M O D U L A R S Y S T E M

BOTANY

Ahmet KALALI
Ünal AKÇAY
Osman ARPACI
Musa ÖZET

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 Biology is a rapidly developing branch of science. The major advances that are
made, continuously affect our life on earth. Some of these important advances are
included here.
The results of a recent survey on the attitudes to existing literature available to
high school students showed that many were unhappy with the material used in
teaching and learning. Those questioned identified a lack of the following; accom-
panying supplementary material to main text books, current information on new
developments, clear figures and diagrams and insufficient attention to design and
planning of experiments.
This book aims to improve the level of understanding of modern biology by
inclusion of the following; main texts, figures and illustrations, extensive questions,
articles and experiments.
Each topic is well illustrated with figures and graphs to ease understanding.
Supplementary material in the form of posters, transparencies and cassettes will
shortly be available.
It is the intention and hope of the authors that the contents of this book will
help to bridge the current gap in the field of biology at this level.
We are grateful to all the people who have helped with this book.

The authors
1. PLANT CELL
PLANT CELL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Plant Cell Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
ENERGY AND CELL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Cellular Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2. PLANT HISTOLOGY AND ANATOMY
TISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
PLANT TISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Meristematic Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Permanent Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
PLANT ANATOMY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Leaf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . 42
Transport of Organic and
Inorganic Materials in Plants . . . . . . 42
GAS EXCHANGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Respiration In Plants . . . . . . . . . . . 45
EXCRETION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Excretory Substances . . . . . . . . . . 46
Excretion In Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
DIGESTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Digestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ENDOCRINE SECRETIONS . . . . . . . . . . .
Auxin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cytokinins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gibberellins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Abscisic Acid (ABA) . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Ethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
PLANT MOVEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Taxis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Tropism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Nasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4. PLANT REPRODUCTION
REPRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Asexual Reproduction In Plants . . . . 56
Sexual Reproduction In Plants . . . . 58
26
27
5. PLANT CLASSIFICATION
30
36 KINGDOM PLANTAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
40 ALGAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Classification of Algae . . . . . . . . . . 73
The Nonvascular Plants . . . . . . . . . 78
The Vascular Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
FLOWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Monocotyledons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Families of Monocots . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Dicotyledons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
48
49
49
50
BOTANY

chapter 1
 PLANTS
Plants are the major producers on land and were the first organisms to invade
the terrestrial environment. Animals cannot live without plants. Plants convert light
energy into chemical energy as organic compounds and are at the base of most
ecological pyramids. They also absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and
supply the oxygen that most organisms require.
The plant kingdom contains 250,000 species, including some huge species
(oak and redwood).
They live in different terrestrial environments from rain forest to desert to frozen
tundra.

Characteristics of Plants
1. They are multicellular and eukaryotic organisms.
2. Plants can make their own food in their chloroplast by using solar energy.
They do not depend on other organisms for feeding.
3. Plants cannot move (nonmotile).
4. All plant cells are covered by a rigid cell wall which provides support.
5. Many plants continue to grow throughout their life.
6. They have a few types of organs; there are no real systems.
7. Their responses to stimuli are slow and limited.
8. They may reproduce asexually and sexually.

PLANT CELL
Do you know that there are lots of small things in plants’ bodies that have many
abilities? They can eat, respire and remove waste materials like a complex organ-
isms.
They even help and communicate with each other. These small and function-
al units are called cells. Cells come together and form an organism. Not only
plants, but all living things are composed of cells, because cells are the funda-
mental units of all living things
All plants and animals have one characteristic in common: they are made up
of cells. If any structures from plants or animals are examined microscopically they
will be seen to consist of more or less distinct cells. Cells are too small to be seen
with the naked eye, but in vast numbers they make up the structures or organs.
Most cells have all the physical and chemical components needed for their own
maintenance, growth and division. Cells store genetic information in DNA mole-
cules. This information is used to control metabolic reactions and specify their
structures.
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Cells can be divided into major groups as prokaryotes and eukaryotes accord-
ing to their structure and complexity. The DNA of prokaryotes is not enclosed by
Figure-1.1.: Onion skin cells. a membrane and other membranous organelles are also lacking. These cells,

6
which include bacteria and blue green algae, are generally smaller than eukaryot-
ic cells.
Eukaryotic cells contain highly organized membrane-bounded organelles. The
most prominent of these is the nucleus, which serves to localize the hereditary
material DNA.

PLANT CELL STRUCTURE

Plant cells are eukaryotic and composed of three main parts;

v Plasma membrane v Cytoplasm v Nucleus
Figure-1.2.: Some parts of an onion skin
cell.
1. Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane)
Each cell is enveloped by a continuous membrane composed of protein,
lipid and carbohydrate referred to as the plasma membrane or cell mem-
brane. It provides a protected environment for the cytoplasm and nucleus,
but one which allows the transport of material through pores and communi-
cation with other cells. It is invisible under the light microscope and can only
be distinguished using an electron microscope.

The functions of the plasma membrane:

v It maintains the integrity of the cell.
v It gives protection against environmental hazards.
Figure-1.3.: Cell membrane.
v It provides the cell with shape.
v It forms a barrier between the cell and its environment.
v It allows the transport of certain substances in and out of the cell due to its
selectively permeable nature.

2. Cytoplasm
The semi-liquid environment between the plasma membrane and the nucleus
is termed the cytoplasm. The living components of the cytoplasm are the cell
organelles, whereas the nonliving components of the cytoplasm are composed of
organic and inorganic compounds.
Most of the cytoplasm is composed of water. However the amount varies
according to the type of cell. It may range from 98% in the flesh of juicy fruits to
5-15% in seeds and spores. Compare this with a typical human cell which is com-
posed of 65% water. Particulate residues of both organic and inorganic structures
range from 10 to 40%. Organic molecules constitute 90% of the structural com-
ponents of the cytoplasm whereas inorganic molecules constitute only 10% of it.
The cytoplasm of plant cells is particularly rich in carbohydrates due to photosyn-

Plant Cell
thesis.
The cytoplasm of a living cell is constantly active. This activity is observable as
movement in the form of either rotation or streaming. This movement enables
food and waste molecules in the cytoplasm to be equally distributed.

7

Figure-1.4.: A mitochondrion is the pow-
erhouse of the cell.
Figure-1.5.: A functional ribosome.
c. Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum is a mem-
brane system located between the plas-
ma membrane and nuclear membrane
of mature eukaryotic cells. It is com-
posed of a network of canals that can
vary their structure according to their
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function.
8
Organelles
Organelles comprise the essential machinery that perform all cell activities and
are specialized to perform a variety of specific functions. They are located in the
cytoplasm. The organelles of a cell are mitochondria, ribosome, endoplasmic
reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosome, vacuole and plastids.
a. Mitochondria (Sing.: Mitochondrion)
Mitochondria are vital for cells since they are involved in the pro-
duction of energy. They are especially abundant in high energy-
requiring cells. The function of the mitochondria is to break down
organic molecules, releasing energy for cell work. In this process
mitochondria use oxygen and give off carbon dioxide and water. This
process is called aerobic respiration.
A mitochondrion is an oval-shaped organelle found in all eukary-
otic cells. It is surrounded by a double membrane which is struc-
turally similar to the plasma membrane. The outer membrane is
smooth but the inner membrane is folded into the matrix to
form cristae. The inner membrane borders an aqueous solu-
tion known as the matrix. This solution includes minerals,
water, ribosomes, proteins, respiratory enzymes, RNA and
DNA.
b. Ribosome
Ribosomes are essential for almost all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells as they
play a key role in protein synthesis.
The ribosome may be attached to both the endoplasmic reticulum and the
nuclear membrane. They are also found as free-floating structures in the chloro-
plasts, mitochondria and cytoplasm.
Ribosomes contain both r-RNA and proteins. The proteins needed for riboso-
mal structure are manufactured in the cytoplasm. The RNA of ribosomes (r-RNA)
is coded from DNA and stored in the nucleolus.
Figure-1.6.: Endoplasmic reticulum is a canal system
within the cell.
 Endoplasmic reticulum is categorised into two groups according to whether it
has ribosomes on it or not. These are smooth endoplasmic reticulum and rough
endoplasmic reticulum.

