timetabk

What will I teach?

On a day-to-daybasis,there are a variety ofreasonsfor the selectionoflesson
content.

Selecting lessoncontent
Lookat the followinglist of reasons.Whichseemto youthe most importanton6
considerwhenselectingcontentto workon?
a I ' mf o l l o w i nag r e q u i r e sdc h o osl y l l a b u s .
b lt's the Ianguage featuredin the nextcoursebook unit.
c Thestudentsrequestedit on a NeedsAnalysisform.

146
 7 Planning
a course

d T h em a i nc l a s st e a c h e a r s k e dm et o d o i t .
e I u n d e r s t a nt d h i sb i t o f g r a m m am r yself!
f I t h i n kt h i sw i l lb e u s e f ufl o rt h e m .
T h i si s a p p r o p r i a ft o
e rt h e i rl e v e l .
h A s t u d e nh
t a sa s k e dm e a b o u ti t .
I I a l w a y tse a c ht h i s i t e ma t t h i s p o i n ti n t h e c o u r s e .
j I don'twantto workon the languageitemthe bookhas next.
k I've noticedthat the studentsseemto needthis structure.
I I l i k et e a c h i n tgh i s l a n g u a giet e m .
m We negotiatedandagreedthat we wouldstudythis now.
n I t h i n kt h e ym i g h te n j o ym y l e s s o na b o u t h i s .
o T h e yh a v ep r o b l e mw s i t ht h i s .

There are many valid reasonsfor choosingwhat to teach.I would tend to value
thosethat direcdy respondto learnerneeds(eg'I think this will be useful for
them') over thosethat are only (or primarily) following a pre-setlist (eg'It's the
languagefeaturedin the next coursebookunit'). Having saidthat, many teachers
work in contextswhere they are expectedto work on specificthings on certain
days.In someschools,for example,the managementmay evenrequire that
different classeswork on the sameareasin lessonsat the sametime.

The syllabus
A syllabusprovides a long-term overview.It lists the ccntentsofa courseand puts
the separateitems in an order. In someschools,the syllabusmay simply be the
coursebook-'Get to Unit 17 by half term'- whereasin others,theremay be a
much moredetailedrequirement.
A syllabuscan be mainly grammaticalor functional or lexical.Alternatively,it may
be basedon skillswork (eg speakingand listening),or it may contain a mixture of
work on systemsand skills.Somesyllabusesdescribecoursecontent in terms of
topics or tasks.
Having a syllabuscan be a greathelp, settingout clearlywhat you are expectedto
coverwith your class.It can be a burden,too, if it is unrealisticfor your studentsin
terms of what they need or are likely to achievewithin a certain time.

Yoursyllabus
What syllabus are you currentlyworkingto? ls it prescriptive?detailed?
non-existent?useful? How does it affect what you do? Who decided on it?
H o w m u c h s a y h a v ey o u h a d i n i t ? H o w m u c h s a y h a v ey o u r s t u d e n t sh a d ?

The Common European Frarnework

An important document calledthe CommonEuropeanFramework(CEF),
publishedby the Council ofEurope, hashad a lot ofinfluence over syllabusdesign
in Europe.It describespossiblecoursecontent in terms ofwhat learnersneed to
do with languageto communicatein the realworld, a radical departurefrom
many syllabusesthat describewhat peopleneed to know. The CEF organisesthe
content into a clearlydefined level system.With more schoolsand educational
Chapter6 Planning
lessonsandcourses

establishmentstaking up the CER it now provides a common basisfor discussion

and reform in languageteaching,coursedesign,testingand materialswriting.
From the students'perspective,there is more chancethat the level and
qualificationthey achievein one country will be understood in any other country
they go to.
Tirnetables and work plans: how reill the teaching content be
sequenced?
In schoolmanagement,timetabling refersto the preparation (by a headteacher,
head of department or director of studies)of an overviewmasterplan ofwhich
classesare with which teachersin which rooms at which times.
For a teacher,timetabling refersto the day-to-day,week-to-weekdecisions
about how to interpret a syllabusinto a seriesoflessons.Youcould alsocall this a
work plan or a scherne ofwork. It is usuallywholly or partly the teacher'sjob.
The processof making a work plan typically involveslooking at a schoolsyllabus
or a coursebookcontentspageand trying to map out how you will coverthe
content in the time available,ie selectingitems from the syllabusand writing them
as a datedlist, under headingsor by placing into appropriatespaceson a blank
timetablegrid (ie a diagrammaticor diaryJike pagerepresentinga day,weekor
month with spacesfor lessonnotes).The work plan is your translationof the
syllabusrequirementsinto a balancedand interestingseriesoflessons.
S?orkplans are usuallywritten out in advance,preparedby the teacherresponsiblc'
for teachinga subjectwith a particular class.Youmay be required to show it to
your supervisoror head ofdepartment, and you may haveto get formal approval
for what you intend to do (someschoolsrequire them months ahead).In some
places,a head ofdepartment or director ofstudies may provide you with a pre-
written work plan, though this is unusual.Ifyou are not required to hand in a work
plan far aheadof time, you havethe option ofworking it out in negotiationwith
your class.In someschools,you may be expectedto fill in retrospectivework plans
showingwhat you actuallytaught, rather than what you intended to teach.
A work plan enablesother teachersto understandwhat work is being done in your
class.The information it providesmay be especiallyimportant if anotherteacher
sharesyour classwith you, ifyou are ill or absentone day,or ifyour manageris
concernedabout your classin any way.It is alsouseful for your studentsto see
what they will be doing.The work plan should give othersa clearidea ofwhat
work wasplanned for a particular lessonand alsoshow how that fits into the
overallshapeofthe weekand the course.
A work plan may be more or lessdetailed:
. A skeleton work plan lists only generalheadingsor labels(egTuesday9.00
listening; 10.30grammar and speaking)or perhapscoursebookpagenumber.
This type ofwork plan is usedfor planning the overallshapeof a week or
course;it helpsto ensurethat there is balanceand variety in a course.
. A detailed work plan containsmore information, specifyingexactlywhat is
to be done (eg'input on presentperfect simple plus oral practiceusing
coursebookUnit 7E; listeningExercise3, page 56'). A detailedwork plan is ft :
your own planning, for keepingan accuraterecord of the courseand for
informing others (eg your director or anotier teacher)about what you are
doins in class.

148
 7 Planning
a course

W skeletonplans
Interpreting
Figure6.13 showstwo excerptsfrom differentskeletonworkplanspreparedfor a
mid-leve E n g l i s cho u r s ew i t hy o u n ga d u l t sw h on e e dE n g l i s fho rg e n e r a l
f ul l l - t i m e
a n ds o c i a pl u r p o s e sE. v a l u a tteh et w ow o r kp l a n st,h i n k i n ga b o u t :
1 w h e t h e r y owu o u l db e c o m f o r t a b lues i n gi t a s y o u r o w nw o r kp l a n ;
2 w h a tc o n c l u s i o nyso uc a nd r a wa b o u tw r i t i n gw o r kp l a n sf o r a c o u r s et h a t m i g h t
h e l py o up l a ny o u ro w n .

Workplan1 Monday Tuesday

9.OO-10.30 Grammar Grammar
Vocabulary Vocabulary
10.30-12.00 Grammar Grammar
Vocabulary Vocabulary
1.30-3.00 Pronunciation Writtenexercise
Grammar Grammar
S p e a k i n gg a m e Song

Workplan2 Monday Tuesday

9.00 10.30 Sp e ak i n g G r a m m a(rr e v i e w

y e s t e r d a yw
' so r k )
(coursebook)
Listening
V o c a b u l ag
r ya m e S p e a k i n g r: o l e p l a y

10.30-12.00 Grammar L i s t e n i n(gr a d i on e w s )

Pronunciation R e a d i n g( n e w s p a p e r )

C h e c kh o m e w o r k

1.30-3.00 L i s t e n i n(gs o n g ) ( p r e p a r i nag

Writing
classnewsletter)
Speaking

Figure 6.13 Work plans1 and 2

\fork plan 1 looks problematic.It is clearlybiasedstronglytowardswork on

languagesystems,and especiallytowardsgrammar and vocabulary.rwork
on the skillsof listening,speaking,reading and writing is minimal or non-existent.
The lastlessonof the day seemsto include a gameor a songasa sort of'bonus' or
'extra' rather than integratingspeakingand listeningwork into the course.
rWhereassomeelementof systematicwork and routine can be benehcial,there
doesseemto be a very predictableshapeto fhis course (ifit's nine o'clock, it must
be gramrnar),that could prove demotivatingin the long run.

149
Chapter6 Planning
lessonsandcourses

Conclusion 1: a balanceofactivities on a timetableis important. Include work on

languageskillsand languagesystemsin appropriateproportions for your
snrdents'needs.
Conclusion 2: variety is useful. Choosevaried topics and include varied activities.
Don't always start the day with the samekind of work.
Both of theseproblems seemto find someanswersinWorkplan 2.There is an
interestingbalanceofwork on skillsand systems;there is variety,both in terms of
what is done and when it is done;there is alsosome senseofseparateactivities
adding up to somethingbigger- for example,in the three relatedactivitiesbased
around 'news'.There is attentionto links betweenwork done on different days
(the homework checking,for example,or the review of the previous day,swork).
If the aims of the courseare in the areaof ,generalEnglish,,then this timetable
seemsto offer more chanceof achievingthem than the mainly grammar and
lexis-basedprogramme of\7ork plan 1.
Conclusion 3:it is important to plan activitiesthat will add to a senseof movins
forward; ofgrowing achievementand progress.
Conclusion 4: it is essentialto considerthe aims ofa course;a courseleadingto a
wnften grammar exam will have very different timetables from a general English
course,

A task-basedplan
Figure6.14 showsa differentkindof skeletonworkplanfor a similarcourse.
1 H o w d o e si t d i f f e r f r o mt h e t w oy o uh a v e j u s lto o k e da t ( F i g u r 6e . 1 3 ) ?
2 Howdo MondayandTuesdaydiffer?

Work plan 3 Monday

9.00-10.30 Introduce
task. I n t r o d u ctea s k .
Languagehelpand L a n g u a ghee l pa n dp l a n ni n g .
planning. Reviewandfeedbackon task.

10.30-12.00 Reviewand feedback on Introducereal-world

1.30-3.30
Figure 6.14 Work plan 3
task.
task. Task.
Researchto enrich task Readfollow-upmaterial.
performance. Listento competentlanguage
L a n g u a g eh e l p a n d usersdoingtask.
reprann Ing.
Listento competent
languageusersdoing
IASK.
R e p e atta s k . Introducereal-world task.
Reviewand feedback on Task.
task. Readfollow-upmaterial.
Follow-up reading. Language reviewandfeedback
o nt a s k .
Repeattask.

150
 7 Planning
a course

This is an interestingvariation.Insteadof listing languageskillsand systems,it

plansthe daysin terms ofpreparation for and undertaking ofreal-world tasksplus
follow-on stages.In other words, it is thinking about languagestudy in terms of
things the learnersmight do in real life (examplesof real.-worldtasksmight
include 'phoning and askingfor information', 'askingfor directionsand hnding a
location' , 'making a short public speech'or'writing a job applicationletter';.
On Monday, the whole day is given over to a long cyclebasedaround a single
major task.OnTuesday,a number of shortertask cyclesare done.The selection
and sequenceofstagesin eachcaseis a litde different.

IIow can you go about rnaking a detailed work plan?

Preparing a work plan can seema very daunting challenge- tiere are so many
factorsto considerand evaluate.You'llneedto draw on all your knowledge,skills
and intuition to make it work. Figure 6. 15 showsone possibleeleven-stepmethod
for planning. It startsby making a skeletonand then expandson this to make a
more detailedplan.

L Declde the Decidehowlongyouwantto planfor (thewholecourse?

duratlon oneweek?a term?).
2 Consultthe l f y o u h a v ea s y l l a b u s c, o n s ul t i t t o s e e t h e i n t e n d e d
syllabus c o u r s ec o n t e n t .C h e c kw h a t w o r k h a s n o t b e e nd o n e ,
3 Review R e v i e wa n y N e e d sA n a l y s i sd a t a y o u h a v eg a i n e df r o m
lealnerneeds y o u rs t u d e n t s ,
4 Decide the Writedowna numberofthingslearners shouldachievein the
aims course(orpartofthe course): thesearethe courseaims.
5 Choose the D e c i d ei f y o uw a n tt o p l a ni n t e r m so f ( a )l a n g u a g e
components s y s t e m sa n ds k i l l s ,( b )t a s k s ,( c )s o m e t h i negl s e( e g
examitems?texts?tooics?).
6 Preparea grid D r a wa b l a n kg r i ds h o w i n tgh e n u m b eor f l e s s o n sy o u
h a v et o p l a nf o r .E a c hg r i dc e l ls h o u l dh a v ee n o u g hs p a c e
f o ry o ut o w r i t ei n s o m el e s s o ni n f o r m a t i o n .
N,4on Tue T h u Fri Mon Tue Thu Fri

9.30
11.30
2.15

7 Make cards C u t u p a n u m b e ro f r e c t a n g l e so f p a p e r ,e a c ht h e s a m e
s i z ea s t h e c e l l s .
8 Select for your
T h i n ko f s o m e a c t i v i t i e st h a t a r e a p p r o p r i a t e
activities l e a r n e r sa n d h e l p l e a dt o w a r d st h e c o u r s ea i m s y o u s e t .
Write these down, one item to each piece of paper.

151
Chapter6 Planninglessonsandcourses

t s k e l e t o nt i m e t a b l e .
; o n e b y o n e a n d w r i t ei n a m o r e d e t a i l e d
r t y o u i n t e n dt o d o o n t h e t i m e t a b l eg r i d

Figure 6.15 Elevenstepsto planning a workplan using a blank timetablegrid

The detailed timetable shown in Figure 6.16 is based around tasks and was
planned using this method. It directly reflects some wishes and needs mentioned
by students.rX/hen you read it, decide:
. whether it seems to provide coherent, balanced days;
. whether you think planning work around tasks might be more useful to you
than planning around language systems and skills.

Work plan 4 Monday Tuesday

9.00-10.30 Discuss differences between P l a na p o s s i b l ec l a s s
v a r i o u sl o c a t i o n si n t h e w o r l d . newsletter.
Readtexts and compare
l i f e s t y l e si n t h e s e p l a c e s .

1 0 . 3 0 - 1 2 . 0 0 Decide on criteria for C o m p a r ea r a n g eo f p u b l i s h e d

c h o o s i n ga h o l i d a y C
. h o o s ea magazinesand notice features
h o l i d a yb y r e a d i n gb r o c hu r e s y o u c o u l du s e i n y o u ro w n
and advertisements. magazine.

Write a bookingform for a W r i t ea n e w s l e t t e a

r rticle.
h o l i d a ya n d c a r h i r e .

D e a lw i t h p r o b l e m sa n d r e a c h R e a da n d g i v ef e e d b a c ko n
a satisfactory outcome. o t h e rs t u d e n t s 'a r t i c l e s .
1.30-3.00 B u ya t r a i nt i c k e t( r o l ep l a y s ) . Usethe Internetto researchso{
jokes to add to the newsletter

F i n dy o u rt r a i n b y l i s t e n i n gt o Preparea final draft of the

s t a t i o na n n o u n c e m e n t s . newsletter.

lvleetand socialise with other

g u e s t sa t y o u r h o t e l .

Figure 6.16 Workplan 4

152
 7 PlanninE
a course

!7ork plan 5 (Figure 6.17) is a more traditional one,basedon systemsand skills.It

was written by a teacherin Spain who meetsher classfor two hours eachweek on
aTuesdayevening;this timetablecoversone month, the secondmonth of a six-
month coursefor adults who want to improve their generalEnglish for a variety of
reasons(but no one is planning to take an exam).Their levelis Elementary (ie
they are not beginners;they know a number ofstructures and can createa number
of sentencesthemselves,though often inaccurately).

Understanda work plan

P l a c et h e f o l l o w i n gi t e m s i n t o o n e o f t h e n u m b e r e ds p a c e so n t h e w o r k p l a n .
a S p e a k i n g i:n g r o u p s ,t h e y d e s i g nt h e i r i d e a lh o m e .
b S t u d e n t sd o o r a l p a i r w o r k a c t i v i t y : ' F i n d i n g o u t a b o u t w h a t t h e y ' v e d o n e i n t h e i r
lives'.
c C l a s sd i s c u s s i o na b o u tt h e c o u r s es o f a r .
d S t u d e n t s ,i n g r o u p so f t h r e e ,c o m p a r eh o w t h e y s p e n tt h e l a s t w e e k ,f i l l i n gi n a
diary for the other group members.

Work plan 5

Week 5
T a l k i n ga b o u te x p e r i e n c e tsh e s t u d e n t sh a v e h a d :c l a s s d i s c u s s i o n .
Teacherfocus on use of present perfect; clarifyform and use.

l _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U n i t C 6 : s t u d e n t sd o l i s t e n i n gE x e r c i s e3 a n d w r i t t e nE x e r c i s e7 .
H o m e w o r kk: e e p a s i m p l ed i a r yt h i s w e e k .

Week6
T e a c h eurs e sc l o c kt o r e v i s et e l l i n gt h et i m ea n dt a l k i n ga b o u t h et i m e( f o u r
l e s s o n sa g o ) .
Teacherasks studentsfor anyotherexpressions involving time theyknow(write,
eg 'at the weekend'on board;focuson use of on, in, at\.
2......................
UnitC1O:studentsdo writtenExercise3-
G a m e p: a s tp a r t i c i p lqeu i z( r e v i s i nlga s tl e s s o n ) .
H o m e w o r kU:n i tC 1 0 E x e r c i s e1s, 2 .
Week 7
Vocabulary:around the house. Use large poster to find out which words they
k n o wa n d w h i c hw o u l db e u s e f u lt o l e a r n .
: t u d e n t sm u s t f i l l i n t h i s i n f o r m a t i o no n a p i c t u r eo f t h e h o u s e .
L i s t e n i n gS

Week 8
4 ......................
Negotiating / planningthe nextmonth.
Studentsworkin groupsto writea test that theywilltake nextlesson.
L i s t e n i n gp:o ps o n g T
. a s k l: i s t e na n df i l l i n t h e b l a n ks p a c e si n t h e t e x t .

Figure 6.17 \7ork plan 5

153
Chapter6 Planninglessonsandcourses

1b 2d 3a 4c
Activity (b) seemsto go well with gramnar work on the presentperfect tense,so
space1 is appropriate.Similarly,activity (d) will offer a number of opporrunities
to practiseusing the time expressionsstudiedin week 6's lesson(space2) The
'home designing'activity links in with the other activitiesin week7.The
discussionabout the courseso far would make a good starting point for
planning the following month.

Topic-based work plans

Many teachersplan a day's- or a week's-work around a singletopic,looking for
waysto link the courseaims with the ongoing theme.Having a singletheme may
help to give a senseofcoherenceto the work.This can help you find good ideas'as
'any idea' for teachingsomething,you can focus your
insteadof strugglingto find
creativethinking onto a specifictopic area.For example,the topic of'celebrities'
might allow you to incorporate a number ofuseful lessonsthat focus on skills,
systemsand real-life tasks,eg:
. Grammar: presentperfect- sayingwhat celebritieshavedone / haven't done in
their lives;
. Speaking:discussion:'Is it good to be famous or not?';
. \ riting: writing a fan letter to a star;
. Reading:biographyofa celebriryl
. Lexis: items connectedwith a luxury lifestyle.
Choosingteaching content for a topic area
' m o n e y 'w i t h a g e n e r a lE n g l i s hc l a s s a r o u n d
Y o ua r e g o i n gt o u s e t h e t o p i c o f
E l e m e n t a r yl e v e l .W h a tt e a c h i n gc o n t e n tc o u l dy o u u s e t h a t w i l l l i n k n e a t l yw i t h t h i s
t he m e ?

IJnrealistic requirements
Teachersare often facedwith planning a coursewhen there are syllabus
requirementsthey don't agreewith or teachingmaterialthat they don't like.Thert
is a fine balancebetweendoing what you are required or expectedto do and doing
what you believeis appropriate,useful or needed.
There is obviouslyno single,magic answerto problems of this kind. However,ir I
often possibleto do what is expectedofyou, to reachthe goalsyou havebeentolJ
to reach,to usethe pagesof the book you havebeentold to use,to get students
through teststhey needto pass,to make the end point of the lesson,the day' the
courseexactJywhere it is supposedto be,but still to make the journey there
surprising,interestingand exciting.The parabolaendsup at the samepoint, bul
follows a much more interestingroute.
Someexamples:
. Your bosshas told you that the only aim ofyour courseis to get studentsto Pa-
a (very boring) written grammar and essayexam at the end of term.
The stuaightline approachis to spendall the classtime doing grammar and
written work.The parabolais to follow a balancedsyllabusthat includesa lot of
speaking,listeningand other skillswork ofall kinds, aswell asgrammar and
154
 8 Unrealistic
reouirements

vocabulary.Sometirnesthe parabolais the shortestroad; you may find that the

studentsmake much better progressand get better resultsthan studentswho only
follow the strarght line .
. You havebeentold that you must'do' two pagesofthe coursebookevery
day.
The whole book must be coveredby the end of the term.
The strarght line would be to work tlrough everlthing in the coursebook asit is
wrinerl doing each exercisein order, in the way that the coursebook writer tells you
to.The parabolais to usethe two pageseveryday asrequired,but reallyexploiting
them using them asresourcematerial,inspiration.Changethe order! Get students
to crossout bor.ingexercises!Designbetter picturesfor a text! Debatewith the
studentshow to usethe book! Agreewith studentsto speedthrough six pagesin
one day (and free yourself for two days)! Supplement with lots of your own
goodies!Turntexts into dictations,information gaps,listenings,games,etcr
Straightlines are boringl Be bold - travel by parabola!Don't assumethat an edict
from abovecompletelyclosesdown all your options.

155
 Ghapter7 Teachinggrammar
This chapter examineswhat we meanby grammaras well aslooking at a numb€,
of different waysto approachthe teachingofgramrnar.

What is grarnmar?
For many years,'learning the grammar' has assumeda centralrole in students,
expectatonsabout what learning a languageinvolves.Nowadays,however,there
are many different viewsabout what learnersneed to learn and how best to so
about teachingit.
Here are somekey questionsconcerningteachinggrammar:
. I(trat is grammar?
. How do peoplelearn grammar)
. How can I analyseform, meaning and use for teachingpurposes?
. \X/hatare possiblecomponent parts of a grafimar lesson?
. How can I provide relevantinput for learners?
. How can I help learnersnotice,understandand memoriselanguage?
. How can I help learnerspractiseusing language?
But beforewe decidehow we can teach grammar,perhapsour first issueshould
be to work out exactlywhat exactlywe mean by.grammar,.

Defininggrammar
W h e nt h i n k i n ga b o u t t e a c h i nt h
g e g r a m m aor f a f o r e i g nl a n g u a g ew,h i c ho f t h e s e
d e f i n i t i o nosf ' g r a m m a rs'e e m sm o s ta p p r o p r i a t e ?
a Rulesaboutsentenceformation,tenses,verbpatterns,etc in a referencebook
b Themoment-by-moment structuringof whatwe sayas it is beingspoken
c E x e r c i s e(se gf i l l i n t h e g a p ,m u l t i p l ec h o i c ea) b o u t t e n s e se,t c
d O u ri n t e r n a'ld a t a b a s ea' s t o w h a ta r e p o s s i b l e o r i m p o s s i b lsee n t e n c e s

I thint all ofthese are arguablyvalid descriptionsof something.grammar-like,

IThen thinking of 'grammar', many peopleprobably first picture a book full of
explanationsand rules that tell them which verbshavewhat endings,how to use
adverbs,how to make a superlative,etc.That's certainly one kind of grammar,
it's not really what we are talking about when we saythat we are ,teaching
grammar'.Let's try a diflerent stardngpolnt.
Imagine my friend Leona startssaying Yesterda3t
afternooz1... . \fhat,s the next
word going to be?Can you predict possiblewords that might come next?Maybc
you think she's going to describe an action or something she did (so the next
mrghtbe wentor sawor brokeor met,etc).Or maybeyou imagineher describing
somethingthat didn't happen (so her next word might be didn,t or couldn't,etc).
How wereyou ableto make suchpredictions?You could do it becauseyou had a
sort ofmental list ofpossible patternsof English.you were ableto look, even
without thinking about it, at this internal collectionof information and know u,hl

156
 1 Whatis srammar?

sort ofwords werepossibleand, also,what kinds ofwords were not possible.For

exampleJyou are probably quite surethat Leona didn't sayYesterday afternoonI
green. . . . Similarly,sheprobably didn'tsay Yesterday afternoonI meet... .In
grammaticalterms,we might saythat the next word could be a verb (eg sazu)or an
auxiliary verb (eg dldz'r).!7e could alsosaythat the next word wouldn't normally
be an adjective(eggreen).$7e alsoexpectrhat,whareverthe word is, it will be in a
form that follows certain other guidelines;for example,if we are talking about the
past OlesledaJr),then the verb form will normally be in a past tense.
This, ofcourse,is the kind ofinformation you'll find systematicallyarrangedin a
gramrnarreferencebook,or maybein a simplihedform in a book forlearners.And
it's the sort of thing that grammar exercisespractiseand test.However,insteadof
being a dry record of factsand rules,the information in your head is a living
resourcethat allowsyou to communicateand be understood.For this reason,
learningrulesin a grammarbook by heartis probablynot'learning grammar'.
Similarly,reciting grammar rules by heart may not be 'understandinggrammar'.
Even doing testsand exercisesmay not necessarilybe'learning grammar'.There
is actuallyno hard evidencethat any ofthese things lead to peoplebeing ableto
use grammar accuratelyand fluently in speech.These things are only useful if
there is someway tlat studentscan transfer this studiedknowledgeinto a living
ability to usethe language.Theinformation is not in itself of much use.In real life,
peoplerarely come up to you and say'Pleasetell me about conditionals.'
ScottThornbury, in his book Uncoztering Grammal,has suggestedthat we could
open up our conceptof 'grammar' if we start thinking ofit asnot just a noun
(ie the information), but asa verb aswell (ie the activeskill ofusing language).It's
probably this 'verby' kind of grammar that $,.emost needto help our learnerswork
with in class.
But, how can our students'grammar' better?How do people get to that point
where they are ableto uselanguagecompetendy,fluently and accurately?Is
studying and memorising rules a helpful waystageon the route to that goal?Are
practiceactivitieshelpful?What role doesteacherexplanationand actrve
'teaching'have?And do we
needto teachgrammar at all?
!7e will look at thesequestionsin somedetail,but first I'd like to set out a brief
overviewof the conclusionsyou'll get ifyou read through all the following
sections.
It seemslikely that learrers haveto do a number of things to be ableto start
making any new grammar item part oftheir own personalstock oflanguage.
They probably needto haveexposure to the language;they needto notice and
understand items being used;they needto try using languagethemselvesin
'safe'practicewaysand in
more demandingcontexts;they needto remember the
things they havelearnt.
The table on the next pageexpandson this description.Ifyou look back at the
diagram (Figure 6.1 on page 126) showing a hypodresisabout how peoplelearn,
you can probably draw someconnectionsbenveenthe table and that diagram.

1)/
 grammar
Chapter7 Teaching

To learn a languageitem, learners It followsthat, in class,you probably

needto: needto:
be exposedto a lot of language . i n c l u d el o t so f r e a d i n g
a n dl i s t e n i n g
w h i l er e a d i n g
/ listening. activities.Theseshouldincludereatista
textsa little abovethe apparentcurrern
languagelevelof learnersso thar
learnersare exposedto a lot of
comprehensible newlanguage(see
C h a p t e1r 0 ) .
noticespecificitemswhenthey provrdetexts,exercisesandtechniques
are beingused,in texts (egin that helplearnersnoticespecificitems.
stories,in conversations). Textsspecificallywrittenfor learners(eg
containingmultipleexamplesof a targ€t
item)maybe particularly useful(see
Section3 of this chaoter).
. understandthe form, meaning . be informedaboutform,meaningand
a n du s eo f a n i t e m . use of language(seeChapter5
Formrefersto howthe piecesfit Sections2 and4).
together,the endings,etc_ . f o c u sl e a r n e r s ' a t t e n t i o n m e a n i n g
Userefersto the typical a n du s eb ym e a n so f e x e r c i s e s ,
situations,conversations, e x p l a n a t i o ndsr,i l l s g
, a m e sq, u e s t i o n s .
contextsin whichit mightbe etc (seeSection3 of this chapte4.
used.
. tly things out in a safe g i v em a n yo p p o r t u n i t i et os p r a c t i s e ,
environment with limitedother speakandwrite,withencouragement
l i n g u i s t idce m a n d s . andfeedback(seeSection4 of this
. haveopportunitiesto practise chapter).
newtanguage, to 'gettheir
mouthsaround'newitems.
. uaethe new languagewhen . offerspeakingandwritingtasksthat
speakingandwritingto allowlearnersto makeuse of all the
communicate in different languagetheyknow(seeChapter9).
contexts.
. rememberitems. . payattentionto howlearnersrecord
rtems;
. returnto itemsagainandagainwjth
revisiontasks.

158
 2 present-oractise

Present-practise
Ifthere is one basicteachingsequenceusedaround the world with classesof all
types,it must be 'presentthen practise'.In other words,the teacherfirst presents/
introduces/ explains/ clarifies/ inputs the languagepoint that the lessonis airning
to work on, and then, when it seemsto be reasonablyunderstood,moveson to
give learnersa chanceto practiseusing the languagethemselves.
How doesthis 'present-practise'cycle relateto the image oflearning we looked at
earlier,in Chapter 6?

Input Learning Use

Understanding

R E S T R I C TE X
DP O S U R E
r-tl
\:ft / {\--./v

AUTHENTICEXPOSURE
r-|7 Noticing
\.l:t / 4\--,/v
l;
BESTRICTO
EDUTPUT
CLARIFICATION
Explanation ..7..
{,
AUTHENTICOUTPUT

Whenteachersdo classroomwork Teachersoften call work

on these areas,it is often called on these areas plactice.
presentatlon,input or claritlcation
Authenticoutput is also
Authenticexposureis the same knownas production
a s l i s t e n i n go r r e a d i n gs k i l l sw o r k . o r s i m p l ya s s p e a k i n g
or writingskills work.

If we want to plan a well-focusedgrammar lesson,we needto decide:

. !7hich ofthese areaswe want to spendtime on;
. How long we want to give to eachone;
. rVhat the best sequenceis to havethem .in.

159
 grammar
Chapter7 Teaching

Many 'present-practise'lessonsare structured asshownbelow

Authentic
oulput

Figure 7.1 Present-practisestructure

1 Lead-in: The teacher shows pictures connected to the lesson topic / context
and elicits ideas from srudents.
Teacher clarifrcation: The teachergives/ elicitsexamplesofthe languageand
explains/ elicits information about them from students.The teachermay use
any of the clarification ideas (eg explanation) outlined in Section 3 ofthis
cnapler.
Restricted output: The studentswork on oral practiceof examplesof
tneseltems.
4 Restricted ouq)ut:The studentsdo a written exerciseto practisetheseitems
5 Authentic ouq)ut:The studentsare given the opportunity to usetheseitems.
alongwith the other languagethey know, in communicativeactivities.
Many 'present-practise'lessonsmake use ofrestdcted textual material (eg
printed in the coursebookor using speciallyrecordedmaterial to provide
examplesof the targetlanguageitems being usedin context).The lessonstructur.
mieht then look like this:

Authentic
output

FigJre 7 .2 Present-practisewitl restrictedexposure

1 Lead-in: The teacher shows pictures connected to the lesson topic / conte\r
and elicits ideas from learners.
Restricted exposure: Learners read/ listen to a text and get a general
understandingofit (maybevia a sequenceoftasks and feedback).
Teacher clarification: The teacherusesthe text to give / elicit examplesanj
explain / elicit information about the item oflanguage.
Restricted output:The studentswork on oral practiceof examplesof
t]-Ieseitems.
5 Restricted ouq)ut:The studentsdo a written exerciseto practisetheseitens
6 Authentic output:The studentsare given the opportunity to use theseiter:s
alongwith the other languagethey know, in communicativeactivities.
Ofcourse, many 'present-practise'lessonsare more complex than the onesrrr
havelooked at so far. In many cases,tl-testageswill not necessarilybe clearan':
distinct.Youruse of examples,your explanationsand somepracticeelements:
all be integrated, eg a cycle of examples, explanations and learner drills all ber:-i
offered within a few minutes.

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 2 Present-practise

Situational presentation
An interestingexampleofpresentationis the popular situationalpresenmtion,in
which languageis introduced via a context tiat the teacherhascreated(using
board drawings,for example).Here is a descriptionofa teacherusing a situational
presentatlontOteach usedto.

Establish the context

1 The teacherdraws a picture of a country houseand a rich man (holding dollar
bills). Sheasksthe studentsto tell her about him and his llfe (eg He\ rich, He
lixesin a bighouse).
2 Sheaddsmore pictures one by one (eg a Rolls Royce,a four-poster bed, a
swimming pool) and elicitsmore statementsabout hislife (eg He driaesa Rolls
Royce).Shechecksthat all studentsare clearabout this context.
Establish the rneaning ofthe target itern
3 Sheaddsa picture of an 'interviewer' to the context and establishesthat the rich
man is being interviewedabout his past life.

Figure 7.3 Usedto board plan

4 She draws a picture ofhis thoughts about the past (eg a 'thought bubble' with a
bicycle inside it). She invites the students to make a sentence about this. She
taps the board to explicitly link the Rolls Royce (now) and the bicycle (past).
She asks concept questions, eg lhat\ this? (abrke) Doeshe ride a bike now?
(no) Did he ride one in thepast? (yes) Bur nor now? (no) Doeshe ride a bike now?
(no). She has now inftoduced and focused on tie targelmeanlng of used to
without actually using the target language. Note that the meaning comes hrst,
before the students meet the target form - the students understand t}Ie concept
being dealt with, and, hopefully, feel the need for a piece oflanguage to express
it, before the teacher introduces rlte target language itself.
Introduce and practise the target lumguage
'bike'
5 When the concept is clear, she asks if students can say the sentence he
said to the interviewer, ie that has the meaning of'I rode a bike in the past, but
not now'If a student produces a reasonable sentenceJshe works with that; if
not, she models it herself (eg l1e zsed to ride a bike).
6 She gets students to repeat tltis round the class (a drill) and corrects any
problems, especially taking care that she doesn't only notice incorrect words
and word order, but also notices unnatural pronunciation.

161
 grammar
Chapter7 Teaching

Generate more sentencesfrom the context

'interview' (eg botde ofwater). Sheelicitsfurther
7 Sheaddsmore picturesto dre
sentencesusing the target structure (egHeusedtodrink water,Heusedto sleepin
thestreet,He usedn bepoor).
Recording in notebooks
8 Sherecapssentencesmade so far and invitesthe classto help her constuct a
substitutiontablewhich they can then copy into their notebooks.
Movilg on to practice stages
9 Now that the classhas met a number ofexamples ofthe target languageand has
had a chanceto repeatthesesentences,shemovesthem onto practice acdvities.

& techntqueon the DVD

Balancingpresentationand plactice
Whatshouldbe the balanceof practiceto presentation?
l f y o u ra i mi s t o s p e n da n h o u rh e l p i n gl e a r n e rgs e t b e t t e ra t u s i n ga p a r t i c u l a r
pieceof grammar(forexample,too + adjective+ to + vetb- too heavyto lift,eIc),
w h i c ho f t h e s et w o l e s s o ns t r u c t u r esse e m s ,i n y o u ro p i n i o nl,i k e l yt o b e m o r e
u s e f utlo t h e l e a r n e r s ?
o

Many teachersspendmost classtime on presentationbecausethey seethis as

most important thing they can do to help their learnerswith grammar.They
languageteacher'sjob asprimarily supplying informatron.Are they right?
I'd say'no'.For me, a languageteacher'sjob is primarily to push,encourageand
help learnersto try using the languagethemselves.In fact, you don't need ver)-
much hformation before you can try using languageyourself, and once you srat
trying to use it, you can get feedback,correction and help on how to do it better.
primary Iearning experienceis doing the thing yourself,,not listening to someolE
elsetelling you about how to do it. So,I'd argue that students in many classes
need long explanations or detailed information.\Xttat they tend to need more 4
challenging opportunities to try using the languageitems themselves.
'Itrinking
about grammar teaching asprimarily'practice' rather than
can help to solve a number of problems that teachers feel they face in class, not
the situation where students say Wehzaesndied this bejoreor Wekntru this alrtai
162
 3 Clarification

Many studentsthink they 'know' certain items;what they actuallymean is that

information about theseitems hasbeenpresentedto them, but the chancesare
high that, when pushedto usethat item, they will make errors.A major problem
with many grammar lessonsis that they provide too much 'information' and not
enough'expectation'of quality student production.This is not to saythat learners
don't needthe information - they almost certainly need some (and they needit
clearly) - but they don't needall of it every time they havea lessonon a cerrain
grammar item.They don't needto alwaysbe starting againat Step 1.'Whatmakes
the lessonchallengingis not the level oftheoretical knowledgethe lessondealsin,
but what you askstudentsto try and do. It's the differencebetweenup-here
knowledge in the head and knowledge-in-use, in other words:

moving
the
languagefrom
nere

to here

Figure 7.4 Klowledgein use

Thus, in theory, it is possibleto havea really challenging,involving lessonon, say,
the presentperfect simple,atAdvancedlevel.This is not becauseyou will add
more and more complex information, but becauseyou would expectmore in
terms of quality ofstudent output.

Clarification
You havereacheda point in your lessonwhere you want the learnersreally to
focus in on a pieceof grammar, to seeit, think about it and undersrandir, to
becomemuch cleareron its form, meaningand use.This is what many teachers
refer to asclarification or presentation. However,theseare quite broad
headings;thereis a significantdifferencebetweena presentationin which I give
you a lecturefor 60 minutes and one where I nudge and help you towards
discoveringmuch ofthe sameinformation for yourselfvia a processof
questioningand looking at suggestedreferencematerial.\X/ecould differentiate
three generalcategories:
1 Teacherexplanation
2 Guided discovery
3 Self-directeddiscoverv

163
 grammar
Chapter7 Teaching

!7e can perhapsseetheseasfalling on a continuum (seeFigure 7.5):

Explanation Guideddlscovery Sell-dlrected

(Teacher (Teacherhelpsthe (Thelearner
tells the learner)
l e a r n etro t e l l h i m s e l f ) t e l l sh i m s e l f )

Figure 7.5 Three categoriesofclarification

Grammarclarification activities
C l a s s i ftyh e f o l l o w i nggr a m m acr l a r i f i c a t i oanc t i v i t i ebsy p l a c i n tgh e mo n r n e
d i a g r a mi n F i g u r e7 . 5 .A r et h e ym a i n t y( E )e x p l a n a t i o (nc, ) g u i d e dd i s c o v e royr ( S )
self-directed discovery?
1 Youwritesomesentences (allusingthepastperfect)onthe board,butwiththe
wordsmixedup,thenhandthe boardpento the studentsandleavethe room.
2 Youtella storyaboutyourweekend. Everytimeyou useaverbinthepastsimple,
repeatit andwriteit onthe board.Atthe end,youwrite,pastsimple'on the board
andexplain thatyouusedalltheseverbsin the pastbecause the storynappeneo
Saturday.
3 Youlecture abouttheconstruction of conditionaI sentences.
4 Youcreatea boardsituation, clarifya specificmeaning andthenelicitappropriate
sentences fromthe studentsor modelthemyourself.
5 Youhandout a listof 20 lfsentences. youaskstudents to worktogether,
discuss
findoutwhatthe 'rules'are.
6 Students discussinterpretation of timelineson the boardandtryto makeexampte
sentences forthem.Youintervene whenanswersseemelusiveandat onepoint
explain
the difference between twotenses.
7 Students decidetheywantto learnaboutreportedspeech.Theygoto the libraryor
learnrngcentreandfindout more.

Different peoplewill, ofcourse, interpret theseshort descriptionsdifferently.I,m

sureyour positioning is not exactlythe sameasmine, but is the ordering from lefr
to right the same?
32 51

Explanation Guideddiscovery Self-directed discovert

(Teacher (Teacherhelpsthe (Thelearner
tells the learner)
l e a r n etro t e l l h i m s e l f ) t e l l sh i m s e l f )

164
 3 Clarification

Teacher explanation

W Teacherexplanations
lVIostteachers want, at some point, to give their class explanationsabout language
p o i n t s .W h i c ho f t h e f o l l o w i n gg u i d e l i n e ss e e m a p p r o p r i a t et o y o u ?
Whenexplaininglanguage. . .
1 talk at length;
2 talk fast;
3 use languagemore complicatedthan the pointyouare explaining;
4 bringin as manyother languageissuesas possible;
5 don't giveexamples;
6 don't ask ouestions:
7 don't use anydiagramsor visualaids;
8 a s s u m e t h a t t h ec l a s si s f o l l o w i n g y o u r p o i n t s - d o n ' t w a s t e t i m
c hee c k i n g ;
9 alwaysexplaineverydifficultybeforestudentsencounterthe problemthemselves.

My personallist ofguidelines for giving helpful explanationswould (you,ve

guessed!)be the oppositeof thar list - especially'Keep it short'.

Giving helpful explanations

Two minutes offocused explanationcan be really helpful; 20 minutes ofthe same
is likely to get studentsconfused,bored and embarrassed.Theproblem is that it is
not necessarilya very involving teachingmethod; it is easyfor a learnerto switch
offor misunderstand.It can appearsuccessfulbecausetiere is often an illusion of
a large amount ofwork being covered,but the fact that the teacherhas expounded
on a particular topic doesnot mean that the item has beenunderstood or
internalised.Rememberthat they are foreign-languagelearners,not science
undergraduates;lecture is not generallyan appropriatestyle.Explanation will be
better asa small component oflessonsrather than the driving force. Having said
that, a good explanationcan often be the clearestand most efficient wav to teach
something.
The bestway to avoid over-long,unhelpful explanationsis to preparethem
carefullywhen lessonplanning. Decide what information will be necessaryto
stateexplicitly.Plan a simple,clearway to conveythis information. Plan the use of
timelines,substitutiontables,annotatedexamples,diagrams,etc that might make
the information easierto takein.
Point 9 inThsk 7.4 is really a matter ofpersonal choice;teachersoften hope to
pre-empt learnerproblemsby pointing difficulties out in detailbefore they arise.
Sadly,many learnersdon't appearto be helpedby thisl Explanationsgiven before
learnersreally know what is being discussedoften seemto make no difference.I
find that I generallytend to let learnerstry using languagefirst and give the
explanationthat clarifresthe issueonly when they hit problems.

165
 grammar
Chapter7 Teaching

Guided discovery
An alternativeto giving explanationswould be to createactivitiesthat allow
learnersto generatetheir own discoveriesand explanations.Thsks at just the dght
levelwill draw attentionto interestinglanguageissues.Teacher questions(and use
of other techniques)will'nudge'the learnerstowardskey points. In this way,long
explanationscan be avoidedand learnerscan take a more activerole in their own
progress.
Your role in guided discoveryis to (a) selectappropriatetasks;(b) offer
appropriateinstructions,help, feedbackand explanations;(c) manageand
stucture the lessonso that all learnersare involved and engaged,and draw the
most possiblefrom the actrvity.
The key tecbniqueis to askgood questions,onesdrat encouragethe learnersto
notice languageand think about it.These questionsmay be oral (ie askedlive in
class)or they might be on a worksheetthat leadslearnersin a structured way to
make conclusions.Thiskind ofguidance is sometimesreferredto as'Socratic
questioning',ie leadingpeopleto discoverthings that they didn't know they knen
via a Drocessof structured ouestions.
rou can:
. askquestionsthat focus on the meaning (conceptquestions);
. askquestionsthat focus on the context (context questions);
. askquestionsthat focus on the form;
. offer appropriateexamplesfor analysisand discussion;
. asklearnersto analysesentencesfrom texts;
. asklearnersto reflect on languagethey haveused;
. asklearnersto analyseerrorsl
. asklearnersto hypothesiserules;
. setproblems and puzzlesconcerningthe languageitem;
. offer tools to help clarify meaning,eg timelines,substitutiontables (but
perhapsencouragingthe studentsto usethem to solvethe problems);
. helptiem to stayfocusedifdrey get sjderacked:
. raisetheir awarenessasto what thev havelearned.

Guided discoveryis demandingon both you and the learner,and althoughit

look artlessto a casualobserver,it isn't enoughto tluow a task at the learners.ts
them do it and then move on. Guided discoveryrequiresimagination and
flexibility.Yourjob here is not simply to passover a body of information, bui
rather to createthe conditions in which that information can be learned.Thlf
seemsto be a particularly fruidul way to work in the languageclassroom.

on the DVD
technique

{@ questions
cuideddiscovery
S t u d yt h e f o l l o w i n gb r i e ft r a n s c r i p tf r o m a l e s s o ni n v o l v i n g ui d e d d i s c o v e . .
t e c h n i q u e sa n d d e c i d ew h a t q u e s t i o n st h e t e a c h e rm i g h t h a v ea s k e d a t t l ' e
m a r k e d* .

166
 3 Clarification

The Elementarystudents read a text that reviewsand compares different

d i c t i o n a r i e sT. h e t e a c h e rf i r s t e n s u r e dt h a t l e a r n e r sh a d a g o o d s e n s e o f t h e
general meaningof the text and is now focusing on the use of comparatives
(which learners have worked on before) and superlatives(which learners
h a v e n ' te x p l i c i t l ys t u d i e db e f o r e ) .
Tencren H o w m a n yd i c t i o n a r i e sa r e m e n t i o n e di n t h e a r t i c l e ?
SruDENr
1: Five.
T E A o H E R : O K . L o o k a t t h i s d i a g r a m .W h a td o e s i t s h o w ?

Sruoerur
2: How big.
T E A C H E R :Y e s- h o w b i g o r s m a l lt h e d i c t i o n a r i e sa r e . W h e r ec a n y o u p u t t h e
d i f f e r e n td i c t i o n a r i e so n t h i s d i a g r a m ?
The teacher offers a pen to the student to add to the diagram; various learners
c o m e u p a n d w r i t et h e n a m e so f t h e d i c t i o n a r i e so n t h e d i a g r a m ,p l a c i n gt h e m
to reflect the writer's comments. As items are added. the teacher asks
q u e s t i o n sa b o u tt h e i r d e c i s i o n s s, u c h a s *
The teacher then works in a similar manner with diagrams shoutinglight - heavy,
cheap - expensive, etc.

The teacherwould be likelyro askquestionsthar:

. encouragelearnersto reflect on and articulatereasonsfor their choices;
. encouragelearnersto return to the text and find textual evidencethat supports
their choicel
. draw learners'attentionto the specificlanguageusedin the text that leadsto
this meaning;
. focus on how the languageitem is formed;
. build on earlierquestionsand answersto conshuct a growing picture of the
rarrtsudBc 'Lcr rrr
. ensurethat all learnersare graspingthe issuesand not just the fasterones.
Questionsmight include:
. lfhy did you put that book in that position on the diagram?
. \ff/hatdoesthe writer sayabout that book?
. \7hat werethe writer's exactwords?
. So,what doesbiggestmean?
. How do you pronouncethis word?
. Do biggerand bzggest mean the same?
. !7hat's the differencein meaningbetweenbiggerand biggest?
. Do you know the name for tiis pieceof grammar?
. How do you make a superlative?
\fhere a questionis one that learnersdo not know the answerto, you can briefly
offer the answeryourself.In this way,teacherexplanationsare only made when
they are seento be relevantand necessary.Later questionscan be usedto checkif
learnershavegraspedthis input.
 grammar
Chapter7 Teaching

Guided discovery: tlTrical comments, instructions

and questions
The follorvinglist showsvariousideasandexamples
ofguideddiscovery
questionslrom differentlessons.

Questions about forn

\fhat u'ord goesin this space? Horv do you spellthat?
How many words are therein the Is that a verb?
sentence?

Questions about function

Do they know eachother? \Wheredo you think they are speaking?
Is this formal or informal? How doeshe feel?
Problerns and puzzles
Put thesewords in the right order W r i t et h i ss e n t e n caeg a i nu. i t r e x a c d l
Fi-llin the spaces. d r es a m cm e a n i n gb. u t o n l y u s i n g
Changethis into the past simpletense. sevenwords.
Reflecting on use
'Where
!7rite down someofthe sentences was the problem?
you heard. \Whichofthose trvo sentencesis
\fhy did you usethat tense? correct?
H5ryothesisingrules
Is this possible? \X/hyis that incorrect?
Whatwill the ending be in this Can you think of anotherword that
example? couldgo here?

Sentence analysis
Mark all the prepositions. Hou many auxiliaryverbsare Lherei
Mark the main stressin the sentence. C r o s so u t a n yu n n e c e s q aw
r yo r d \ .
Discussion about language
\fhich sentencedo you prefer? \ hat mistakesare you likely to make
\(/hat might help you rememberthis? u'ith this?
Is this the samein your language?
Contexts and situations
This is Paul.Wheredoeshe work?Tell me what he doesevery day.
Jo'sgot a full diary.\X/hat'sshedoing tonight?
Look at this picture.rJ hat'sgoing to happen?
If I throu'this pen at the picture on the wall, what'll happen?

168
 4 Restricted
output:drills,exercises,
dialoguesandgames

Self-directed discovery
In this book, we will spendonly a htde rime looking at the right-hand side of the
diagram.This is what learnersdo when studying on their own without a teacher-
or in a classwhere the teacher'srole is primarily to 'facilitate'the learner'sown
self-direction.It is the leastcommonly found in classroorns.!7hereyou wanr a
classto work mainly in this way,it is essentialthat learnersunderstandand agree
with the working method.Youneed to ensurethat the learnershavesufficient
information and experienceto be ableto work out their own rules and
explanations,and perhapswork out their own goalsand learning strategiesaswell.
The obviousdangerhereis that you will abdicateyour real responsibilities.

Restricted output: drills, exercises, dialogues and garnes

Languagepractice activitiesare arguablythe most important part ofany grammar
lesson.Although teachersoften spend a lot of time on'input'stages - for example,
in giving explanations- tfre real learning experience is when learners try to
use the language themselves.
In order to give studentsintensiveoral or written practice ofspecific language
points, you can use activitiescarefully designedto resuict the languageneeded
and require the use of the target items.Resrrictedoutput activitiesare defined by
their focus on (a) limited options for use oflanguage;(b) limited optronsfor
communication; (c) a focus on accuracy.Typicalrestrictedactivitiesare oral drills,
written exercises,eliciteddialogues,and grammar practiceactivities/ games.

Drills
Drills provide intensiveoral practiceofselectedsentences,giving the learnersa
chanceto practise'getting their mouths around'the languagewithout worrying
too much about meaning.The basicdrill involvessimple repetition:
Ts,q.csen: He\ going to openthedoor.
SrureNrs: He\ goingto openthedoor.
TsA.cHen: He\ going to driae thecar.
SrulsNrs: He'sgoing to driue thecar.

Drillsare so old-fashioned
Y o ua r e p l a n n i n ga l e s s o nt h a t i n c l u d e ss o m e d r i l l s .Y o u rc o l l e a g u es p o t s y o u i n t h e
staff room and says Dril/s? Surely you clon't still do those! They're so old-fashioned,
and they've proved they don't work.ls it worth arguingback? What would you say?

Many teachers consider drills old-fashioned and never use them. I thint they are
wrong and they are depriving their learners of some important chances to learn.
The next section outlines some possible reasons for drills.

169
Chapter grammar
7 Teaching

Whydrill?
Drills are often associatedwith the largelydiscreditedbehaviouristphilosophy
which suggeststhat we can be trained into automatic responsesto stimuli through
repetrnonor restrictedresponsedrills. However,I don,t think we needto throw
drills out with the behaviouristbathwater.We can still arguethat our brains need
to 'automatise'taskswithout having to buy the entire ,sdmulus-response,
philosophy.It seemsreasonablyclearfrom day-to-dayexperiencethat we become
better at doing certainthings through practice- I can feel this myself when trying
to learn to saya difficult sentencein a foreign language.I may needto .rehearse,ir
slowly and carefullymany times before I eventuallystart to get the soundsnearlJ.
right and in the right order. Only after a lot of this 'cutting a groove,in my brain,s
record can I start to get 'up to speed'with the new item. Eventually,it is so easyfor
me to sayit that I hardly notice I'm sayingit and I can stop worrying about it. Bur
my own private 'drilling to myself' hashelped.
Drilling is important for 'gefting your tongue around it' problems.They can also
help with other things, for exampleon issuesto do with selectingthe riqht form
quickly (again.somerhingrhat improveswirh famiJiarity).
For many years,somewriters encouragedteachersnot to offer studentsany
speakingtasksthat did not involve an elementof,genuine communication,.
Recently,there hasbeen a reassertionof the value of experimentingand playing
with languageevenwherethe languagedoesn'trepresentrealisticcommunication
So don't worry too much about colleaguesor methodologybooks who tell you nu
to bother with drillsl Certainly there is somedangerthat studentsrepeatingare
just making noiseswith little idea what they are saying,but of all activitiesin the
classroom,the oral drill is the one which can be most productivelvdemandins on
accuracy.
\7hen the studentsspeak,you are probably listening carefully.youwill use error
awarenessand correction techniques.Youwill give clearindicationsabout what
needsto be done in order to saythe sentencesbetter.Youwill encouragestudenr
to try a number of times to saythe sentenceswith befter pronunciation,with the
words in the right order, etc.Youwill keepthe level ofchallengevery high.When
teachersare'kind'and make drills easy(That\ good! Not quite,butgrear!perJect!
Fannstic! Wonderful./), the exercisequickly becomesboring; it is the difficulty and
the senseof achievementthat make drills worth doing. Give precise,honest
feedbackrather than gushingpraise.If the whole aim ofa drill is to improve
accuracy,it seemsto make senseto aim for a very high standard.Thereis little
point in doing a drill if the teacherand studentsare preparedto acceptsloppy or
half-good production. Honest feedbackis vital.

Va.iationson drills
W h a tv a r i a t i o n sc o u l de n l i v e nt h e b a s i cd r i l lt e c h n i q u e( w h i l es t i l l k e e p i n gt h e d r i l l
a s n o m o r et h a n s i m p l er e p e t i t i o n ) ?

170
 4 Restricted
output:drills,exercises,
dialoguesandgames

The following sectionlists somepossiblevariations.Note that eventhe apparently

silly ones (like doing it with flat intonadon) serveto raiseawarenessof the
importance of intonation - sometimesmessagesare easierto takein when the
exampleis exaggerared!

Factors that can vary a drill

Figure 7.6 summarisesa rangeofdrill types.Pick the options you like.

Variations on a drill
1 Repeatthe grammar item on rts own.
2 Repeatthe grammar item in a phrase/ sentence.
3 Repeatthe intonation pattern (ashummed music, no words).
4 Repeatthe grammar item with exaggeratedattentionto intonation.
5 Repeatonly the stressedsyllablesin a sentence('get the rhythm'), then
later'putback'ttre missing syllables.
6 Repeata sentence,building it up bit by bit, starting with the hrst word(s) /
syllable(s).
7 Repeatby 'backchaining'(ie build up the sentencebit by bit, starting at
the end rather than the beginning).
8 You give opening of sentence,studentscompleteit.
9 You givepart of senrence. srudentscomplereit.
10 You introduce sentenceby repetition, then saynew word that must be
substitutedwithin ir.
11 You introduce sentenceby repetition. Studentsmust respondwith a
follow-on 'reply'.
12 You introduce sentenceby repetition,then give an instruction for
transformation of sentence(eg 'Changeto the past perfect').
13 You saysentencewith errors (eg words in wrong order), studentsput it
right.
14 You say/ show cues (eg somekey words, pictures) and sflldentsconstuct
a completesentence.
15 You askreal questionsabout students'lives.Studentsrespondwith true
sentences,all using the samegrammaticalitem.
16 You invent or read a short text (one or two sentences),then askquestions
about it, all using the samegrammaticalitem.

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 grammar
Chapter7 Teaching

Variations on tlre variations

All the above can be further varied by doing them . . .
1 asa whole class('choral')
2 asa half/ quarter ofa class
3 asan individual in front ofthe whole class
4 asindividuals around the class('passingthe baton')
5 asan open pair (everyoneelsecan hear) next to eachother
6 asan open pair acrossthe room
7 astwo halvesof the classspeakingto eachotier asif they were a par
(eg male / female;this side/ that side)
8 asclosedgroups
9 asclosedpairs1ieprivarely,simuhaneously)
10 loudly
11 quietJy
12 whispering
13 shouting
14 singing
15 slowly
16 fast
17 with exaggeratedintonation
18 with flat intonation
19 with a specificaccent
20 with exaggeratedrhlthm
21 with intonation for specificmoods
22 walking around (separately)
23 mingling
24 changingplaces
25 taking on the teacher'srole (onceany individual drill is established)

Figure 7.6 Rangeofdrill types

Designinga ddll
Devisea drillto workon practisingWh-questionsaboutthe pasl(eg Wheredid he
go? Whatdid they do? Whendid Mary arriveT.
I t ' s i m p o r t a nt to i n s i s to n a c c u r a t p
eronunciatio
wnh e ny o ua r ec o n d u c t i nagd r i l l
with students.Thisis the time to makesuretheyare sayingthe wordsand
sentencescorrectly;paycarefulattentionto rhythmandstressas well as
p r o n u n c i a t i o nf t h e i n d i v i d u awlo r d s .

&t
A l s os e eC h a p t e1r 2 , S e c t i o n1 f o r m o r ea b o u tg i v i n gf e e d b a c ok n e r r o r s .

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Moving beyond repetition drills

Substitution drills
Repetition,though useful for allowing full concentrationon pronunciation, can be
a litde mindless.Thefollowing drill demandsa little more thought.
Tsacsen: He\ going to driae the car.
SruosN.rs: He\ going to drhte the car.
TsecHen: bus
S'runnr.rrs: He\ going to driae the bus.
Tsecnpn: taxi (etc)
Not much more thought, admittedly!But ir's not difhcult to make it harder:
Tsncrrsn: He'sgoingto eatthecake.
SruneN'ts: He\ goingto eatthecahe.
TeecHen: colfee
StursNrs: He\ going to drink the coffee.
Tracaar: film
Sr.ursNrs: He\ goingto watchtheJilm. (etc)
These drills are basedon the principle ofsubstitution. In the two examplesabove,
the noun is being substitutedby another- but it could be any word. And to make it
reallydemanding.it couldvary senLence by sentence:
Teacnen: He'sgoingto eatthecahe.
SlmsNrs : He\ going to eat thecake.
TencHen: calIee
StureNrs: He\ going to drink thecoffee.
Teacnen: Mary
SrunsN.rs: Mary\ goingto drink thecofree.
Tsncspn: make
Sruopuls: Mary\ goingto makethecffie.
Tsacnen: beds
SrulsN'rs: Mary\ goingto mahethebeds.(etc)

Transformation drills
A completelydifferent kind of drill is basedon the studentsmaking their
own sentencebasedon a model and information given by you.These are
transformation drills, ie the student transformsa sentenceofone kind into
anotherform:
Tsacnsn: He\ openingthecaketr,n.
SrrnsNrs: He\ goingto eatthecake.
TsecHsn: He\ standingbesidetheswimmingpool.
SrunENrs: He\ goingto switn.
TsncHsn: Susan'sgoinginto thepostoff,ice.
S.ruosNrs; She\ goingto buy a stamp.
TsncHen: Thestudentsarewaitingat thebusstop.(etc)
 grammar
Chapter7 Teaching

True sentences
The most useful drill may be one where the student is giving real information in
their answers- in other words, there is communication aswell as language
practrce:
TBecssn: What areyou going to d,oafter school?
Sruorvrs: I'rn going toplay football.
Tpacnsn: And tonight?
Srluplrrs: I'nt goingto watchTV
TsacHBr: Aregou goingto zlatchthefilm?
StnoeNrs: No,I'm not.I'm goingto uatch theconcert.
Finally:
keepthe atmospherehumorous but keepthe languagefocus seriousl
personalisesomeelementsl
jazz it up with mime, pictures,board cues,silly postures,etc;
don'tworry too much about whetherit is a'meaningful'or
'communicative'
drill;
do worry about whether what you're drilling is a realisticpieceof
real-world language;
don't drill possiblebut improbable English;
keepthe challengehigh;
make sure studentsget the practice,not you!

Written exercises
\Tritten exercisesare a common and useful way of giving studentsconcentrated
practiceoflanguageitems.How can they be lessofa chore and more ofan
enjoyablechallenge?

Analysinga textbook languageexercise

Hereis a textbookexercise.Whatareaof languageis it workingon?

( 1 )- c o m p u t eirs c e r t a i n l (y2 )_ g r e a ti n v e n t i o no,n eo f ( 3 )_

wondersof (4) _ modernworld.But lateon (5) _ cold Friday
afternoon,towards(6) _ endof (7) _ miserableDecember, I,m
beginning to wishthat I'd neverboughtone.All I wantto do is write
(8) - letterto (9)- AuntDiana.But(10)_ machineseemsto
have(11)- differentideaaltogether. After(12)_ two hours'work,
all I haveto showare (13)- torn pieceof paperfittedwith (74)_
inkyb , l a c ks m u d g e as n d( 1 5 )- c o m p u t esrc r e e nt h a th a p p i l tye l l sm e
'Thereis (16) penano
- error.Pleaserestart.'cive me (17)_
(18)- p a do f ( 1 9 )- p a p e r l!f t h i s i s ( 2 0 )_ m o d e r nw o r l d l, , v o t e
for (21)- StoneAge!

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The exerciseis designedto help studentsbecomemore familiar with the use of

articlesin English (the,a andan or'no article').

Differentwaysof usinga printedexercise

T h ea b o v ee x e r c i s ceo ul d o b v i o u s lbye d o n eb ys t u d e n t si n d i v i d u a lIlnyc r a s so r a r
home.Whatotherwaysof usingthis materialcanyouthinkof?

Someideas:
. Do it asindividuals,then compare and discussanswerswith neishbours.
. STorkin pairs.
. SVorkin small groups.
. \7ork in teams-make a competition out of it.
. Do it togetheron the board - teacher-led.
. Do it togetheron the board - student-led.
. Hand out a iumbled list of answersto match to the questions.
. Do it orally in a languagelaboratory.
. Dictate the sentences,leaving spaceswhere the missingwords are.
. Do it at greatspeed(givethem, say,three minutes to do the whole exercise).
Then shuffle papersand give to small groups to discussand mark.
. Cut up the sentencesand give one to eachstudent;negotiatearrangement
and answers.
. Hand out the exercisewith your answersalreadywriften in, someright, some
wrong, The studentsmust correct your work.
. Make a gameout of it, eg'Auction': divide classinto teams;allocatea certain
amount of 'money'to eachteam.The aim is to usethis moneyto 'buy, correct
words to fill the gaps.Give students time to read through the exercise,then,
startingwith Gap 1,proceedto 'auction'piecesof paper wilh the,an adrtd. a on
tiem. The teams must buy the word they need to cornplete the gap.The team that
buys the correctword getsa 'money'prize.Anyone elselosesthe cashthey spent
on the wrong word. Keep a record ofhow much they have'spent,on the board
through the game;the winner is the team with the most money at the end.

Making a plinted exercise more game-like

Devise a variationon the followingwritten exerciseto make it more game-like.
Choosethe correctverbform for each sentence:
1 | want to see / see / seeingthelilm.
2 l'd like to have / have / having acoffee.
3 | may to go / go / golng to London.
4 | enjoy to watch / watch / watching fy .
5 | mustto go / go/ going home now.
6 | can to play / play/ playinglhe guitaL
7 lsuggest to have / we have / have aresl.

175
 grammar
Chapter7 Teaching

This exerciseis working on the difference between -lzg forms and infinitives and
helping studentsto sort out which onesgo with which verbs.
By writing sentencehalveson small squaresofpaper (or blank cards),we cou1d,
for example,turn an exerciselike tlle one aboveinto a gameof 'Snap'.You dealortr
all the cards, which the students keep face down, not looking at them. The
students(asindividuals or in teams)take it in turns to play a card into one oftwo
card piles (beginningsor endings).They must call 'Snapl'when the beginning
and ending make a correct sentence.If they call'Snap!' at the wrong time, they (cr
their team) must pick up both piles ofdiscarded cards.

Loplaythe guitar

Elicited dialogues
These are short dialogues(four to ten lines) which contain a number of
of specihcitems to be practised.Using a dialogueplacestheseitems in a typical
useful context, integrating practice of newer grammar with practice of items
previously studied,social.Englishexpressionsand pronunciation.'fhe students
will get many chanaesto repeatthe dialoguesin classand thus increasetheir
familiarity with theseitems. They are often an amusingand enjoyableway to
enableoral practiceoflanguage.The procedureis asfollows:

Before the class

!7rite a short dialogue. Perhaps you have recently taught It\ too + adjectiye + tD
verb (eg It\ toohot n drink) .You cannow make a short dialogue,setin a specifrc
situation,that includesa few examplesof this Ianguageitem. For example:
krzy boyfriendon sofa;girAriend.in daorway.
Gnr: Could you help me, Mike?
Bov: \Whatdo you want?
Gnr: Bring me that suitcase,please.
Bov: Oh, I'm too tired!
Gru: It's too healy for me to carry.
Bov: (trying andfailing) And it's too hear.yfor me, too!\7hat's in it?
Gnr: Your birthday presentl

In class
1 Use board pictures (or someother way) to establishthe context and t}re
characters very clearly.
2 By usrngmrme, gestures,questionsor picture cues,try to elicit from the
students each line of the dialogue you have prepared.The aim is to get
produce as much of it as oossible

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dialogues

3 When the studentssaysentencesin responseto the eliciting,you needto select

a suitableone,correcting it ifnecessary.
4 You must now establishthis line ofdialogue (ie every studentin the classneeds
to be ableto sayit and rememberit).This will probably be done through choral
and individual drilling and correction;the studentsare given lots ofchancesto
repeatit, with you helping them to sayit fluently and accuratelywith the best
possiblepronunciation (especiallyintonation!).Youcan help the students
rememberthe dialogueby drawing up simple cue pictures on the board (eg a
hand ffying to pick up the suitcase).*
5 Steps2, 3 and 4 are repeatedfor eachline.
6 There are alsofrequent repetitionsofthe whole dialogueto date (in pairs,
perhaps,or by dividing the room into two halves).
* It's tempting to make Stage4 easierby writing up the words on the board and
readingit out from there.Ifyou do this, dre studentswon't needto think very
much.The fun and challengeof the activity is in uying to recallpreviouswords!

on the DVD
technique

Follow-on activities
lfhen the dialogueis complete,follow-on activitiescould include writing it out,
acting it out, continuing it, etc.

Grammar practice activities and games

Grammar praclice activitiesare designedto focus on the use ofparticular items of
grammar.The materialis designedso that the studentshavefew opportunities for
avoidingworking with the target language.Here are someexamples:

Split sentences
'i/rite out somesentencesusing the first conditional for warnings (eg Ifyou touch
thedog,it'll biteyou.) and then cut eachsentencein half. Hand out thesepiecesto
the students,who haveto read out their halfand frnd the matching half amongst
the other students.
you'll be sick.
If you touch the dog, it'll bite you.
Ifyou steal my boyfriend, I'll neverspeakto you again.
Ifyou go out now, ]uu ! tscLrua(cu.
Ifyou don't leave, I'll call the police.
Ifyou don't book a ticket, you'll be lucky to get a seat.

Grarnrnar quiz
Run a quiz for two teams.\rrite a verb infinitive on the board; the tirst team to put
the past participle correctly on the board wins a point. It's not too hard to find
variationsto make a simple quiz like this more interesting.For example:
. use a noughts and crosses(rc-tac-toe) grid to scoreon - the team must get
three symbolsin a row;
. get studentsto preparethe questionsthemselvesfor the other team to answer;
. add in specialrules ofyour own to allow penalties,'jokers',bonus points, etc.

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Chapter grammar
7 Teaching

Memory test
Preparecopiesofthree pictures showing people doing various things. For
example,shopping in a department store;dancing in a nightclub; having a picnic
by the river. In class,this material is used as a 'memory test' to work on the
presentprogressivetense(is I aw I are + -mg). Show the first picture to the
studentsfor a length of time, and then hide it.Then read out sometrue / false
questionsabout the picture (eg for Figure 7.7, 'The cat is walking past the litter
bin', 'The policeman is talking to the shop assistant').In teams,the students
discussthem, then give their answersand are awardedpoints. At the end, the
teamsare given a different picture and preparetheir own list often questionsto
askthe other team.

Figure 7.7 Memory test

Picture dictation
The material for 'Memory test' above could be used as a picture dictation (y L.:: r
a student describes the picture while other students, who haven't seen it, u1 t.
draw it from the instructions).

Mirning an action
Studentsin turn are given a card with an action on it, which they must mime r. C
enoughfor the other studentsto guess.For example,a studentmimes swimrr-l
and the other studentssay'You're swimming in the sea'(presentprogressirc
Dependingon your introduction.thiscouldbe u:ed to pracdsea varieryoI t.
eg'Show us what you did yesterday'/'You swamin the sea';'Show us what 1 -
were doing at midday yesterday'/'You were swimming in the sea'.Themim.-
could alsorefer to future time. An interestingidea to practisegoizgrowoul(l :.:
the student to mime what she would do before the actual action, eg mrme r, -
down to the beach,putting on swrmmrngcostume,getting ready to dive:'). - -
going to swim'.

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dialogues

The gameworks beautifully with adverbs.Preparetwo setsofcards: one setwith

actions,one with adverbs.The studentstake one card from eachpile.They tell the
classwhat the action is, but not what the adverbis.They then do the action in dre
manner of the adverb.Theothers,of course,haveto guesswhat the adverbis.

Growing stories
Storybuilding actrvitiesare excellentfor work on the past simple.Here are two
examples:
1 Start a story by sayingone sentencein the past simple tense.Thestudents
continue the story by adding one sentenceeach.
2 Hand out a large set of different magazinephotos,which the students,in small
groups,look at.Then hand out a pre-written selectionofverbs (eg decided,
wished,exploded,etc).The studentsmatch the verbs to pictures of their choice,
and then invent a completesentenceincluding the verb.\Vhen a group of
studentshasten picture / verb matches,they attempt to invent the other details
ofa completestory,which they prepareorally and tell the rest ofthe class.
Questionnaires
Turn your current grammar items into a questionnaire.Get studentsto survey
eachother.It's usuallybener if your questionnairedoesnot contain fully written-
out questions.Give them the 'bones'of the questionsso that they needto think
and make the sentencesthemselves(eg WhereI goI tonrgZr?).Other-wiseit will be
you who hashad the most challenginglanguagework, and all the studentshave
had to do is read out your workl Even better,get them to write the questionnaire!

Grarnrnar auctions
Preparea mix ofcorrect and incouect sentences.Studentsworking in groups are
allocatedan amount ofpretend money.Youread out a sentence.Theymust decide
ifit's correct or not.They then "bid" on the sentenceasifin an auction.They aim
to only buy correct sentences(asonly theseare worth anlthing at the end).u?hen
all sentenceshavebeen auctioned,revealwhat eachis worth (ie nothing for
incorrect,variableamountsfor good ones).

Board garnes
A board gamesuch a #.ne|fublock offlar resourceon the DVD could alsobe used.
For more on freer practice / authentic use activities see Chapter 9 Productiveskills
and Chaoter 10 Receotizte shills.

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Chapter7 Teaching

5 Other ways to gramlnar

The lessonsin the previous sectionwere all basedon the 'present-practise,
structure. But let's look again at some possible 'building brick' components
lesson(seeChapter 6, Section3) so that we can consideralternativelesson
Ifwe selectand then sequencecomponentsas shownin Figure 7.8 that seem
rmportant to us, we can construct various significantly different lesson

Figure 7.8 Alternative building blocks

Test-Teach-Test I -
$fhat would happenif we 'turned around'ttre'present-practise'lesson,and
practicestagefust?

Practice
(restricted
output)

Clarification:
Restricted Restricted
guided
ourpur OUIPUI
drscovery

Figure 7.9 Test-Teach-Test structure

180
 5 Otherwaysto grammar

$7hat'shappeninghere?This suggestsdlat we setthe learnersa taskto do that

requiresthem to use languageand then, as a result of monitoring them while they
wor( we offer input, correction,explanation,etc.Here is an examplelessonin
which a group of Elementarylearnersare studying prepositionsofplace :
1 Restricted output: The studentswork in pairs.Both studentsaregivena
separatepicture of the samehotel room (which they do not showto their
partner).The picturesareidentical,exceptttratfive familiar objects(ega char, a
botde,etc) arein pictureA but not in picture B, and a differentfrveobjectsarein
picture B but not in pictureA. Studentshaveto describewherethe objectsareto
eachother,drawingitemswhen they frnd out exactlywherethey are.
2 Clarification (guided discovery): rJflhenthe activity hasfinished, tie teacherasks
the studentsto comparepicturesandrecallhow they describedthe various
locations.Pairswork togetherfor a while, then someare invited to put their answers
on theboard.Sheasksthe classto decidetogetherwhich sentences arecorrectand
which not. Sheencourages the classto discussand agreetogether(usingreference
booksifnecessary);shedirectsthe discussionsoasto getthe classtlrinkingand
working together,but only offers specifichelp with the languageproblems towards
the end if problems remain that the classcould not solve.
3 Restricted output: Learners do a task very similar to the original hotel task,
but involving a different location.
It looks asif we are throwing learnersin the deepend and finding out what they
need to know by first testingwhat they can use,then teachingthosethings that
revealedproblemsor were absentbut needed,then letting learnerstry againto use
the Ianguage(ie test-teach-test).
The examplewe havejust looked at involved 'restricted'tasks.A test-teach-test
Iessoncould alsosetlearnersa generalspeakingtaskwithout restriction of
Ianguage;in this case,learnersmay reveala much more unpredictableset of
errors,problems,etc.
This lessontype is much harder to fully plan in advance,asyou do not necessarily
know what specificlanguageitems might come up and require work, information,
etc.For this reason,this is a lessontype that teacherstend not to try until they have
gaineda certain amount ofexperience and sufficient familiarity with the basicsof
English grammar and usage.
You may be wondering how either ofthese lessonstructuresmight be possible-
How can learnersuselanguagebefore it hasbeentaught?
! hen I come to teachmany of my studentsa 'new' grammaticalitemJI may be
surprisedto find that they 'half-know' it already.\fith studentsstudying for a
period of time on any coursethat includesskillswork (reading,listening,etc), this
effect is evenmore marked becausestudentshavebeenexposedto a large amount
oflanguageon recordingsand in texts,and they haveoften becomehalf-awareof
many grammaticalpatterns.A common exampleis the presentperfect tense:
studentshaveoften heard and read manv examolesofthis tensebefore it is
actuallyfocusedon in class.
From this I can concludethat 'new' grammar is often not completelynew for
studentsand they may havemet it many times before it is actually'raught'.
Teachersoften talk about 'teaching' (or 'presenting')new grammarl what is meant

181
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Chapter7 Teaching

is that it is the first time that they havefocusedin detail on a particular item in
class.And, in fact, it is extremelyhard to do such teachingiflearners haven,thad
this kind of exposure.It's almostimpossibleto learn somethingthe very hrst timc
you meet it, but if it has'drip-fed' into your brain over a period of time, you har-er
reasonablestarting point. For thesereasons,giving studentschancesto be
exposedto, or to attempt to use,language'above'their apparentlevel of
knowledgeof grammar is extemely useful and greatlyaids future work on
grammar.It both celebrateswhat studentscan do and clarifiespreciselywhat sdl
needsto be worked on. Maybe we should call theseapproaches.exposure-resr-
teach-test'rather than iust 'test-teach-test'for they will or yworkif learnersharr
been exposedto language.