Endoplasmic Reticulum is involved in many functions:

v Support of cellular structures and maintenance of their shape.
v Intercellular transport of ions and small molecules.
v Transport of protein molecules synthesised by the ribosomes to the golgi
apparatus.
v Synthesis of lipid molecules

d. Golgi Apparatus
It is composed of a membranous complex of flattened sacs. Golgi
apparatus differs from endoplasmic reticulum due to the complete
absence of ribosomes. Animal cells contain 10 to 20 sets of these
flattened membranes. Plant cells may contain several hundreds
because golgi apparatus is involved in the synthesis and main-
tenance of the plant cell wall.
Molecules came to a golgi apparatus in vesicles pinched
off from the endoplasmic reticulum. The membranes of vesi-
cles fuse with the membranes of a golgi apparatus. Once
inside the spaces formed by the golgi membranes, the mole-
cule may be modified by the formation of new chemical bonds.
Golgi apparatus is involved in the formation of the cell wall and
cell plate, the regulation of exosecretion, the formation of lysosomes,
distribution of chemical packages and collection of chemicals. Figure-1.7.: Golgi apparatus packages
materials.
e. Lysosomes
Lysosomes are single-layered vesicles that contain digestive enzymes. The
enzymes are synthesised by ribosomes on the endoplasmic reticulum and are
packaged by the golgi. Research has shown that a lysosome may contain as many
as forty types of enzymes.
Lysosomes are involved in the digestion of intracellular and extracellular mate-
rials when needed, fusing with food vacuoles formed within the cell by phagocy-
tosis or pinocytosis. The lysosome then releases its contents onto the food mole-
cules in order to digest them.
Lysosome also help in cell renewal, constantly breaking down old cell parts as
they are replaced with new cell parts.

f. Vacuoles

Plant Cell
Figure-1.8.: These lysosomes are mem-
Vacuoles are sac-like single layered organelles surrounded by a single mem- brane bound organelles which contain
digestive enzymes.
brane known as the tonoplast. They are found in both animal and plant cells and
differ in both size and quantity. They are small but numerous in animal cells while
large but fewer in number in plant cells.

9
 Their large size in plant cells is due to the accumulation of wastes.
As the vacuole increases in size, the cell cytoplasm is confined to a
small, band-like area. The contents of a typical vacuole include salts,
alkaloids, carbohydrates, organic acids and inorganic molecules.
Two types of vacuoles are known in plant cells.These are food
vacuoles and storage vacuoles.
Food vacuoles store food temporarily before being digested by
lysosomes. Any waste molecules remain in the vacuoles and are
Figure-1.9.: In a young plant cell there
are many small vacuoles. As the cell
excreted by exocytosis.
matures, they fuse to form a large vac-
uole.
Storage vacuoles are a characteristic feature of aging plant cells. The toxic
wastes of cell metabolism react with salts and are stored as crystals. These vac-
uoles enlarge due to the accumulation of wastes as the plant cells age. This is
accompanied by a decrease in metabolism This type of vacuole also plays a major
role in helping plant tissues stay rigid.

g. Plastids
Plastids are stained structures unique to the cells of plants. They are absent in
bacteria, blue-green algae, fungi and animal cells. There are three types of plas-
tids: chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts. They are responsible for the syn-
Figure-1.10.: Storage vacuoles are used
thesis of the pigments chlorophyll and carotene, as well as carbohydrates, lipid
as the deposition site of calcium crys-
tals. and protein molecules.
HMW: Draw Chloroplasts: They are green-colored organelles present in the leaves
and other green parts of a plant. Chloroplasts are disc-shaped in
appearance and are surrounded by a bilayered membrane.
The green pigment chlorophyll, found within grana, makes
chloroplasts and parts of plants green. Chlorophylls absorb light
and grana convert light into ATP (chemical bond energy). ATP
molecules are used in stroma to make glucose. This series of
reactions is known as photosynthesis. All the oxygen in the
atmosphere is renewed by photosynthesis every 2000 years.
Photosynthetic cells also consume CO2 that is harmful for
other living things.
Chromoplasts: They are plastids formed by the alteration
of chloroplasts but are incapable of photosynthesis. They are
responsible for the yellow, orange and red pigments of flowers
Figure-1.11.: A diagrammatic 3-D view of and fruits. Xanthophyll is a pigment which gives the yellow color
a chloroplast.
to lemon; carotene colors carrots orange, and lycopine colors
tomatoes red.
Leucoplasts: They are colorless plastids formed in plant tissue that is not
exposed to sunlight. If light is provided, they are converted into chloroplasts. Some
leucoplasts, known as amyloplasts, are involved in the storage of starch. Some
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leucoplasts also store proteins.

10
 Cell Cytoskeleton
The cells of a particular tissue are all capable of movement, changing their
shape and often their position. Their ability to do this is due mainly to the
cytoskeleton present within the cytoplasm of each cell. In contrast to the rigid
skeleton of vertebrates, the cytoskeleton has no single definite structure. It is made
up of protein filaments. These filaments consist of microtubules, microfilaments
and intermediate fibers.
The cytoskeleton forms a network throughout the cell cytoplasm, supporting
the organelles within it and maintaining the shape of the cell. They also take a role
in cytoplasmic movement, cell movement, formation of spindle fibers, transport of
materials within the cell, and anchor various structures in place. Figure-1.12.: A typical arrangement of
microtubules and microfilaments that
form the cytoskeleton of a cell.
3. Nucleus
The nucleus (plural: nuclei) is vital to the survival of an
organism. Remove the nucleus from any cell and death is
unavoidable. The nucleus contains all the protein codes
needed to regulate the metabolic activity of a cell. It is also
vital during cell division since it is the ability of DNA to repli-
cate itself that allows a single cell to give rise to two daugh-
ter cells.
The nucleus is visible under the light microscope and is
either disc- or oval-shaped. The size of the nucleus varies
according to the rate of metabolic activity in a cell. A highly
active cell has a large nucleus. There is also a fixed ratio
between the size of the cytoplasm and nucleus. As a gener-
al rule, a cell contains only one nucleus. There are four main
parts in a nucleus: the nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm,
nucleolus and hereditary material (DNA).

Figure-1.13.: The nucleus has ultimate

control of the cell and coordinates all
metabolic activities.

Cell Wall
Plant cells have a permeable but protective cell wall in addi-
tion to a plasma membrane. Formation of the cell wall begins
when cells divide. During cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm),
middle lamella (first cell wall) form and separate two new plant
cells from each other. In plant cells, the cell wall may contain
two layers. These are the primary cell wall and the secondary
cell wall. The primary cell wall is made up of cellulose mole-
cules (a type of carbohydrates). The secondary cell walls con-

Plant Cell
tain lignin. Lignin makes the secondary cell wall stronger than
the primary cell wall.

Figure-2.33.: Cell wall

11
 Plant Cell
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12
 ENERGY AND CELL
Energy can be defined as the capacity to do work. It can exist in different forms,
such as heat, electrical, chemical, mechanical and radiant (solar) energy. Many
activities such us running and walking require mechanical energy.
One of the common property of living things is that they need energy to sur-
vive. All living things require energy to carry on their life activities. So, they must
supply energy from different resources. There is an energy flow in the world which
starts with the sun. Then this energy can be converted into different phases by liv-
ing things. Thus, they can obtain their vital energy. For that reason, there are two
energy pathways: Photosynthesis and Respiration.
First by conversion of helium (He)
atoms to hydrogen, light and heat energy
is formed on the sun. However very little of
this energy reaches our world, and only 3%
of this energy is captured by plants. After
that, plants convert the solar energy to
chemical bond energy by photosynthesis
during production of organic molecules.
Then all living things change the chemical
bond energy to mechanical energy and
heat by respiration.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Today, it is understood that photosynthesis has a vital role in the continuity of
life in the world. It supplies the organisms of the Earth with food. Each year, more
than 200 billion tons of food are produced by photosynthesis. Also the toxic gas
carbon dioxide (CO2) is utilized by photosynthesis. Necessary oxygen
is released to the atmosphere. Photosynthesis was first discovered by
Joseph Priestly. He noticed that the air polluted by a candle was
refreshed by plants. Also he saw that, in a closed jar, a mouse could
not survive. However, when a fresh mint plant was put in that jar, the
mouse continued to live. A definition of photosynthesis might be: the
production of food and oxygen by absorbing sunlight, using carbon
dioxide and water as raw materials. So the essential materials are
CO2, water and sunlight; the products are oxygen and food.
Eventually the formula of photosynthesis is:

Plants, some bacteria and blue green algae are photosynthetic

organisms that can undergo photosynthesis. Photosynthesis occurs in

Plant Cell
the green tissues of plants, especially in the leaves and green stems.
The rate of photosynthesis is very high because the green parts con-
tain more chloroplast. As you have learned, chloroplast contains
Figure-1.14.: The relationship between
green pigments which are called chlorophyll. animals and plants.

13
 Chlorophyll is a kind of pigment that can absorb sunlight which is needed for
photosynthesis. It also gives plants their green color. Actually plants contain other
colored pigments. However the green color dominates. In autumn, the amount of
chlorophyll decreases and other pigments can be seen. So plants change their
clothes in autumn and we can see their different colors and different beauties.
Photosynthesis is a series of complex reactions which includes two main steps.
These are light phase and dark phase.