Appropriateteaching strategies for Beginnels

Doyouthink it wouldbe possibleto use 'exposure-test-teach-test
approacnes
with low-level
students,saywith Begjnners?

There are few peoplein the world who know nothing ofEnglish. Even someone
who has studiedno English hasprobably picked up a number of,international
English' expressionsand words (dutyJree,no smoking,it\ therealthing,etc).Ma-q
adult learnerswho call themselvesBeginnershave,in fact, studiedEnglish at
schoolfor two or more years;most of this has been'forgotten' or is hard to actjr
through lack ofuse or lack of confidence.Theseare the so-called,falseBeginnerr.
By providing listening and readingwork at an appropriatelevel,this stock ofha.F
known languagewill quickly increase.Provided learnershavesufficient
it is certainly possibleto use 'exposure-test-teach-test'approachesat low levels-

Total Physical Response (TPR)

TPR is, in fact, a whole methodology and hasproved to be very successful,
especiallyat low levels.Initially learnersare given restrictedexposureto a large
number of instructsons (eg lY/alhto thedoor,Pick up Jolanda'spen). Gesnsresand
demonstations quickly help learnersto understandthe meaning,and learners
then do what they are askedto.
Lessonscontinue in this manner for a long time, with increasingly complex
instructionsand,later,other sentences. Learnersarenot requiredto usethe
languagethemselvesuntil they want to and feel ready.Many teachers,while nor
necessarilyadoptingthe whole methodology,retrieve teaching teclxiques
&I from it. If you'd like to try out a lessor!look at the
on the DVD for somesampleinstrucdons.
Insson

Figure 7.10 Total PhysicalResponselesson

182

-t
 5 Otherwaysto grammar

Task-Based Learning (TBL)

TBL is a generalterm for somemore variationson the ,exposure-test-teach-test,
lessonstucture.
Lessonsare centredround a task,ie the learnershaveto do a particular
assignment(which will probably havea clearourcome).This taskwill usually be
'real world' rather
than 'languagefocused' (eg 'Plan a birthday party'rather than
'Fill in
the gapsin this exercise').Thelessonwill often start with the taskitself
(maybeafter somelead-in introducing the theme or topic) and may include other
stagessuch as'listeningto a recording ofcompetent languageusersdoing the
sametask','Learnersgive a report back on how thel' did the task'and a
'Preparation
of the report' stage.

Figure 7.11 Task-BasedLearning Iesson

Text starts
In the section on 'present-practise', we saw how restricted texts could be used as a
way ofproviding language exposure.You can do exactly the same with authentic
texts, though you may need to take more care planning how you exploit them.
Because these texts have not been specihcally designed for language students,
they will have neither simplified, controlled language nor lots ofspecially placed
examples of a specihc target language item. As with the restricted texts) you will
probably need to start out as ifit were a normal task-based skills reading or
listening lesson, following a sequence oftasks from general to specific so that
learners get a reasonable understanding ofthe text before we focus on language
points. Note that it's hard to do any useful language work unless the learners have
a fair idea of their way around tlte text.
With an authentic text rather than a restricted one, there may be not be multiple
examples ofa particular grammatical point to studyJ and individual language
items will probably nor'iump out' in the same way as with a restricted text.This
suggests that an authentic text will often be more useful for drawing attention ro a
range ofvarious language points in action rather than a single targer point.

183
 grammar
Chapter7 Teaching

Activitiesthat Clarification:
Authentic promote guided
exposure 'noticing' otscovery-

Figarc7.12 Text startslesson

100%oexPosure
Someonegoing to live in a country who doesnot know the languageand does
'picking up' the language, ie they will receive lots of
attend classesmay learn by
authentic exposure and will attempt authentic output in return (sometimes witl
helpfi.rlfeedbackfrom friends, shopkeepers,etc). Someteachersbelievethat d:
best way to teach language formally may be to reproduce this approach asfar o
possiblein class.A teacherwho wantedto work in this way might therefore
learners in lots ofreal activity and conversation (making coffee together'
along the streetand looking at shops,etc) and hope that learnerspick up
Less strict interpretations would allow'teaching' aswell, to give feedbacls
explanations guidance, etc. A more structured variant would be based on a
syllabuswhere the teacherhad chosena planned sequenceoftopics and tasks
that lessonshad a clearsenseofprogress and challenge.\Thetherany ofthese
be termed'grammar' lessonsis arguable;they are more general'language'

Authentic
exposure

Figure 7.13 100%exposure

184
Ghapter8 Teachinglexis
Studentsoften approachthe learning ofvocabulary in a fairly random way.This
chapterlooks at how to encouragethem to be more systematic.It presentsa
number ofways to presentand practisevocabularyaswell asexploring what
aspectsof meaningit takesto reallyknow a word.

What is lexis?
Teacherattitudesto vocabularyhavechangeda lot over recentyears.Theuse of
the word /exzs(rather than the more famlliar vocabulary) reflects a fundamental
shift in understanding,attitude and approach.Theincreasingavailabilityof
corpora (largecomputeriseddatabasesofanalysablereal conversationsand
other text), and dictionaries,grammar books and other resourcesbasedon them
haverevealedmany surprisingfeaturesoflanguagethat had beenpreviously
unrealised.An influential boolg TheLexicalApproacftby Michael Lewis published
in 1993,had a significantimpact on the professionin raising awarenessof the
importance oflexis and of the weaknesses of much classroomvocabularywork.
So what is lexis?Is it more than just a fancy word for vocabulary?How doeslexis
relateto grammar?I'll give somedefinitions on the next page,but first it may be
useful to seewhy there is a need for thesedifferent words.

Lexis comparedwith grammar

Whichofthe followingitemswouldyouconsiderappropriate for inctusionin a lexis/
v o c a b u l a rl ye s s o n( a so p p o s e tdo , f o r e x a m p l ea, g r a m m alre s s o n ) ?
computer,water,stock market,go off, pass the exam,swim againstthe de, it's up
to you

lfhen teaching,should we considerevery set ofletters that is borderedby spaces

asa separateentity? Or doesit make more senseto take somecombinationsof
words asa singlegrouping, a singlemeaning,a singlelexical item?
Cornputerand waterare familiar one-word vocabularyitems,but what about srocA
market?These two words are regularly found togetherwith a fixed meaning;this
surely counts asa singleitem ofvocabulary (it has its own entry in the dictionary).
How useful would it be to only teach stockand ruarketseparatelyand hope that the
Iearnerswill somehowfind a way of combining them to make a new meaning?
Stockmarketis an exampleof a singlelexicalitem, in this casewith two words
rather tllan one,
One possiblemeaning of go o.fis explode (asin Thebombwentoff). Here (in
contrastto srocAruarket),themeaningis not guessable,evenif a studentknows the
meaning of both go and o-fon their own.This two-word lexical item quite clearly
has an individual identity that is more than the sum ofits parts - and it alsohas
variant forms (goofl,goingoff,wenr o;f,etc).In class,we needto dealwith go off asa
pieceofvocabulary in its own right.

785
 Chapter8 Teaching
lexis

In suim againstthetide,the folur wordshavea specific,definablemeamng

furerhapsinanotherlanguageit could be saidin a singleword). It is listed in
dictionaries(sometimesclassedasan idiom). Do we needto teachthis asa fi_red
chunk oflanguage?It seemsto be a four-word lexicalitem - a singleunit of
meaningthat requiresfour words to be expressed.If we changeany one ofthe
words, we lose the familiar chunk - swim along the tide or diveigairct the tide d.onr
seemto workjn the sameway. Similar ch1nks arejump on the band_zpqgon,kick
r
bucket,paintthetownred,puttwo and tu)otogether,haae bothfeeton thegiound, etc.
Passtheexam doesn't have quite the samekind of separate idenity-The exam and
parsseemmore separable,ie we can think oflots of alternativewords
that could
equally well go in fr ont of exam.Nl the same,it,s clear that passvery often goes
rogether with exam (as do fail, take,enler and a few other words) .These are all
common collocations wittr exarz,ie words ttrarrypically go togetherwith that
word.These are not fixed lexicalitems,but probable,commonlolocations.
A more difficult problem is provided by expressionssuch ash\ up togou.Is iJtis
a singlelexicalitem, or is it a sentencethat a speaker(knowing the rules of
grammar) constructsafreshevery time he needsit? Consideisome other
examples: it\ all thesatneto mq what on earth ..., ntinding my own business,
funnl
you shouldsaltthat, sorrgI'm late,wouldn'tyou rather...,1r? do,etc.Theseitemi
would probably not be found in most dictionaries,but, all the same,they do seem
to havean elementof being fixed items,in the sameway that individual words do,
It is now generallybelievedthat native speakersdo not ionstuct expresslonsof
this type word by word, but rather extractready-madechunks oflanguagefrom
an internal store and then put them together with other language items in order to
expresscompletemeanings.

Lexis, vocabulary and grammar: a sumrnary

. Vocabulary typically refersmainly to single
words (eg dng,green,wash) and
sometimes to very tightly linked two- or three-word comblnations (eg smcA
market,compactdisc,sk3tblue,go off).
. The conceptoflexis is bigger.It refers
to our ,internal database'ofwords and
complete'ready-made'fixed/ serni-fixed/ typical combinationsof words that
we can recalland use quite quickly without having to construct new phrases
and sentencesword by word from scratchusing our knowledgeof grammar.
Lexis includes:
a) traditional single-wordvocabularyitems;
b) common 'going-togetherpafterns'ofwords (eg blondehair, trafficjam).
These frequent combinationsare known ascollocationsl
c) longer combinationsofwords that are typically usedtogetherasif they were
a singleitem (eg someone ltou can talk to,on-the_spotd,ecisions,I'd
rathernot
say).Theselonger combinations (which a few yearsagowould probably nor
havebeen consideredasanything remotelyrelatedto ;ocabulary) are
commonJyreferred to aschunks or sometimesasmultiword items.
(Categories(b) and (c) are both classedaslexical items.)
^
. Gramrnar refers to the generalisablepatternsofthe languageand to our abilin
to construct new phrasesand sentencesout ofword combinationsand
grammaticalfeatures(verb endings,etc) to expressa precise(and probably
unique) meaning.

186
 2 Lextsintheclassroom

'We
could argue th at collocationsand chunks occupy an intermediate zone between
vocabularyand grammar (seeFigure 8.1).

<-.
vocaDutarv > Erammar
rcxls <

s i n g l ew o r d s
'ready-made' formationof
and fixedtwo /
collocations new pnrases
threeword cnunKS
and sentences
combinations

Figure 8.1 Vocabulary,

lexisandgrammar
Having saidall that, most teachersstill use the terms uocabularyand lexisfatrly
interchangeably.Similarly,asthe term lexicalitemis quite a mouthful, staff-room
chat tendsto avoid it, referring insteadlo words,collocations
and chunks.Theword
zuordis a useful shorthandfor all three.and I shalloccasionallvuse it assuch in the
rest of this book.

Lexis in the classroom

Lexis is a powerful carrier of meaning.Beginnersoften manageto communicate
in English by using the accumulaLiveeffect ofindividual words.A studentwho
says'Yesterday. Go disco.And friends.Dancing'will almost certainly get much of
his messageover despitecompletelyavoidinggrammar; the meaningis conveyed
by the lexis alone.A good knowledgeof grammar, on the other hand, is not such a
powerful tool.'I wonder if you could lend me your ...'meanslitde without a word
to fill the gap,whereasdre gappedword.- calculator- on its own could possibly
communicatethe desiredmessage:'Calculator?'
A learner,recognisingthe communicativepower oflexis, might reasonablyaim to
acquire a working knowledge of a large number of words : 'The more words I have,
the more preciselyI can expressthe exactmeaningsI want to.' But (asmany of us
will recall from our own studies of other languages)getting to be on familiar terms
with lexisis quite difficult.The longlists ofwords and their translationsin our
exercisebookssomehowalwaysseemto defy memory,and evenwhen we can recall
the word we want,it doesn'talwaysseemto fit comforubly into our own sentences.
Perhapsthe translationapproachis part of the problem. Lexical items live within
their own languages,and though a dictionary tanslation can give an introduction
to the meaningofa word, it can neverreally let us into the secretsofhow that word
existswithin its language.Instead,we are left with questions:
. NThatlexicalitems havea similar meaningto this one?How do they differ in
meaning?
.Isthislexicalitempartofafamilyorgroupofrelatedlexicalitems?\Thatare
the other members?How do they relateto eachother?
. What other lexicalitems typically keep companywith this one (often coming
before or after it in a sentence))
. Is the lexicalitem normally used aspart of a fixed phrase?
. Ifhat other lexicalitems can be formed by adding or taking awaybits?
. What are the situationsand contextswhere this lexicalitem is rypically found or
not found?
187
ChapterI Teachinglexis

Many teachersfind that a useful first steptowards answeringsuch questionsis to

encourage(and train studentsin) the use ofEnglish-English dictionariesrather
than translationdictionaries.Such dictionariesusually offer sentences
exemplifyingtypical usage,notes on common sentencepafterns,pronunciarion.
relationships with other lexical items, etc. Learner training in the effective use of
dictionariesgivesstudentsa valuableskill that they can usein and out of the
classroom.
You needto find other systematicwaysof helping learnerswith lexis.Random
explanationsand examplesoff the top of your head in the middle of a lessonma1-
solveunexpectedproblems on the spot,but lexicalitems dealtwith in this way art
unlikely to becomea long-term part ofthe learner'sown storeofEnglish. In
contrast,a systematicapproachmight devotelessontime to helping learnersat
eachof the following stagesoflearning lexis:
(1) Meeting new lexicalitems and understandingthem and their use
(2) Practisingusing them
(3) Memorising them
(4) Recallingand using them
An important consideration for plaruring lexis work is the distinction between
productive and receptive lexis.We all understand many more lexical items than
we actually use in everyday situations; for example,in this section,you have seend;
words def9,conaeyed, acquireand systenarzi yet it is unlikely that you have actualll'
usedany ofthesein the pastfew weeks.Our receptivelexisis the setoflexical itens
that we recogniseand understand, but tend not to use ourselvesin everyday speedl
At Beginnerlevel,most new lexicalitems learnedby studentshaveobvious
immediatepracticaluses;they quicHy becomepart ofthe learners'everyday
English - their productive lexis.Youcan help this by giving studentsopportunidet
to practisenew lexicalitems in spokencommunication.Good pronunciarion
might be encouraged- getting the soundsand the stressright.
However, as students learn more and more lexical items, they will find that manl-
items seemlessimmediatelyusefr:1and are perhapsonly occasionallymet with ia
the context ofreading or listeningmaterial.Theremay seemlesspoinr in getting
studentsto practisesuchlexicalitems.lfork on pronunciation can still be usefirl.
but is more likely to be analltical (eg LY4tichis thestressedsyllable?)rather than as
part of communication practice.

The role oflexis in the classroorrr

1 Lexis is important and needsto be dealtwith systematicallyin its own righq it c
not simply an add-on to grammar or skillslessons.
2 Our job doesnot finish as soonas studentshaveffst met somenew lexis;we
needto help them practise,learn,store,recall and usethe items.
3 Training in the use of English-English dictionaries provides studenrs with a
vital tool for self-study.
4 \7e needto distinguishbetweenlexis for productive use and for receptive
recognition,and adapt our classroomwork appropriately.
5 As we sawin the previous section,we needto dealnot only with single-word
lexicalitems,but alsowith longer,multiword items.

188
 3 Presenting
lexis

Presenting lexis
You may sometimeswant to offer a short)teacherled focus on the meaning,form
and use of lexicalitems.This may be to clarify a singleitem, perhapswhen a
problem comesup unexpectedlyin the middle ofa lesson,though more often you
will group items togetherand teacha small setat the sametime. It is usually most
useful when the lexicalitems presentedare connectedin someway, for example:
. words connectedwith the samelocationor event(egshopwords,weddingwords);
. words that havethe samegrammar and similar use (eg adjectivesto describe
people,movementverbs);
. words that can be usedto achievesuccessin a specifictask (eg persuadinga
foreign friend to visit your town).

Groupinglexicalitems fo1teaching
Thinkof oneor two otherwaysto grouplexicalitemsfor teaching.

Presentation techniques for lexis

If you just want to quickly conveythe meaning of one or more lexicalitems, there
are a number ofways you could do that.The most common techniqueprobably
involvesa presentation-practiceroute:
. Present:you first offer somecues,picturesor informalion about the target
items and elicit the words from studentsor model them yourself.Youwill need
to checkthat learnershaveunderstoodhow they are formed, what they mean
and how they are used.
. Practise:you then get the studentsto practise,eg by repeatingitems,using them
in short dialogues,etc.
These techniquesare similar to thoseusedin the present-practisesecdonon
grammar (seeChapter 7, Section2).
Alternatively,there are many other waysto conveymeaning.For eachlexical item
in the following random list, I've suggesteda different way that you could help
studentsbegin to learn the meaning.
g/ozes Mime putting them on.
disgusting Mime (eg smellingold food) and make a facial expression.
swimming Translateit.
cafi Draw a qluicksketchon the board or show a flashcardor
picture in a book.
ofun Draw aline. Mark neaeratone end ar'd alwagsatthe other.
Mark points along it'.usually,rareljt,etc.
chase Gettwo or three studentsto act it out.
Jrightened Tell a personalanecdote.
rossroads Build a model with Cuisenairerods or toy constructionbricks.
wind.owsill Point to dre object.
exploitation Explain the meaning (with examples).
ftope Read out the dictionary defrnition.

189
Chapter8 Teachinglexis

put up with Tell a short story that includesit.

snpler Bring oneinto classto show them.
put yourfoot down Act out a shorr conversauon.
contactlens Studentswho know explain to thosewho don,t.
reduction Draw a diagram or graph.
Someof theseideasusedon their own might seemmore time-consumingthan I
worthwhile for a singleword. However,they may be valid if they are
ie if they alsoallow you to intoduce other itemsusinEthe sametechnique.
or illustration.For example,the idea given abovefor crossroads involvesusirg
Cuisenairerods to make a little road scene,which presumablywould takea
minute or so to setup and introduce.That might arguablybe long-winded, bur
becomesmore usableif, having setup the scene,you can then alsoeasilyteach
traflic lights,zebracrossing,signpost,ffafr;c using the same situational context.
Bear in mind that, whateveryou do, the stand-alonewords are not much usem
their own. For example,disgustingasa singleword has someuse but is limited-
ifstudents know that they can smell food and say'Ooh!That's disgustingl'and
'That caf6
was absolutelydisgusting!',it startsto becomea reallyusableitem_
ifyou presentlexicalitems,remembernot iust to teachisolateditems,but to
surethat learnersget to hear and use them in realisticsentences.

Teachingideas for lexis

Continuethe list with teaching ideas for the followingwords: Wednesday,tunne!.
chillv. overtake.
A simplelexis-presentationactivity at Beginner or Elementarylevelmight inr
using techniquessuch astheseto introduce studentsto a short list of new lexic{
items.This input (ie teaching)ofnew lexis would probably be followed by a
practiceactivity in which studentscould find waysto usethe words that they had
iust met or revised(seethe next section).
However,evenif you haveusedthesetechniquesin class,you can,treally saythat
the studentshavelearnedtie new item.The first meetingwith a lexicalitem (in
classor elsewhere)is only one step.Coming to really learn the scopeand limits of
a lexicalitem is a long and gradual process;a lexicalitem learnedinitially at
Beginner level (for example,6ooA)can go on revealingmore and more ofitself
even up to Advanced,level (to do somethingby thebook,bookzaorm,bookish,kttle
blnckbook,to throw thebookat someone, to booksomeone, etc).The list ofteaching
ideas for swimming can be extended to include some ways of studying this lexical
item beyond a frst meeting,for example:
. draw a circle wirhthe word swimmlngin the centre.Add iines leadingfrom rhb
word to a variety ofcollocations or phrases:- pool,- lesson,- tunks, Shall."Lv
go -, etc.Theseitems could be elicitedfrom students,searchedfor in
dictionaries,found in texts,erc,
. :useswimmingasstarting point and collect a number of connectedlexical
eg water polo, diaing board, deep end, crawl, etc;
. collect grarnmadcal variadons on swimming, eg swim, swam.
szoxmmers.
The teachingideasin this sectionare mainly to do with showing,illustrating or
demonstratingthe meaning.This is possiblefor many words (particularly
190
 practice
4 Lexical andgames
activities

tangible,visibleobjectsor simpleverbs), but problemattcfor more complex

meanings(eg supetficial,reaelation,
avert).In utch cases,learnersare likely to need
to seeor hearwords in specificcontextsin readingtexts or listeningmaterials.

Lexical practice activities and games

After studentshaveseenand heard a new lexicalitem for the hrst time, they will
need opportunities to becomemore familiar with it, to practiserecognising,
manipulating and using it. Many simple lexicalpracticeactivitiesare based
around the following ideas:
. discussions,communicativeactivitiesand role play requiring useof the lexicalitems;
. making use of the lexis in written tasks.
There are many published exerciseson lexis.Theseinclude:
. matching picturesto lexicalitems;
. matching parts oflexical items to other parts, eg beginningsand endings;
. matching lexicalitems to others,eg collocations,synonyms,opposites,setsof
relatedwords. etci
. using prefi-resand suffixesto build new lexical items from given words;
. classifyingitems into lists;
. using given lexical items to completea specifictask;
. frllingin crosswords. gridsor diagrams:
. filling in gapsin sentences;
. memory games.
Many such tasksseemto be designedfor studentsworking on their own, but can
easilybe usedin class.

Usinglexicalpracticeexercisesin class
Thisis a practiceexercisefrom a lexisbookfor Beginner/ Elementarystudents.
H o wc o u l dy o uu s ei t i n a c l a s so f s t u d e n t s ?

Which word B diflerent from ihe othe6'

@tF

Frorn WordGameswith Englishl,Howard-lTilliams and Herd (Heinemann,1986)

191
Chapter8 Teaching
lexis

There are many options.For example:

You could askeachstudentto do the exerciseon his / her own.
Studentscould work togetherin pairs or small groups to find the answers
(possiblycomparing with other pairs later).
The whole classcould decideon answerstogedrer.
You could make teamsand the exercisecould be run asa competition, giving
questionsin turns to the separateteamsand awardingpoints for right answers-
You could alsouse this exerciseassourcematerial for a seriesofactivities, perhaps
getting students to:
. match word groups with the pictures;
. lookup any lexical items they don't know in their dictionaries;
. explain new lexicalitems to other students;
. do the exercisein pairs;
. checkand compare answersasa whole class;
. in groups,write their own questionsin dre samestyle;
. use the new questionsasa ouiz betweenteams.
This kind of practiceis mainly focusedon reading and writing and on using the
lexicalitems individually and awayfrom any context.The studentsare learning
about the lexicalitems rather than actuallyusing them. In lexiswork, you also
needto provide chancesfor studentsto get oml and / or written practicein using
the lexicalitems.

Lexicalitemsin a practicetask
Herearetwo exercisesfrom a higher-levellexisbook.Listten or moreitemsof
that studentswill practisewhentheydo theseexercises.

Practice
Write or discussthe answersto thesequestions.
1 How much do you know about eachof the planetsin our system?
2 H o w f a r d o y o u t h i n k m a nw i l l g e t i n s p a c ed i s c o v e riyn t h e n e x t
h u n d r e dy e a r s ?
3 Do we reallyneedto know what other planetsand systemsare like?

You are an astronautreportingbackto Earthfrom outer space.

Describewhat you can seeas you float through space.

Frcm Wordbuildnrby Guy\Tellman (Heinemann, 1989)

Somepossiblelexis:planet,solarsystem, Earth,Mars,fupiter, Saturn,Sun,stur.

galaxy, UFO, comet,spaceship,
satellite,moon,rocket,alien, black hole,nngs,
speedof light, ET, etc.
Many practiceactivitiescombine giving the studentsa list of lexical items and
setLingthem a taskto do with thoselexicalitems.The practiceactivity inTask t
192
 practice
4 Lexical activities
andgames

for example,is precededin the book by an actrvitythat focusesthe studentsclearly

on a largenumber ofuseful lexicalitems.
qffif@* Designinga task for specificlexicatitems
Lookat the pictureand lexicalitemsbelow.Designa task that will givestudents
writtenor oral practicein usinga numberof theselexicalilems: cashregister,shop
asslstant, trolley,credit card, expensive,thief, purse, change,shoppingbag,
receipt, customer,pay,paid, shopping(noun).

+#USEHOLD

Figure 8.2 Supermarketpicture

Here are four ideas:

1 You were at the shopsyesterdayand you lost your purse.you think another
person took it. Look at the picture and think about your story.The other
student in your pair is a policewoman.Tell her exactlywhat happened.
2 Do you like shopping?Vhat are someof the problems?perhapsthis picture will
give you someideas.lfrite frve or six sentencesabout what vou like and dislike.
When you arereadl. comparewith orier srudents.
3 Get into groups oftluee. Look at this picture. In your group, one studentis this
man, one studentis the shop assistant,and one student is this woman. First of
all, think about what they are discussing.Are they arguing?I hy?Then stand
up and practisethe conversation.
4 nyrite a strongletter of complaint to t]]e managerof this shop about a terrible
incident that happenedto you yesterday.

193
ChapterI Teaching
lexis

Lexis and skills work

A greatdealof lexs work in classoccursin relation to readingand listening tasks.
There are definite advantagesin this, most importantly becauselearnersmeetihe
languagein realisticcontextsand seehow the items fit into t}te meaning and st1'le
ofa whole text.
The text that immediately surroundsa lexicalitem is referred to asco-text. Co-
text providesimportant exposurefor learnersto samplesoflanguagebeing used.
This suggestswhy texts are often more useful for teachinglexis than lessonsthat
focus on lexis asseparated,stand-aloneitems without such surrounding languagc-
When using readingor listeningtexts,a focus on lexismay occur before,while or
after the studentsread or listen.

Pre-teaching lexis
The teachermay selectsomeactivitiesspecificallydesignedto revise,teachand
practiselexisbefore moving on to work on the text or recording.The lexis selected
for teachingis likely to be that most neededfor completion ofwhatever listening
or readingtasksare to be set.Although this is usually calledpre-teaching,
rememberthat this work may be helping studentsto recallitems they already
know asmuch asintroducing new items .The main aim is to help ensure that the
following activity will work (becausethere will be fewer stumbling blocks of
unknown lexicalitems).This work may, of course,alsoteach or revisesomelexis
that may be useful in its own right.

Lexis and listening wolk

Thefollowingaudioscriptis for a recording
that will be usedwith an Elementary
class.Thestudentshaverecentlybeenworkingon waysof describingposition
(nextto, behind,beside,eIc).Theirtask whenlisteningwill be to lookat a picture
(Figure8.3) and notethe mistakes.
R e a dt h e a u d i o s c r i patn du n d e r l i nteh r e eo r f o u rl e x i c ailt e m st h a ty o um i g h t
pre-teach. Whatotheritemsdo youthink studentswill need(orwant)to
understand?

Audioscript
\7ell, he'smade a few mistakes,hasn'the?This place sellingsnacks- that should
be a souvenirshop,shouldn't it? So,changethat name from 'Snacks'to 'Gifts'.Yer,
it'll be sellingpostcardsand toys and things.And why is the phone box over by dr
lake?I'm going to sackttrat artist when I seehim again!He's absolutely
incompetent.He getstwice my salaryand can't do a basicsketch.I mean,we
wanted the phone next to the shop,didn't we, not over thereby the lake.Yes,on rl:
right of the shop, by that street lamp. And I think there should be a letter box therr
aswell, on the wall of the shop would be hne. And there aren't enoughtrees- we
could do with a lot more trees- besidethe lake,along the edgeof the water.Yes,
that looks befter.

194
 5 Lexisandskillswork

ttui hr
//u/,//

Figure8.3 Amusementpark

The following lexical items are useful to do the task:szacks,souaenirshop,gifts,

Phonebox,strcetlamp, letter box,trees,edge.
Note that JacAart ist,absolutell,incompetent,twice,salqry, basicand sketch,although
probably unknown to the students,are not necessaryin order to completethe
task,and thereforedo not needto be pre-taught or otherwisefocusedon. It is
Iikely that you would not dealwith them at all, unlessa student specificallyasked
about them.
Here are somecommon pre-teachingtasksof the kind you frequently find in
coursebooks.
. Match rhewordsu ith fre picrures.
. Checkfre meaningof r1-tese wordsin t}e dicrionary.
. Malch fre wordswiri rhedefinirions.
. Brainstorm words on a settopic (ie collect asmany asyou can).
. Divide thesewords into two groups (eg food words and hobby words).
. Label the items in a picture with the right names.
. Complete gappedsentenceswith words from a list.
. Discussa topic (that will featurein the text).
. Saywhich words (from a list) you expectto be in a text about . . .
In addition to theseideas,you may want to do someteacher-ledpresentationor
clarification.Youcould use ideasfrom Presentinglexis(Section3 of this chapter),
for exampleoffering studentsdehnitions or illustrationsoflvords and eliciting the
items from learners.

195
Chapter8 Teaching
lexis

Using short anecdotes for pre-teaching

One difhculty you may find when planning pre-teaching is that you have quite a
random collectionofwords, and it may be hard to organisethe teachinginto a
coherentshape.One strategyteachersoften use is to concoct a short story
(perhapsa personalanecdote)that includeseachof the separateitems.The storv
can be designedto help make the meaningsof the items clearand memorable.It
may be similar to the text that studentsare going to read or listen to, but it
shouldn'tbe so closethat it diffuseslater interestin working with that text.Vhen
the story has beenprepared,you can:
. tell it, miming or showingflash cardsor board drawings)etc to illustrate
meamngsasyou go;
. tell it. explainingor translatingmeaningsasyou go;
. tell it, askingcomprehensionquestionsand conceptquestionsaswords come
up in the story;
. tell it, askingcomprehensionquestionsand concept questionsafterwardsl
. tell it, pretendingto forget the words asyou tell the story.Elicit the words from
students;
. tell the whole story oncewith the lexis included,then retell it and 'forget' the
iterns (as above).

Planninga story includingspecificlexis

Workout a short storyyoucouldtell to helpstudentsat Elementary level
understand the meaningofthe followinglexicalitems'.bridge,basket,goldfish,
Ii brary, map, photographe
r.
Note that pre-teachingis not compulsoryl It may sometimesinterferewith or
undermine the aims of your reading or listeningwork. For example,if one of the
aims ofa readingtask is that learnersread quicHy and do not get woffied abour
lexicalitems they don't know, you may upserthis by dealingwith some of this
potentially unknown lexis beforethey evenstart the task.

Dealing with lexis during reading or listening work

Sfhile studentsare mainly working on readingor listening skills,you are lesslike\
to spendtime on lexis,asthis might clashwith the reading,listeningor other aimr
During such stages,you are likely only to:
. dealwith an item when a student specificallyasksabout it;
. give brief, to-the-point explanationsor translalions,rather than detailed
presemauons;
. offer help quietly to the one or two students who asls rather than to the whole
class;
. sometimesrefusehelp and tell studentsto do their bestwithout knowine some
rtems.

196
 5 Lexisandskillswork

After the first phase oflistening or reading work

Once the learnershavebecomecomfortable with the text, you can focus attention
on lexicalitems in the text and how they are used.Here are somethings that you
could ask:
. Can you guessthe meaningof this word from the meaningof the text around it?
. Find somewords in the text that mean . . .
. Find somewords in the text connectedwitl.rthe subiectof . . .
. In line X. what does . . . mean?
. Find words and sort them into three separategroups under theseheadings:. ..
. Sflhydoesthe writer usethe word . . . here?
. Find words in the text that match this list of synonyms.
. lfhat words come before/ after the word . .. .Vhat other words collocatewith
this word?
. Can you remember any other phrasesyou know with this word in them?
. Can you find any multiword items (ie groups of words that go together/
chunks)?
. rff/hat'sthe oppositeofthis word?
. How many different words doesthe writer useto describethe . .. ?

Lexis work after the rnain stages ofreading or listening work

Coursebooksfrequently offer follou-up tasksand exercisesthat focus on the use
oflexis in the text and encouragelearnersto try using the items themselves. These
are often similar to the practiceactivitieswe looked at in Section4 of this chapter.

Lesson procedures
Here is a brieflesson procedurefor a reading and speakinglessonincluding lexis
work at Elementarylevel for a multinational group ofyoung adultswho have
recentlytravelledto the UK.
l Pre-teach lexis
Use board picturesto draw an airport. Elicit the following items (and clarify
thosethey don't kn ow):pl,zne,check-in,takeoff,dplalted,
Passengel',
custolns,lirst
aid, bureaudechange.Practisepronunciation.Focus on gettingthe stress
correct.Make sure studentsget oral practice.
2 Written practice of lexis
Give eachstudent a handout showingphotos of an airport, with a list oflexical
items around tie edges.Studentsmatch the lexicalitems to objectsin the
picture by drawing lines.
3 Oral practice oflexis
Put studentsin pairs.Ask them to think about the last time they used an airport
and describeto eachother the procedure from arrival to the moment they took
off.\Xrhatdid they like or not like about it?
4 Reading to frnd specific inforrnation
Use a Heathrow Airport information leafletfor a fast-readingexercrse.
Studentshaveto find the answersto ten questionsas quickly aspossible,eg
timedoesthebureaudechangec/ose?(The questionsshould involveusing
lY,/ltat
the lexis taught in Stagei.)

197
 Chapter8 Teaching
lexis

5 Further lexis work

IThen they've firushed, ask questions to focus them on aniuals, d.epartures,
du.tgfree,immigratioq baggageclaim,plus any useful lexical items the students
asKabout.
6 Cornrnunicative activity (an opportunity to use lexis learned)
Role play in smallgroups: one studentin ea;h group is at the information
desk
the other studentshavevariousproblemsand come to get advice.

Selecting an ordel fol a skills and lexis lesson

Hereis a procedure of a reading,speakingand rexisressonfor Advancedstudents_
Putthe stagesin a likelyworkingorder.
a Setthetask:readthe articleandfindtwoarguments forbanningallcarsandtwo
against.
b Simulation: aformalmeetingof thetwoopposing sidesis heldattheUnitedNatioBs.
c Elicit/ teachlexisthat studentshaveseenin the text: scaremongering,pressure
gtoup, target, manifesto.
Showpictureofthe Earth.The globehas a cartoonface and is sweatingano
its brow. Elicit what jt means (globq,lwarming) andfind ouistudent opinions.
e Elicit / teach ozone layer, iceberg, extinct, exhaust fumes, ultra_violet.
f Dividestudentsintotwo opposinggroupsand havethem use the article
to helD
preparea detailedargumenteitherfor or agajnst.Helpwith
lexisproblemswhilethql
are workinA.
g Studentsreadthe articleanddothetask.Discussthe answers
together.

A possibleorder woutd be: d, e, a, g, c, f, b.

You can find more_aboutfocusing on language when working on reading
or
listeningtexts in Chapter 10.

Planninga procedurefol a lexicallesson

Preparea similarprocedure
for a lessonfocusedaroundlexisto do withthe
countryside.

Remernbering lexical items

There is no point in studying new lexicalitems if they are not remembered.
M,
studentsrecord newly learnedlexicalitems in long lists in their files or exercise
books.In many cases,theselists are disorganisedand are often neverlooked at
againafter they havebeenwritten. If we can train studentsto record t}Ieir new
lexis in a more useful manner,we can do a lot to help their progress.

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 6 RememberinE
lexicalitems

Studentwordlists
Hereis part of a wordlist from an Intermediate-level Xanadusian student'sexercise
b o o k .F i n ds o m er e a s o n sw h yi t i s n o ta s u s e f u al s i t m i g h tb e .

Word Tlanslations
express atcito
oprour organokotornganinot
megumba stron
(ff skulo,firmo)
star galactio
interview tuo bairemedjurma
shun bacawao inaterusco
Krnsman megrobaro
foyer auditorio primecxt
piss kchir
poftery oborosto
o'er tubea
hotchpotch senicokotoremioinatulmulenco
semr-conductor semikonductto
prosecuted epallisna magistralo

JOmereasons:
. The items on the list seemto haveno connectionwith eachother.They appear
to be a random list (possiblywritten down in order ofappearancein a text).
. There are no other words that might be useful in situationswhere one needsto
use one of these words (eg Joyer:dresscircle,stalk, stage,aisle, etc).
. Somewords are very low frequency- ie tley are rarely used- and therefore,
not very useful for most students.
. How aredrey pronounced?!7hereis the stressQtrosecuted)?
. There are no examplesofthe words in use,in sentences.
. Are the words usableasnouns,adjectives,verbs,etc (interaieq express)?
. How many different meaningsdoeseachword have (star)?
. lvhat other words are connectedin form to any ofthese words (interoiewer,
interaiewee,inter x i ewroom)?
. There is nothing to help the studentsrememberthe lexicalitems.
. Where might one typically come acrosstheselexicalircms (Trespassers will be
prosecuted, Weprosecute all shoplifters)?
. !7ho usesthem?
. Some ofthe lexicalitems are very specialisedand would only be usedin very
specificcontexts;not necessarilyvery useful to learn for activeuse (opt out).
. Somewords may be archaicor literary, not usedin contemporary speech.
There is no indication of this restricion. (o'er,kinsruan).
. \fhat collocationsare common (7bbinteraiew)?
. There are not alwaysdirect translations;perhapsa complex cultural idea is
being conveyedthat four or five words cannot really explain (opt out).
. No indication or warning of taboos (p?ir).

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 Chapter8 Teaching
lexis

Alternative ways of recording lexis

The action of noting down a list of lexical items is no guaranteethat remembering
will takeplace.Rememberinginvolvesfour things:

u"*ut',
(u*^'
'!u
A --

'n"o
""orunu
'"o uoo9
"*'-Jarr

Figure 8.4 The four things involved in remembering

The following are alternative methods of recording items.

Lexical items lists

Figure8.5 shows an alternativelexical item list that providesmore information

t h a n t h e o n e i n T a s k8 . 1 1 . F i l li t i n f o r t w o o r t h r e e E n g l i s hl e x i c a li t e m s o f y o u r
c h o i c e .D e c i d ey o u r s e l fh o wy o u w a n t t o i n t e r p r e t h e c o l u m nt i e s ; t h e l a s t
c o l u m ni s i n t e n d e df o r t h e s t u d e n tt o t h i n k o f s o m e , b r i g h ti d e a ' t o h e t pt h e m
r e m e m b e rt h e w o r d .

motorcycE 'meute(r) pikipiki

/ sark(e)l/ nde a -, She's/ust
get on my -, boughta
- maintenance, 60Occ
* race, Suzuki
- couner motorcycle.

Figure 8.5 Alternativelexicalitemlist

A ftr1l,photocopiableversionof this is given in the word list resource on

thc DVD,
Encouragingstudentsto keepa useful lexicalitem list is one way to ensuretlar r
teachingoflexis has a valueafter the lessonis over.It is alsopos;ible to integmte
the teachingand the storing oflexis in a more direct way by introducing drelexis
into the lessonin a way that enablesthe studentsto rec;rd not only the word bur
alsothe way in which they learnedttre word.

200
 6 RememberinA
lexical
items

Labelling
Another way invoh'esgrouprngwords so that a set is learnedtogether.This is
often more effectivethan studying unrelatedindividual u'ords.For example,you
could presenta set ofwords connectedwith kitchensby using a picture ofa
kitchen (Figure 8.6); the studentseachhavea copy of the picture and write the
words on it asthey learn them.

/:\
@ :

Figure 8.6 Kitchenvocabulary

Word or topic webs

A similar idea is to build a word web (or memory map or mind map) where
connectionsin meaning or use betweendifferent words are visually indicatedin
the structure ofthe diagram (Figure 8.7). Obviously a completedword web
could be presentedto students,but it is probably more useful for the students
themselvesto think through the connectionsand to decidewhere eachnew
word fits; thus the learning ofnew words and the recording ofthem are part
of the sameactivitv.
cherub
inFanl
babe (in arms)

Ling
cuLe PUsh-CAat"
5weef, \ high chain
NAPPg

Figure 8.7 Word web

N7ord webs can be extended into topic webs. Learners write a topic in the centre
box and then add some useful sub-headings in the other boxes.Then tltey collect
and group words under these sub-headings, connecting each new word by a line
to the appropriate box.Thus, for example, the centre word might be srarron,some
sub-headings couldbe pl17ces,timetqble,people,things to &er1,etc. Lexical items
201
Chapter8 Teachinglexis

within these categories might lnclud e: places- bookingoffice,uaiting roorn;

imetable - departure,delaged,tenminuteslate;people - guard.,ticket ircpector,
things to buy - a singleto X,please;a rcturn to Xrplcase(seeFigure 8.8).
This way of recording lexicalitems may reflect more accuratelythe way that we
storelexical item networksin our brains - and may thereforebe more useful for
students than the rraditional lists.

re-turn to X,
return to X.

Figure 8.8 Topicweb

Word page: collocations and chunks

This page is for recording lexical items that qpically go together in patterns with e
single key word. The learner writes the key word in the centre box and then uses
the columns before and after the box to write in phrases, sentences)chunks, etc.

Therewas a terrible jam roundthe ringroad.

lights
trafflc warden
The is reallyheavytoday.
W h a t ' sh o l d i n gu p t h e 2

Lexical item page: lexical item collector

This pagecan be usedto record lexicalitems and then collect and relateitems,
classifiedasdifferent grammaticaltypes.For example,if the studenthas found
happy, rhey could then go on to find andrecotd. happinessand happily.There's no
need to fill in all columns. Different lexical items will let you to fill in different
columns.

202
 6 Remembering
lexicalitems

Noun Noun Adiective Verb Advelb Phrases

(thing) (person) (present past-
pastparticipie)

hap?iheo. hupPv happity Happybfih4ayl

| fi not na?Py

re?orL .ePorter reporled report,- re?orLea

re?oted

RecordinEwords in student notebooks

Figure8.9 showsfourexamplesof setsof wordsrecordedin students'notebooks, using
a numberof differentideas,In eachcase,theyrepresent
the endresultof a lesson
procedure usedinclass.Readthe lessondescriptionswrittenbystudents - (a)to(d)- and
matcheachoneto a diagram.Trythetasksyourselt.

frost,
\ snow

d)-'l"9bk/",".", (rW
/#u, qt ./ii

handsome

charming

From The Words YouNeed, Rudzka,Channe , putseys and Ostyn(Macmillan1981)

Figure 8.9 Waysof recording words (continued on next page)

203
 ChapterSTeaching
lexis

From lhe Words YouNeed, Rudzka,Channell,putseys and Ostyn(lvlacmillan1981

Figure 8.9 Waysofrecording words (continued)

a Theteacherasked us to consjdereach word in turn, and we discussedthe ftne

differencesin meaningbetweenthem and tried to come to some agreement.We
didn't alwaysagree,but I think the discussionitselfwas very useful,as I became
more awareabout how subfle and precisemeaningcan be. I especiallylikedit whe-
realisedthat the teacherwasn't alwaysentirelycertatnherselfaboutwhat madeo.:
word differentfrom another.

201
 7 KnowinA
a lexicalitem

b The teacherwrote one word on the boardand then addeda few examples,then she
gavethe pens to us and we had to add other words. lf we got the spellingwrongor
put a word in the wrongplace,then she didn't correctus. She didn't needto,
becauseusuallyone ofthe other studentsnoticedit was wrongand we dtscussedit
and then changedit. At the end, when we'd filledthe board,the teacherpointedout
three wordsthat were still problems.Thenwe copiedit all down into our notebooks.
We used the words in our next activity,makinga story about a hike in the
coUntryside.
c We had to find our own wayto remembersome new words.As we learneoeacn
new word, we had to write it down in an appropriateplace,findinga strong reason
for puttingit there. The teachersaid we shouldtry to make a mental link or
associationwith that part ofthe picture;for example,one ofthe words was
spanner,so I wrote it here and tried to imaginean Australianbeachwith a surfer
comingin on a spannerinsteadof a surfboard.lt sounds a bit crazy,but I haven't
forgottenthe wordl
d We workedin pairstryingto decidewhichwordstypicallywent togetherwith other
words,and whichcombinationswere impossible.Ourteachertold us that this 'going
together'is calledcollocation.

Knowing a lexical item

ffiffiffi I knowthiswordatready
Y o u ' r ei n t h e m i d d l eo f t e a c h i n gs o m e ' n e w ' w o r d s i n a l e x i sl e s s o nw h e n o n e o f
y o u rs t u d e n t sp o l i t e l yi n t e r r u p t sa n d s a y st h a t h e k n o w sa l l t h e s e w o r d s a l r e a d y .
W h a t d o y o u t h i n k h e m e a n s b y ' k n o w i n ga w o r d ' ?

He probably means that he has seen it before and knows a meaning for it. Quite a
few students seem content \vith this; lexis learning involves matching a meaning in
their language with an English word. But this definition of 'knowing a word' is
fairly limited. Does he know more than this basic meaning? Can he actually use
the word appropriately to do things in a variety ofcontexts?
Many teachers assume that the real work ofteaching lexis is introducing students
to the meanings of new lexical items) and perhaps to the spelling and the
pronunciation. In fact, much of the difficulty oflexis isn't to do with learning
endless new words, it's learning how to successfully use words one already knows,
ie learning how 'old' words are used in 'new'ways. For example, the word table
might conceivably be first met on Day one of a Beginner's course. But it's unlikely
to be fully explored and used, even as the student reaches Advanced levels. From
'core'
the basic meaning of t,tble (a piece of furniture), we find there are various
other meanings that grow out ofthat: the food spread on it to make a meal, the
guests you meet at the meal, to table a motion, a table of data, a games surface,
football league lists, part ofa musical instrument, etc.It also feafltres in many
chunks and idioms, eg Do ltott haae afree table?,a round-table discussion,to setthe
table,m be unfur the table (.= drr11\) , gtc.To learn your way round all these takes
time and requires exposure to a lot of samples oflanguage in use.

245
Chapter8 Teachinglexis

What are somethings you can know about a lexicalitem?

Youcan know .. Notes

h o wi t ' s s p e l l e d
the numberof syllables
phonemes the soundsthat makeuo the word
whichsyllablesare stressed s h o r tw o r d su s u a l l yh a v eo n em a i n
stress;longerwordsmayhavea numb€t
of secondarystresses,too
whichstressesare strongeror weaker
whatpart(s)of speechit is
grammatically relatedforms eg the past-tense
form of a verb
'
thebasic, c o r e 'm e a n i n g
eg table= pieceof furniturewith a flat
surfaceand legs
othermeanings
t h e ' s e m a n t iscp a c e ' i to c c u o i e s where the meaningof one word ends and
another begins.eg fence/wall/ hedge

metaphorical
meanings eg the usesof 'water'wordsto tatK
aboutbusiness:drowningln debt, cash
flow, eIc
connotation t h e a s s o c i a t i o nasn d ' f e e l i n g st h' a t
seemto attachto wordsquiteapartfrom
their literalmeaning,egjunklesounds
moredisapproving Ihan drugusel
appropriacy for certainsocial eg it may not be appropriateto call a job
situations,contexts,etc interviewermate

restrictionson meaning things that the item cannot be used for

immediatecollocates words that typicallygo with the word

collocationalfield the rangeof wordsthat an item

collocateswith
colligation the grammatical position in a sentence
that the word typicallytakes, and the
grammaticalpatterns that typicallygo
w i t ht h i s i t e m

c o m m o nc h u n k sp, h r a s e si ,d i o m si t
appearsin

206
 7 Knowinga lexicalitem

translation(s) wordsoftendo not havea precise

correlation
false friends w o r d sw h i c hi n t r a n s l a t i osnu g g e sat
w r o n gm e a n i n ge,g i n H a l i a nc a l d ol o o k s
s i m i l a tro t h e E n g l i s cho l d ,b u t i n f a c t
m e a n sh o t
t r u ef r i e n d s w o r d sw h i c hm e a n a l m o s t p r e c i s e l yt h e
s a m e i n t h e o t h e rl a n g u a g e

l e x i c a lf a m i l i e s otherwordsrelatedto the wordby its

topic,eg saucepan,can opener,Iadle,
erc
lexicalsets many words are related to other words
t h a t c o v e ra w i d e ro r s m a l l e rr a n g eo f
m e a n i n g ,e g s w e a t e r i si n c l u d e dw i t h i n
c/othes. Similarly,su/eateritself includes
polo-necksweater

synonyms w o r d sw i t hs i m i l a m
r eanings
homonyms w o r d st h a t h a v et h e s a m e s p e l l i n gb u t
have different meanings

n om o p n o
nes w o r d st h a ta r e p r o n o u n c et h
d e s a m eb u t
havea differentmeaning
opposites(antonyms)
suffixes that can be added to the word eg possess- possesslon
prefixesthat can be addedto the word eg flow - overflow
t h e v i s u a li m a g ep e o p l et y p i c a l l yh a v ef o r
this word

personalfeelingsaboutthis word

m n e m o n i c(st h i n g sh e l py o ur e m e m b e r
t h ew o r d )

Now this, of course,is a massivelist.There is no way that an initial classroom

meetingwith a lexicalitem could dealwith more than two or three of these.
Naturally, therefore,initial teachingtends to prioritise on core meaning,spelling
and pronunciation. However,problems ariservhenclassroomwork continually
focuseson introducing more and more new items in this way - and doesn't
explorein more depth. By Intermediatelevel,most studentswill havemet a large
percentageof the most useful English lexicalitems.It's arguablethat by this point
in a learner'sprogress,it becomesmore important to exploreusesoflexical items
they alreadyknow than to learn new things,ie what is new is not the words
themselvesbut the new combinationsand oatternstlev are usedin.This

207
Chapter8 Teaching
lexis

suggeststhat, rather than following a traditional teachingmodel such as'teach

new lexis,then practiseit, then later on recycleit', we might do better to plan
lessonsthat allow studentsto constandymeet the sameitems in use in different
texts,recordings,conversations,etc and notice them in new combinationswith
different surroundingswidr different uses,and then haverepeatedopportunities
to try using the items themselves.Theinitial 'teaching'is of relativelylittle
importance. Items needto be encounteredagainand again:many encounters,
many associations.Seeingreal examplesoflanguagebeing usedis often more
importantthanhearing'cold'definitions.
How can we do this?How can we worry lessabout the 'input' oflexis and spend
more time on going deeperwith language,lookingat how words are used,noticing
pafterns,encouragingstudentsto notice more in the texts they see,encouraging
long-term recognition and recall and getting our studentsto usethe language
themselves?Here are someideas.

Record lexical items in useful ways

We havealreadylooked at alternativesto the traditional 'word + translation'list
and discussedencouraginglearnersto keepword pagesthat Iet them collect
collocations,pronunciation,idioms, etc.Encouragethem to usethese.Help
learnersby giving out blank formats (eg rvord lists,collocationgrids, etc; and
teachinsthem how to usethem.

Revisit lexical itern pages

Traditionally,word listswere written in classthen neverlooked at again.
Encouragestudentsto revisit their word collectionsand keepamending and
adding new examples,collocations,etc.This is a good reasonto tell studentsto
make surethey leaveblank spaceswhen they f,rrstrecord items.Keep referring
back to and making use ofthese pagesin class,for homework,etc.Train studenrs
how to usethem.Integrate their use into your lesson.

Collect lexical items

!7hen students read a text or listen to a recording, encouragetllem to notice
interesting items and 'collect' them on their word pages.Youcan provide
specific'collecting'tasksthat focus awayfrom the typical searchfor'new'
items,eg'Find threewords in the text that you alreadyknow but seemto be
used in a different way.'

Sort and classiSr iterns

Get studentsto read specifictexts to collect and classifyitems together on singlc
word pages(eg from a cooking article:'things found in the kitchen'; from a
holiday story: 'travelwords'l from a love letter: 'happy words'; from a job
advertisement:'adjectives describingpeople';etc).

Chunk and collocation spotting

Teacherssometimesask'Are ttrereany words you don't understand?'after
studentshaveread a text. But this may be a problematic question,asstudents

208
 7 Knowins
a lexical
item

could read a text and believethat they understandall the lexicalitems, but miss the
fact that they havenot registeredthat familiar words may be being usedin new
ways and combinations.
This leadsus to a variation on the third idea:collectingitems from a text but with
a focus on longer piecesoftext. For example,you could askstudentsto:
. frnd pairs ofwords that seemto go together:eg in the senlenceHe hqd zterltgood
communicatinnshilA,studentsmay not know that corxrzunicationskillsis a
common collocation(or that goodcommuniccttionshillsis alsovery common);
. find phrasesoftlree or more words long that seemto be a frequendyused
'fixed' chunk: eg 1r'swellworth aooidingGuildfordcity cenle if you possibljtcan
corfiains h's well worth aaoiding and if tou possiblycan (andprobably Guildford
city cente is alsoa chunk, but one in which you can substitutedifferent town
namesin the first position);
. underline ten nouns (or nords used asnouns) and then searchout which verb
is usedin connectionwiti eachone: eg in the sentenceIhhough thepotrtoes
uereftttherold, weboiledthemalongwith thecarrots,lhenoun potatoesE
connectedto the verb boiled.
'Chunk sponing'is a great classroom(or homework) learning activity.It often
astonishesstudentsand teachersto realisehow much ofauthentic texts are made
out of these'pre-fabricated'piecesoflanguage.

Redesign your pages

Encouragelearnersto sometimesreorganise,reclassifyand redesignsomeof their
word pages,writing them up nicely (ma.vbewith coloured pens,sketchesor
diagrams), perhapschangingformat, eg a list into a mind map,labelson a
picture, etc.The act of mentally sorting and rearrangingwill be a helpful learning
actrvrty.
'When
an error cornes up, review a range ofcollocations
In class,a student saysI mafu theexamlqstweek.Ralher than just srviftlygiving the
correct verb, havea look at a number of useful 'exam' collocationsand chunks:
toohtheexam,failedtheexam,passed theexant,examquestions,ex.uu resuhstetc.

Record real language

Studentsoften uy to record 'pure' versionsoflanguage,eg separatingconnected
items or writing verbsin the infinitive form. But to /razte cakeand eatitrs
someone's
much lessuseful tlran with the raw, original sampleoftext Youcan'thaueyour cake
and eatit. Many phrasesand sentencesonly exist in a singleform; there'sno point
in trying to generaliseuniversalmodels out of them.

Challenge students to upgrade language

Studentsand teachersare often satisfiedwith gettinglanguageonly
approximatelyright.This is fine in activitiesmainly intended to promote greater
fluency in speech)but at other times it's worth challengingstudentsto improve.
Point out to studentsthat aswell asmaking errors,they get language
'approximately'right, ie it communicatcs,but isn't the bestr,vayof saying

209
 lexis
Chapter8 Teaching

sometling. For exampleJif a studenl saysThefood hasa not interestingtaste'then

the meaning is clear,but the student doesn'tknow the bestfood collocations(dzil,
6/azd) to expressher meaning.Help studentsby not enthusiasticallycelebrating
inadequatelanguage;give feedbackthat helpsforce learnersto taketieir
up a grade.

Give collocations rather than definitions

IThen a student wants to know what the difference is b et\\/eer'lnte and.deWed.
often hard to give a cleardistinction of meaning.But there are clearlycertain
collocationsand chunksthat one is more likelv to fit into than dre other.rWhen
want to make a sentence,knowing the typical collocations- and learning them.
phrasebook-like- is probably going to be of more use than trying to select
betweentwo very similar meanings.
There are many gamesand activitiesspecificallyaiming to work on collocatiorC
understanding.Here arethree of my favourites.

Quick choices
Choose two or three nouns, eg/ood, coohing and.meal,that have a number of
(possibly confusable) collocations. In this case,the list might include baby'/ast.
slow, heahh, dog, home, eaening, delicious, hght, balanced, three-course, French,
vegetarian,frozen, cat. Tell the students that you will read out the List item by item
and they must indicatewhich of the two (or three) words is the best collocate.
the item soeswith more than one word. Decide on how studentswill indicate
choices.Youcould go for quiet ways,eg studentswrite their answersin a list;
ways,eg studentscall out their choiceofwords; physicalways,eg studentspoinr
the words written on wall noticeslaction ways,eg designatedifferent parts oftlr
room for different words and studentsrun to the right part of the room (or
betweenparts).

Guessthe collocation
Divide the classinto three or more teams.In eachteam,studentsare given a
common word (eg toun) ar.d}]'zvero preparea list of five common collocations
(egplanning,hall,horuqmarket,centre).Each team has a different starterword-
!7hen everyoneis ready,studentsread their lists out one item at a time and the
other teamstry to guessdre original word. If the word is guessedimmediatell o
t}Ie first clue,both teams (list-makersand word-guessers)get ten points; for
extra word, the points go down by one.This scoring schemeencourageslist-
makersto find the most likelv and distinctivecollocations.

Chunk watching
Students work in groups ofthree, two ofwhom face each other.The teacher
them a topic to talk about and they simply chat naturally for a few minutes .The
third person sitsout of their line of sight and takesno part in the conversation.
listenscarefully and takesnotesofas many'chunks'as shecan catch.At the
the time, the listenershowsher list to the speakersand they go through and
discusst}te items.

210
 GhapterI FrodwetEve
skills:
speakimgandwriting
This chapter examines the two productive skills and looks at \\'avs to approach
them in the classroom.

Approaches to speaking
'lffi Problems
in organising
discussion
classes
You are a student in a foreign languageclass. A new teacher comes In, stares at the
class and says Todaywe're going to talk about oil pollution. What do you think2
Following t h e t e a c h e r ' sq u e s t i o n ,s o m e o f y o u rf e l l o wc l a s s m a t e sl o o k d o w n a t t h e i r
t a b l e s , m a k ef a c e s a t e a c h o t h e r a n d k e e p s i l e n t .T h e t e a c h e rt r i e s t o e n c o u r a g e
t h e m t o s p e a k ,a n d , i n d o i n gs o , t a l k s m o r e a n d m o r e h i m s e l f .A t t h e e n d , n o n e o f
y o u h a v es a i d a s i n g l ew o r d a n d t h e t e a c h e rs i t s d o w n e x h a u s t e da n d m u m b l e st o
himself, f4le//,that seemed to go OK.
1 H o wd i d y o u f e e l a s a s t u d e n t ?
2 W h y m i g h ty o u n o t h a v ef e l t l i k e t a k i n gp a r t i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n ?
3 Whatadvicewouldyou giveto yourteacherwhen planningfuture lessonsof this type?

The trudr is that a discussion lesson like the one described in this task is more
likely to produce silence or a desultor_vsentence or tr\,'othan a scorching debate.
\Why this happens is not too hard to fathom. As a student in that lesson you
probably had no interest in the subiect, no relevant knouledge or experience, no
motivation, no desire or perceived need to speak about it and worst ofall, a slight
panic: 'The teacher wants me to sav something and I haven't had time to think.'
Hence, as a result ofall ofthese, there was nothing to sa1,.
If we rvant to get students talking in class,we need to ansu,er all these objections.
If the subject is relevant and interesting, if the students alread_vknow about or are
provided with information to give substance to the topic, if they feel motivated to
talk about it, ifthey feel that they really \\'ant to sa]' something, there is a good
chance of somet}ringinrere.ting happening.
So, how can we help the tcacher fromThsk 9.1 organise their speaking lessons
better? Here are some suggestions.
. Topic and cues
At its simplest, you (or learners) would possibl_vbring to class a topic (eg
'banning
smoking' or 'globalisation'), as lvell as a cue (eg in the form ofa short
newspaper artrcle or a pror.ocative question) that will serve to help spark
conversation. Most ofthe lesson would rhen be taken up with discussing this,
stating and comparing viervs.There might be little or no explicit'teaching' of
grammatical or vocabulary points. In planning the lesson, it rvould bc a good
idea to prepare a number offurther cues (eg a follorv-on article or question) to
keep in reserve in order to move the discussion forward ifit starrc r^ drco
 Chapter9 Productive
skills:speakingandwrjting

Structuring talk

Avoirling the talk-talk loop

There is a danger of getting locked tnto a ,talk-talk loop,, in which you say
somedring,but becausethere is no responsefrom the leamers,you saysomethirg
else,and again with no responseyou add something else,etc.It takesa little
courageinitially, but you will usually get far more conversationout of a classbv
askingone clear question and then shutting up - and patiently allowng evenquc
a long silence,whjle learnersformulate what they want to say.Repeatedlyadding
new comments or new questronscan havethe opposite effect to that intended.
confusing the classand closing down people who were planning to speak.
. Open questions

encouragereactions,for example'Vlhen they make that noisewith the drill

outside,how do you feel?'
. Playing devil's advocate
One useful intervention you can make is to sometimesplay ,devil,sadvocate.
deliberatelytaking an opposingor contrastingviewpoint in order to spur on
conversation).

Waysto start a lively discussion

W h i c ho f t h e s e a c t j v i t i e s( a l l b a s e do n t h e i d e a o f d i s c u s s i n gr e c e n tn e w s )i s I
to give learners a good opportunityto speak and encourageas many ro speaKas
possible?
1 S m a l lt a l k a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e l e s s o n :t h e w h o l ec l a s s c h a t s a b o u tr e c e n r
2 Youwrite a controversialquestion based on the day's news on the board. The
class work in groups of four or five students to discuss it.
Pairsof learnershavedjfferentpicturescutfromtoday'snewspaper
(whichthey
don't showeachother).Theycomparetheirviews,initiallydescribing
theirtwo
Everyoneis given the name of a famous person (whichthey keep secret). The
whole.class
standsup andwalksaround(as if at a party),meeting,chatting
answeflngquestionsaboutrecentevents,in character'.

All theseactivitiesseemto likely fulfil the goalsro somedegree_ and, by the

alsomake use of four common groupings (whole classseated,small groups,
whole classmingling).
In terms of the numbers of people speaking,it is mathematicallytlue that the
whole-classactivity will allow a smallernumber ofpeople to be speakingat the
sametime, whereasthe last activity,in which participants work individually, is
212
 1 Approaches
to speaking

likely to provide opportuniq,*for the most speakingby rhe largestnumber of

people.\X/hetherlearnersfeel cncouragedto speakalsodependson how motivated
thcy feel by the task.Having a clear,concretetask (eg describinga photo or
ansrveringa specificquestion)ma_voffer a more manageablestarting point than a
generalinvitationto'stateyour vierv'.Similarll-,havinga'role'mav givelearners
permissionto speakmore freely,taking arva-v someof the nervousnessassociated
with formulating one'solvn vier,v

Fluency and confidence

Fluency and conhdenccare important goalswhen consideringspeakinglessons.
There is no point kno\uing a lot about languageifyou can't usc it (which, sadly,
hasbeenthe experienceof man-vlanguagelearnersin the past- ableto conjugate
a verb, but unable to respondto a simple question).Tohelp achievethis aim, u'e
often want to find u'a1'-s
of enablingasman-vstudentsaspossibleto speakasmuch
aspossible.Sometimesan all-classspeakingactivity is useful,but ifit takesup the
whole lesson,it actualll,offers verl,little speakingtime to eachindividual student.
It's usually a good ideato organisespeakingactir.itiesin pairs,threesand small
groups,aswell asr.viththe classas a u'hole.

iffi,.{.S,1: Fluencyandconfidenceaims
class is for learnersto 'becomemorefluent and confident',
The aim for anyconversation
Whymightlearnersneedthrs ( e what may havepreventedthem llecomingfluent)?

Commentary
Very often, r.vhenpcople study a language, thev accumulate a lot of'up-in-the-
head'knorvledge (ie they may knolv rules of grammar and lists ofvocabulary
items), but then find that they can't actually use this language to communicare
\\'hen they want to.There seems to be some difficulty in moving language from
'up-there'
knor.vledgeto actively usable language. For many learners, their
'passive'kno,,vledge
is much larger than their 'active' language.\Tithout
experience in using the language, learners may tend to be nervous about trying to
say things. Pardy thel' may fear sceming foolish in front of others; they may worry
about getting things tvrong; they may want to avoid your comments or
correctionsl and so on In addition to these, it may simply take a long time to'put
the pieccs'ofa communication togerhcr,Ieadingto long embarrassedpauses
$'hile the learner tries to find out ho$' to say rvhat they rvant to san perhaps while
a ticket queue waits behind or a group ofembarrassed friends Iook on.
One ofrhe bestrva-vsfor you to help learners activate this knowledge is to put them in
'safe'
situations in classr,vhercthey are inspired and encouraged to try using language
from their 'storc'.These lvould not mainly be activities that teach 'new) language;
rather, they would allow learncrs to try outlanguage that they already understand
and have 'learncd', but not yet made part of thcir active personal repertoire.
Generally speaking, you arc likely to wantto create activities in rvhich learners feel
lessworried about speaking,lessunder pressurcr lessnervous about trf ing things
out. It's a frne balance though, as you also u.antlearners to feel undcr sorne pressure
to take a risk and use language that they may have been avoiding using until now
Man-v activities in class are suitablc for fulfilling these'flucncy and confidence'
aims, but for the momenr) let's stick with the class discussion such as miqht
happen in a 'convcrsation class'.
 skills:speakingandwriting
Chapter9 Productive

ffi Activitiesthat leadto fluencyandconfidence

, L e a r n e r sw i l l b e c o m em o r e f l u e n t- s p e a k i n gm o r e c o n f i d e n t l !
T h i s i s a l e s s o na i m :
' h i c ho f t h e s e a c t i v i t i e sm i g h t h e l p f u l f i lt h i s a i m ?
w i t h l e s s h e s i t a t i o n .W
1 Learnersrepeat sentences you say.
plans'
2 A t t h e s t a r t o f t h e l e s s o n ,l e a r n e r sc h a t w i t h y o u a b o u t t h e i r w e e k e n d
3 L e a r n e r sl o o k a t a l i s t o f h i n t s a n d t i p s f o r m a k i n gb u s i n e s s p r e s e n t a tlons'
4 L e a r n e r sl i s t e nt o a r e c o r d i n ga n d p r a c t i s er e p e a t i n gw o r d s w i t h t h e s a me
d i f f i c u l tv o w e ls o u n d .
5 L e a r n e r sw o r k i n p a i r sa n d a g r e et h e i r l i s t o f t h e b e s t f i v e f i l m s o f a l l t i m e '
6 L e a r n e r sl i s t e nt o a n d s t u d ya r e c o r d i n go f a s o c i a lc o n v e r s a t i o n '
7 L e a r n e r sp r e p a r ea m o n o l o g u ea b o u tt h e i r h o b b i e sa n d t h e n g i v e a f i v e - m i n u t e
s p e e c ht o t h e w h o l ec l a s s .
8 L e a r n e r sl e a r nb y h e a r t a l i s t o f u s e f u lc h u n k so f l a n g u a g et h e y c a n u s e i n
conversations.

Arguably,all ofthese contribute in somedegreetowardsthe aim, though lesson

stagesthat focus mainly on languagerepetition or languagestudy are at best
conuibuting foundation skillsand knowledgerather than directly working on
fluency itseif. The activitiesthat are primarily focusedon encouragingfluenc1'ar
numbers two and fltve.

A few keys to getting a good discussion going

. Frame the discussion well
-
Don't just jump in the deep end (asthe oil pollution exampleabovedid
'Here's the topic, nowTALI(I'). It usuallyhelpsto find waysto lead in at the
beginning and waysto closeat the end A lead-in may be no more than a briei
focus on a picture; it could be a text that everyonereadsand which naturalll'
flows into the topic. It could be a personalrecollectionfrom you'
. Preparation time
Your studentsmay need somequiet time before the speakingactivity,not to
write out speeches(tl-is is to be a speakingactivity,not a reading aloud one)'
but perhapsto look up vocabularyin their dictionaries,think through their
thoughts,make a note or t\'vo,etc
. Don't interrupt the flow
Ifat all possible,avoid classroommanagementtechniquesthat interferewith
the natural flow ofconversation.I'm thinking particularly about learnershavq
to put their handsup before they speak.Try alternativessuch askeepinga
waichful eyeon the classand noticing thosesmall movementsand looksthat
suggestsomeonewants to speak,and then invite them to speakwitll a gesturr''r
bv a natural comment such asDqsft.l,what doyou think?
. Specifrc problerns are more productive than general issues
Rather than giving the students a general topic to discuss, try setling a specrl.}.'
related problem.This is often more challenging, more interesting and more
realistic. In the oil pollution example, you could divide the students into t\ro
groups; managers ofReddoThnkers (a large multinational oil shipping
iompanv) and GreenEarth (a conservationist group) and tell them that the)
must decide (and agree) ho\,!'to minimise the risk of pollution in funrre -NIak<
214
 1 Approaches
to speaking

more interestingb.vgi\ing them someresourcedatareg a pageor nvo of

essentialinformation about the compan\,)recentaccidents,graphs,local
newspaperarticlesrmapSJ ctc.
Role cards
Giving studentsbrief role cardssometimeshclps,eg,You arc a motorist $,ho
usesReddo petrol. Explain horv you \vant to support greenissues,but alsonccd
to drive your car.'It can often bc easierto speakin someoneelse'scharacter
than in your orvn. (SeeSection3 for more role plav ideas.)
Buzz groups
If a whole-classdiscussionseemsto be dying on its fect,tr-\,splitting dre class
up into'buzz groups', ie quickll' divide the classinto small setsoffour or live
students.Ask them to summarisethe discussionso far, particularly considering
if the-vagreelvith r,vhatdifferent peoplehavesaid.Aftcr a fe$,minutes (with
studentsstill in groups), askthem to think of three commentsor questionsthat
would be interestingto sharewith the rvholeclass.Thenbrine the rvholeclass
back togetherand continue the discussion.The cntire b,.,rr-g.oup ,.rg. -u-u
take only about three or four minutes,but can help inject a lot more cnergvinro
a discussion.
Break the rules
Don't feel that you can neverbend the aboverulesl sometimesit ma1,maxe
senseto go stratghtinto the discussion(perhapsbecauseyou want them to
get somepractice at unprepared speaking,or becausethe subjectis burning so
stongly that it just demandsto be startedimmediately).

ffi Usingmaterialto generatediscussion

F i n da w a yt o u s e t h i s m a t e r i a li n a d i s c u s s i o nl e s s o n .H o ww o u l dy o u i n t r o d u c ei t ?
W o u l dy o u n e e do t h e r m a t e r i a l s ?l f s o , w h a t ?

EE

215
Chapter9 Productive
skills:speakingandwriting

A discussioncould be basedaround a decisionasto which of the tfuee buildings

should be built on the vacantsite.The discussionwould probablv be a lot more
interestingif the speakershad a real involvementin the iisues.Role cardsmight be
useful, say,for 'architects','local residents'and.town council,. Somelivelv
arguments could result.
The whole activity could be introduced with a discussionabout any recent
building or renovation work near the students, school, what students think about
modern buildings in their town or what they tlrink could be done with any local
Yacantplot.

How to organise learners in speaki[g tasks

Getring the physical arrangements right is often a big part of getting a speaking
activity to work well. That may seeman obvious enough comment, but it,s
interesting how often teachers set up a group speaking activity and ther5 for
example,leavestudentssitting in shoulder-to-shoulderlines.
It's hard to talk to someone you can't make eye contact with (though sometimes
you may want to play around with this idea, for example, deliberately keeping
studentsapart when practising'phone calls').
Learnersusuallyneed to be ableto:
. make eye contact with those they are speaking to;
. hear clearly what the other person people are saying;
/
. be reasonablyclosetogether.
Different variationsof seating/ standingarrangementscan be useful.Check
ideasin Chapter 3, Section3. Plan the arrangementcarefullyto match the
requirements of the specific activityt for example, you may want an anangemenr
that allows students to talk secretly without other teams overhearing (eg making
plans for a confrontational'public inquiry' meetingto be held later in the lesson)-

Devisinga discussionactivity
Thesubjectis 'popfestivals'.Devisea discussionactivitysuitablefor a rangeoi
levels.

One possible idea: in groups, plan a pop festival for our town.$7ho should be
invited to play?\7here would it be?Vhat problims might there be? How will
we keep the locals happy? Finally, design an advertisement poster to include
important information and encouragevisitors to come. At the end, the
separategroups pin up their posters around the walls and visit each other,s.
the role ofpotential visitors and festival organisers,they ask ano answer
questions.

216
 2 Communicativeactivities

Communicative activities
The discussionsand conversationsin Section 1 are examplesof communicative
activities,ie classroomactivitiesdesignedso that learnersto speakand listen to
one another.
Ve typically communicatewhen one of us hasinformation (facts,opinions,ideas,
instuctions) that anotherdoesnot have.This is known asan 'information gap'.
The aim ofa communicativeactivity in classis to get learnersto usetl-telanguage
they are learning to interact in realisticand meaningful ways,usually involving
exchangesof information or opimon.

W& communicative
activities
C o n s i d e tr h e d e f i n i t i o na b o v ea n d t i c k w h i c hi t e m s o n t h e f o l l o w i n gl i s t a r e
c o m m u n i c a t i vaec t i v i t i e s .
1 Repeatingsentences that you say
2 D o i n go r a l g r a m m a rd r i l l s
3 R e a d i n ga l o u df r o m t h e c o u r s e b o o k
4 G i v i n ga p r e p a r e ds p e e c h
5 A c t i n go u t a s c r i p t e dc o n v e r s a l i o n
6 G i v i n gi n s t r u c t i o n s o t h a t s o m e o n ec a n u s e a n e w m a c h i n e
7lmprovisingaconversationsothatitincludeslotsofexamplesofanewgrammar
S I T U C I UT E
8 O n e l e a r n e rd e s c r i b e sa p i c t u r ei n t h e t e x t b o o kw h i l et h e o t h e r sl o o k a t i t

By my dehnition, only activity 6 aboveis a communicativeactivity; it is the only

one that involvesa real exchangeof information. Repetition,drills, speeches,etc
all give useful oral practice,but they do not provide communication.In activity 6,
one personknows somethingthat anotherdoesn'tknow and thereis a need for
this meaningto be transferred.
Activity 7 is excludedfrom the list because,in real communication,the language
that the studentsuse is largelyunpredictable.There may be rnanywaysto achieve
a partrcularcommunicativegoal.Communicative activitiesare not simply
grammar practiceactivities,for althoughyou could offer likely grammar or
vocabularybefore the activiry the main aim for the studentsis achieving
successfulcommunication rather than accurateuse ofoarticular items of
language.
I excludeactivity 8 becausethe communication is meaningless:why(other than in
the classroom)would we listen to someonedescribingsomethingwe can seefor
ourselves?It is a displayactivity,showingofflanguagelearned,but there is no real
communication here.\Wecan,however,transform it very easily;ifa learner
describesa picture that the otherscannot seeand the listenershavea task,sayof
drawing a basicsketchofthat picture, then there is real communication,and the
'describers'
and 'artists' will interact with a specificpurpose.This classroom
activity effectivelymirrors activitiesthat learnersmight be involved in when using
the languagein the outsideworld,listening to a descriptionof somethingover the
phone. for instance.