Figure-1.15.: Photosynthesis occurs in
the leaf.
Photosynthetic reactions
1. The Light Phase
During light reactions, sunlight energy (radiant energy) is converted into chem-
ical energy and stored as ATP. These reactions takes place in the grana of chloro-
plasts by means of chlorophyll. Th light phase also is divided into two steps which
are known as cyclic photophosphorilation and non-cyclic photophosphorilation.
During cyclic photophosphorilation, 2 ATP molecules are produced. However
during non-cyclic photophosphorilation 1 ATP and 2 NADPH molecules are pro-
duced (NADP + H ® NADPH). NADPH molecules are a part of an electron trans-
port system which accepts electrons. These accepted electrons are used during
the dark reaction of photosynthesis. The source of the electron transport system
is water molecules. First, water molecules are split into 2H+ and ½ O2. 2H+ are
used as the electron source and the O2 molecule is given to the atmosphere. As
a result, during noncyclic phosphorylation, 1 ATP, 2 molecules of NADPH and O2
are produced. Finally, in the light phase of photosynthesis, 3 ATP and 2 NADPH
are produced from dark reactions.

2. Dark Phase
Figure-1.16.: Chloroplasts in Eledoa The reactions of the dark phase occur in the stroma of the chloroplasts which
cells do not need light energy to occur. In dark reactions, CO2 molecules are convert-
ed into organic molecules such us glucose by using ATP and NADPH which are
produced by light reactions. In a series of complex reactions, glucose, fructose,
SUN sucrose and vitamins are produced. Thus in the dark phase of photosynthesis: 3
molecules of ATP and 2 of NADPH are used in the reduction of a single CO2 mol-
ecule. However, 6 molecules of CO2 are required for the synthesis of a single mol-
Energy
Light

ecule of glucose. Therefore 18 molecules of ATP and 12 of NADPH are used in

the production of one 6-carbon glucose molecule.

Light Reaction O2 Dark Reaction

ATP (energy) and 2 NADPH
CO2 molecules are convert- Animals
are produced for use in the 3 ATP + 2 NADPH Glucose
dark reaction. Oxygen is a ed into organic molecules
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(glucose) by using ATP Plants

by-product released to the
atmosphere. (energy) and 2 NADPH. Fungi

14
 Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis Is light
CO2 Concentration: The concentration of CO2 is most likely to be the limit- necessary for
photosynthesis?
ing factor under natural field conditions. At low concentrations of CO2, the rate of
To understand clearly
photosynthesis is slow but increases proportionally as the concentration increas- you can do a simple experi-
es. Since the atmospheric concentration of CO2 is low, a saturation point is unlike- ment. First, without cut-
ly to be reached. ting, cover some leaves
with aluminum foil or black
Light Intensity: As photosynthesis is a light-dependent process, the intensity paper. Then cut a covered
of light has a direct effect on its rate. Given that sufficient CO2 is present, the rate leaf and a normal leaf from
of photosynthesis increases proportionally as the intensity of light increases. The the plant after 5 days. After
that, measure their weights
quality of light also affects the rate of photosynthesis. Red light alone for example,
and compare them.
reduces the rate of photosynthesis. However, when red light is mixed with weak
blue light, the rate of photosynthesis increases greatly.
Temperature: The effects of temperature affect the dark phase of photosyn-
thesis most since its reactions are catalyzed by enzymes. Any increase in temper-
ature up to approximately 40°C accelerates the rate of photosynthesis. Above this
temperature, reactions slow as proteinaceous enzymes denature.
H2O: Water is used as a source of hydrogen and oxygen and as an electron
acceptor. It is therefore a fundamental prerequisite for photosynthesis.
Structure of the Leaf: Photosynthesis is also affected by the number and dis-
tribution of stomata, thickness of the epidermal layer, air spaces between the cells
of the leaf and surface area of the leaf.

Cellular Respiration
You have learned that all living things need energy and the sun is the
main source of energy. Plants can convert solar energy to chemical ener-
gy by photosynthesis. Then all living things convert chemical bond ener-
gy into usable forms by respiration. Living things need energy to do their
normal activities. Respiration is a process of supplying energy by break-
ing down chemical bonds in food.
Every cell does this process, so it is called cellular respiration.
From the production of proteins in ribosomes, the digestion of food
materials in lysosomes, to the repair of damaged parts, and the forma-
tion of fruit in plants, organisms have to have energy. For that reason
both autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms must undergo respira-
tion. So, plants carry out respiration, in addition to photosynthesis. They Figure-1.17.: A mitochondrion is the
produce their food by photosynthesis to use the energy from this food. powerhouse of a cell.
So, they require both CO2 and O2. However, plants undergo photosyn-
thesis only during the day time, but respiration always.
During the respiration process, a complex and long series of reactions occurs.
Briefly, oxygen and food enter the reaction; energy, CO2 and water are produced. Plant Cell
CO2 is unneeded, so it is released to the air. The formula of respiration:

15
 There are two types of respiration
according to oxygen dependency.
These are anaerobic and aerobic. If
respiration is done in the presence of
oxygen, it is called aerobic respiration.
If the cell doesn't use oxygen for respi-
ration this type of respiration is called
anaerobic respiration (fermentation).
Aerobic respiration produces a larger
amount of energy than anaerobic res-
piration.
Figure-1.18.: Relationship between Most reactions of aerobic respira-
chloroplast and mitochondrion.
tion take place in mitochondria. Active
cells that need very much energy con-
tain large amounts of mitochondria.
Photosynthesis and respiration
maintain the oxygen and CO2 balance
of the atmosphere.

Respiration Photosynthesis
Raw materials CO2, water and
O2 and food
(reactant) solar energy

Product CO2 and water O2 and food

Physical condi- Both light and

Only under daylight
tion darkness
In mitochondri-
Location In chloroplast
on
Only photosynthetic
Organisms All living things
organisms

Figure-1.19.: Photosynthesis and respi-

ration are two halves of the same reac-
tion.
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16
BOTANY

chapter 2

Figure-2.1.: Onion skin cells.
BOTANY
Figure-2.2.: Longitudinal sections
showing the apex of a shoot and its
meristematic tissue.
18
TISSUES
In a unicellular organism, all life processes such as nutrition, reproduction,
excretion and respiration are performed by organelles in the cytoplasm. In more
complex multicellular organisms, individual cells are specialized and form groups
known collectively as tissue. Together they can perform specific functions required
for digestion, reproduction, impulse transmission or locomotion.
Each tissue is composed of cells of characteristic size and arrangement that
can easily be identified under the light microscope. In a tissue, cells communicate
with neighbor cells by projections on their surfaces. This enables rapid material
exchange between neighboring cells.
The Organization of Living Things
The cell is the basic unit of any organism. Functionally identical cell groups
come together to form a tissue, which in turn operates in conjunction with other
tissues to form an organ. A number of organs all performing a specialized task
together form a system that is responsible for one of the major life processes.
Collectively, all these vital systems make up the complete organism.
PLANT TISSUES
The first embryonic plant tissue develops as a result of mitotic division of the
zygote after fertilization. The endosperm develops from the fusion of a sperm
nucleus with the polar nuclei inside the embryo sac. Once it has developed,
endosprem provides the energy source for germination.
By using endosperm, the embryo can develop and form the tissues, organs or
systems which are necessary to survive as an autotroph.
Plant tissues are categorized into two groups. These are:
v Meristematic tissue
v Permanent tissue
Meristematic Tissue
The meristem is a zone of continuously dividing cells. It is involved in longitu-
dinal and lateral growth. Each cell has the ability to divide and is characterized by
a large nucleus, a large amount of cytoplasm, small vacuoles, a thin cell wall and
high metabolic rate. Meristematic tissues provide unlimited growth by their con-
tinuous division. In contrast, animals have the ability of limited growth during one
period of their life.
Meristematic tissues are categorized in two different ways:
1. According to their location as;
v Apical meristem
v Intercalary meristem
v Lateral meristem
 2. According to their origin as;
v Primary meristem
v Secondary meristem

1. According to Location

a. Apical Meristem
Apical meristemem is located at the tip of the root, stem and branches. It pro-
vides longitudinal growth of these organs. Cells in these regions are small and
unspecialized.

b. Intercalary Meristem
Intercalary meristem is an unusual type of dividing tissue found in blades of
grass at the point where a leaf or side branch develops, for example, at the base
of an internode. If the tip of a stem or leaf is torn off, intercalary meristem reforms
the structure of the plant from that point up.
Figure-2.3.: Types of meristematic tis-
sue in a typical stem
c. Lateral Meristem
It is located laterally within the stem or root and provides an increase in the
diameter of some parts of the plant. It is not found in all flowering plants.

2. According to Origin

a. Primary Meristem
Primary meristematic tissue retains the ability to divide throughout
the life of the plant. It is located at the tips of root, stem and branch.
The region where the cell continously divides is known as the growth
region. These regions maintain the growth of plant organs and are
the origin of new tissue.

Plant Histology and Anatomy

Figure-2.4: Longitudinal diagrams
showing the differentiation of meristem-
atic tissue in a typical stem and root.

b. Secondary Meristem
Secondary meristem is composed of permanent tissue cells
that have regained their ability to divide by the stimulation of hor-
mones. They are structurally identical to cells of primary meris-
tematic tissue, but the cells are longer. This tissue is termed sec-
ondary meristematic tissue since it does not originate as dividing
tissue. Vascular cambium and cork (spongy) cambium are exam-
ples of this type of meristematic tissue. They provide an increase
in the diameter of a plant.
Figure-2.5.: Diagrammatic representation of the vascular cam-
bium responsible for producing new xylem and phloem tissue.