217
 skills:speakingandwriting
Chapterg Productive

Some common cornrnunic ative activities

Here are examplesof somepopular generaltypes of communicativeactivitiesyou
may wish to try out. Note that, in every case,we are primarily concernedwith
enablingand encouragingcommunication,rather than with controlleduse of
particular items of languageor with accuracJ'-.

Picture difference tasks

In pairs, one student is given picture A, one picture B. Without looking at the other
picture, they haveto find the differences(ie by describingthe picturesto each
other). Seea completeexampleactivity in Chapter 2, Section4.

Group planning tasks

One exampleis'planning a holiday'. Collect togethera number of advertisemenm
or brochuresadvertisinga holiday.Explain to the studentsthat they can all go on
holiday together,but they must all agreeon where they want to go Divide the
studentsinto groups ofthree and give eachgroup a selectionof this material
Their taskis to plan a holiday for the whole group (within a fixed budget per
person).Allow them a good amount of time to read and selecta holiday and then
to preparea presentationin which they attempt to persuadethe rest of the class
that they should choosethis holiday.\fhen they are ready,eachgroup makestheir
presentationand the classdiscussesand choosesa holiday.
'Survival', which uses in theforest resoutce from the
Another exampleis
DVD.Tell students a story, make it dramatic (invent the details)and include a
disasterof somekind, eg minibus crashesmiles from anJ,vr'here,injuries, etc. Give
them the map and the notes.Students must plan what they should do to havethe
best chanceof survival.

Ranking tasks
Preparea list of items that learnerscan discussand placein a particular order
accordingto their opinions.
. What's the most useful invention?
. lyhat's the bestimprovementtltat could be made to our town?
. N7hatare the worst programmesonTV?
. rfi/ho'sthe most important person of the last 100 years?
. What are the qualitiesof a good languagecdtrrse?
Pyranid discussion
A'pyramid discussion'is an organisationaltechniquethat works particularly well
with simpleproblem-baseddiscussionsand especiallywith item-selectiontasks.
eg'Vhat are the four most useful things to havewith you if you are shipwrecked
'Put theseitems in order of
on a desertisland?',or list sequencingtasks,eg
importance'. Here'show to do it:
1 Introduce the problem, probably using a list on the board or on handouts.
2 Start with individual reflection- learnerseachdecidewhat they think might t'r
a solution.
3 Combine individuals to make pairs,who now discussand come to an
agreementor compromise.Ifyou demandthat there must be an agreed
compromisesolution beforeyou move on to the next stage,it will significantl]
helo to focus the task.

218
 2 Communicative
activities

4 Combine the pairs to makc fours; again,they needto reachan agreement.

5 Join eachfour with anotherfour or in a smallcrclass- $'ith all the others.
6 \Uhen the whole classcomestogether,seeif -voucan rcach one classsolution.

\flhat's the point of doing a discussion in this rvay? (After all, it vvill take some time to
do.)Well, most importand]', the techrrique gires students time to practise speaking in
smaller groups before facing the u'hole class.E l'en the rveakerspeakerstend to find
their confidence grou's as the actir.irr*procccds and they are able to rehearse and
repeat argumcnts that they ha\,e already tested on others. Learners who rvould
usually never dare state their viervsin front ofdrc cntire classrvill still get a number of
chances to speak,and becausethey have practised a litde, ma1-even get up the
courage to say them again to ever_vone. It also tends to lead to a much more exciting
and rvell argued u'hole-class discussion.The smaller groups are seedbedsfor a variety
ofideas and opinions; ifrve jumped in the deep end u'ith the whole-class stage,ue
r.vouldprobably gct silence or possibly just one or t$'o students dominating.

&$ SeePyramiddisc{rsslon
teachingtechniqueon the DVD

Board garnes
Many commerciall.vavailableboard games lead to interesting speaking activities,
though you do need to check them out and ensure that thc5'rcpresent'good value'in
terms ofhow muchusefii languagedrey generate.It's also quite eas-vto createnew
board games speciall-r,deri*.d to. tour classand their interests.I flu.rditvery useful to
have one blank board game template (there's one in drc Srz{zll-group d:Lscttsnonresource
on the D\D). It is then relatively quick to urite in a number of interesting questions or
statementsin each squareround thc board. Learners play the game in groups,moving
theirpieces and eithcr giving a monologue or discussiagsquaresthe-vland on.

Puzzles and problems

There are many publisl.red books norvadays filled rvith logic puzzlcs and problems.
Many of these make intercsting discussion tasks, ma1'be following a structure of
(a) lening learners spend a little time individuall-v considering the problem, then
(b) bringing students together in a group to tr-v and solve the puzzle together.
Alternativell,, some puzzles rvork well with the same stage (a), but then for thc
sccond stagc having a full class'mingle' (all learners rvalking around, mccting and
talking), during u'hich learners can compare dreir solutions $,ith others.
219
 skills:speakingandwriting
Chapter9 Productive

Role play, real play and simulation

Role play
'role' (ega person
In roleplay,learners areusuallygivensomeinformationabouta
or a job title).Theseareoftenprintedon'rolecards'.Learnerstakea Iittle
preparationtimeandthenmeetup with otherstudentsto actout smallscenes
usingtheirownideas,aswellasanyideasandinformationfrom therolecards
A simplerolecardcoulddo nothingmorethannametherole,

19-year-olddaughter 3-month-oldbaby

or they could offer guidanceasto what to do rather than ttre role itself,

Duya Irain l,ickeL Findout whenyour

L oD r i q h l o n . son'sIrain from Tarie
willarrive.

Role cardsoften contain someof the following information:

Backgroundinformation about the role (name,job, sex,age,personalappearance.
character,interests)aswell aspoints relevantto the task (piecesof information
you know (that maybecihers don't), your opinions about the issue/ problem /
situation/ people,what you want to happen,be decided,etc and items oflanguage
you may need).
A good set ofrole cardsis often designedso that the participantswill have
distinctly different points ofview and natural disagreements.Theycan lead to
excellentdiscussions- and arguments- without anyonehaving to feel bad at the
end becausethey got angry.
Role cardscan be designedto offer studentsopportunities to practisespecific
piecesoflanguage (maybegrammaticalpoints, functional areas,lexicalgroups,
etc).They can allow shyerstudentsto challengeor disagreewith other students
with much lessrisk of offending them.The following set of cardsis designedto
give pairs ofin-company businessstudentsa chanceto practiseusing modifiers
with adjectives(eg quitebig,ratherfqst, extremeb) intelligent). Sntdentswill certainll
need a good amount of time to preparebodr ideasand languagebefore tackling a
role play such asthis. (As role card 1 requiresmore preparationtime, you could
askboth studentsin a pair to preparerole card 1, then do the role play nvice,
swappingrolesafter the fust, so both studentscan takeboth roles.)

220
 3 Roleplay,realpiayand simutation

?ole card I Role card 2

YourcomPanY ha; Aeeiqned' a . Youare havinaa mceti.^ +^
hearabout
ranTeof revoluliona(Yne\,N n.i)i",i LX,
p.od L,ZL5,comVleLetY d' tf e'enr' proaucts from
"o^"a, imporiait
fromyourusualones oupptier.
Ab,ka loEof quertior,s
Y o ua r e h a v t naqm e e t i n 0 w i t n and tind
oneol Yourbeetcu1trome15 ""' '" aboLr
";i,"";31::,can
Describe Ih e new?rad'ucTta
h\m/ ner'

As well as.initiatinggeneraldiscussionon issues)role plays can alsobe setin

specificcontexts,providing a starting point for speakingpracticeand alsofor
practiceof specificlanguageitems.

W writingrolecards
H e r ea r e t h r e e r o l e c a r d st h a t v e r y b r i e f l ys e t o u t p a r t i c u l a rv i e w p o i n t si n o r d e rt o
e n c o u r a g ea s m a l lg r o u pd i s c u s s i o no n v e g e t a r i a n i s m a n d m e a t , e a t i n gT. h e f o u r t h
a n d f i f t h c a r d s a r e m i s s i n g .W r i t et h e m .
1 Y o ub e i e v et h a t m e a t - e a t i n gi s n a t u r a lf o r h u m a n sa n d t h a t v e g e t a n a n sa r e
m j s s i n go u t o n a n i m p o r t a n tp a r t o f t h e i r d i e t .
2 Y o uh a v eb e e nv e g e t a r i a nf o r s i x y e a r sb e c a u s ey o u b e l i e v ei t i s h e a l t h i e r .
3 Y o ul i k et h e t a s t e o f m e a t , b u t d o n ' t e a t i t f o r m o r a lr e a s o n s ,a s v o u f e e l i t i s
w r o n gt o k r l la ni m a l s .

There are many possibilities.The extra cardscould representa vegan,a religious

viewpoint, a scientificvierv,a'they're all crazy'view, a chef, a butcher, erc.
Role play alsogivesyou the possibility ofintroducing somemore bizarre or
interestingvariationsto a discussion,eg'You are a chicken.youfeel very strongly
drat you are being exploitedby rhe meat industry.'In a role play about pollution,
you rnight havea card saying'You are the planet Earth.you don,t think people are
listenins to vou.'

ffi Adding
a missing
rolecard
S a m et a s k a g a i n .H e r ea r e s o m e r o l e c a r d s .W h a td o y o u t h i n k t h e m i s si n g c a r d
m i g h t h a v eo n i t ?
1 You are a store detective.you can see a suspicious-lookingperson at a clothes
r a i lw h o a p p e a r st o b e p u t t i n gs o m e t h i n gi n t o h e r b a g . G o o v e ra n d f j r m l yb u t
p o l i t e l ya s k h e r t o c o m e t o t h e o f f i c e .
2 Y o ub o u g h ta s w e a t e rf r o m t h i s s h o p y e s t e r d a yb, u t y o u h a v eb r o u g h ti t b a c k
b e c a u s ei t i s t o o s m a l l .Y o uw a n t t o g o t o t h e a s s i s t a n t o r e t u r ni t a n d g e t y o u r
m o n e yb a c k ,b u t b e f o r ey o u d o , y o u s t a r t l o o k i n ga t t h e o t h e rs w e a t e r so n t h e r a i l
a n d c o m p a r i n gt h e m w i t h t h e o n e y o u g o t y e s t e r d a yw , hi c h i s i n y o u r b a g .

221
 :+!q,.

Chapter 9 Productive skills: speaking and writing

3 Youare a shopassistant.Youhavejustnoticeda customercomingIn whowas

veryrudeto youyesterday. Shewantedto buya sweater,whichyoutold herwas
the wrongsize,but she insistedwas rlght'Finally,she boughtthe sweaterand
stormedout of the shop.Youhopeshe isn't goingto causemoretrouble'

Possibly:
4 You arethe managerofa large departmentstore.The police haveiust phoned
you to warn that a number of shoplifters are operating in this street'You decide
io have a walk around your store and warn the assistantsand t1',estore detective
to keeptheir eyesopen.

Running a role play: some guidelines

Make sure the students understand the idea of role play Do they know what's
going to happen? Do they know what is required of them? Are they cornfortable
doing that or not?
Make sure the context or situation is clear.
Do they understandthe information on thei.rown card?Allow readingi
dictionary / thinking time (during which you go round and help if necessary)'
-
Give them time to preparetheir ideasbeforethey start maybeencourage
note-making - but whln the activity starts, encourage them to improvise rather
than rely on prepared speechesand notes.The preparationwork they have
done wilt inform their role play, but could simply get in the way if they over-rely

feel that they haveachievedsomething.

Real play
A powerful variation on role play is real play. In this case,situationsand one or
mire of the charactersare drawn not from cards,but from a participant's own life
and world. Typically, one of the learners plays himself / herself, but in a context
other than the classioom.Thisperson explainsa context (eg from his / her work
life) to other learners, and then together ttrey recreate the situation in class The
reaiplay techniqueallowslearnersto practiselanguagethey need in their own L
It is particularly useful for businessand professionalpeople.

and usedsomeinterestingexpressionsThe teacherwas alsoableto suggest

222
 3 Roieplay,realptayandsimulation

ideasand language.Thenthey repeatedthe realplay (with her playing herself).

Shesaid afterwardsthat shefelt a little more confident about such siruarions.
Rather than a set ofrole cards,the most useful tool for real nlav is a blank
framework - in effect,a card that allowslearnersto createtheii own real play role
card.In class,I start by askinglearnersto choosea problem or situationthat they
might want to work on, and then guide them how to fill in their cards.Some
frameworkswill needto be worked on indiviitually, some (if they are mutually
dependent)in pairs or groups.
The following framework is for a two-personreal play (A and B). Each learner
needsone framework card.They start by agreeingwhich person,ssituationthey
will work with first (egA's), and then A (the initiator) will explain a ll,ork situation
ro B. Both u ill fill in Lheirown frameuork rolecard asapprofriare.

Realplay:work situationsinvolvingtwo people

Whoarethe two people?

W h e r ea r ey o u ?
W h a ta r ey o ut a l k i n ga b o u t ?
W h ya r e y o u t a l k i n g ?

W h a t h a p p e n e dj u s t b e f o r et h i s ?

l s a n yo t h e r i n f o r m a t i o ni m p o r t a n t ?

W h a t a r e s o m e p o i n t st h a t w i l l c o r n e
up in the discussion?

W h a tw o u l db e a g o o d r e s u l t ?

\X/hen they are prepared, learners improt'ise a conversation as if it was a normal

role play, quite possibly with someone else playing the role of the initiator (rather
than playing it herself).!(/hen it's hnished, it may then be useful for the iniriator to
give feedback on how the characters and events seemed, to ,fine-tune, it (eg .My
mother used to speak much louder than that'), in preparation for a second go at
doing the role plal', possibly - and revealingly - rvith swapped roles.you can also
provide helpful feedback and language help, perhaps suggesting some typical
phrases that might be used. After the second role play, it may be useful to review
the task using a form like this:

Real play: leview

W a s t h e d i s c u s s i o nt i k et h e r e a lt h i n g ?

What were some interestrngthings that happened/ that you said?

What haveyou learnedfrom this? Willthe task helpvou in real life?

223
 skills:speakingandwriting
Chapter9 Productive

Sirnulation
used' but there
Simulation is really a large-scalerole play Role cards are normally
background information aswell -
is often quite a lottfother printed and recorded
- come at the
r.*spup". u.ti.l.s, graphs,memos,news flashes,etc which may
is unfolding, causing all
start ;f the simulation or appear while the simulation
readiusttheir positions The
partrcipantsto take.rot. oitlre n.* duta and possibly
of
say, a business
intenti-onis to createa much more complete,complex.world"
company.televisionstudio.governmentbody'etc'
This is a brief descriptionofan examplesimulation:
meeting'
Theparticipants are all membersof a UFO-sqotterss.ocietyat their annual
publir' At thestart'
They are decidinghow they could betterpublicisetheir causeto the
statements (collected
inni ior, to*, fint aboui UFo incidentsand somegoaernment
jri* *ogorirrT ond theInternet). At an appropriatepoint in the,simulation (probably
'ablout has lqnd^d
oil-tht ,l of the wajt through),youlnt'odu" o n'*t flash-that a UFO
the direcion oJthe meeting!Later interaentxons
in Siberia.This obxiouslychanges
'irrlutd,
that the
o rrqrrrt m inteiaiewiembers of thesocietyand,at theend'nezus
(JFO wasanotherfake .

4 Fluency, accuracy and communication

'working
Imagine a switch insideyour head- it swingsbet\'veentwo settings:
9 1) '
-"iily o.t u".,rru.y' and'working mainly on fluency' (seeFigure

WotuingmainlYon

Figure 9.1 Accuracy / fluency switch

language teacher.

224
 4 Fluency,
accuracy
andcommunication

fluency,or fluency ratherthan accuracy.The dangerofcorrecting sflrdentsin the

middle of a mainly fluency task is that you interrupt their flolr.'andtakc *re focus
offtheir mcssage.Studentsoften frnd it hard to continue after a correction,whilst
othersin classmay becomemore rcluctant to speakfor fear of similarinterrupdons.
It is thereforeimportant for you to be clearabout rvhatis invoh'edin
accuracy-focusedwork ascomparedwitlr fluency-focuscdwork. And it's
especiallyimportant to be clearabout the differing aims - and consequently
different classroomprocedures- of the t."vo.

W studentviewsonspeakingtasks
H e r ea r es o m et h i n g sy o um a yh e a ry o u rs t u d e n t s a y( o ri m a g i n teh e mt h i n k i n g ! ) .
T a k es i d e s .R e h e a r syeo u ra r g u m e n tasn dr e p l i e st o s o m eo r a l l o f t h e c o m m e n t s .
l B u t l d o n ' t w a n t t o t a l k t o o t h e r s t u d e n t s . T h e y s p e al kj ubsat dwl ay n . ttolisten
r o y o us p e a K .
2 l s p e a k a l o t , b u t w h a t i s t h e p o i n t i f y o u n e v e r c o r r e c t r n en ?e tvwetirrl ln p r o v e .
3 Y o us h o u l db e t e a c h l n g u s n o tj u s t l e t t i n gu s t a l k .T h a t ' sl a z yt e a c h i n g .
4 I d o n ' tn e e dt o s p e a kT. e a c hm e m o r eg r a m m a rI .w i l ls p e a kl a t e r .
5 T h e r e ' sn o p o i n td o i n gt h i st a s k i f w e u s eb a dE n g l i s tho d o i t .
6 T h i si s j u s t a g a m e .I p a i da l o t o f m o n e ya n dn o wI h a v et o p l a ya g a m e .

There are times in class when a focus on accuracl' - and therefore a greater use of
instant correction - ma-vbe appropriate.
There are other times when the focus is on fluency. At these times, instant
correction may be less appropriate and could interfere u'ith the aims of the
actrvlty.
You need to be clear about u'hether your main aim is accuracy or fluencl', and
adapt your role in class appropriately.
Having said all that, there may still be a kind of correction that fulfils the
'non-interfering'
aim offluency actl'ities, yet offers substantial concrete help to
the learner '"vho !s coming to terms $'ith language items.We will look at this under
the heading of'scaffolding' a litde later in this section.

Running a fluency activity

If the main aim is to get the students to speakr then one $.ay to achieve that $,ould
be for you to reduce your o\vn contributions. Probably the less you speak, the
more space it $'ill allorv the siudents. It could be useful to aim to sa-\.nothing while
the activiw is undenvay', and save any contributions for before and after. In an
activity mainly geared tolvards encouraging fluency, -vou are likely to monitor
discreetlyor vanish (seeChapter 3, Section 5).
Chapter9 Productive
skills:speakingandwriting

The activity route map from Chapter 2, Section2 (seeFigure 9.2) works well for
a fluency activity,and we can add a column for likely teacherinvolvement:

Stage
1 Before the lesson:familiariseyoursel
.-^*^-:^l ^-l - -':.,:-,,
,,rdL!rrar drru d!u!rL]

2 In class:lead-in / preparefor the acti'

3 Setup the activity (or sectionofactir
rnstructrons)make groupings,etc Teachercentre-stage
4 Run the activity (or section):studentsdo the
activity - maybein pairs or small groups -while Teacherout of sight,
you monitor and help uninvolved
5 Closethe activity (or section)and invite Teachercenrre-srase
feedbackfrom the students agarn
6 Post-activity:do any appropriatefollow-on work ?

Figure 9.2 Activity route map

A useful thing for you to do during Stage 4 above is to take notes (unobtrusivell.)
ofinteresting student utlerances (correct and incorrect) for possible use later on
(at the end of the activitl', the next day, next rveek, etc).

Ideas for correction work after a fluency activity

. \7rite up a number of sentences used during the activity and discuss them r,r;it:-
the students.
. \7rite a number of sentences on the board. Ask the students to come up to th.
board and correct the sentences.
. Invent and write out a story tlat includes a number of errors you overheard
during the actitity. Hand out the story the next day and the students, in pairs , -
as a u'hole group, find the errors and correct tl-rem.
. \Write out two lists headed 'A' and 'B'. On each list, write the same ten senteni -
from the activity. On one list, write the sentence with an error; on the other,
write the corrected version.Thus the correct version ofsentence 3 might be , :
either list A or list B (the other list has the incorrect version).You divide the
students into two groups, 'A' and 'B', and hand out the appropriate list to cac:
group.The groups discuss their own list (without sight of the other list) and r:
to decide if their version ofeach sentence is correct or not. Ifit is wrong, ther
correct it.lfhen dtey have discussed all the sentences,the groups can then
compare the tu'o sheets (and pcrhaps come to some new conclusions).
For more ideas on couection work. seeChanter 12. Section I .

226
 4 Fluency,
accuracy
andcommunication

Scaffolding

I suggested earlier that, during a fluency actit'ity, there may be a u'ay to offer
spontaneous correctron that:
. does not interfere too much with the flor,v of conversation;
. offers useful language feedback;
. actually helps the speaker to construct his conversation.
'Scaffolding'
refers to the $/ay a competent language speaker helps a less
competent one to communicatc by both encouraging and providing possible
elements ofthe conversation. It is the r.vaya primary-school teacher might help a
young child to communicate, or the rvay a chat-shor,vhost might dralv out a guest.
The listener offers support- like scaffolding round a building - to help the
speaker create his orvn spoken structure.
Scaffolding in class isn't a normal conversation in the sensethat the teacher /
listener is not aiming to contribute any personal stories or opinions ofher own; the
aim ofher own spcaking is solely to help the speaker tell his story
Here are some notes on techniques that might be appropriate:

Scaffolding techniques
. Showing interest and agreeing; nodding, 'uh-huh', eye contactJ 'yes', etc;
. Concisely asking for clarification ofunclear information, eg repeating an
unclear word:
. Encouragement echo: repeating the last rvord (perhaps with questioning
intonation) in order to encourage the speaker to continue;
. Echoing meaning: picking on a key element of meaning and saying it back to
the speaker, eg 'a foreign holidal";
. Asking conversation-oiling questions (ones that mainl_vrecap already stated
information), eg Is it? Do you? Where was iti' etc;
. Asking brief questions (or using sentence l.reads)that encourage the speaker to
extend the story, eg And then . . . He went ... She wanted... etcl
. Unobtrusively saying the correct form of an incorrect word (but only if having
the correct word makes a significant positive contribution to the
communicatidn) i
. Giving the correct pronunciation ofwords in replies u'irhout drau ing an].
partrcular attention to it;
. Unobtusively giving a word or phrase thar rhe speakcr is looking for.

ffiti ldentifying
scaffolding
techniques
W h i c hs c a f f o l d i n gt e c h n i q u e sc a n y o u i d e n t i f yi n t h i s s h o r t t r a n s c r i p to f a l e s s o na t
E l e m e n t a r yl e v e l ,w h e r ea l e a r n e rw a n t st o t e l l h i s t e a c h e ra b o u ta T V s t o r y h e s a w
c o n c e r n i n gt h e r a t h e ru n l i k e l ys p o r t o f ' e x t r e m ei r o n i n g ' ?
Sruoru: It is like sport . . .
Trncnen: Uh-huh.
Sruoeu: . . . but is with 'eye ron'.
TEACHER:With an iron?
Sruoerur: Yes,is'eye ron'sport, They. . . er. . .

227
 andwriting
skills:speaking
Chapter9 Productive

TEACHER:What do they do?

STUDENT:Er,yes. lt is like sport ex . . . ex . . '
TEAoHER:An extreme sport?
'eye rons' in extreme place.
SruDENr: Yes. Theyuse
Tencsrn: Ha - irons in ertreme places? Where?
Sruocu: Ah,like onto a mountain.
Teecren: On a mountain!
STUDENT:Yes(laughs),on a mountain or river'
Trncnrn: What do they do?
SruDENr: They iron and in tree on top
TEACHER:At the top oftrees?
STUDENT:Yes.

Different kinds of speaking

How can we teach speaking?Is it enough to give learners communicative activities
that require them to speak(trying out using grammar, phrases,vocabularythey
alreadyknow, etc) or is it possibleand necessaryto teach specificskills?So far, u-e
haven'treallytaken into accountthat there may be'skills ofspeaking'that also
needto be studiedand practised.
In order to answerthesequestions,we needto considerwhat is involved in
'genres''
successfulspeaking,and particularly considerthe nature of different

Defining'genre'
'genre'mean?Whymight'genre'be an important
Whatdoesthe word
whenteachinglanguage?
consideration

In everydaylife, people speakin a variety ofways, depending on who they

are with, where they are' the nature ofthe situation, etc.To take tlvo extreme
examples,giving a sermon in church is a very different kind ofspeaking
from enquiring about car insurance over the phone.These are two different
genres. \
A genreis a variety ofspeech (or writing) that you would expectto find in a
particular place,with particular people,in a particular context,to achieve
a particular result,using a particular channel(eg faceto face,by phone).
A genreis often characterisedby specific choicesabout style' manner, tone,
quantity, volume, directnessJchoice ofwords, formality, type of content, etc-
Quite apart from the detailedcontent and specificwords of the sermon or t}Ie
generally 'sermon-ness'about tlrc
phone call, there is likely to be a recognisable
'enquiry-on-the-phone-ness'about the call.That's not to saythi
sermon and a
we can't alsoknowingly chooseto ignore or undermine the genre,eg by giving
a sermon in the style of a comedy sketch(in fact, substituting one genre for
another) !

228
 5 Differentkindsof speaking

W varietiesof speechgenre
N 4 a kae l i s to f a b o u t e n d i s t i n c t ldyi f f e r e nrte a ll i f et y p e so f s p e a k i n ge,g m a k i n ga
o u b l i cs o e e c h .

Somepossibleanswers:
. Giving an academiclecture
. Telling a loke
. Greeting a passingcollcague
. Making a phone enquiry
. Chatting u'ith a friend
. Explaining medicalproblemsto a doctor
. Giving military orders
. Negotiating a sale
. Gi\rino ctrccr,l;rF.ri^ne
. Making a businesspresentation
. Communicating 'live' during an Internet game
. Explaining a grammaticalpoint

Being more specific about genre

A term suchas'makinga public speech'isstillrelativelyimprecise.It could
refer to a wide variet_v
ofquite different kinds oftask, from thanking some
colleaguesfor a birthday presentto standingup asbestman at a rvedding
receptionto presentinga one-hourtalk at a conferenceof3,000 people.
It is possibleto specifl,typesof speakingmore precisel_vthan by simply
naming a genreifrve add information about why the speakingis being
done,where it is being done and who is listening or interactingwith the
speaker.
'W a genre
Analysing
L o o k a t t h e l i s t o f c o m m o ns p e a k i n gg e n r e s .C h o o s eo n e a n d a n a l y s ei t u s i n gt h e
g n d i n F i g u r e9 . 3 .
a N.4eeting people atqn inforrnalparty
b D i s c u s s i n gn e w s a l e s a t a b u s i n e s sm e e t i n g
c T e l l i n ga j o k e i n a c a f e
d L e a v i n ga p h o n em e s s a g e
e B u y i n ga t r a i n t i c k e t a t t h e t r a i n s t a t i o n
f A s k i n gf o r d i r e c t i o n so n t h e s t r e e t
g N 4 a k i nag d e n t i s t ' sa p p o i n t m e not n t h e p h o n e
h C h e c k i n gi n a t t h e a i r p o r t
T w o e x a m p l e sh a v e b e e nf i l l e di n t o h e l py o u . N B Y o ua r e n o t a n a l y s i n ga l l e x a m p l e s
o f e a c hg e n r e ,j u s t o n e s p e c i f i co n e . F o re x a m p l e t, h e l e c t u r es p e c i f i e dh e r e m a y b e
v e r y d i f f e r e n ti f a n y o f t h e v a r i a b l e sw e r e a l t e r e d .

229
Chapter9 Productiveskills: speakingand writing

Genre Purpose Setting Audlence Response

Whatgeneral Whyis this Whereis it Whois Doesthe speakerget a
kindof sPeaking done? d o n e ? listening? sPokenresponsefrom
s p e a k i n igs i t ? listene(s)?
. one-way (no
response)?
. two-way(reciprocal
communication)?
. multiway?(morethan
two communicate)?
An academic Toinform Lecturetheatre Roomof Mainlyone-way:
lecture peopleof facts at Budapest students responseonly in terms
about University Iistening,note- of posture,expression
17th-century taking,etc and possiblya question
British histoty or comment
A stand-up Making Livingroom of a Oneor more Multiway: a varying
conversa on at contacts; privatehouse other numberof peoplespeak
a formalparty findingnew in Nairobi professional
clients peopleof
similar social
status

Figure 9.3 Genre-analysisgrid

Why is genre important?

230
 5 Different
kindsof speaking

you are,how much you speakand horvmuch you Iisten,etc.Of course,you can
adjustyour'genre' asyou takepart in the conversation, but againyour new
choice will colour all you say,and generally it is unlikely rhat you,ll decide to
switch dramatically into a genre that you earlier rejected as entirely
inappropriate.
From this example,it's apparentthat choice ofgenre is a vital decisiona speaker
makesbefore sheproceedswith almost any speakingact.A learner of a language
needsto learn not just rvords,grammar, pronunciation, etc, but alsoabout
appropriate waysof speakingin different situations- which may be signifrcantly
different in the target languageculture comparedwith their orvn.For this reason,
offering a range of communicative'fluency' activitiesto our learnersis probably
insufficient asa coursein speaking.\Vemust think about the range of speaking
actsthat a learnermay be faced witi and give them chancesto practiseselecting
appropnate genresand planning the appropriate languageneededfor a variery
of different speakingsituationsand audiences.
Successfulspeakinginvolvesfluently communicating information or opinions in
a clearunambiguousmanner in an appropriateway for a particular context.

Factors involvedin speech acts

l f y o u r l e a r n e r sh a d t o t a k e p a r t i n t h e s p e e c ha c t s i n T a s k9 . 1 4 a b o v e ,w h a t s o r t o f
t h i n g sm i g h t p r o v ed i f f i c u l t f o r t h e m ? T h e t a b l ei n F i g u r e9 . 4 l i s t s s o m e o f t h e s k i s
a n d s t r a t e g i e st h a t c o m p e t e n tl a n g u a g eu s e r s m i g h te m p l o yw h e n s p e a k i n g .
C h o o s et h r e e o f t h e g e n r e sf r o m T a s k9 . 1 4 . F o re a c h o n e , s e l e c tf o u r o r f i v e i t e m s
f r o m F i g u r e9 . 4 t h a t s e e m t o b e m o s t i m p o r t a n tf o r s u c c e s s f u l l ye s t a b l i s h i n ga n d
m a i n t a i n i n gc o m m u n i c a t i o nF. o re x a m p l e ,i f I c o n s i d e r( a ) l \ y ' e e t t npge o p l ea t a n
i n f o r m a lp a r t y ,I m i g h t d e c i d et h a t t h e f o l l o w i n gw e r e m o s t i m p o r t a n t( a n dt i c k
them in the table):
. B e i n ga w a r eo f a p p r o p r i a t et o p i c sa n d s t y l ef o r t h e c o n t e x t( e g b u s i n e s sm e e t i n g ,
s o c i a lc h i t - c h a t )
. S p e a k i n gs p o n t a n e o u s lw y i t h l i m i t e d/ n o p r e p a r a t i o nt i m e b e f o r es p e a k i n g
. C o p i n gw i t h u n p r e d i c t a b l ree s p o n s e s
. S h o w i n gi n t e r e s ti n t h e p e r s o ns p e a k t n g

T h e s ea r e o n l yp o s s i b l ea n s w e r s .D i f f e r e n tp e o p l em i g h t s e l e c to t h e r i t e m s .

231
 'l
Chapter9 Productve skills:speaki|gandwritir]g

Pronunciation
S o e d k 1 9 c l e d ' l y . , i l h , o - p . p l ^ e . r s i bp s o J n o s
Usingfluent,connectedspeechwith app word-llnking
Usingstress and ntonatlonto emphasiseor drawattentionto things,express
emotionor attitude,etc
an appropriatepace

a n d m a i n t a i n i nag s u i t a b l ee v e lo f f o r m a l i t y/ i n f o r m a l i t y
and maintaining a suitable level of politeness
Beingawareof appropriatetopics and stylefor the context(ie business
meet ng, socia ch t chat)
Coprngw i t ha s t r e s s f usl p e a k l n gc o n t e x (t e go t h e rp e o p l ew a t i n g ,l i m i t e dt i m e
ro speaK)
Speakingspontaneousy with limited/ no preparationtime beforespeak ng
Coplngwith uncertaintyaboutthe languagelevelof other people
informatlon
Structurng speechas
Givingneithertoo much nor too little nformation
Not offer ng rrelevantinformation
ng clear,accurateinformation
to your listene(s)the structure and stagesof what you say
lnteraction
E s t a b l r snhg a r e a t o n s h i pb e f o r ea n dd u r n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n
C o p i n gw i t hu n p r e dc t a b l er e s p o n s e s
Turntakjng

Listeningand respondingappropriatelyin I ne wlth the progressof a

conversation
Sl-or\irB l erest In the pe.sor spea"i
R e a c h i n ag n e g o t i a t e/d c o m p r o m i s ceo n c l u s i o n
Copjngwith a varietyof content(facts.opinions,argurnents,anecdotes,etc)
simultaneously

Holding
t h e f l o o rw h e n w a n tt o c o n t i n u es p e a
po itely
Interrupting
new topicsor changingtopics
Language items
Fluentlyformingaccuratestructuresto expressrequ red
Knowingfixed phrasesused ln specificsjtuations
Creatingeffectivequestions
Havingsufficientlexicalresourcesto expressmeanings

Iigure 9..:[ Griclfor assessing

spccchacrs
212
 kindsof speaking
5 Different

How can you organisea speakinglessonbasedaround this idea ofhelping learners

to work better within a given genre?Broadly speaking,you havetwo options:
1 You can work on the individual micro-skills (eg things such asthosein the table
in Figure 9.4) using gamesand practiceactivities;
2 You can work on a bigger scale,getting learnersto deploy a rangeofthese
micro-skillswhile completing a genre-basedtask.

ffi micro-skills
Practising
T a k et h e m i c r o - s k iol lf i n t e r r u p t i npgo l i t e l y('i na n i n f o r m asl o c i acl o n v e r s a t i o n ) .
C a ny o ut h i n ko f a g a m eo r p r a c t i c e a c t i v i t tyh a tm i g h tr a i s es t u d e n t sa' w a r e n e sosf
t h i so r h e l ot h e mi m o r o v teh e i rs k i l l si n t h i s a r e a ?

Here are two samplegamesand acuvrtres:

1 Learnerswork in small groups.Each person takesa card with a topic word on it
(eg 'swimming'). One person in eachgroup must start speakingon their given
topic. Otiers anempt to interrupt and changethe topic politely to their topic,
'caf€' conversation.
while all work to matrtain a balanced
2 Hand out a list of expressionsfor interrupting politely (eg 81 theway ),but
includingsomeunlikelyorincorrectones(egNozl,'IzrantLlstotalhabout..)
Learnersselectthe correct items from the list (and then havea conversadon
using them).

ffi stagesin a speakinglesson

' m a k i n ga b u s i n e s sa p p o i n t m e not v e rt h e p h o n e '( o r
Y o uh a v ed e c i d e dt o w o r k o n
a n o t h e rs i mi l a r s p e a k i n gt a s k ) . O n e r mp o r t a n ts t a g eo f t h e l e s s o nw i l l b e w h e n
l e a r n e r st r y d o i n gt h e s p e a k i n gi t s e l f( s i m u l a t i n gi t i n p a i r s ,p r o b a b l yr,a t h e rt h a n
m a k i n gr e a l p h o n ec al l s ! ) .W h a t o t h e rs t a g e sd o y o u t h i n k t h e r e m i g h t b e i n t h e
lesson?

The following are some likely elements:

Once you have explained the specific speaking task, the learners may need to:
. plan how they will do the task;
. rehearse partq-(or all) ofit;
. hear examples of competent speakers doing the same task;
. get input from you on possible structures, phrases, vocabular)'', etc;
. reflect on how well they did the task after they hnish;
. replan or revise their original ideas;
. have anotier go at doing the task a second (third?) time.
At various points, the learners may want correction and advice on how to do it
bener.
Here are those elements arranged into a basic Iesson sequence, together with a
worked example for'making a business appointment over the phone'.The stage
marked with a star could come at any point ofyour choosing.

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Chapter9 Productive
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Basic lesson sequence

1 Settask
2 Plan the speaking
3 Rehearsethe speaking
4 Do the task
5 Feedback/ Review the success
6 Add / Correct / Revise
7 Redo the task
* Exposureto example

Worked exarnple
1 Set task: Tell learnersthat they must phone a businesscontactto make an
appoinrmentlor a meedngto discussfurureplans.
Plan the speaking: Ask learnersto work in pairs to decidewhat the callerwill
sayand how the receptionistwill respond.Learners should not write out a
whole script, but can make notes ofparticular phrases.
Rehearse the speaking: Learnerspractisein pairs.Youlisten in and suggest
correctronsand improvements.
Do the task: Make new pairs.lfithout furtier discussion,learners'phone'
eachother and do the task.
Feedback / review: The pairs meet and reflect on whether the taskwas done
well. Maybe the rvholeclassalsodiscussesthe questionand you offer notes.You
may draw attentionto specificlanguagethat learnerscould use and specific
waysofinteracting appropriateto the genre.
Exposure to exarnple: PIay a recording ofcompetent speakersdoing the
sametask.The classis askedto take down notes about Ianguagethey use.
Add / correct / revise:The pairs work out how they could improve their task
next urne.
7 Redo the task: Make new pairs.The taskis done again.

Approaches to writing

ffi writingin reallifeandin the classroom

L i s t s o m e t h i n g sy o u h a v ew r i t t e ni n t h e p a s tt w o w e e k s .W h a ta r e t h e i mp l i c a t i o sr
o f y o u rl r s tf o r t h e E n g l i s hl a n g u a g ec l a s s r o o m ?

The role of writing in everydaylife has changedquite dramaticallyover recenr

decades.rVhenselectingwork for students,you need to be clearabout whether::
is useful practice.
Whereas,in the early 1990s,many peoplewrote very litde day by day,the adler:
and popularity of email,web forums,Internet messengerservicesand text
messaginghasmeant that there is now a huge increasein written communicau.e.
Whether this growth and popularity will continue as new technology offers ea.
cheaper and faster video and voice connections is not clear.
This new kind of communication hasits or.vnpeculiar rules and rinrals,and in
somecaseshas evolvedits own shorthand,abbreviationsand lexis,often becau.<
of the perceivedneedto write quickly or within a limited word or characterccrit

234
 6 Approaches
to writing

You can buy little dictionariesoftext-messageconventionsand abbreviations.

There are alsonew wavsofexpressingoneself.I can now communicateinstantly
acrossthe world and use a litde picture ofa cartoon face to expressmy reactionto
somethingwritten by my friend. Is that writing?
Beyond thesenew waysof communicating,many peopleactually do verl- lirde
r'vritingin day-to-daylife, and a greatdeal ofwhat they do write is quite short:
briefnotes to friends or colleagues,answerson questionforms, diary enrrres,
postcardsretc.The needfor longer,formal written rvork seemsto havelessened
over the years,and this is reflectedin man-vclassrooms$/hereu'riting acdvitiesare
perhapslessoften found than thosefor other skills.

Writing in the classroorn

Despite the points raisedabove,there may still be good reasonsu'hy it is useful to
include work on rvriting in a course:
. Manv studentshavespecificneedsthat require them to work on writing skills:
academicstudy,examinationpreparationand BusinessEnglish are three
common areaswherev'ritten work is still very important.
. At the most basiclevel,your studentsare likelv to be involved in taking dolr.'n
notesin lessonssuch asyours; this is a skill that is rvorth focusing on.
. \Vriting involvesa different kind of mental process.Thereis more time to think,
to reflect,to prepare,to rehearse,to make mistakesand to hnd alternativeand
better solutions.
. It can give you a break,quieten dou'n a noisy class,changethe mood and pace
ofa lesson,etc.
Much writing work in the classroomfalls on a continuum of hotv much
restriction,help and control is offered,from copying to unguided u,riting.

l_ Copying Studentspractiseforminglettershapesin a handwriting

book, note down substitutiontablesfrornthe board,copV
examplesfrom a textbook.etc.

2 Doingexercises Studentswrite sJnglewords phrases,sentences,etc in

responseto very tightlyfocusedtasks with limitedoptions
and limitedopportunitiesfor creativityor gettingthings
wrong.

3 Guidedwriting Youguidestudentsto write longertexts in quite restricted

or controlledtasks by offeringsamples,models,possibly
usefullanguageitems, advice,organisational frameworks,
etc,

4 Plocess writing Studentswritewhattheywant to, with help,encouragement

and feedbackfrom you and othersthroughoutthe process
of choosinga topic,gatheringrdeas,organisingthoughts,
drafting,etc.

5 Unguided Studentswritefreelywithoutovertguidance,assistanceor
writing feedbackduringthe writingprocess,thougha title or task
may be set, and work may be 'marked' ater.

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Chapter9Productive
skills:speaking
andwriting

Accuracy tends to be more of a concem towards the top of the scale,fluency

increasrnglyimportant towards the lower part. 'Copying' and 'doing exercises'are
making use of writing in order to help students learn something else,(eg grammar),
but do not significandy help students become better 'writers' .

Teaching the skill of writing

Is it possibleto teachthe 'skill of writing'? How could we do it? For many teachers,
the answer seemsto be mainly by setting a writing task, leaving the students to do
it (perhaps ashomework) then collecting it in and marking it. Notice the gap in
this diagram between setting and collecting. That is where the difficult writing
work happens - yet it is often done entirely at home with the teacher doing
nothing to help the student improve.

Someteachersdoubt if thereis any useful in-

classwork that could be done on wriring,
believing that it is essentially an individual
activity. However, there are many possible
stepsthat could go into the middle areaofthe
diagram in Figure 9.5.A sfudent can learn to
become a better writer by (a) being actively
encouragedand helpedto follow through a
seriesofpreparatory stepsbeforethe final
text is produced,and (b) becomingmore
awareof that preparationprocess,so that it
can be done more independentlyand
transparently in future. For example, we
could help learners:
Figure 9.5 Setting a writing rasl
. choosea topic;
. choosea genre;
. getideas;
. discussideaswith othersto get new perspectives;
. selectbetweenideas;
. sequenceideasl
. make notes,diagrams,etc to help organiseideas;
. hnd grammar and lexis suitable for the texL
. do practiceexerciseson languageitems that will be useful;
. study sample and model texts similar to what they want to write;
. plan theirganisation oftheir text;
. draft a rough text;
. get feedbackon content;
. get feedbackon languageuse;
. co-write sectionsoftext in groups;
. make alterations and rewrites;
. write a filal version;
. find appropriatereaders.
Activities designedto work in theseareasin classcome under the headinesof'
writing' or 'processwriting' work (which in practice tend to overlap quite a lot) .

236
 6 Approaches
to writing

Planning classroom writing work

A tjpicalroutefor classroom
u,orkonhelpingstudents
to write(wheretheteacher
has already selectedthe topic or title) might involve some or all ofthe following steps:

1 Intloducethe topic Getstudentsinterested, maybebyreadinga text

(article,letter,advert,etc)showingpictures,
discussing somekeyissues,etc.
2 Introduceand l\4akesure studentsare clearwhat they haveto do.
summarise the main Theyneedto knowthe genre(magazinearticle?
writingtask letter?formal report?etc),who they are writingfor
and why.Avoid bland, 'genre-freetext for no
particularaudlence'writingtasks.

3 Brainstorm
ideas Wholeclass: use the boardto collectas manyideas
as possible.Smallgroups:speak and take notes,

4 Fast-write A very goodwayto overcome'blankpage'terror and

g e t r d e a sf l o w i n gs t o ' f a s , w r i l e ( s e eS e c i i o n7 ) .

5 Select and reiect ideas What'sworth eavingout?

6 Sort and oldel ideas Start to plan structureoftext by arrangingtdeas.

7 Decideon specific Howis thetextto be laidout,paragraphed,

fequirements:style, organised? Arethereanyspecialrules(egif it's a
information,layout, letter,report,etc)?Aretherethingsthatmustbe
etc included or statedin a certainway?
8 Focus on useful Helpstudentsto studysample(s)of writtentexts
models s mrlarto the one they are writing.Focuson content,
message.organisalon. grammar.phrases.etc.

9 Planthe text LJsenotes,sketchesor cut-upcardsto start

organisinga possibleshapefor the text.

10 Get feedback At Variouspoints,you, otherstudentsor groupscan

read and make helpfulcomments/ suggestions
abouta text.This help may lle on the contentand
message,the organisation,the language,etc.

11 Preparedraft(s) Studentsoftenbenefitfrompreparinga draftversion

beforethefinalone.ThrsgJves
themthechanceto
pel readerreactions
andcorrectons.
12 Edir Studentscarefullygo throughtheir own text,
checkingif it sayswhat they want it to, if it reads
cleadyand smoothly,if its languageis correct,etc.

13 Preparefinal text Basedon feedback.studentswrite a finishedtext.

L4 Readels! Ratherthan simply'mark' a text, get other students

to respondto it in some more realisticways.

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Chapter9 Productive
e skills:speaking
andwriting

In many cases,the tasks we set our students will determine the kinds of activities
and lesson stagesthat are appropriate. \(rhen selecting writing tasks,remember
that the old school 'write a story about . . .' represents only a very small (or non-
existent) part of a normal person's writing.While 'creative writing, is often a great
activiry we need to make sure that leamers maidy get practice in the range of
real-life writing tasksthat they will face.As far aspossible,selectthetasksmost
relevant for their needs.Here are some general ideas for real-world writing tasks.
You may be ableto usetheseto help you generatemore focusedideasof your own
that are relevant to your learners.

Write real letteF / emails Thinkof realpeopleto whomstudenrs

canwrite,eg lvlembersof Parliament,
manufacturing companies, fanclubs,
localnewspapers, otherschools,etc.
Sendthem.Getreplies.Writeback.
W te yourown newsletter,magazine, Classmagazine,schoolmagazine, fan
blog,etc newsletter,
localnews,campaigning on
environmental
or Dolitical
issues.etc.
Adveltise (ldeas, school events, Advertise
aroundthe school,around
ploducts, etc) town;sendin youradsto localpapers.
Sendcomments,repliesto discusslons, Therearenowa widenumberof
revlews,etc to websltes discussions, message boardsand
newsgroups specifically
for studentsor
groups-N4any
for speciafinterest shop
andconsumer sitesinvitereaderreviews
of books,products,events,etc.
W te questionnaires
andthen usethem Thesecanbewrittenin English
or in the
out in the street learners'ownlanguage.
Writeupthe
results.Publish
them!
Long-termprojects These are a good way of integrating
writingwithotherwork.The aim could be
a file or book at the end (see Chapter15,
Section11).

Apply fol things, fill in forms registel fol Thiscanbe donedirectly

onlineif
things, etc studentshaveInternetaccessor printed
outon paper.

238
 7 Writing
lnclass

Here are someexamplesof a feu'-specifictasks:

. Write a guidebookentry about your part oftown.
. Write feedbackand evaluationofa new product.
. Fill in a car-hire booking form
. \fi/rite a review of a new gameon a computer forum messageboard.
. ITrite a postcardto a manufacturerrequestingan information leaflet about
their work.
. Wrire (andde.ignr compurerpresentarion slides.
. \{rite an academicessaysummarisingargumentsfor and againsra \-iewpoint.
. Vrite your personalprofile for inclusion in a classsouvenirbooklet.
. Write a poem about -vourstrongestchildhood memor-r.'.
. Write a letter in reply to a job applicationto arrangean interview

Writing in class
In this section,we will look in more detail at someclassroomactivitiesand
s t r a L e g im
e se n d o n e di n t h ep r e \i o u )s e c t i o n .

Ideas for generating ideas

Brainstorrning
It can be hard to get enough good ideasto write about. Brainstormjng is a \\.a] to
get the'ideascreationengine'running.It means'openingyour mind and letting
ideaspour out'. It alsomeansnot engagingthat 'checking'part of your brain
that too quickly dismissesthings as stupid or useless(becauservelose out on a
lot of potentiallygood ideasbecausewe rejectthem too soon).For this reason,it
seemshelpful to separatethe ideascollection and the (later) critical revielv of
thoseideas.
Here's a way to brainstorm in class:
. \frite the topic or title in a circle in the middle of the board.
. Tell studentsto call out anything that comesto mind connectedwith *re topic.
. Write up everlthing on the board.
. There should be no discussionor comments (especiallyderogatoryones!)-
justideas.
So what will happen?Peoplervill call out ideas.You'11 write them up. It may take
a while to get going, but after a bit, the ideaswill probably start flowing. After a
reasonableperiod of time (ie howeverlong ir takesto filI the board with
thoughts), you can stop.Now there is a lot to look back over. Invite studentsto
selectideasthey like and can use,or ma1'beallou'somediscussiontime in
groups to contrnue the sifting process.Everl'one should have something they
can make uie of.

239
ChapterI Productive
e skills:speaking
andwriting

Text-starts
A lot of real-life writing involves looking at other texts and summarising,
reportfrg, responding to t]rem, selecting ideas from them, commenting on them,
etc. Supplying'text-starts' can be a good way to provide useful writing work for
students and practise reading / writing skills that are usefi;l in professional life and
academicresearch.Theactualcontent of the texts providesa lot of.support, for
the writer (especially the one who worries that she must be 'imaginative,to write)
in tfrat there is something concrete to deal with and many ideas are already
formulated and maidy need a response or opinion, rather than original thought.

Resourcemate al W tlng task

Informationabouta holiday
location Youarethe copy-writerfor the local
(pictures,
description,
listot attractjons, touristboard.Writea two-paragraph
etc). advertisement forthe placeto encourage
morevisitorsto come.
Fulldataandillustrationsofthree Youarea seniormanager andwillattend
differentutrto-datehouseholdproducts a meetingtodecideon onenewproduct
or gadgets.Possibleextrainformation to produce.Writea briefreporton
aboutconsumer trends,theeconomy, eachproduct, thenoutlineyour
erc. recommendations asto whichone
to choose,withreasons.
A mapof a town.Shortdescriptions
of Youarea localtourguide whohas
'ghosts'thatare
saidto hauntspecific decided to starta 'Ghostwalk'for
buildings
andlocations. touristsaroundtown.Plana routefor the
walk.Writea shortarticleforthelocal
papertopublicise it.
Sevenemailsto yourcompanypointing Youareheadofthe delivery department.
out problems
withthedelivery
service. Writean emailto the director
summarisingthe problems andmaking
recommendations.
A numberof articlesfromdifferent Writea letterto yourfriend.
sourceson the samenewsitem;a letter
fromyourfriendaskingifyou'veheard
aboutthe itemandwhatyouthink
aboutit.
Historyarticles,encyclopaedias, Prepare a wallpostertointerestand
websites,etc. inform yourfriendsabouta historical
toprc.

Fast-writing
For many writers, the single most difficult thing is simply to start writing. The
blank page sitsin front ofyou, and it can becomevery hard evento put down
frst word. The longer you fail to write, the harder that first sentencebecomes.

240
 7 Writing
inclass

Instead,imagine that your studentscould havea whole pageof their o$.n $rriting
to start from; not a final version,but somethingon which to basetheir new
writing.This is what fast-writing aims to achieve.Even if only a u,ord or a line
from this first attempt makesit into the final text, it has servedits purpose,like the
ignition key on a car,getting the writing started.
Tell studentsthat they need a fer,vpiecesofblank paper.The rules are that when
you say'start'J the_v should:
. start wrrtrng about the topic;
. not stop wrltrng;
. not put their pen down at all;
. not worry about spelling,grammar, etcj
. wrrte'um, um) um' or 'rubbish' or somethingelseif they can't think of $.hat
to
wrrte;
. not stop to go back and read rvhatthey havervritten;
. keepwriting till you say'stop' (which lvill be after frve eight ten mrnutes
/ / or
howeverlong you think is appropriatefor 1'ourgroup).
At the end, they rvill havea pageor more of writing. A lot ofit rvill be rubbishl But
therewill alsooften be ideasand waysofsaying things that are worth retrieving.
Give the learnersenoughtime to look back over what they havewritten.Tell them
to be ruthlessand crossout a lot ofthe writing, but alsoto retrievesomegood
pieces.Theycan then use theseas starting points for the ner'r,writing.
It's a surprisingly useful task.Often we don't know what on earth we are gorngro
rvrite until we start rvriting it. Fast-writing is one rvayto start that finding-our
process.

Ideas for helping writing

Structuring and organising

Some simple strategiesmay help learnersfind an order for their ideas.,Card
planning' involveslearnerswriting down the main themesoftheir rext asnotes
onto separatecards.Theythen arrangethe cardsin variousordersuntil they get a
sequencethat seemsto work. Similarly,learnerscould drarva sketchdiagram
showinghorv their text will be put together,using lines and arrowsto link s.^parate
rtems.

Looking at sample texts

It is often helpful ifstudents seesamplesof the kind oftexts they are working on.
Ifyou offer this as an activity early on in the lessonsequence,it is likely that this
samplewill be vier.vedasa kind of model on'"vhichto basetheir own rvork.The
final product mav then be substantiallysimilar to the original, especiallyin layout
and organcation,but w.ithsubstitutionsofcontent. If _vouoffcr sampleslater on in
the $'riting work, learnerswill probably seerhe text assomethingto give them
extra support and ideas,but may not significantll,alter their ou'n overallstructure
and content.

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Chapter9 Productive
skills:speaktngandwritjng

\(/hat can you study in a sample text?

. The layout
. The overall message
. How the items are organised
. Specific phrasesand sentencesused
. Distinctive grammatical features
. 'lhe style and tone
. The eflect on the rcader

Getting feedback on drafts

Feedback on writing isn't something to save up until the entire text is fully
completed. In fact, it is of very little use then, as the thing is over, and students will
probably just want a complimentary comment and then to forget it.The most
useful comments are those that will hat'e an impact as the writing is evolving; thesc
will be useful from as many different readers as possible, from fellow students just
as much as from you.
Organise pairs ofstudents to read each other's work, or groups to give comments
Feedback could be done in answer to specihc questions or according to a feedback
form of some kind or more freely as general response and comments. As a result
offeedback, students can write a ne$.'draft oftheir worll which can then be
submitted again to readers for comments.This cycle of feedback and comments
can lead to excellent results and really helps rvriters get a clearer idea ofwhat a
reader finds in their work.

Using cornputers
Ifyou like the idea of redrafting and feedback, you may $'ant to give thought to
lvhether the writing is on computer. Using a computer has significant advantagc:
for student writing ot'er pen and paper:
. It is readable (no handrvriting jungles) !
. Multiple copies can be printed out for as many readers as needed.
. Suggestions and edits can be u'ritten on to hard copies and then editing can
be done on tJ-tecomputer - no need to rervrite from scratch.
. l can be emailed directly lo other sfudents or to you.

Some specific features ofword-processing software may be useful.Ifyour

students are relatively unfamiliar with computers, you may $'ant to teach them
hou'to:
.select tex! change font and font size; apply underline, bold, italic, etc;
.use basic editing features'cut', 'copy', 'paste';
.set the spell-check language and options for 'check spelling as _voutype';
.regularly save back-up copies so that six hours of vital r.vorkis not lost after
one-flistake;
. use (and be wary of) any grammar-checking facilities;
. use a 'comment' feature, allo$'ing different readers to lcave notes in the bodr
the text that the lr'riter can then rcview and use later on;
. program simple macros (mini-programs that can do frequently repeated
actions at the press of a button). For example, I havc found that having a u'or: -
count macro is very handy on thc main toolbar.

:12
 8 Responses
to writing

8 Responses to writing

ffi successfut
writing
I n r e a l l i f e ,w h e nw e w r i t e s o m e t h i n g h
, o w c a n w e m e a s u r ei f t h e w r i t i n gw a s a
SUCCCSS?

\ ell, it's certainly quite rare for us to hand it to someoneelse,rvait a few daysand
then get it back with a short comment and / or a mark \\,ritten at the bottom.yet
this is a fairly common responsein classroomsituations.Such marking may
sometimesbe helpful or required,but often isn,t tlte most useful way to helDour
learnersbecomebetter writers.

Audience and purpose

In real life, we can judge ifour writing was successfulby whether it did rvhatwe
wanted it to do. For example:
. if we wrote a complaint email to an Internet bookshop,lve would feel
successful
if they replied, seemedto understandour problem and rook stepsto dealwith itj
. ifwe wrote a story about a happy incident in our childhood,lve might
feel we
had succeededif other peopleread it and enjoyedit, and perhaps$,antedto talk
to us about it and askquestionsor respondrvith their own stories;
. ifwe wrote a report about salesprospectsin Slovakiafor a board meeting,
we
might feel that we had achievedour goal if other people at the meeting found
the information clear,succinctand completeand u,ereableto makeuse ofit in
the discussion.
The fact that writing can achievesuchthings is part ofwhat motivarcsus ro pur
careinto our writing. And in casesu'herewe are not ableto get such immediate,
direct, tangiblefeedback,rvemay needto be particularly carefulin rereadingand
editing a rext beforewe sendit arvayto a reader.This,delayedresponse,narureof
much writing can be part ofwhat makesit hard to do. Good rvritersneedto
becomecarefulreadersof- and reflectorson - their orvnu,ork.The existenceof
audienceand purpose are worth bearingin mind in class.

Setting relevant writing tasks

Rather too many classroomwriting tasksare directionlessand audienceless. If
studentsare only writing 'to pleasethe teacher,,there is probably relativclylow
motivation, and the quality of writing may be compromised, asstudentswill havc

213
Chapter9 Productive
skills:speakingandwriting

no clearperccption asto why the work is being done. So hou, can lr e provide
audienccand purpose?Here are somckcy strategies:
. If you havedone a NeedsAnall,sisrvith
-vourstudents,basewriting rvork on
statedneeds,ie using task types,contextsand situationsdirectl_vrelevantto
students.
. Even before studentsstart rvriting, think carefully about u'hat u'ill happen n'ith
the finished pieceoftext. If studentsknow t'ho rvill read their text and what
that readermay need or expectfrom it, then they havea clearidea of the
purpose ofthe r.vriting,u,hich rvill strongly affect many other decisionsthey
take in the u.riting.
. Make sureyou do not mark and give feedbackonly on accuracvoflanguage.
Include attentionto the questionofrvhether the $'riting is appropriate for the
tasktype and is well targctedat the probablereader.
. Even if you feel that r,ou havc relativelylittle idea of your class'sneeds(for
example,ifyour classis stud_ving on a short generalEnglish course),you can
still select$,riting tasksthat are likel1'to reflect things that manlr studentsmay
needto rvritc in real life.

Reflectingreal-lifewriting purposesin the classroom

T h i n ku p s o m e i d e a sf o r r e a l -t f e w r i t i n gp u r p o s e st h a t c o u l db e r e f l e c t e da n d
r e c r e a t e dI n c l a s s r o o mw r i t i n ga c t i v i t i e s e, g
R e a ll i f e p u r p o s e y: o u w a n t t o p e r s u a d es o m e o n et o c h a n g et h e r m t n da n d c o m e t c
your party.
P o s s i b l ec l a s s r o o mt a s k ; y o u w r i t e a l e t t e r .

Here are a feu' more :

Real-lifepurpose Possibleclassloomtask

Youwantto sell yoursecond,handbike. Youwritea noticelloardad or newspaper

s m a l la d .

Youwant peopleto vote for you in the Youdesignand write a posteror electior
c l a s se l e c t i o n . leaflet.

Youwant to informa colleaguewho Youwritea memo.

p h o n e da n dw h e n .

Youwant to book a suitablehote for a Youfill in an Internetllookingform.

visit to Vienna.

Youwadito make peoplelaugh. Youwritethreejokes in the class

magazlne.

211
 8 Responses
to writing

Marking
Ifyou arerequired(or wish)to providesomemoretraditionalmarkrng/ fcedback
on rvrittenwork,l'hat aretheoptions?
'#trtr@l Alternatives 'marking'
to traditionat
Y o u rs t u d e n t sh a v ed o n e s o m e w r i t t e nw o r k .Y o un o w c o l l e c ti n t h e p a p e r s ,
u n d e r l i n ee v e r ym i s t a k ei n r e d p e n a n d w r i t e a n n a r ko r g r a d ea t t h e e n d . T h a t ' so n e
o p t i o n ,b u t w h y m a y i t n o t a l w a y sb e a g o o d i d e a ?W h a t a l t e r n a t i v eo p t i o n sc a n V o u
thinkof?

Getting back a piece of u,ork v ith a teacher's comments and corrections on it can
be helpful. It can also be discouraging, especially if there is too much information,
if the information is inappropriate or hard to interprct, or ifthe general tone is
negative rather than positivc.The red pen particularl_v has associations for man-v
people rvith insensitive and discouraging correction and judgcment. Some
alternatives are listed belour

Variations on traditional teacher rnarking

Earlier in this chapter, we lookcd at oprions for getting students to look at each
other's rvork - and they could even'mark'it. Horvever, many learners will expect
the teacher to look at their \l-ork and may feel let dorvn if it is only evaluated by
other students. Here are some other options aVailableto vou:
. LIse a green or a blue pen!
. Discuss the marking criteria rvith students. Agree on a mark or grade.
. rJ(/rite l h e c o r r c e ra n \ $ c r c i n t h e m a r g i n .
. Use correction codes in the margin (seeFigurc 9.6).
. Underline all errors of one t-l-pe(eg all r,rrb tense mistakes, all spelling mistakes) .
. \fi/rite a letter in reply.
. \X/rite nothing. Discuss the rvork rvith the individual students.
. Only write a comment about the meaning and message of the piece.
. Create a composite essayusing good bits and problematic bits from a number
of students' u'ork. Photocopy it and hand it out for students to discuss and
correct, together or tn groups or individualll', perhaps for homework.
.IJseerrorsfromanumberofdifferentstudents'writingtodet'iseanexercise,
quiz, game, etc. Or get students to create the exercise themselvcs based on their
own mistakes (more challenging than simply col]ying out correct answers).
. Give a dictation based on sentences from thcir work.

In all ofthese options, there is one important guideline to bear in mind: tell
students (or agree) before the rvriting what $'i11happen afterrvards (eg I'll be
marking te senistakes only).

215
Chapter
9 Productive
skills:speaking
andwriting

Gorrectioncodes
Someteachersliketo use 'correctioncodes'for markingstudents'work.
1 In the text below,whatdoeseachcodemean?
2 W h ym i g h t c o r r e c t i oc n
o d e sb e m o r eu s e f utl o a l e a r n e r t h a n i f t h e t e a c h e r h a d
writtenthe correctionin?
3 Whyhavesomemistakesbeenignored?

HarnSqreen-..a-a

,P

5P

wo
sPacesFLip.

Figure 9.6 Correction codes

Codescan indicatewhere an error is and what type of error it is. However,they

leavethe learnersto do somework in order to fild the correctionsfor themselves.
This may seempreferableto handing them the correction 'ready made'. It is, of
course,essentialthat the studentsunderstandyour own setofcodes! In the above
example,V = verb problem (possiblyincorrect tense);$7O = word order; !(/!7 =
wrong word; L = missingword; SP = spelling.
It often seemsinappropriate to point out every error; it can be disp.iritingto ger
back work with a large quantity of marks on it.You probably needto decidewhich
errors you think are most important or useflrl for the student to work on at the
moment and then to draw attention to these.

246
 8 Responses
to writing

W Evaluating
writtenwork
L o o ka t F i g u r 9
e.7.
t N o t es o m eo f t h e s t u d e n t sl 'a n g u a goer w r i t i n gp r o b l e m s .
2 W h a tc l a s s r o o m
w o r km i g h th e l pt h e s el e a r n e rtso b e c o m eb e t t e rw r i t e r s ?

r\A\BARENfS€A\t- D Gooa I
AY \^lHl\NfSo ERRBoRT
/ /M

lrie",d.My -friend
At +hateueningI rnet to -y {i;s"d.
and.I h"/ ),rnner.NeeJiess
to say, I did,it enjoyony
mcre.It haEabsol,rtely baAmood. I h"A pio.,r"4
neverto do aaythiagLik€thaf again

Figure 9.7 Student\ riring

Chapter9 Productive
skills:speakingandwriting

The first text has a number ofserious problems:

. orthography: poor formation of letters, no lolver-case letters;
. punctuation: incorrect use offull stops, no other punctuation,
. spelling: many mistakes in moving sound to spelling;
. layout: no attempt to lay text out;
. language: student does not have enough control of basic lexis or grammar.

These problems really prevent the u'riter getting his message across.The writing
task set seems to have been inappropriately dilficult for his level (ie 'free' rvriting
as opposed to guided sentence making), and it looks as if insufficient help rvas
offered in preparation for u'riting. It rvould probabl_vbc pointless to try to u'ork
through a correction or reu'rite of this letter;u'hat the student needs is a lot more
practice r'vork on a range of lexis and grammar items. He also needs some real
support and guidance when atlempting any future writing task and probably
some practice work on forming the shapes of leners and using the se in written
sentences.A discussion of the subject mafter of the text rvith the student (ie
content rather than language) might be fruitful It may be that the lvriter's
intended meaning is clearer in spoken English than in rvritten English.
The lvriter of the second text clearl-vhas a much greater command of English.W'c
can identify some grammar problems (eg missing articles: a and the) and some
Iexis problems (eg climate instead of weather).We can also notice some effective
and correct uses of grammar, lexis and 'chunks' of language (eg -iVeedless ro sa1,1
didn't . . .).Importantly, the message that the u.riter rvanrs to convey is usually
quite clear; she comes over as an individual rvith something specific she wants tir
tell us.
There is, however, another problem: the text doesn't seem to florv in the u'ay rve
expect a story to.There are a lot ofshort sentences.The repetition of rrgords(eg
par44 friends, etc) gives the story a stilted, unnatural feel. It takes us a lot of
reading to discover a small item ofnew informationl even a sympathetic reader
might soon become bored.
As well as offering some practice of specific language items (eg articles), we coul.:
also help the writer work on rvays to make a r,vritten text more natural and
readable:using pronouns to replaeenouns, using s5'nonlms to avoid repetition.
varying the length ofsentences, using conjunctions, using metaphor, etc.Thesc
are some examples of rvriting skills that can be focuscd on in the classroom.

)18
 Chapterl0 Reeeptiveskills:
listening and reading
This chapterlooks at the trr'oreceptiveskills,listening and reading,and explores
different rvaysin rvhich we can approachthem.\ffe consideru,hatkinds oftasks
will help studenrsto impror,'etheir skills

Approaches to listening
Even if someone knows all tJregrammar and lexis of a language, it doesn't
necessaril-vmean that they r.villbe able to undcrstand a single lr,ord when it is
spoken.Amongst other things. if ma\ seem t._rL}temthar:
. p e o p l es p e a kt o o l a s r r o l o l l o u ,
. they can't tell rvhere u,.ordsstart and stoDi
. p e o p l ep r o n o u n c ew o r d s t h c l j u s t d o n i r e c o g n i s e :
. they can't rvork out dctails ofrvhat is beins
said;
. t i e ) c a n ' rg e r e r e n a g e n e r a l. e n s c o f t i e m c r s a p e i
. tJ.re5 don t knou u har arrirude. pc.,ple are cxpris.ing:
. they can't pick out those parts that are most
important for them to understand.
So, how can you help 1'our stuclents to become more skilful at listenine?

tffiffi A nu n s a t i s f a c lt iosrtye n i nl egs s o n

T h e f o l l o w r n gi s a t r a n s c r i p to f a s h o r t t e l e p h o n ec o n v e r s a t i o n
f r o mt h e r e c o r d i n g
a c c o m p a n y i nag c o n t e m p o r a r cy o u r s e b o o kA. l t h o u g hi t h a s b e e n s p e c i a l l yr e c o r d e d
f o r s t u d e n t so f E n g J i s hi ,t s o u n d sr e a s o n a b l ya u t h e n t i c ,i e i t s o u n d ss p o n t a n e o u s
r a t h e rt h a n s c r i p t e d ; t h ep e o p l ea r e s p e a k i n ga t n o r m a ls p e e da n d a r e n o t m a k i n g
u n n a t u r a el f f o r t s t o e n u n c i a t eo r e x a g g e r a t estressand intonation.

R E c E p l o N t s T : S a y e r sR e c r u i t m e nat n d T r a i n i n gC
. a n I h e l py o u ?
RuBy: H e l l o ,y e s , e r m , I ' m , e r , I s a w y o u r a d v e r ta n d l , m l o o k i n gf o r a
J o b ,I m e a n ,I ' m i n t e r e s t e di n a n e w j o b , a n d . . .
R e c E p r r o r r s r : A h , y e s , y o u n e e dt o s p e a k t o l \ 4 r sS a y e r s ,b u t I ' m a f r a i ds h e ' s
n o t i n t h e o f f i c e r i g h tn o w .C o u l dl t a k e y o u r n a m e a n d n u m b e r ,
a n d l ' l l a s k h e r t o c a l l y o ub a c k ?
RuBy: E r ,y e s , y e s . T h e n a m e ' s R u b y ,R u b yT u e s d a ya n d m y n u m b e rr s
0308557 1919.
R e c E p r r o | r r s r : T h a n ky o u , l \ 4 i s sT u e s d a yl.' l l p a s s o n y o u r m e s s a g e .
Ruey: / T h a n k s .B y e .
REcEProNtsT: Goodbye.
f I om Straightforward Pre-intermedi ate

Here is the opening ofa lesson procedure using this material intended to help
improve students' listening skills:
1 Say to students . I:isten to this.
2 Play rccording oncc.
 Chapter10 Receptive
ski s: listeningandreading

rJThenfinished, quickly ask

individual students the following quesrrons:
a) lfho doesRuby want to speakto?
b) NThathad Ruby seen?
c) rX/hat'sthe fuIl name of the comoanv?
rffhat words did the receptionisiuse
,d) to explain that shewould tell the other
person?
4 Look coldly at students who get rhe answerswrong and tell them that they
should havelistenedharder.
Apart from the insults,in what other waysmight this plan be unsatisfactorv?

Ttris lessonis a parody of someof the languagelessonsthat I was on the receivine end
of asa student in school.I remember feeling quite nervous about them.r /hile I wls
listening, I knew that somecomprehension questionswere going to come at the end
but I never knew what the questionsmight be or who would be aiked to answerthem.
The questions,anyrn'ay,seemedpointlesslttrey were not necessarilvwhat I would
Iisten for ifl heard the conversationin real life; it wasasif the teachir was focusins me
on the difficulties rather than showing me that it waspossibleto achievea lot desf,ite
the diffrculties.The questionsseemedmore of a memory test than anldring else.
V/hen the recording was played,I struggled to listen to everltJing, and to rernember
all I heard, and in consequenceactually rememberedvery little.
In fact, it's actuallynot necessaryto understandeverv word in order to
understandthe information you might needfrom a recording.Ve needto show
studentsthis important fact - help them to worry lessabout understanding
everythingand work more on catchingthe bits they do needto hear.Often, when
listeningin everydaylife, we may needto listen to:
. get a generaloverviewofdre main story or message
ofa conversation;
. catch specificdetailssuch asnames,numbers,
addresses,etc.
There is reallynothing in this lessonto help a studentlearn to listen better; either
he can alreadylisten and rememberthe required answers,or he cannot.But if he
wants to improve his listening,then he needsa different approach.

Usinga printed text with listening tasks

H e r ei s a s e c o n dv e r s i o no f t h e s a m el e s s o n :
1 Handout a copyofthe text ofthe conversation to all students.
2 Playrecording.
3 W h e nf j n i s h e da, s ki n d i v i d u as lt u d e n t tsh e f o l l o w i nqgu e s t i o n s :
a) WhatdoesRubywantto do?
b ) H o wd o e st h e r e c e p t i o n i hs te l ph e r ? '
Therestill seemsto be anotherproblemwiththis. What?

250
 1 Approaches
to listening

IfI sum up my feelingsaboutTasks10.1and 10.2,I get a checklistlikethis:

1 The activity must really demandlistening.
2 It mustn't be simply a memory test.
3 Tasksshould be realisticor useful in someway.
4 The activity must activelyhelp them to improve ttreir listening.
5 It shouldn't be threatening.
6 It should help studentswork around difficulties to achiet'especificresults.
One way to achievethesegoalsis simple enough.By giving studentsthe questions
before the recording is played (rather than after), you will give studentsthe
opportunity to listen with a clearaim in mind. In everydaylife, we usually have
somepurpose in mind $'-henwe listen:to find out today'sweather,to learn
something,to be entertained,to discoverwhatJohn did next, etc.By giving the
Iearnersa clearpurpose in listening,you turn the exercisefrom a memory testinto
a listenins task,

W a listeningprocedure
Redesigning
L o o ka g a i na t t h e l e s s o np r o c e d u r ei n T a s k1 0 . 2 . R e d e s i g ni t t o t a k e t h e c h e c k l i s t
above Into accoUnt.

A simpleplan would be asfollorvs:

l Set questions.
2 Play recording.
3 Check ifthe studentshavefound the answers.
4 If not, play the recording againas often asnecessary.
This'questionhrst'techniqueis oftencharacterised as'taskbeforeaudio'.The
word 'task' reminds us that the activity the studentsare askedto do may be
somethingmore useful,more realistic,more motivating than simply finding
answersto comprehensionquestrons.

ffi selecting
listening
tasks
T h i n ko f a t a s k ( o t h e rt h a n f i n d i n ga n s w e r st o c o m p r e h e n s i o q n u e s t i o n s t)o s e t
s t u d e n t sb e f o r el i s t e ni n gt o t h e t e l e p h o n ee n q ui r y a t t h e s t a r t o f t h i s s e c t i o n .

Someideas:
. Studentsmust decidewhether the conversationis betweennvo friends. two
colleaguesor two peoplewho don't know eachother.
. From a selectionoftelephone numbers in the book, studentspick out the
correctonesaidbv tie receotionisr.

-
 Chapter10 Receptive
skills:listeningandreading

shehasmade any effors (eg getting Ruby,sname vrong).

-Students have a copy of the dialogue, but w.ith sentencesin the wrong order;
they must listen and arrangethem in the correct order.
The most useful tasks may be ones that require students to listen in similar ways to
how they might hear such a conversationin real life. In the caseof a phone enquiry
like this:
. ifthey are the receptionist,they need to understandthe generalnature
ofthe
enqury (eg someonelooking for a job, not wanting to offer a job) and get
accurate information from them (name, number, etc);
. ifthey are the caller,they might need to clearlyunderstand
any people,snames
or numbers they need to know and, more generally, what will happen wrth thelr
enquiry (eg do they need to phone back againlater?).

Choosing the right task

Remember the broad distinction between different kinds of listening:
. to get a generaloverviewofthe main story or messageofa conversationl
. to catch specificdetailssuch asnames,numbers, addresses,
etc.
This can be reflectedin tasks.Do you want studentsto gatherspecfic detailsor to
catchthe gist?Youcan,ofcourse, do botll but rememberthat it,s usually better to
divide these different kinds oflistening into sepamtereplays of the listening
material, eg set the first tasls play the recording, get feedback; then set ttre second
task,play it again,get feedback.(There is more on sequencesoftasks in the next
section.)
Remember, too, not to overburden students - if you are asking them to listen and
write (eg note down names,times, etc), then this is using two skillsat once.Unless
note-taking is a specifrc skill being practised, it is often better to limit the amount
of writing demandedofstudents, especiallyat lower levels.
Having said all this, we must still wonder how useful, relevant or interesting it will
be for your studentsin your location to listen to a recording ofpeople discussinga
rec.ruitment advertisement. If you are teaching in an English-speaking country -
or if your students are plaffing to work there - the lessonmay seemmore relevafl
than to students who are unlikely to do this at any point soon.The recording raiset
a few other doubts:
. In real life, you would only listen to this kind ofconversation
berweenrwo
peopleif you were eavesdropping. This is arguablynot the most useful listenirg
skill we need.
. Most littening we do in real life will be interactive rather than
on recorded
media.Ve will haveopportunities to respond,affect the courseof the
conversatiorSask for clarification or repetitiorl etc, and we will have the chancc

252
 2 Thetask-feedback
circle

to seethe speakers,\.vhich\\'-illallow us to get additional help from gestures,

facial expressions,etc.
. In real life, althoughwe sometimeshavea clearpurpose in listening,u c
usuallywon't be directedand guided b-vtasksthat hclp us knorvu,hat
we should listen for.
. Are we really helping studcntsto becomebetter listenersby using recordings
like this?
Despiteall thesedoubtsJa task-based approachto listeningusingrecorded
material doesseemto be generallyhelpful in improving students'abilities.And
I'm sureit's better than the memorv test r,vestartedrvith.

The task-feedback circle

Many teachersuse a gradedsequenceoftasks asa route map through a listening
lesson.B-vstarting with a simple task,letting studentsdo it successfulll',then
moving on to seta more difficult task on the samerecording,the teachercan
Virtually let the classfind its orvn level,ie vou stop setling nervtaskslvhen you find
the point at u'hich they arebeginning to find it too difficult.

The task-recolding-feedbackcircle Threeguidelines:

. G r a d et h e t a s k , n o t t h e m a t e r i a l
. T a s kf i r s t - t h e n r e c o f d i n g
A b a s i cw o r k i n gp r o c e d u r feo r i e s s o n s . P r o c e s sr a t h e rt h a n p r o d u c t l
o n r e a d i n ga n d l i s t e n i n gs k i l l s

PteJi sten i ng i ntroducti on

to topic, discussion,
looktng at ptctures,
etc,

Play recording 01
students read text

lf they coutdn t do NB IheY are not

the task, it telts ttying to unlletstand
you that they need everythtnE They only
ta read / listen / need enouEh ta do the
view again. sqecific task

NB Don t ask unfan questians - you set a

Tie ufloose ends, lead to clear task have they done tt? Don t thraw
follow on activities, review in a whole pile af extra questians now!
what has been leatnecl, etc

Fieure 10.1 The task feedbackcircle

253
Chapter10 Receptive
skills:listeningandreading

The task-feedbackcircle (seeFigure 10.1) can help you plan useful listening
lessonsif you simply follow it round. Go round the circle three or four times - or
asmany times asyour students need. It's important to note that it involves not
only setting a sequenceof tasks and checking wherher they can do it, but also
replayingthe recording againand again (and again).
Many teachersplan their sequenceoftasks from,general, overviewtasks(such as
'How many people
are speaking?''\Vhere are they?'.\Vhat are they discussing?,
etc) towards much more detailed, tightly focused tasks (such as.What were the
reasonsfor leaving onTuesday?') ending up with language-study issues (eg .Vftat
positivewords doeshe useto describethe,company?,.\Elhat tensesare usedin the
story?' etc) (seeFigure 10.2).A possiblerationalefor this is discussedin the next
sectron.

'Big' General
/ l\4oredetailed Language
focus

Figure 10.2 Tasksequence

As a general planning aid, the task-feedback circle and the .bie to small, task
sequencewill work well for many standardcoursebookand classroomrecordings,
eg where there is a radio discussion, an overheard conversation, a lecrure, erc or
any text where it is useful to cornprehend both general overall messageand
smaller details.
In some cases,this might seem an inappropriate approach, for example, wittr texs
where in real life we would only listen inatrentively to the bulk of the text and just
focus briefly to gain a small piece of information from a part of it that directly
interests us, for example when listening to train announcements in a statron or
listeningto a weatherforecast.In such cases,it may be more usefirlto start straight
in with a detailed question such as '\f,/hat platform should you go to for the
Madrid train?' It's worth noting, thougll that even in this case,you probably still
need sometop-down'background' scene-settingso that listenersrealisethey are
in a statior\ trying to catch a train, are going to hear an announcement, etc.
To make sure that a lessonis genuinely usefi.rlfor students, we need to consider
why someonemight listen to such a text in real life - and what kinds of skills or
strategiesthey'd use.\7ethen needto designtasksthat either (a) closelyreflect
what they might need to do in real life or (b) help them improve skills that will be
usefii to dlem in futu-re.
Most tasksfall into one of thesecatesories:
. Talgr part in a conversation;
. Answer questions;
. Do / choosesomettringin responseto what you hear;
. Passon / take noteson what you hear.

254
 2 Thetask-feedback
circle

Here aresomebriefexamplesof a rangeofthesetasks.

Listenand...
. argueagainstthe proposition;
. choosethe correct picture;
. listen againuntil -vouhavelearnedthe poem b.vheart;
. saya reply to eachcomment
1'ouhear;
. choosethe best answerfor eachquestionfrom the four options,
. decidewhich person is sayingrvhich sentence;
. decidewhether they like the presentor not;
. follow the route on the map;
. walk / sit / move accordingto the instucttonsj
. draw a picture ofthe alien;
. label a picture of the office;
. pickup and shorvt}lecorrecLpicrurel
. follow the instructionsto make an origami model;
. note down the leader'ssuggestionsabout where the camp should be;
. note the exactwords Chi usesto refusethe offer:
. take down the message,addressand phone numbers.
Somelisteningtasksare obviouslymore difficult t].ranothers.An important point
(and typically a difficult one for nerverteachersto come to terms u,ith) is that the
studentsgetting the right answeris not necessarilytl-temost important thingl A
studentwho finds all the correct answerson first hearing and with no difficult5
has simply not been challengedby the recording.It reflectsover-simpletasksand
showsthat little progressin listeninghas beenmade.
The effort that a studentputs into listeningand searchingfor an answerthat is not
easilyfound is, however,very useful rvork.! hether shefinally getsthe right or
\\rrongans\!'erts to somedegreeirrelevant,becausein tr_vingto get the right answer)
sheis stretchingher powersof listeningto the limit. For tl-risreason,shewill
probably needto hearthe recordingplayedthree,four or more times in order to get
closeto the target.Thusthe guidelineis'processrather than product,, meaningthat
the going is more important rhan the getringthere.I'm not sayingthat gering
\\.ronganswersis good,but I am trying to steer]rouawayfrom thinking that right
answersarethe only goal.The goalis to \\'ork on tlte listcningitself.

Sorne guidelines for listening skills work in class

. I(eep the recording short: two minutes ofrecorded material is enougnro
provide a lot oflistening r.vork.
. Play the recordinga sufficientnumber of times.(This is one point that teacher
trainersand supervisorsoften comment on when they observeteachers,lessons;
the teachersdid not gi\retlle studentsenoughopporn_rnities to hearthe recording.
The studentsfound the materiala lot more diificult than the teacherrealised.)
. Let studentsdiscusstheir answerstogether (perhapsin pairs).
. Don't immediatelyacknotr4edge correct answ-ers with words or facial
cxpressionslttuow the ansrversback to the class;lN,1tat doyou think of Clcfue\
answer- doyou agree?
. Don't be led by one sfong student.Have they all got it?
. Aim to get the studentsto agreetogether rvithout your help, using verbal
prodding, raised eyebrorvs,nods, hints, etc. Play the recording again u,henever
they need to hear it, to confirm or refute their idcas,until they agrce.
255
Chapter10 Receptive
skills:listeningandreading

Play litde bits ofthe recording (a word, a phrase,a sentence)againand again

until it's clear.
Give help if they are completelystuck - but strllwith the aim of getting them to
work it out ifat all possible(eg Thereare threewordsin thissentenceor Listento
what shesay here)rather than git'ing them the answers.
Consider giving the studentscontrol ofthe recording - to listen when and to
what they wish.
Don't cheatthem by changingyour requirementshalfway,ie don't set one task,
but then after-wardsaskfor answersto somethingcompletelydifferentl
Don't let them loseheart.Try to make surethe task is just within their abilities.
It should be difficult, but achievable.Thesenseofachievementin finishine a
task should be great:'It was difficult, but we did it!'

afteran exerciseleaching
technique
on the DVD

The lasttechniqueaboveleadsus to anotherguideline:'Grade the task,rather than

the recording.'This means'Don't worry too much about what studentlevelthe
recordingis suitablefor, but do make sureyour taskis setfor the right level.'In
theory,it is possibleto use any recording- for example,a recordingof this
morning's radio news- with any level.At Beginnerlevel,I could askthem to catch
the namesof everyfamouspersontiey heard.It would be challengingand
stimulatingfor a beginnerto feelhe hasgot somethingout of an authenticneu.'s
recording!At a much higher level,I could expectthem to be ableto understand
most of the recording and do a sophisticatedtasklike picking out unstressedwords.
In both cases,it is not the recordingthat setsthe level of the lesson;it is the task.
In practice,ofcourse, somerecordingsare naturally going to seemmore
appropriatefor specificlevelsofstudent.Thus a recording ofsomeone askingfor
directionsin the streetis more likely to be usableat a lower levelthan, say,a
discussionon comnlexmoralissues.

ffi orderingstagesin a listeninglesson

H e r e i s a l e s s o nt o e x e m p l i f yt h e t e c h n i q u e sd e s c r i b e da b o v e .T h e r e c o r d i n gi s a
conversation b e t w e e nt w o p e o p l ei n a b us s t a t i o n ,A t o n e p o i n t ,w e h e a rt h e
a n n o u n c e rl i s t t h e l l u s e sa b o u tt o d e p a r t .T h e l e s s o np l a n i s o u t o f o r d e r ;p u t t h e
i t e m s b a c k i n t ot h e i r o r i g i n a o
l rder.
a P l a yr e c o r d i n gs; t u d e n t st h e n c o m p a r ea n s w e r si n p a i r s ; t e l lm e t h e i r a n s w e r .l f
c o r r e c t ,c o n t i n u e ;i f n o t , p l a yr e c o r d i n ga g a i n ,e t c .
b P l a yr e c o r d i n gs; t u d e n t st h e n c o m p a r ea n s w e r si n p a i r s ;t e l l m e t h e i r a n s w e r .l f
c o r r e c t ,c o n t i n u e ;i f n o t , p l a yr e c o r d i n ga g a i n ,e t c .
c P l a yr e c o r d i n gs; t u d e n t st h e n c o m p a r ea n s w e r si n p a i r sa n d g i v et h e i r a n s w e r .l .
c o r r e c t ,c o n t i n u e ;i f n o t , p l a yr e c o r d i n ga g a i n ,e t c .
d L e a di n t o a c o m m u n i c a t i v e a c t t v i t yb a s e da r o u n dt h e t o p i c o f t r a v e i p r o b l e m s .
e S e t t a s k : ' H o w m a n y p e o p l ea r e s p e a k i n g ? '' W h e r ea r e t h e y ? '
f I n t r o d f c et o p i c : l o n g - d i s t a n cbeu s e s ; d i s c u s sa l i t t l e :' A n y o n eb e e n o n o n e i n
E n g l a n do r t h e L J n i t e S d tates?'
g S e t t a s k : ' H e r ei s y o u r b u s t i c k e t ' ( d i f f e r e n td e s t i n a t i o n sf o r d i f f e r e n ts t u d e n t s
'Which
b u s n u m b e rm u s t y o u c a t c h ? '

256
 3 Howdowelisten?

S e tt a s k :' W h yi s t h e o l d l a d yw o r r i e d ?' W ' h a ts u g g e s t i owno u l dy o um a k e ?(' T h e

t a s k r e q u i r e lsi s t e n i ntgo a n di n t e r p r e t i nagl o n g i s h
s e c t i o no f t h e r e c o r d i n g . )
S h o wp i c t u r e o f b u ss t a t i o n'.W h e r e d o y o ut h i n kt h i si s ? '' W h a t ' sh a p p e n i n ge?t'c .

The originalorderis: (i), (f), (e), (a), (g), (b), (h), (c), (d).The stases(a), (b) and
(i) are,ofcourse, interchangeable.Thisorder shotvsa logical progressionfrom an
introduction to a very simple first task (to give studentsconfidence),through to a
more difficult task (requiring recognition ofthe pronunciation ofa tou'n name
and a bus number) and finally to a demandingtaskinvolving interpretation of a
much longer pieceofspeech.By the time studentsstart to listen intently for this,
they will alreadyhaveheard the recording a number of times, and the hnal task
should thereforebe that much easier.Even the weakeststudentwill alsogo away
with a feeling ofhaving achievedsomething (eg one ofthe earliertasks),evenif he
couldn'tget the lasrone perfecdr.

How do we listen?
When we listen,lve use a variety of strategiesto help us pick up the message.
Someof theseare connectedwith understandingthe 'big'picnrre, eg gaining an
overviewof the structure ofthe whole text, gettingthe gist (the generalmeaning),
using varioustypes ofprevious knowledgeto help us make senseofthe message,
etc.Listening in this way is sometimestermed'gist listening' or 'extensive
listening'. Other strategiesare connectedwitl.rthe small piecesofthe text, eg
correctly hearingprecisesounds,r'r'orkingout exactlyu'hat someindividual words
are,catchingprecisedetailsof information, etc.This is often called'listeningfor
detail'.
rWhenworking on listeningin the classroomthere are tu'o alternativestarting
points; working on the 'small pieces'(sounds,lvords and details)or on the 'big
pieces(backgroundtopics,overallstructure and organisation).The former is
knor.vnastop-down whilst the latter is known asbottom-up.

Top-down and bottom-up

It usedto be believedthat listenersbuilt up their understandingofa text by
working out what eachindividual sound was,then adding theseup into a rvord,
understandingthe word, checkingthe meaning of rhat word with the u'ords
around them, etc (a bit like building up a wall from the individual bricks).
Although this theorl', knorvnas'bottom-up' (ie building up the messagesfrom
the individual small pieces),ma1,initially sound appealng, it is virtually
impossibleto do.
SpokenEnglish probably comesat you too fast to be ableto adopt such an rtem-
by-item approachon its own. It seemslikelv rhat we make use of 'bottom-up' skills
more to fillin missing gapsrather than as a generalapproachto comprehension
word by word.

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Chapter10 Receptive
skills:listeningandreading

The alternativetheory is that when we listen to a new dialogue,we start processing

the text using skillsassociatedwith a secondtheory ('top-down'), ie maktng use of
what we alreadyknow to help us predict the strucnue and content ofthe text, and
getting a generaloverallimpressionof the message.

Topdown and bottom-up

Dothe followingrepresentuse of top downor bottom,upstrategies?
1 B e f o r ew e s t a r tl i s t e n l n gw, e c a na l r e a d py r e d i cst o m ep o s s i b l w
e o r d sa n d
p h r a s e tsh a tm i g h tb e u s e db e c a u s e o f o u rk n o w l e d goef l e x i c asl e t sa s s o c i a t e d
w i t ht h e t o p i c .
2 W el i s t e nc a r e f u l ltyo a r e c o r d i nagn u m b eor f t i m e ss o t h a tw e c a nf i n da w o r d
we can't catchclearly.
3 Whenwe don't clearlycatchsomeof whatpeoplesay,we hypothesise whatwe
havemissedand reinstatewhatwe thinkwasthere,basedon our knowledge of
s i m i l a cr o n v e r s a t i o n s .
4 We knowthe typicalpatternsomeinteractions follow(egthe typicalsequenceof
e x c h a n g ewsh e no r d e r i n a g t a x io n t h e p h o n e )a, n dt h i sh e l p su s t o u n d e r s t a n d
thesewhentheyare spoken.

Strategy2 is boftom-up. Strategies1, 3 and 4 are examplesoftop-down strategies.

and we do a lot more of this kind of processingthat you might expect.Using
backgroundknowledge,prediction and 'filling-in' gapsare all important listening
skills.
We don't come to a new pieceof listening completelyfrom a 'zero' starting point
\7e bring our previousknowledgeto it, evenbefore it's started.Making a good
prediction of the content or the shapeofa listeningtext will defrnitelyhelp us to
make better senseof it when it happens.
Things drat could help include:
. having someideawhat the topic being discussedwill be;
. knowing somethingabout that topic;
. knowing the typical sequenceof exchangesthat is usedin a dialoguelike this;
. predicting issueslikely to be raised;
. being quickly ableto get an overviewof the generaldirection ofthe
conversation;
. knowmg any generalrules or guidelinesfor what can can't be saidin
/
conversationsof this type;
. understandingthe attitudesofthe particrpants;
. knowing somewords or phrasesthat are commonly usedin conversationsof
this type.
Making a good prediction ofdre content or the shape of a listening text will
definitelyhelp us to make better senseof it when it happens.Ratherthan
having to start from scratch,the listening may fall neatly into an imagined
frarr,ework we have already set out for it. Of course, we can,t be ready for

258
 3 Howdowelisten?

everythingJbut anythingthat we havecorrectlyexpectedfreesup our energ_v

to pay attentionto things that requiremore intensiVelistening.This is summed
up in Figure 10.3.

B a c k g r o u nkdn o w l e d gaeb o u t. . .

t h ew o r l d t h e s p e c i f i ct o p i c the genre

the who e text

longersectionsof text

c l a u s e s/ c h u n k s

Figure 10.3 Geographyofa lrstening

text

Top-dov"n and bottom-up in the classroom

\7hen we listen,we probably adopt a continually varying combination of
top-down and bottom-up strategies,so work on both areasis useful to
learners.I suspectthat when I listen,I often processchunk by chunk, catching
the generalmeaning ofa small segmentoftext and, ifnecessary(eg if
somethingisn't clear),go back over and review the temporarily stored
segment(from short-term memory) and analysemore carefull-vwhat its
componen$ were.
You needto decideyour own personaltheory about how peoplelisten so that
you can plan lessonsto reflect this. Many teachersnowadaysbelievethat we
mainly listen 'top-down' in real life, and so structure lessonsequencesstarting
with top-down work.
A typical classroomlisteninglesson(for exampleusing a radio phone-rn
programme on trafhc congestion)might involve a sequenceof tasksthat mot'e
from th'etop to the bottom part of the diagram shorvnin Figure 10.3.
(NB You are unlikely to use all ofthese in a singlelesson.)

259
Chapter10 Receptive
skills:listeningand reading

Figure 10.4 showsa possibleroute map tirough such a lesson,starting from the
'big' background
and overviewtasksand moving towardsthe 'smaller',more
detail-focusedand language-focusedissues.
Don't take such a map asa fixed 'right way' to do things;but it's certainlyworth
trying out asan experimentifyou generallyapproachlistening (or reading) texts
in a different way, sayby jumping straight in with a focus on detail.

Plocedure whv?
D i s c u s tsh e g e n e r a l L e a r n e rsst a r tt o t h i n ka b o u t h et o p i c ,r a i s i n ga n u m b e r
roprc of issuesthat will be discussedlateron the recording.
Thispreparation mayhelpthemto hearthesethings
beinsdiscussedlater.
Predictthe specific Studentshypothesise
specificissuesthat maybe
conlent rarsed.
Predictthe structure S t u d e n t cs o n s i d e r ,d/ i s c u s sp o s s i b l o
erganisational
structuresfor a phone-in(whospeaks?whatkindof
q u e s t i o n st?y p i c ael x c h a n g e s ?T)h. i sm a yh e l pl e a r n e r s
to recognisethe contentmoreeasily.
Gistlisteningfor Learnersget an overallimpressionofthe contentwithout
overview worryina
g b o u ts m a l li t e m so r i n d i v i d u a
wlo r d s .
Gistlisteningfor Learnersinterpretintonation,paralinguistic
features
attitudes (sighs,etc).
l\4orecareful Bycatchingand interpreting smallerpartsof the text,
l i s t e n i nfgo rc o m p l e x l e a r n e rfsi n e - t u nteh e i ru n d e r s t a n d i n A .
meanrngs
Listeningto pickout T h i sf o c u s e dw o r k( e go n p r o n u n c i a t i om
na) yr a i s e
specificsmall l e a r n ear w a r e n e s(se go f w e a kf o r m s )a n dt h u sh e l p
languagedetails studentsto listenbetterin future.

Figure 10.4 Possibleroute map for a listeninglesson

Planninga totrdown plocedule

F i n da l i s t e ni n gt e x t( e gi n a n u p c o m i nugn i to f y o u rc o u r s e b o o kF) o. rt h e m o m e n t ,
ignoreanytasks andexercisesprintedin the book.Planan originaltop-down
l e s s o nu s i n gt h e p r o c e d u raeb o v e .

260
 4 Listeningideas

Listening ideas
In this section,I'll suggestsomeideasfor more adventurouslistening activities.

News headlines
One interestingand popular exampleofa lessonusing thd task-feedbackcircle
(seeSection2 of this chapter) is to useup-to-date materialrecordedoff the radio.
Many teachersregularlyrecord the newsheadlineseachmorning for classroom
luse.TheWorksheetfor newsheadlinesresourceon the DVD givesa complete
lessonprocedurethat you can user,vithanv recording ofthe day'snewsheadlines
(NB headlinesonly, not completestorieslthe recording should be lessthan a
minute long).This lessonwould be suitablefor most classesat Intermediatelevel
or above.Rememberto settasksbefore eachlistening and to replay the recording
asoften asnecessaryin order for the studentsto find the answersto one taskl
before moving on to the next.

Jigsaw listening
No wonder this techniqueis a teachers'favouritel You can run listening activities
that allow learnersto work at tieir own speed,controlling the CD player or tape
recorderthemselvesand repeatedlyplaying parts ofa text until they are really
happy with their understandingof it. It alsoinvolvesa lot ofmessage-oriented
communication and useful group cooperatron.
Here'sthe basicidea:
. Working in small groups,learnerslisten to separatesmallparts of a longer
recording,ie eachgroup hearsdifferent things.
. They then meet up, perhapsin pairs, threesor fours, with peoplefrom groups
that listenedto other parts of the recording.
. They report to eachother on what they haveheard and compareideasand
reach a conclusionor consensusor completesomespecifictask.The taskmight
be simply to construct a full picture of the recording'scontents.
To run a jigsawtaslsa little technicalpreparationis required:
. You'll usuallyneed a separateCD player for eachgroup to listen on and the
samenumber of separaterecordings.
. To make surethat stldents cannot accidentallyhear parts of the recording from
other groups' sections,you might needto rerecordand edit somerecordings (if
your coursebookdoesn't offer ready-madematerials).

Jigsaw task ideas

Three (or more) slightly different viewpoints ofa singleevent,eachon a separate
recording.The task is to work out what actuallyhappened.Useful additional
materialsmight be a location map or diagram of a room. Example events:
. witnessesof a crime
. accidentreports
. finding where someonemight havelost their purse
. working out exactly who was at a lr.eeting (l met
Jdt and Frieda . . ., etc)
. working out the sequenceofevents (what happenedhrst, second,etc)

261
Chapter10 Receptive
skills:listeningand reading

. a news story with additronal(or var-ving)detailsin eachseparate

section
. a descriptionof a placeor people (to get thc completepicture,
studentswill
needto put togetherinformation from all sections)
. a party
. an office
. a factory process
. 'diar_v'information from threepeople (eg when rvherethev
/ are doing things);
the listening task could be to choosea time and placefor a meeung

The gallery
A variation on jigsawlistcning.Find about ten interestingshort jokes,stories,
advertisementsor poems (not more than a minute long) and record l,ourself
readingthem, eachonto a dilferent CD. Borrorv nvo or three extra CD players
and placethem at different locationsaround the room. put two or three ofyour
CDs next to eachmachine.Make surelearnerskno,"vhou, to operatethe
machines.Theninvite learnersto $'anderfreell' around the different places,
changingCD or location at u,ill,\\rith the aim ofchoosing their fa.!,ourite
recording.Make suretheyplay recordingssoftlyanddral rhcl.don'tall gather
round one machinc,but otheru'iseleavethe control of the activity to them.
Afterwards,get feedbackon rvhatther,'enjovedor learned.

Horne recording
Many teachershavefound that it's interestingand useful to maketheir orvn short
recordingsfor classroomuse.This givesyou the chanceto offer lisreningtopics
direcdv relevantto _vourcourscor ofinterest to vour learners.A popular tactic is
to'intervieu" one or nvo other teachersin the staff room.
\X/henyou askcolleaguesif they can help,u'arn
them horv much time it might
require.It's often possibleto do the'"vholeproccssofbrietjne. rehearsaland
recordrngin about ten mtnutes.
You can hat'ecompletel-vunscripted,improvised,,natural' conversations,but it
often r.vorksbetter ifyou give vour speaker(s)a briefing on:
. rvhatyou want them to talk abour;
. an-vpartrcularpoints that shouldbe mentionedl
. languageitems _vour.vouldreally like included (eg pleaseuselotsofpresent
pefectt ot avorded(eg Don't usetlrepast progressixe i;t'1oucanhelp it);
. horr'fast and clearl]'you \yant them to spcak(eg normal speed
or slorver).
One useful strateg-v is to offer speakersa set ofbriefrvritlen notes- just the key
rvords- to help them rcmember the structure ofthe conversation.Alternativel],.
you could full5'script the text ofrecordings, so that the speakersjust read this
aloud.It's usuallyworth doing one quick rehearsalor.read-through, before
recording.
NB Making a home recording rvill uke someof 1.ourtime and it can be quite har.r
to make a voice recording ofgood enough audio quality to standup to playing rn
someclassrooms.
 5 Approachesto
reading

Live listening
One activity that hasgrown in populariry in recentyearsis'live listening'.The
basicidea is straightforward:studentsget to listen to real peoplespeakingin class,
ratler than to recordings.Here's a lvay of ftying this:
. When you find that your coursebookhas a fairly dull listeningtext coming up,
insteadofusing the recording,in'ite a colleaguewith a sparefive minutes to
come into your class.
. Make sure the classhas a cleartasku'hile listening,eg to note down the main
points that eachspeakermake'.
. Sit in front ofthe learnersand havea live 'ordinarv' conversationon the same
topic asthe book.
Though there is certainly a lot ofvalue in getting a variety ofvisitors with
different vocal stylesinto your class,you can do live listeningson your own) too:
readingor improvisingconversations in your own voice)or'acting'a rangeof
charactersyourself.The following activity could be done using a visitor or by
yourself.

Guest stars
Preparenotesfor a short monologuein character(a famouspop staror
celebrity). In class)announcethat a gueststaris coming today,but don't say
who it is. Go out of the room and return'in character'(or invite another
colleaguein). The 'guest' then chats naturally for a minute or two in character,
about her life, a typical da-v,how shefeels,etc.The learnersshouldlistenand
not shout out who they think it is, but instead write down their guess,At the end
ofthe monologue,Iet tlrem comparethet guessesin smallgroups (giving
reasons)and then checkwith -vou.Vhenthey know who the guestis, they could
briefly ask a few more interview questionsto the character.Repeatthe activity
with different'guests'asa regularslot in your lessons.(Maybe studentscould
play the'guest',too.)

Approaches to reading
Readingto oneself(asopposedto readingaloud)is,likelistening,a'recepdve'
skill, and similar teachingprocedurescan be usedto help learners.Thetask-
feedbackcircle works equallywell with readingtexts,and many ofthe guidelines
given in Section2 are alsoeasill'adaptable.
The most obviousdifferencesare to do with the fact that peopleread at different
speedsand in different lvays.ri?hereas a recording takesa definite length of time to
play through, in a reading activiry individuals can control the speedthey work at
and what thev arelookins at.

263
 skills:listeningand reading
Chapter10 Receptive

W Difficultieswhenleadinga foreignlanguage
s h e nt r y i n gt o r e a da t e x ti n a l a n g u a gteh a ty o u
W h a ta r ey o u ro w nm a i np r o b l e mw
d o n ' tk n o wv e r yw e l l ?

Maybe:
. I don't know enoughvocabulary.
. I needthe dictionary all the time.
. It's very slov'- it takesagesjust to get through a few sentences.
. I often get to the stagewhere I understandall the individual words, but the
whole thing eludesme completely.
. Becauseit's slow,the pleasureor interestin the subiectmatter is soonlost.

Many learnersapproachreadingtexts expectingto read them thoroughly and

to stop only when they haveunderstoodeveryword. Clearly,thereis valuein
this as a way of improving their vocabulary and their understanding of
grammar,but, aswith listening,this kind of approachdoesnot necessarily
make them into better readers,becausethis plodding, word-by-word
approachis not the way that we most often do our readingin real life. In order
to make studentsbetter readers.we needfirst of all to raisetherr awareness
that it's not alwaysessentialto understandeveryword, and that practising
some different reading techniques in English may be very useful to them.
And iftheir basicstrategyis to read slowlyand ponderously,then a good
first strategycould be to help them learn to read fast;not worrying about
understandingeveryword; not, perhaps,evenunderstandingmost words,
but still achieving a specific and useful goal.

Reading for detail

A lot ofin-class readingwork hastraditionally been'readingfor detail'- or
'intensivereading'ie readingtexts closelyand carefullywith the intention of
gaining an understandingofas much detail aspossible.Often this is so that the
student can answercomprehensionquestions(eg Whlt diclthethreemengo into tlt.
ofzZe?) This is typically a stop / start kind ofreading, involving going back over
small pieces of the sametext a number of times to find out more and more about
it, making surettrat the words havebeen correcdy interpreted.This is how a
competentlanguageuser might read an instuction manual for a piece offlat-pach
furniture or a leafletwith guidelineson whether they haveto pay income tax or
not. It's not the way shewould typically read a chapterfrom a novel ot a magazine
article,although,in classrooms,it is often how studentsare askedto processsuch
material (with true / falseand other comprehensionquestionsto checkif they car':
pick up specificpoints).
In everydaylife, we tend to do much more extensivereading,ie fluent, faster
reading,often oflonger texts,for pleasure,entertainmentand general
understanding,but without such careful attentionto the details.\(/henwe don t
understandwords or small sections,we usuallyjust keepgoing, maybeonly
coming back when there hasbeena major breakdownin our understanding.
There is certainly a placefor intensivereadingin class,helping studentsto
' uncover and accuratelyunderstand detailsin a text - but this is by no meansthc

261
 5 Approaches
to reading

only strategythat a good readerneeds.Bcing ableto read fast and fluently is also
ver"vlmportant.

Skimrning and scanning

Many activitiesdesignedto increasereadingspeedsarc variationson the
following two ideas:
. Skimming : Read quickly to get the gist of a passage(eg to discoverkel' topics,
main ideas,overalltheme,basic structure,etc). A t_vpicalskimming task would
be a generalquestionfrom the teacher,such as1sl/zlsp assage abotttJill\
weruoriesoJurmmeror uinter? or Is this stor! setin q schoolor a resteurqnt?The
learnerswould attempt to find the ansr.ver quickll', rl,ithout readingevery word
ofthe passage,by 'speed-reading'through someportions of the text.
. Scanning: l'4ove e1'esquickly over the tcxt to locatea specihcpieceof
information (eg a name,address,fact, price, number, date etc) ."vithoutreading
the $'holetext or unpacking any subtletiesof meaning.A common scanmng
activity is searchingfor information in a leatletor directorl,,and a typical
scanningtaskwouldbe Vhat timedoestheBiruirlghdn trqin leaae?orWhat does
Cath! takewith her to Lhemeeting?
Skimming and scanningare both 'top-down' skills (seeSection3 earlierin this
chapter).Although scanningis invoh"'edr.vithfinding individual points fiom the
text without reading carefullythrough everv rvord of the text) the way that a reader
Itnds that information involvessomedegreeofprocessingof the overallshapeand
structure of the text, moving her eyesquickly over the rvholepage,searchingfor
key words or cluesfrom the textual layout and the content that rvill enableher to
focus in on smallersectionsoftext that sheis likelv to eet answersfrom.

W setectinganappropriate
readingtask
l m a g i n et h a t y o u h a v eg i v e ns t u d e n t sa c o p yo f a t o u r i s t l e a f l e tp u bl i c i s i n ga n e a r b y
t o w n a n d a d v e r t j s i n gl o c a la t t r a c t i o n sm
, u s e u m s ,s p e c i a le v e n t sa n d w t t h
i n f o r m a t i o no n p r i c e s ,o p e n n g t i m e s , e t c . W h a tw o u l db e a s u i t a b l et a s k t o g e t
s t u d e n t st o r e a dt h i s q u i c k l y( r a t h e rt h a n r e a d e v e r yw o r d ) ?

You probably want tasksthat encouragestudentsto searchfor specificsmall

sectionsoftext which they then read more carefullyto find a required pieceof
information. Thesemight be factual,information questionssuch as,When does
the Military Museum close?"Can I take my dog into Chapultepecpark?,,What is
a good souvenirto takeback from this region?''Ho,"vmuch would it cost for a
family of four to go swimming?''What are the newestanimalsin the zoo?,
Studentsdoing this will be readingthe material in a similar wav to how people
might read it in everydaylife.

W choosingusefulreadingactivities
W h i c ho f t h e f o l l o w i n gs e e m t o b e u s e f u lr e a d i n ga c t i v i t j e sa n d w h r c hn o t ? W h y ?
Brieflywork out an alternativeproceclurefor the less satisfactoryones.
1 T h e c l a s s r e a d sa w h o l ep a g eo f c l a s s i f i e da d v e r t i s e m e n t sr n t h e n e w s p a p e r .
u s i n gt h e i r d i c t i o n a n e st o l o o k u p a l l u n k n o w nw o r c l s .
Chapter10 Receptive
skilis:listenrng
and reading

S t u d e n t sa r e e a c h l o o k i n ga t a n o n l i n ep a g ef r o m a n e w s p a p e rA. s k t h e m t o f i n d
t h e w o r d o y e r s o m e w h e r eo n t h e f r o n t p a g e .
P l a c ea p i l e o f l o c a lt o u r i s t l e a f l e t so n t h e t a b l e a n d e x p l a i nt h a t s t u d e n t s ,i n
g r o u p so f f o u r ,c a n p l a n a d a y o u t t o m o r r o w .
S t u d e n t sr e a d a s h o r t e x t r a c tf r o m a n o v e la n d a n s w e rf i v e m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e
c o m p r e h e n s i oq n u e s t i o n sa b o u t f i n e p o i n t so f d e t a i l .

One test for useful reading (or listeningrvork) might be to checkhow far tasks
reflect real-lifeusesof the sametext. If a text is usedin classin r,vavsthat are
reasonablysimilar ro reallife, it is likely that the rask\aill be effcctive.
Procedure 1 seemsunsatisfactorybecauseit is an unrealisticuse of the
advertisements;in real life, no one would read them in such a u'ay.A more realistic
task would require tiem to scantlte adsfor specificitems (aswe do when we wanr.
say)to buy a second-handTV). So 'What is the bestTv I could bu1'?'would be a
far more realistictask.
Procedure2 is similarly strange.Thisis a scanningexercise,but an entirely
unrealisticone.!7emight well scana newspaperlooking for namesofpeople or
countriesthat we wanted to read about or headingsthat directedus to informatior
we needed(such asr.veather), but it seemsunlikely that we rvould searchfor a
singleu'ord like oaer(though asa game,it could be fun). For a more useful
scanningtask,studentscould be askedto find where specificarticlesare or hnd
certain factual information. Skimming taskswould alsobe useful,to get the gist (,:
an article for example.
Procedure3, although it perhapsappearsa little strangeinitially, is in fact a verr.
interestingreadingactivity.The studentswill be using the leafletsfor preciselyth,:
purpose for which they rvereu'ritten, and u'ill be readingthem in order to obtain
r.vholerange ofappropriate ideasand information; seeingwhat's available, "
checkingopening times,prices,etc.As a bonus,therewill be a lot ofspeaking as
well asreading.
Procedure4 describesan exercisecommonly found in exams.It is clearly
useful asa demandingway of testingcomprehension,and is usefulfor studri:.
the fine shadesof meaninga rvriter conve1,s. It is, however,important to ensu:.
that this kind of activityis not the onlv readingwork done,partly becauseit
seemsto be confirming to studentsthat this is the normal (or onl-v)$,ayto rcJ-:
a novel.Studentsalsoneedto be shorvnapproachesto a novelthat allow ther-
to read fluentlyj at speed,\\'ithoutworrying about catchingeverynuance.
Real-lifepurposesare not the only way of measurir.rg the usefulnessofclassroo;:.
readingwork. Often we might want to train studentsin specificreading
techniquesor strategies,things that will help their future reading,evenif the
immediate classroomr.vorkdoesn'titselfreflect a real-life nuroose.

Top-down reading
As with listeninglessons,many readinglessonsmove from 'big' to 'small,,ie .tL.:..
dor.vn'- from overviewto details.Using the task-feedbackcircle asa starting
point,we canplan a routemap for a basicreadinglesson(Figure10.5).

266
 5 Approaches
to reading

Pre-text L I n t r o d u c t i oann dI e a d - i ne,gg e tt h e l e a r n e r isn t e r e s t eidn t h e

t o p i c ,i n i t i adl i s c u s s i oonf k e yt h e m e s m
, a k ea n e x p l i c ilti n k
b e t w e e tnh et o p i co f t h e t e x ta n ds t u d e n t so' w nl j v e sa n d
e x p e r i e n c efso,c u so n i m p o r t a nl ta n g u a gteh a tw i l lc o m ei n
the text
2 Firsttask (pre-reading), eg predictfrom someextracted
i n f o r m a t i o(ni l l u s t r a t i o kne, yw o r d s h
, e a d l t n e sr)e, a d
q u e s t i o nas b o u t h et e x t ,s t u d e n t sc o m p o s teh e i ro w n
questions

Text 3 T a s k st o f o c u s o n f a s t r e a d i n gf o r g i s t ( s k i m m i n g )e, g c h e c k
t e x t a g a i n s tp r e d i c t i o n sm a d e b e f o r e h a n dg, u e s st h e t i t l e
f r o m a c h o i c eo f t h r e e o p t i o n s ,p u t e v e n t s( o r i l l u s t r a t i o n si)n
t h e c o r r e c to r d e r

4 Tasksto focus on fast readingto locate specific information

(scanning)

5 T a s k st o f o c u s o n m e a n i n g( g e n e r a p l o i n t s ) ,e g a n s w e r
q u e s t i o n sa b o u tm e a n i n g ,m a k e u s e o f i n f o r m a t i o ni n t h e
t e x t t o d o s o m e t h i n g( m a k ea s k e t c h ,f i l l o u t a f o r m , f i n d o u t
w h i c hp i c t u r ei s b e i n gd e s c r i b e d e
, t c J .d i s c u s si s s u e s ,
s um m a r i s ea r g u m e n t s c, o m p a r ev i e w p o i n t s

6 T a s k st o f o c u s o n m e a n i n g( f i n e rp o i n t so f d e t a i l ,m o r e
i n t e n s i v ec o m p r e h e n s i v ue n d e r s t a n d i n g )

7 T a s k st o f o c u s o n i n d i v i d u alla n g u a g ei t e m s ,e g v o c a b u l a r y
o r g r a m m a re x e r c i S e SU, s eo f d i c t i o n a r i e sw, o r k o U t m e a n i n g
of words from context

Post-text 8 F o l l o w - otna s k , e g r o l e p l a y ,d e b a t e ,w r i t i n gt a s k ( e g w r i t e a
l e t t e ri n r e p l y ) ,p e r s o n a l i s a t i o(ne g ' H a v ey o u e v e rh a d a n
e x D e r i e n c lei k et h i s o n e ? ' )

9 C l o s i n ge, g d r a wt h e l e s s o nt o a c o n c l u s i o nt ,i e u p l o o s ee n d s ,
r e v i e ww h a t h a s b e e ns t u d i e da n d w h a t h a s b e e nl e a r n e d

Figure 10.5 Possible

routemapfor a readinglesson

Here are somespecificideasfor readingtasks

. Put theseillustrationsofthe text in the correct order.
. Put thesecut-up paragraphsin the correct order.
. Find words in the text dtat mean the sameasthe words in this lisr.
. Readthe text and find the mistakesin this illustration (or draw your own).
. Readthe text and make a list of particular items (eg jobs that need doing, the
author'sproposals,advantagesand disadvantages, etc).
. Give a headlineto eachsectionof the article (or match given headlinesr.viththe
SeCtronS).
. Find appropriate places in the text to reinsert some sentences rhat have
previously been separated from the text.

267
Chapter10 Receptive
skills:listeningand reading

Write a reply.
Look at the title and the illustrations (but not dre text). Predict which ofthe
following list of words you will find in the text.
Solvethe problem.
Discuss (or write) the missinglastparagraphofthe text.
Discussinterpretationsof, reactionsto, feelingsabout the text.
Make notesunder the following headings:...
Before you read this text, make notesabout what you alreadyknow about the
subject.
. Act out the dialogue,story, episode,etc.
. Put this list of eventsin the correct order.

For ideason using readingto help teachgrammar, seeChapter 7.

Extensive reading
There is a greatdeal ofevidence that extensive reading (ie readinglonger texts.
such asa novel,over time) has a powerful impact on languagelearning.The more
someonereads,the more they pick up items of vocabularyand grammar from the
texts,often without realisingit, and this widening languageknowledgeseemsto
increasetheir overalllinguistic conhdence,which then influencesand improves
their skillsin other languageareas,too (though this is probably only true rn cases
where the material they read is self-chosenand is genuinelyrelevantand
interestingto them).
So,the.reare strong argumentsfor activelyencouragingstudentsto read a lot in
the target language,both in and outsidethe classroom.rVecan help by:
. providing a library ofreaders (seebelow), magazines,newspapers,leaflets,etc:
. training learnershow to selectsuitablereadingmaterial and in waysto read itr
. creatinga 'book club' environmentthat encourageslearnersto choosewhat
books to purchase,talk about favourite books,sharethem with eachother, rvrir<
brief recommendationsJetc;
. allowing sectionsof classroomtime purely for studentsto read;someteachers
who havefive or six lessonsa week setasideone ofthese lessonsasquiet
readingtime.
A library doesn'tneedto be large.It can be somethingassimple asa small box oi
books and magazines.However,it's important to include items that are relevanr
and suitablefor your class.Unabridged old copiesofworthy classicsare probablr
not a good choice.Better to havea few recentmagazineson themestiat studenr.
like (eg frlms,pop stars,computer games,etc for a teen class)and a small setof
gradedreaders.

Readers
Thesearebooksofstories (or other content)publishedspecificallyfor learnersr.,
get extendedexposureto English.They often havetheir grammar and vocabularr
'graded'to namedlevels(eg
Elementary)sothat learnersat that levelshould stan; r
reasonablechanceof successfi.r1ly
readingthem.Manl' statethe sizeof vocabular..

268
 6 Extenstve
readins

usedand havefootnotesor glossariesofwords outsidetheir statedword limit. The

main aim ofreadersis to provide opportunitiesfor extensivereadingfor pleasure.
For this reason,be carefulaboutintegratingcomprehensionchecks,testsand
exercisesinto your teaching.Asfar aspossible,letstudentsread,enjoyand move on,
ratherthan read and then haveto do lots ofexercisesafterwards.Thereareideasfor
somecreatrveextensivereadingactivitiesat the end of this section.

W Reading
roundthe ctass
R e a d e r sc a n b e r e a d o u t s i d ec l a s s o r c a n b e u s e d j n , q u i e tr e a d i n g c' l a s s t i m e .
S o m et e a c h e r su s e t h e m i n c l a s s f o r r e a d i n ga l o u d .w i t h d i f f e r e n ts t u d e n t sr e a d i n g
s h o r t s e c t i o n so n e a f t e rt h e o t h e r .T h i s r e a d i n ga l o u d , r o u n dt h e c l a s s ' t s
s o m e t h i n gm a n yo f u s r e c a l lf r o m o u r s c h o o l d a y sW . h y m t g h tt h j s p o p u l a rt e c h n i q u e
not be effective?

. I read fasterthan he speaks.

. It's so boring.
. Shemakesmistakes.
. I've alreadyread to page 37 myself.
. He can't pronounce it and he getsembarrassed.
. I'm so nervousabout reading,I miss the story.
. I can't follow the story u'ith all thesedifferent people speaking.
. I prefer to read to myself.
. It's going to be 35 minutes till rrrygo.
. It getsin the way of me hearingthe voicesof the characters.
. It's not good practicefor speaking- I d nevertalk like that!
Obviously a fluent readeru'ith the ability to inlect life and feeling into the reading
is a wonderful bonus.Most students,however,do not ht this description,and
round-tie-class readingtends to be a slow)tediousturn-offrather than a rouser of
enthusiasm.

Some alternatives to reading aloud round. the class

Here aresomealternarives to tr1:
. You read;
. You read narrative,but studentsread character
dialosue;
. Y o ur h a v i n g r e a rdh e c h a p r e r y o u r s e l f b e l o r e
c l a s sr e - l l r Jsr et o r l i n l . o u r o w n
words,without notes,in the most spell-bindingu,ayyou canl later,you get
studentsto do the samewith other bits;
. Studentsread to eachother in small groups pairs)
or stopping,changing,
discussingand helping eachother wheneverthev want toi
. Studentsread silently,then, rvitlout djscussion.
act out. improvrsrnga scene
basedon what happened;
. Studentssilently speed-reada chapter (say
in two minutes) then report back,
discussing,comparing, etc before silentlyreadingit more carefully.

269
Chapter10 Receptive
skills:listeningand reading

Extensive reading activities

The following ideasare someslightly more rmusualactivitiesbasedaround
interpreting and enjoyingreadersin class:
Don't alwaysstart at the beginninglTry jumping in at the middle and reading
one page.Predict whathappenedbefore,who the peopleare,where they are,
etc. Or use a contentspagesimilarly.
Use a key sectionofthe story asa dictation.
Createa situationquite separatefrom the story of the book and allow students
to improvise to seehowthe characterswould behavein a totally different
environmentor time.The ForsyteswatchingTV together?JaneEyre applying
to get a temporary secretarialjob? Not quite assilly asit soulds - this is a very
exciting way to investigate character.
Studentsdraw the picture ofthe scene.\yhenfinished,they compare and
discusstheir different interpretattons.
Interv.iews:one studentis a chat show host or a newspaperreporter and
interviewsanotherstudentin the role ofa character.'Sowhy did you do that?'
'rX/hat you
do really think aboutJoseph?'etc. Or get all the characterstogether
and interview them. Sim. arly,put the characters'on trial' in a courtroom:
'\X/hosefault
was it?'
Map the story (or one chapter).Draw lines on it to show different characters'
movements.Or map out the relationshipsbetweencharacters.A good
classroomposter?
Keep a character'sdiary.
Reviewthe book for aTV programme.Meet the author. Discuss,argue.Phone
in callerscan askquestions.
Would it make a good film? The students are the board of directors for a film
company.They needto decidewhether the book is f m material or not. Horv
doesthe story needto be changed?How can they make it more exciting?rWho
should direct it?rWhoshould play the parts?Make an advertisementposter fc
the fi1rn.
\7hat did the front pageof the local newspaperlook like on the day when ...?
Choosea pageor paragraphfrom the next chapterin the book and blank our
somewords. Studentsneedto guesswhat is going to happenby trying to find
the missingwords.
Redesignthe cover of the book.rJTritethe blurb on the back cover.

270
Ghapter1L Phonolog!:
the sound of English
Teachersoften shy awayfrom pronunciation work yet it is key for students.This
chapterlooks at the individual soundsthat make up words.word stressand
aspectsof connectedspeech.

Pronunciation starting points

Pronunciation can be an overlooked area oflanguage teaching, partly because
teachers themselves may feel more uncertain about it than about grammar or
lexis, worried that they don't have enough technical knou,ledge to help students
appropriately. However, when teachers take the risk, they are often surprised to
find that it makes for very enjoyable and useful classroom work.
Any"way, no excuses. Here are some ideas that don't require that you ur your
students know phonemic symbols or an-vdetailed background knor.vledgeof
phonology.Try these out and thenJ when you feel more confident, move on and
study the other parts ofthis chapter.

Model new words in context

!(/hen you teach lexical items, give students a chance to hear you saying the item
naturally spoken in the context ofa typical short phrase or sentence.Take care to
stress naturally (rather than as a 'perfect' sentence). Allow students to repeat the
phrase and give them honest feedback if there seem to be problems. Ifnecessary,
remodel it and let students work out what they are doing differentiy.

Modelling intonation
\I{hen you teach grammar, allow students to hear some r,vpical examples of
natural uses of the language. So, for example, u'hen teaching the present perfect
progressive, don't iust teach it as dry examples, but model a typical real-life
sentence or two yourself with real feeling, such as 'I've been waiting here for trvo
hours!' A loud, angry sentence like this will be much more memorable tlan a
wriften example. Get students to repeat it to each other - and don,t let them get
away with flat, dull intonation. Encourage tiem to say it with real feeling.

intonationIeachingtechniqueon the DVD

Recognise the feeling

Vrite up four or frve short spokenphraseson the left of the board (eg,!7here are
you going?''Yes,please.').!7ritc up a number of 'moods, on the right qeg.angry',
'delighted','sarcastic').
Read out one of the phrasesin one of the moods (adapting
your intonation and sffessto transmit a clearfeeling).Ask studentsto compare
ideaswith eachother and decidewhich wasused.Later.learnerscan continue
playing the gamein small groups.

271
Chapter11 Phonolog)i:the
soundof English

Use dialogu.es
Vhen you work with printed dialogues,don't just read them silently,but ger
studentsto spendtirne thhking about how to saythem.A useful task is to ask
them to go through the text deciding and marking which syllablesare stressed.
After that, studentscan practisethem, read them out and eventuallyperform
them without scripts.The airn is to speaknaturally - which is hard to do when you
are readingfrom text, so it's important to include sometextlesswork. Don't worrl
about studentslearning it word-perfectly;give feedbackon whether they get the
feeling right or not, rather than whether they get the grammar spot-on.

Chants
A'chant' is a poem or dialogue particularly suitable for reciting aloud; it often
involves strong rh]'thms, clear everyday conversation,often exaggeratedfeelings
and a lot ofrepetition. Usepublishedchantsspeciallywrinen for languagestudents.
or write your own. Arm to help students to learn them by heart so that they can say
them confidently with suitable pronunciation. Teach them by modelling them line
by line and asking students to repeat them. Ifyou offer dull flat intonation yourself-
or if students respond with dull flat intonation - there is litde purpose in the activiq.
You might want to go for the enjoi..rnentof exaggeratingthe feeLingsand volume!
I[the Chqntresourceon the DVD, you'll find a sampleshort chant for two peoplc
(or two groups) practising lflft- questions.It provides opportunities to practise
weakforms, elision (when a sound is missedout) and assimilation(when a sound
changesbecauseofinterference from another) ifyou want to.

a-l
fc"

Shadow reading
This meansreading at the sametime along with a competent reader.So,for examplc,
you read a dialogue out loud, playing all parts, while the studentsfollow the text and
read aloud themselves.Thisis likely to be most usefirl if it is done more than once,so
drat studentsget a chanceto improve; tly short texts read a number of times rather
than one long text read once.As an altemative,you could try using a recording.

Voice settings
One interestingapproachto promrnciation may sound a litde odd at fust. It's basedm
the ideathat, rather than work on all the small detailsofpronunciation (such as
phonemes,stresspafterns,etc), it might be better to start with the larger holistic
picture - fhe general'settings'ofthe voice.Ifyou think about a foreign languageyou
havehearda number of times,you are probably ableto quickly recall some
distinctiveimpressionsabout how the languageis spoken-the sortsofthings
a comedianwould pick on if they wanted to mimic a speakerof that language;fc
example,a distinctivemouth position with the lips pushedforward, a flat
intonation with machine-gundelivery,a t5.picalhunching of shoulders,
heard sounds,a generallyhigh pitch, etc.
Do your studentshavesuch an image about British speakersofEnglish? Or
Australians?Or Canadians?One useful activitv would be to (a) watch one or

272
 1 Pronunciation
startinpooints

more native speakerson video; (b) discussany noticeablespeechfeatures;(c) try

speaklngnonsense u,ordsusingdris'voicesetting'('comedian'sr_vle); (d) practise
reading a simple short dialoguein as'native'a u'ay asrhe_v can. (This rvill probably
seemquite funny to l our students,who rvill initially tend to do fairly bland copies,
never quite believrngthat a voice settingma-vbe so dilferent or exaggeratcd
compared\\'ith their orvn language;encouragethem to risk looking and sounding
reallylike a native speaker.)
Before we go much further rvith pronunciation,there is one important stardng
questiona teacherneedsto consider,namelywhich pronunciation varietl' f,rel.ou
goingto tcach?

Task11.1 RP
T h ea b b r e v i a t i o' R n P 'r e f e r st o r e c e i v e p
d r o n u n c i a t i oanU
, Kp r o n u n c i a t i o
vanriety,
o r i g i n a l fl yr o ms o u t he a s tE n g l a n db,u ts o r n e t i m erse g a r d eads a k i n do f s t a n d a r d
educated B r i t i s hE n g l i s p
hronunciation.
p r o n u n c i a t i odno,y o uw a n ty o u rs t u d e n t tso a i mt o a p p r o a cahn R p
W h e nt e a c h i n g
a c c e ntth e m s e l v e sW? h v ?W h vn o t ?

There used to be a fairly widespread (if unspoken) assumption in man-v teaching

contexts that all students $'anted and needed to learn to communicate in a r,vaythat
sounded as close to a UI{ (or US or Australian) native speaker as possible. In fact,
most learners are learning English to communicate rvith other non-nrtive
speakers,using English as a lingua franca (a language used to communicate
betw-eenspeakers ofdifferent mothcr tongues)! and many u'ill rarely - ifever -
meet or need to speak rvith an RP-speaking native speaker. In such cases,u'e could
make a good argument that RP is not the most useful variety for students to learn,
and it may actually hinder their communication, as man_vpeople may not be able
to follow them if the_vuse RP features such as elisions, u'eak tbrms and the lack of
an /r/ sound in u'ords like car or Dard. Some ofthese issues are addressed in the
section on English and English teaching in the u'orld in Chapter 5, Secrion 7.

\X/hatever the political argumentsJ I think it is very hard to reach an accent that is
not one lrou can naturall.v use yourself. So, for the momentJ thc $'ork on
pronunciation is tlis book is based on the follorving nvo starting poinrs:
1 Students need to learn pronunciation that rvill allorv them to be understood in
the contexts \\'herc they are most likely to need to use tlte language.
2 It is often appropriate and honest to (a) teach thc pronunciation you speak
yourself; (b) draw attention to local variations you are arvare ofl (c) highlight
differences in accent that appear in course material.
The activities and cxamples on the next few pages are based on using RP as a
basrc pronunciation.You necd to consider horv much the advice and sample
materials may need to be adapted for,vour own teaching needs. As ]'ou read
through the following sections, here are four questions to consider:
1 Are the phonemes discusscd in this book the same as the oncs you usel
2 \(/hich other fcatures discussed are not part ofvour or,vnoronunciation?
Chapter11 Phonology:the
soundof English

3 Is it appropriatefor your studentsto practiserecognisingfeaturessuch asweak

forms and elision?
4 Is it appropriatefor your studentsto practiseproducing featuressuch asweak
forms and elision?

2 Sounds
W Phonemes
T h ep h o n e m icch a r ti n F i g u r e1 1 . 1s h o w st h e i n d i v i d u as lo u n d s( p h o n e m e so)f t h e
E n g l i s lha n g u a gaes s p o k e ni n a U KR Pa c c e n t .

Prb-lt,d,tl_if;__K'I
t',d,tI
f Ylg 6 3',2 ['3
Figure 11.1 Phonemicchart

Referring t o a d i c t i o n a r yt h a t u s e s t h e I P A( i n t e r n a t i o n apl h o n e t i ca l p h a b e t )f,i n d

o u t w h i c hp h o n e m ei s r e p r e s e n t e db y t h e l e t t e r su n d e r l i n e di n t h e f o l l o w i n gw o r d s
(Answersare on page 394.)

Vowels Diphthongs
schools atr
a.Utonomy .l9y
patticipation hqpeful
coqperation great
valuIng b rlght
trust pue
IN cl e a r
learners sounds

tnei
good

reacners

* B e c a r e f u l :h o w d o e s t h i s s o u n d i n a n o r m a l l vs o o k e ns e n t e n c e ?

274
 2 Sounds

Consonants friendliness
Washi n gm a c h i n e sensitiyity
yeast .iam
cake
b e a ns CEES
knives empaUry
stnl( tidge
herbs*x food mixer
tomatoes kettle
brolherliness wtsdom
foresight compassion
vtston
bread
ch e e s e
* * U Kp r o n u n c i a t i o n

3t on the DVD

Vowels
A vowel is a voiced sound made without any closureor friction so that there is no
restriction to the flow of air from the lungs.You'llhavenoticed that the words in
tlre task abovecome togetherto make a completesentence(Teachers in goodschools
respect theharners'autonomy,valuing tr ust,pa rticipation,coope ration).Youmay fild
a mnemonic of somektnd helpful while you are learning the phonemes.Your
studentsmight alsolike this idea:you could write a simple story for them (eg'Ear
thisgoodfood,'saidthebird ...) or, better still, get them to devisetherr own
sentences.You cor d alsoattempt more 'poetic' versions,aswith the diphthongs.

Diphthongs
A diphthong is the result of a glide from one sound to another within a single
syllable.Thes e form ttree phrases: clearpure air, greatjoy, bright hopefulsounds.

Consonants
A consonantis a sound produced by partially or fully restricting or closingthe
flow of air, which may result in friction. Consonantscan be voicedor unvoiced.
These fall into three sets:
I Food'.potatoes,bearu,tomatoes,bread,cake,eggs,cheese,jam
2 Positive human characteristics:y'rcndliness,sensitivity,empathy,brotherliness,
loresight, wisdom,compassion, uision
3 Words associatedwith kitchens:/ood mixer,knioes,sink,herbs,hettle,fridge,
washingmachine,jeast
Alternatively,devisesequencesthat make use ofany currentledcal items being
studied.

275
Chapter11 Phonology:
the soundof English

Studentsof most other foreign languageswill find that, while a number ofEnglish
phonemesare familiar, somewill be distinctly different from the onesthey use.
Particularproblems ariservhen:
. English hastwo phonemesfor a sound that seemsJto an untrained ear,to be a
singlesound.A common exampleof this is the distinctronbetween/r/ and /i:/
(asrn ltip vs.heap),which sound the sameto somestudents;
. English has a phonemethat doesnot exist in the students'own larrguage.

In both cases,getting studentsto produce the soundsthemselvescan be difficult;

it is necessaryto raisetheir awarenessofthe fact that there is somethingto work
on, and the first stepis to get them to hear the difference.Receptiveawareness
comesbefore productive competence.
Simple variationson well-known gamesare helpful in familiarising studentswith
phonemic symbols:
. Phoneme bingo: Hand out bingo cardsrvith phonemesinsteadof numbers;
call out soundsrather than numbers (see:JtePhonemebingocardsresottce on
the DVD).
. Anagrams: Get studentsto work out anagramsof words using phonemes
rather than normal alphabeticletrers,eg /kbu/ (- booh).
. Category words: Choosefir'e or six categories- suchas'Food','sports',
'Animals','Household
objects','Clothing',etc.- which studentsshouldcopy
down. Studentswork in smallteams.\?henI'ou call out (andwrite up) a phonern.
the teamsmust attemptto find a word containingthat phonemefor eachcategor..
So,for example,if the phonemeis /i;/, a teamcould choosecheese, skiing,sheep,
teapotandjeans.Theteamsthen comparewords and points areawarded.
And here are somegeneralideasfor u'orking with phonemes:
.Integratephonemic$'orkintoallyourteachingofgrammarandlexis.Alwaysrr.,r
on helpingthe studentsto achievegood pronunciation,and encouragethem to
makea recordofthe phonernictranscriptionasrvellasthe spellingofnew item:
. Observationofmechanics:let stltdentswatch how you and they make
particular sounds.
. Ear-training:get studentsto listen to and distinguishwords which havesoun:.
that seemto them ver-vsimilar (eg /zatvs.hut; thin vs.tin; examplesof this kir::
are known asminimal pairs).
. Tongue twisters,to work on particular soundsor to contrastsounds (eg ?/iri.
thin treesend threetall trees).
. Transliteration:get studentsto $'rite out a rvord or sentencein phonemic sc::-
Jokesseemto work well.
. Train learnersin using a dictionary to hnd pronunciation aswell asspelling
. Keep a phonemic chart on the wall ofyour classroom.Focusbriefly on onc
phoneme each lesson.
. Thp out words on the chart and ask students to say the words.
. Use the chart for pointing out correct sounds $rhen students pronounce
sometl-fng wrong.
. Try a phonemic crossr,vordlike the one inTask 1 1.3. Students complete rhi. :
the same way as a traditional crossword but have to frll in phonemic
transcriptions of lr'ords rather than their spelline.

276
 3 Wordstress

ffi Phonemic
crossword
t 2 3 4

6 T

Across
1 Pastof 1 Down.
3 Someteachersdo this too much!
5 S o l d i e r sw o r k f o r t h i so r g a n i s a t i o n .
6 Pastof7 Across.
7', here!'
Down
1 your time!'
2 No movement; still.
3 A clock makesthis noise.
4 You use this to make your hair tidy.
For the answers,seepage 395.

Word stress
Stressand its opposite- unsfess - are very important aspectsofEnglish
pronunciation. Getting the stresswrong can seriouslydamageyour chancesof
being understood.
\fords havetheir own stresspattern;for example,zuarer, uicket andjusticeare
stressedon the first syllablewhereasabroad,enoughand todayare stressedon the
second.A stressedsyllablein a word is usually noticeableby being slightly louder,
longer and higher in pitch than the syllablesnext to it.

Stressandunstress
U n s t r e s s esdy l l a b l etse n dt o b e p r o n o u n c el e
d s sl o u d l ya n dw i t ha m o r e ' r e l a x e d '
m a n n e rv; o w e sl o u n d sa r et y p i c a l l'yw e a k ' C
. h e c kt h i so u t :t r y s a y i n gt h ew o r d s
waterandjusticewith the stresson the wrongsyllable.Whathappensto the
p r e v i o u s sl yt r e s s e ds y l l a b l e s ?

The unstressedsyllablesbecomeweaker,ie shorter,spokenmore quickly and with

lesswell-define( odr e v e na h e r e ds o u n d )s. e g/ w o ' t : :. / d j o s r l i : s , .
STordstressis important becausewhen it is wrong, words sound very strangeor
evenincomprehensible.rvouldanyoneunderstandyou sayingseqgtary?
Sometimeswrong stresschangesone word:into another'.desert-dessert. Or it can
changethe classof aword.:import (a) import (n) .
Chapter11 Phonology:
the soundof English

W Markingstress
Thereare a varietyof waysof markingstressin a writtentext andit's importantto
d o t h i sf o r s t u d e n t sW
. h i c ho f t h ef o l l o w i ndgo y o up e r s o n a l fl yi n dc l e a r e s t ?
rr !t-l!
'window
formation unhappy r mp o s t o r
m agaZ lN E waterfall delightful
""@
Findingstressedsyllables
I M a r kt h e s t r e s s e ds y l l a b l ei n t h e f o l l o w i n gw o r d su s i n gt h e m e t h o dy o u f i n d t h e
clearest.
photograph photographer telescope telescopic chemical
computer forest dictionary comfortable reception
F o rt h e a n s w e r s ,s e e p a g e3 9 5 .

ffi sortingstresspatterns
P u tt h ew o r d si n t ot h e c o r r e cct o l u m n s .

nrr r !r interview computet rcvision

innocent completely important
suitable example recordel
untverse opposlte

Forthe answers, see page 395.

The kinds oftasks given in this sectionare alsovery useful for your studentsto
work with. As with work on the soundsof English,awarenessitself is an essenda.
starting point, and it is worth devisingtasksand activitiesthat assistthis.

andstressteaching
technique
onthe DVD

Prorninence
Although individual words havetheir own stress,stressis alsoan important featurc -i
sentences,when it is known asprorninence or, lessaccurately,sentence stress.
Rather tlan considering sentences,we analyseufterancesin terms oftone units. r.:
sectionsof speechwith one main stress.Themain stressis known asthe tonic s-t.llahc
(or nucleus); theremay alsobe oneormore secondary stresses.Changesin
promrnencemakesubsrantialdifferencesto meanirg.

ffi Intonation
andmeaning
I n t h e f o l l o w i n gs e n t e n c e ,d i d t h e s p e a k e rg o t o P a r i s ?( W a r n i n gT! hi n k c a r e f u t,
I didn't go to Patis because of the food.

278
 5 Connected
speech

Basedon the information we have,we can't saywhat the answeris.rWeneed to

hear the sentencespokento know how many tone units are used.If the sentence
is said astwo tone units (ie almostastwo separatestatements)-,I didn,t go to
!4ris ... ... becauseofthe !qqg!'- we learn that the speaker(a) didn't go to paris;
and (b) the reasonwasthat the speakerhad someproblem with the food.
However,ifthe sametext is saidasa singletone unit -.I dtdn,t go to paris because
of the &Oel ...'-we understandthat the speakerdid go to Paris,but the reasonfor
going was somethingother than the food. Practisesayingboth ofthese until you
are happy that you can recognisethe two separateversions.

Stress and meaning

lvlarkpossiblepositionsfor mainandsecondarystresseson the following
sentence:
Carolinewasgoing to leavefor Africa on Tuesday.

Stresstypically marks out the content-carryingwords in the sentence;thus it

most-lyaffectsnouns,verbsand adjectives.Thecontent word that carriesthe main
meaning of the sentenceis usuallythe one you are going to stressand so the
following pattern seemsmost likely (although othersare possible)
Qgtoline wasgoing to leaaeJorlfiica onTuesday.

Effects of changingstress
Considerthe effect that changingstress has on the meaning of a single sentence.
F i n i s ht h e e x p l a n a t o r yn o t e s i n t h e s a m e w a y a s t h e f i r s t e x a m p t e .
1 Michael wanted to buy the red g[Lt. ( n o tt h e r e dj u m p e r )
2 M ichaelwanted to bly the red shirt. (not...
3 Michael wanted to buy the red shirt. (not...
4 lMichaelwanted to buy the rcd shirt. (not...
5 N4ichaelW€lted to buy the red shirt. (but...
F o rt h e a n s w e r s ,s e e p a g e3 9 5 .
rJTecan demonstratepatternsofprominence either on the board or by using
Cuisenairerods or tapping, clapping,humming the rhythm, etc.By getting the
studentsto work out the patternsthemselves,we can help to make them more
awareofthe importance ofstess. Poetry and songsare good for focusing on
stress.Shadowreading (readingsimultaneouslywith a recording,trying to keep
up with the speedand follow the rhythm) is a useful languagelaboratory or
classroomactivity.

Connected speech
Weakforms
One important effect of prominence is to mark out a rhltlm. There is also a
dramatic effect on unstressedwords in a sentence.Note, for example,the difference
betweenthe pronunciationof/orwhen saidon its own comparedwith how it appears
tn a normal sentence,egfor lfc;/ vs. What doyou want;fortea? lfel or possiblyjust /fl.

279
Chapter11 Phonology:the
soundof English

Unstressedwords tend to be pronounced quite fast, almost asiftrying to cram

themselvesinto the spacesbetweenthe beatsof the rhythm (a common feature
ofstudent English is a failure to do this giving eachword in the sentenceequal
time in the rhlthm). They also tend to be pronounced in a 'weak'mannerl tley
typically haveshorter vowel sounds:/u/ rather than /u:l and /tl ratherlt:1,etc.This
use ofweak forms is one ofthe featuresof connectedspeechthat makeslistening
comprehensionmore difficult for students.Ifyou are expectingto hear to
pronounced as/tur/ or zuaspronounced as/wozl, then you are lesslikely to
recognisethe words when you hear ltal or lwazl.

The schwa
The most common rveakform vowel sound (and thus the most common sound in
the English language)is /a/. It is also the only sound to be given its own name -
the schwa.Ifyour learnersare anlthing like mine, they will take a lot of
convincing that words are really pronounced with schwaweak forms in natural
English; they may feel that using 'full' vowel soundsmust be 'correcr' English.
Becausethe schwais a short and unassertivesound, there is a dangerthat in
focusing on it in classroomsentences,it might Ioseits naturally weak character.
Here aresomeawareness-ra ising and practiceideas.

De-schwaed texts
Preparea short text (three or four lines long).! herevera schwawould be saidin u
word) insert a gap line insteadof the vowel(s).Leave all other vorvelsasthey are
In class,give out the text and explain u'hat.vouhavedone.Learners must now go
through the text and work out the missingtvriften vowels.Thisll'ill ratseatvarenes,
about the many rvaysthat tl.reschr.va sound can be spelt in tsnglish.

Stress and unstress

This r,vouldfollow on u'ell from the previous activig'.Hand our a short text and
asklearnersto go through and mark every s_vllable that rvould probably be
slressed,eg l,Vhendidyou p91q9 to thisqprllegel
They then practisereading it to each
other, but reading only the stressedsyllables,eg 'rVhen . . . come . . coll . . . ?' This
will obviouslysound odd, but encouragethem to reall.vemphasisethesesyllables
and find a senseofrhythm in sayingthem.The next taskis to keepthat stressand
rh)thm, but to insert the other syllablesin the spacesbetweenstresseswithout
slowing dou'n too muchl This can help learnersto get a senseofthe important
stlucturing and timing effect that stresshas in English;it alsoencouragesthem t.
keepweak syllablesu.eak.

Count the words

Record yourselfsayingbetweensix and ten naturally pronounced sentencesat e
fast,natural speed,eg 'Are you going to give her that presentfor her birthday?'
Record rather than read out in class,becauseyou want to offer a consistent
pronunciation when you replay it. Thke specialcarenot to over-pronounce(ie n. .
making weak syllablesstrong).Ask studentsto listen and count how many word.
are in eachsentence.Theywill tend to miss the wcak syllables.Replay a few tinr.
and encouragestudentsto discussand agree,maybe'reconstructing'missing
words by thinking about the surrounding language.

284
 5 Connected
speech

Learn a limerick
Poemsare a good way to pull togethersomeofthese ideas.Teacha short poem
line by line, modelling it and getting students to repeat it. Make sure rhlthm and
stressare accurate.\X/henit's really well learned,hand out tie text and askstudents
to mark it first with stresses,
then with schwas.l{ere,sa silly limerick that you
might be able to make use of:
A curaa,ceousJtoungphonemecalledschwa
Said'I neuerfeelstrong.It's bizarre!
I'm reiring and meek
And I alwayssoundweak
But infrequencycounts- I'm thestar!'

Markingschwas
At random,choosea sentencefrom anywherein this book.l\4arkeveryschwain it.

What do I actually say?

One important considerationin teachingis to make sure that, asa teacher,you
offer realisticlanguagesamplesto your students.So,for example,when you are
presentmgsomegrammaticalpoint, it's necessaryto think about how it's said,as
well asabout more familiar issuessuch asqrammaticalfeatures.

Transcribingpronunciation
Considerthe followingsentence:Whatareyougoingto do aboutit? lmaginethat
youwantto saythis sentencefor yourstudentsto hearas an examplesentence.ls
the followingtranscription
an appropriate
modelto offer?
'geurq
/wDt odr)ju turdu:e'bautrtl

rX/ell,if you looked up each word, one

by one, in the dictionary, you rnight well
come up with somethinglike this.Theseare all possiblepronunciationsof the
words ifsaid clearly,distinctly and individually. Such foims areknown as citation
forms. But when words come together,somethingelsehappens.Connected
speechis more than a string of the separateindividual pronunciations.

Connectedspeech
It's quitehardto catchoneselfsayinglanguagenaturally;as soonas you sran
o b s e r v i n gi t, c h a n g e h
s o wy o us a yt h j n g s B
! u ta l lt h e s a m e ,t r y s a y i n gt h e s a m e
seltenceas if it's in the middleof a conversation; maybeevensaya few sentences
beforejt. Speakat a naturalspeedandwithoutanyattemptto speak,properly'
(whatever that means).Canyoudetectanydistinctdifferencesbetweenthe
transcription aboveandhowyou sayit?

I think I might sayit naturally as:/wotje gane rduwabaudl/

\7here hasthe /V in /rtl gone?Ithas beenlost. rJTherehas the /V in /e,bauVgone?
It has changedinto /d/.The unstressedsyllablesalsohaveweakvowel sounds\a\
or \t\. This is a realistic,ifrelatively 'fluent,)pronunciation ofthe sentence.It
reflectsthe fact that my speechis British English.
281
 soundof English
Chapter11 Phonology:the

Analysing connected speech

In connectedspeech,the following things tend to happen:
. Unstessed syllablestend to haveweakvowel sounds
. Soundsget dropped (this is known as elision).
. Soundsget changed(this is known as assirnilation).
. There may be additional sounds(linking or intrusive sounds)for bridging the
spacebetweenwords.
Your studentsprobably needto be ableto recogniseand understandsuch
sentencesasthe one above,evenifyou don't want them to produce languagelike
this. In fact, it's worth rememberingthat one of the main problemslearnershave
with listeningto English is that they can't recognisepronunciationsthat are
entirely different from what they are expecting.For example'if a student expects
to hear /wot o:(r) ju:/ but insteadhears/rwotJe/,drey may well not register at all
*rat it representsthe samewords. So a key point to remember is that it's vital to
teach pronunciation - not just for the students' own speechproduction, but to
help them listen better.
But what is a realistic languagemodel to expect studentsto produce?The very
'fluent' model I use?Thesentencebasedon'citation' forms?This is a decision
for the individual teacher,but I think it's reasonableto offer studentssomething
ascloseaspossibleto your own spokenpronunciation - the Ianguageyou
actually speakyourself.And in most cases,this will haveat leastsome ofthe
fluency featuresI've mentioned.
I can't seemuch point in getting studentsto repeat the citation-form versionsof
a sentence,though a surprisingly high number ofteachers do, somedmes
'good', 'correct' or 'perfect' version ofEnglish. It's not. Even
believing it to be a
'certain' that they don't say/tal or /wez
people who argueforcefully that they are
or /'gene/ almost certainly do saythem. In many varietiesof spokenEnglish, it is
normal to useweak forms, elision and assimilation,becauseit make sentences
much easierto say.
As a teacher,you probably need to offer realistic (but not extreme) fluent
samples:
/'wote je geur4te 'durebautItl
This occupiesa 'fluency place' on the continuum betweenthe extremesof the
unnatural-sounding citation form and dre very rapid, reduced speechyou might
hear in some social contexts.
'geul!turdure'bautItl
Citation form /wot or(r)ju:
Fluent /'wot e ja geulgte 'durwebautttl
/'wotJagana'duwebaudr/
Very rapid / tJega 'dubaudr/

282
 5 Connected
speech

Findinga Iinkingsound
F i n da n e x a m p l e
o f a l i n k i n gs o u n di n t h e e x a m p l easb o v e .