19
 Cambium: The stem of a plant consists of bundles of vascular cells adapted
for conducting water and nutrients. In some dicotyledons, cambium forms in
between these bundles in both the stems and roots. The level of cambial activity
in plants growing in temperate regions varies according to the season. Generally
the metabolic activity of cambium cells in perennial plants decelerates in the
autumn, accelerating again in spring.
Every year, two rings of new cells are pro-
duced, known as annual rings. Due to more
accelerated growth, the ring formed in spring
is wider than that produced in the autumn.
Cork (spongy) meristematic tissue in the
cambium forms periderm which in turn pro-
Figure-2.6.: Transportation parts and
duces cork cambium. The cork cells pro-
cambium in a vascular bundle. duced by the cork cambium form a hard pro-
Figure-2.7.: Annual growth rings of a
woody perennial plant tective outer layer known as the bark.

Permanent Tissues
They are formed by the growth and differentiation of primary and secondary
meristematic tissue. Once a cell of permanent tissue has been produced, it gen-
erally loses its ability to divide and can only enlarge. Such cells have a large vac-
uole, a low metabolic rate, a small nucleus and a thick cell wall. Most cells of per-
manent tissue are living, but such tissues can include dead cells. There are inter-
cellular spaces among cells that are required for air circulation.

Permanent tissues are divided into the following groups according to their
structure.
v Parenchymatous tissue
v Dermal tissue
v Supportive tissue
v Vascular tissue
v Glandular tissue

1. Parenchymatous Tissue
Parenchymatic cells form the bulk of the tissues of the root, stem cortex and
leaf mesophyll layer. They are large, thin-walled and generally undifferentiated.
They occupy the spaces between other tissues and interconnect them.
Parenchyma tissue has many functions within the plant body, primarily in the
healing and regeneration of damaged structures, photosynthesis, respiration, stor-
age, secretion and movement of water and food.Some parts of parenchymatous
tissue are the following:
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Figure-2.8.: Parenchymatous tissue.

a. Synthetic Parenchyma: It is located in the photosynthetic leaf mesophyll
layer and takes a role in synthesis of some organic compounds.

20
 b. Storage Parenchyma: It may be found in tuber,
fruit, seed and other parts of plants. It stores starch in
potato or citric acid in orange, which gives it a tart
taste.
c. Aerolar Parenchyma: Aerolar parenchyma has
air spaces among its cells. These cells are large and
contain large vacuoles. Aerolar parenchyma is espe-
cially common in plants living in quite wet habitats
such as marsh and ponds. The spaces within the tis-
sue provide air to plants.

Figure-2.9.: Aerolar prenchyma Figure-2.10.: Storage parenchyma

2. Dermal Tissue
Dermal tissue covers all parts of the plant, such as root, stem, leaves and fruits.
It protects the inner cells from external hazards. It also prevents water loss in ter-
restrial plants during hot and dry periods. Dermal tissue is divided into two groups.
These are epidermis and periderm.

a. Epidermis
Epidermis is the outermost layer of cells in some parts of plants. It is composed
of a single layer of rectangular cells that have no spaces between them. Epidermal
cells are flat and transparent.
Directly above the epidermis is a waxy transparent cuticle layer that is secreted
by the epidermal cells. Thickness of the cuticle depends on the environment in
which the plant lives. In hot and dry habitats, the cuticle is thick, however in aquat-
ic regions, the cuticle is very thin. Within this layer of epidermal cells may be small
hair-like outgrowths known as trichomes. stomata and also hydrathodes through
Figure-9.11.: A diagrammatic view of
which excess water can be lost. the important epidermal features of a
terrestrial plant.
The Roles of Epidermal Cells

Plant Histology and Anatomy

v They prevent entrance of infectious agents.
v They form part of the protective mechanism of the plant.
v They reduce the rate of transpiration by absorbing direct sunlight.
v They absorb water and minerals from soil by root hairs.
Trichomes and stomata cells are formed by the differentiation of epidermal cells.
Trichomes: Epidermal trichomes are found on all types of plants. They are
formed from either a single cell or a chain of cells.
Trichomes may be involved in absorptive, glandular, secretory, or defensive
roles. Some plants living in hot arid climates are covered with a dense covering of
hair on their leaves and stem. This lowers the rate of transpiration and lowers the
temperature of the leaf. A thick layer of hair also protects plants from insect attack. Figure-2.12.: Trichome

21
 Stoma: Stoma are tiny struc-
tures that are formed by the differ-
entiation of epidermal tissue. They
play a role in transportation of water
and exchange of O2 and CO2
between leaf tissues and atmos-
phere.
A stoma is composed of a pair of
bean-like cells known as guard cells
with a space between them, known
as the stomal opening. The inner
walls of guard cells are thicker than
the outer walls. This difference has a
role in the opening and closure pro-
cedure of stomata. Figure-2.14.: Photomicrograph of the lower epidermis
of a plant showing the large number of stomata.
Hydathodes: Hydrathodes are
Figure-2.13.: Guttation in leaves.
gland-like structures involved in the release of water droplets by guttation. They
also resemble stomata in that they include a pair of bean-shaped cells. However,
they are incapable of opening or closing.
b. The Periderm
The periderm is a thick, impermeable layer surrounding the
stem of woody plants, formed from secondary meristematic tissue.
Repeated divisions result in cork and an inner secondary cortex.
There are no spaces between its constituent cells. After maturing,
the spongy cambium cells die and become filled with air.
The periderm protects plants from temperature changes,
physical damage and prevents gas and water loss.

Figure-9.16.: Diagrammatic develop-

ment of periderm.

Lenticels: The epidermis forms a protective layer on the surface of

young higher plants. In dicotyledons, the outer tissue becomes woody
as the plant matures and ages. The stomata lose their ability to func-
BOTANY

tion and are replaced by lenticels. They maintain gas exchange

between a woody plant and the atmosphere and are found mostly on
Figure-9.15.: Lenticels replace stomata as organs of gas
exchange in plants with secondary thickening.
the roots, stem and branches.

22
 3. Supportive Tissue
All higher land plants require support to help them withstand the effects of
environmental conditions such as wind and rain. The type of supporting structure
is dependent on the size and location of the plant. For example, herbaceous plants
are small in size and turgor pressure is sufficient to raise them above the ground.
Woody plants require a stronger system of support and have extensive supportive
tissues known as collenchyma and sclerenchyma.

a. Collenchyma
It is a living tissue found in the leaves and stalks of
flowers, fruits and in some young stems. The cells of
collenchyma are characterised by their thickened cell
walls due to the deposition of cellulose and pectin.
This thickening occurs at specific locations. If thicken-
ing of cell wall occurs at corners it is called corner col-
lenchyma. In some cells, thickening occurs every-
where on the cell wall. This type of collenchyma is Figure-2.17.: Plaque collenchyma Figure-2.18.: Corner collenchyma
called plaque collenchyma.

b. Sclerenchyma
Sclerenchyma is the main supporting tissue of woody plants. As
each cell matures, it accumulates first cellulose and pectin, then
becomes lignified. As the cell walls become thicker, diffusion of
material becomes impossible, resulting in death. The cytoplasmic
space is filled with lignified deposits forming an extremely hard struc-
ture. There are two types of sclerenchyma: fibers and sclereids.
Fibers are long and slender cells that usually form strands. These
fibers are found in patches in the phloem or may occur singly. When
they form bundles, for example in flax, they can be utilized in the
weaving of rope and linen.
Sclereids are variable in shape but often branched.

Plant Histology and Anatomy

Sclerenchyma cells may be in the form of individual round cells
known as stone cells and are found in fruits such as pears and
quince. Their cell walls are so thick that cells cannot take needed
materials from outside and die. Figure-2.19.: a) a transverse section of
fibers. b) Stone cells.

4. Vascular Tissue
All terrestrial plants need a vascular system to transport minerals and water to
the leaves for photosynthesis, and then to distribute the products of photosynthe-
sis through the plant. Their vascular tissue is composed of xylem and phloem ves-
sels.
The xylem transports water and water-soluble elements from the roots to the
leaves, the phloem transports the products of photosynthesis from the leaves to
the other areas of the plant.