The exua sound/u / links*re wordsdo andabout.

Analysingconnectedspeech
P r a c t i sa
e n a l y s i nm
g o r es e n t e n c eisn t h i sw a y w
, orking
o u tt h e c i t a t i o nf o r m sa n da
continuum offluency.
l Haveyougot yourkeys?
2 S h ew a sv e r yf a m o u sa y e a ro r t w ob a c k .
3 W ew o n ' tp l a yt h et a p et o a l l o f y o u .

speechteaching
technique
on the DVD

Intonation
Intonation is sometimesreferred to asthe'music'of the language,and we useit as
a kind oforal equivalentof written punctuation.It is closelyconnectedto
prominence,for the mdn movementof intonation beginsat the tonic syllable.
This movement can be upwards (a rise), downwards (a fall), a rise with a fall
(a rise-fall), a fall with a rise (a fall-rise) or flat. Intonation has a defrniteeffect on
meaningand alsogivesus information about the speaker'sattitude.
It is hard to teachintonation systematicallybecause,althoughthere are some
corunon pafterns,there are few clearru1es,and many peoplewith an 'unmusical'
ear hnd it hard to recogniseor categoriseintonation patterns,It is, however,so
important that it is essentialto include work on intonation in most courses.Many
learnersspeakEnglish with a flat intonation,which can sound boring, bored or
uninterested.Using wrong intonation can alsogive offence.
Someideasfor working on intonatron:
\7ork with a function grid (seeFzrctional worksheetresourceon the DVD).
Get studentsto mark intonation patternson dialogues.(How can you mark
them?Arrows? Lines?Music?!7rite the words in a wiggly way to reflect the
movement?)
Get studentsto saythe samesingleword (eg hello)with different inronation to
conveycompletelydifferenrmeanings.
Use thesedifferencesto prepareand practisesomeone-word conversations,eg
A: Cinema?
B:No.
A: Tomorrow?
B: Maybe.
Hum / whistle/ sing the sentencewithout words beforeyou sayit.
Indicate intonation with hand gestures,wavesJetc.
Exaggerateintonation (this can be very funny).

283
Chapter11 Phonology:the
soundof English

. Exaggeratelack ofintonation.
. Encouragestudentsto 'feel' the emotion asthey speak.Emotions ofanger,
interest,surpdse,boredom, etc can naturally power the intonation.

Intonation
Addthe wordsfal/or rlseto the followingguidelines:
questions(Where,Who,What,etc)usually...
1 1.44,-
2 Q u e s t i o ntsh a ta r ea n s w e r eyde s/ n o u s u a l l y. . .
3 O r d e r us s u a l l y . . .
Forthe answers,see page395.
 Ghapter12 Focusingon language
This chapterlooks at teachertechniquesthat help learners
understandthe
meaningof stuctures aswell asa number of way:syou can
dealwith errors.
Errors and correction
In most things,humans largelylearn by trial and error, experimenting
to seewhat
works and what doesn,t.It is the samewith languagelearn'ing.
Student errors are evidencethat progressis being made.Errors
olten show us that
a student is experimentingwith language,tying-out ideas,
taking flsks, attempting
to communrcate,making progress.Analysingwhat errors have
bien made clarihes
exactlywhich level the studenthas reachedand helps set
the syllabusfor future
languagework.
In dealingwith errors,teachersoften look for correction techniques
that, rather
than simply giving studentsthe answeron a prate,help them
to irake their own
c_orrections.
This may raisetheir own awarenessaboui dre languagethey
'$(/hatyou are using:
tell me,I forgeq what I discoverfor myself,f ,.-"riU"i.,

Diffetent kinds of elrors

Errorscan be of manykinds.l\y'atch
the errorsin the followinglist withtheir
descriptions.
Errols Descriptions
1 A l i c el i k et h i s s c h o o l . a pronunciation (\r\vs \ ir\)
2 Whereyou did go yesterday? o pronunciation (\$ vs \tfl)
3 The secretary is in the office. c p r o n u n c i a t i o( w n o r ds t r e s s )
4 cive me one butterbread! d grammar (wrongtense)
5 I eat shocolate every day. e l e x i s( i n c o r r e ccto l l o c a t i o n )
6 After three years they made a drvorce. f grammar(verb-noun agreement)
7 | am here since Tuesday.
I I ' m g o i n gt o h e a ty o u .
c g r a m m a(rw o r do r d e r )
h l e x i s( i n c o r r e cwt o r d ) -a n dr u d e !

A n s w e r s :l f 2e 3c 4h 5b 6e 7d, 8z

til*ag9
l-.-T:l-.-r Sanbeerammaticallycorrect but completelyinappropriate
m the context in which it is used.Errors can alsobe made i[intonatron and
rhy'thm;in fact, wrong intonation seemsto causemore
unintended offenceto
natrvespeakersthan almost any other kind oferror.
Five teacherdecisionshaveto be madewhen working with
oral errors in class:
1
2
3
4
5
correcnon.
 12 Focusing
Chapter onlanguage

Griteriafor on-the-spot
correction
Lookbackat decision2 in the list above.Whatare yourcriteriafor whetherto give
on-thespot immediatecorrectionor not?

An important considerationhere is the aim of the activity.Is it to improve learners'

accurateuse of English?If this is the case,then correction may be helpful.
However,if the activity is aiming to encouragefluency,interruptions and
correctionsmight get in the way of the work.

When to correct
There are other factorsto take into accountwhen deciding ifa correction should
be made:Will it help or hinder learning?Am I correcting somethingthey don't
know? (If so,there doesn't seemmuch point.) How will the studenttake the
correction?$Vhatis my intention in correcting?
Decision3 is aboutwhen to correct.Theoptionsinclude:immediately;after a few
minutes; at tl'r.eend of the activity; later in the lesson;at the end of the lesson;in the
next lesson;laterin the courselnever.Thedistinctionbetweenaccuracyand fluency
aimsis againimportant here (there'smore on this in Chapter 9, Section4) If the
objective is accuracy,then immediate correction is likely to be useful; if the aim is
fluency, then lengthy immediate correction that diverts from the flow of speakingis
lessappropriate.Weeifherneedto correctbriefly and unobtrusivelyaswe go or save
any correction for after the activity has finished or later.

Main objective of speaking activity When to corlect

accuracy f o c u s e di m m e d i a tceo r r e c t i o n
or
tarer
or
n o ta t a l l

fluency later
or
b r i e,f u n o b t r u s i v iem, m e d i a t e
correction(scaffolding)
or
n o ta t a l l

One strategyusedby many teachersduring fluency activitiesis to listen in

discreetlyand collect a list of overhearderrors.Later on, you can usethis list to
provide sentencesto discuss,to set an exercise,to plan the nextlesson,etc.
For more on the correction of written work, seeChapter 9, Section8.

286
 1 Errorsand correction

Decision4 concernswho correc$.

smallgroup all class coursebook/

reference books

Figure 12.1 lfho corrects?

Decision 5 concerns techniques to indicate that an effor has been made or to give
or invite correction.The following two steps can be used to encourage student
self-correction or student-srudent correction :
1 Indicate that an error has been made. You may also indicate what kind of error
it is, where in a sentence the error is, etc.
2 Invite correction or help the student towards a correction.
Indicatingthat an errorhas beenmade
H o wc o u l dy o u i n d i c a t et h a t a n e r r o r h a s b e e n m a d e ?H o w c a n y o u s h o ww h a t k i n d
of errorit is, wherein a sentenceit is, etc?

Someideasfor indicating / correcting errors:

. Tell studentsthat there is an error (eg 'There's an error in that sentence').
. Use facial expression:surprise,frown, raisedeyebrows,interest,etc.
. IJse a gesturecombined with a facial expression(eg worried look and hand
outstretchedto 'hold'the sentence- you won't let the classmove on until they
dealwith the sentenceyou are'holding').
. Use finger correction ft.old on to the'error'furger, egthe third word) (seepage 289).
. Repeatsentenceup to error (eg 'They looked for a ...?').
. Echo sentencewith changedintonation or stress(eg 'You go to a disco
yesterday?'or'He wanted to eat a kitchen?').Note that this is a use ofecho with
a clearpurpose;it's rather different from the unawareecho describedin l{oz{,,o
preventlearning(Chapter 3, Section9).
Chapter12 Focusing
on ldnguage

. Ask a question(eg'\Vasdrislastrveck?').
. Ask a one-rvordquestion(eg'Tense?''Past?').
. Drar.va timeline on the board (seepage 307).
. Draw spacesor boxeson the board to shorvthe number of lvords in a sentencc
Indicatervhich rvord is the problem, eg Hc
. \(/rite the problem sentenceon the board for discussion.
. Exploit the humour in the error (eg Student 1: 'The doctor gaveher a recipe '
Teacher:'So shemadea nicecake?'Student1: 'Oh, not the right word?'
Student 2: 'Prescription.')Be careful,though: this techniqueis often more
amusingfor the teacherthan for the students!
. Usethe phonemicchartto point at an incorrectphoneme(seepage274).

Therc is one important student-studentcorrection techniqueworth looking ar i:

detail,the'chain'. Ifstudent A makesan error, elicit a correction from studentB
Ifshe alsofails to get it rightJthen get anotherstudentto help her.This is where
the chain comesin: C correctsB, and onl_vwhen B has got the idea doesB thcr'l
correctA's error. A then givesthe correct ansrverback to _vou. The effect ofthis r.
to involveman-vpeoplein thinking about the problem and finding a solution;do::-
effectivell',the errors and their correctionscan be passedaround the classlike a
ball ofstring unrvinding,tying togethera netrvorkofcnquiry and support.

E"E SeeWorkingwitherors teachingtechniqueon the DVD

*:!<tt ai;G

Figure 12.2 The chainofcorrection

There is one correction technique that I haven't really acknot'ledged _vet:sa1-

the corrected sentence yourself. Sometimes this may be the quickest, most
appropriateJ most useful way ofhelping. I lcft it until last, because I suspect
that it might be the one you drought offirst and I wanted to show you a
fes' othcr ideas!The next time you observc another teacher's lesson, use
ObservationThsk 8 from the DVD.

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 1 Errors
andcorrection

W Responding
to errors
R e a dt h e f o l l o w i negx a m p l eosf l e a r n eer r r o r sa n dd e c i d eo n a n e f f i c i e nw
t a yo f
indicatingwhatis wrongor correctingit.
1 | a m b o r i n gw i t ht h i s l e s s o n !
2 | enjoyto swim.
3 H eb r o k e n etdh e c a r .
4 lgo to the partylast Saturday.
5 I ' d l i k es o m ei n f o r m a t i o nasb o u t h e p l a n et i m e s .

A useful correction technique: fingers

This sectionintroducesa simplebut
effectivebasictechniquefor clarifying
dresuuctureofsentences and for
lnstant error correctlon)especially
useful when you are working mainly on
spokenEnglish without immediateuse
of written models.For example,you're
teachi)g He went to Milan yesterday,and
one ofyour learnersis confusedabout
the word order.
Figure 12.3 Finger correction
Basic technique
1 Put down any pensJpaper)etc you haveand hold up one hand in front ofyou.
2 Each finger representsone word. Use your other hand to indicateeachword /
finger in turn asyou saythe sentence(or you elicit the sentencefrom the
students).
3 The learnergetsa clearvisual indication of the shapeofthe senrence.
(NB The word order for your studentsmust read left to right, so from your
position 'behind' your hngers,the sentencewill appearto be right to left.)
Studentsmay need a little training before this techniqueshowsits real simplicity
and power.The first time you use'finger sentences,, make sureyour studentsare
clearthat fingersrepresentwords. Don't let them rush you; allow time to focus
clearlyon the individual words / fingers and clarify the problem they have.Once
learnershaveseenthe techniqueusedt}ree or four times, it soonbecomesa
valuableclassroomtool.

Variations and ideas

A learner saysa sentencewrongly.Youget her to repeatthe sentencewhile you
indicatewith your fingers eachword asit is said.rVhenthe error is reached,
indicatethat this word is ttre problem by facial expressionor a gesture.youcan
then clarify the error by meansof more specihcsigns:
. These two words are in the wrong order (draw a small circle above
the two
appropriatehngers).
. You don't needthis word (fold down the frnger correspondingto the extra
word).
. There should be an extra word here (point to the gap betweenthe
appropdate
fingers).

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Chapter12 Focusing
on language

Sayit quickly (hold out spreadfingers,and with the other hand closethem
together).
Third syllableis wrong (usethe ioints ofyour frnger to representthe syllables
Contaction (eg I am > I'm) (hold the appropriatefingers apart and t}renmt r c
them together).

Figure 12.4 Pinpointing the error

ffi usingfingersentences
P r a c t i s et h i s w i t h a c o l l e a g u ef a c i n gy o u ( o r a m i r r o r ,i f t h e r e a r e n o v o l u n t e e r s
around).Think of a nonsense sentence, eg Pop tee tipple on ug, Say the sentence
q u i c k l ya n d g e t y o u rc o l l e a g u et o r e p e a ti t . T h e nu s e t h e t e c h n i q u e sa b o v et o g e t
themto:
1 i m p r o v et h e i r p r o n u n c i a t i o on f i n d i v i d u awl o r d sa n d t h e w h o l es e n t e n c e ;
2 lea.n a question form with two ofthe words in a different order.

erol's teachingtechniqueon the DVD

e'WorkinEwitn
:;.,&,

Testing
Your director of studiesor headteacherhas askedyou to preparea test for your
class.How do you go about this?
You could test:
. the students'progressover the courseso far (a progresstest);
. their generallevelofEnglish, without referenceto any course(a proficienc-r-
r.'.:
Most internal schoolteststend to be progresstests;most externalones (eg statc,r
internationalexams) areusually proficiency tests.
You can test anything that hasbeen studied;this usuallymeansthe four langr.l;:
systemsand the four languageskills.Rememberyour students'coursehas
probably included not only readingand writing, grammar and lexis,but also
speaking,listening,phonology and function. Someho$'testsoften seemto foc.-!
far more on the first four than the last four.

Three criteria ofa good test

. A good test will seemfair and appropriateto the students(and to anyonerr h
needsto know the results,eg headteacher,other teachers,employers,
oarents.etc).

290
 2 Testing

. It will not be too toublesome to mark.

. It will provide clearresultsthat servethe purposefor which it was set.

A good test
Decideif thefollowing examples fulfilthethreecriteriafor a goodtest mentioned above'
1 lt is the daywhennewstudentsarriveat yourschool.Whenyouchatto them'
theyseemto be verydifferentin level.Yougivethem a placement test to decide
whichlevelclasstheyshould into. go Everyone gets a mark between 63 and67
out of 100.
l t h e n e x t h r e eu n i t so f t h e b o o k
2 Y o u s e t a t e s t f o r y o u r c l a s s u s i n g m a t efrrioam
that theywill be studyingoverthe nextmonth.
3 Yourstudentshavebeenstudyinga balancedcourseof skillsandlanguage
imDrovement workfor the lastten weeks.Forthe end-of-term test, you have
askedeachstudentto writeyoufiveessays.lt is nowmidnightandyou havethe
pileof essaysin front ofyou.

1 A testlike this is virtually useless.A placementtest needsto give a broad range

of marks (eg between 10 and 90 out of 100) so that you can easilyseewho is
strongerand who weaker.
2 Do your classknow why they are doing the test?Youmay havea very good
reasonfor doing it, but if they don't know what that is, then it's going to seema
very unfair trick to play on them to test them on work they haven't done.
However,if they are informed, then settinga test in advancelike this could be
very useful asa diagnostictool to hetp you plan the courseand allow them and
you to seewhat they alreadyknow and what they need to work on. It would
probably alsobe a good idea to do exactlythe sametest againat the end ofthe
next part of the coursein order to see(and let them see)what improvement
they havemade.
3 Not really what you want to plough t}rough late at night. It doesn't sound asif
it fulfils the 'markability' criteria. Obviously there are going to be many
occasionswhen it is essentialto mark a great dealof written work, but there is
no sensein creatingunnecessarydrudgery for yourself.The amount of writing
hardly seemsfair to studentseither.Finally, it doesn'tserveits purposeifit's
intended to checkon their progress(how can you measureprogressin
speaking,listeningand readingwith a purely wrinen exam?).
Traditional 'pen-and-paper'testsare usuallymade up oftwo types ofquestions:
. discreteitem tasks(ie testing specificindividual languagepoints);
. integrativetasks(ie a number of items or skillstestedin the samequestion)
These can be marked in two ways:
. objectively(ie there is a clearcorrect answer,and every marker would give the
samemarks to the samequestion);
. subjectively(ie the marking dependslargely on the personaldecisionof the
marker; different markers might give different marks for the same question).
Discrete items are likely to be marked objectively; integrative tests are more likely
to be marked subjectively.Some questions may involve elementsof both Language
systemsare easierto test objectively; languageskills tend to be tested subjectively

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Chapter12 Focusing
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test questions
Categorising
Categorise t h e f o l l o w i n gq u e s t i o n s .A r et h e y d s c r e t e ?I n t e g r a t i v eW
? i l lt h e m a r k i n E
b e o b j e c t i v eo r s u b j e c t i v e ?( T h ea n s w e rm a y n o t a l w a y sb e c l e a r - c u t . /
1 T a l ka b o u tt h i s p i c t u r ew i t h y o u rt e a c h e r .( S t u d e n t sa r e g i v e na p c t u r e o f p e o p l e
d o i n gv a r i o u st h i n g s . )
2 C h o o s et h e w o r d o r p h r a s ew h i c hb e s t c o m p l e t e se a c h s e n t e n c e .
J o h na l w a y s_ t o t h e c i n e m ao n S a t u r d a y .
A go B goes C going D gone
3 ( l n t h e l a n g u a g el a b o r a t o r y )
Voiceon recording:Replyto these comments in a natural way.
Excuseme, Do you know where the nearcst bus stop is?
(ten-seconp dause)
Would you mind lending me your car,just for tonight?
(ten-seconp dause)
I've lost my watch. Youdan't have the time on you, do you?
( t e n s e c o n dp a u s e )
4 F i l li n t h e g a p s .
a Haveyou _ lleen to Ny'oscow?
b H o w l o n g h a v ey o u - t h a t n e wc a r ?
5 Y o u w a n t t o s e l l a d i g i t a l m u s i c p l a y e rt h a t y o u w e r e g i v e nf o r C h r i s t m a s( y o u
a l r e a d yh a v eo n e ) .W r i t ea s h o r t n o t i c et o p u t o n y o u rs c h o o ln o t i c e b o a r d(.N o t
m o r et h a n 3 0 w o r d s . )
6 ( l n a p r i v a t ei n t e r v i e ww i t h a t e a c h e r )
R e a dt h i s a l o u d :
'The
a d v e r t i s e m e nst t a t e st h a t t h e n e w d e s i g nm e a s u r e s2 0 m x 3 5 m . l f y o u
a r e i n t e r e s t e di n r e c e i v i n gm o r e i n f o r m a t L o np,l e a s ec o n t a c tN 4 sH . . J J o n e so f
P O R T I L LW O a r e h o u s e st,h a t ' s P O - R - T - | - L - LW- O a r e h o u s e so, n 0 7 t 4 8 9 2 2 2 2
ext.97.'

Questions 2 and zl seem to be clearly testing discrete items and to be suitable for
objective marking, but even s'ith simple examples such as question 4, the matter :'
not quite so clear-cut.
At hrst, it scems obvious that the ansr.verto (a) is ecer and the ansr.verto (b) is ia.;
But $.hat about the student u,ho u,rites ire?el for (a) and ownedfor (b) ? Both
anslvers are perfectly good cVeryda-vEnglish. Do rve havc to write a marking
schcme for (b) that ir.rcludesr/r'itcn, uanLed,desit-ed,etc? Or do rve give a samplc
ansrver and leave it to thc (sr-rbjective)discrctior.r of thc marker? Or do lvc give a
mark only to the most obvious answer?
Another problem: what about the student rvho r'vrites beenhopittg to bul for (6) t
This is a problem rvith the instructions; although the snall ansrver space allorved
'one
on the question paper implies $,ord'. rhere is no instruction to that effect
Moral: make your instructions as complete and clear as possible.
The dividing line benveen subjectivc and obiectir.e is usually in thc marking
scheme. Question 6 coulc{ bc marked b-vgiving a subjectivc overall impression
mark or it could be marked more objectir,ely on discrete points (eg proDunciatior
of 20 m x 35 m: one mark for ptonourrcing numbers corrcctly, one mark for &1':
one mark for correct stress on advertisement; ctc).

292
 2 Testing

Criteria rather than marks?

\7hat's the aim ofa progresstest?Often it's to give encouragementthat something
is being donewelt or to point out areaswherelearnersare not achievingasmuch as
'marks' may not be the most effective way
they could.rVrth this kind of aim, giving
to assess,especiallywhen skills(asopposedto languagesystems)arebeing tested.
An interestingalternativeoption is to basethe testsaround assessing iflearners
'successful'when comparedagainstsome'can do'criteria statements(ie
are
'I 'I
statementslisting things can do'), such as can describewhat's happeningin a
'I
picture oftown streets'or can listen to directionsand follow a route on a map' or
'I can checkin at an airport'.These statementscan reflect the syllabusof the
'can do'terms, then studentswill have
course- and if the syllabusis itself statedin
a very clearidea ofwhat level ofachievementthey are aiming for.
A criteria-basedassessment schemecould perhapsmeasureeach'can do' on a
scaleoffour:
1 The candidatemeetsand surpassesthe criteria.
2 The candidatemeetsall main aspectsof the criteria.
3 The candidatemeetsthe criteria in somerespects,but with significant
problems.
4 The candidateis unableto meet the criteria in any respect.

Some common discrete-item testing techniques

Gap-fill
. Singlesentence
Fill in the blanks.Use only one word in eachspace.
I'd _ go to the cafethan the pub.
Answer: rqther
(Ifanswers of more than one word are allowed,then other answersare possible;
instructionsneed to be clear!)
. Cloze
A clozetest is a gap-fill exerciseusing a longer text and with a consrstent
'cloze'is often
number ofwords betweengaps (eg every ninth word).The word
incorrecdy usedto describeany gap-filling task.
. Multiple choice
Choosethe word or phrasewhich best completeseachsentence
If I went to Jakarta,_ buy somejewellery.
a I'll bI c I w.ill dI'd
Answer: d
(Multiple choiceis, of course,a very widely usedtestingtechniqueand can be
usedfor more tian simple gap-filling tests.)
. Using given words
Put one word from the list below in eachgap.
thought switched unlocked arrived
He (1) - home late that night. As he (2) - the front door, he
(3) - he heard a noisein the sitting room. He tiptoed carefullyinto the
. room and (4) - on the light.
Answers: I arrioed 2 unlocked 3 thousht 4 switched
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Chapter12 Focusingon language

Using other clues (eg pictures,anagrams,first letters,linesindicating how

many lettersin word, etc)
IEEI
He lookedthroughthe l99l 31d'"yasamazedro seethat shehadfinally
come
fi\I_J
Ans,xers: window,home
. Transformation ofa given word

He could produce no evidenceto support his argument. (photograph)

Alrsweri photogrq.phic

Sentencetransforrnation
. Using given words
Starting with (or making use of ) a given word or words; changingthe form, bur
keepingthe meaning
He liked the theatrebut hated the play.
Although . . .
Answer: Ahhough he lihed the theatre,he hatedtheplay.
. Following a given instruction
Changethis sentenceso that it describesthe past.
She'slooking closelyat the sculpture,trying to decideifshe likesrt.
Possible answer: Shelookedcloseljtat thesculpture,trging to decideif sheliked it.
Sentence construction and reconstruction
. Rearrangingwords
brother/much/he's /than/his /taller
Answer: He's much taller thqn his brother.
. Using given words
Although / I / bad headache/ go / concert
Possible answer: AhhoughI havea badheadache,I'llstill go to theconcerr.
. Finding and correctingmistakes
1 Crossout the incorrectword.
\7hen I will visit you, I'll seeyour new baby.
Answer: lX/henI ttill visitjtou,I'll seeyour newbaby.
2 Rewrite ttris sentencein correct English.
I am enjoy swimming at the swimming pool of the sports centre.
Possible answer: I enjojtswimmingin thesportscentreswimmingpool.
. Situational
You want to borrow ten dollars from a colleague.\fhat questionwould
you ask?
I wonder_ borrow _ ?
Possible answer: I wonderiJI couldborrowtend.ollars?

Two-option answers
. True or false
Often usedafter a readingpassage,eg Paul wanted,to aisitthecastle.Tiue
orJalse':
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 2 Testing

. Correct or incorrect
Write y' if the following sentenceis in correct English. If it is incorrect put a X.
They alwaysplay football on Sundays.
Answer: y'
. Defined options

Jili is a fifteen-year-old schoolgirl. Marta is a one-year-old baby.STrite J next to

the things that belong to J l.Vrite M next to the things that belong to Marta
[-ist ofwords: teddy,mobile phone, calculator,cot.)
Answers: Mobilephone,calculator: J;ted$4cot= M.

Matching Gicnrres, words, sentencepieces, labels, etc)

. Pictures and words

motorbike s hr p caravan

LT Figure 12.5 Matchingpicturesandwords

. Placing words in correct sets,lists, etc
Put the following words in the correct list:
water,cheese, wine, lemonade,lunch, bread',butter,supper

Food Drinks Meals

potaroes milk breakfast

nce tea d t nn e r

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 Chapter12 Focusing
on language

Grammatical Iabelling
Mark eachsentencea, Dor c dependingon the tenseused.
a = presentperfecq b = past simple;c = presentprogressive
I He's just come back.
2I've neverbeento the Andes.
3\Vhen did you go there?
4 I'm living inVienna at the moment.
Answers:la 2a 3b 4c
Putting ligsawpiecestogether
IThich beginning goeswith which ending?
1 He planted a the stones and weeds.
2 Shepicked b some beautiful red apples.
3 Shedugup c the seedsin rnreeseparate rows.
Probable answers:I c 2b ia
Note that someother answersare linguistrcallypossible(eg 3 6), though they
makelesssenseor seemmore unlikelv.

Designingdiscrete and integrative questions

Designthreediscreteitemquestionsandone integrative questionto test vour
understandion fgt h i ss e c t i o no f t h e b o o k .

Assessing speaking
Many teachersfeel more comfortablewith testinggrammar or lexis with pen_
and-paperteststhan with testing skills.Speakingian seema particular problem.
asit is intrinsically transientand hard to assessobjectively.Any assessment
is
potentially demandingon teachertime, but ifour students'work includes
speaking,then it is necessaryto assessit. Here are someideas.

Prepare criteria
Think ofabout ten kinds of speakingthat studentshaveworked on over tire coursc,
and turn them into a criteria list (eg .I can takepart in a discussionand explain mr.
point ofview clearlyand politely,, ,I can tell a visitor to the companyhow io get
to
my office') then assessstudentsagainstthem.

Too many studelts!

A frequent problem for teachersis when thereare so many learnersin one class
that it seemsto make it unrealisticto assessspeaking.However,with a list of criteria
(such asthoseabove),it becomesconsiderablymore staighforward
to assesseven
a largegroup. Explain to your classwhatyou will be doing, then, the next three
or
four timesyou set speakingtasks(ie wherelearnersworkin pairs or groups),
walk
around classwith a list of names,listeningin to variousgroups and noung
successes, keepingtrack ofindividual ,candos,.Extend yourassessmentover a ie\\
lessons;keeplisteningand adjustingyour evaluationover a varietv oftasks.

Speaking tasks
What are possiblespeakingtasksfor assessment?Well, almost anything you do in
normal classwork, eg narrating a picture story,role plays,pairwork information_
gap exchanges,discussions,etc.Ifyou havea smallerclassand enough
time, then
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 3 Usingthe
learners'
firstlanguage

a 'three learnerswith one teacher'activity is a very good way to assess,

ie settinga
task that getsthe three learnersto interact toqetherwhile vou watch and evaluate.

Self-assessment
Aldrough fear of bad marks can sometimesbe motivating, it's surprisingto find
the amount ofpower that studentsfeel when assessing themselves.It can be a real
awareness-raising activity.Distribute a list of criteria and askstudentsto first write
a short line comparing themselvesagainsteachcriterion (in English or in their
own language)- a reflectiveview rather than just a yesor no. Encourage,guilt-
free' honestreflection.After dte writing stage,learnerscan meet up in small
groups and talk through their thoughts,explainingwhy they wrote what they did.

Using the learners' first language

Students using their own language

Theyalwaystalh in theiroun language.Ican'tgettherulo useEnglish.
This is a common problem in monolingual classes,especiallywith children and
young adults.rVhat might the reasonsbe?
. Becauseit's easierto speakmy own language.
. Becausethe teacheralwayscorrectsme if I speakEnglish.
. BecauseI don't want to get it wrong in front of others.
. Becauseit's not'in' to speakin English.
. Becausethe teacheris only pretendingnot to understandmy own language.
. I need to usemy own languagebecauseI can't saywhat I want in English_
. Becausethe teachercan't hearme - so why should I bother?
. Becauseit's silly to speakEnglish.It's much easierto communicatein tJ-te
languagewe all understand.
. Justbecause...

Using English in class

Someteachershavefound that competition and bribery are techniquesthat get
results (eg'Every time you speakSpanish,I'll give a red mark to your team.The
team with the fewestred marks at the end getsa bar of chocolate.').I havesome
problemswith this, asit seemsto be building a motivation quite separatefrom the
genuineinterestin the subjectmatter that I am hoping to arouselit seemsto be a
caseof 'Do this to pleasethe teacher.'
I am surethat inducements,threats,prizes,etc can all havea limited successin
creatingan 'English-only' classroom,but I believethat a more completesolution
involveslooking at the whole atmosphereofthe class.
As an ideal,I would like a classroomwhere learnerswere free to usetheir own
tongue whenevertl-teywanted,but in fact mostly choseto useEnglish.How would
this be possible?Perhapsby creatinga climatewhere it was OI( to use English,
whereusing English wasnormal and natural and not specialor frightening.There
is no easyway to get to this, but here are someideasthat might help:
. Use lots of listeningmaterial to surround them with the sound of English.
. Put EnglishJanguageposterson the walls.
. Have short, clearlydemarcatedsectionsof the lessonwhen English is the hrst
language;at other times, other languagesare possible.
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 on language
Chapter12 Focusing

. Negotiatethe ground ruleswith the studentsor - better - let them set rules
completelyby themselves.
. Discuss (asopposedto 'Tell') the point ofthe activiry lesson,course Agree
how it will be done,why using English is important'
. Respondpositivelyto every effort at using English.
. Don't tell learnersofffor not using English,but keep operatrngm
English yourself.
. Only'hear' English.
. Spend a lot of time on fluency work without correctron
. Eitablish that you are delightedfor them to speakanything at all;
communication is your prioriry rather than accuracy'
. Createlots ofpair and small group activitiesthat require them to do somethina
with English without the lossof face of getting it wrong in a bigger group'
'I
. \flhen it becomesa big problem, stop the activity and negotiateagain: noric<
that many ofyou are using (Portuguese).Is this OK?'
.BepreparedforEnglishusetogrowgradually,ratherthanbeestablishedfor'r
whole lessonat the start of the course.
Activities that rnake use ofl-l
Activities that involve use ofthe learners'L1 (their hrst language)in the language
classroomhaven't had a terribly good press.Many teachersfeel their training has
discouragedthem from usingit at all in class.But ttrissupposedprohibitionwasan
over-strongreaction to sometraditional teaching stylesin which teachersused onll
Lt to explainand discusslanguage,and learnershardlygot to hearor useanyEngli'l:
But therearemany helpfiI waysofusing L1 in class(evenfor teacherswho don't
know that language!) .This sectionlooks at usesof L 1 in classand mediation skills'
A few ideas:
. \yhen learnersread an article or short story, sometimesaskthem to summari'<
it orally in L1 .This can revealinterestinginsightsabout what learnershave
understoodor misunderstood.
. \(/hen a new grammaticalitem is learned,encouragelearnersto think how tht':'
would saythe samethings in their own language.Don't just askfor a
translation,but encouragelearnersto considerifthere is a direct one-to-one
correlationwith their L1 and to notice differencesbenveenthe two languages
. rVhen working on pronunciation, explicidy focus on contrastsbetweenho\\'a
sound is formed in L1 and English. Get learnersto work like laboratory
scientists,trying out experimentsto seeif they can notice and characterise
important differences.
. Vhen watching a DVD frlm, the availabilityof switchablesubtitlesin L1 and
English can be very helpful (seeChapter 15, Section 13)'
. Comparethree different L1 translationsofthe sameEnglish sentence
(extractedfrom a longer text) and decidewhich is the bestand why This u'ill
help studentsto understandthat translationis not an exactscienceand that on<
languagedoesnot directly convert directly into anodrer'rJTord-by-word
translationisn't alwayspossibleand frequently missesthe messageFrequendl-
context and styleneed to be seriouslyconsidered
. Comparelayout and stylebetweenL1 and English conventions,eg for letters'
formal notices,etc,
. Ifyou feel that the best,most effectiveway to explain somethingis in L1, go fo:
itl (But keepit for times it's needed,rather than asa matter of course)
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 learners'
3 Usingthe firstlanguage

. A lifile teachertanslation (in instuctions or explanations)can bring things to

light that would otherwiseremain hidden. But exercisecaution - use a litde L1
when you havea clearpurpose and then return to English.As the generalmain
aim ofyour lessonsis to get studentsusing English,avoid the tempution to
conduct the rest of the lessonin L1 just becauseit's easier!Learnersneedto
hearyour English;it's an important part of their exposureto the language.

Mediation
Many studentsfrnd themselvesin situationswhere they haveto help a friend or
colleaguewho doesn't speakthe local language.Thisis mediation.It refers to the
skills we use in real life when we have to help others to comnunicate by conveying
a messagefrom one party to another.For example,imagine that you are in a
British railway station,waiting to buy a ticket.The person in front ofyou is a
foreign visitor who is failing to communicatewith the clerk - but you realisethat
you know his Ll.You can now help asa mediator,translatingthe customer's
messagesto the clerk and vice versa.
Give studentsmediation practicetasksin class,for example:
. Help a friend who doesn'tspeakany English.He wants to senda lefter to an
English friend.Translatehis letter for hm.
. Help the conference-programmewriter by providing summariesof the English
text in your own language.
Even if you don't speakyour learners'L1, there are many waysto practisethis skill
in class.Here are four interestingmediation games.

English whispers
Prepareabout fifteen cards,eachwith a short everydayphrase (eg'Could you
sparea moment, please?').Ask sevenstudentsto stand in a line at the front of the
class.Thkethe first card and give it to the student at one end of the line; he looks
at the card and then whispers- once only - the messageto student 2. No one else
shor d hear the sentence.Student 2 now passesthe messageon in L1 to student
3, who must whisper it to student 4 in English - and so on, the messagegoing
from languageto language,back and forth, down the line. When the message
reachesthe end of the line, the first and last student saytheir messagesout loud
so they can be compared.Often the confusionswill be interestingand funny,
and you can discussif tley are translation or listening errors.It may also be
useful to hear what people said all along the line.!7hen finished, play the game
againwith the next card and so on. Make new lines to give more studentsa
chanceto take part.

Diplomatic affairs
Studentsstandin groups offour: two 'ambassadors'and two 'interpreters'.One
'ambassador'only speaksand understandsEnglish;the other only understandsL1 .
The 'interpreters'(oneworking for eachambassador)understandboth languages.
The ambassadorsnow meet at a'party'and must havea conversationwith each
other (about an)'tiing!) .The ambassadorswhisper their communication to their
interpreter,and the interpretermust tlen communicatealoud (in translation)what
their ambassadorsaidto dre other ambassador.(Ifyou havea group ofthree, then
only haveone interpreterwho doesall the mediation.)
Chapter12 Focusing
on language

Diplornatic incident
Play the gameasabove,but eachinterpretermust completelymistranslateone
communication.At the end, ambassadorsshould guesswhich messagescame
through wrongly.

Translation role plays

Preparea pack ofcards with everydaysituationson them, especiallyonesin u'hich
a foreign tourist needsto do somethingin an English-speakingcountry) eg
'Buying a ticket at ttre 'Booking
train station','Asking what time the film starts',
into a hotel', etc.In groups oftlree, one studentis a foreign tourist who doesn't
speakEnglish (and speaksonly L 1).The other peopleare the person they are
talking to (eg a ticket sellerrvho only speaksEnglish) and their friend who speaks
both languages.Each group picks one situationcard from the pack.They read it
together,decideexactlywhat the role play will be, then do it.The friend translates
in both directionsto help the tourist and the native speakercommunicate.

4 Cuisenaire rods
Cuisenairerods are small colouredblocks of wood (or plastic).They come in
different lengths,eachof vr,'hichis a multiple of the smallestrod. Each length is a
different colour: 1 is white, 2 (twice aslong aswhite) is red, 10 is orange,etc
(seeFigure 12.6).

Figure 12.6 Cuisenaire

rods

Originally usedin primary maths teaching,Cuisenairerods havenow alsocome

to be a very useful language-teachingaid. In this field, they first becamewidely
known asa featureof Caleb Gattegno's'SilentWay' approachin the 1970s.
Although the Silentlfay remainsa strong influence (and a rich sourceofideas for
using the rods), their usehasbecomervidespreadin many other classrooms
worldrvide.Sometimes,in someplaces,the rods seemto haveacquireda semi-
mystical status,and to carry your box ofrods into classis almostlike wearing a
sort ofbadge ofEFL eliteness.Ifyou can get past that, then you may well find the
rods are an excellentand very versatileclassroomtool.There is no essential
techniqueto learn; simply get hold ofa box and setthem free occasionally-Once
you start thinking ofpossibilities,it's hard to stop.There isn't any 'right'
methodologyto usewith them. Use them in any way that seemsappropriate.
So what can you do with them?That's a litde like asking'rJ(/tratcan I do with a
whiteboard?',for the rods are simply a visual aid in the sameway that your board
is.The differenceIiesin the fact that the rods are tangible;you can pick them up
and move them around;a picture or an auangementmade with them can easilybc
alteredmany times;you can make a sceneand later changeit, etc.

i00
 4 Cuisenaire
rods

Somestarting points:
. The rods can be themselves(ie rods) or they can representother things
(eg trees,houses,people,syllables,diagrams,phonemes,words, intonadon
pafterns,abstractideas,money, graphs,etc).Their lack of decorativedetail is,
in fact, a greathelp in enablingthem to turn instantly into almost anything else.
. The 'magic' comeswhen peoplereally start to 'see'the objectsthat the rods
represent- suddenlythey come 'alive', and you start to get whole litde epic
hlms, adventures.
. The rods alonewon't do the trick.You can usethem as an unambiguous,
tangible,visiblepoint ofreference,but you still needto find waysto extract
languagefrom them.Youneed to askquestions,elicit ideas,make surepeople
agree,etc.
. Rods help studentsto 'focus in' on meanings,ideas,stories,languageitems, etc.
They seemto askfor more concentrationand a narrowing of attention.For this
reason,activitiesinvolving rods tend to be quieter and more focusedrather than
noisyand on a rangeofsubjects.
If you're nervous of trying them, remember ...
. you don't haveto be incredibly imaginativeto use them; the studentshaveto do
the imaginativework in order to 'see'what you sayis there.
. they are greatfor teacherswho tiink that they are 'bad drawers'- insteadof
drawing a hopelesslymixed-up car on the board or drawing a dog and students
'This
thinking that it's an elephant,you can just put one rod on the table and say
ic o dno'/nr q cor ete\

I've heard a number ofpeople worry that their students rvould find the rods
childish.I have never found this a problem. I suspect that the slight hint ofa
childhood toy we see in the rods might actually be a positive factor, and in some
way helps to set people a litde freer from the 'adult' behaviour they feel is expected
of them.The rods are only going to be childish if you do childish things with them!
And of course, if you don't like them, don't use them.They're not compulsory.
'plan'
If you do like them, my advice is - initially at least - don't to use them; just
try carrying a box into each class you teach with no specihc intention ofusing
them. At some point in a lesson, where a sftldent asks a question about the
meaning of a word, just think whether you could make a better picture with the
rods than with the board - and try it out. Consider afterwards ifit worked better or
worse than the board might have done.

Some approaches and sorne exarnples

Focusing on grarnrnar by restricting the lexis

By using or y a single noun (rod), we can focus more clearly on the form or
meaning of grammar, without distraction from other words. For example, if your
lesson is on .Flaz'eyoagol? with short ansrvers,you and the students conceal rods in
your hands. Then ask and answer around the class: Ilaue you got a red rod?
N4I haaen't.I Yes,I have.
The same exercise could be done without rods, using personal possessions,but
confusion with the meaning and pronunciation ofnew or half-knou'n items of
lexis (eg comb, chewing gum, calculator) interferes with and often dominates the
essential)y grammarical aim of *re actir it y.

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Chapter12 Focusing
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This use of rods is not restricted to simple forms; it works equally well with
sentences like fI, adn't already ghxn the red rod to Jo,I could'aegizten it ro 1tou.

Making rneaning tangible and being precise about meaning

Imagine that some students are havingproblems with the meaning of some languagc-
You and the students sit around a table and together aftempt to create arrangements
of the rods that sholv the meaning. Here is an example lesson sequence:
1 Place rods on one side ofthe table. Leave a working space in the middle ofthe
table.
2 Introduce the rods to learners bv exDlainins that the two areas are the 'bank'
and the 'workins area'.

w o r k r n ga r e a

DANK

Ask learners 'Show me X' (where X is a lexical item, a grammatical item, a

phonological item or a functional exponent), for example:
Shout me'oPposite'.
Show me'architect'.
Show me'He managed to start the car'.
Learners come to the table and make a picture (taking rods from the bank and
placing them in d-reu'orking area). (Ensure that they leave a clear view for the
other learners, ie not blocking fhe table.)When their picture is ready, they
should stand aside and say the original word or sentence clearly and naturall]

The other learnersmust decidetogetherif the picture is accuratefor the

sentence.It should be ascloseaspossible;encouragethe learnersto think abou:
this -'approximately' isn't good enoughl\Watchout for learnerswho want to
jump up and immediatelymake alternativepictureslin this activity,you needr.
ensurethat they agreeon the existingpicture first beforethey offer a new
picture. (This may sound a liftle finicky, but it ensuresthat things are really
thought about and you don't just get a chaotic streamofalternativeideas.)
If they agreethat the picture is good, that'sthe end of that stage;you can molc
on. If they think it's not right for somereasonJyou can aska new learnerto tr] o
new picture or adjust the existingone.
The tangibilityofthe rods helpsyou and the studentsto be extremelyprecise
aboutmeaning.Thefollowing detailedtranscriptis from a lessonon preposirion.
TsA.cIIen: Showme'opposite'.
(StudentAplacesa red rod neara whiterod.)
SruosNrA: Thered rod is oppositethewhiterod.
Teacnen: (to class) lxlhat doloLt thinh?

302
 rods
I Cuisenaire

SruosNT B : h's not clear.h couldmean'near'.

(Student C movesthe red rod further awayfrom the u'hite rod.)

TElcnsr: Is that clearer?
SruosNr B: Not reallg.It musLhaxea roador something.
(Student D usessomelong orangerods io make a road and other
'house'shapes,oneon eachsideof dle road.)
rods to maketwo square
SrulsNr D: Thisis Maria\ hottse.And this is Hiroko'shouse.Maria's hottse
is oppositeHiroko'shouse.
Clarit/ing structure
By dividing a word up into syllablesor a sentenceup into words, u'e can help
clarify how they are constructed (or at leastho$'-many words / syllablesthere are).
The rods are helpful in making such stucture visibleand can help highlight
problemsw.ithincorrect stress(Figure 12.7) or wrong u'ord order (Figure 12.8).
(In this use,they are similar to 'Fingers'- seeSection 1 of this chapter.)

mountrainoug
X mounlainore/
Figure 12.7 Incorrectword stress

I'e eaLsnevercl ocolate

He nevereaLcchocolaLe.
Figure 12.8 Wrong \a'ordorder

nnnnnnnffi-
John aul.ed re Lo tly voL ,o ?"ri'. (not Mary)

nnnofficflflfl
John aekedme I,a fly you tro (noLdrive)
Figure 12.9 Effect ofchanging sentencestress

workteachingtechniqueon the DVD

i03
Chapter12 Focusing
on language

Contextualizing
Becausethe rods can move and quickly 'become'other things, it is possibleto
createremarkablyabsorbinglittle story situations,almostcinematicin scopeand
detail,despitethe fact thar the only actorsare smallblocks ofwood (helpeda bit
by your own gesturesand facial expressions).I quite often combine using the rods
with story.tellingto make a visual accompanimentto the tale.
The rods are alsovery effectivefor eliciting (eg for grammar work).They show
the studentswhat happensand provide the words.For example,when teaching
the presentsimple tensejplacea red rod on the table.Say This is Fred. Add a green
rod and show'Fred'lying down on it (and make snoring noisesifyou like!). Ask
lYhctt\ this?and elicit'his bed'. SayEuerjt dogat sixo'clocfrlze. . . and move ,Fred,
to showhim rising from the bed. Elicit'gets up,. Continue in a similar way, adding
rods and eliciting ideas,eg 'He has breakfastand then he catchesa bus to work,.
Contextualizingis equally appropriatefor lexis work.When combined with
conceptquestrons,it helps clarify meaningswhen two words are often confused.
For example,/zbrart and bookshoparecommonly mixed up. Here is a short lesson
sequenceto clarify them:
Tell and showa story of a woman (greenrod) who wantsto reada book.The book
(white rod) is in a smallbuitding (madeof variousrods) wherethereis an assistanr
(greenrod). Shecollectsthe book,takesit home readsit then returnsitto the
building. (Rods aregreatfor thesemeaningsthat are bestdefinedwith some
'movement'.)
Ask a rangeof conceptquestions- Dads/ze readthebook?Did shenkt
it home?Did shegiae monq) to thedssistant?Why not? I,Y4ntdjd shedo whenshehad
Jlnishedreadingtheboob?Did shekeepz7?etc - leading up to the question ,So what is
the nameof this place?'and confirm that it is a library.Having done this,you can
contrast it with a second,very sirnilar story, basedon tl.re concept of bookshop
.
Cuisenaiterod exercises
The best way to learn to use the rods is to play with them, to try out ideas and see d
t h e y w o r k .H e r e a r e s o m e e x e r c i s e st o s t a r t w i t h .
1 C h o o s ef i v e o r s i x w o r d s r e l a t e dt o a p a r t i c u l a rl o c a t i o n( e g , k i t c h e n w o r o s ,
'street'words,'station'words,'office'words)
a n d b u i l da c o m p l e t er o d p i c t u r e
t h a t i n c l u d e st h e m .
2 H o w c o u l dy o u u s e r o d st o h e l py o u c l a r i f yo r t e a c h t h e m e a n i n go f s o m e o f t h e
f o l l o w i n gw o r d s ?
motorway, castle, discount, cricket, annually, reliable, south, engineer
3 l\4akea short rod story to exemplifyone use of goingto.
4 U s e r o d s t o c o m p a r e/ c o n t r a s ts o m e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g :
Wages/ salary; wood / forest / jungle; comfortable / comfortable: steal / rob:
must be / might be

Dictionaries
Teachershaveoften recommendedthat studentsbuy and use a good printed
dictionary- while retaining a suspicionofelectronic alternatives.But asdigital
materialsimprove, someof the adviceteachersgive may needto change.

301
 5 Dictionaries

Printed vs digital dictionaries

Printed dictionariesarehealy to carry around.Learners often dislikehaving to
bring them into class,especiallyif they are only going to be usedonce or twice in a
lesson.Providing a schoolbox ofdictionaries for studentuse in classavoidsthis
problem, but means that students may not buy a recommendable dictionary for
home use.IJntil recently, *re digital alternatives were poor, offering dodgy
undifferentiated definitions and often stilted, distorted pronunciation.
Things have changed rapidly, though. Any learner with Internet accesscan now
make use of good free dictionariesonline (eg www.macrnillandictionary. com).
Mobile phonescan download excellentdictionary apps- and when they
pronounce words they usually do so clearlyand conectly.The rise oftablet
computers and e-readers means that entirely usable in-class alternatives to the
paper dictionary now exist.The ability to integratedictionary accessinto reading
tasks(eg click on a word in a story you are readingto bring up an instant
definition) and writing (eg spell-check your essay)makes the new generations of
dictionaries significantly more helpful and time-effrcient than printed versions.
The appearanceofdresaurus-liketools within dictionariesis alsovery useful
(eg lookup more interestingor more precisesynonymsfor the word you have
just written in your essay).

Printed dictionaries: Monolingualversus bilingual

A bilingual dictionary can be very usefiI at lower levels, offering a swift way of
getting an idea of the meaningof someof the flood of new words that they meet.
They usualJyhavesignificantlimitations though:
. It can be hard to work out which of a number of different translations is the
correct onel litde or no information is given to help you distinguish between
entries.
. Grammaticalinformation rarely tells you more than the part of speech.
. There are usuallyno examplesofitems being used in sentences
. Important collocationsare not mentioned.
. Pronunciation information, ifgiven at all, tends to be idiosyncratic.

Thus, while helpful for simplereceptiveproblems (eg a studentin the streetsees

chemist'son a shop sign and can quickly find out what it means),they are less
useful when faced with productive challenges (eg a German-speaking student
wants to wdte tlre Englishfor Besuchin a lener and finds aisit, call, attendance,
oisimr, dsimrs,bttt has no 'fine-tuning'information with which to make an
appropriateselectionfor her needs).
For such'fine tuning', a monolingual (ie English-English) dictionary specifically
designedfor leamerswill offer significantlymore relevantinformation. Iflearners
can use it, they have a skill that allows them to work more independendy.

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Chapter12 Focusing
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Training students to use a monolingual printed dictionary

You can activelyhelp studentsby including systematictraining in dictionary usc
Two key generalskillsto work on are:
. knowing alphabeticalorder;
. knowing phonemic script.

The following activitieswork on these.(Gl means'. . . then afterwardscheckin ri:

dictronary.')
. Order: Give studentsa list of words and askthem to put them in alphabetical
oroer ... ull
. Sounds to spelling:lfrite up a number ofphonemic transcriptionsofwords
Srudentshavero find lie correctspelJings for each.
. Sarne sounds:\Write up a list ofwords and a vowel phoneme (eg \e\). Studenr.
h a v el o g u e s sw h j c hu o r d sc o n L a i tnh i ss o u n d. . . [ :

Dictionary work with all kinds of dictionary

There are many other dictionary-usingskillsthat apply no matter what kind of
dictionary - printed or digital - you are using:
. Checkingwhether your spellingof a word is correct.
. Finding how many syllablesa word has.
. Learning where a word is stressed.
. Interpretingdefinitions.
. Selectingthe word that bestexpressesthe meaning you want.
. Selectingbetweendifferent meaningsofthe sameword.
. Selectingthe correct grammaticalform of a word.
. Finding the plural ofa word.
. Extrapolating from examplesentences,
. Making use of collocations.
. Finding idiomaticexpres:ions.

The following activitiesr,vorkon different dictionary skills.Many of them follos'

the panern ofstudents using tieir current knowledgeto predict an answer,then
using the dictionary to confirm / correct this.
. Guessing spelling:\(/rite out somewords with missingletters.Ask studentst,
recallor guessthe missingletters . . . EJ
. Which word?: Give gappedsentencesand a choiceof two or more possible
words (probably unknown to the learners)for eachspace.Studentsfirst guess
the answers,then usetheir dictionariesto decidethe best choices.Thisgamers
perhapsmost useful and most difficult if the word choicesare closein meaning
and high in confusabilitye.g.Could you passme the ***, please.I needto makr
sure that all thesedocumentsare kept together.(stapler,spanner,scissors)
. Anagrarns: Givealistof anagrammedwordsthathavecomeup in class.
Studentswork out the probable answers. . . LE
. Where's the stress?:rff/riteup words. Studentspredict which syllablehas thc
main stress.. . G
. Dictionary race: Set a number of different challenges(such asthe ideas
above),perhapson a worksheet.Studentsneedto work through them quickll'
within a relativelytight time limit.The,v aim to work accuratelyand quickly.Ar
the end, studentscomparewith eachother to seehow they did.

306
 6 Timelines

Longer-term and lessgameJikeworkwould activelyencouragestudentsto see

their dictionariesasa resourcewhen writing, speaking,reading and listening.
Here are somesuggestions:
. Upgrading:rWhen studentshavewritten a draft ofa story / article / lener, etc,
go through and suggesttiree words that they could'upgrade' (ie find a better
way ofsaying) by using the dictionary.NBThese are not'mistakes'- dley are
thingsdratcould be saidbener.
. Alongside reading:rWith most texts,readersdo not needto understand every
word. So unlessit is important for a specificpurpose,encouragestudentsnot to
look up eachword one by one,but to hrst read the whole text and'get the gist',
then economicallyselectthoseitems drat will really help their understandingby
checkingthem in a dictionary.One way is to agreeon a setnumber ofwords
which the studentsare allowedto lookup
. Explore: Help learnersto use dictionary entriesto look around words they
know alreadyin order to enrich what they can do with apparentlyfamiliar
items, eg by building word webs (seepage201) of collocadons,connected
items,grammaticalforms, etc.
Rather than takeup classroomtime with random fillers and games,consider
adding a regularthread ofactivities on dictionary use,sayfor sevenminutes every
two or threelessons.

Tirnelines
These are a tool for clarifying the'time'of variousverb tenses.A timeline attempts
to make the flow of time visible,and thus enablelearnersto seemore clearly
exactlyhow one tensediffers from another,or how a singletensecan refer to
different'times'.
The starting point is a line representrngtime. On this line, we needto mark zozr,-
the precisepresentmoment. From the left, time flows from the past towardsnow
To the risht of this. time flows into the future.
Now

?aeL Future

So,for example,lm drinhinga glassoJlemonafurefersro somethinghappening

now, that startedjust before now, and finishesjust after now.
We can mark it:
Now

?a6t Ful,ure

307
Chapter72 Focusingon language

In contrall, I drank a glassof Inmonadelast night nightbe shown:

Now

?aot Future

And I'm going to drink a glassoflemonade:

Now
?a5t, Future

I
Unfortunately, the appealingclarity of diagramslike thesemay be an
oversimplfication. English verb forms tell us about more than just the time
somethinghappened.Thetimeline aboveshowsa decisionmade before the
presentabout somethingthat will happen in the future . I'm goingto drink a glasso[
lemonafustggestsa decisionto drink made before now' which we can show as:

Now
?aal Future

It alsoincludesa senseof the speakerspeakingnow and looking forward to the

future:

Now
Past Future

rffhich timeline is the most truthful?

\(trich most helpful to learners?you,llhaver..
decidefor yourself.
Sometensesare quite difficult to diagrammatise:the presentperfect progressive
(I'ae beenwaiting since7.00), for exarnple:

Now
?aat 6.00 6.30 7.OO7.30 0.oo i Futurc
El
_,.=--D

308
 6 Timelines

The diagram showsthat we are looking back into the past to the time the waiting
stafied.It showsus that the waiting has continued up to now It alsoshowsthat
there is a possibilityit could continue into the future.
rffe can alsoshow thc relationshipbetrveentrvo or more different tenses
fzlalllrzg
since 7.00, f or example):
Now

?ast 6.00 6.30 7.OO7.30 8.OO Fulure

I uas cookingsupperwhenthecookerexploded.
One action (that might havecontinued) hasbeen interrupted by another (past
progressiveinterrupted by past simple).
Timelines are one way of making English grammar more accessible.But do
rememberthat their meaning and usemay not be transparentlyclearto everyone.
Somelearnersmay be asmuch confusedor puzzledby them asenlightened.Use
them to help clarify the meaning oftensesfor yourselfand then to help your
learners.Whenyou are askedfor an explanationof the meaningofa verb tense,
try putting a timeline on the board as a visual aid.Ask questions;invite ideas.Use
timelinesas a cue for elicitation (seeChapter 3, Section8). Get studentsto draw
timelinesfor themselvesto help checkunderstanding.Invite studentsto the board
to work out timelinestogether.Adapt timelinesand personalisethem to suit your
own approach (somepeopleuse colours;somedraw little peopleall over them).
As we haveseen,there is not necessarilyone right answer.
Timelines are one way ofbecoming clearerabout meaning.For other useful ideas,
seeChapter5, Sections4 and 5.

. See Timelinesleaching
techniqueon the DVD

ffi Tensesandtimelines
Usinga grammarbookto helpyou if youwant, namethe tenses and maketimelinesfor:
1 | u s e dt o s m o k e c t g a r s .
2 l l i v e i n Na i r o b i .
3 I ' m l i v i n gi n N a i r o b i .
4 | w a s w a l k r n gp a s t t h e s t a t i o n
5 | h e a r dt h e e x p l o s i o n .
6 I w a s w a l k i n gp a s t t h e s t a t i o nw h e n I h e a r dt h e e x p l o s i o n .
7 B o b c o o k e dl u n c hw h i l et h e y w e r e s l e e p i n g .
8 W h i l et h e y w e r e s l e e p i n g B
, o b w a s c o o k i n gt h e l u n c h .
9 H a v ey o u b e e nt o T h a i l a n d ?
10 H e ' s j u s t w a l k e di n t h e d o o r .
11 I ' d h i d d e nt h e m o n e yb e f o r es h e c a m e i n .
See page 396 for sketches of answers.

309
 Ghapter13 Teachingdifferent classes
This chapterlooks at a number ofdifferent kinds ofEnglish classesr}ratyou mighr
hnd yourselfhaving to teach.Theseinclude ESP arjd EAp classes,Business
courses,young learners,CLIL groups and classesaimed at exam preparation.

1 ESP
ESP standsfor English for SpecificPurposes.Those specificpurposesare often
jobs:English for hotel receptionists,English for pharmaceuticalsalesmen,English
for call centreoperators,English for architectsor many others.Thereare some
more generalwidely studiedspecihcpurposes:English forAcademic purposes
and BusinessEnglish.
In one sense,every individual studenthashis or her own 'specificpurpose,,evenif
it may seema litde vaguein somecases- perhaps.to improve my job prospects,or
'to make
my holidaysmore interesting'.ESP contrastswith the rather mischievous
acronymTENOR (TeachingEnglish for No Obvious Reason);it implies that u.e
are going to take the client'sneedsand goalsmore seriouslywhen planning the
course,and ratJrerthan teach'generalEnglish', we are going to tailor everythirg 1.
his or her characterand particular requirements.
I haaeto teochq three-week ESPcourseJor nuckar engineers.
But I don't know abotLt
nuclearpower!
Don't panic! You are an English teacherlno one expectsyou to know anlthing
about nuclear power (other than what the person-in-the-streetmight know).you
know about English;they know about the topic. put the two together,and you
havethe potential for someexciting lessons.For one thing, thereis a genuine
information gap and thus a real reasonfor communication.The learnerscan
speakand write about their field ofwork and do appropriatetasksthat they need
to perform in English.Youcan help them find waysto do this more effectively.
Thus ESP often means'Go on teachingall the normal English you alreadyteach
in all the waysyou know how to do already,but uselexis,examples,topics and
contextstllat are,asfar aspossible,relevantto the studentsand practiserelevant
specificskills'.Ifyou don't havethe appropriatetexts / recordings/ etc to hand,
then it may be possibleto get your studentsto provide them by giving them
feedbackand support on their language.
A NeedsAnalysis (seeChapter 4, Section3) is a good - almost essential- startinp
point for ESP teaching.\l(/ecan't really addressa student,sspecificneedsunless
we are absolutelyclearabout what they are.A typical ESp NeedsAnalysismighr
be a questionnairethat you and the client(s) talk through and hll in together.
This might include an analysisofwhat the client usesEnglish for, what their
expectationsare,what they need,what they want and what they don,t have.
Unfortunately a lot ofNeeds Analysisdone nowadaysin languageteachingis
fairly token.Finding out that your student(s)work asa ,receptionist'or are
interestedin 'English for computing' doesn'tgive you more than an approximatc
generaldirection for your course.Toaddressa specificneedyou haveto hnd out
more than that. I think of it asmining - digging deep down to discoverthe real
needs.
 l ESP

Digging deeper
. Start with the general job eg So you area hotelreceptionist.
. Focus onto one speciffc task eg Tbllrneonespecifictask thatyou needto use
Englishfor.
. Explore wide-ranging details ofthat task eg when the learner answersthat
eg I wekomepeoplewhenthey arriae at thehotel, askfirther questions that
uncovermore and more wide-ranging information eg What doesthehoul
counterlookkke?What\ thertr$ thing that happens? W4ratkind of questionsdo
gour customers ask?Hou dn youfeel whenthat happens? etc.
. Dig deeper. Each time you get an answer,askmore, like a miner digging
deeperinto the situation,moving slowly from the generalsituationto details
and difficulties.Elicit specificexamplesoflanguageused (and language
problems) eg Hozt doyou say that to theguest?What do the! repb)?lYhat problems
doyou tgpicallghaaewith what theysay?Aim to build up a focuseddetailed
picture ofa single occasionwhere your student needsEnglish.
Simply talking it through in this way can be helpful for a learner asthey clarify for
themselveswhere somereal problems are.Beyond this it can form the basisof role
play,real play and reformulation activities(SeeChapter 9, Section3). And you
can do this againand againfor other work tasksand situations.

Selecting activities for ESP

'private'
of a studentwho is goingto attenda one-week
Hereis a briefdescription
(ie
course one-to-one). Nametwo or threeclassroomactivitiesthat wouldbe useful
for her.
Maria worksas a memberof the sales team for a companythat sells videocameras
aroundthe world.She frequentlyspeaks on the phoneto clients and often receives
complexordercby phone. Shesometimesvisitspotential customersin different
countriesand makespresentationsabout the firm and its products-She a/so has
social contact with manyclients and needs to feel mote confidentabout talking with
them. Her Englishlevel is Pre intermediateand frequentlycausesproblemsin
doingthese things. Herpronunciationis particularlyweak,and manywordsare
incorrectlysttessed.

Someideas:
. Maria listensto detailedinformation and makesnotes on, for example,
numbers and product names.Thisactivity could be done over the phone ifone
is availableto use.
. For homework,shepreparesa ten-minute presentadonon a work-related
subject.In class,shemakesher presentationand you give her oral feedbackon
the languagesheused.Shecould alsobe given a short written feedbackform
which notesgrammar,lexis and pronunciation problems,togetherwith a
generalcomment about the successof the presentation.Later in the course,she
could try the task againand seeif shehas improved.
. You preparea worksheetlisting many words shecommonly usesin her work.
Shethen attemptsto mark the stresspatternson eachword and to pronounce
them correctJy.
. You role play meetingat a party and chat with her about topics ofinterest.

311
Chapter13 Teaching
differentclasses

W Activitiesfor ESpneeds
F o re a c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n gs p e c l f i cs k i l l r e q ui r e m e n t s ,f i n d o n e a c t i v i t yt h a t y o u c o ul d
d o i n t h e c l a s s r o o mt o p r a c t i s ei t .
1 Travelagent: taking telephone bookingsfor flights
2 C a l lc e n t r et e l e p h o n i s t s: p e a k i n gt o p e o p l e( i n a n o l h e rc o u n t r y )m a k i n g
c o m p l a i n t sa b o u tm o b i l ep h o n eb i l l s
3 H o t e lr e c e p t i o n i s tr:e g i s t e r i n ga n d h e l p i n gf o r e i g nh o l t d a y m a k e r s

The following activitiesare somepossibilities:

I Design an information-gap activity that involvesone person knowing names,
numbers,etc that they haveto communicateto the other person so that they
can write it down.
a Book a flight to Athens on 13th Feb.in the morning, if possible.
b Flightsto Athensleaveat 02.45,09.05, 12.35,17.55.
Bookflightfor.o . .n . . . a r . .
The activity could be done in pairs in classor betweenyou and the student in a
one-to-onelesson.
2 Brainstorm what kind of problems customersmight call in with. Chooseone.
Elicit and write a dialoguetogetherwith the class.Act it out in pairs.Then get
studentsto work togetherto write somenew dialogueson other problems.
3 The receptionist'real plays'himself/ herselfwhile odter studentsand / or you
role play a variety oftypical or difficult guests.(Video recordingwould be
useful.)

Business English
Pre-experience courses
Many studentstake a BusinessEnglish coursewhile still at schoolor college,
before they begin work.These coursesare often basedaround genericbusiness
skills,languageand textsthat are likely to be ofuse to anyoneenteringany kind of
business.Such coursesmay alsohavea secondaim ofproviding an introduction
to ttre world ofbusinessitself,for studentswho haveno previous experienceofit.
A basicBusinessEnglish courseis likely to include many of the following skills:
writing lettersand emails;writing reports;readingreports and business-related
articles;negotiating;telephoningand conferencecallsltalking about facts,figures.
graphs,diagramsetc;participating in meetingsand video conferences;making
presentationslusing socialEnglish - meeting and greeting,smalltalk, dinner-tablc
conversationand is alsolikely to include an introduction to how businessworks:
businessterms and expressions;negotiation;salesand markeLing;finance;
projects;businesstravel;working with people.
Any courseof this kind is going to be hit-and-missto somedegree.Before
someonestartstheir work it is hard to know what kind of telephoning or negoriarirtg
(or whatever)they are likely to be doing) so coursestend to offer activitiesand
tasksfocusedon a wide range of different generalbusinesscontexts.General
BusinessEnglish coursebooksare suitablefor coursesofthis kind.

312
 2 Business
English

In-service courses
If English lessonsare taken when participants are alreadyin work, a coursehas
the possibihtyof becomingmuch more tightly focusedonto real and immediate
needs.By doing a thorough NeedsAnal_vsis with learners(seeChapter 4,
Sectron3) we can find out exactlywhat they require from a course.Ifthe course
haspeoplefrom different employers,jobs or departmentsyou may find that, for
the most part, a genericcourseis the most suitable- but the NeedsAnalysiswill
still help you to offer useful focuseson specifictasksand skillsto replaceor add to
what is in the book.
Look for waysthat allow your participants to make use ofcurrent examplesand
storiesfrom their daily work in ciass:
. Presentations Get participantsto prepare,rehearseand do presentationsin
classabout their daily work, current tasks,problems,etc followed by feedback,
discussionsand relatedlanguageimprovementwork.
. Diagrams and models Use Cuisenairerods, models or pencil and paper to
get participantsto createand talk through imagesoftheir work - eg my office
space,my travels,who I communicatewith around the u,orld,the
manufacturing process)etc.
. Diaries and blogs Insteadoftraditional exercise-based homervork.ask
participants to write (and read eachother's) diariesand blogs.They can record
detailsoftheir daily work, difficult situationsand languageproblemsthey have
faced.Use excerpts (with permission)asthe seedfor in-classdiscussion,
languagework, etc.
. Role play Find out asmuch asyou can aboutthe specifickinds ofmeetings,
negotiations,discussions,etc that participantsdo in their daily job, Create
similar role play opportunitiesin class,making use ofas much unclassihed,real
stuffas they can provide (documents,images,diagrams,Powerpointslides,etc).

In-company courses
Many company ftaining managersorganisecourseswithin the workplaceitself,
bringing the teacherto the studentsJrather than the other way round, often
with lessonsvery earlyin the morning or very late in tlte day.This is obviously
convenientfor participants- though perhapslessso for the teacherwho may have
to travel acrosstown at hours when they would much rather be in bed!
The educationaldownsideis that working businesspeoplehavea lot ofurgent
callson their time and, howeverkeenthey are,English lessonstend to be some
way down the must-do list.Very late arrival and absenteeismare often significant
problems for coursesrun in-company.Group coursescan sometimesend up with
completelydifferent personnelrveekto week,making continuity and progressa
nightmare.So,a key starting point for the teacherabout to begin work on such a
courseis to liaisewith the uaining managerand find out what policiesthe
company hasto encourageor require attendance.Emphasisethe importance of
regular and on-time attendance.Find out what you can do asa teacherto play a
part in encouragingthis - for example,awardingcreditstowardsparticipants,
individual taining goals.Be clearthat for the courseto achieveits goals,it hasto
be taken seriouslyby the company first - before the studentswill takeit seriously.
Another point to bearin mind is that when a coursefor in-companyparticipantshas
beenbookedand paid for by a companytraining manager,the needs7expecrauons

313
Chapter13 Teaching
differentclasses

of the studentand the purchasermay be very different,and you may find it a hard
act to balance.
Whether or not -vouuse a coursebook,much ofin-company coursestends to
becomespontaneous,responsiveteaching.If the participants are using English in
their day-to-dayrvork,they r.villbe hitting live problems all the time - and they u rll
often want to bring them to you for help and advice.Allorv time for this, perhaps
eventimetabling it (eg a participant Q and A discussionat the start of each
lesson);you may find that you can grou' all the work from such questionsand
requestsand that it seemsto be more focusedand useful than coursebookwork.

Teaching one-to-one business lessons

Many businesscoursesare one-to-one.Here are a few hints:
. Rapport Relatronshipis crucial.Thketime to find out abouteachother.Thketimc
to go on building that relationshipoverfuture lessons.If you don't like eachother
and feeluneasyin eachotier's company,the courseis nevergoingto takeoff.
. Needs Spendtime on discoveringneeds.Go back to discussand re-look at
them every feu' lessons.
. Plan lesson to lesson Createthe coursefrom lessonto lessonrather than
entirelyin advanceor by relying entirel-von a coursebook.Use the coursebook
to supplementneeds-relatedwork asit emerges.
. Study what is live and relevant Bring along material suggestedby errors.
discussionsand ideasfrom the previouslesson.
. Plan beginnings, not whole lessons Plan lessonsin terms of starting poinr:
(interestingdocuments,relevantvideo clips,important languageitems etc)
rat:er t}rancompleteplanned-trroughprocedures.
. Take your lead frorn the participant For at leastpart of eachlesson,take
your lead and pacefrom the student.Start u'ith discussionlrespondto
comments,questionsand requestsasflexibly asyou can. (But alsorvatchout
for the participant r.vhousesyour flexibiliB asa wa_vto avoid focusing).
. Vary the challenge and pace A leisurelypaceis fine for much of the Lime,
but alsomake sureto include concentrated,challengingtasksand exercises.
. Cooperative work!7ork with - rather than in front of- your student.Don't
feel the needto be t1-tepresenteror entertainerat the front of the classall the
time (or an-vof the time). More a colleaguein the next seat.
. Reforrnulate as a correction strategy After your participant has done an
oral task,rather than correcting lots oferrors and problems,give them the
chanceto seeyou doing the sametaskin _vourlva1rThey can take notes,ask
about what you saidafterwards- and then try againdremselves,using any of
your ideas,expressions or approaches.
. Silences Don't lvorr1,if there are silences.Silenceis thinking time and
adjustingtime.
. Board Use a pad ofpaper on the tableasyour sharedboard.Youcanboth u,rir.
and drarvon it, adding to and editing u'hat the other u'rites.
. Build progress Get the participant to prepare and do things (eg role playing
somethingthey do in their daily job, explaininghou' somethingworks, making
"
presentation)- then give them feedback- then get them to do it again.
. Audio recording Use your computer'smicrophone and softwareto record
u'hat the participant says.Listen together,rvork on raising awarenessof
problems and improving them. Practise- then record again.
 3 EAP

Writing Ifyou set an in-classwriting task asa changeofpace, don't be too

presentwh\Ietheyu'ork. Don't swampthem with helpful advice.One-to-one
can get very intense.Theyneedto breathetoo!
Internet Exploit the Internet. Look up things asyou needthem. Find
examples.Viewvideo clips.Write tweetsor emailsto eachother. Get odrer
online peopleinvolved.Contribute to forums. Make phone callsfrom class.

EAP
As more and more studentsstudy in more and more English-mediumuniversity
and collegecoursesaround *re world (not just in English-speakingcountries,but
almost everl.rvhere),English for Academic Purposes(EAP) programmeshave
grown hugely in number over recentyears.An EAP coursefocuseson the
languageand skillsthat studentswill need on a future (or possibly,current) course
ofstudy, typically a higher educationcourse (though increasinglyat lower levels
of study too).This meansthat the majority of EAP studentsworldwide tend to be
between16 and 20 yearsold.
EAP coursesare not typically focussedon the languageneededfor a specific
courseof study (though they can be).They tend to be more generalprogrammes
aiming to raisethe learnersto a point where they are capableof getting the most
out of their coming courseof study.However,the more focusedit is on the
specificneedsof the students,d1emore successfuland relevantit is likely to be.
An EAP courseis likel-vto include work on someof theseelements
. Listening to and understandinglectures,ie following long monologues,often
deliveredwith digressionsand perhapshaving minimal contextualisationor
visual support.
. Note-taking ie making effectiveand usablerecordsin a number of different
learning situations:lectures,seminars,from coursebookreading,etc.
. Effectivereading and researching- working with both short and long texts.
. Using references,avoidingplagiarism (seebelow).
. Raisingawarenessof formal stylesof languageused in academicwriting. Don't
underestimatehow dilferent the styleconventionsmay be in different cultures-
for example,the westernacademicessaylooks nothing like the Arabic one in
organisation,tone or focus.
. Essaywriting,eg planning.drafring.wriring.ediring.
. Making presentations,eg book reports
. Thking part in seminardiscussionsincluding awarenessof cultural issues,eg
expectationofcontribution, enjoymentof a good argument,etc.
. Generic academiclanguagepoints, eg use ofpassivesin formal descriptionsof
processes,avoidanceofcolloquial language,use oftentative languageitems to
stateinterpretationsor conclusions,eg thisseetns to suggest,Itqp?earsthat This
might bea reuth oJ TheresuhscotLldbeseenas.
. Academic stylisticconventions,eg use of an impersonaltone, getring to dre
point quickly - avoidanceof flowery padding (which may be common rn
certain cultures),use of concreteexamples.
. Learning to learn - generaltraining in study skillsthat learnersmay not have
looked at in previous education.
. Contextual and cultural awareness- learning about the way that things are
done in the learnins environment.

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Chapter13 Teachingdifferentclasses

At its heart, EAP is just like any other ESP subiect.To preparea really good
course,t]re teacherhasto know what is being preparedfor. Ifyour studentshavea
specificcourseto preparefor, the EAP coursecan focus.A genericoff-the-shelf
EAP courseis likely to be of only partial use asit will work on things the students
don't need or may evenmisleadby teachingthings that are done in one way when
the context they will be in does them completely differently.
Researchwhateveryou can about what your studentswill study and how they will
be working. Get asmuch information asyou can about their future coursesand
working methods.Download prospectllses.Get former studentsin to talk to you
(and your new class).Call a lecturer or principal and askfor advice.

Context and culture

A large part ofany EAP coursehasto be focusedon the context where the studenr
will be studying.The ground rules for how to do things will vary significantlyfrom
one academicenvironmentto another.
A foreign studentwho comesto a UK university may facenumerous culturdl
difficulties.He will havegrown up in one educationsystemand is now faced with
one where all his basicassumptionsabout what to do and how to do it may
suddenlybe wrong.For example:
. He may be fearful of appearingto not know an answer,to the degreeof not
sayinganything in classfor fear of gening it wrong and losing face- or he may
sayyeswhen askedif everythingis OK - whereasUK studentsmay often quite
happily participate,make guesses,takerisks and demandhelp until they have
reachedunderstanding.
. He may believethat it is wrong everto questionor challengea tutor's comments
asthis would conveydisrespect- whereasa IJK university tutor might
deliberatelymake a provocativestatementexpectingit to be arguedagainst.
This is just one example,but similar difhculties- to a lesseror greaterdegree-
will affect every learnermoving from one learning culture to another- and this
might evenbe within the samecountry, eg moving from a rural high schoolto an
American-run university in the capital.

Plagiarisrn and cheating

One of the biggestissuesis often to do with the issueof plagiarism:how it is
viewedand what is done when it is uncovered.
In someparts of the world, although plagiarismis routinely denounced,there is
often a tacit acceptanceamong staffthat it happensand little overt checkingasto
whether individual assignmentsare copied. On the rare occasionsthat some
blatant act ofcheating is noticed,the studentis likely to deny it so vehementlyand
with such convincing storiesthat the matter is often swiftly sweptunder the
carpet.Many studentscan proceedthrough courseafter courseon the basisof
copy and pasting articles off the Internet or sharing exam answerswith their
friends.
This method can come badly unstuck on arriving in a culture where copying is
very tightly defined and is much more often actively sought and detected.
Studentsneed to be warned very clearlyof this - and very clearlyshownhow to
 4 Examclasses

avoid it by using techniquessuch askeepingdetailednotes ofsourceswhen

reading,referencingaccuratelyand so on.

Attitudes to marking
!7ork is marked very differently in different countries. Some students have
receivedonly top gradesfor everythingthrough their whole academiccareers_
becausethe systemthey havegrown up in awardsgradespositivelyfor
achievementand effort to asmany people aspossiblerathir than ilosely analysing
the work for reasonsto differentiate it from other work of differing quality. For
such a studentto arrive in a new collegeand find that they suddenlyonly get 50%
or 607ofor work thatused to regularly get top gradescan be shockingand lead to
confusion and distrust of the whole system.Another reasonwhy such differences
need to be made very clearto learnersas aspectsof the local culture and its
systemsrather than aspersonalattacks.

Exam classes
Many teachersat somepoint need to teach a classpreparing for an exam.This
may be a nationalor schoolexarnor it might be one ofthe British_or US_based
internationalexams.Figure 13.1 showsthe popular examsrun by someexam
boards and their approximatelevel.

CommonEutopean Cambridge IELTS TOEFL

Framework ESOL
Pen.and- Intelnet-
papertest based test
C2Mastery Proficiency 7.5 633
(cPE)
7.O 6O0+
C1 Operational Certificateof 6.0 6.5 540+ 7to - 1,20
proficiency Advanced
E n g l i s (hc A E )
B2 Vantage First c.u - 5.5 500+ 87 - 109
Certificate
(FCE)
B1 Threshold Prelim
inary 4 . O- 4 . 5 350+ 57-86
EnglishTest
(PET)
42 Waystage KeyEnglish J.U _ J.5 250+
Test
2 . 0- 3 . 0
41 Breakthrough

Figure 13.1 Comparisonofexams

The main suiteof Cambridge ESOL examsare widely recognisedand are

rmportant qualificationsfor many studentsinternationally.First Certificate,in

317
 d,fferentclasses
Chapter13 Teaching

particular, is a widely-takenexam attestinga sound Intermediatelevel ofEnglish.

A popular American English exam isTOEFL (Testof English asa Foreign
Language),which is gearedtolr,'ardstestingEnglish levelprror to enterrngan
American universitt'.IELTS (InternationalEnglish LanguageTestingSystem)is
an exam from the UI( andAustralia which is widely recognisedfor academicand
professionalpurposes.
Many studentsfollolv a preparationcoursebefore doing ttre exam.This section
will concentrateon \\'aysofplanning for and teachingclassespreparing for this or
similar exams.
An examinationpreparationcourseshould probably include:
. languagervork that is likely to be relevantto that neededin the exam;
. tasksand activitiesto raisegenerallanguagearvareness, ability and skills;
. specificpracticeon exam techniques(eg multiple-choicequestions,rvriting
essays,etc);
. work on study skills (eg use ofdictionaries and grammar books,rvaysof
rvorkingwith recordingsat home, etc).
Even if the exam is only concernedwith reading and writing, there is still a strong
caseto be made for including a 1'airamount of speakingand listeningwork in the
course,astlre students'English is most likely to improve from balancedwork on
all skill areasaswell ason grammar and lexis.It is alsoworth taking the time to
help studentslearn somebasictechniquesfor studying.A studentwho can
understandthe phoncmic symbolsin a dictionar)',or $'ho can take a CD home
and useit efficientll', or who can make usablenotesfrom the lessons,is likely to
get more from tl'r.ecoursethan one $'ho hasnot thought about thesedings. A
basic skill that often needssometime assignedto it is how to organiseyour file /
exercisebook: do you just record page after page,day after day,or do you try to
organiseit into sectionsat the start ofthe course (eg lexls' grammar,
pronunciation, etc)?
A common problem with exam preparationcoursesariseswhen too much time i\
spent on exam techniqueand not enoughon the other areas.
Teachersoften feel pressurefrom studentsto do exam practicervork right from
the start of a course,asif rvriting out countlessmock testswill markedly impro|e
their English. Clearly,studentsneedto be very familiar with the form the exam
takes,but doing practicetestsalonewill not in itselfhelp the studentsto learn l'erl
'burn-out'.
much and can easilyleadto
A more balancedapproachfor, say,a nvelve-weekcoursemight be to give
studentsa lot ofgeneral languagervork and study skillsin weeksone and tlvo to
give them the foundationsfor u'orking successfullythrough the course.As the
courseprogresses,the study skillswork could be reducedand much more specih.
work on typical languageproblems could be done.\Workon examlnation
techniquewould be introduced gradually and increasingl-v through the coursean:
'mock' testsin the week or t$'o just before the exam.
build up towardscomplete
It is often a good idea on exam preparationcoursesto be evenmore systematrc
than usual about what hasbeen studied and to take carethat items,oncemet, are
recycledusefull-v.I haveseenthe follorvingideasusedby a number ofteachers on
examcourses;
 4 Examclasses

Posters
ri(/hennew languageis studied,the students(or you) make postersto help them
rememberit. As the courseprogresses,theseslowly take over the room, acdlg asa
very useful aide-memoireand a sourceof further work. I often find students
browsing through thesebefore classstartsor in lunch breaks.Typicalposters
might be on phrasalverbs,tenseproblems,articles,presentparticiple vs
infinitive, etc.

Lexis box / lile

ri(rhereaspostersare a good way ofrecording lexis,
the sheerquantity ofnew
words rnet on a coursecould soonfrll the walls.An alternativeis the 'lexis box,. At
the end ofeach lesson(or day), the studentsreview what they havelearnedthat
day,record any words worth recording on squaresofpaper (or card) and hle them
in the box or file.This record is a good sourceof material for you to exploit in
future lessons(eg exercisesand gamesrecycling thesewords) and for studentsto
look through.
Both ofthese ideasare,ofcourse, alsoapplicableto a wide variety ofnon-
exarninationcourses.
Finally, here are a few ideasto make practiceof exam techniquesa little more
interesting.Many ofthese ideasalsoperform the essentialtask ofraising
awarenessabout how the testsare marked and the criteria the examinerwill use.
. Studentsdo exercisesin pairs or small groups. (Possiblerule: they must all
agreeon the sameanswerwittrin eachgroup.)
. Studentsmark eachother'stests.
. 'Blitz'it:do an exerciseat great speed(eg 10-20% of the normal time
allowance- no thinking time, just do it!). Keep the atmospherelight-hearted-
it's not a serioustest.Then let them go over it and considertheir answersat
leisure.
. A'teacherless'lesson:give the studentsthe chalk or board pensand let them
discussand work through an exam paper togetheron the board. Only look at
(and mark) the board when they havecompletelyhnished. (This is alsoa good
'group-building'
exercise,asitbecomes a joint responsibilityro get rhe best
possibleanswers.)
. Studentssettestsin a particular stylefor eachother (eg they take a text and
rewrite it with gaps,tiey preparemultiple-choicequestionson a rext, etc).
. Take somewritten information about the exam (eg from a prospectusor a
marking scheme)and turn it into exercisesin the style oftypical exam
questrons.
. You do the exercise(including a rnistakeor two!) and the studentscorrect it.

IELTS
Many overseasstudentswho want to enter a university,collegeor training course
in the UK,Australia, Canadaor New Zealandare required to prove their English
languagelevel.Similarly,peoplewho want to enterthesecountriesfor residential
or employmentpurposeswill alsooften haveto demonstratethat their language
has reacheda certain minimum level.For all theseneeds,IELIS is a popular
solution with worldwide annual candidatureofover a million.

319
Chaoter13 Teachins
differentclasses

IELIS is seenasparticularly useful to educationalorganisationsand employers

because,rather than giving a blunt pass/ fail, it ar.vards
scoresin nine bands
-
coveringall levelsfrom non-userto near-natir.espeaker.So,for example,a Banc
useris describedas:
Gooduser:hasopen ional commandof thelanguage,thoughwith occasional
inaccuracies,inappropriacies and misunderstandings in somesituations.Generalljt
handlescomplexlanguagezuelland understands detailedreasoning.
Course or job applicantswill often find dlar fte institution they wish to attend
specifresa minimum band scorefor entry.IELTS provides a generalguide to
acceptabilityin dre follorvingtable,though individual institutions are free to
specifytheir or,vnrequirements.

Band Linguistically Linguistically less Linguistically Linguistically less

demanding demanding demanding demanding
academic courses academic courses tlaining coulses training courses
(eg Medicine, Law (eg Agriculture, Pure (eg Ail Traffic (eg Cateling, Fire
Linguistics, Mathematics, Contlol, Services)
Journalism) Technology, lT and Engineering,
Telecommunications) P u r e/ A p p l i e d
Sciences,
lndustrial Safety)

7 . 5- 9 . 0 Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable

7.O Probably Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable

acceptable

6.5 E n g l i s sht u d y P r o b a b l ya c c e p t a b l e A c c ep t a b l e Acceptallle

ne eo e o
6.O English
study E n g l i s hs t u d yn e e d e d P r o b a b l y Acceptable
neeoeo acceptable

5.5 E n g l i s hs t u d y E n g l i s hs t u d yn e e d e d E n g l i s hs t u d y Probably
ne ed e d nee d e d acceptable

Figure 13.2 IELIS guide to acceptabilit-v

As well as an overall averaged band score,IELTS also gives separate grades for
different skills.
Candidates can choose bctr'r'eena general IELIS qualification or an'academic'
one. So, for example, in the general r.r'riting test, candidates must \\'rite a letter an J
a discursive essa-vlvhile in the academic test they present informatlon on a
diagram and prepare a formal academic piece of r,vriting. Listening and speaking
tasks are tie same in both versions.
Training students to pass IELTS qpicall-v involves a lot ofwork on reading and
writing.The reading tests havc long tcxts and fairly tight time limits, u'hich seem
to give a definite encouragement towards fast reading techniques and top-dou n
processing, morc than slou', detailed rvord-by-u'ord reading ofdre whole text.

320
 5 Young
learners

Although IELIS claims to be capable ofdifferentiating all learner levels from

Beginnerto near-nativespeaker,you may needto treaidris claim with a little
caution.Testmaterialsinclude a quantity ofvery challengingwork and are good at
distinguishingbetweenlearnersinAdvanced levels(C1 and C2). For anyone
below theselevels,much of the materialwill presenta significantproblem. Many
Intermediatestudentswould find ithard to evenknow how to start workins on
someof the dense,highJeveltexts.As a result,IELIS seemsmore likely tJ
accuratelydifferentiatethoseusersin higher bandsthan thosein lower ones.For
similarreasons,IELIS preparationcoursestend to be fairly painful for teacherand
studentswhen the classlevelis too low.\Vhilemarketingimpiratives may
increasinglylead schoolsto sell'IELIS classes,to very low-levelstudents,teachers
needto approachsuch courseswarily.In many cases,a broad-based,general
languageimprovementcourseusing appropriatelygradedmaterialswill be much
better exam preparationthan focusingmainly on IELIS tasksand texts.Repeated
exposureto way-above-levelmaterialscan be discouragingand demotivating.

Young learners
Younglearnersseemto be gettingyoungerand younger!In many countries,second
languagelearningusedto be mostly a secondaryschoolpreserve-but therehas
beena definitetrend towardsteachingprimary learnersat lower and lower ages.In
many Iocationsthereare evenwidespreadnursery-levellanguageclasses.When
someonereported,a few yearsback,that a famousexaminationboard wasabout to
launch a new Englishexamfor learnersin the womb, it soundedalmostbelievable.
These changesare basedon the beliefthat the younger you start,the more chance
you haveof making the learning successful.If there really is a critical age- up to
which it is natural and easyto acquirea secondor third language- and after which
it is much harder to -then it doesseemto make senseto exploit this.After all,
young children who are brought up in bilingual householdsoften speakboth
languagesto native-speakerlevel;why shouldn,t a similar effect be achievablein
schools?A strongerreasonfor teachingEnglish to youngerlearnersmay simply
be that starting earlywill give them many more yearsat schoolin which to develop
and improve their languageskills.By the time they reachhigher levelsin
secondarymany will be very competentusers.

Characteristicsof younglearners
List some ofthe main features that characteriseyoung learners.What do you need
t o c o n s i d e rw h e nt e a c h i n At h e m ?

Children are keen.Children are noisy.Children can be chatterboxes.Children

want to leam new things. Children like to experiment.Children are curious.
Children get easilyexcited.Children want to havefun. Children havea great
senseofhumour. Chi-ldrenlove anention.Children can,t concentratefor very
long. Children can be hard to calm down.
Children don't respondvery well to explicit input and work on language
systems(grammar,vocabulary,pronunciation).They want to aselanguage,not
to study ir in its own dght.
Children may not seethe point ofEnglish. But they do seethe point ofdoing
interesLing tasks,gamesand acrivides.

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Very young learners (pre-school and lower primary)

Approacheswith low agegroups will reflect the kind ofwork typically being done
in the rest of their schoolday - just that it will be done in English rather than in thc'
first language.
Teacherscan:
. tell stories(with lots ofuse ofpictures, gestures,facial expressions,mime,
puppets and toys);
. sing songsand nursery rhymeswith children - especially.zcabtx songsthat
involveparticipation from the children (The lYheelson theBus,HokeyCohey
Row Row RouYottr Boat\:
. get children to act out storiesand songsfollowing the teacher'smodel;
. do practical tasks(painting, colouring, making things,looking after pets and
plants) but with instuctions and help in English;
. help children learn basicskills (recognisingalphabeticlettersand associating
t}remwith obiectsor picrure.counlingcoconuts)i
. run simple gamesusing limited vocabulary (musicalgames,walking around
games);
. give listenand do tasks(draw a cat,make a noiselike a cat,touch your nose).
At this agethe children will not havereading and writing skillsin their first
language,so text-basedwork may not be unsuitable.

Middle and higher primary

Once studentsare abovea certain ageyou may well find that your schoolgives
you a coursebookthat hastraditional units on different topics and works on an
explicit grammar and vocabularyfocus. You may alsofind that studentsare
expectedto passteststhat checkon their ability to recognise,name and
manipulatespecificlanguageitems.
This meansthat you haveto decidea seriousquestion:how do j,,orz believethat
children learn a secondlanguage?Ifyou feel that the coursebookhas a valid
approach,then you may end up using it for a largeamount of the classtime. If 1't'u
feel that children need a more active.more in-the-classroomexoerienceof
activitiesand tasksJthen you may needto find a way ro usethe book only asmuch
asabsolutelynecessaryand deviseor find other activitiesthat reflect your own
beliefs.
Whicheverway you go, here are someideasfor working with such classes.
. Find tasksand activitiesthat are exciting and motivating in their own right.
Where possible,go for activetasks,physicaltasks,dressing-uptasks,
moving-walking-hands-ontasks.Give studentsthe languagethey need to do
the task.
. Don't iust talk. Use pictures,models,short videos,board drawing, toys.
. Don't worry too much about the children'saccurateproduction. Aim initialll'
for listening and understanding.
. Think very carefully about whether you really needto do some (or any) actual
rnput or explanationabout grammar and vocabulary.Might it be enoughto
rntegrateall languagework into the tasksso that chi-ldrencan understandand
use the languagewithout further analysis?

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learners

. Don't expectimmediate (or evenlong-term) studentuse ofEnglish. Just keep

using English yourself. $(/hena child sayssomethingto you in their language,
reply in English.
. Keep activitiesshort. Plan for variety and frequent changesof focus,working
modesand pace.
. Keep much ofthe focus on the children'slife and thiirgs they understandrather
than abstractor hard-to-graspconcepts.

Exarns
There are now many excellentYL exams.Theonesfrom Cambridge ESOL are
known as Starters(lowestlevel),Movers(midJevel), Flyers (higher level).They
are colourful and interestingteststhat will motivate and encouragestudents.

Some popular ideas for young learner classes

Teach around a topic
Ifyou decidenot to get tied to a coursebook,a strongalternativeis to choosea
theme or topic to give shapeto each',veek's work. Explore it from a rangeof
different angles,choosinga wide variet]' of pmctical activities.For example,with
the topic ofshops, studentscould make a pretendshop in the classroom,write
namesand price labelsfor different items,match words cardsto shop items,design
postersto advertisetheir shop,read a story about a girl who goesshoppingwith her
dad,look at photos ofshops in the past and guesswhat they sold - and so on.

Teach around a book

Choosea book that you think studentsin your classwill enjoy (eg The Gruffalo,
TfteBFG). As with the teacharounda ropeZ idea,devisea rangeof activitiesthat
pick up themes,charactersand languagefrom the book. For example,with Z/ze
Gruffalochl.dren could designa monster, sayfrightening words in the most
frightening way,mime walking through a forest,think ofa good plan to trick a
monster,hnd words to describea mouse,collectrhyming words,make a monster
mask- and so on.

Show and tell

Every day,asktwo or three studentsto bring in somethingthat is important to
them.They will come to the front of class,show the object and tell everyoneabout
it. Alternatively,askeveryoneto bring something- and the show and tell can be
done in small groups.

Circle tirne
Everyonesitsin a circle. Somebasicpolitenessground rules are established(eg
one person speaksat a time). A topic is given by the teacher(eg SomethingI
enjoyedin schoolthisweek).The teacherleadsby giving an example,and then,
going round the circle,eachperson sayssomethingon ttre topic.Translateif
studentscan't saywhat they want to in English.

Total Physical Response (TPR)

The teachergivesa seriesof imperativeinstructions (eg Standup,shakehands
with someone,
zoalkto theJrontof theroorz).As eachinstruction is given,the teacher

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showsthe movementherselfand the chrldrencopy it. Don't worry that it's only
listeningto teacherwith no learnerproduction. It's fine becausethere is a huge
amount oflisteningJunderstandingand internalisinggoing on: very rich exposure
to English.

TPR fairy stories

Tell a story asa sequenceof sentenceswith mime-ableverbs.Studentscopy the
teacher'sactions (eg Sltewaxedgoodfuteto her mother.She
walked.throughthewoods.
Shesawa beauttfulJlower.Shebentdowntopick it. Shelookedup.Shesawa wolf.)

Carousel
Selecta variety of different activitiesand make sufficient copiesof them.They
should be simple enoughto understandquickly.Arrange different tablesaround
the room. Each table should havelots of copiesof one ofthe activities,ie each
tablehas a different activity on it.Vhen the children arrive in class,ttrey
immediatelyform groups basedat one of the tables.Each group works on the task
on their desks.After a settime (eg eight minutes) or when the teacherfeelsthe
time is right, sherings a bell (or taps the table or shouts) and every group stands
up and movesclockwiseround the room to the next table- u'herethey can start
work on the new task.The lessonproceedsin dtis way,with regular changesof
table and task.The teachermay needto do a lot ofbuzzing around,assistingwirh
understandingwhat to do. Studentswill get a lot ofchancesto use English in a
wide rangeoftasks and exercises- lots ofvarietlr

Community Language Learning (CLL)

Although a method devisedfor usewith adults,the basicprinciple works well u-irh
older primary students,whether in whole-classdiscussionor while supervising
pair or group work. Initially you will needto train studentsinto this way of
working, but after you have,it can becomevery effectiveasan everydayway of
working.
CLL essentiallymakesyou the classtranslatorwho will help studentsto saywhar
they want to say.Three steps:
1 Allow studentsto saywhat they $'ant to say.Encouragebriefstatementsin
their first language.
2 Say a good English translationyourselfofwhat they want to say.Don't explair:
anything about the grammar or vocabulary.Justmodel it clearly.Don't worn.
if the languageyou sayis abovetheir supposedunderstandingor syllabus
Ievel.But do keepit short. If necessary,edit what they said down to a few
words.
3 Help studentsto saythe English versionthemselves.Repeatyour model as
often asneeded.Once they havesaid it to the class,move on to the next
speaker.No analysisor study.rVritea note to record what the sentencewas.
(Alternatively- and evenbetter,is to record what the student says.)
At the end you can review what everyonesaid,maybepreparing a handout with
the u'holeEnglish languageconversation.

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 6 Teenageclasses

6 Teenage classes

Teenageclasses comparedwith adult classes

Listsomewaysin whichthe atmosphereandworkin a classofteenagestudents
m i g h td i f f e rf r o ma c l a s so f a d u l t ss t u d y i n sgi m i l a m
r aterial.

In teenageclasses,the learnersare discoveringa range of new possibilitiesfor

themselves.They are discoveringwhat impact they can haveon the world and can
be very motivated.The learnerscan bring a strongenthusiasmfor topics they are
interestedir1 and they can get very focusedon specificthings relevantto
themselves.Theyoften respondwell to work that is clearlyorganisedand takes
their interestinto account.But althoughteenageclassescan be among the most
interestingand exciting,they alsohavesomereputation for being demanding on
the teacher.

Why rnight teenage classes seem demanding on the teacher?

. It's a difficult period oflife.Teenagersare often unsure about themselvesand
how they feel about things.
. Strong emotions of various kinds may be rising and falling and these may alter
the workings of sometechdques and activities.
. Teenagershavechanginginterests.Theyget bored quickly.
. Actrvitiesmight be rejectedor done without personalinvestmentbecausethe
learnersfeel silly or embarrassedwhen doing them. Basicthings like speaking
English in activitresmay becomerssues.
. Motivation may appearto be low, especiallyiflearners feel that they havebeen
forced to attend somethingthey don't want to.
. Teenagerscan come acrossas outspoken.Theymay be more willing to state
clearly what they think and stand up to a requirement they disagree with.
. Discipline can seemto be a problem.Teenagersseemparticularly averseto
things that they seeasimposed on them.
. 'They saythey're fed up,' 'They sit there and do nothing,"They try my
patience,'etc.
I'm surethat someteacherscould extendthis list a good few more lines! So having
saidthat, we can concludethat the teacherofa teenageclassmight needto havea
few specifictechniquesto hand for dealingwith teenage-relatedproblems- and
I'll suggesta few below.But beforethat, I'd like to offer a generalproposalthat
might apply to all classes,whether adult, child or teenage.

Personal choice and investrnent

I havea suspicionthat many of the problemsthat teachersnotice in teenage
classes- especiallyonesrelated to boredom, discipline, answering back and
rudeness-reflectissues that alsoexist in adult classes.It's iust that the aduits are
generallymore restrainedand do not stateasopenly what they think or want, and
the teachermay remain unawareof the depth of feeling,disillusionment,lackof
engagementor boredom.A lot ofissuestfiat surfaceasill-discipline or rudeness
may just reflectthe fact that the learneris feelingpowerlessand out of touch with
Chapter13 Teaching
difrerertclasses

something that they are being required to do.There is very little chance oflearnc:.
doing something with con'iction or interest unless it is something that they halc.
at least in some degree, chosen to do.Y/hich leads me to a general proposal thar
the more a learner feels that they 121'echosen \'!'hat to do and how to do it and fec -
in control while r'vorking, the more thel,will be likely to teel engaged and to
achieve something r.vorthrvhile lrom it.
When these things are abscnt or at a low level in an-vclass,there are likely to be
problems.With adults, rve might get students not coming to lessons, remaining
quiet and passive, rvriting negative feedback comments, complaining to school
management and so on.With teenagers, rve might get more instant, more tangit':r
outcomes: refusals, complaints, rudeness, abdication, etc.
All of which suggests that key techniques for teenage classesmight include:
. a willingness to listen and be flexible in responsel
. follolving the class as much as leading;
. where appropriate and possible, sl'raring the responsibilitl, for ke-vdecisions -
topics, work methods, work rate, homework, tests, etc;
. ways of getting usable feedback regularly through lessons and courses.

Teenagers also need a sense of securit]. amid the sometimes beu'ildering world
tJrey are meeting, so your task rvould be to find a u'ay ofoffering the more flexibl.
democratic, inclusive approaches suggested above rvhile also providing an
ordered, organised but unthreatening environment.

Sorne specific ideas for teenage classes

Virtually all of the ideas and activities in this book apply equall-vto teenage classc-
as much as to adults. Here are a few exua hints:
. Avoid anything that might be seen as childish to students. Many materials tha:
adults would happily work rvith may be rejected by teens ifthey see them as
unsuitable or patronising in any way.
. Ifwhole-class rvork doesn't seem to be working, try avoiding it rvhere possiblc
Instead, consider the possibiliry ofrvork groups, ie small sections of the class
drat work independently on tasks that you agree rvith them.
. Experiment with a mixture of quiet, r.vorking-alone activities and activities th.'
require active participation. Find out rvhich individuals seem to respond befte:
to these different kinds ofrvork.
. Avoid too many acti\dties that put embarrassed students in the spodight.
. Select reading and listening materials from up-to-date sources that are rele\ ar::
for learners, eg current magazines, websites, recently released films, hit songs.
. Better still, ask learners to bring in materials they rvant to work with.
. Consider project u'ork on topics entirel-v selected by the learners and invoh'ing
research methods that the-vwill find both interesting and challenging, eg
preparing a report on a live topic that interests the students (see Chapter 15.
S e c t i o n1 1 ) .
. Ifyour school, syllabus and exam requirements allow it - and your class is keen -
consider the possibility of throwing out the whole coursebook and syllabus an.1
working on one very large projectwirh a definite outcome) eg staging a play or
shor'vin English or preparing a local magazine in English. (Again,I stressthat

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 7 CLIL

this will not work if you imposethe ideaon students;tiere must be genuine
investrnent from rhem.)
. Be truthful. Try not to be just a spokespersonfor schoolor society.Saywhat
you really think about things.Explain to learnerswhy certain activitiesmay (or
may not) be valuable.Let them agreeif they want to do them or not.
. Don't get botheredwhen challenged.Listen and don't feel undermined. Be
preparedto back down ifa strong argumentis presented.
. Dare to askimportant questionssuch as,,\Xtrat could we do in Enelish lessons
that would really be interestingfor you?,
' Ratherthan settingout with the assumptionthat disciplineand difficulty w l be
the order of the day, start out with the intention of working w.ith the learners
and listeningro rhem.
. If disciplinebecomesa problem, asfar aspossibleaskthe learnersthemselvesto
give adviceasto what should be done.sTherepossiblenegotiateand agree
codesofbehaviour and penaltiesin advanceof problemsboiling up.

7 CLIL
CLIL (which must be one of the ugliest-everELT acronyms)is a Europeanterm
dating back only to 1994.It standsfor Content and LanguageIntegrated
Learning. It refersto teachingcontent (eg secondaryschoofcurriculum subjects)
through a languageother than the fust languageof the learners.
So,for example,studentsin Spain might study Sciencesubjectsin English (rather
than in Spanish). Similar approacheshavebeenknown asbilingual education,
content-basedinstructiorl languageacrossthe curriculum and language
immersion. In Canada,for example,many English-speakingstudentshave
followed their whole curriculum in French. (CLIL could be with any second
language,but I'11useEnglish for examplesin the rest of this section.)
There are two aims in CLIL: the learning of both the subjectand the language.
The languageis *re meansto the end oflearning subjectcontent.
The hope is that achievementin both subjectand languagewill be higher.The fear
is that both may end up worse.

CL|Land not CL|L

R e a dt h i s d e s c r i p t i o no f a s c h o o l ' sa p p r o a c ht o L a n g u a g ea n d C o n t e n t .W h yi s i t
E n g l i s h - m e d i utme a c h i n ga n d n o t C L I L ?
Last year the Head teacher introduced a big change to the schoot. Now History,
Geography and all science subjects are being taught in English (by their usual
subject teachers). The subject teachers are teaching in much the same way as mey
used to, but have switched the language of instruction to English. English teachers
have been given an extra hour of English lessons each week. They are able to
Eet
through their ceneral English coursebook much faster now and hooe that this will
help to raise students' tanguage abilities.

English-medium teachingrefersto any coursesthat are taught in the Enelish

language.Therextdescribesa schooltrar now teaches in English.bur. aiLough
the languageofinstruction has changedto English,there appearsto havebeenno
aftempt to integratethe teachingofcontent and language.It is not enoughto

327
Chapter13 Teaching
differentclasses

simply teachin a different language;the important thing is to make sure that th.
studentsare supportedin undcrstandingand using that language.TheEnglish
lessonsappearto still be teachingEnglish in general,rather than focusing thc \, :.
down to what the learnersneed for their subjectstud_v.
The essentialpoint of CLIL is that the languageteachingisn't separateand
disconnected.It is integrated:it supports and is directl_vrelevantto the subjecr
teaching.
A GeneralEnglish teachermight teach conditionalsat a time specifiedby a
coursebooksequenceofunits and using examplesthat are basedon imrginrrl
characters,situationsand examples.A CLIL languageteachermight teachrl.ri.
languagepoint rvhenit u.asneededin the subjectsyllabus(pelhaps for descrih::::
chemrstryexperiments)and using languageexamplesand exercisesdirectll
drawn from that classroomsubjcctu'ork.

General English cornpared with CLIL

One \,vayto get a senseof the rationalebehind CLIL is to compareit with non-
CLIL GeneralEnglish teaching.

Subiect content
CLILTopics are directly relevantto the studentsbecausethe-vare in the actull
subjectareasthat the.vhavechosenand probably needfor their exan'rsar.rdthcr:
future. Everything studiedis useful.
General English Coursebookstry to featurea range of appealinggeneral-
interesttopics but somestudentsmay hnd them uninspiring or irrclcvant to th! :
livesand needs.Theymight ask: Wry shotLld irt rcadingaboutpolar
I beinterested
bears?ot \X/hatreleattnceto utyfuntre ts listeningto twocartoonpop st.ushaDingnl
argLLment eboLLta l'estaurqntbill?As much asteachersmight arguelong-term
understandingofEnglish asbeing useful,there can be problemswith the
immediatetopical content of lessons.

Methodology
CLIL Many researchershavearguedthat the bestway to learn a languageis rr, - -
verl' focusedon learning about somethingelse(ie a content area)rather than
focusing on the languagefor its own sake.Thestudent (rvith a brick in one hanc
and a trorvelrvith cementin the other) rvho really lvantsto understandhou'to
build a brick wall is so focusedon the content of the instructor's guidancethat s::-
hardly noticeshow much languagesheis picking up alongthe way. Sl.reacquirc.
English by understandingmeaningsthat are directly useful and immediatell'
relevantto thc task sheis doing.
General English There havebeen valiant attemptsto replicatethis kind of
learningin GE classes.Thsk-basedlearning (TBL) methodologies are \rerymuL:
basedon d.ris.But they are facedu'ith the difficulty that most GeneralEnglish
classroomtasksremainartificial,createdsolelyfor the purposeof learningEng...'
rather than for someother motivating goal.

Language focus
CLIL works with the languageyou need as-vouneedit- or just betbre you nccc -
The traditional coursebooklanguagesyllabus(eg lots ofdiscrete itcms scqucnc.:

328
 7 CLIL

in a fixed order) is out the window. Ifyou needto usethe pasttensenow, why not
study it now (evenifyou haven't studiedthe presentsimple tensefirst) ?
General English rvorkson languageyou might need in caseit is important at
somepoint in the future.The syllabusorganisesit in what is supposedto be a
logical ordcr - though this doesnot necessarilyreflect usefulness,learnerneedsor
cvcna supposednaruralorderofacquisitron.

CLIL approaches
Some CLIL is taught by the subjectteacheronly (who has responsibilityfor both
subjectand languagervork). In other cases,work is split or sharedbetweensubject
and languageteachers.
CLIL is implementablein a wide variety of ways.It can rangein quantity from
being a small part ofone subjectto having the bulk of the curriculum taught in
English.The waysthat teacherswork can alsovary hugely.For example:
. Small segrnents ofsorne lessons Only a part ofsome subjectsis taught
using English - for example,in a PhysicalEducation class,there is a written
revision exercisein English at the end ofa seriesofinputs and tasksin the hrst
language.
. Integrating themes across school subiectsThis approachdoesnot involve
much (if any) direct liaisonbetweenteachersof subjectand language.Rather,a
topical areais chosen(eg cars) that can be addressedfrom different anglesin
different lessons.For example,a physicslessoncan look at acceleration,the
internal combustion engineetc.A geographylgsssnganstlldy car production
in different locationsover time and how that impacted on the area.An English
lessoncan discussusesofcars and their impact on society,perhapsmaking
predictionsabout the future. Despite not directly linking, it may be that there
are substantialoverlaps(ofsubject and language)and the separateapproaches
to a singletheme make for more connectedlearning and better understanding
of subjectsand English.
. Separate language supportThe subiectteacherand the languageteacher
havesomelesson-planningtime together.The subjectteacherbriefs t-he
languageteacheron what sheplansto teach.The languageteachernoticeswhat
languagedifficulties might ariseand advisesthe subjectteacheron potential
problems and solutions (perhapsevencoming into classto observeat some
points).The languageteacherexplainswhat work shecan do in her English
lessonsthat will support the subjectteacher'slvork.
. Fully integrated classrooms There are no English lessonsas such- only
subjectlessons.Thesubjectteacherand the languageteacherare timetabledto
work together.In class)ttre languageteachersupports the studentswhen they
havelanguageproblems- for example,shehelps clarify instructions or
mentors and assistsduring tasks.At certain parts of the lessonshemight teach
for 15 or 20 rntrutes, to focus on problemsthat haveoccurred or upcoming
languageissues.
CLIL can alsohappen outsideschool.For example,short-term immersion
projects.Children might be sentfor two weeksto do a history project alongside
studentsfrom other schoolsat a speciallanguagecamp or centre.

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How can an English teacher help a subject teacher?

This book is written for English languageteachers.Some ofyou will be askedin
the coming yearsto takepart in CLIL programmes.Before we considerwhat
useful role you can play,let'sthbk a little about how CLIL might look from the
other perspective,that of the subjectteacher.

ffi cLlLconcerns
l v l a t h i l dt e a c h e sA r t .S h eh a sj u s t b e e nt o l db y h e rl o c a e
l d u c a t i oanu t h o r i ttyh a t
n e x ty e a ra l l l e s s o n si n h e rs u b j e cm t u s tb e t a u g h ti n E n g l i s hW
. h a tm i g h tb e s o m e
o f t h e c o n c e r ntsh a t s h eh a s ?

This is a situationthat teachersin manv countriesare now facins.A few ofher

immediateworries might be:
Is my own Enghshgoodenoughto teachin English? (And iJ not, how can I get it up
to the right leael . .. quickly?)
Do I know enoughof thespecialistterminolog in English?
Will we haaeappropriatecoursebooks and resourcesin English?
Won't the coursebooks havecompletelydilJerenttopics,approachangleandfocus
(eg Anglocentric) on the subjectmatter?
Do I hqaeto remaheall m5,worhsheets, presentations
and texts?
How w l this aflect the exam resuhsof my studentsif they are stuggling with the
subjectmatter as well as the language?
It feelslike I am beingthrownin thedeepend.lY/hatkind of supportwill I begiaen?
lVill it beenough?
The English teachercan play a vital role in helping subjectteachersfeel more
reassuredand to ensurethat the studentsget the bestcoursethey can.lyhat
exactlythis is will dependon the specihcCLIL arrangementin your schoolbut
will almostcertair y involve:
. Language feedback to teachers Observingsubjectteachingand giving
feedbackon teacherlanguageuse and potential problems;
. Language advice to teachers Advising the subjectteacheron good waysof
grading their own languageor helping make texts and tasksmore accessible(eg
in presentations,in handouts);
. Langrrage support for students in subiect lessons Participating in subjecr
lessonsand providing languagesupport for learners(eg monitoring wor(
offering one-to-onehelp and advice);
. Language support for students in English lessons Doing work in language
lessonsto directlysupportrvorkin subjectlessons (egwork onnecessary
grammatical and firnctional items, skills and strategiesneededfor classroornwork)

A few irnportant points about CLIL

. It's more about different ways ofworking than about specific
techniquesThe big decisionsabout CLIL are often made higher up the
hierarchy.For example,decisionsabout whether the languageteachercan go
into subjectclassesto listen and support live in class.Or if the subjectand

330
 8 Largeclasses

languageteacherswill be given preparationtime to liaisetogether,Thesecrucial

decisionsare often out of the individual teacher'shands.
. It's not just subiect vocabulary One wrong assumptionthat subject
teachersmay make is that CLIL mostly meansteachingthe English words for
subjectwords (eg redbloodcell,corpuscle, oein etc for a biology unit on blood).
There is a lot more, such asspecificgrammaticalfoims, functional language,
discoursestructures,the ability to write in specifrcgenres,listening skills.
. Students may have BICS The term BICS refersto BasicInterpersonal
Communication Skills,ie the ability to greet,chat with peopleinformally and
spendsocialtime together.Many studentswho havestudied someamount of
GeneralEnglish will havethis ability to somedegreeand somernay give an
impressionofbeing very capablewith English.A teacheroverhearinga student
chattingin English at the schoolbuffet might assumethey will haveno problem
in using English in class.
. Much more challenging is CALP This standsfor CognitiveAcademic
LanguageProhciency and refersto dre academiclanguageneededfor thinking,
understandingand working with challengingschooltopics.It may be dense,
complex, abstractand decontextualised.Itis acquiredslowly and with
difficulty.The learner'svisibleBICS doesnot give you a clearpicture ofhow
their CALP is. Don't predict one from the presenceofthe other
. Translation has a place - but on its own is not sufEcient Subjectteachers
(who may be unfamiliar with languageteachingtechniques)often resort to
using a lot oftranslation.\X/hilethis can be useful in many circumstances,
studentsneedto be helpedto understandand learn the vocabulary,texts and
other input in a variety ofways (asthey are in English languageteaching).If
everythingis processedvia the fllst languagetherewill be very litde in-depth
thinking and learning in the secondlanguage.
. It's crucial to help students better understand subiect texts Hence - the
widespreaduse ofgraphic organisersin printed texts and when encouraging
studentsto take better notes.Graphic organisersare waysofconveying
information in more visualwaysthat are easierto understandand interpret
than densewodgesoftext- for example:flow-charts,tables,labelleddiagrams,
grids, mind maps.It's alsowhy CLIL texts often havemore white spaceon
pages,allowing studentsto annotatewith commentsabout languageitems,
meanings,translationsand so on.

Large classes
Laura works in a statehigh school.She saysI can't usegroupworkandpairutorkin
m1tclassbecausethereare somqnt studentsand they can't moxefrom their seats.
In many countries,teachersfind that the main constrainton creativeteachingis the
sheersizeof their classes.Of course,'large'is relative;it dependson what you are
usedto. If you areusedto groups of eight students,then you might regard25 as
large.Someteachersregularlyteachclassesof40 students,others80. Some
teacherswork with 100 or more studentsat a time.

Sorne cornrnon resulting difliculties:

. Studentscan't move easily.
. You can't move easily.
. The seatingarrangementseemsto prevent a number of activities.

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 Chapter13 Teachingdifferentclasses

. There is limited eyecontactfrom you to students.

. There is limited or no eyecontact amongststudents.
. You can't give attendon equallyto all students.
. Interaction tends to be restrictedto thoseclosestto the front.
. The seatsat the back tend to attract peoplewho want to do somethingother
than learn English.
. People'hide' away.
. There is often a very wide range ofabilities.
. Discipline can be a problem.
. Lecturing seemsto be the only workablelessontype.
. A lot of techniquesoutlined in this book seemimpossible.

It's certair y worth checkinghow much any problem is an .inside'or an ,outside'

Largeclasses
I t ' s a l w a y sa b i t d a n g e r o u so f f e r i n gq u i c ka n s w e r sw h e ny o u d o n ' t k n o wm u c n a D o u l
s o m e o n ee l s e s p r o b l e m ,b u t , a l l t h e s a m e , s e e w h a t s u g g e s t i o n sy o u m i g h t o f f e r i f
L a u r ac a m e u p t o y o u w i t h t h e p r o b l e mo u i n e da t t h e b e g i n n i n go f t h e s e c t i o n .

Here are a few brainstormedideas.Most will be unsuitablefor specificsituations.

but somethingmay suggesta possibleanswerthat is workable:
. Rearrangethe seating.
. Move to a differentclassroom.
. Get them to climb over the seats.
. Push the seatsup againstthe wall.
. Get halfthe studentsto turn around and facethe
studentsbehind them.
. Let them sit or stand on the desks.
. Go into the schoolhall for English lessons.
. Go outsideon the grass.
. Don'tworry about the noise.
. lrarn otlter teachersin advanceabout potential
noise.
. Ask other teacherswhat they do.
. Takethe risk that gefting them ro move will be
OK.
. Ask the studentswhat they think about theseideas.
. Tell studentsthe problem and get them to work
out a solution.

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 8 Largeclasses

. Negotiatea contract:quiet movementin exchangefor a largervariety of

activities.
. Divide the large group into smaller'classes'within the class.
\X4renlooking for answersto a problem such asthis, it may be too easyjust to say
lVe[ I'll try theseideasonedalt.How about pushing yourself into action with a
concise,written action plan - ie make a simple statementof what you intend to
do - and perhapsa small'ty-out'of one idea in your next class.Choosemodest
steps.For example:'Next lesson,I will try a short five-minute speakingactivity
where I will ask the students to turn around and work with the student in the row
behind them'or'I will talk with the deputy head teacherand find out if our class
can use the schoolhall for theTuesdayafternoonclass'.

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 Ghapter1tl Usingtechnologff
In this chapterwe look at the waysin which technologycan be usedin the
classroom.

The technology, the teacher and the student

For many yearsteachersweretold that the technologicalrevolulion was just
around the corner and that we would all be using computersin classon a regular
basis.But for a long time that promise (or threat) remainedunfulhlled. For most
people,computerswere a Friday afternoonextra - providing someadded
entertainment(when they actuallyworked) but hardly a centralpart ofa course.
But everlthing haschanged.$Ve havepassedthe tipping point. Suddenly,new
technologyis widely available,much cheaper,in schools,in people'shomesand in
their pockets.It is alsou'orksand is genuinelyusefi,rl.Thismeansthat teachingis just
beginning to undergo a huge change,the implications of which are not yet fi.rlly clear.
A short list of someke1'technologyin educationmust include:
. Interactivewhiteboards(I\VBs)
. The Internet
. Researchtools: searchengines,corpora,etc
. Por,verpointand other presentationsoftware
. Free or cheapsoftware
. Thblet computersand netbooks
. iPods,music and podcastplayers
. Sharedlearning and socialmedia:wikis, blogs,Tu'itter,Facebook
. Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs), eg MoodlerM
. Virtual worlds

Digital natives and digital irnmigrants

ffi andyou
Technotogy
Howcomfortable areyouwithusingnewtechnology?
Ona continuum
fromtechno,phobic
to keen-adopter - whereareyou?Doyouknowmoreabouttechnology thanyour
students- or is it theotherwayround?
Many ofour young studentshavegrown up with 21st-Century digital technologl .
it is just a part of their normal world: familiar and well understood.Mark Prenskl
callsthern digital nalzbes. They havesophisticatedphones,music players,game
consoles,netbooks,home computers,GPS systems,digital personalvideo
recordersand media centres.Theirteachers,however,may fallrnto ttre diginl
xrumxgrant category- trying hard to catchup and understand (perhaps
reluctantly) - and often having problems.
But we needto be a little r,varyofbuying into thesestereotypesoftechno-wary
teachersstrugglingto turn on an interactivewhiteboard,being helped by keen
techno-sawy youngsters.Despite hrowing about certain aspectsof technolog-v
(eg a particular socialnetwork) many young people'sfamiliarity may not have
much breadthor depth.Justbecausesomeoneis young doesn'tmean that they arc

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 2 Interactive
whiteboards

fu factotechnologicallyadept.Justbecausea teacheris older doesn'tmean that

they can'tuse the Internet intelligently.
There are a lot ofuses oftechnology that are specificto education (egVirtual
Learning Environments,seeSection5) and it is actuallyteacherswho introduce
thesethings to students.
The 2lst-Century teacherneedsto takethe time to be comfortablewith those
technologicaltools that are useful for her students.It's no longer acceptableto
write offtheir usewith excusessuch asI'm not technicalor it'snot realteaching.
Technologyis at the heart ofeducation now.The questionis: how can we bestuse
it to improve teachingand learning?

New tech hone5,"rnoons

\7e needto make sure that we usetechnologyto a real purpose.A computer can't
teachyour studentsany more than a blackboardor a cassetterecorder can.It is all
down to what you do with the tools.
But it is very easyto fall in lovewith a new tech tool for its own sake.It can takea
long time for a teacherto learn how to use a new pieceof equipmentor software
and to feel comfortablewith it.The dangeris that all your energygoesinto that
challengeand you don't havethe sametime for thinking about how you will actually
useit with your classes.Vhichmeansthat earlylessonswith a new tool can tend to
be technology-focused, showingoff the cool new tech tricks,ratherthan aim-driven.
You need to get past that honeymoon time and get fluent enough with the technology
so that you can start to think how to reallyexploit it rather tltan justuse it.

Interactive whiteboards
An interactivewhiteboard (IWB) is a multi-purpose, touch-sensitivesurface,
usually attachedto a computer and a setofloudspeakers.An imageis proiected
onto the board from a data projector.
On an MB you can typically:
. Write or draw with a specialpen (or your finger), much asyou would on a
normal board - althoughthe image is electronicallycreatedand projected.
. Save what you havedone for later retrieval.
. Change or erase what you havewriften or start a new page.
. Show images,documentsand other resourceson your computer, eg word-
processedtexts,Powerpoint shows,music or audio files.
. Annotate previouslypreparedword-processortexts.
. View videosand imagesby using the board asa large computer monitor.
. Access the Internet (ifthe board is connectedvia cableor wi-fi) projecting
the imagefull-board to the class.
. Revisit saved digital boards / pages from your lessonand print them out as
handoutsfor your students.
. Display and mn automated content There are often many ready-made
templatesto easilycreateengagingautomatedexercisesand activities- eg
quizzes,puzzles,tests.
. IJse comrnercial IWB materials Many coursebooksoffer I\78 versionswith
animatedpagesand interacdveexercises.

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Chapter14 Usingtechnology

'lhere
are nvo main typesof IWB:
. Fixed IWB - an electronicboard fixcd to thc rvall,usuall-vin placeof the
normal board. There is a projector,usually attachedto thc ceiling and a
computcr and peripl.reralssomerr,hereaccessibie.
. Portable IWB - a small box that can be placedat the bottom of a standard
non-interactivervhiteboard(eg using suckerpads) to adclLnteractivit_v. An
alternativeportable solution n'ould be to use a tablet PC (eg a small-size
computer that allot's handwritten input via stylus directly onto the laptop
screen)u'hich is then projectedonto a convenientt'hite rvall or board. Of
course,both thesemethodsstill require a data projector (rvhichcan alsobe
portable - but the bulbstend to be fragile and verl' expensive).
On a fixed I\flB -voucan usuallyacccssmost functions b1''touching 5,ourpen
to an icon menu dou'n one sideof the board. Softrvarefor IWBs varicsfrom
manufacturerto manufacturer- but there are usuallv similaritiesbetrveenbasic
functions:
. Create a flipchart / notebook This is the digital collectionof all the pages
you make.
. Add a blanl page This gir,es-voua r'vorkingsurfaceon which to r'vriteand
dtal - or a secondor third pageasyou keepu'orking.
. Choose pen type This allorvs)'ou to selectcolour and thicknessofnib.
. Highlighter This works like a normal highlighter pen, allorvingyou to add a
bright background colour Lotcxt.
. Hide / reveal an itern or page Sometrmesyou can pull up a mask to coveru1.r
sectionsoftext- or createshapesthat hide items underneath.Theseallow _vou
to revealanswcrsto questions,hidden parts of images,sectionsoftexts and
soon.
. Calibrate / keystone correction Calibration alignsyour pen position u.ith thc
marksit makes.A badl-v-cdibrated boardis a dghtnarc to u'orkrvith;1'ourvrite . .
but the leftersmight appearhve centimetresto the top-right. Keystone
correctionadjuststhe sizeand shapeofthe projectedrectangle.
You can use I\fBs asa live working surfacein class(eg to l'rite on asthe lesson
unfolds), asa displayscreento show things !,ou prcparcd ol found prior to the
lesson(eg a Polr'erpointprcsentation)or as a mixture of both. The u,arningsin
Section3 on Presentationsoftwareabout dead/essons definitel1,apply here!

IIow can I teach with an IWB?

. Teach as norrnal Forget all the fancy stuff ! At its simplest,the M/B provides
you with a fine rvayto teachas-vouusually do.\X/henyou need to use a board.
useit asyou u'ould any board. Start b-r,lss11i1g1(rusethe simple tools !r,'e11, eg
different colour pens,hiding and revealingtext. Integrateenhancementsasan;
rvhenthey are useful - for example,going back to thc savcdboard you wrote
yestcrdayto remind studentsof somespecificcontent - or checkingthe
Internet live in classto confirm the definition of a word - or to find a photo of
somethingyou've beentalking about.
. Work live with texts Although it's not ideal to read long texts from the boald.
it rs a very good way ofdrau,ing attentionto languagedetail.So,for example.

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software

after studentshaveread and answeredquestionsabout a story in their

coursebookor handout, you can project it on the board and go through, add
notesor underlining, take out sectionsoftext to look at more close.lyand so on.
You can work interactrvely, frlling in tables and templates together.
. Share learners' work The board is a greatway to showwhat learnershave
done.Youcan displaygood wor\ reviewmarked work, discussdrafts and work
on them together.Learners can preparepresentationsand lead them.
. Integrate Internet-based rnaterials into the lesson A whole new world of
materialsis out therewaiting to be used creatively:banksof images(via search
engines),newswebsites,magazines,YouTubevideos,stimulatinglecturesand
presentations(eg via theTED website),discussionforums on almost any topic
you can think of. The fWB makesit simplein the middle of a normal lessonto
quickly take a sidestepawayfrom what you are writing to accessthe Internet
(eg view a short video clip) and then come back to the in-classwork. Suddenly
the whole world is availableinstantly in your classroom.Thisis the teacher's
dream come true.Though do remember thal integrationis the key;watching a
20-minute video can be just asdull on an I\7B ason aTV screenifyou don't
use it well.
. Run automated exercises eg drag and drop You may find that you (and
your students)love using (or creating) automatedexercises.Theycan havea
computer-gamelike quality and may get people doing grammar exerciseswho
would haveturned tieir nosesuo at them in a book.

Useful optional peripherals

. Interactive 'votirg' buttons These allow studentsto selectanswersand
conveythem to the board. For example,a teachermight set a multiple choice
questionto which all studentsin classsendan answer.Theteacherwill be able
to seethe percentagesof studentswho got eachanswer.Depending on the
set-up,thesevotescould be anonymous,allowing the teacherto get an overall
impressionof what the classthink without spodightingindividuals.
. Tablet computers These can allow studentsto write onto the board without
actuallycoming up to the MB. Similarly,studentscan seean image of the
board on their tablet screens.Thismay be especiallyuseful in caseswhere
studentshavetrouble readingthe I\)7B itself.
. Warning notice One essentialperipheralfor any I\7B is a very largenotice
(to be placed on the board or right next to it) sayingDo NOT write on this
board with ordinary boar.d pens.N(4een ISTBsare first introduced to schools,
teacherswho havenot beeninducted often mistakethem for normal boards
and usewhiteboard ink pens on them.Thesecan seriouslydamagethe IWB -
so pre-empt and preventthis in any way you can.

Presentation software
Presentationsoftwareis probably better known by its product names:Powerpoint
(Mrcrosoft), Keynote (from Apple), the free Impress (OpenOffice) and a
growing range offree or paid online options,including Prezi and Presentattons
(GoogleDocs).
For many teachers,presentationsoftwarehasbecomean important way of
organising,storing and showinglearning content.The basicconceptis akin to a
slide show.Each slide can havepictures,text, audio,video clips in any mixture.

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Chapter14 l.Jsing
technology

This content can be arrangedon the slidein creativewaysand can be

programmed to appearin a sequenceand in animatedways.It is most often used
aspart ofa basicexplanation-basedinput, providing imagesand text to support
what the teacheris saying.A handout could be simply made by printing out
reducedimagesof the actualslides.Learning to usepresentationsofnvareoften
Iooksdaunting before you start,but u ith a l0-minute inducrion, shouldn't prove
much more challengingthan using a word processor.

Making betrterinputs
. Minirnal text Don't write all the words of your input on slides.Go for the ler.:
that is enough.Put headings,key words, important ideas.Use theseas
milestonesand signpoststo teacharound - eliciting,telling, askingquesrions
Include good examplesand diagrams- but not the explanationsof them.
. Be demanding on your clip art Lots of presentationsare filled with clich€d,
overusedc/rparr(= royaltv-freecartoonsand images).Ifyou want to use an
illustration,take the time to look for really good images,thought-provoking
images,inspiring images.Thereis a greatdeal ofquality royalty-freestuffour
there.It's worth taking a little bit longer to searchrather than just dumping a
hackneyedcartoon beancharacterinto _voursho$'.
. Make a show with only pictures A greatway of teachingvocabulary.Collecr
lots ofgood images,animations(and,perhaps,videos).LIset}reseasa great
resourceto assistyour teaching.Hold back on the urge to fill the slideswith lots
ofwords, text and explanationsl
. Animated gramrnar Preparenew rvaysof looking at sentencestructuresfor
verb tensesor other grammar items.Use the animation options to move text to
make a new ending attachitselfonto a verb or to shou'how a word changes
posrtlon.
. Drills Revealrvords,pictures or other cuesone at a time to lead drills in
sequenced,innovativeand creative$'ays.
. Dowrrload showsThere are lots of shared,read-v-made, cop-vright-freeshous
availablefree online.Personall]',I alwaysfind it hard to use someoneelse's
lesson,but they can still be greatinspiration- and you can alwaysuse one asa
startrngpoint to edit and adapt for your learners'needs.Repaythe debr by
uploading your olvn original shows.
. Ask yourself rWouldthe classget the sameamount of learningif they just took
home the show and didn't participate in tl-teclassroominput at all?Make sure
that you really add to the on-screencontent.If the lessonIS the shou',why not
just give them the shorvand go home?

Students using presentation software

Perhapsthe bestway to usepresentationsoftwareis get your studentsactively
involved.Ask them to make showsand tien presenttlem.This is a great
interactiveproject that scemsto motivate all ages.Here are a fe$' ideasfor studen:-
createdpresentations;
. Present a current news story Get studentsto look at online news sites,gathc:
material including imagesand then presentto the lvhole class,sayingwhat's
important and interestingfor rhem. Help to focus studentsby allowing a
maximum of three slides.

JJ8
 3 Presentation
software

Research an unlikely topic Allocate some weird and unexpected topics (eg
unusualinsuranceclarms,animalghosts)for studentsto researchand presenton.
Make a vocabulary lesson Give a setofconnected words and get studentsto
think ofhow bestto teachthem using a singleslide.
Pecha Kucha As a responseto Death by Powerpoint(seebelow) this is one of
the simplest ideasfor using new technology, yet proves to be immensely engaging
and inspiring.A PechaKucha is a Powerpointpresentationthat is exactly20
slideslong.Each slideis automaticallytimed to changeafter 20 seconds.This
meansthat the total showis exacdy6 minutes40 secondslong.The challengeis
in preparingslides,speechand interactionsso carefullytiat it all flows smootbly
without undue rushing or silentgaps.Thisis a greatcreativechallengefor groups
of studentsand the sharedshowscan be reallyamusingand exciting.
As with many classroomactivities,creativityseemsto grow better out of
restdctionsthan it doesout of completefreedom.Give studentsunlimited use
ofPowerpoint and you can get flabby,unfocusedwork. Set a restriction and it
seemsto focus the mind and the work.

Dangers with presentation software

Presentation
warnings
lmagineyou are briefinga newteacheraboutusingpresentation softwarein class.
A p a r tf r o ma n yt e c h n o l o g i cparlo b l e m sw, h a tw a r n i n gm
s i g h yt o um a k ea b o u t
p o t e n t i ael d u c a t i o n ai sl s u e s ?

Powerpointand similar softwarepackagesare greattools- but alsohavethe

potentialto maketeachingevenworse.One key problernis that a Powerpointshow
is sequencedbeforethe lesson.Once shaped,the presenteris then lockedinto the
pre-arrangedorder.This hugelyreducesthe flexibility a teacherneedsto jump
around and respondto the studentsasthey askspontaneousquestionsand pull the
lessonin different ways.Don't be averseto re-sequencingasyou go: stoppingyour
show,searchingtlrrough the slidesto find the onesyou needand then restartingat
a different slide.It's curioushow rarely this is done;it's all too easyto feel trapped.
Here are three further warnings.
. Powerpoint = interaction between teacher and IWB This worrying equarion
isn't a law of nature-but sadlyseemsto be true oftoo much inexperienced
teachingwith presentationsoftware:assoonasteachersstartusingit, the
interaction pafterns in classchange.Instead ofinteracthg with the students,the
teacherinteractsmainly with her own words and activitieson screen.
. Death by Powerpoint Too many slides.Toomany words.No interaction.The
teacherjust readsaloud the words that are printed on the slide.Teachingis not
just a slide show.Theslide show is not the teaching. Design showsthat force
you to teachand studentsto learn.
. Dead lessons Adele is a bright young teacher,just qualified.Shepreparesa
Powerpoint show about the presentperfect to help teachher Pre-intermediate
students.It works pretty well. Sheusesit againwith other classesduring the
year ... and then againnext year ... and againnext year ... and againnext year ...
until sheretires.
Chapter14 Usingtechnology

It takestime to put a presentationtogedlerproperly. You want to get somevalue

back from your investmentof work and time - so it's natural to reusethem. But
the dangeris that the sameshowswill come out year after year,slowly growing old
and mouldy.
Teachershavealwaysbuilt new lessonson older ones: but with presentations,
thereis a much greatertemptation to leavethings be, to seethe show asfrnished
and complete,letting it slowly setin concreteover the years.Bewareofthese dead
lessons!Find waysto force yourselfto upgrade and alter.Make it a personalrule
that beforeyou reuseany Powerpoint show you will review it, and asa minimum,
deleteone slide,add one new slide and changethree other things.This helpskeep
you in touch with the content and keepsyour teachingfresh.

4 Irnproving skills
New technologyprovidesa wide range ofways for us to help learnersimprove
their skills.

Technology
andskills work
H o wc o u l dy o u e x p l o i tn e w t e c h n o l o g ya n d t h e i n t e r n e t o h e t ps t u d e n t sw o r k o n
e a c h o f t h e f o u r s k i l l s :I i s t e n i n gs, p e a k i n g w
, r i t i n g ,r e a d i n g ?

Listening and speaking

. Instant language lab It's surprisingly easyto make an effectivelanguage
laboratory.Youneed computerswith somecheapheadphonesthat havean
anachedrnicrophone.Thereis someexcellentaudio recording software
availableonline, someof it inexpensiveor free (egAudacity).You can use this to
makerecordingsfor studentsto listen to (eg stories,dictations).Studentscan
use it to record their own voices(eg endingsto your unfinished story, missing
words in exercises,repetitionsofyour pronunciation) and then listen backto
their production (and re-record if they want to).
. Podcasts Get studentsto downloadpodcastsyou recommend.Or record your
own short podcastsfor students- perhapssummarisingthe week'swork,
reading dictations,texts or storiesaloud or seftingnew tasks.Theycan listen to
them on the tram home.Even befter,get studentsto make their own podcasts
and sharethem amongstthe class.
. Video conferencing It's not very hard to createan online webcamlink
nowadays.Link up with anotherschoolin anothercountry for reports,
discussionsand sharedtasks.
. Integration Don't assumethat a lessonusing computers or t]-leInternet must
necessarilyusethat technologyfor all the classtime. As we becomemore
familiar and more comfortablewith our technologytools,we needto start
finding waysto elegantlvintegratethem into our normal teaching.So,for
example,studentswork on a project which, for just a part of the time, requires
them to go online to checkfacts or hnd pictures,but otherwiseis mainly
discussionand group planning work using pen and paper in class.

Writing
. Ernails A greatway to encouragewriting (and reading).Get studentssending
emailsto you, to eachotier, to studentsfrom other schools,to organisations

310
 4 lmproving
skills

(eg requestinginformation about somethingof interestto them). Use all the

techniquesyou would normally use to help studentswrite better letters- but
focus on emails- and then really sendthem.
Word processors Studentscan preparetexts individually, in pairs or groups
or collaborativelyasa whole classusing word processorsrather than pen and
paper. As appropriate,show them how to use tools such asspellchecksand
tables.Use the commentsfacility to allow srudentsto add their thoughts
and ideasto someoneelse'stext.Teachthe use of change-trackingto allow
different peopleto work cooperativelyon drafts and clearlyseewhat alterations
othershavemade.Preparestories,articles,classnewssheets,answersto exercises,
homework drafts, classroompostersand drsplays.Ask studens to designforms for
their own questionnaires,quizzesand exercises.Setwriting tasksmth ught
restrictions that will require carefiI draftng and redrafting - eg writing a haiku or a
mini-saga (= a s1s1ywith exacdy 50 words - neither more nor fewer) . Get students
to post their texls and homework on the classwebsiteor blog.
Wikis A wiki is a co-createddictionary or encyclopaedia,built up from the
writing ofa number ofpeople.Try creatinga wiki on languageareasbeing
studiedin the course,eg our typical mistakes,hints for passingthe exam or
useful words.Many sitesoffer free wikis - but they are frequently used aspart
ofa wider websiteorVirtual Learning Environment.
Blogs A blog is a diary kept online.There are many servicesthat allow blogsto
be setup and maintainedfree.Youcan encouragestudentsto keepan individual
blog or sharea whole-classone.The focus can be kept strictly on work-related
rssues- or you can invite commentsand tJroughtson anlthing (so long asit is
in English).
Social networks Sitessuch asFacebooklet you creategroups ofpeople who
can easilykeepin touch with eachother or sharedocumentsand pictures.
WebsitesTo setup a websiteusedto require a skilful programmer who had
a knowledgeof HTML or accessto expensivedesignsoftware.Nowadays,
it is astonishinglyeasyto createa personalisedwebsiteusing free services
on the Internet: I createdmy last websitein lessthan two minutes. (Try
wwwweebly.com,Google Sitesor searchfor 'free website'.) Obviously it will
takemore time to makeyour sitelook really good and to maintain the contents.
One advantageofa websiteover a blog is that you can havemore freedom in
arrangingcontent onto different pagesand using a varieryofpage designs.A
websitecan contain a classblog asone ofits features.
Forums Many popular websites(eg pop fan sites,film sites,news sites)allow
readersto add their own commentsand questions.Help studentsto read sites
they like, choosewhat they want to post or reply to and word their contribution.
A lessonon basiczeiquette(polrtenessguidelinesand things to avoid) may be
useful.
Online noticeboards and walls A wall is the online equivalentof a
noticeboardin class.It is typically a websitewith a singli pagerhat anyonecan
add a messageto. It's like stickinga post-it note or scrapofpaper on a board.
Popular usesinclude collectingbirthday greetingsfor a friend, brainstorming
ideasor collectingfeedbackcommentson a suggestion.Veryeasyto setup and
to use.A greatcollaborativetool.

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. Text and voice messaging It's easyfor peopleto get in touch over the Internet
with messagingservices(eglTindows Live Messenger,Yahool@ Messenger,
Skyper$.$7ith text messagesyou can get your studentsto participarein
spontaneousfluent conversations.Pair up peoplein different parts of the
classroomand get them to discussa topic, solvea problem or role play two
specifrccharactersinteracting. Use voice callswheneveryou need phone
practrce.

Reading
. Treasure hunts and web puzzles This is a seriesof questions.Studentshave
to find the answersby searchingand readingthe Internet. You could designa
treasurehunt basedon a list ofdisconnectedquestionsor they could all be
relatedto a current coursebooktopic or anotherareaofcurrent study.Here is a
short examplefor a class studying'seas':
(1) lVhy doesn\theSargasso Seahavearytshores? (2)lY4t1can't1ou swimin the
Seqof Cleverness ? (3)IYrhat
is themostunusuqlrealseamonsterJtoucanlind?
You could alsomake a more complex and puzzleJike hunt (seeFigure 14.1) that
requiresthe use of the answerto question 1 before you can answerquestion2, eg

H e n r y( 1 ) w a s a c a r m a n u f a c t u r ewr h o m a d et h e L J s eW i k i p e d i a
" lvlodelT"

Youcan use a (1) to go acrossa (2) U s ea n o n l i n ed i c t i o n a r y

( 2 X 3 )s t a r r e dw i t hH a r r i s o (n1 ) i n t h e f i l m U s e a m o v i ed a t a b a s e
lndianaJonesand the LastCrusade.

A ( 3 ) i s a b i r d . F i n da p i c t u r eo f i t . W h a t i s LJseGoogle
special about it?

Figure 14.1 Veb puzzle

Here are someideasfor other treasurehunts and puzzles:

. Give a list ofpeople and askstudentsto find what connectsthem, eg
Confucius,Albert Einstein,Mahatma Ghandi, Leonardo daVinci, Paul
McCartrey (Answet.. all vegetarian) .
. Give a list of datesand askwhat similar eventshappenedon them, eg
17thApril 1970,l5thJanuary2009,13th October2010 (Answer: amazing
rescues:Apolh 13,Aitbus crashin Hudsonriuer,rescue of Chileanru.iners).
. Give a shoppinglist ofproducts and studentsresearchwhere they could bu1'
dremfor the cheapeslprices.
. Give a list ofplaces to visit on a trip around the country (or world). Students
plan a timetableditinerary using public transport.
. Webquests This is more demanding,more open-endedand more involving
than a teasure hunt. A briefing document setsout a task for learnersto
complete- often iust a singlequestion- and will probably suggesthow to do it.
likely websitelinks to visit and resourcesto use.The task may involve a
substantialelementof online researchand the goal is often to produce a

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online

summary document (perhapsa poster or article) or a presentation(rather than

just a singleshort answer).Answerswill typically include evaluationand
personalopinion aswell asfacts.Webquesttopics are often setby the teacher,
possiblycloselylinked to a current coursebooktheme,but they could equally
well be chosenby studentsor agreedafter discussionand negotiation. Here are
a few ideasfor webquests:
. How is life in the UK different from life in our country?
. lWhatis a typical schoolday like for studentsof our agein Nepal?
. Is fast food reallybad for you?
. \7hich is the besttheme park in the world?
. Sfhat do very rich peopledo with their money?
. Are the Olympic Gamesa wasteof money?

Learning online
Virtual Learning Environments
AVirtual Learning Environment (VLE) - alsoknown asa Learning Management
System(LMS) - is a websitethat brings togethera number ofresourcesfor
running a course.The bestknown free\{LE is Moodle.To run a\lLE, you needto
havea server- ie a host computer that is alwayson and contactableby other
computers.
Some common\rlE featureswould include:
. forums for studentsand teachersto sendand read messages;
. the ability to attachtext documents,videos,audios,presentations,etc that
studentscan download;
. a facility for studentsto post their work, haveit marked and collatethe marks in
a mark book;
. automatedexercises,activitiesand tests;
. add-onssuch aswikis (eg allowing online co-createdencyclopaedias)and blogs
(eg for classdiaries).
Teachersare given authoring or editing rights so that they can createcontent.
Learnersare given user accessto be ableto read,download and post messages
on forums.
You can use aVI-E for either:
. stand-alonedistanceprogrammeswhere the whole course- aII the interaction
and content - is managedon the\T-E;
. part ofa blended course (= a combination offace-to-face and online). For
example,a classteachercould usethe\4-E to supplementher lessonsby
posting handouts,whiteboard images,Internetlinks or extra reading and
tasksonline.
VI-Es, for all their grand name and senseof importance, are relativelysimple
organisationalplatforms,gatheringtogethera number ofuseful resourcesinto a
singleaccessiblelocation.It seemsquite possiblethat, beforelong, they will evolve
and mergewith other tools (eg virtual worlds) to provide a more rounded and
exciting learning experience.

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Chapter14 Usingtechnology

Personal Learning Networks

A pcrsonallearningnetu.ork(PI-N) is an online group ofpeoplc you
communicatervith to discusscourseand education-related issues.The
grouping can be deliberatcll,formed - or grorvinformally,asa simplc
accumulationofthose peoplelvho read and rcspondto 1,ourrnessagesA PLN
may be studentsin the sameclassas eachother or contactsfrom other schools
or around thc rvorld.Teachcrsalsofind PLNs useful for keepingup-to-dare
with current ideas.
A PLN can be maintainedb_var.r_v online mcthod that facilitatesthe
communication(egFacebook,a sharedblog).T\r'iner,the leastassumingbut
potentiallv most po$'erful of d]c current socialnetrvorks,seemsparticularl-v
useful.
Tkitter is a messagedistributions1'stem. Oncevou har,eregistercdon'l\itter
'follow'
1'oucan chooscto certainpeoplc.\When someonesendsa message,
cveryonervhois follorvingthat personreceivesthc mcssagc. All messages, klos n
astu'eets,arelimited to 140characters, though they can haveIntcrnct links
embedded in them, allo$'ing a tweet to direct -vouto a useful r,ebpagc, such as a
blog entr-v.A goodreasonfor usingTwittcris that the brevit_v of its messagesand
the easyaccessibilitymeansthat )'ou can checkand sendmessages everyrvhere
ar
an-vtime (egusingyour mobilephoneon a short tram lourneYhome).
One usefulTu'ittertip concernshaslrtags(ie an_v words beginningr.vidra # s,vmbol)
Theseareusedasa simplebut effectivervayof marking.vourtrveetasbeing on a
certainsubject.So,for example,if I senda mcssageaboutEnglishJanguage
teachingI could include a word suchas#elt or #tefl in it. An]'onewanting to rcad
messages on suchtopicscould do a searchfor #elt and find cvervmessagean!'one
hassentusingthat sametag.

Online resources for teachers and students

On the Internet_voucanhnd a nide varietl-ofsourcesofexcellent(anddreadful)
exercises, lessonplans,handouts,automatedtasksand so on.
stories,activities,
More and more teachcrsare generousll'posting materials.More and more ideas
are being discussed.Nlore and more automatedactivity creationtools are
available(eg Hot Potatoes).To includc a list ofrvebsitesherelvould be foolish asit
is sureto be outdatedwithin a year or two. M-\,besradviceto help find the good
stuffis:
1 Twitter is an amazingsrvapshop for teacherideasand materials Follon' somc
hashtagsabout teaching (cg #clt, #tesol, #iatefl, #refl, #teaching).Youu,ill
geta hugelist of recommendarions ofgood matcrials.
2 Turn on your iunk detectorJustbecause it's onlinedoesn'tguarantee it's anr
good. Don't simply dorvnloadand usein classuncriticalll'. Check it out
carefulll'-.

Practical considerations for classroom computer work

;-$ffi, studentsandtechnology
D o y o u rs t u d e n t sh a v ed i f f e r e n tl T a l r i l i t i e s ?H o w c o u l dy o u f i n d o u t a b o u tw h a t t h e y
cando?

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 5 Learning
online

Classroom layouts Much online work will be done by students at home or in

other placesusingmobile technology.Ifyou usecomputersin classrooms,consider
how bestto organisethings,It seemsto be more effectiveto put two snrdentsto one
computer than to have entirely solo work. The tradrtronal computer lessonuseslarge
desktop computers - but the advent of cheap netbooks and tablet computers may
be changing this. Perhapsstudents can use mach.inesat their own desksrather than
needing to go to a specialpart of the room - or evena different room.
IT skills audit Before you start using computersin lessons,it may be wordr
taking sometime to researchyour students'capabilitieswith technology.Youcan't
assumethat all are equallygood.Preparea questionnaireaskingstudentsto self-
assessabilities.Thiscould be a seriesofcan-do questionseg Canyou cut andpaste
a pipceof text?Cangou spell-check Cangou posta message
an essay? to an Internet
forum? Canyou sendq tueet?etc.AfIer analysingthe answersyou may want to do
some input on key skillsthat are lacking.

Research better, search better

If studentsare going to researchonline,make surethat they havesomeraining in
basicskills- especiallyin effectivewaysofsearching.Mostpeople just type a word
into a searchengineand wait for the results- but it's possibleto refine your search
criteria a lot more than this, for exampleby sayingwhat you want to include and
exclude.
A few key tips that work on many searchengines:
. IJse two or tbree words rather than one You can pin down what you need
more preciselyby searchinga range ofrelevant terms rather than just one.For
example,ifyou are looking for a picture of an apple,a searchon'apple'will
retum a lot abolrt computers.But looking for 'apple fruit' removesmost of
theseand givesyou relevantresults.
. IJse quote marks to searchfor a whole phrase,eg 'karning teaching'
(otherwiseyou will turn up thousandsofresults which contain thosewords
somewhere,but not necessarilytogether).
. Use the minus sign to excludewords you don'twanteg TbwJones-singerwill
bring up rnore resultson the Fielding novel than just enlering TomJones.
. Use wild cards to standfor whole words you don'lkaow eg conference on *
languageteachingwill bring up results about conferences on many different
languagesand specialisations.
Analyse text There are many very exciting tools for analysingthe vocabulary
and languagein a text.Theseare good for showingto students- or evenbetter,to
get them to use themselves.For example:
. Word clouds There are a number ofsites you can use to transform text into
word clouds.Theseinclude wordle.com and worditout.com. Copy and paste
a text into one ofthese to seeall the words displayedin a beautiful graphic
illustration of their relative frequency. It's a quick and useful insight into the
words used.I dropped in the whole of this book and the resultsare shownin
Fisore 14.2.