23

Figure-2.20.: Transportation parts and
cambium in a vascular bundle.
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Figure-2.21.: A longitudinal view of the
aerial transport tissue of sugar cane.
24
a. Xylem
The xylem is composed of four different types of cells: tracheids, vessels,
parenchyma and sclerenchyma
Tracheids: Tracheids are long, cylindrical, prism-like cells stacked one on top
of each other. The walls of these cells become thickened with lignin and as the
plant matures, the cytoplasm is lost and the cell dies. The walls at the end of each
cell however remain intact. The xylem vessels of gymnosperms are composed of
only tracheids.
Vessels: Rows of elongated cells stacked on top of each other form vessels,
and their cell walls also become thickened with lignin deposits. These net-like cells
may be in the form of rings, spirals or a reticulate pattern. They differ from tra-
cheids in that their end cell walls break down to form a long tube of dead cells.
Parenchyma: The xylem vessels also contain living prism-like parenchyma
cells. Their function is food storage.
Sclerenchyma: This type of tissue consists of elongated nonliving cells with
thick lignified walls and no cytoplasm. The cells are also known as fibres and help
to support the plant.
b. Phloem
This living tissue forms the main pathway through which
the products of photosynthesis pass. It is composed of the
following four cell types: sieve tube elements, companion
cells, parenchyma and sclerenchyma.
Sieve Tube Elements: Sieve tube elements are com-
posed of rows of elongated cylindrical cells. The perpendi-
cular end walls of these cells are perforated providing gates
through which neighboring elements can interconnect and
organic material can diffuse during the growing season.
During the winter, these gates are blocked.
Companion Cells :These small cells are situated adja-
cent to the sieve tube elements. Each cell contains a large
nucleus with abundant cytoplasm and a small vacuole.
Since their function is to transport food in and waste out of
the living sieve tube elements, there are many gates
between both these types of cells. Companion cells are a
unique feature of angiosperms and are not present in the
vascular system of gymnosperms or ferns.
Parenchyma: These elongated cells in the phloem func-
tion in the storage of food.
Sclerenchyma: Sclerenchymatous cells are involved in
the support and protection of phloem vessels.
 Vascular Bundles
The vascular bundles form the main transport system of
higher plants and consist of xylem and phloem vessels. In
monocotyledons, the xylem and phloem are irregularly
arranged in stems and there is no cambium between them.
Examples of such plants are barley and maize.
In dicotyledons, the vascular bundles are initially
arranged in a circle around the outside of the pith. The xylem
and phloem vessels are separated by a layer of meristemat-
ic tissue known as the cambium (Figure-9.26).

5. Glandular tissue
Glandular tissue cells secretes some chemicals. Their
products perform many useful roles. Resins and tanins, for
example, are secretions that protect the plant from attack by
pathogens or other enemies. Alkaloids are secretory poisons Figure-2.22.: The vascular bundles of
that defend the plant against herbivores. Some alkaloids monocotyledons are distributed ran-
such as digitalin have useful medical applications. domly throughout the stem.

Nectaries: A concentrated sugar solution known as nec-

tar is secreted by patches of epidermal cells closest to the
end of the phloem. These structures form at the base of
petals of plants that are insect-pollinated.
Digestive Glands: Plants
living in nitrogen deficient
soils have an alternative strat-
egy for meeting their nitrogen
requirements. Drosera rotun-
difolia, for example, is insec-
tivorous, utilizing nitrogen
from insect protein. Insects
stick to stalked, sticky, red

Plant Histology and Anatomy

glands which produce pro-
tease enzymes. When an
insect has become stuck, the
glands bend towards the cen-
ter of the plant, trapping the
insect and slowly digesting it. Figure-2.23.: Insectivorous plant.

Lactiferous Tissues: Some plants, such as Euphorbia

helioscopia, contain a poisonous milky sap known as latex
produced by specialized latex cells. The sap is a complex
mixture of useful and poisonous excretory compounds and Figure-2.24.: The vascular bundles of
dicots are arranged in circle.
functions in storage, excretion of substances, and defense
against predators. In fact, most latex containing plants are
poisonous.

25

Figure-2.25.: Types of root.
Figure-2.26.: Adventitious roots in some plants.
BOTANY
Figure-2.27.: Longutidunal section of root
26
PLANT ANATOMY
The plant body is organized into a root system and shoot system.
The root system is generally the below ground portion, the shoot sys-
tem consist of a vertical stem which bears leaves, flowers and fruits
containing seeds.
Root
The root is a specialized structure peculiar to terrestrial plants.
Roots exhibit positive geotropism. That is, they grow down into the soil.
The root serves several functions. It keeps plants anchored in the soil
and transports water and minerals dissolved in the water to the stems
and other parts of the plant. Additionally, some roots have the ability to
store materials for future use. Roots and stems are classified according
to their external appearance. Roots lack leaves, nodes, internodes and
chloroplasts, while stems include all of these structures. Highly
branched roots have a large surface area due to branches and root
hairs. Plants have two types of roots: taproot and fibrous root.
A tap root consists of one main root with many smaller lateral
roots coming out of it. It is characteristic of dicots and gymnosperms.
The tap root that develops in monocots often dies during the early
growth of the plant and a new root develops from the lower part of
the stem. These roots are called adventitious roots. They develop
from an above-ground structure. Often, adventitious roots help
anchor a plant, such as "prop" roots in corn. Certain dicots, such as
ivy plants, also develop adventitious roots that help them cling to
walls.
A fibrous root has several to many roots of the same size devel-
oping from the end of the stem with smaller lateral roots branching
off these roots. Onion, crabgrass and other monocots have fibrous
root.
Tap roots and fibrous roots are adapted to obtain water in differ-
ent ways. Tap roots often extend down into the soil to obtain water
located deep underground, whereas fibrous roots, located close to
the surface of the soil, are adapted to obtain rainwater from a larger
area as it drains into the soil.
1. Parts of a germinating root
A germinating root is comprised of root cap, zone of cell division,
zone of elongation and zone of maturation.
Root cap: The root cap or calyptra is a yellow or brown structure
located at the tip of the root. It protects the meristematic zone of the
root where longitidunal growth occurs.
Zone of cell division: The zone of cell division is the actively divid-
ing meristematic region. The meristematic region is involved in the
extension of the root and in the renewal of the root cap. The cells of the growth
region divide to give the root its typical appearance.
Zone of elongation: In the zone of elongation, cells become longer as they
become specialized.
Zone of maturation: In the zone of maturation, the cells are mature and fully
differentiated. The young cells of the mature region divide to form projections
from the main roots. These projections are highly branched absorptive root hairs.
They are extremely vulnerable to abrasion and have a short life span as compared
to normal epidermal cells. They increase the surface area of roots and absorb
water and minerals. The root hairs are found exclusively in the first 6 cm of the root
tip. The differentiating region of the root forms the phloem, xylem, and similar
structures.

2. Internal Structure of the Root

The following structures are observed when a lateral cross
section of a root is investigated under the light microscope.
Epidermis: Epidermis is the outermost layer of root which
consists of single layer cells. The root hairs are composed of
epidermal tissue which projects out from the main root.
Cortex: Large, thin-walled parenchyma cells make up the
cortex of the root. These parenchyma cells store excess starch
and transmit water and minerals to the interior structures.
Endodermis: The cortex and vascular bundles are sepa-
rated by the endodermal layer, composed of closely packed
single-layered cells. In young plants, the endodermis thickens
to form a casparian strip which is impermeable to water thus
preventing diffusion of materials across it. A few cells border-
ing the xylem vessels do not thicken and so form a passage-
way for materials. These cells, also known as gate cells, pro-
mote material exchange between the cortex and the core of Figure-2.28.: Water molecules diffuse
from the outside of the root to the
the plant. inside through the cortex, epidermis,

Plant Histology and Anatomy

pericycle and xylem vessels.
Vascular tissue: The pericycle, the first layer of cells which is directly beneath
the endodermis, forms lateral roots and root cambium through its meristematic
activity. The core of the plant includes xylem and phloem vessels separated by a
layer of cambium.

Stem
The stem is a structure that connects the root and leaves and is usually
branched. Stems have vascular tissue that may be regularly or irregularly
arranged. On stems, nodes are commonly found, especially lateral nodes. They
are separated by internodes, tiny gaps between each node. They are peculiar to
the stem and can not be observed in the roots. Stems can be classified as either
herbaceous or woody.
Figure-2.29.: The leaves originate from
nodes on the stem of the plant.

27

Figure-2.30.: (Above) Cross-section of
monocot stem. (Bottom) Cross-sec-
tion of dicot stem.
Mature nonwoody stems are called herbaceous stems. They
are soft and delicate and are kept erect by turgor pressure,
which is a characteristic of herbs. Herbaceous stems are cov-
ered by a cuticle layer which prevents water loss. They exhibit
only primary growth and contain chloroplasts. They are either
annual (living for one growing season) or biennial (living for two
growing seasons).
Annual stems lack a cambium layer around their vascular
bundles. Because of this there is no secondary growth in these
plants.
Most monocot plants are annual and don’t have a cambium
layer. Their vascular bundles are scattered through the stem.
Stems of monocot plants generally don’t have a cortex layer.
In dicotyledons, the vascular bundles are located regularly at
the core of the stem, which is surrounded by the bark. The
xylem and phloem vessels are separated by a circular cambium
layer. Xylem vessels are found near the core of the stem while
phloem vessels are located in the outer portion of the cambium,
between it and the bark.
The cambium functions as meristematic tissue, facilitating
the division of cells and replenishment of xylem and phloem. In
addition, it provides lateral growth. The annual rings are formed
by the addition of new xylem vessels to the stem. An annual ring
has both summer and winter sections. The summer ring is wider
than that of the winter since growth occurs more rapidly during
the summer. Furthermore, any injury to the stem is repaired by
the cambium.
Some cells in the bark of woody plants gain meristematic tis-
sue from a secondary cambium layer known as the cork cambi-
um. Cork cambium provides protection for bundles and other
tissues. Some cells of the cork cambium are specialized and
rupture the epidermis to form a loosely arranged area called a
lenticel which facilitates gas exchange in the stem, like the stom-
ata in leaves.

Phloem vessels:
Phloem vessels elongate from the roots to the leaves, very near to the outer
section of the stem. They consist of many cytoplasmic guard cells, non-nucleated
sieve plate elements, support and parenchyma cells. The sieve tube elements are
closely packed cells. There are some spaces, called sieve plate tubes, which con-
nect them to each other. The organic molecules synthesized in the leaf of the plant
by photosynthesis are carried downward and nitrogenous compounds synthesized
BOTANY

at the roots are transmitted by means of the phloem vessels. The rate of trans-
portation is slower than in the xylem vessels since the phloem vessels are living.
Figure-2.31.: Transverse section of a
dicotyledon stem.

28
 Xylem vessels
The xylem vessels stretch from the roots to the leaves and are located at the
core of the plant. They are composed of tracheids, schlerenchyma and parenchy-
ma cells. The cells at the outer portion of the parenchyma cells are nonliving. The
xylem cells enlarge and bind to each other to form pipe-like vessels. Water and
minerals absorbed by the roots are transported via the xylem vessels to the leaves.
The rate of transportation is rapid since the xylem vessels are nonliving.
Transportation occurs against the force of gravity.

Modified stems:
Stems may have different characteristics according to their functions. Some
plants, such as the potato, have underground stems which develop into tubers
and function as a storage site. Ferns and grasses also have stems beneath the sur-
face of the soil, known as rhizomes.
Stolon: Stolons are slender stem-branches run-
ning horizontally away from the main plant, either
above or below ground. Stolons have nodes, and
these nodes are capable of taking root and forming
a new plant. Plants with stolons, such as strawber-
rys, clone during springtime by producing stolons
around the mother plant.
Rhizome: At first glance rhizomes are like
underground stolons, but there's an important dif-
ference between them: Each stolon is just one of
what may be several stems radiating from the
plant's center. Rhizomes, in contrast, are the main
stem. If a tree grew with its trunk horizontal below
the ground, with its side branches emerging above
ground, the buried trunk would be a rhizome. The
thick, fleshy "roots" of irises, cannas, and water
lilies are actually rhizomes. So are the whitish,
thumb-thick items at the right.

Plant Histology and Anatomy

Tuber: Tubers, such as the ordinary potato, are often thought of as roots. Figure-2.32.: Different types of modi-
fied stems.
However, as we've just said, roots don't have buds, and that's exactly what you see
sprouting on the potato, arising from the potato's "eyes." Tubers are actually
swollen portions of underground stems. Stems have nodes, and buds arise at
nodes. This type of plant stem is specialized for food storage.
Corm: Corms are unlike stolons and rhizomes because they usually grow ver-
tically, instead of lying horizontally. They are unlike tubers in that tubers are typi-
cally attached to the main plant by a slender rootlike part of the stem, a sort of
umbilical cord, while corms constitute the below-ground "heart" of the plant, the
part from which aboveground stems and leaves directly sprout. In the corm, notice
the horizontal bands running across it. These are stem nodes such as those so
conspicuous on the bamboo stem. Gladiolus, crocus, and tuberous begonias all
arise from corms.

29
 Bulb: Bulbs can be considered to be very short stems encased in thickened,
fleshy bulb scales (which are modified leaves). The two basic bulb types are lay-
ered and scaly.
Layered bulbs are composed of a series of fleshy scales that form concentric
rings when the bulb in cut in cross-section. Onions and the garlic are layered
bulbs.
Scaly bulbs, such as the lily bulb, have fleshy bulb scales, which are modified
leaves, loosely clustered around the stem base. In contrast, each section or "scale"
of a scaly bulb is a modified thick and fleshy leaf. The scales serve as sites of food
accumulation. In the spring, when the lily stem shoots up from the center of the
scale cluster, it will draw its food from the scales.
Water-storing stem: These stems are specializing in storing water for use
Figure-2.33.: Bulb
between rains. They become very fat because of water accumulation. They act as
a reservoir for the long dry periods they have to endure. The most famous such
stems are those of the cacti. Other common potted plants with water-storing
stems are the spurge, purslane, and milkweed.

Leaf
Leaves are structures which develop from lateral buds on the stem of a plant.
The leaf of a dicotyledon consists of a leaf stalk and a leaf blade. The wide surface
area of the leaf blade is important for the efficient absorption of sunlight. In some
plants, leaves are ribbon-like: straight-sided with parallel veins. In contrast, some
other plants have net-veined and rough-sided leaves.
The presence of a wide surface area enables a large quantity of light to be
absorbed. However, it also provides a large area from which water can be lost.
Plants have some adaptations to prevent water loss from leaves.
Desert plants combat water loss by reducing the surface area of their leaves to
a minimum. As a result, their leaves are needle-shaped and their stomata are
located on the stem which is also the site of photosynthesis. Pine trees growing in
Figure-2.34.: Parts of a leaf. arid climates also have similar needle-shaped leaves. Each leaf is covered by a
thick layer called the cuticle and has many hair-like structures. The stomata are
buried in the lower epidermis to prevent water loss. These adaptations all help to
prevent water loss in plants.
Unlike desert plants, those living in moist or wet habitats have fragmented leaves
with a wide surface area and extensive veins. The leaves are covered by a thin layer
of cuticle and the stomata are distributed randomly over the surface of the upper
and lower epidermis. Hydrothodes, located at the edge of the leaves, facilitate water
loss by guttation (the extrusion of water as drops). In humid environments, the air
is too saturated with moisture for water to be lost by transpiration. These plants
additionally excrete excess salts and water by means of guttation. Guttation is pecu-
liar to humid environments since plants excrete excess water in the form of water
droplets if water uptake from the roots exceeds the amount used.
BOTANY

Figure-2.35.: Plants in moist habitats All these adaptations indicate that provisions against water loss are not nec-
excrete excess water through hydrath- essarily due to the absence of water in their surroundings.
odes in a process known as guttation.

30
 Figure-2.36: Different types of leaves.

1. Types Of Leaves

According to the petiole:

Petiolated leaf: Petiolated leaves are those that have a petiole. This may differ
in length from one plant to another.
Sessile leaf: Sessile leaves do not possess a petiole. The blade expands itself
directly from the stem.

According to the blade:

Leaves are divided into two groups according to the shape of their blade: sim-
ple and compound.

Plant Histology and Anatomy

Simple leaf: Simple leaves show an undivided blade or, in case it has divisions,
they do not reach the midrib.
Compound leaf: Compound leaves have a fragmented blade, with divisions
reaching the midrib. Sometimes each one of these fragments is similar to a single
leaf. They are called leaflets.

According to the veins:

Leaf blades may posses parallel venation or netted venation.
Parallel-veined leaves: The veins run at the same distance
from each other, like in canes. It is generally characteristic of
monocots.
Net-veined leaves: Veins are branched in such a way that
they resemble a net. It is generally characteristic of dicots.

31
 According to the arrangement along the stem:
Leaves are arranged on a stem in one of three possible ways.
Alternate: Springing one per node at different levels of the stem.
Opposite: Two per node, facing opposite sides of the stem.
Whorled: Several leaves located at the same level around the stem.

2. The Anatomical Structure of the Leaf

The following prominent layers are observed under a light microscope when a
Figure-2.37.: Leaf arrangement in dif-
ferent plants leaf is cut in cross-section:
v Cuticle layer
v Epidermal layers
v Mesophyll layer
I. Palisade parenchyma II. Spongy parenchyma.
v Vascular bundles

a. The cuticle layer

The cuticle layer is a waxy material which covers the leaf surface and prevents
water loss. The cuticle layer is transparent, therefore sunlight can pass through it
but water loss is prevented. Its thickness is directly related to environmental con-
ditions. It is thick in hot, arid climates and thin in moist, aquatic habitats.

b. The epidermal layers

Epidermal tissue forms the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf and compris-
es a single layer of epidermal cells. Epidermal cells lack chloroplasts and are con-
sequently non-photosynthetic. The upper epidermal cells secrete waxy substances
to form a layer of cuticle. The holes in the epidermis or the stomata give it a rough
appearance. The stomata provide the pathways for gas exchange and water regu-
lation in the plant.
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Figure-2.38.: Transverse section through the leaf of a dicotyledon.