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Chapter14 tlslngtechnology

Figure 14.2 VordlerM dragram

. Visual dictionaries Try searching for 'r,isual dictionary' and when you have
opened a site, (eg r,vrv'"lvisuu'ords.com) enter a word.You will get a display
shorving horv u,ords relate to each other (kinds of, opposites, similar to, ctc).
. Corpora A corpus (pl:ural = corpora')is a database ofreal language as it has
been said or rl'ritte1b1' people in convcrsations or other gerues.You can use
this to rescarch hon' language is really used (as opposed to how \ve might
think it is used) b"vtyping in a word or phrase and seeing lots ofexamples
from the database.There are many corpora available.Tl.rough most charge
subscription fees,there are also a number that offer free access.At the time
ofwriting the British National Corpus \\"asfreely available for research at:
hfiBlEorBus&t4t€du/bnc/. I wanted to find outwhether dtJlerenry'or? ll''a s morc
common than .lzlj?rznrro.Entering each of these phrases into the BNC told me
that dffirerLtJi'on had 3,278 entries u.-hrledffirent to had only 483. I was, of course
then able to examine all those entries to find out more abouthow each $'as used.
A 'dirty', instant, free corpus-like experience can be gained b_vsimply entcring
a search term into Google! Dffirent.froru = 81,500,000 entries. Dffirent to =
5.240,000 entrics.

Brave new worlds

Current technology provides onlv a hint ofwhat is yet to come. Some of our tools
are still rough and not fully usable in their current earlf incarnations - but thcy
promise extraordinary changes ahead.The most exciting ofthese are virtual
rvorlds, the best knorvn of lr,'hich is Second Lifc, though there are a grorr.ing
number of alLcrnatives.
Second Life is often mistakcn for a game - as it has similar looks to many games: ir
has three dimensional buildings, furniture, landscapes,objects and lots ofcartoon
people moving around lrccly, talking together, dancing, flying, exploring,

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 6 Bravenewworlds

shopping.The differenceis that the 3D charactersyou seewandering around the

world are eachdriven by a real human somewherein the real world.The
charactersare avatars,representingtheir human counterpafi.The placesthey
explore are entirelyuser-created.The makersofSecond Life provided an empty
world and the basicbuilding block tools and programming languagewith which
userscould fill the new lands.So, SecondLife is a whole world.!7hat people
chooseto do in it is up to their wishesand creativity.Wecan build castlesand hll
them with dragons.Or islandbeachesand fill them with discos.Or educational
establishmentsand invite studentsto come along.And SecondLife is frlled with
language- people communicateall the time, both in text and in vorce.
The technologyhere is very young and the openness,freedom and limited
regulationmeansthat dropping your classinto SecondLife is potentially as
dangerousasleavingthem alonein a!7ild\7est frontier town. So,I,m not surethat
at the time of writing) I would recommendmoving a substantialpart of your
teachinghere.But, it doesn'ttake a huge leap of imagination to seerhat this is, at
the very least,a remarkableinsight into a huge part of the future of education.
Imagine that you can put on a comfortable audiovisualheadsetat home and walk
into a totally believablevirtual classroomwhere you can meet and talk with your
students.Thiscannotbe very many yearsaway.
. A whole world to explore Ifyou can explore a whole range oflocations
and environmentsin a virtual world, why restrict your teachingto a single
classroomwith its limited resources?Already online you can take your classto
climb the EiffelTower, walk around a vfutualmuseum,aftend a lecturein the
UK, seehow spacerocketsare built or visit thousandsof other places.
. Imrnersiveness If studentsengagein a more focused,concentratedway in virtual
worlds (much asthey do when immersed in games)might this be a bener way to
work with them than by forcing them into classroomsthat they filld dull and
uninspiring? Perhapsthe natural environment for 2 1st-Century teaching is virtual.
. No need to travel Ifwe can createconvincingvirtual-reality classrooms-
where studentscan engagewith teachersand eachother without the needto
actuallygo to a real classroom- then why would a learnerpay huge sumsof
money to travel overseasto attendcourses?The sameresultsor better misht be
achievablefrom their own living room.

Teaching in virtual worlds

If you decideto test the watersand try a little teachingin a vhtual world, what can
you do? Obviously your studentswill needto download the program, registeron
the virtual world's websiteand createtheir avatar.Theywill alsoneed an induction
into how to useit (eg how to walk around,how to senda message,how to teleport
to a new location,etc). Don't underestimatetheseissuesasttre initial hour or so
can be very difficult for new users. Beyond that, there are a wide ranEeof
completelynew teachingoptions open to you:
. Virtual classroom Setup a virtual classroomfor your students.youcan rent
virtual land and buy ready-madebuildings and furniture in-world - and there
are thousandsoffree items availabletoo. Use this asyour meetingplacefor
discussionsand lessons.Rememberthat a virtual classroomdoesn,thaveto
recreatethe look of a real-world one.It could haveboard, desksand chairs.But
it could equallywell be rocks and deck chairson the banksofa tropical lake.Or
thronesin a fairy-tale castle.

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Chapter14 Usingtechnology

. Virtual freld trip Pre-lesson,choosean interestinglocation to visit (look at

educationalsiteson the Internet to find recommendations).Preparea
worksheetwith questionsthat require exploration,observationand
communication.Meet the classin-world and explore the sitetogether.Come
togetheraftenvardsin your classrOomareato compare answersand discuss.
. Virtual simulationsVirtual worlds lend tlremselvesto simulations.For this
reason,they are especiallyuseful for ESP students;you can setup all the
situationsand challengesthat are so hard to do in real life. For example,ifyou
want to train a group ofpre-experiencervaiters,setup a restaurantand let them
practisetaking ordersand serving.Law,verscan meet up in a realistic
courtroom and run completetrials.Border guardscan practisedealingwith
tavellers. It's all role play - but heightenedby dte senseof convincingrealness
that comeswith the immersion studentsfeel.Make it all more real by opening
your simulation (eg the restaurant)up to otler non-courseguestsand role
playing how you dealwith theml
. Yirtual task-based learning Createa location (eg a hotel) and set studentsa
specihctask (eg designa better receptionarea)that requiresthem to talk
together,research(eg talk to hotel guests- perhapsactedby a teacher),search
out resources)come to agreementand createthe outcome.It's a game-like
challengethat can be hugely involving.
Virtual worlds are so new that there is little agreementyet on rvhatkind of
methodologyis appropriatefor them. Certainly the ability to createconvincing
environmentssuggeststheir suitability for role play,simulation and task-based
work. But we shouldn't yet dismissthe possibilitiesof more traditional classroom-
styleteaching,lectures)conferences,one-to-onelessonsand so on.The earlier
weaknessin the areaofup-close languagetools (eg usablervhiteboards,
integration withVLEs) is slowly being resolvedand there are growing possibilitics
for a rangeofteaching approaches.
This is the future. It's not hereyet - but you can watch it auiving. And you can
help makeit happen

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Ghapter15 Tools,techniques,
activities
Here is a wide-ranging collectionofideas.Dip in here and try someout in class.
(But alsokeeptinkering with them. Don't let any of them setlike concrete.)

Flashcards
Flashcardsis ELT jargon for pictures (or diagrams,words, etc) r}taryou can show
to students, q4rically something you can hold up when standing in front of tJre
whole class.Theyare alsouseful for handing out aspart ofvarious activities.They
are a very useful teachingaid especiallyin your earlieryearsofteaching.
The easiestway to find good picturesis to do an Internet image search- though,
you alsoneed accessto a colour printer or I$7B to show them. Many schoolshave
their own library ofpublished flashcards.
If you find a good picture, rather than using it once,keepit and slowly build up
your stockofresources.To start collecting,you need to approachthe world with a
'flashcard'frame
of mind!Whenever you look at a magazine,advertisingleaflet,
etc,keepyour eyesopen for suitablepictures.\Vhenthe publication is ready to
headfor the bin, cut out the picturesyou need.Generally,chooselarger pictures
that will be clearlyvisible evenfrom the back of the classroom.Youwill find some
subjectsare very easyto find (cars,food products,perfumes,etc) whereasothers
(peopledoing specificeverydaytasks,facesexpressingdifferent moods, etc) are
harder.After a while, you'll needto startlooking for specificthings that frll in gaps
in your set.
\X4renyou havea number ofpictures, you'llhave to frnd someway to organise
thern,maybein folders sortedby topic. It may alsobe worth taking rie extra time
to make cardslonger-lasting,by stickingthem down on cardboard,keepingthem
in plasticpocketsor evenby laminating them.
'$?hat
can you do with them?Here are a few qpical uses:
. to quickly show the meaning of a I eical itern, eg to iron;
. to illustratepresentationsoflanguage,for exampleby giving a visual image
to an imaginary character, eg This is Marilyn. Eaery day shegetsup at six
o'clock...,etc;
. to tell a story,providing occasionalimagesto give studentssomethingtangible
to look at and help their understandi ng, eg . . . and thena largegreenkrrg turned
around thecornerand drote towardsthem;
. asprompts to remind them of a specihcgrammar point or typical error, eg a
flashcard with the word p4st on it to quickly remind students to make verbs in
the past form;
. as seedsfor student-basedstorltelling activities,eg handing out a small
selectionof pictues to groups of studentsand askingthem to invent a story
that incorporatesall thoseimages;
. asprompts for guessinggames,definition games,descriptiongames,etc. For
example,one person in a team has a picture ofa person,which they describe.

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Chapter15 Tools,Iechniques,
acttvrties

Then the other studentsare shown a pile ofseven pictures (.includingthe

original one) and haveto work out u'hich picture was described.

2 Picture stories
Picturesand picture storiescan be in a book or handout, drawn on the board or
OHP, on flashcardsor on posters.Traditronallythey havebeenusedasa starting
point for writing exercises,but they are alsovery useful for focusing on specific
languagepoints or asmaterialfor speakingand listening activities.Most picture
storiesseeminevitabll' ts ilysh's p.actice ofthe past simple and past progressive.
Look at the picturestoryshownin Figure 15.1.

Figure 15.1 Promptsfor spacestor.v

'We
could approachthis material in a variety of ways.I'd like to contrasttwo
broadly different approaches:'accuracyto fluenc1"and'fluency to accuracy'.

Accuracy to fluency
This headingsuggeststiat we start by looking at the languageinvolvedin the
story and work on getting this understoodand correct before rvemove on to work
on telling the stor.vThus we could follow this route;
1 Introduction of topic / subiect
2 Focus on interestingor essentiallexis,grammar or function
3 Look at the picturesand discusslpossiblymore languagefocus
4 Tell the story
5 Writing exercise
In the spaceshipexample,the lessonwith a highJevel classmight be asfollows:
1 AskDo 9ou beLieae in UFOs? or WollldyoLtlihe to travelto anotherplanet?
Studentsdiscuss.

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 2 Picture
stories

Draw a blank UFO-shaped frame on the board, hand out board pens and invite
studentsto fill the frame with words connectedwith spaceand spacetravel.
students are encouragedto discusswords, to checkmeaning,to lookwords up
in dictionaries,and correct mistakes.Occasionallyadd words yourself.By the
end of the activity,the board may look like Figure 15.2 .

Figure 15.2 Spacevocabulary

3 Revealthe first picture and encouragestudentsto talk by askrngquestionssuch

'\(/hy is he doing it?' to invite
as'What's he doing?'to focus on the picture and
ideasabout motive, intentions,feelings,etc. Specihclanguagecould be focused
on (eg modal verbsfor speculation- hemight be. . ., hecouldbe .,hemust
6e. . ., etc).V/hen it seemsappropriate,askfor predictionsabout what is in
the next picture, and, after a little discussion,revealpicture 2 and start to work
with that.
4 \fhen studentshavehad enough opportunities to talk through the story,put
drem into pairs and askthem to tell the completestory to eachother'
5 Finally, still working in pairs,they write it out.
The focus on accurateuseoflanguage in Stages2 and 3 preparesstudentsfor an
opportunity to usethe languagemore fluendy in the speakingactivity (Stage4).
If writing is the main aim, it still makessenseto start with work such asthis
becausesuch oral preparationensuresthat studentsare more familiar with the
grammar and lexis,and arethus better preparedfor the inevitablytricky task of
writing a good story.

Fluency to accuracy
An alternativelessonprocedurecould start with a fluency activity and only focus
in on accurateuse oflanguageat a later stage.Thelessonmight havethis shape:
1 Introduction oftopic / subject
2 Look at the pictures and discuss
3 Tell the story
4 Focus on interestingor essentiallexis,grammar or function
5 Tell the story more accurately
6 rJTritineexercise

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 Chapter15 Tools,techniques,
activities

The studentsare put into groups offour. At Stage2, eachstudentis handed one
pictue from the sequence,with the instruction /(eepit seuet!Don't showit to
an)nneeke! taskis for eachgroup to work out what order the prcturesgo rn
.The
without looking at eachother'spictures.This can be done by intelhgent
questioning,good describingand a few leapsof imagination.
IThen they haveachievedthis taslgin Stage3 studentswill probably frnd they are
ableto tell the story.At this point, you might chooseto move on to later stageiin
which studentsdo someaccuracywork, asdescribedabove.

Variations

. Introducing rhe topic; setup a ,TV debate,

on IIFOs with role cards.
. rx/ritten work: insteadofgetling students
to write out the whole story, give them
a text that you havewritten earlier.Studentshaveto decideon missing words
and fill in blank spaces,or perhapsput iumbled-up sentencesin the correct
order.
Planningwork with a picturestory
L o o ka t t h e p i c t u r es t o r yi n F i g u r e1 5 . 3 .
1 Decidewhatlexisis goingto be essentialor usefulfor studentsto know if they
are to tell the story.
2 D e c i d eo n a g r a m m a t i c ajlt e m t h a t y o u c o u l df o c u s o n at some point(s) in the
story.
3 Devisea communicativeactivity.
4 Devise a writing exercisethat involvesthe whole class workingon writing out a
srngletext.

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 3 Storytelling

Figure 15.3 Bear picnic story prompts

Storytelling
One of the messagesthat teachingsupervisorsand teacher-trainingcoursestend
to hammer home asmuch aspossibleis that teachertalking time (TTT) is a bad
thing, and that it should be cut down.lyell, just to prove that therereally are no
goldenrules,here'sa delight'ul classroomtechniquethat involvesvirtually
nothing but TTT
Many teachersuse storiesasan interestingroute into grammar lessons,but bear
in mind drat storieshavea greatdeal ofvalue in their own right. Just tell storiesfor
pleasure;not storiesand then comprehensionexerciseslnot storiesand then
studentsretell;not storiesand then write it up for homework.The aim here is the
sameasthat of the uibal elder round the campfire or the mother readingto her
children at bedtime or a group offriends in a bar telling anecdotes- to tell a story
for the listener'spleasure.Storytellingis a useful short activity for the end ofa
lesson,perhaps,or mid-lessonto provide a changeofmood.

Basic technique
1 Mentally prepareyour story beforehand;internalisethe mood, the smells,the
look, the colours,the key events,any specialwords or expressions;make
skeletonnotesifyou wish but (perhaps)don't write it out in too much detail
(this tendsto dull the edge).
2 Give a clearinstruction along the lines of 'I'm going to tell you a story.Listen
and seeif you enjoyit.There will be no comprehensionquestionsafterwards,
no exercises,'This essentialinstruction setsyour audiencefree;there is often a
visiblereduction in tensionamong the students:changesofposture, relaxing of
facial exoression.etc.

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Chapter15 Tools,techniques,
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3 Tell your story (howeveryou like but, ifpossible, don't read it - a 'told, story is
often far more immediate and involving than a 'read' one).
4 rWhen it's over,let them talk about it if they want to (discussionoffeelings,
interpretations,etc should be a genuinereactionto what they haveheard;don't
breakt}te promise you made beforethe story).
5 Leaveit and go on to somethingelse.
Can we justify ths in the ELI classroom?Sfhatare the studentsgetting from it?
This exerciseis abour real listening;not listeningbecauseI am going to hound you
with questionsafterwardsor listeningbecauseyou don't want to seemlessalert
than the other students,but listeningbecauseyou want to. For that reason,it is all
the more focusedand invoh,rng.Thereis much academicspeculationthat
studentslearn languagebestwhen they forget about studyingthe grammar and
get totally involved in the content itself.
Good seedsfor storiesare:smallincidentsin your own life (maybeslightly
dramatised);farry talesand legends,especiallyrare or local ones(raid the second-
hand bookshopsfor Chinese,Arab, African tales,etc); ghost and mystery stories;
singleincidentsfrom longer biographiesand novels;versionsofstories you read in
the newspaperor magazine;soapoperasorTV shows,etc.
Figure 15.4 showsa set ofstory notesyou could flesh out in the telling.It's a
classic'urbanmlth'.

fh.Yiaw
Myftiend Mithawofued in a hospitalfor elderly people.
ln one old, dark tuom - two very ill men -couldn,t move
One- in bed beside window
Lookedout -allday
Detc bed everything he taw to fiend in next bed: pa* - thildrcn playiry - fiver -
boatt -young couplet -tunshine, etc.
Other oatient loved thesetto et.
One day man by window died.
HitJ end very tad.
AskedMitha ifhecould have hit bed,
Mithaatked whyT
'l've beenherc
Jor sevenmonths. I'd love to tee the world again.'
'Rut,' Misha taid, 'there't
nothing outtide thit window. Just a tolid brick walt.,

Figure 15.4 Urban myth

Songs and music

Songson recordings,video / DVD or perhapsplayed on a guitar in the classroom
are often usedasa 'filler' activity to changethe mood or paceofa lesson.They
sometimestend to get relegatedto the 'Friday afternoon' slot asa sort ofreward
for the week'shard work. Fine, but do be awarethat songscan alsobe usefully
integratedinto the main flow ofyour course.
Many coursebooksnowadaysinclude songsthat specificallyfocus on
grammaticalor functional items;thesemay havebeen selectedbecauseoftheir
351
 4 SonEs
andmusic

content (eg Tom'sDinerrses a lot ofpresent progressive)or speciallywritten and

recordedfor studentsofEnglish. Ofcourse, you can alsoselectinteresting
authenticsongsyourself,with the advantage,perhaps,that they are often more
up-to-date.
Songscan be usedin many of the samewaysttrat you might use an ordinary
speechrecording.Interestinglyrics and clarity ofvocals help to make a songinto
appropriateclassroommaterial,and for this reasonfolk music or a solo sinper-
songwriter are often a better bet than a heavymetal band.

Ideas for using songs in class

. Gapped text Give studentsthe lyrics with certainwords blankedout.They
haveto listen carefully and frll in the missingwords.This is, perhaps,the
'classic'way
of using songsin class!It's so common that it's a bit of an ELT
clichd.Varythe taskusefully by, for example,using the gapsasa preJistening
exercise,with studentspredicting what the missingwords are.
. Song iumble Cut the lyrics up into separatelines.In small groups,studentstry
to work out the original order.lrhen ready,they listen and comparetheir guess
with the actual song.
. Matching pictures 'Here aretwenty picturesconnectedwith the song.Listen
and put them in the order in which you hear them in the song.'
. Reading or listening comprehension IJsethe songtext asa normal reading
or listeningtext with the bonus ofhearing it sung afterwards(usethe lesson
ideasin Chapter10,Sections1 and 2).
. Dictation Dictate the chorus or the whole song.Comparewith the recording.
. Picture dictation Decide on a representativepicture of somethingrhat
happensin the song.Dictate the information about this picture, a line at a time,
to t-hestudentswho draw (not write) their interpretation.For example,'The
sun is shining in the sky,there are a lot ofpeople in the street,there is a dark
cloud overhead,it's just starting to rain,' etc.By the time you havefinished,a lot
of the essentiallexis and phrasesfrom the songwill havebeencirculating,and
the songshould be not too difficult to follow.
. Listen and discuss Get studentsto listen to the whole songonce or twice, or
to a shorter section.Discusswhat happened,reactions,interpretations,
predictions,etc.Printed lyrics could be given out ifyou wish.
. Sing alongThe aim is to learn the tune and to get the rhlthm well enoughto
sing alongwith the original recording.This can be quite challengingand
requiressomecarefulpreparationwork on practising stressand rhythm
(probably with spokenrather than sung sentencesJ perhapsusing individual,
mouthed and choral practice).And ifyou haveaccessto a video machine with a
karaokerecording,the possibilitresare limitless!
. Compose 'Here's the tune - now you write the lyrics.' (Again, an activity that is
quite challengingon stressand rhythm.)
. Action movernents Listen to one line at a time. For eachline, the students
invent a mimed action,which they teach eachother and then all perform.
Regularlyreplay the songfrom ttre beginning for them to recall and do the
relevantactions,After ttrey havedone one or two verses,hand out the complete
lyrics; in small groups,the studentshnd movementsfor the rest of the song.At
the end, all come togetherto watch a performanceof the different versions.
Chapter15 Tools,techniques,
activities

Ideas for using music in class

Music on its own, especiallyclassical,can alsobe useful in the classroom:
. to setthe mood at the start of the lessoni
. to give you somethingto talk about with your studentsat tie start ofthe lessons
(especiallyuseful with a classyou don't know);
. asbackgroundmusic while studentswork on 'dull' exercises;
. asbackground music to setthe scenewhile studentsdo a particular task (eg
'space'music during
a discussionon life on other planets;fasr,excidng music
during a competition);
. simply for pleasureor asa breakbetweenactivitiesl
. to help studentsrelax;
. for 'imaging': studentsclosetheir eyesand visualiseimagesfrom their own
imagination or from your r,vordsor someoneelse's(this is a good way to
personalisetopics - 'Think back to a time when you . . .');
. to createanonymity in small or quiet classes;
. to closedown, conclude,round offthe lesson- to saygoodbyewith.
lWith any ofthese, you do, ofcourse, needto remain sensitiveto the wishesofyour
students;somemay hate to havemusic on while they work, and it would hardly be
advisableto imposeit on them.As with most ideasin this book, the key is to ask
your studentsand to take your cue from them.
One more thought: sharingmusic can be fun. Encouragelearnersto bring in their
favouriterecordings,tell you why they like them, sharethe lyrics, etc.It's a great
starting point for discussionand study.

5 Fillers
Most teachers find they need a small collection of hllers, ie things to do when
they've run out of other material, perhaps because the main activity went much
faster than expected and (even having stretched it) there is still a seven-minute
gap at the end ofthe lesson before the bell rings.
Fillers are also useful at the start ofa lesson as a warmer (particularly when you
are waiting for some latecomers) or mid-lesson as a way of changing the pace, or
ofbreaking up similar activities. Fillers may be quite separate from the
surrounding lesson or they might connect in some way.They are often useful as a
chance to recycle lexis from earlier lessons or as an opportunity to work on
activities that have a 'group-building' aim rather than a purely language aim.
I suggest you aim to get together a list ofyour own favourite fillers (and prepare
any necessary material); file these in a handy place - at the front of a course file,
for example - so that in an emergency, you can quickly look at the list and be
reminded of the likely choices.

Sorne cornrnon fillers

Revision dictation
Divide the class into teams. Choose between five and hfteen sentences (or words)
from the lesson. Dictate the words, challenging the teams to write down the
sentences / words with correct spelling. Allow them time for arguing and agreeing.
At the end, go through the whole list. Give points for completely couect answers.

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 5 Fillers

Yesand zo questions

Quick story puzzlesoften go down well. Describe a slightJycrlptic basicsituation

or problem (perhapsan incident from your own life); the learnershaveto
questionyou further, discussand find a solution that explainsthe story.Youcan
only answeryesor no to any questionsasked.For example:'A strangercrawledall
over my sitting room today.' (Answer: 'I'd droppeda contactlens;theTVrepair
wan helpedmefind rr.')There are somefamous examples;this seemsto be the
favourite:
FeargalMcDonald liaed on the tweniethfloor of a blockofflats and eaerymorning
nok theffi downto thegroundJloorand caughtthebusinta toutn.lX4rcn hecamehome,
he nok the lift m theseaenthJloor and then climbedthe stairsall theway to the twentieth
Jloor.lX'4ty?(Answert He wctsa schoolboland couldn't reachthelift control buttons
higherthanfloor sexen.)
And I lrke this one A man is pushing a car on a road.IYhen hegetsto thehotel,hewill
hseall his money.lY/hat\happening?(Answer: Irt a gameof Monopoly.)

The hotel receptionist garne

Preparea list oflikely (and unlikely) sentencesthat a guestwould sayto a hotel
receptionist(eg '\?hat time is breakfast?''!(here's the restaurant?''MyTV has
exploded!''I've lost my wallet'). Hand one of thesesentencesto a student who
must mime it well enoughfor the classto guessthe original sentence.It could be a
team gamewith points; it could use odrer situationssuch asairport, theatre,family
at dinner, etc.

Kirn's game
Preparea tray with about 25 to 30 small objectson it (eg pencil, cassette,mobile
phone, comb, etc). Show it to the studentsfor two minutes,then cover it
(or removethe tray from sight).The studentsmust make a list (asindividuals
or in teams) of all the objectsthey can remember.The winner is the one who gets
most. Could alsobe done with a list of words on the board or with flashcards,if
you can't get enoughobjects.

Ordering
Instruct studentsto standin line accordingto their birth month and date (ie
l srJanuarystandson the left,31" December on the right).They will needto
discussand rearrangethemselvesa litde. Once they havegot the idea of
organisingthemselvesin this way,you can try someother instructions:for
example,by alphabeticalorder of frst name;by first letter of your favourite
hobby; by distancelived from school (furthest to closest);by how much you like
sport (most to least),etc.

Students provide the fillers

You needto setthis one up beforehand!Ask studentsworking in pairs to prepare
their own five-minute filler (a garne,a physicalexercise,a recording ofa songto
Iistento, a story, etc) and to keepthem somewheresafe.Every time you need a
frller, invite one of the pairs to introduce and run their activity.

357
Chapter15 Tools,techniques,
activities

Paintbox
This a a way to get sntdents to $,ork rvith different peoplc rvithout specifically
saying Oi( n o..rall stand up andJind a nezl pLtrtnet'to rLto* zuirft (along rvith the
subsequent groans and mumblings). Assign one ofthree or four colours to each
student in the class, eg green, red, blue, orange. Arrange the seating in a circle so
that there is one less scat tian the students prescnt.The leftover student stands in
the middle. He must call out a colour, eg (ireez. At tl.ris,all 'green' students musr
stand up and find another seat for themsclves.The]i cannot sit dos,n in thc same
scat that thev have just left.The student in the middle is also using this
opportunit_v to find a vacant seat for himself. \X/hoever is lcft rvithout a seat at the
end continues thc game by calling out a new colour She also has the option of
calling Paintbox,in which case everyone must move and find a nerv seatl Lots ol
movement and happ-v chaos.\flatch out that it doesn't get too rough; tre game
should be plaved r.vith catlike stealth rather than rugb,v tacklesl
This popular movement game has man.v namcs and variations - I'r'e heard it
called'Fruit salad'and'The rvind blou,s'.It's eas-vto seehorv it can be adapted:the
lexis area could be changcd to offer practice in man.v differer.rt areas, cg fruit,
grammatical terms, clothes,etc.You could also personaliseit: 'All people wcaring
rvhite socks change placcs','All people rvho arrived late to this lesson change
Dlaces'.etc.

Adaptinggamesfor classroomuse
R e c a l la g a m ey o u h a v e p l a y e do u t s t d et h e c l a s s r o o m W . h a t a d a p t a t i o n so r
v a r i d t i o n sw o u l dy o u n e e d i n o r d e rt o m a k e i t n t o a c l a s s r o o ma c t i v i t y ?

Lexical garnes
Many rvell-knorvn rvord games can be used in the classroom as fillers or as
integrated practice activities.Perhapsthe most popular one is 'Hangman'
(although I prefer variations rvhere something a little less gruesome happens!) !
but man_vother rvord games are possiblc. Here are some I have found useful. In
every case, the rules are l'er-v adaptablc and I encourage.vou to decide on whatever
variations might r,vorkbest nith your class.

Back to the board

Dil'ide the class into two teams. One team sends one member to the front, \vho
then sits facing the class,rvith his back to the board.Thus everyone except rhis
student can see what -vourvrite on the board.Write a u,ord on the board (probabh'
onc rccently studied or met); the team of the student sitting at the front must
dehne the n'ord or give examples ofits use r,ithout saying thc actual word itself.
As soon as he guesscs the word, write another r,vord up and so on until a time limit
(perhaps two minutes) is reached, at which point the teams change over. Cler.er
players use all manner of techniques to con\re_vtl.reword: rh-vme, collocations,
synonyms) etc. A great gamc for redsing arrd consolidating earlicr lexis rvork.

358
 6 Lexicalgames

KIrcHEN

Figure 15.5 Back to the board

Category list
Do an example first; slowly read out a list of ten items; the teams must guess what
the title of the list is, ie what the connection between the items is.They start with
ten points and lose one for ever1,wrong guess. If they get it right, they score a
point for each remaining (unread) item. Once the example has been understood,
give them some time to work in their teams and prepare their own similar lists,
which they then challenge the other team with.This game is usable, with varying
degrees ofdifficulry from Beginner to Advanced.
Low-level examples'.sink, spoon,cooker,frying pan,fridge, etc (kitchen words)
HighJevel examples: a Beatles CD, a wedding ring,file pqper, ct dougllnut, etc (things
with holes)

Fictionary (or Call rny blufT)

The students, working in teams, are given a list offive rvords; for each word, they
must look up and copy out the correct dictionary definition and also invent and
write out two completely false definitions.When they are ready the teams come
together and challenge each other by reading out a word and all three dehnitions.
The other team(s) must guess which is the correct definition.

Word seeds
Dictate a list ofabout twenty words $/hich the students all write down.Their task
then is to work in small groups and orally prepare a srory thatuses all the words,
exactly in the form dictated (ie if seewas dictated, that is the word they must use,
not sau ot seeing)and in exactly the order they originally came in. Finally, each
group tells its story; it's fascinating to u'atch what very different results can grow
from tlte same seeds.This could also be done as a writins task.

359
 Chapter15 Tools,techniques,
activitres

Word dominoes

bil'd button. shirt shop

Figure 15.6 \Vord dominoes

(There are birds in the forest; button and bird start rvith B; shirts have buttons;
shirt and shop begin rvith s,4-,etc.)

Word thieves
Choose a fairl_t'long reading passage on a particular topic, eg cars Explain that
the students must attempt to steal words from -vou.you will read the passage aloud
once only and they must try to catch and u,rite down e.l,erylvord they heaithat fits
the topic of'cars'.'fheir aim is to catch as manl.n,ords as ther.can in this lexical
area. Score and check it as you wish; it's probabl-v useful to aliorv individuals to
compare what they heard against other lists and to end up u,ith them Iooking at
the whole text.

I tpent into tousn

This is a useful game for revising lexis and is especially good for considcring
countable and uncountable nouns. In tJrisexample,,lbod, has been specifiel as
the lexis area.The frrst student sa1,s1 went into towtl qnd I bottght an apple.The ncl,r
student must repeat the sentence and add a second item beginning lvith the next
letter of the alphab et, eg I werLtinto town and I bottght att a1.,ple
and a banana.The
third then says 1zi.,entillto toun.uTd I bought an apple,a ban(lna and.somecqrl.orsjetc
Make the rest of the rules up yourself !

Word jumbles (or Word pools)

Take a number ofwords dtat the class has met over tle previous lesson or trvo anci
rvrite them up on the board rvith their letters mixed up.The studenrs rry to
decipher them. (Possibl_vthe rvords could then be formcd into a sentence?)

360
 6 Lexicalgames

,',-r\ /-\ /T\ f\ T"\

, 1) [ L B r L ]
{A wl( t )(Y
V_/ \--l \9./ \{f_y

Fieure 15.7 ! ordwheels

Instant crossword
Ask the classto look back over words that they havestudiedin the lasttwo or three
days. Get them to shout out two to you that have at least one letter in cornmon;
write them clearlyon the board, interlocking,asin a crosswordpuzzle.
This could now continue as a competitive team game (teams take it in turns to add
a new word to the grid) or asa classeffort, trying to make the grid asbig as
possible.Thestudentscould take over the writing oncethe rules havebeen
established.

?
BEARD
I
z

Figure 15.8 Instantcrossword

It might help to divide the board up into squaresbeforehand, though the game
works well enough without, so long asthe writing is clear.

Don't finish a word

The classis divided into two teams.Each team takesit in turn to call out a letter,
which is written on the board. They also saywhether their letter goesin front of or
behind the lettersalreadyon the board.Thus the chain ofletters on the board
grows longer turn by turn. If (a) a team thinks the previous team has finished a
completeword; or (b) a team thinks rhe previousteam could not possiblymake a
word from the lettersnow on the board,then they 'challenge'(ie you must always
havea word in mind when you placea new letter). A correct challengewins the
round.
Example 1
Trau 1: B
TEAM2: BA
Toel',r 1: BAC (Ttnnl<tng of back)
Tee-r,,r2: OBAC
Tparr 1: Challcnge!(They rhinkTeam 2 is bluffrng and cannot possibly
make a word from theseletters.)
Toau 2: Tobacco.(Tlney win the round.)

361
Chapter15 Tools,techniques,
activities

Exarnpk2
TE,r.u2: N
TEAUl: AN
Tsarr 2: (Theywin - az is a completelvord.)
Challenge!
Biting your tail
Choosea topic, ma1'beone you haverecentlybeenrvorking on (eg hoases). One
student startsoff by sayinga word (eg hitchen).Thenext student must saya new
word that startsu'ith thc last letter of the previousu'ord. Ifhe fails or if the rvord is
challenged(ie not on the topic or u'rong first letter), then he is out. No u'ord can
be repeatedonceit hasbeenuscd.
I(eep going fasterand fastertill you are all out or bored or the bell rings. Make up
any other rules asyou tvish.
Example:Top rc -Food and drink
water> rlce > egg> grape> er... er...
No word, the studentis out.The gamerestartsrvith a new word.
Next student:lemon > nut > tomato > orange> er ... elephant
The classnow discusses/ arguesabout whether an elephantis acceptableas
'food',etc.

Chain dictation
The teacherreadsa list of letterswhich spell out a number ofrvords relatedto a
specifictopic u'ithout stopping (E-G-c-S-B-R-E-A-D-M-I-L-K-C-H-E-E-
S-E). Studentsl.raveto write down the lettersand then work out u'hat the
individual words are.

Initial letters
The teachernamesa topic or situation (.egin schoo[)and saysa keyword (eg
SCFIOOL). Studentswork togetherto hnd one rvord that hts the topic beginning
with eachletter ofthe key word (eg Shdents,Courseboohs, Headteacher,
etc).

7 Dictation
Traditional dictation - u'here .vou read a text aloud and the learners must write it
down accuratel_v- is often quite unpopular u'ith learners. It can feel like an unfair
test. Could we make it more enjoyable and useful? Maybe the key question is:\7ho
does rvhat? Usualllr the teacher makes all the decisions about a dictation, Horv
about turning the tables? Let the learners choose the text. Or let them decide ho$
many times it should be read. Or u''ho should read it. In fact, could the learners
choose everything and tl-rendictate to the teacher? Here are a few ideas:

Keyvords dictation
Find an interesting short story and underlinc fiftcen to twenty of the most
important words in it (eg key nouns and verbs). Dictate these words to the class,
but don't tell them the original story'.They now must make a new story tlat uses
 7 Dictation

thosewords, in exactlythe original order and the original form you dictated.
At the end, the classcan swapstories,reading or telling them.you could alsotell
drem rhe original ifyou wanred.

Collocation dictation
Preparea Listofbetween ten and twenty useful two_word collocations(ie words
that naturally go t ogether I.tkeftafr.icjam).For the dictation, read out one word
from eachcollocaion (eg taflic;.Learners must not write rtrisword (checkthat
they don't cheat!),but insteadwrite a collocation- a word that goeswith ir (eg a
learner might writ e light or policemanor heaayto go wirh taffi) .When yo.t hive
read the whole list, put the learnersinto small groups.They can comparetheir
answers,seeifthey can rememberthe original collocatingwords and decideif all
their collocationsare good or not.

Wall dictation
Choosea short printed text. Divide the classinto ,readers,and ,writers,.pair each
readerwith a writerl writers sit down, readersstand.Stick the text up on a wall far
awayfrom the writers so that they cannot possiblyread it. (If you havea large
class,you'll need to placemore than one copy ofthe text in different places.)Each
readerwalksto the text, readsand memorisespart of it and then goesback to their
wdter to dictateit.The writer writes it dowrl askingany relevantquestionsabout
words, spellings,punctuation, etc.lfhenever necessarythe readergoesback and
readsmore and returns for more dictation.The pair is aiming to write the most
accuratetext t-heycan.It's a race,and studentstend to get quite competitiveabout
it.You may need to set somerules,such as.!7alk- no running,,.No shouting
acrossthe room'. Studentsswaprolesabout half-way through. (By the way, the
popular staff-room name for this activity is ,Running dictation'!)

Variation
I]se_onetext, but cut it into separatesentences.lrlite a letter (1, .B,C, etc)
randorr y next to eachsentence.Placethesecut-up texts around the room in
different locationsso that studentshaveto read all of them, one bv one.!7hen
pairs haveall the pieceswritten down, they should work togetherio work out the
correcrorderfor a completecoherenttext.

The'bad cold' dictation

Explain that you havea bad cold today (sneezeor cough a bit to prove it!).Tell the
classthat you're going to do a normal dictatron,but if you haveto sneezeor cough
(and they can't hear a word), they should write any good word that fits the spacJ.
For example, you might dictate l-.zsl Thursday,Maria decidedto haztesome
lcottgh]
for breakfast.Thelearners could write the sentencewith a word like e3g,s or
cornfrakesinstead of the coueh.

363
Chapter15 Tools,techniques,
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The wild dictation

Dictate a numbered list of descriptions of words,like this: No. 1 - the name of a

sportsman; No.2 - an adjectiaedescrihingsomeJood;No.3- a zterbof moaement,
No.4 - a kind of anerualetc. The learners should u'rite dov'n answers to thesc
prompts, eg Ra/aeI Nadal, sahg, swun, tuger,etc.\When the lists are hnished, dictate
a short story you have prepared, but u'ith appropriate gaps (into which the
learners will write their own pret'iouslv chosen words), eg 'A car drove up to the
zoo and stopped suddenly and No. 1 got out. He looked really No. 2 as he started
to No. 3 tolvards the No. 4's cage', etc.You'll get some ver1.funny stories. Don't
forget to prepare both the story and the list ofword descriptions before the lesson

Dictogloss
For manv teachers, this is a favourite technique. But note that it's one activity
where it's important tlat students really understand the instructions before they
start.
Choose a short text that is longer than the students could completely remember,
eg about twenty words at Elementary level. The text could include an example of a
grammatical item you are interested in. Tell the class that you u'ill read a dictation
at normal speaking speed and ]'ou u'ill read it only once. Students probably won't
believe this - so check that they do!Then check that students understand that thei
may hnd this difficult but must keep quiet and not distract others by complaining.
sighing, etc! Read the text at a normal pace, then give students about three
minutes to write down everything they remember - words, phrases, etc. It's
important that students get a good, quiet time to do this.They must not compare
during this phase.When they have finished, invite students to compare rvith
another, then later to come together as a class to seeifthelr can reconstruct the
entire text at the board.The aim is to get as close to the meaning of the original as
possible. It is a very interesting task, which may feel impossible to students and
teachers at the start, but r.vhich proves to be an excellent group-building activity.

Living tape recorder

Draw some tape recorder controls on the board (eg a symbol for a'play'button, a
'rewind'
button and a 'stop' button). Introduce yourself as a 'living tape recorder'.
Get two studenc to stand near the board to control the'tape recorder'while you
read the dictation. Members of rhe class can call out to ask the 'controllers' to
'press'
the buttons.You ignore anything said, but strictl_vobey any button presses.
In this way, you lr,'ill read the dictation, rervinding, replaying, rervinding, etc, until
the students are happy that they all have the dictation. It's a bit chaotic at first, but
it's great after that!

Other variations
You can devise many more dictations b_vchanging the basic variables.Try getting
students to dictate to each other, perhaps back to back or on opposite sides of
the room (noisily calling out to each othcr).Try asking students to choose and
record a short dictation that they think a friend will like.Try getting students to
organise and do every stcp; selecting a text, planning how to do it, etc. One nice
touch is to lct students really study a text and then predict hou'many mistakes

361
 8 Sound-effects
recordinus

they wrll make in advance.!7henthey havefinished the dictation, give credit

for thosewho get closestto their 'bets' rather than to thosewho got the most
cortect answers.

Sound-effects recordings
Sound-effectsrecordingsare a useful teachingresource.Theseare recordingsthat
havehardly any words on, but insteadcontain a sequenceofnoises such as
crashes,bumps, bangs,whistles,screams,etc.Heard together,they may add up to
a story.There are many comrnercialrecordingsof this type or you could make
your own.

Making your ovm'sound sequence' tape

Plan a sequenceofbetween sevenand ten distinctly different easy-to-make
sounds.Choosenoisesthat will be loud and easyto record)for example,a set of
platesbeing dropped,rather than a glove.Do sometest recordings.Ifpossible, use
a recorderthat doesn't setan automaticrecording level,otherwiseyou will get
very 'hissy'recordingswhen no one is speaking.
This is an examplesound sequence:
1 Someone saysSftftftft.r
2 Noisy footsteps.
3 Somethingbreaking.
4 Someonemoving with difficulry, grunLing.erc.
5 Someonerapidly opening and closinga number ofboxes, drawers,etc.
6 SomeonesayingO/z.t
7 Lots ofthings being dropped.
8 Someonerunning.
9 Someonesaying an amusedAh-ha!
Storybuilding
Learnerslisten to the sequence,then in pairs work out what they think the story is.
They then comparewith othersand try to agreea consensusstory.Groups tell
their versionsto the class.

What's wrong with rny story?

Prepare- and tell - a story with parts that do not match the recording
(eg charactersuse a motorbike rather than walking). Learners discussand
agreewhich noisesdo not fit with your story.

Pictures from noises

Bring a setofCuisenairerods or building bricksto classand distributethese
around the class.After hearingthe recording,groupsuse their rods or bricks to
ceate a picture of a scenethey imagine from the recording (eg walls with other
piecesrepresenting burglars breaking in) .Afterwards, rnk up people from
different groups,keepingat leastone of the original group with their'picture'. New
people to the group should look and ask questions to find out what the construction
represents(and work out the story), eg'Is this a person?''Is sheclimbing through a
window?' etc. Members of the original group can only answeryesor no.

365
Chapter15 Tools,techniques,
activities

If you don't har,erods or bricks,_voucould do the activit-vb_vaskinglearnersto

dral' a sketchof the scene.

Verb hunting
Play the recording a few times.Learnersfind asmany verbsaspossibleto explain
rvhatpeopleare doing. (Ofcourse, you could do exactlythe sametask u'ith nouns,
adjectives,adverbs...)

Wacky ideas
Ask learncrsto think of the r,vackicst,
most amazing,most unlikel_vinterpretation
for the soundscquence.

Tense focus
Preparea story yourself.In class,tell it like a football commentar)',using present
tenses,ie asif it is happeningnor.v;for examplc,'1-heburglar is lifting up thc
window He's climbing through it', using the recording to provide exciting sound
effectsat variouspoints.Afterrvards,askthe classto r,t'ritedorl,nthe story asa
newsitem about the past.

9 Poetry
Wh-v poetrl'? Bccause it stimulates, tvakes us up to seethings in ner.vrvays,hear
things in neu'wa_vs,think of things in nerv r,vays.Language teaching can be a bit
dull if '"veconstandy look at linguistic points using onl]' predictablc textbook
examples. It ma,v be very helpful to teach 'I went to the shop yesterda-vand I
bought some bread'or'Jack was har.inga bath,,r'hcnthe telephone rang', but it
doesn't stir my heart. I'm not moved b-vit. I'm sure I'll forget it But thcn again,
linguists point out that the language used in 'real communication' is also
frightfully dull to study. It's bland, repctitir,e, completelv forgettable.To remembcr
something, rve nced to be surprised b1,an odd idca or use ofu,ords. It's horv
children learn many things in their first language.
Man_vteachers don't f'eel confident using poetry because thel' are not confident
about reading it or u'riting it themselves. And rt may u'cll not be an appropriate
activitt for ever]'class. Students or teachers ma1' say 1'ru not crcatiue,imag\ning
that creativitl'rs something that one must $'ait for. But of course -vouhave to start
lvriting to find out $'hat you $.ant to write about, ho!l' .vou can sa-vwhat 1,ouhave
to say. Creativitv arises out ofthe act ofrvriting.You start with rorhing.The
difficulty ofrvriting forces thc ner,videas to thc surface.
Here are some ideas for usingpoems in class:

Reading poerns
. Choose a poem \\'ith some interesting and accessible metaphors. Before t1.rey
seethe poem, dictatc to students thc sentences that have similes or metaphors
(eg 'My girlfricnd's eJ'esare . . .', 'The rivcr moved slou,'lvas a . . .'), but leaveout
the actual comparison itself. Ask students to brainstorm thcir ou.n comparisons
They can then compare them rvith cach other and finallt'r,vith the ones used
in the poem itself.
 9 Poetry

. Tell studentsthe topic oftie poem and let them brainstorm asmany words as
they can that mrght be in it.
. Alternatively,look at a list ofwords and decidewhich words might be in a poem
about a certain subject.
. Before the lesson,write out a poem asifit were a newspaperarticle mini-story,
/
etcj studentsstudy and understandthis (easierveriion) before they
look at the poem.
. Do a picture dictation: describethe scenein the poem, item by item, and
studentsdraw a picture. At the end,they comparepictures and then read the
poem, decidingwho is closestto the original.

Writing poems
. Finish it Provide a nearly completepoem with gappedparts to complete.
(Could be greatfor slipping in a target grammar point!)
. Forrn to poem Give or elicit specificaspectsof a poetic form, eg a rhyme
scheme(or actualrhymes), a preciserhythm, the precisenumber of syllables,
etc. Studentsthen make a poem following this exactpattern.
. Alterations Give eachstudent group a different publishedpoem.The groups
must copy out the text wittr a fixed number of alteredwords (eg 'Change five
nouns and five verbsto somethingdifferent') -When they seethe copied text,
the other teamsmust guesswhat is not from the original.
. Found poerns Studentssearchfor and hnd potential 'poems'within prose
texts (or in signs,posters,etc) by selectingphrasesor blocks of normal text,
copying them out and adding line breaks.
. Cut-ups Studentsare given (or find for themselves)variouslines from
magazines,brochures,newspapers,etc.They order theseto make a poem.
(Low-risk activity - it's not the students'words, so they feellesstlueatened!)
. Facts to metaphor Studentswrite list offacts following your instructions (eg
'\7rite down how you
cameto schooltoday'); then, when they've finished,they
go back over their list adding a metaphor to each(eg 'I cameby tram' > 'The
tram is like a yellow snake').
. Instant poetry This is a surprisingly simple activity that often produces
outstandingresults.Give a seriesofinstructions that askstudentsto look,listen,
notice what is around them and within them. Each instruction is given,followed
by a longish pauseto allow studentsto follow the instruction.After-wards,the
studentsgo back and 'poemify' it.This is an exampleset ofinstructions:
1 Look around you and notice the things you don't normally notice.
2 Look at one item in the room - furniture or object.\Jfriteone sentence
describingthis object.Don't try to be clever.Don't useimagination.Really
look and write just what you see.Don't be poetic - you are not writing a
poem yet.Youare trying to Iook and write accuratelywhat you can see.
3 Notice the light in the room - the shadowsand patterns.\7rite one sentence
about this.
4 Look at one other person.Don't just half-look at them, really study them.
I give you permissionto stare,asif you'd never seena human beforeIlJ?rite
one sentenceabout one person you see.
5 !7rite a sentenceabout what he / she'sthinking.
Chapter15 Tools,techniques,
actlvitles

6 Look at )'ourselfin the samewa_v.Your hands,your clothes)etc.Write one

sentenceaboutonething _vousce.
7 Dcscribe the view through the $,indorvin a feu' r'ords.
E Listento the noisesaroundand outsidethe room.\Writeonesentence
about rvhatvou can hear.
9 How do you fcel norv?Reall_v? Check it out.Vritc one sentence.
10 \(/rite somethingabout the futurc.
11 Nor'vyou haveten minutes.Look at what tou have\\'ritten. Change
anl'thlng vou want to. PLrtthings in a different order. Crossthings out.
Think about horv it soundsand looks.Youraim is to finish rvith a short
poem (u'hicl.rcould be sharedbetrvcenindir.idualsor read out or put un on
a poster,etc).

10 Drama
Six t1,pesof drama activit_vare commonll' found in EnglishJanguage tcaching
classrooms:
. Role play Students act out small scenes using their ou'n ideas or from ideas
and information on role cards (seeChaptcr 9, Section 3).
. Simulation This is reall.va large-scale role pla-v Role cards are normall-v used,
and there is often otl]er background inlbrmation as \\ ell. The iltention is to
createa much more complete, compiex'rvorld', sa1'ofa busrnesscompanli
television studio, gor.ernmentbod1,,etc (seeChapter 9, Section 3).
. Drarna games Short games that usualll. involve movement and imagination.
. Guided irnprovisation You improvise a sccne and the students join in one b_v
one in character, until the rvhole scene (or stor1,) takes on a life ofits orvn.
. Acting play scripts Short r,ritten sketches or sceues are actcd b_vthe students.
. Prepared irnprovised drama Students in small groups invent and rehearsc :r
shott scene or stor-vthat the5' thcn perform for the othcrs.
All ofthese are good wa]'s to get students using the languagc. Blr bringing rhe
outside lvorld into the classroom like this, u,e can pror.ide a lot ofuseful practice that
would othenvise be impossible rn caf6s,shops, baDks,businesses,srreets,parties,
etc.There mav also be a freeing from the constraints ofculture and expected
behaviour; this can be personalll, and linguisticalll' very liberating. Curiousll', it is
sometimes the shyest students who are oftcn most able to seizethe potential.
Success or failure of drama activities depends cruciallv on your pcrceived attirude
and that ofthc other students; \\,ithout a cerrain degree oftrust, acceptance and
respect) the chanccs for useful rvork are greatly diminished.
Hcre are three short examples of drama games and a briefdiscussion ofguided
improvrsatron.

Interesting situations
Students call out any interesting or 'difhcult' situation invohring tu'o pcople, and
pairs act it out togcther; for example, a rvell-meaning hostess serving meat to a
polite vegetarian.This technique could, in approprrate circumstances,be used to
'real play' (ic
act out and explorc some ofthe students'orvn real-life problem
sltuations).
 10 Drama

Strange meetings
. Preparetlree setsofcards (eachset should haveone card for eachstudent):
1 a setwith characternames(aliveor dead,fictional or real), eg Einstein,
Madonna;
2 a setwith locations (eg 'in the kitchen', 'on the bus');
3 a setwith unusualproblems (eg 'You havelost your cow', 'You are desperate
fnr a qrrono cnffee'\
. Hand out one card from eachsetto eachstudent (so that everyperson has a
person,placeand problem) and then allow them a few minutesto work out
their story (ie what explainsthe incident).
. Studentsthen stand up and walk around the room, meeting eachother and having
short conversations(eg Shakra meeting Shakespeare;Nelson Mandela meeting
Batman) where they fy to explain their problem and get help and suggestions.
. At a given signal (when you tap on the table or ring a bell, etc), studentsmust
move on to a new meetingwith anotherperson.It's quite possiblethat bigger
meetingswill naturally start to form after a few turns asone charactersuggests
anothe.rwho might be ableto help a particular problem.
. Afterwards,asklearnersto recallinterestingthings they heard.

Making a picture
Call out a subject;tie studentsmust agreeand make a frozen 'tableau'ofthat
scene.For example,call o.uIairport;the studentstake different positions.Some
are check-inclerks,somebecomedesks,somebecomeplanestaking off, some
becometourists,until the whole room 'becomes'an airport. Now unfreeze
the tableauand bring it to life for a short scenewiti improvised dialogue.
Everyonecan talk and play their part - eventhe desksand planes!

Guided improvisation
Selecta scene- say,a winter landscapewith a frozen lake.The idea is to tr,unthe
classroominto the scene,and then to let the story unfold in any way it can,by the
group improvising together.Youmight start by describingthe sceneand getting
studentsto becomepeoplein the landscape,slowly building up a living, moving
scene,or you might jump in the deepend by adopting a characteryourselfand
encouragingothersto join you in the improvisation asand when they are ready.
The skill of running this kind of complex improvisation is to find a balance
betweenallowing a free-flowing,growing, aliveimprovisation and the necessity
ofkeeping somecontrol over it to ensurethat it keepsmomentum and avoids
sillinessor trite solutions.Most of your interventionsto achievethis can be done
subtly by sayingsomething,in character,to someofthe participants,ratier than
by steppingin and making grand announcementsto everyone.
Someideasfor guided improvisations:
. the perfect school;
. a museum (or waxworks) at nighq
. the beach;
. inside a plane;
. ktchen implementscome alivel
. on qmqzino nqtt"
. the secret life ofthe characters in vour coursebook.

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Chapter15 Tools,techniques,
activities

11 Projects
Lessonscan sometimesfeel a linle separateand disconnecteci. Activities ma-r'have
small,isolatedoutcomesand sometimcsdon't seemto offer much in the rvayof
tangibleprogressor achievcment.Youcan too easil-vget caughtinto thinking of
lessoncontentpurel-von an isolated,lesson-to-lesson basis.
Projectsare one useful rvayofprot iding an ongoing 'tl.rread'to classroomu,ork.
They supply a longer term goal to focus on, and studentscan investtheir energy
in somethingthat has a tangible outcome.'I'heyalsooffer a valuablechancefor
learnersof mixed levelsto rvork on somethingat their orvn current ability level.
Projectsare usuallytask-orientedrather than language-oriented;in other rvords,
the learnersfocus on doing somethingpracticalrather than directly on studying
language.The_v typicallv involvelearnersin decisionsabout preciselyr.vhatis
done and hou' to do it, asrvcll asin collectinginformation, solvingproblems
and presentingthe final outcomc asa lr'ritten or performed presentation.The
planning, decision-making,ideas-collecting,structuring, discussion,negotiation,
problem-solr,'ing,etc are all an integral part ofthe rvork.The languagelearning
arisesfrom learnershaving a reasonto communicateauthenticallyin English to
achievea specificgoal Projectsoften alsohavc a strong group-building outcome.
Teachersoften fear that a project rvill be rroublesometo organisc,especiallyas
they may involvc different groups oflearners u'orking on quite different things.
This soundslike it may require a lot more teacherpreparation.In fact, it rarely
does,becauseprojectsquickly becomeverJ'learner-centred,and learners
generallyrequire guidanccand advicerather than to havervork speciallydevised
for them.The most demandingpart of a projcct 1br a teacheris in the initial
planning and then in tl.restarting-off phasc.
Most projectsr.villwork best if undertakcnby small groups of three or four
learners.Individuals could do one,but it can be isolating,and learnerson their
own tend to losemotivation and focus astime goeson.rvorking togetherprovides
mutual support and a r,viderrangc ofideas.
Proiectswill tlpically follovva florv plan asshownin Figure 15.9.

tr.-;;'..".;'.,c-l
[w-it"."r"hhc ]

liltr. ""'".C ] t Prd;t ."".il,f

_
D e cd e p r o j e ctta s l -| p ' e p a . es o m e-l _h i n gl f _ . : , ; ....,,"
Disola' l
N - N
a\
Decrdeoro,ect rorrrson-etrirI -
I , Per | t'"."nt ="*l

[il."'""*'',c l Et-';,ft. l
[vs."**l,r€--l
E;;;-;;;t
Figure 15.9 Project riork
 12 Gettingtoknowa newclass

Organising a proiect: first decisions

In orderto begin,youneedto decidea fewbasicthings:
\7ill the projectbe a single-classproject,which smallerpairs and groups
undertakesomeaspectof,) Or will groups work on separateand unconnected
projects?
rffill the project be one largetaskthat you setand then learnerswork on, or will
it be structured into a seriesof cumulativestepsand stages?
How much of lessontime will this takeup?STillit supplant normal classwork
entirely?Or will it only take a proportion ofeach lesson- or of somelessons?
How long will itlast? Is this a threelesson proiect or one that will last all term?

Ideas for specific proiects

'Write
a tourist guide for somethingin your local area.Use descriptions,photos,
diagrams,maps,etc.
Preparea web pagethat givespeoplein other countriesa picture ofyour
everydaylife .
Keep a diary. Preparea poster/ booklet/ presentationabout'Your life',
including predictionsfor the future aswell as detailsofyour current life.
Brainstorm / script / storyboard/ rehearse/ make a three-minutefilm.The class
could all work in the samegenre (eg horror film; romantic storyl advertisemenU
newsprogramme; etc) or different ones.
Put on a Liveperformanceofa comedy sketchor a fullJength play.
Invent a new country; draw the map; designthe capital;write the basiclaws.
Preparea posterpresenration introducingir to odrers.
Researchand look for ideasto help solvespecificreallocal problems,eg lack of
entertainmentfacilities,crime, environmentalissues,shops,etc.
Undertake somepublic researchinteffiews to find and then analysea range of
people'sopinions on certaintopicsreg attitudesto fashion,tastein music,
wishesfor the locality,etc.
In situationswhere you know your classwell and arerelativelysurethat the
learnerscan work successfully,you might want to approachmore difficult,
important or contoversial topics such asbullying, poiitics,honesty,attitudesto
HW /Aids.peerpressure, prejudice.etc.

12 Getting to know a new class

Aims for a first lessonwith a new class
Whatwouldyou hopeto achievein a first lessonwitha newclasswherethe adult
learnersare meetingeachotherandyoufor the first time?

Somepossibleaims:
By the end of the lesson,you will have:
. spokento everyoneat leastonce;
. learnedeveryone'snamesl
. startedto learn somepersonalinformation about them;
Chapter15 Tools,techniques,
acttvttles

. startedto learn somethingoftheir individual characters;

. startedto feel a litde more comfortablc:

... and the learncrswill have;

. spokento a number of other studentsin the class;
. l e a r n e ds o m ep e o p l es n a m c sa n da l i f l l ea b o u Lt h e m ;
. taken part in a number of interestingand involving activities;
. startedto find rvaysofu'orking cooperativelywith others;
. learnedsomeinformation aboutthe coursei
. gainedsomeinsight into the methodologyand u'orking methodsof the course;
. learnedsomeEnglish;
. used someEnglish;
. heard and respondedto peoplc speakingEnglish;
. startedto feel more comfortable in thcir class.
'Getting to know you'
activities
Activities that fulhl someof theseaims are sometimescalled'gettingto know you'
(GTKY) activitiesor'icebreakers'(an odd term,asit seemsbasedon the
assumptionthat an-vneu' courseu,ill automaticallystart with 'ice'). Here is an
exampleofa short GTKY activity for studerts oflntermediate level or above:
Give the follorving instructions:Srrzrz d trp.IWrcnI sa1'go',shakehandswith everjt
personin theroon asquichlyaslott can.INhenyou sluhehands,hazte a short
conxe$aLion - ashtheirnanreand zohere tlteycomefrom.tfirlten
lou haxeJutished,ntoae
qtLickllon to tlrcnextpersonuntil tolr haaesaid'hello'toeaerJ)one.

Task15,4 Visualisinga GTKYactivity

V i s u a l i s et h e a b o v ea c t i v i t yh a p p e n i n gW
. h a td o e s t h e r o o m l o o k l i k e ?W h a tc a n y o u
h e a r ?W h a t a r e t h e l e a r n e r sf' a c e s l i k e ?H o wd o t h e vf e e l ?

Perhaps:A lot ofpeoplc talking at once. A lot of movement. Learncrs a little

nervous? Confused?\Wondering whether they rcall_vwant to be in this class?But
also interested? Pleased to meet the others? A little less nervous to see that other
learners are not so different from them?

Task15.5 Adaptinga GTKYactivity

H o w m i g h ty o u a d a p tt h i s b a s i ca c t i v t t yi d e at o s u i t a c l a s s o f s c h o o ls t u d e n t s( a g e d
t e n t o t w e l v e )w h o a l r e a d yk n o we a c h o t h e r ?

One simple tactic would be to change the questions so tltat they ask about
something they don't knoq'the answcr to (eg '\rhat did you do last Saturday?').
 12 Gettingto knowa new class

Findsomeonewho..,
Hereis an icebreakercalledFindsomeonewho... Readthe handoutshownin
Figure15.10 and predictwhatinstructions
youwouldfind if youreadnotesaboutit
in an accompanyingteacher'sbook.

Findsofieonewho'
. Hasuwobrot'ha(5orlwo gietero
eorne
' iuu ao*nlouaed muslathieweek
. Watchedr'heneweonWlasrnl7hr
^ qanetnthelastmonth
""^pur'e(
' likeo chocolate
"ir1oZ,i
' dreams
Hasnioe
' Doeen'tllketootball
. ls wearlnqcolouredsocko
. W ouldlikero qo to Vare
phone
' Neversends1ext me55a0e5onihelr

Figure 15,10 Find someone

who ,.. handout

The teacher'snotes sayGh..te onecopyof thehandoutto eachlearner.Tell thelearners

thqt the! must rnovearound.the room,askingother learnersquestionsuntil theyfind
someonewho repliesyes b a question.lY.4tentheyfind a yes,,they must write that
learner'snamein thespaceafter thequestion.After eachyes,the learnersmust chttnge
partnerc.Thelearnersshouldtrt to completetheform byfinding a nametogo with
etery questxon
It's worth noting that learnersdon't iust read aloud from the paper.They haveto
do some work turning the prompts into questions; for example, 'Find someone
who likes chocolate'needsto become'Do you like chocolate?'\7ith a lowerlevel
or lessconfident class,you might want to offer a little input here,maybeby writing
up someexampleson the board and discussingthe changedgrammar.Youcor-r1d
also allow students some preparation time before the activity to make notes about
what they could say.
It's also worth remembering t}lat GTKY activities are not just for the students'
benefrtlYoumay feel just asmany concernswhen meeting a new class.GTKY
activitiescan help you feel more comfortable yourself.Tbkethe chanceto join in
the gamesand activities rather than just watching them all from the sidelines; it
he.losa lot.

373
 Chapter15 Tools,techniques,
activities

Variations on Fdz d sonteone usho . . ,

Find someone who. . . has achieveda sort oflanguage-teaching,classicactivity,
statuslVariationson it are rvidelyusedin Day one lessons,and I can,tthink of a
coursebookthat doesn'tuse it at somepoint. Here are a few different versions:
. Preparethe iin d someone who ... handout r.vithgenuinepersonalinformation
(eg '. . . who has done a bungeejump') that you havealreadyfound out about
the studentsbeforetie lesson(from previousteachers,applicationforms, chats
with the students,etc) sothat you know that ever.vstatementrelatesdirectly to a
specihcperson.
. Don't prepare a handout, but elicit the sentencesfrom
studentsin class.Tell
them to take a blank pieceofpaper, writethe Find someone uho ... headins and
then dictatea first exampleor two, after u,hich get studentsto suggesrother
interestingideas.
. A Variationon the previousidea u'ould be to get students
to suggestpeoplethe]
u'ould really like to find, eg someonewho has a similar hobby or who likesthe
samemusic. Each studentcould write their own,I d like to hnd someone
who . ..' list with maybejust three or four sentences.
. After your initial lessons,you can useFind someone wro . . . to provide practice
on specificlanguagepoints, eg presentperfect (. . . someone whohasbeenI seenI
donethings).
More GTKY activities
Somepopular GTI{Y activitiesinvolve the use of badgesor labels.For example:
. Give studentsa stick.vlabel or askthem to tear offa piece paper (about
of
5 cm X 10 cm). SayIn thetop lqft-hdndcorner,drawjtourfaaouritefood.
. \J ait while they do that, then add the other instructions:
In thebotnm left-handconter,writesoruething lou liheto do in your freetime.
In thetopright-hqndcorner,write thenarueoJsorteoneuho is intportant
toyou.
In thebottoruleft-handcorne4draw a picnne of a dreantyou haaelor
thefutl\e.
. Vhen everyonehasfinished,askthem ro attachtheir .badge,
to their clothes
(you could hand out sticky tape or paper clips) and then sund up and walk
around the room.\ hen they meet anotherperson,they can talk about each
other'sbadges,guessingwhat the picturesmean and chattingabout their lives.
. You may want to arrangea signal (eg a bell) that means.morre
on ro a new
partner' or you may prefer to allolv conversationsto last aslong asstudenG
\.vantto talk. It's probably a good idea ro make sure everl,onemeetsat leasthve
or six otJler.beforcyou end theactiriD.
. You could vary the activity by askingdifferent quesrions(e.g.,Draw
a sketchof
what you did lastweekend','Write your favourite number,,etc).
Here are a few more ideasspecihcallyaimed at helping peoplelearn eachother,s
names.

374
 12 Getting
to knowa newclass

People bingo
Each student draws a largethree-by-threegrid (ie nine squares).Slowly read
through all the nameson the register (spellingdifficult names).Studentsmust
randomly selectnine of thesenames (of peoplethey don't alreadyknow) to write
into spaceson their grid.\7hen everyonehas a full grid, the studentswalk around
the room, hnd their nine people,chat a litde and make somenotesabout each
person.
Afterwards,play 'bingo' by calling out namesrandomly * studentstick a name if
they haveit on their own grid. For eachname,askthe classto indicatewho the
personis and tell you somethingabout the person.SThensomeonecompletestheir
grid with nine ticks,they win. (But you could alwaysplay it again!)
The srnall dilference
On the board, draw a seatingplan of the room and get the classto copy it. Each
student round the room then saystheir name and everyoneelsewrites it down in
the correct placeon their plan.Ask the classto study the namesfor two minures,
then put their plans away.Ask a volunteerto leavethe room; while he / sheis
outr two other studentschangeplaces.\rhen the volunteercomesbaclghe / she
must notice and name both studentsthat havemoved. Repeatthe gamea few
times with different volunteers.After a few turns, make the gamemore difficult by
changingtwo pairs at a time.
Anagrams
Put up a mixed-up spellingof your own first name on the board, eg I might put up
'mij'. Now askstudents
to write an anagramof their own name.Collect thesein
and write them all up on the board. Every student now tries to write down all the
original names.Whenthey've finished,they can checkby walking round the room,
meeting peopleand hnding out if rhey havewritten eachperson'sname correctly.
Spv
Preparea set of small cards,one for eachstudent.On about half ofthe cardswrite
'True'; on the other
half write 'False'.Distribute them; studentsmust not let the
othersseetheir card. Studentsthen standup and mingle,meetingpeople and
talking.!7hen askedquestions,anyonewith a 'True' card must give true answersl
anyonewith a 'False'card must lie (exceptabout their name), inventing falselife
stories.Afterwards,form small groups of bet'oveen four and six people.Each
group should try to work out who was'True' and who was 'False',writing a list
identifying all the suspected'False'people.Finish up with a whole-classstage
when the lists are read out and the truth is revealed.Groups get a point for each
'False'person
correcdy spotted,but loseone for anyoneincorrectly identified.
There is a set ofphotocopiable TIyeI Fahecardson the DVD in the resources
secuon.

375
C h a p t e1r5 T o o l st,e c h n i q u eas c, tv ' t e s

Another option
This section has introduced a number of ideasfor activitiesthat may help a ne,,r,
classto get to knorv eachother. Despite all this, you might feel -voudon't need any
'activiq"
at all. It's possiblethat the best\vav for peopleto get to knos' cach other is
simpl_vby meeting and talking, rvithout speciallypreparedgamesor acti.r,ities. I
find that in classeswith more than a basiclevel ofEnglish, I increasinglyprefer not
to use'icebreakers'at all,choosinginsteadto startsimplyrvithconversation and
more 'organised,lva1,,you
introductions.Ifr,ou rvould like to do this in a slightl_v
could try this:
Ask studcntsto work in a pair u,ith someonethcy don't knou'.Explain that the-v
should chat for ten minutes about an1'thingthey u'ant to - life, interests,hopcs,
etc - dividing the time about equall-vbem,eentl.rcm.Each student should make a
few notesabout his / hcr partner - basicinformation and any particularll'
interestingor unusual things.At the end of the ten minutes,askthreepairs to meet
up togetherin sixes.In eachgroup, studentsintroduce rheir partner to the others,
sayinga fervinterestingfacts about them.The otherscan askquestionsif ttre.v
want to. (In a small class,5,oucould skip the group stagcand havestudents
introduce their partners to the $'hole class.)

13 TV DVD andvideo
Many teachers have at some time pushed a DVD film into the player and sat back
u'hile their students watched. It's the classic 'lazv' teachcr's lesson and rvorks hne -
once in a rvhile. But other than for the occasional special lesson, it's important that
we find ways to exploit video material in more uscful rvavs to help students learn.
With the growing accessibilir]*of the Internet and the possibi)ity of using
interactive whiteboards to display video content, u'e nou'have a large number
of new possibilities for using r,ideo films and clips in class. I(/hether you use
published materials, online shared materials or.vour o\,vnrecordings, there are
many ways to makc the r,vorkrelevant and engaging.
When I use video films or clips in class,I tr-v to keep l.rold of a fcrv basic guidelines.
These may sound simple, but the,v oftcn make the dilTerence betrveen a slick video
Iessonand techno-muddle:
Keep it short.
Exploit the matcrial.
Blank the screenrYhenthe studentsdon't needto look atit (a fuzzy,bLtzztng
blank screencan be distracting).
Ifpossible, find your placebefore the lcsson(othern'iseyou end up rvith ,Justa
minute,I thint it's just afterthisbit, oh perhapsit's ...').
Don't only usevideo to extractlanguagefor stud-v.Vidcocan be a great starting
point for communicativeactivitics,too, for r,vritingor for introducilg
drscussion topic areas.
Video is simply another classroom tool; it doesn't do the teaching for you. It,s not
too hard to extracL 30 to 60 minutes'rvork out ofa three-minute recording, and
that ma-vbe a lot more use than putting a one-hour recording on and just letting it
run all the way through t'hile the students quietly nod ofi
 13 TV,DVDand video

Videoin class
In orderto exploitvideorecordings,
we needto considerwhatthereis to
exploit.Whathas a videorecordinggot that my classroom/ textbook/ CD player
hasn't{ot?

A video has:
. soundl
. moving pictures:the picturesgive context to the soundswe hear.\7ecan see
facial expressions,eye contact, physical relationships, background, etc;
. a 'rewind' button: we can replay theseimagesagainand again;
. a 'pause'bufton:we can freeze-frameimages,stopping the action at any point;
. a volume control: we can turn the sound off, or make it quiet or very loud.

In addition, you can usually:

. accuratelyiump to a specificmomen!
. replay small secdonswitlr precision;
. show subtitlesin English - or any included language- on screen.

Commercial DVD discs (eg of feature films) often have bonus supplementary
materialswhich are an excellentsourcefor studentresearch,'jigsawviewing' (see
below) etc.'Deleted scenes'and 'out-takes'can provide interestingdiscussion
matter.
Ifyou havea web cam or video camera,there are evenmore possibilities(for
making programmes,recording studentsspeakingin activities,etc).

Using video recordings in class

We can divide video playbackactivitiesinto tlree generalcategories:
1 Preview:what you do before you watch a sectionofrecording
2 Viewing: what you do while you watch
3 Follow-up: what you do after watching
Any one lesson might include a number of these as different sections of the
recording areused,eg preview first section;view ftst section;preview second
sectionlview secondsection;follow-up first and secondsections;preview third
section,etc - eachsectionmight be minutes long or could be only a few seconds.

Preview activities
Here are four typical preview activities:
. A language focus on lexis, function or grammar that will come up on the
recording;
. Studentspredict what will happen from somegiven information or picturesl
. StudentsdiscuSsa topic that leadsinto or is connectedwith the subjecton the
recording;
. Students study a worksheet that they will use when watching the recording.

377
Chapter15 Tools,techniques,
acttvities

The whole of the previouslesson(or week) could itselfbe a sort ofprevieu, task
leadingup to the recording.For example,ifa particular function is being srudied,
the studentsmight alread-vhavespent a lessonor t\,\'oworking with it and now
view the recording to expand their knorvledgeofit.

Vie\Ying activities
As u'ith audio recordings,it usuallyhelpsto set clearviewing tasksand to follow
similar proceduresto thoseoutlined in Chapter l0 on listening.The task-text-
feedbackcircle still rvorksu,ellas a basicprocedurefor video.iasks might be in thc
form oforal instructionsor in the form ofa worksheet,or they might be a natural
follow-on from the preview activities.Youmay want to play the recording through
many times with harder tasks.
Thskscan be listening,looking or interpretingl for example,Ilrhy are theysoheento
getinto themuseuma.fterit'sclosed? or \X/hatseuenthingsdoestheman do afterleaaing
thegondola?or Hoz.odoesLheshopassistqntfeel? Ix/hqtwill thegdo next?Thetaskscan
focus specificallyon function, grammar,lexis or pronunciation;for example,Floa
ruan1twaltsda thecoupleask.forhelp?IVhicho;fthe.following zterbs
doesheuse?lx/hatis
on tlleshef?Is shebeingpoliteor rude?The answersto man-vof thesequestionswill
involve activeinterpretation of the visual asu.ell asthe audio messages.
Focusing
on gestures,facial expressions,body language,etc is especiallyuseful when
studying functional language.
Follow-up activities
There are many activitiesthat you can do after viewing;here are just a few ideas.
. Discussion, interpretation,
personalisation(eg'\X/hatwould you havedone?,or
'Has
this everhappenedto you?').
. Study of ne'"vlanguage.
. Role play the scene(or its continuation).
. Inspiration for other work: 'What did thc newspaper llel/o magazine
/ saythe
next day?Design the front page.'
. \J rite a lefter from one characterto another.
. Plan what they should do next.

Other ideas
Those are the basics.Nor.riif you're feelingkeen, here,sa mixed bag of ideasto
liven up the lessons.(Don't try all of thesein one go, but do try one or two of them
sometimel)
Don't let students mentally switch off; make them think; challenge them. Cover
up t1le screen and ask questions; Lltren tu the words I music - what's thepicture?
Wat are thej describing? lX/hereare the-1?Then,look at the images and compare .
In pairs, the above idea becomes an instant communic aive activrty: Tellyour
par!ner uhat you rhink was happening I r cou ld lead to drarving and compari"un
ofpictures.
Switch off the sound: lYhat are they sa3.,lzg? Advertisements work beautifull-v:
in pairs, imagine and write the script. And then the two students .lip-synch'it:
Come up to the TV; sit on either side of it and while I play t/re (silent) recording again
while yu speak the zr.'ords.(Hilarious - try itl)
'pause'
Use the button to freeze ima ges-.lX4tathappensnexr? (Thlk about it;
$'rite the story, etc.) Then (later) watch and compare.
 13 TV,DVDandvideo

Divide the classin two, on separatesidesof the room. Only one half can seethe
screen.Have the soundturned off. Half (A) watchesfor one minute.Then (asa
group or in pairs) tellsthe other half (B) what happened.Thenswapover and
repeat.This is greatwith short' silent comedy sketches.For a very noisy
variation,everyoneinA tells a pre-chosenpartner in B what is happeningwhile
it is happening,ie live commentary.The quiet variation:A watchesand mimes
to B whatis happening;at the end, B must tell the story to A. All ofthese sound
quite silly (and they are),but there'sloadsofexcellent and challengingspeaking
and listeningpractice.
With a camera:make your own news/ entertainment/ documentary/
advertisements,etc.
Film studentsdoing somethingelseand play back later for focus on
pronunciation, gramrnar,effectivecommunication,error analysis)etc.
Play through a sectionof an unknown film at 8 x or 16X speed Ask studentsto
watch and try to work out what is happening.Whenfinished,groups can
compareand argue.Maybe the classasa whole could then try to reach a
consensus,after which everyonecan watch the film at normal speedand check.
Watch a one- or two-minute clip a number of times with the sound down and
English subtitles.Ask studentsto fllst copy thesesubtitles.Replayit often
enoughfor them to do this.I(/hen all havethe text (and havecheckedit), ask
them to work in pairs to decide what the subtides would be in their own
language.\7henthey havefinished writing and havecompared (and actedout
their versions?),they can, ofcourse, watch the DVD wittr subtidesin their
languageand seehow closethey got.
Choosea one- or two-minute clip no one is familiar with, perhapsof a very
visually dramatic or humorous moment. Cover up the top four-frfths of the
screen.Switch on English subtitles.Play the clip. Ask learnersto sketchwhat
they tlrink is happening on screen.$7henfinished,they compare,and at the end
get to seewhat is really on screen

Activities for video

Recalla specificTVadvertisement that you knowwell.Deviseseparateactivities
to use in classto givestudents(a) speakingpracticeusingpastverbforms;
(b) practicein writingformalletters;(c) a roleplaythat doesmorethan simply
gettingthemto re-enactthe ad.