32
 c. The mesophyll layer
The layer between the upper and lower epidermis, known as the mesophyll
layer, comprises palisade and spongy parenchyma cells. The cells of this layer are
photosynthetic.
I) The palisade parenchyma is comprised of long, cylindrical, closely packed
cells, which are vertically ordered just below the upper epidermis layer. The rate of
photosynthesis is very rapid due to the high amount of chloroplasts in these cells.
Therefore, photosynthesis is observed mostly in this layer.
II) The spongy parenchyma is located above the lower epidermis layer and is
made up of loosely packed cells with air spaces that give it a sponge-like appear-
ance. Furthermore, these air spaces are in close proximity to the stomata enabling
gases to diffuse easily in or out of the leaf. The air spaces reduce the photosyn-
thetic potential of the spongy parenchyma. Additionally, these cells contain fewer
chloroplasts when compared to palisade parenchyma.

d. The vascular bundles

The vascular bundles consist of xylem and phloem vessels which transport
water from root to leaf and organic materials from leaf to root.

Stomata
The cuticle layer forms an incomplete covering over the surface of the leaf. If
coverage were total, transpiration and gas exchange would be prevented.
Consequently, metabolic activities would be reduced to a minimum and the plant
would probably not survive. Since the stomata lack a cuticle they can open and
close to carry out gas exchange and transpiration. If there is sufficient water with-
in the leaf, CO2 molecules diffuse out through the stomatal openings. During pho-
tosynthesis, the reaction of CO2 molecules with water results in the production of
organic compounds and O2 molecules. Plant cells require oxygen for their own
cellular respiration. However, the excess oxygen and water diffuse out through the
stomata. It is obvious that the stomata facilitate an extremely active relationship
between the leaf and the atmosphere.

Plant Histology and Anatomy

Each stoma structurally resembles a pair of bean-like cells which are specialized
epidermal cells. However, guard cells have chloroplast but normal epidermis cells
don’t. The inner walls of guard cells are stronger than the outer walls. The differ-
ence in thickness of these walls plays an important role in opening the stoma.

a. Stomatal Distribution in Different Types of Leaves Figure-2.39.: A stoma showing its

components.
v Stomata are equally distributed over the upper and lower epidermis in erect
leaves. Examples include the onion and the lily.
v Stomata are present in greater numbers on the lower surface in lateral
leaves. This property prevents accumulation of dust and rain water on stom-
atal openings. Some examples include the leaves of apricots, plums and
begonias.

33
 v In the case of aquatic plants that live on the surface of the water, the stom-
ata are located only on the upper epidermis; for example, the water lily.

b. Adaptation of plant stomata to different climates

The stomata are located in different positions within the epidermal layer for
adaptation to different climates. Location of stomata affects the amount of water
lost by traspiration. They are classified as follows, according to their location.
Lower case stoma: In arid climates,the stomata are found deep in the epider-
mal layer and are covered by an air space and stomatal hairs at the level of the epi-
dermis. These features protect stomata from the effects of wind and temperature
by reducing the level of transpiration.
Normal stoma: At normal relative humidity
and temperature, stomata are at the same level
as the epidermis.
Upper case stoma: In plants living in areas
of high relative humidity and temperature, stom-
ata are found in an uppermost position and are
therefore considerably affected by wind and tem-
perature. This results in a high transpiration rate.
Figure-2.40.: The mechanism of stom-
atal opening and closure is physically
regulated by turgor pressure.

Working Mechanism of Stoma

Stoma include two bean-like cells. These cells take
or give water according to their glucose concentration.
Passing of water into and out of the cells causes the
stomata to open and close.
Opening: Stomatal opening is regulated by turgor
pressure.
During the day, glucose molecules are synthesized by
photosynthesis. This results in high glucose concentra-
tion in the guard cells and a resultant increase in osmot-
ic pressure in these cells. Thus, water molecules are
absorbed from adjacent cells. The contents of the cells,
mostly water molecules, exert pressure on the outer walls
of the guard cells. The outer walls stretch and the inner
walls move apart from each other. Thus, the stoma
opens by means of turgor pressure. Light is the dominant
factor, which increases turgor pressure threefold.
Closure: In the absence of light, photosynthesis
ceases and glucose concentration decreases with time.
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Osmotic pressure thus decreases and water passes

from the guard cells to the adjacent cells. Reduction in
glucose can also occur due to its conversion to starch.

34
In both instances, as water escapes, the thickened walls of the stomata move clos-
er to each other and the stoma closes. The opening and closing of the stomata
also depends on climatic conditions. For example, in arid, hot or windy climates
water can be lost through stomata. To prevent transpiration, the stomata close.
Water loss is therefore reduced to a minimum in hot climates. The rate of photo-
synthesis slows as a result of stomatal closure as the uptake of CO2 is prohibited.

3. Functions of the Leaf

Functions of leaves are vital for plants. Inhibition of these functions results in
death of plants. The functions of leaves are the following:
v Photosynthesis
v Gas exchange
v Transpiration and related functions.
a) Absorption of water through root hairs.
b) Regulation of temperature in the plant body.
c) Excretion of some waste products with water.

a. Transpiration
Transpiration is excretion of water as vapor by stomata. Environmental factors
always influence the activities of the stomata. They result in water vapor gradient
differences between the plant and the atmosphere. The transpiration rate is influ-
enced by wind, humidity and temperature.

These factors are as follows:

Wind: Under normal conditions, the stomata are covered by a dome of vapor.
Wind causes the removal of water vapour molecules from the dome and triggers
transpiration. The measurable increase of the effect of wind on transpiration is
about 20% on the cuticle and 100 - 200% on the stomata.
Temperature: Absorbed sunlight increases the heat of the leaf resulting in a
high amount of water that is vaporized. The rate of vaporization increases twofold

Plant Histology and Anatomy

for each 10°C increase in leaf temperature. In most plants, the stomata close when
the temperature of the leaf rises in excess of 30°C.
Light: The stomata are generally closed in the absence of light and the tran-
spiration rate is very low. Conversely, intense light increases the temperature of the
leaves and triggers the stoma to open. Light therefore influences the rate of tran-
spiration by opening and closing the stomata.
Humidity: During high relative humidity, transpiration is generally reduced due
to the low vapor level difference between the atmosphere and the plant. In con-
trast, transpiration is extremely high in arid conditions.
CO2: The density of carbon dioxide affects transpiration indirectly, since it reg-
ulates the activities of stomata. High CO2 density results in stomatal opening Figure-2.41.: The above graphs indi-
cate the factors which affect the tran-
whereas a decrease in CO2 level results in closure. spiration rate.

35
 Flower
Flowers are the reproductive shoots of flowering
plants and are composed of the following parts:
v Pedicel
v Receptacle
v Perianth
ü Calyx (Sepals)
ü Corolla (Petals)
v Stamen (Androecium)
ü Filament
ü Anther
v Pistil (Gynoecium)
ü Stigma
ü Style
ü Ovary
Figure-2.42.: Parts of a flower The flower is attached to the plant by the flower stalk, also known as a pedi-
cel. Directly above the pedicel is a bulb-like structure known as the receptacle. All
the floral parts are attached to this structure. In addition, the receptacle may be
involved in the secretion of nectar, a sugary fluid that provides an energy source
for insects

a. The Perianth
The parts comprising this structure have no function in the production of
gametes. It protects the reproductive organs and in some cases attracts pollina-
tors.
Sepals: While a flower is developing within a bud, it is fully surrounded and
protected by a ring of small, green leaf-like structures known as sepals. They are
collectively called the calyx. Once the bud opens, the petals emerge and perform
the same function.
Petals: They are leaf-like in structure and are generally brightly colored. They
are collectively known as the corolla and protect the reproductive organs of a
mature flower. The petals of plants that are insect pollinated are brightly colored
and produce an attractive scent. A nectary at the base of each petal produces a
sugary solution known as nectar and it is during nectar collection that pollination
takes place.
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b. Stamens (Androecium)
The stamens are the male reproductive organs of the flower and are composed
of filaments and anthers.

36
 Anther: Each anther is composed of four pollen sacs containing pollen grains.
The grains are haploid and contain the meiotically produced male gametes. The
sacs then burst and release spherical yellow pollen grains.
Filament: Its function is to raise the anther into the air so that its pollen can be
dispersed by the wind or by an insect. It consists of a narrow stalk containing a
vascular bundle.

c. Pistils (Gynoecium)
The pistil is the female reproductive organ of a flower. It is generally composed
of three structures: a stigma, a style and an ovary.
Stigma: It is a specialized area located directly above the style and is the site
of pollen reception and germination. During pollination season, the stigma may Figure-2.43.: Stamen
secrete sticky matter to trap pollen.
Style: It is a tube-like structure connecting the ovary and
the stigma. Pollen tubes pass down through the style to the
ovary.
Ovary: The ovary is a spherical structure at the base of
the pistil and is formed by infolded leaves known as carpels.
Usually at least several carpels join together to form a single
ovary.

Ovary Positions
Hypogynous: The flower is hypogynous if the ovary is sit-
uated above the calyx and there is no floral cup around it. The
ovary is superior.
Perigynous: The flower is perigynous if the ovary is situ-
ated within (and free from) a floral cup or hypanthium. The
ovary is superior.
Epigynous: The flower is epigynous if the ovary is situat-
ed below the calyx. The ovary is inferior.