Exploitinga TV weather forecast

waysto exploita TVweather
Findseveral forecastinyourclass.
Youcouldnowuseffiiiitasks 9 and 10from theDVD to focuson your
and
thoughtson specihctechniques to makea noteofonesyou'dliketo
into
incorporate your ownteaching.

379
 Ghapterl6 Nextsteps
This chapterincludessomekey ideasfor moving forward.There are suggestions
you could use for observationsand for action researchaswell asthinss to consider
asyou developasa teacher.

What is 'learning teaching'?

The title of this book suggeststhat thereis a kind ofteachins that is alsoa kind of
learning- a 'learning teaching'.It's not just rhe studcntsu,ho do t}.relearning,but
you do aswell. You teachand you learn - and the tu,o things are intertwined.
O u t s i d ea n di n . i d ef r e c l a s sy. o ul i r e a n d1 o ul e a r n .
It is not just somethingyou do '"vhileI'ou are on an initial training courseor while
you are a 'green',new teacher.Instead.it is how you could be thioughout your
teachingcareer.I il go so far asto suggestthat anlrteacherwho has stopped
learning themseh'eshasprobably also stoppedbeing useful asa teacher.
One good rva-vto keeplearning about teachingis to neverlet your ideas,setin
concrete')to remain open to the possibility ofbeing wrong - or to more interesting
alternativewaysofdoing things,to alu'aysbe questioning (and possiblychangingj
someof .vourideas.
As you read this book - or any other ELT rvriting - collect any practicalideasand
techniquesyou need,but alsokeep questioningand challengingthe author,s
suggestions.Keep your mind working on discoveringwhat you believeabout how
peoplelearn and how bestto enablethat. In many ways,the questionsare more
important than the answerslknowing that somethingis not hxed and certain
encouragesa different, more exploratory way ofworking.
Don't be too keento rush to certainty about the bestway ofdoing something.In
fact, I'd arguethat there'sa lifetime of fruitful work in enjoyingyour unccrranryr
Ifyou eversmrt getting too sureof the answers,tr1,having a rethink on one of the
questronsbelow to keepyou alertl
. Do I really knorv horv someonelearnsto use a new item oflanguage?
. How exactlydoesmy teachingmake a positive difference?
. rWhatdo I do that getsin the way ofmy students,learning?
Teachingis very exciting and challengingin the first few months and years.But as
it becomesmore familiar and you grow in conhdence,thereis a dangerthat things
may grow stalerand lessenjoyabl".

380
 1 Whatis 'learningteaching'?

- \ a-1^:'_)-\
| 7RE55uRE5)
O
o o
oo o o oo
ooo ,-. a)
o o oo
o
oo

Teacher developrnent
Learning about teaching doesn't stop whenever your training courses finish. In
fact, this is where your development as a teacher really begins. You could:
. read new ideas in magazines, on blogs and try them out;
. write an article for a magazine (most articles in magazines for language
teachers are by teachers like you);
. start a local newsletter:
. take part in online social networksl
. try a'bold parabola' (seeChapter 6, Section 8);
. go to a conferenceor a seminan
. go to a conference and give a talk about what you have been working on in class;
. learn about a completely different approach;
. discuss what you are doing with other teachersl
. make an agreement with a colleague to observe each other's lessonsl
. find a way to get involved in some in-service teacher training;
. do a seminar for your colleaguesl
. start your own schooll;
. give private lessonsl
. specialise (eg computers, business, self-access centres, video, exams, etc)1
. write a message for a website or a magazine article or even a book;
. read this book asain!

381
Chapter16 Nextsteps

Teacher development groups and associations

The quality of the progressyou make in teaching (and horv you feel about it) is
partly to do with other people.Ifyou rvork in a staff room where people are open
and readyto discussand exchangeideas(andmaterials),.vou havea hugebonus.
Many teachershavefound tltat membership ofa local,regionalor national
teachers'group hastremendousbenefits So m\, main suggestionif.vou are feeling
at all stuck would be to ioin (or start) a teacherdevelopment(TD) group.

Local TD group
Invite colleaguesu'orking in -vourschool (or in the local area)to come togetherfor
a meeting.Tellthem that this r.r'ill(initially, at least)be rvithout a fixed agenda
beyond offering a chance1br everyoneto meet up and discussan.rcurrenr rssues.
problems,developments,etc.Although it may be tempting to plan talks or evcnts.
the most useful support ma.vsimply be the chanccto meet up and sharestories.A
typical surpriseis rvhenteachersdiscovcrthat they are not alonein ho,"vthey feel.
but that other teachcrssharemany of their interests,rvorries,qucstions,etc. Once
the group is under l'al,! more ambitious schedulescan be agreedupon. Be careful
not to becomesidefackcdinto beinga one-issue group (egto promotea political
or administrativechangethat teachersseeasimportant); make sure 1ou keep
spaceIbr conversationas$'ell.

Regional, national and internationalteachers' associations

These provide anotherbrilliant line ofsupport. Frequentlv such organrsauons
prepareconferences, coursesand newsletters.They area greatu'a-vofnetworking.
meeting otlrer teachersand keepingin touch. IATEFL (InternationalAssociatic'n
of TeachersofEFL) is perhapsthe largestsuch organisation,with important
nationalgroups in man_vcountries,gigantic internationaland regional
conferences,and extremely'useful SpecialInterest Groups (SIGs) with their os n
newslefters.Rcmember,the peopleu,ho run theseare not distant bureaucrats,bu:
teacherslike you - and just about ever,\/organisationI haveever come acrossrs
delightedwhen teachersexpressan interestin helping run things.That,s a grear
rvayofgetting inspired,lvhile doing somethinguseful for l,ourselfand others.

How can I change?

In order to gror.qrveneedto remain open ro the possibility of change.That mar' : -
difficult, for changeis risky and potentially rhreatening.It can feel saferto sraJ'
fixed, unmor,'ing.But this means,weekb.vrveek,hour by hour, we grow stalean.j
our lessonsgrou' tired - recreationsofold. deadlessons,rather than ne$,,livinq
ones.Here are ftvo interestingviews on changefrom thousandsofyearu aparr.
Both suggestthat a keenerau'arenessofthe presentis the ke-vto changing.

Tao
The ancient Chinesepl.rilosophyof'lbo seesever]'thingin the unit'erseas
interdependent and constantlychanging.!0e,like everythingelse,arepart o1'rh:.
process.Changeis natural.'l-hebestu'av to live is to remain open to thc natur.a)
florv of changeand move rvith it, ie going t'ith thc flow, rather than rying ro srr r
upstream.! e do our best$'hen tr!ing to act in accordancervith nature,usrng
minimal interventionsrather than strong forcc.
 2 Observed
lessons

Thus, in theThoistvie% we do not needto struggleto changeourselves.Rather,

we needto be awareof the world around us and our placein it- and remain open
to moving with the changesthat takeplaceand involveus. In other words: be here
now, fully and alertly.

Krishnarnurti
Krishnamurti (1895-1986) was an Indian thhker who had a most extraordinary
life. Much ofhis philosophyrs ofdirect relevanceto peoplewho work in
education.The following passageis part of Krishnamurti,s answerro a child who
asked'How can you changeyourself?'

lY,4tenpeoplesay'I am changingJrom this to that', thq) think they are mooing-

They think they are changing.But in actualfact, they havenot movedat
all.lX/hattheyhaoedoneis projectedan ideaoJwhat theyshouldbe. .. But it is
not a moaernent.Theythink it is change,but what is changeisfirst to beawareof
what actually'is'andto live with it,and thenoneobseraes that the'seeing'itself
bringsabout change.
Krishnamurti on education (Krishnamurti Foundation, 1974)

I frnd this very powerful guidanceon a way to change.He is arguing against

settingup distant goalsand trying to reachthem. Ifyou are fully awareofthe
presentand what'is', he suggests,then that awareness,of itself, alreadyproduces
change.

Observed lessons
I'm goingto obserueyou ,,.
A trainer(or headof departmentor directorof studies)stopsyou in the corridorand
s a y s , ' l ' mg o i n g t oc o m ei n a n do b s e r v e y o ul er s s o no n T u e s d a y . '
1 Howdo youfeel?
2 Whatwouldyou liketo knowbeforeshe comesin?

Observationis a common featureofteacher-training coursesand is a part of in-

serviceteachersupport in many schools.Many teachersrespondto news ofan
upcoming formal observationwit}t somedegreeoftrepidation (or sheerterror).
lThatever the statedpurpose,it may feel like a test of somesort - and tiere is
alwayslikely to be somedegreeofintrusion when an extra person is sitting in your
classroom.Studentsmay respond differently (often more reticently), and it is
often hard for you to do what you do naturally when, every time you blin\ that
guy in the corner scribblesa new comment. It can lead to a heighteneddegreeof
self-consciousness which, in the worst cases,can interferewith your natural skills
and the successof the lesson.
Having saidthat, observation,done well, providesperhapsthe most useful help a
learning teachercan get.When we are teaching,it's very hard to takein coolly and
objectivelythe whole panoramaof what is happening around us in the classroom.
'We
may naturally get lockedinto particular habits,waysof working, waysof
 Chapter16 Nextsteps

speaking,avoidances,etc that we are unable to notice! simplv becauscrt ts we u,ho

do them.An obsen'ercan be an outsideevc,someonervho can tell us thinss. Ifrve
trust the person coming in, there is an opportunitv to get insightsfrom a differenr
vie$'point,from soncone rvho is not emodonallyinvoh,ed$,ith the class,but who
can notice things \ye can't and can teli us things ,"r,ecan,t see,or half_secbut have
not fully taken on.
So,the trepidation on hearing an obscrvationis fully understandable(I still get it
mysell), but it is rvorth gefting past that assoonaspossibleand looking for r.vavsof
maximising the learning possiblefrom such hclp.

Forrnal observations
I'11saysomethingmore about peer obscrvationin the next section.For this
sectionJ we'11 now focuson 'formal,observattons.
All kindsofobscrvationcanleadto usefullcarning.'[-he chancesofthis are
significantlylessif ther.eis no feedbackdiscussitrn follorring the lesson(for
exarnplc,in an inspection),though eventhen, thc challengeofprcparing and
deliveringa high-quality lessonmay spur I'ou to discoverthings about yor-rrself
and your studentsthat,\:ouhadn't knou,nbefore
If an observationis to happen,both partiesusuall,v neeclto know and agreeas
many of the follol'ing things aspossible:
. All the logisticaldetails(r,hen, r.rherc,hor,vlong).
. Information about the class(1evt'1. rrhar thc sruJ(,ntsarelike, recent studyr
currentissues,ctc).
. Informationaboutthe intendedt1'peoflcsson(a ,bl
'wing-it' the-book'lesson?a
lesson? an experiment?a'driving test,- attemptingto showoffthe
bestthar tlte teachercan do?) In othcr rvords,to rvhatexteni is the observer
going to seea representativelesson?
. The t1'peofobservation (training, developmental,assessment,
data,peer)
seebelow
. !(/ho setsthe agcnda,ie rvho decidesthe specificaims
ofthe observation?It
couldbe ( 1) tlreobserverl(2) the tcacherbeingobscrr.ed; or (3) someexternal
source(eg a schoolcodc or a teacher-trainingcoursesvllabus
. Specificaims of the obscrr.ation,ie rvhatthe
obscn-erriill look out tbr ancl
comment on afterrvards(r,vhichrvill dcpend on rvho sct the agenda).
. How you rvould like the observerto be (,invisible,?participaring
in the lesson?
takinglots ofnotes?videoing?etc).

Five tlpes of observation

It is worth clearl-vdistinguishingfir.et-vpesof obsen ation (althougha single
observationcould incorporatemore than one ofthesc)
Observationma-vbe:
. Training As part of a training programme to hclp
traincrs identify l our
current le\relofskills and your needs.Trainingobservationsarc tvpically on
'somcone
else'sagenda',ie you arebeingobservedand asscssed aspart ofa
programme or s_\'llabus to achievca certain set of specifiedeoals
. Developmental '-fhis contrasts\\'ith rraining. in
tlr"t.de ,...Ll.,merrt,suggests
-\/ourown agendats paramount (rather than thaLof a courserequirementor a

381
 yourownteaching:
3 Studying feedback,
reflection
andactionresearch

trainer). In a developmentalobservation,you would typically specifyyourself

what would be mostuseful to havefeedbackon.
. Assessment To assessyou and your teachingagainstcriteria of quality,
acceptability,appropriacy,etc.An assessment may be part of a course (with
grades,levels,points, etc) or it may be an internal or externalinspection,for
exampleby a national associationofschool recognition.
. Data collection Sometimesschoolsor teachersor othersmay want to
objectivelyinvestigatesome aspectof classroomlife (such as'comparing
participation levelsof male and femalestudents'or 'varietiesofteacher
questions').Often such observationswill be basedon making quandtative
studies(ie how often, how much, etc) ofwhat goeson. Such observadonsare
often by peersrat-herthan by trainers or membersofthe schoolhierarchy.
. Peer observation Peerobservationis when a colleaguecomesin to watch
your lesson(or part ofa lesson).The aim is for both participants to learn
something.Youare not expectingyour colleagueto give you 'trainer-type'
feedback,but there can probably be an exciting exchangeofideas, discussion
about different waysofworking, comparisonofviews, etc.

Studying your own teaching: feedback, reflection

and action reseafch
TeachingEnglish can be very exciting,but at 3.30 on a Monday afternoon,with a
whole term aheadof you, it can seema lot of other things,too.
For the first two yearsor so in the profession,the demandsofgetting to grips with
subtectmatter, technique,organisation,schoolpolitics,not to mention students,
can be very stressfuland tiring, and it may often feel asifyou standno chanceat
all of winning through. Idealsand enthusiasmthat you startedwith may fade away
asit becomesclearthat you can't make everylessonperfect,that somestudents,
someclassessimply won't like what you do.And there are the dayswhen you may
haveto strugglejust to get through.
As time goeson, you will probably find that you havemore experienceto lean or5
more tried-and-testedlessonsin the bag to recycleendlessly-Thenboredom and
stalenessare the dangers,oncethe challengeof becomingcompetenthas faded.
Twenty yearsofteaching experiencecan becomeno more than two years'
experiencerepeatedten times over.Repeatedventuring down well-travelledroads
leadssooneror later to boredom, to fossilisationofroutines, to increasing
defensiveness and fear ofchange.The questionbecomesnot'How can I survive?'
but'How can I keepmoving forward?' or 'How can I becomet-l1e bestteacherthat
I can be?' The more establishedand saferyou are in your job, the harder it can
becometo takerisks,to try somedringcompletelydifferent.
The first important stepstowardsbecominga better teacherinvolve an increased
awarenessabout what you do now and an opennessto the possibilityofchange.
Ifyou want to move forward, you haveto be clearaboutwhat it is that you do now.
Do you actuallyknow what you are doing in class?Do you everstop and examine
your actions,your intentions,your motives,your aftitudes?Youkeepplanning for
the nextlesson,the next day,but to look back,to recallwhat happened,to reflect
on it: this seemsharder to do.\fhat did happen in that class?rJThatwere you like as
a teacher?Did you enablelearning or preventit?\(rhy did you do the things you
did?\fhat were the other options,the onesthat you didn't take?
Chapter16 Nextsteps

We can teachand teach.Or rvecan teachand learn.This kind ofteaching, a

'learning
teaching',is a refusalto say'I knotv it all. I can relaxfor the rest of m1'
career.'Learning teachingis a desireto move forward, to keeplearning from what
happens.It involvesfeedbackfrom othersand from ourselvesabout what
happened.It involvesreflection on u'hat happened,togetherwith an excitement
about trying a slightly different option next time. Learning teachingrs an aware
and activeuse of the experientiallearning cycle in one'sorvnlife and work.
Learning teachingis a belicfthat creativity,understanding,experienceand
charactercontinue growing throughout one'slife.

Getting feedback on teaching

Feedback frorn colleagues

Ask odrer teachersto come in and observe some ofyour lessons,and do an
exchange observation with them, not to judge each other or score points but to
learn from each other.The growth in trust and respect that comes from sharing
ideas and skills in this way can really help all involved move forward, as well as
having a markedlv positive e1I'ecton the whole atmosphere ofa school.
Even if a colleague cannot come in and observe a lesson, then you could still set
aside some uninterrupted time (perhaps fifteen minutes or so) r.vhenthey rvill sit
and listen to you talk through -vour thoughts about the lesson.Your colleague could
make a 'contract' u'ith 1'ou that he or she $'ill not offer suggestions or advice or
help or opinions, but will simply listen and support you.This kind of helping is
very simple to describe, but extremely porverful in action. It can be surprisingly
beneficial to talk through one's or,vnexperience with another person who is
really listening.

Feedback from you

\When you have taught a lesson, it can be tempting to
seeit completely uncritically
in broad shades ofextremes either as a huge successor as a complete failure.
Teachers sometimes find themseh'es diving from one extreme to the other in the
spaceofa few minutes.
You ma-v equally be tempted not to think about the lesson at all, to pur rr away rn
the back ofyour mind and forget it, or alternatively to brood over it, picking away
at it for hours afterwards, regretling $'hat happened and seeing every possible
alternative way ofdoing things as an improvement on rvhat actually happened.
The alternative (and more difficult option) is to tr_vand take an objective, more
balanced vieu' ofwhat happened: hrst to recall what happened, then to reflect on
that and look for u,hat was successful and for u.hat could be improved. Whatever

386
 yourownteaching:
3 Studying feedback,
reflection
andactionresearch

the lessonwaslike, there will havebeengood points in it and things that could be
worked on.This is true for the most experiencedteacherasmuch asfor a beginner.
If you are taking an initial training course, then your tutors may be just asinterested
rn encouragingyour own self-awareness asin pointing out successes and problems
themselves.Theycould spendthe whole time praisingwhat you di4 or tearing
your lessoninto litde pieces,but the only thing that is going to move you forward as
a teacherisif you yourselfbecomeawareof what works and what doesn't.
'Hot and cold
feedback'is one way of becomingmore awareofwhat you are
doing. It works like this:

Hot feedback
As soon asyou sit down after teaching (and assoon asyou havegot your breath
backl), write down a descriptionof someof the things that happenedand / or
your first reactionsand feelingsabout what happened.None of this needsto be
more than a sentenceor two; you may find that the simple act of trying to get your
thoughts together in writing will help you to clarify exactly what it is thar you are
thinking. For example:
Theoralpracticeseemed to worhwelLThestudents got reallginaolaedq.nddidn't u)qnt
to stop.I noticedthat I wqsconcentrqtingon studentsto my right; I rather I{t out thefiae
sitting near thedoor.Checkingthehomeworkwith the whoh classwasz;erydull.There
must bea betterua! to go throughall theanswer'

Cold feedback
rJThenthe lessonhasbecomea bit clearerin your head- maybe an hour or so later,
or perhapsthe next day (or, if the lessonwas observed,after the observerhas
talked over the lessonwith you) - add a few more sentences,rememberingto look
for the positivethings aswell asthings that needwork. For example;
lVhat wassuccessful: the lexicalgame-;fast andfun - thegpractiseda lnt of words.
I felt moreconfident;I'm beginningto get usedto the way this classworhs.
Towork on:I could beclearerwith instuctions.Thql weredefinitelyconJused at
the stqrt of thegame.I talked rather a lot. I noticedmyselftalking oaersomeof
their answerszDhen I got impatient - I'll try to watchfor that in future. I don't
think Joanna said angthing all lesson.I must havea chat with her andfind out if
eoerything\ OK. PerhapsI couldask questionsdirect to namedindiaiduak, rather
than generalquestionsto the wholeclass.Thqtwould stopthe two strongonesalways
comingin f.rst.
The 'feedback'sheetwill now representyour views at two differenr stagesof
consideringthe lesson.Youmay well find that your reactionis rather different at
thesetwo points. Finding which view of thesetwo is the most objective,realistic
and supportiveto yourselfmay improve your ability to analyseyour own lessons
in the future, and thus help your developmentasa teacher.
Your own approachto this kind ofself-feedbackwill reflect your own style and
your own perceptions,but ifyou find it hard to get going, try using rhe self-
assessment model describedbelow.
Chapter16 Nextsteps

Lesson self-assessment
Ifit's not possiblefor a colleagueto observehere is an idea you can try on your
own. For eachlessonyou teach,chooseone questionfrom partA below,one from
part B and one from part C. rX/riteyour answers.Ifpossible, talk through your
answersrvrthanotherperson who has agreedsimpll' to listen (rathcr ttran take
part in a conversation).
Roughly speaking:
. A focusesyou on recallingu'hat happenedin the lesson.
. B focuseson reflectingon the lesson,particularly looking for what was
successful.
. C focuseson drar'vingconclusionsfrom the experienceand hnding waysto
move forward in ,vourfuture teaching.

A Recalling the lesson

1 List a number of things that you did during the lesson.
2 List a number of things that the studentsdid during d.relesson.
3 Note down any commcntsor feedbackthat a snrdentgaveyou during the lesson.
4 Note any important personalinteraction betweenyou and a student during
the lesson.
5 Summarisethe main stagesof the lessonasyou rememberit.
6 What wasthe balanceof 'teacherdoing things'compared with'students doing
things'in the lesson?
7 List somethings that happenedapproximatell'asyou planned them.
8 List somethings that happeneddifferently from your plan.
9 Recallonemoment in the lessonwhen 1,'ouhad a cleardecisionto makebetween
oneoption and another.rWhat rverethe optionsyou choseandrejected?

B Reflecting on the lesson

1 Note severaltl.ringsthat you are proud of about the lesson.
2 lfhat wastl.rehigh point of the lessonfor you?Why did it feel good?
3 Can you ansu'erthat samequestionfrom the students'point of view?
4 Name severalspecificpoints in the lessonwhere you feel the studentswere
learning something.
5 At what points could you havebeenclearer?
6 Which part of the lessoninvoh'edthe studentsmost completely?
-
\ herervere re mainchallenges for tl.resrudent.?
8 Where was time not usedelficiently?
9 At what point did you feel most awkward or uncomfortable?
10 Did you achievewhat you $rantedto achieve?
11 Did the studentsachievewhat you hoped they would achieve?

C Drawing conclusionsl making plans

1 If you taught the lessonagain,rvhatwould you do the same?
2 Ifyou taught the lessonagain,r.vhatwould you do differentll'?
3 N hat haveyou learnedabout your planning?
4 \(/hat haveyou learnedabout your teachingproceduresand techniques?
5 What haveyou learnedabout your studcnts?
6 \Whathave-voulearnedabout
_vourself.)
7 rX/hathaveyou learnedabout learning?
388
 yourownteaching:
3 Studying feedback,reflection
andactionresearch

8 List someintentions or 'action plans' for your future teaching.

9 Write a brief descriptionof yourself asa teacherseenfrom a student's
viewpoint. Vhat is it like to be taught by you?

Action research
Action researchis a teacher'spersonalstudy ofhis / her own teachingor of the
students'Ieaming.It contrastswidr a more common image of researchas
somethingdone by academicsin distant universities.Action researchhas the
advantagethat it can be very small-scale.Anything you do in your work that is
activelyseekingto help you learn and progressis a kind ofaction research.A more
systematicroute (eg when you want to experimentwith a new classroom
technique) might follow the route shown in Figure 16 . 1.

Choosea generalarea
for the experiment

Do backgroundreadingand research

Decidethe specificfocus of
the experiment
What you
rearncan
Decidehowyou can assessthe results feed into
y o u rc h o r c e
of the next
expeflment

Experiment

Analyseand reflecton the outcomes

Ficure 16,1 Action research

Actionresearch
l ec t i o nr e s e a r c hM. a t c hp a r t so f h e r
F i o n ai s t a l k i n ga b o u th e ro w ns m a l l - s c a a
description to the diagramin Figure16.1.
I beganto worry that I was talkingtoo much in class and that it wasgettinEin the
wayof students' Iearning.I founda book on the schoolbookshelfwith a veryshort
mentionofthe SilentWaymethod that soundedinteresting.I researchedSilent Way
on the lntetnet and foundsome samplelessonplans. I thoughtthere was no wayI
could do a full Silent Waylesson, but I decidedI could try somethingfrom one of
the plans. I planneda normal lessonbut with a ten-minutestage whenl wouldtry
out a student activitywhereI wouldsay verymuch less than usual. I decidedto
rccord the wholeso-minutelesson and listen back to it afterwards.WhenlisteninE,
I wouldmake a rcugh assessmentof how much I talked everythree minutes. So I
389
Chapter16 Nextsteps

did the lesson,and the activitysort of worked,but the most interestingrevelation

washowmuchI talkedin the otherparts of the lesson evenmorethan I'd
thought.Thisled me to designmy next experimentin whichI ...

4 The pack ofcards

'When
observing nerv teachers in class,I usually keep a note ofissues we talk about
after the lesson. I've noticed that many of the same comments and advice tend to
come up again and again. Here, I't'c selected some of dte most frequent or more
interesting thoughts and presented them as a random list.Think of it as a pack of
cards - if you're feeling bored or in need ofa nudge to move you forward a little,
try picking one of these 'cards' at random, think about it, check ifit applies to vou
and seeifyou can make any use of the suggestions.
1 Don't correct good, natural sentences because you want them to use 'full
sentences', eg in anstver to 'Are you going to visit Greece next year?', 'No,
I'm not'is actuall.v a befter answer tl.ran'No,I'm not going to visit Greece
next -vear'.
2 Getting students to repeat single words is less useful than real-u'orld phrases,
'marry'
eg is lessuseful than 'He's married' or 'She'sgoing to get married'.
3 Don't just aim for students to 'understand'. Plan for students to be better able
to use ltems.
4 Don't teach and tcach.Teachand check. Check againl Check the quiet ones!
(Try: input 5%, checking 95%.)
5 Don't over-rely on the stronger students. Don't assume ever.vonehas got
sometling because one has 'got it' Don't say 'Excellentl', pouncing on the first
answer, and rush on. Did all the learners agree? Find out!Throw language and
answers around.
6 Teachers often rvorry that students'are too good'and maybe'know it all'!
Don't let this get in _vour\,vayor put you off. It can lead you to rush because
you're a litde embarrassed at the possibility of boring them.
7 Do you need to keep organising all the time? Do you typically take quite an
over-active, motivating role? Can you lear,eit up to tltem a bit more?
8 You ask'All agree?' (there is silence from srudents).You say 'OI{ ...' and
continue to the next item. Is it urorth waiting until you get some real ans\l'ers?
Watch out for a tendency to 'fill all the silences'.
9 Be careful that games don't become more important than the language work
itself. If -vou get too focused on rvho's first, winners, points, etc, it can obscure
the real aim.

390
 4 Thepackofcards

10 Check out different individual students.Don't rely on the generalmumble

from the room asa whole. Pick random victims, rather than'round the circle'.
11 To stop one student dominating,name studentsto answer.Don't'hear' the
loud studentwhen he shoutsout over the top.
12 Try using'traffic cop' gesturesto control interaction (eg'Stop talking', 'You
can speak').Nominate studentswith hand gesturesto show who's to speak.
Postponegiving your'rubber stamp' ofteacher acknowledgementto students'
answers.Let them discussa little.Try the 'blank face' techniquewhen students
give a response(ie look around without immediately smiling and nodding).
Once you 'rubber-stamp' an answer,all discussionis ended.
13 'Feedbackafter an activity wi*r correction' is a key lessonstage,but tends to be
underplanned.Exactly how will you get the answersand do the correction?
14 Is your plan just: ( 1) studentsdo lots ofexercises;(2) you go through them
validatingcorrect answers?How can you get more variety into that?
15 When studentsaska questionor try to explain somethingto you, don't talk
over theml Listen! Separateyour talk from theirs (it's not a 'caf6 chat').
16 Are you gettingreal feedbackfrom the learners?More than just an'it's all OK'
or a bland pat on the back?Give yourselfspaceto listen and frnd out how they
are really doing.
17 Are you really finding out if they all know the items ... or is it just the hrst
person to call out? One person gavean answer.lfhat about the others?Are you
steamrolleringanswers?One personhalf-catchingsomethingdoesn't equal
'Everyonegot it and
therewere no problems'.
18 It can be useful to 'disappear'sometimes.Thereare tasksyou can just let them
get on with.Your visiblepresencecan be an interference.
19 Are studentsonly telling you, the teacher?Does all communication go through
you?Ifyou setup an activity well, they should often be ableto do it on their
own. Constant micro-managementwill drain the task of any paceor fun and
you can end up doing the task more than students.Find waysto encourage
them to tell eachother more.
20 Don't start speakinginto a generalclassroomhubbub. Get their attention first.
21 You can only elicit things they know / half-know.Otherwiseyou need to input.
If you anticipatewords will be 'new', plan to teachmore than elicir.
22 Do you sometimeswork with a strongerstudentto clarify a word's meaning .. .
but with relatively litde evidence that others have got it?
23 \fhen studentsask'Can I say ...?' (ie they want to checkwith you if they have
the right meaningfor a word), try to avoid artifrcialencouragementlike
'Maybe' or 'We
could saythat' if it's not true.
24 Do you tend to make eyecontact mainly with the centreof the room? Could
you spreadit around more?
25 Rememberthat it's alwaysmuch, much harder for studentsto listen than most
teacherseverbelieve!
26 '\7ere there any words that you found difficult?' (!Zell, almostcertainly yes!It's
not a very useful question.)
27 Are you more concernedwith collectingright answersthan with helping
studentslisten?Listening should not primarily be a 'test'; rather your aim is to
help them get bener at listening. (How can you do this?)
28 If you tell studentswhat was on the recording,then you end up doing the
difficult listeningwork, not them.

391
Chapter16 Nextsteps

29 Does this classroommoment ring any bells:Dzdl/z4) meettlrcImnol: person?AII

studentssayno.You start rapidl5,- nodding j,'es.A student salrsJes.you say,So
the answer's"ves" becauscon the recordingshesaid...'
30 A centimetreofinput; a mctre ofpractice!
31 lfhen teachersmake requestslike'Can 1'ousa.vthat for me?',I keepthinking
'Why
for mei'' To pleasethe teacher?Wlrosebenefit is the practicefor?Thcre
are a lot ofunderlying assumptionsin the languagethat teachersuse,and it is
sometimes$'orth challengingthem b_vlooking at everyda_v languageuse and
seeingwhat lies behind it. If u'e believethat a teacher,sjob is to help students
learn - and that learnersare not doing things to pleaseus, but from their orvn
motivation - then maybethc reflection of attitudesin small,inconsequential,
phrasesand litde acdonsmay be worth noting
32 To get somethings to realll''take off ', 1'oumay needto scnd out a slightly more
argumentativeJplaylul or'devil's advocate'tone.
33 Don't get stuck in 'large-classteacher'mode all the time.
34 \ifith mumbling students)be carefulnot to gct lockedinto inaudible
one-to-oneloops.rfi/alkfurther arvavrather than closer.
35 Don't keepapologising,telling them horv hard, fasr or tediousit u,as/,"r,illbe. If
you really r.vantto raisethis, askfor their ideasin a $'a],thar doesn't apologise.
36 Don't put embarrasscd individualsin trc spotlightto rdmit rheirfailures!It
can be excruciating.
37 Don't askbig questionslike 'Did you understandanvthing on the recording?'
38 ! hile studentslisten,sit stilll Don,t fuss around;it's distracting.
39 When listening,don't just automaticallyreplay.Lcr them checkif they could
do the task.
40 If timing is a worry, try planning a lessonbacku,ards,ie ifyou reall.vwant them
to havetime to do presenrations ar rhe end (anddiscussthem),plan your
timing backwardsfrom that and calculateback to tl.relessonstarr.
41 Be careful ofinterruplng too much once-vouhavesetstudentsto do a task.
Basicguidelineis'Setit up, then get outl,Consider\yhencertainthinssneedto
b e d o n ca n dp l a na h e a d .
42 Is your lessona littlc on the eas-vside?Are -vouholding their handsa bit too
much? Do you back off a linle from realll'grabbing somebulls by the horns?
Do you sidestepto avoid the tricky, interesting,challengingbits ofa lesson
(maybebecauseit might put you on the spot)?
43 With grammar, the theoreticalunderstandingis the smallestpart of rhc
problem. It's actuallymaking use of that kno\a,ledge to make ,live,decisions
when communicating tl.ratis difficult.
44 Are someofl'our lessonsgood but a little,mechanical,,asif you are doing the
lesson'to'the studentsmore than \\'orking $,ith them?Make sure that, in
execution,you leavespacefor studentsto influencethe florv (at leasta little).
Horv much are -voureally listeningto them and altering the lessonin subtle
waysto respond?Thestudentsneedto inhabitmorespacethan justgiving
one-word answersor repcatingsentences.
45 Lots of oral practicel
46 Could you 'demand' better,more natural-soundingstudcnt sentences?
47 Don't over-help.-fhelearning is olten in thc struggle.Don't fecl you haveto
'save'them
from every difficulty.
48 If the main aim of a taskis 'reading', maybeone of the skillsthe_vare working
on is understandingtext evenwhen they don,t knorv everyrvord. So ma_vbe

392
 and people
5 A closingcomment:language

lexis work could come after the task rather than interrupting the reading? Let
them struggleand try to'read'flrst.
49 \Jghenyou teachor checka word, make sure your definition is aspreciseas
possiblerather than just in the generalarea lf a student didn't understandthe
meaningof craslz, would someonehitling their hand on the board help? Or
could they equallytotally misunderstand?Ifit's not precise,what is the
purpose of the mime activity?
'getting to the meat' quicker.
50 Don't let'into' stufftake too long.\7ork on
51 Students'writing on the board can be very hard to read.Don't avoid it, but
rememberthat they may need encouragementtowrite more clearlyif it's for
'public'reading.
'learner-centred'lessonbut your internal image ofa'teacher'is
52 Ifyou want a
someonewho sitsat the front, talking, helping, questioning,etc,tiere may
'tell eachother'but then still sit very
be a clash.Ifyou askthe studentsto
visibly up front looking at them, frequently interrupting, helping, guiding,
questioning,etc,you'll probably get a largely silent room, waiting for your
next responserather than a lively discussron
Joker Heyl Slow down!

A closing comrnent: language and people

As languageteachers,we are privileged to work with a vital and fascinatingsubject
matter.Languageis the way we expressour very being.It is the way we come to
terms with the world. It is the way we make our understandingof life concrete lt is
the way we make contactwith other human beings.
As a teacher)you will often find yourselftied up in the nitty-gritty atomistic side of
language:the verb endingsand the prepositions,the schwasand the falling intonation
'whole' aswell. Don't losetouch with the fact that
putt -i. B.tt tty to keep hold of the
people need languageto cormunicate with other people. Remember this in class'
andlet it sound an occasionalwaming bell in your head Don't only hear the mistakes
and the verb tensesand the adverbs;ly to hear the people using the language'
Education is too important to be lost amid a constant focus on smallerproblems'
'\rhat are
At its widest,I *rink all educationis an answerto a singlebasic question:
humans for?' Clearly everyonehastheir own different, individual answers,or will
be searchingto find them.As teachers,our major contribution to life and to
education is to help others find their own way towards their own solutions within
their own lives.
As a teacher,you are alsoa learner- Iearningabout language,methodology,
people,yourself,life. . . I suspectthat the moment you stop learning,you alsostop
being involvedin education.So,rather than being a teacher,be a learner'There's
no needto role play someonewith all the answers;be honestwith yourself and
activelyhnd waysto learn alongsideyour students.
In this boo( I havetried to dealwith methodologynot asa seriesofrules and
truths that already and permanently exist, but as options available to us all, to use
or not to use aswe wrsh.Izarning Tbachlng is about our personalsearchfor our
own answers, rather than merely re-enacting other people'ssolutions ln looking
for waysto move forward as a teacher,you will alsofind waysto grow asa person'
Good luck. I hope you enioy it all.

393
 Answers to tasks
Ghapter11 Phonofogl!:the sound
of English
(page274l
Vowels Consonants
/i:/ tcachers
/\/ tn ,/b/beans
/u/ g99d /t tomatoes
/u:/schools /dl bread
/k/ cake
/e/ It'e /a/ epas
/3:/learners /t"Vebeese
/c:/A.Utonomy /d3/ jam
lel ualuing /fl friendlrness
/^,/trust /v/ sensitiyity
/q:/patticipation /0/ empalby
/D/coqperation /d/ brotherliness
/s/foresight
Dlphthongs /z/wisdom
/re/ ctear {/ compassion
/ue/ pUIe /3/vision
/ea/ air /h,/herbs
/er/ lreal /m/food mixer
/crljq /n/ knives
/arl brtEhI /!/ sitk
/eu/ hqpeful /w/ y[ashing machine
/aul sounds /l/ kettle
h/ tLidge
/j/ yeast

394
 (page277l
t 2 3
t U k t ci k

OI m OU

6 7

K EI m K m

(page278)
photograph photographer telescope telescopic chemical computer forest
dlctionary comfortable reception

(page 278)

nnr n Er
interview computer
innocent revtston
suitable completely
universe important
opposite example
recorder

(pa$e279)
The following pattern seems most likely (thoughother answers are possible).
Caroline was g:oing to leave for Alrica on Tuesday.

(paee279)
2 not stealit / borrowit, etc.
3 not Jun/ lvlaria/ Li,etc.
4 not the greenone / blueone,etc.
5 b u th ed i d n ' t .

(page 284)
l fall 2 rise 3 fall
 Ghapter12 Focusingon language
W (page3oe)

D(

aookeA-
eleeping

a
cookinq--
eleepin1--

10

I I
hiaden camein

396
 Somekeyterminologli
activity A single-taslgexerciseor gamefor studentsto work on, usually
setby
the teacher.

arrns Things that you hope w.illbe achievedduring a lessonor sequence

of
lessons.NB Someteachersnow useth e term objectiztes tor.i". to ,...oo
goalsand reservethe term azzsfor the long-term goals
ofa language
courseor programme.

assirnilation !7hen phonemeschangetheir sound in connectedspeech.

For example
the sound/d,/in the word redoften assimilatesto,6/ when
the word
paint follows:redpaint lrebl.

authentic exposure Exposureto languagewhen it is being usedfairly naturally.

authentic ouq)ut Studentsspeakingor writing using the full range oflanguage at

their
disposal.Thelanguageusedhasnot been restrictedin any
way leg.ror
by your insuuctions, by the coursebookwriter, etc).

backchaining

blendedlearning A coursemade up ofa combination ofboth face_to_face

and online
elements.

CLIL Content and LanguageIntegratedLearning.The teachingofsubject

content through a languagethat is not the fllst languageof the
learners
(egThai children studying physicsat school,with all
lessonsand
materialsin English).The hope is that the languagewill be learnt
through engagementwith the sutr;ectmafter and that both content
and
languagewill be learnt equallywell.

CLL Community LanguageLearning. A method that employsuse

of LI and
L2 to allow studentsto cornmunicatereal messagesto each
other.

CLT Communicative LanguageTeaching.A broad descriptionof

current
languageteachingin which the needto use languagein successful
communication is seenasmore important than having a purely
theoreticalknowledgeofhow languageworks.
can-do statements Criteria concerningwhat a learnercan successfullydo with languagc
in the real world, againstwhich the1,can be assessed
or self-assess
themselveseg lcan askfor informationaboutcoochdeparturetimesat an
enquirydesh.

the chain An error correction techniquethat involvesstudentspassing

correctionsto eachother acrossthe classroom.

c}rant I jazz chant A funny or memorablepoem-like monologueor dialogueintended for

reading aloud or performance,often characterisedby stong rhlthms
and opportunities to use emotionalintonation (eg surprise,anger).

chunk A piece oflanguagecontainingmore than one lvord that, thanks tLr

familiarity and much-repeateduse,seemsto behaveasifit u,erea
pre-fabricatedunit (eventhough the separategrammaticaland lexical
pieceswithin the chunk can be distinguished)eg I'l/ /eljtou knou;h\
abouttimetoo!

citation form The way that a word is pronounced if you sayit on its own.This is
often different from the typical in-sentencepronunciation in fluent
connectedspeech.

clarification A part ofa lessonin which studentsbecomeclearerabout language

systemitems, especialll'concerninghou'they are formed, what they
mean,how they are pronounced and how they are used.

crassfooIrr management The moment-by-moment decisionsand actionsconcerning

organisationofthe classroomand activities,eg seatingand grouping
arrangementsrstarting and stopping activities,dealingwith unexpected
problems,etc.

cloze procedure A gap-fill exercisewith regularly spacedgaps (eg every seventhword).

A modified clozehasgapsfor selecteditems of grammar or lexis.

collocation The going-togetherrelationshipsofwords with other words, eg clothes

collocateswith pat on,Jashionable
andwell-ftting but not normally with
put off,handsomeor well-dressed.

Comrnon European The Council ofEurope's schemeto set comparableinternational

Framework of languagestandardsin order to recogniseand describethe
Reference for achievementsand qualificationsoflearners at different levels.The
languages (CEFR) CEFR includesmanycan-docrireriastatements.

398
comrnunicative activitv An activity thathas communication asits main aim (asopposedtr,
practiceof particular languageitems). A communication activity will
normally involve an'information gap'.

concept questions Questions that focus on the meaning of a language item.

concordance A list of words from a text (or texts), sometimesshowingthe waysthey

areused (ie sentencesthat they appearin).

connected speech Fluent speechin which words are not pronounced separately.A
number ofrecognisablepronunciation changesoccur, including weak
forms and elision.

consonant A sound made by restricting or closingthe flow of air, which may result
in friction.

context Languageitems do not exist independently.They might be found irr a

text, a pieceofclassroom conversation,a tape recording,etc.Theseare
the contexts.Tohelp clarify the meaningor use of an item, we can also
createimaginary contextsor example'situations',perhapsusing board
pictures,in order to provide a context for a languageitem and give the
studentsan illustation ofa way that it would typically be used.

corpus An analysablecomputer databaseofreal languageuse,drawn from a

rangeoftexts (plual : corpora).

co-text The languagethat you can find before and after a Ianguageitem.

Cuisenaire rods Small colouredrods ofwood or plastic often usedin languageteaching.

diphthong A phoneme containingtwo vowel sounds,one gliding into the second.

Dogrne An approachto teachingthat aimsto minimise use of technology,

teachingaids and other excessesand insteademphasisethe importance
of the learner-teacherrelationshipand interaction.

drill A common restricted production activity, involving students in

repetition or very controlled oral practice.

'aware'echo,
echo Repetition of what a studenthasjust said.This may be
with a purpose (eg indicating that an error has beenmade), or
'unaware'echo (eg you are feelingthe needto fill silences).
 EAP English forAcademic Purposes.Engl.ishfor learnersu.ho need to read
texts)aftendlectures,u'rite examsetc.

EIL English asan InternationalLanguageie English asthe language

of a u.orld communiry rather than being or.vnedby just a fe!r,
natrve-speakingcountries.

ELF English asa Lingua Francaie English usedasa common languageof

communication betweenpeoplewho speakdifferent first languages.

ELT English LanguageTeaching.

ESOL English for Speakersof Other Languages(or English asa Secondor

Other Language).

ESP English for SpecificPurposes.English for peoplervho havevery clear

languagerequirements(eg English for nurses,English for larvyers).

eliciting A much-usedtechniquefor involving studentsmore in Iessons.

Eliciting involvesdrawing languagefrom the students(rather than
giving it to them).

elision The lossof somesoundsin connecteilspeech.For example,in Good

morningsomeimes the /d/ sound is completely lost and the greeting
soundsmore like G'moming.

exponent An item that is an exampleof a particular function. For example,Cozrld

jtou mahemea utp of tea,please?is an exponentof the function of
'making polite
requests'.

extensive reading / Readingor listeningto longer piecesoftext u,ithout pausingand

listening worrying too much about details,usuallyfor pleasure.

false beginner Someonewho has studiedthe languagebefore,but appearsto have

forgotten most ofit. Progresscan be fast,asthe ,lost' languagemay
return relativelyquicldy.A true beginner,by contrast,has none of this
deep-storedknowledge,and progresswill likely be much slower.

false friend A word that reminds you ofone in your own languageand misleacisvou
into guessingthat it has the sameor a similar meaningin the ncw
language(eg roparzSpanishrneansclothesnotrope).

fluency Speakingnaturally without rvorr-vingtoo much about being 100%

correct.

400
 function The purpose for which language is used in particular
situations.

getting to know you Activities to help students and teacher get to know
each other at the
activities beginning ofa course (sometimes called ice_breakers).

groupwork Students working together with a number ofother

students (rather
t h an i n p a i r s o r a s a u h o l ec l a s s ) .

information gap One person knows something that the other doesn,t.
Such gaps of
information between people give us a need
and desire to communlcare
with each other.

intensive reading/ Careful and detailed reading of (or listening to)

sections oftext or
listening speech in order to interpret the full meaning.

intonation The musical patterns ofspeech.

intrusive sounds Extra sounds that appear in fluent, connected

speech to help link two
'vords, eg rvhen saying seaar, speakers might
add a /j/ .orrrri b.,_...,
the words.

jigsaw reading / listening A jigsaw

activity involvesdifferent groups of srudents(or individuals)
readingor Iisteningto different content.! .henthey
co_. br.k tog.th..
they can report back and comparewhat they have
learnt.

keywords The most important content-carryingwords in a text.

From a whole
article,we might be ableto pick out a small number
of key words that
representthe main subjectmatter and message.

language skills Teacherscommonly talk about four languageskills:

listening,speakrng,
reading,writing. Listening and reading are receptive
sk s; freuklrrg
and writing are productive skills.

language systerns Teacherscommonly refer to the following asIanguage

systems:
grammar,lexis (vocabulary),phonology,function,
discourse.
lexical item A word or a number ofwords that could be considered
to be a single
item ofvocabulary,eg house,fi.rst
aitl kit, solarsjsten.t,
pu, up .iri."

lexical set A s e to f u o r d s t h a ta r ec o n n e c t eidn s o m cw a 1( e g

i t e m rl o u n do n
a farm; words starting with fteador words that describe
human
qualities).

141
lexis Vocabulary.

metalanguage The languageusedto describelanguageitems (eg presentsimple

tense)or usedin classto give instructions,get things done or explain
things.Metalanguageusually needsto be clearand conciseand avoid
complexity.

minimal pairs Two words that contain all the samesoundsexceptfor one egpetI pat,.
bunI pun.These canbe difhcult for learnersfrom somelanguage
groups to hear,distinguishor produce.

monitoring \X/henthe studentsare working on an activity where you do not havean

activerole, you can keepan activeeyeover what is going on, perhaps
with a view to checkingthat instructions are being followed,being
ready to help ifneeded, collectinga list oflanguageused for use later in
the lessonretc.

NLP Neuro-linguistic programming.A quasi-scientificsetof suppositions

and procedureswith aims that include understandingpeoplebetter and
relating to them more clearlyand accurately.

'Ways
Needs Analysis offinding out (eg using questionnairesor interviews) what
srudentsneed(or wanl r lo stud) on a languagecour:e.

observation task A specifictaskto be done while an observeris watching a teacher

in class.

PPP Presentation,Practice,Production. An approachto grammar lessons

basedon ttre idea ofgiving (presenting)smallitems oflanguageto
students,providing them with opportunities to useit in controlledways
(practice) and finally integratingit with other known languagein order
to communicate (production).

pair"work Studentsworking with one other student.This may be to discuss

something,to checkanswersor to do a communicativeactiviry

phoneme The basicunit ofsound from rvhich we build up words and sentences.
For example,the word caagftrhas six lettersbut only three phonemes:
lW. /c:/ and ltl .

phonology The study ofphonemes,intonation, word stress,sentencestress)

rhythm and aspectsofconnected speech.

practlce Giving the studentschancesto usetl.relanguagebeing studied.

142
 pre-teaching (of lexis) Teachingabout the form, meaningor use of somekey items of
vocabularythat the teacherfeelsthey are likely to needin subsequent
readingor listeningwork.

pfesentation The 'giving' or 'input' of (probably new) languageto srudenrs.

productive skills I7riting and speaking

prorninence The rnain syllablesemphasisedin a tone group.

RP ReceivedPronunciation.A UK pronunciation variety,originally from

south-eastEngland,once seenasa kind ofstandard educated
pronunciation.

ranking task A task in which studentsmust put things into an order,usuallyby

discussing,eg'List in order the frvemostimportant things to consider
when choosinga new flat'.

rapport The quality of relationshipwithin the classroom.

reading for detail Seeintensivereadircg.

real play A variety of role play in which studentsplay themselvesin familiar

contexts,perhapsto help study and resolveproblemsthey havehad in
thesesituations.

receptive skills Readingand listening.

restricted exposure Studentsread or listen to texts specificallydesignedto draw attenton

to languagepoints.The languageavailablefor the studentsto hear or
read has in someway beenresuicted (eg a coursebooktext containing
multiple examplesof usedto).

restricted output Speaking or writing when students use lessthan the full quantity of
languagethey know.Practicethat useslanguagein waysthat are
controlled or deliberatelysimplified (maybeby an instruction or by the
nature ofa particular task) in a way that makesthe load on the students
lessdemanding.

role play An activity in which studentstake on a characteror make use ofgiven

information or ideasin order to get speakingpractice.

STT StudentTalkingTime.The amount of time that studentsget to talk

within a lesson.
 scannlng A fast readingtechniquethat involvesmoving the eyesquicldy over a
whole text in order to locatecertain information eg finding where
someone'stelephonenumber is on ttre page.

schwa The phoneme/e/. (The only one with a name!)

sentence stress A common shorthandway of referring to prominence.Not strictly

accurateasthe stressappliesto tone units rather than to sentences.

skimming Reading,usually done quickly,with the aim ofunderstanding the

generalmeaningor'gist'ofa pieceoftext.

stage One distinct part of a lesson,usually a singleactivity.Stagesmay link

togetherto help make a completelesson.

stress Seeword stress,prominence.

structufe - lbrm.

substitution tables A way of writing out grammar information aspatternsthat can be used
for generationof further sentences.

syllabus A list ofcourse contents.

TBL Task-BasedLearning. Classroomwork centredaround the doing of

tasksmore than, say,the presentationand practiceof selecteditems of
language.

TTT TeacherThlkingTime.The amount of time you talk within a lesson.

task Somethingstudentsare askedto do. Many tasksare in the form of

questons requrlng answers,but a task may require studentsto do
things like draw a picture, choosean object from the table,etc.A srrcrer
definition oftask would restrict the term to activitiesthat replicate,real_
world' ones.

Test-teach-test A shorthanddescriptionofone way ofsequencingstagesin a systems_

basedlesson.First you find out what the learnersknow or don,t knor.r,,
perhapsby use ofa practiceactivity (test).you then offer someinput on
somethings that t1.rey
need to know (teach).youthen checkwhether
they understandand can usethe new items you havetaught (test).

tone unit The basicunit ofspoken language,similar to a clauseor sentence1or

written Ianguage.A sentencecould haveone or more than one tone

101
 units. A tone unit can be one or more syllableslong and must contain a
nucleusat which there is a movementof pitch.

tonic syllable (=nucleus)The most prominent (ie suong-sounding)syllablein a tone

unit.The main shessof that tone unit.

VLE Virtual Learmng Environment. A computer-based system for

managinglessonsand courses.TypicallyaVLE will allow teachersand
studentsto upload and download documents)to set and use exercrses,
to sharefiles,to interact (eg using forums) and to set,hand in, mark
and record resultsofassignments.

VAI( Visual Auditory I(inaesthetic. The three main channels via which we
receiveinput from the outsideworld. NLP suggeststhat we havea
'sensorypreference'
for one channelover others.Someeducatorsargue
that our lessonsshould match the sensorypreferencesofour learners.

vowel A voiced soundmade without any closure,friction or restdction to the

flow of air from the lungs.

weak forrn Vowel soundsin ulstressedsyllablestend to havea weakpronunciation.

Compare/orwhen you sayit on its own (strongform) and when it
comes in the rniddle ofa sentence,eg I camebackfor mg 6ooAs.The vowel
soundhaschangedfrom /c:/to/e/ (the schwa,the most common weak
form vowel).

wofd stress The emphasisedsyllabte(s)in a word.

work plan AIso timetable.The plan of work showinglessonsasunits and

identifying what goeson in eachone.

world Englishes The many varieties of English used in different places around the
world.

405
Further reading

There are hundreds ofELT books around.This is a short list ofjust a few books
you rnight frnd helpful, inspiring, time-savingor life-savingduring your fust years
ofteaching.

The English Language

Lewis, M. (1986) TheEnglish Verb(Hove:IJfP/Heinle).
A must-read.An exciting inaestigationinto languagemlths and realities.

Parrott, M. (2000) Grammarfor EnglishInnguageTeachers (Cambridge:

CambridgeUniversiryPress).
A comprehensiae and informedaiezuofgrammarfrom theteacher's
perspectiae.

Swan,M. (2005) Pracical EnglishUsage(Oxfotd: Oxford Universiry Press;.

For generationsof teachers,an essential,eas!-to-usereference,especialllton points
that often trb studentsup.

Swan,M. and Smith,B. (2001,)Izamer English(Cambridge:Cambridge

University Press).
Comparesmang languagesuith English to help Leachers
predict studentproblems
and,understandcqusesof enors.

Thornbury, S. (1997) AboutLangzage(Cambridge:Cambridge University press).

An enlighteninglanguageself-studjtcourse;for teachers,

Thornbury, S. (2005) BeyondtheSentence (.Oxford:Macmillan).

A readableintroductbn to thecomplexfield of discourseanal2sis.

Teaching Grarnrnar
Aitken, R. (2002) TeachingTezses(Brighton: ELB).
Much-haed resource bookof informationand ideas.forteachingverbs.

Batstone,R. (1994) Grammar(Oxford: Oxford University Press).

ThoughtfulreJlectnnon whatgrammaris and how to worh with it.

Hall, N. and Shepheard,J.(2008) TheAnri-Gramwar GramwarBook (Brighton:

ELB).
Someloaeltpractiral ideasfor workingwith grammar.

106
 Rinvolucri, M. (1985) GrammarGazzes(Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press).
Thebookthat inspiredthousands oJteachersto seethatgrantmarteachingcouldbe
personaLcreative,excitingand jrct plain weird.

Scrivener,J. (2003) Basics:TeachingGramrnar(oxford: oxford University press).

TuentgJiaereadg-ntade grammar lessons
Jbr neu Leachers
.

Scrivener,J.(2010) TeachingEnglishGraruntar(Oxforcl:Macmillan).
CombinationoJgrammarreference boohwith instantll-usableteachingirleasfor
eachgrammaticalitem.

Thornbury, S. (200I) UncozteringGrammar(Oxford: Macmillan).

Very thought-prouoking
booh.It witt question
yoLu.uholeapproachto gratnmar
and how1ou teachit.

Ur, P (1988) Gru,mnarPractj.ce Actiaities(Cambridge: Cambridge University press).

Time-sauingcollectiono.fphotocopiableprtuticeactivities.

Lexis
Lewis, M. (1993) TheIzxical Approach(Hove:Llp/Heinle).
Theprofession-shakingboohthat completely
changedman3tteachers,
id.easabout
vocabularyandgrarumar.
Seealso:ImpleruentingtheLexicqlAppro(jchand.TeachingCollocatiozalsofrom
Lewis.

Lindstromberg, S. and Boers,F (2008) Teaching Chtu.tksof Language(London:

Helbling Languages).
A useJulcollectionof recipesand materiakfor ztorhingwith rexicarchttnhs(iemurti-
wordsequences that seeruto go together)
.

McCarthy, M (1992) Vocabutarlt(Oxford: Oxford University press).

lVell-structuredteachers'
self-stutly on understanding
aocabulary.

Morgan-,J. and Rinvolucri, M. (20O1) Vocabulary:ResotrceBookfor Teachers

(Oxford: Oxford University Fress;.
Cleuer,atnusing,crazyand inspirationalteachingideasin eqtnl rneasure.

Pronunciation
Bowen,T. and Marks,J. (1992) T'hepronunciationBooA(Harlow; I,earson
Longman).
Excellentcollectiono.fwq)sfor startingto work with pronttnciationin cldss.

407
Hancock,M. (1995) PronunciationGames(Cambridge:Cambridge University
Press).
Enjoyable,ready-madeactixities.

Underhill,A. (1994) SoundFoundations(Oxford:Macmillan).

Theessential introductionto teachingpronunciation.Demystifiesand makesyou
eagerto go in and trg stuff out.

Skills
Grellet, F (198I) DeuelopingReadingShills(Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press).
Sensiblecollectionof ideasfor working on specificreading skills- plus a particula y
usefulintoduction.

Hedge,T. (1988) lYriing (Oxford: Oxford University Press).

Helpful ideasand backgroundinformation.

Klippel, E (1984) Keep Talhing(Cambridge: Cambridge University press).

Collectionof classic,if datetl,actiuitiesfor teachers
who want to getstudents
speakingin pairs or groups.

Nuttall, C. (1996) TeachingReading Shilk in a Foreignl^tnguage (Oxford,:

Macmillan).
Comprehensiaeintroduction to all aspectsofread)ng.

Underwood, M. (1989) TeachingI:istening(HarIow:PearsonLongman).

GoodbasictExton listening.

Ur, P (1981) Discussions that WorA(Cambridge:Cambridge University press).

Idetls toget studantsspeakingin pairs and groups.

lfhite, R. andArdt,Y. (199I) ProcessWiting (Harlow: PearsonLongman.).

Exciting ways n help studentsimproaetheir writing bgfocussingon hoza
they do it.

Technology
Dudeney, G. and Hocklg N. (2007) I1ow to TeachEnglishwith Technologjt
(Harlow: PearsonLongman).
An oueroiewof technologyin languageteachingby two keen,actiaelt iw.)olaed
teachers,

408
Hockll', N. and Clandfield,L. (2010) TeachingOrulize(Peaslake:
Delta
Publishing).
Practicalhelpfor thisimportdlltnewarea.

Sharma,P and Barrel'B. (2007) BlendedIzaming (Oxford: Macmillan).

A comprehensiaeintroductiontogetherwith wanjt inspinngsuggest?ons

Teaching in General (not specifically ELT)

Ginnis, P (2001) Teacher'sToolkit (Bancyfelin:Crown House Publishing).
A wonderfulcollectionof approachesand ttctittities,introducedby a thoughtfuland
inspiing author.

Petty,G. (2009) TeachingToday(Cheltenham:NelsonThornes)

A bilbant and well-inforruedintroductionto theart of tedching

Other topics
Coyle,D, Hood, P and Marsh, D. (2010) CLIL Contentand I'angu(lgeIntegr.tted
Izarning (Carnbridge,Cambridge University Press).
Ltndprcrctice
introductionto thetheorJ)
accessible
A clear,focussed, of CLIL.

Davis, P and Rinvolucri, M. (1988) Dictation: NewMethods,NewPossibilities

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
Thebookthat single-handeclly revivedthispresumed-dead HtLgely
tecltnique.
rnsplnng.

Harmer,J. (2001) PracticeoJEnglishLnnguageTeaching(Hatlow:Pearson

Longman) .
comprehensiae
The classic wethodologybook,cooeingsiruilattetrinry n Izaming
Teaching.Excellent.

Lightbown, P and Spada,N. (2006) How Languages arelxarned (Oxford, Oxford

University Press).
If you'zteexerwonderedabouthou peopleleqrnor what theoriesunderlieyour
teachingqpproaches and techntques.

Moon,J. (2005) Childrenlzarning English(Oxfotd: Macmillan)

Greatinh'odttcionto workingwith Youngltarners

Morgan,J. and Rinvolucri, M. (1983) OnceLlpona Time (Cambtidge: Cambridge

University Press).
Anothermagicalbook.h showsyou how to bing storytellinginto class.Grcatideas
thqt encourageyoLLto takerisksand openup your methodoloEy.

409
 Rogers,C. and Frelberg,H. J. (1994) Freedomto Izam (Harlow..prentrceHall).
A conoincingargumentfor humanistic,person-centredteaching. Capableof nming
all gour ideasabouteducationon theirhead.

Thornbury, S. (2006) An A-Z ofEZZ (Oxford:Macmillan).

Valuabledictionary oJthejargon of our profession.IJgou taheqn MA or Deha
tou'll ?robabb)endu? sleepinguith th^!

STilberg, P (1987) One to One (Hoae:IJtplHeirie).

Wagsof making one-to-oneteachingexcitinganrl,ueatiae-and getsyou thinking
about educaion morewidelg too.

Vright, A. (1995) 1000+ Picturesfor Teqchers to Copy (Harlow: pearson

Longman).
If you find it hard to draw recognisable
pictures this wond,erfulcollecnbnof simple,
coptableimageswill beaery helpful.

410
 Index
100%exposure,184
actrevementarmsj 137-8
acqursitionvs learning, 127
actronresearch,389
activities,classroom
pairwork, 45 51
pLannngr J /-9
route map, 40-42
sampleanalysis,43-5
small group work, 51-3
adjectives,105
adverbs)106
aims, iesson,135-42
anagrams,375
analysis,language
communicativepurpose) 114-18
grammar,99-107
grammaticalmeaning, 111-14
meaningsof words) 107-11
appropriacy,117-18
Asher,J.j32
atmosphere,learning, 15-16, 78
auctlons,grammar, 179
audienceand purpose)243
audiolingual merhod, 31
autnenDcexposure,I26-8
aurhentrcit]',16-1 7, 35
9uthentc outputJ 128-9
authoriq,, exercising,76
B correcting errors, 285-90
'back
to the board'gameJ358
'bad cold'
dictation, 363
'biring your
tail'game, 362
boardgames,179,219
board use, 70-73
bools teaching around a) 323
bminstorming, 239
business EnglishJ312-15
lruzzgroups)215
c dialogues
CA (communicative
approach),31-2
Cambridge ESOL
e x a m s8j 7 , 3 1 7 - 1 8
carouselactivities,324
categorylist game, 359
chain dictarionJ362
chain of co ection, 288
chantsj272
cheating,3l6 17
checkingunderstandingof
instructjons,T6
children,3214
chunks
defined, 185-5
sponing,208-9
word pagesand, 202
circle rime, 323
clanficadon
E
EAP (English for Academic
defined, 129-30 Purposes), 315-17
grarnmar teachingand, 163_9 echomg,75
of lexis,189-91 elicitrng,T3-4
rn present-practicecycle, 159_63 empath],,16-17
classroomactivities (reeactivities, enablers,18
classroom) English languageteaching (ELI)
CLIL (Contenr and Language subjectmafter, 24_31
IntegratedLearnLng),327-3I Enghsh wh6pers, 299
CLL (communjr)languagelearningy, 'entertainer'
teaching, 14
32,324 errors, correcting,285 90
cloze tes$, 293 ESP (English for Specific Purposes),
CLT (communicativelanguage 310-12
teaching),31-2 examclasses,3l7-21
cold leedback,387 exams
collocations for young learners,323
definedj 186 exercises
dictation with,363 grammar teachingandr 174-7
ianguageanalysrsand, 110-1 1 experientialiearning cyciej l9_20
pairs work wirh, 205 expianers,17 18
spofting,208-9 explanations,23
vs definirions,210 grammar reachingand, 165
word pagesand, 202 exposure
Common EuropeanFramework r00%, ta1
(cEF), 27, 28, 147_8,3t7 planrung and, 126-8
corrrrnumcatr\,.e approach (CA), 3 1_2 extenslvereading)268-70
communicativepurpose, 27, 29,
I 14_18 F
communtty languagelearning tast-$'rtting,240-1
(cLL),32,324 feedback
computers,writing drafts with, 2zl2 lrom leamers,94-7
confidence,lack of, 77 listening task feedbrck
connectedspeech,279-84 al cte,IJJ /
consonants,2T5 providing) for wdnen
corpora, 346 drat1.s,
242,215
teachers'fearol 76
correctroncodes,246 on teaching,386-7
Council of Europe,87 ficLionar-vgame,359
courseplanning, 146-54 fillers,356-9
critical learning moments, 143-4 finger correction, 289-91
cnticrl teachmgmoments) 144 first lmpresslons,82
Cursenaire rodsJ32,300 304 firsr language,using, 297-300
first lessons,33 6
D flashcards,349-50
demiledwork plansj148j 151-3 flow charts, 143
determiners,105 6 fluenc!', speaking,224-8
form, grammatical,99 101
elicited, 176-7 formal lessonplannmg
pronunclatronwork and, 272 alternativestoj 142-46
dictadonJ362-6 Dasics! I Jl-J)
dictionaries,304-7 function
dictogloss,364 defined, 24
diphthongs, 274, 275 examplesofj 25
diplomatic affairs,299, 300
discourse G
defined,24 grllery exercise,262
examplesof, 25
Sames
Dogme Janguageteaching,33 fi ller activities,356-8
'don\
finish a word'game,36l-2 grammar rcachingand,
"Do you understand?",76 177-9
dramaj 368-9 lexical,358-62
dreaming1aslessonplanninq).I4j teachinglexis wrh, 191-93
drjlls,169-?4 gap-fil1excrcises,293-4
DVDS, 376-9 Gardner, Howard, 85
411
 Gattegno,Caleb, 32, 300 J M
genresJspeakrngr228-34 iigsaw listening, 26 1-62 macro skills) 26
gesnrres,69-70 'jug
'gethng to and mug,' 15 management,classtoom
know you' (GTK! 'iungle path' (unplanned
lessons), basic elements, 5z[-€
activities,3Tl-6 144-45 board use, 70-73
glst trste ng, z) / eliciting, 73-4
Graddol, Davi4 119 K gestures,69-70
grafitmat Kachru,Braj, 118, 119 giving instucrions, 64-7
amlysingJ99 107 keJ.vords dictation, 362-3 mteraction,58-6 1
clarification, 163-9 r\rm s gafirer J) / intuition, 78-8 1
defLned'24,I56-7 knowledge-in-use,163 moDrtonng,6T-9
drills, exercises,dialoguesrand Krashen, Srephen,32, 127 seating,6l-4
games,169-79 Krishnamurti, 383 snapshotsJ1-12
examplesol 25 tips for preventing learning 75-3
miscellaneous teaching L marking,245-6,317
methods, 180-84 L1, using, 297-300 meaningsof words, 107-11
pairwork and, 48-9 labelli4g,201 mediatioq 299
present-practicecycle, I 59-63 languageskills,26-30 mem^ , tFar c'mp I ?a
teaching emphasis oq 28 languagesystems)24-8, 28-30 methods,31 3
terminology, I 02-7 large classes,331-3 micro skills, 26
vs.lexis,185-7 leamers mirning, 178
gramlnat-translation feedbackfrom, 94-7 minimal pairs, 276
method,31,33 individual and group monitoring, 67-9
grammaticalmeaning, 111-14 characteristics,82-7 mood) class)83
group characteristicsJ 83 levelsJ87-9 modvation, 84
group planning rasks,2 I 8 needsoi 89 94 multiple choice testsj293
group worls 51-3 training o! 97-8 multiple intelligences, 85
GTKY ('gefting to know you') 'learning
teaching,'380-3 multiword items (seechunks)
activities, 37 1-6 leaming theory, 125-9 music,3545
guest stars,263 learning vs. acquisition, 127
guided discovery,166-8 lessonimages)144 N
levels, 87-9 names,leatning students',35
H Lewis, Michael, 32 Daturalapproach,32
half-plans, 144 lexical approaches,32 Needs Analyses,90-94, 310
Hil,Jtnmie,32 lexical games,358-62 Neuro-Lnguistic Programming
home recording) 262 lexical items (NLP), 85
hotel receptionist game, 357 collocationsand chunks as) 186 news headlines,261
hot feedback,387 defined, 185 notebooks,203-5
knowing, 205-10 nouns and noun phrases,103 4
I lexical item pages,202-3 nucleus,278
IBLIS,317,318,319-21 lists of, 199
irDInersion, 13 lexis o
individual differences, 82-7 box file, 319 observedlessons,383-5
information gaps, 45 in classroom,187-8 online learni[g, 343-6
initial lefters game, 362 defined, 24, 185-7 orderlng game,357
mputJ 1n present-pm ctice examplesof 25 over-helpingand over-organising,77
cycle, 159-63 practice activitiesand games, over-politeness,76
instant crossword,361 191-93 own language,using, 297-300
instructionsr giving, 64-7, presenting, 189-9 1
75-4 remembering, 198-205 P
iDtelligences, multiple, 85 skills work andr 194-8 'pack ofcards,'390-3
interaction)classroom,58 61 teaching emphasison, 28 paintbox,358
Interactive l7hiteboards lingua franca, English as, 118-22, pairwork, 45-51
(I\fBs),335 7 2734 partrciples,102
mtonation listening people bingo, 375
as elementof apprcachestq 249-53 personal learning networks
pronunciationJ283-4 as basic skjll, 26 (PLNS), 344
function and, 117 rdeasfor activities,261-63 person-centredapProaches)32
meaning and, 278-9 to messageas well as phonemes,274-7
niodelling,2Tl language, 78 phonology (see.r/so pronunciation)
intuition, 78-8 1 task-feedbackcycle, 253-7 defined, 24
involvers, 18 top-down and bottom rtp,257-60 examplesof, 25
IWBS (Interactive latiteboards), live listening,263 picture dictation, 178
335-7 Jiving tape recorder, 364 picture differencetasks,218

412
ni^hrrF at^ricc I5n-S I rcle cards,215,220-22 teachers
plagiarism,316-17 RP (.eceivedpronunciation), 273-4 characteristicsof, 13-17
planning running commentaryJ 77 typesol 17-19
altematives to formal lesson running orders, 142-3 teachertalking time (TTT)
planning,14246 classroommanagement
courses)146-54 S and, 58-9
fomal, 132-35 scarroromgjz/ /-6 preventing learning by, 75
learning theory and, 125-9 scanning,265 unnecessaryr35
lessonaims,135 42 schemesof work, 148 teaching and learning, 19-23
overview, 123-25 schwa,280-81 reachingpoints, 144
sequencing,129 3l seating,6l-4 technology
unrealisticrequirements,154 5 secondarystesses,278 IntemctiveVhiteboards
world Englishes,118-22 SecondLife,346-7 (llJrBt,33s-7
PLNS (personallearning nerworks), self-directed discovery, 169 overview,33zl 5
344 eane^rw nrefcrcn.cc C<
presentationsoftware)337-40
poetry,366 8 sentencecompletion, 75 skills work and, 340 43
posters,319 sentencedrills, 174 Vrrtual Learmng Environments
placcice, in present-pm ctice cycle, sentencestessr 117, 278-9 (wEt, 343-6
159-63 sequencing,129-31 virtual worlds, 346-8
prepositions,104-5 shadowreading, 272 word processing,242
presentation(seeclarification) show and tell, 323 teenageclassesr325-7
presentationsoftware,337 40 Silent\fay, 32,300 television,3T6-9
present-practicecycle, 129-3 1, simulation,224 terminology) grammatrcal) 102-7
159-63 situationalpresentations,161 2 testing,29o 97
procedure aimsr 135-6 skeletonwork plans, 148j 149 test-teach-test method, 180-82
production, define4 159 skills)Ianguage,26-30 text startsr183, 240
productive skills,26 (seeabo skills work Thornbury, Scon, 33
rpcaNIEr wrrurrts./ lexis andJ194-8 timelines,307-9
projects,370-71 technologyand, 340-43 timetables,148
prominence,ll7,278-9 skimming, 265 TOEFL, 317, 318
pronouns, 103-4 slowing down,36 tone units, 278
pronunclaoon small differencegame, 375 top-down and bottom-up listening,
connectedspeech,279-84 small group wor\ 51-3 257-60
intonatron,283-4 snapshots,classroom,1-12 top-down reading, 266-8
prominence, 278-9 songs,354-6 topic, teachingaround a, 323
sounds,274-7 sound effectsrecordings,365-6 topic-basedwork plans, 154
starting points, 271-4 speaking topic webs,201-202
word sress) 277-8 approachesto) 211-16 total physicalresponse(TPR),
pvzzles,2l9 as basic skill, 26 32,1a2,3234
pyramid discussions,218-19 connunicative activities,217-19 traditional teaching, 14-1 5
fluency, accuracyand training, learner, 97-8
a
questionnaires,
communication, 224 8
gemes,228-34
transformation, sentence,294
179 tansformation drillsj 173
role play, real play, and translationrole plays, 300
R srmulation,220-24 treasurehunts) 342
ranl<ingtasks,218 split se4tences,177 truefalse exercises,294 5
rapporr)15-16,78 spy game, 375 TTT (se?teacher talking time)
rcading story-building activities,179 two-option exelcisesr294-5
approachesto, 263-8 storltelling,353-4
as basic skill, 26 stress U
extensive,267-70 sentence,117) 278-9 Underhill, Adrian, 17
rcaI play,2224 wordj 277 8 unrealisticrcquirements, 154 55
receptive skills, 26 (seea/so listening; ch,r{phrs r.,, lco'nPrs1 up-here knowledge,163
speaking) StudentTirlkingTime (STT), 58-61
reconstruction,sentence,294 subslitution drills, 173 V
relativeclauses,106 substitutiontables,101 verbs, 102 3
sylabi, 147 video,376-9
respect,16 17 Virtual Learning Environments
restrictedexposure,127-8 T (\T-Es),343-6
restrictedoutput Thoism,382-3 vifiual worlds,346-8
grammar teaching and, 169-79 task-basedleaming (TBL),32, 183 visual dictionaries,346
planning and, 128 task-basedplans, 150-1 vocabulary,185-7 (seeaAo lexis)
revision dictation, 356 task-feedbackcycle, 253-7 voice settlngs,272-3
Rogers,Carl, 16 teacherdevelopment,38 1-2 vowels,27,1-5
w word seeds,359 I
wall dictatiorL 363 word thieves,360 ,eJ and /ro questionsJ357
weak forms, 279-80 word webs)201-2 young learners,321-4
web puzzles, 342 work plans, 148
wild dictationr 364 worldEDglishes,118-22
word clouds,345-6 wnung
word dominoes,360 approachestq 234-9
word jumbles, 360-1 as basic skill, 26
word listsJ199 ln class,239-42
word pagesJ202 respodsesto) 243,6
word processing,242

414