Plant Histology and Anatomy

Floral Symmetry
Figure-2.44.: Dicotyledonous flowers
Actinomorphic: The flower has many axes of symmetry, e.g. no matter where show variation in the position of the
you "cut it in half", the halves will match. Also called regular or radially symmetric. ovary and the length of the style.

Zygomorphic: The flower has only one line of symmetry, e.g. there is only one
way to divide it to get equal halves. Also called bilaterally symmetrical or irregular,
though some texts reserve "irregular" for flowers with no axis of symmetry.

Inflorescence Types
For each, the stalk of the inflorescence is called the peduncle and the stalk of
an individual flower is the pedicel. Some of the inflorescence types are as follows:
Solitary: Just one flower on the peduncle.

37
 Spike: One unbranched axis and the flowers
sessile (without pedicels)
Spikelet: Like a spike, but with the flowers and
inflorescence subtended by specialized bracts.
Usually applied to the grass family (Poaceae)
Umbel: All the pedicels arise from one point at
the top of the peduncle
Compound umbel: Peduncles arise from one
point and each in turn bears a smaller umbel.
Common in the carrot family (Apiaceae)
Head: many small flowers borne on a common
receptacle; may look like a single flower. Common
in the sunflower family (Asteraceae)

Floral formula
Figure-2.45.: Flower arrangement for
multiple flowers A floral formula is a system of representing the structure of a flower using spe-
cific letters, numbers, and symbols. Typically, a general formula will be used to rep-
resent the flower structure of a plant family rather than a particular species. The
following representations are used:
Ca = number of sepals (e.g. Ca5 = 5 sepals)
Co = number of petals (e.g Co3 = 3 petals)
Z = add if zygomorphic (e.g., CoZ6 = zygomorphic with 6 petals)
T = Occasionally when the sepals and petals are very similar (like in lilies
and tulips) they are collectively called tepals.
A = number of stamen (e.g. A10 = 10 stamen) (e.g. A = many stamen)
G = pistil consisting of stigma, style, and ovaries, with the terms carpels,
locules, ovules, and/or placenta referring to parts of the ovary
Figure-2.46.: Zygomorph flower
¥ = many, possibly variable number of parts

5 = parts are united

5 = parts are united below (like stamens with united filaments, but not
anthers)

5 = parts are united above (like stamens with united anthers, but not fila-
ments)

A floral formula would appear something like this:

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Figure-2.47.: Actinomorph flower

38
 Floral diagram figures:
A floral diagram represents a cross-section of a flower as it would appear if all
parts were at the same level. The various floral appendages are represented in dia-
grams by standardized symbols. Most flowers are constructed upon a definite
numerical plan. In monocots, the flowers usually have a numerical plan of three or
multiples of three (e.g. 3 sepals, 3 petals, 6 stamens).
Dicot flowers are usually constructed on a numerical plan of four or five or mul-
tiples of these. The numerical plan of the flower is most evident in the sepals and
petals and in some flowers this is carried through to the stamens. This feature of
construction may, but often does not, apply to the carpels.
After fertilization, parts of the flower develop into a fruit, such as an apple or Figure-2.48.: Actinomorph flower
orange. A fruit is a structure that covers and protects the seed of an angiosperm.
Therefore, angiosperms have covered seeds (closed), whereas gymnosperms have
uncovered seeds (naked).

Figure-2.49.: Flower diagram Flower diagram of family Flower diagram of family Flower diagram of family Flower diagram of family
of family Ranunculaceae Asteraceae Caryophyllaceae Crassulaceae Papaveraceae

Fruits
A fruit develops from the ovary wall after fertilization. Flowering plants
form fruits in order to protect the seed and to assist dispersal to colonize
new areas away from the parent plant. They are classified according to
their structure.

Plant Histology and Anatomy

a. Simple Fruits
Simple fruits are formed from the wall of a single ovary, of a single
flower. There are two types of simple fruits: fleshy fruit and dry fruit.
Figure-2.50.: A peach is an example of
In fleshy fruits the pericarp (tissues) are soft at maturity as their water a simple fleshy fruit.
percentage is high.
Dry fruits contain less water at maturity so their pericarp is not
fleshy.

b. Aggregate Fruits
Aggregate fruits are formed from an individual flower containing
many separate carpels, eg. raspberry and blackberry .
Figure-2.51.: A blackberry, an aggere-
gate fruit.

39
 c. Multiple Fruits
Multiple fruits are formed from the fusion during development of many ovaries
of a group of flowers. Each is separate at fertilization, but the close position of flow-
ers next to each other makes fusion possible as the ovary wall of each develops,
eg. pineapple and fig.

Figure-2.52.: Pineaplple is a multiple
fruit.
d. Accessory Fruit
Accessory fruits are also
known as false fruits. They
are composed of plant tis-
sue that is not produced by
the ovary wall. The red suc-
culent fruit of a strawberry
is formed from the top of
the flower stalk, also known
as the fleshy receptacle. In
such plants, the floral tube
surrounds the ovary and
forms the outer portion of Figure-2.53.: Strawberry is an example of an accersory fruit.
the fruit.

Seed
After fertilization, an egg develops into the embryo from which the seedling will
form. A seed consists of a radicle, a plumule, one or two cotyledons and the testa.
After all these structures have developed, water is withdrawn into the plant in order
to cease further development.

The structures of the newly developed seed perform the following func-
tions:
Testa: The testa is the coat of the seed and is made from the integuments of
the ovule. As the seed forms, the testa becomes thicker and harder, protecting the
seed from insects, fungi and bacteria.
Radicle: The radicle forms part of the embryo and is the structure from which
the plant root system develops.
Plumule: The plumule forms part of the embryo and is the structure from
Figure-2.54.: Parts of seed
which the embryonic shoot and leaves develop.
Cotyledons: The cotyledons form the part of the embryo from which the seed
leaf or leaves develop. They are attached to the plumule and radicle by short stalks
and provide energy during germination from their endosperm tissue. As the
hypocotyl emerges above the ground, the cotyledons start photosynthesis and are
known as the seed leaves. They are shed only when the first true leaves of the plant
are fully functional.
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40
BOTANY

chapter 3
 TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS
A continuous supply of food substances and a system of waste removal is a
prerequisite for the survival of all organisms. In other words, all organisms must
be able to remove metabolic wastes and carbon dioxide from their environment.
Otherwise, an accumulation of those substances may poison the cells.
Unicellular organisms and simple colonies obtain their requirements from their
surroundings by diffusion, osmosis and active transport, and they release waste
materials in the same ways. The uptake of material by simple methods is common
in filamentous algae, bryophytes and liverworts.
It is clear that material transport and waste removal from cells by simple mech-
anisms is impossible in complex organisms with a far greater number of cells and
a reduced surface area-to-volume ratio. They need a special system in order to
transport materials. In complex multicellular organisms, there is a specialized
transport system which carries oxygen and foodstuffs into the cells and removes
carbon dioxide and other wastes.
Consider for example the transport system of trees that are 100 meters tall.
The movement of molecules from the roots to the leaves is extremely difficult due
to gravity. Great pressure would be required to pump water and minerals to the
highest leaves. These problems are common to all multicellular organisms.
Atmospheric pressure is insufficient to accomplish this, but the transport system
of the plant overcomes all these difficulties.

Transport of Organic and Inorganic Materials in Plants

The plant transport system consists of xylem and phloem vessels extending
from the roots to the leaves. The xylem absorbs water and minerals from the soil
through the roots and conducts them to the leaves to be used in photosynthesis
and other activities. Carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaves via the stoma and
reacts with water, yielding organic molecules and oxygen. Oxygen, one of the
product of photosynthesis, may be either consumed in cellular respiration or may
diffuse out of the leaves. The organic compounds are distributed to different loca-
tions within the plant by phloem vessels. Aquatic plants differ from terrestrial
plants in that their environment is always moist, obviously. Water is the medium in
which aquatic plants live and obtain their nutrients and is used to support the body
of the plant. In terrestrial plants, these functions are provided by the root, stem and
leaves.

1. Water and Mineral Transport

Terrestrial plants absorb water and minerals from the soil by means of their
roots, the organs of the plant transport system.

a. Absorbtion of water from soil

The epidermal cells of the roots protrude and form root hairs. They are
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involved in water and mineral absorption. They are small in size but provide a wide
surface area, forming an absorption area approximately the size of the whole plant.
They lack both a cuticle and chloroplasts. Water moves from the soil to the root

42
by osmosis. Low amounts of minerals are dissolved in the soil
water, so their concentration is low in water. Conversely, in the
root hairs, inorganic and organic molecules such as glucose
are present at higher concentrations. In this way, water mole-
cules diffuse from the less concentrated soil to the more con-
centrated root hairs, so decreasing their concentration.
Water within the root hairs is osmotically transported
through cells from areas of low viscosity to high viscosity, and
finally into the xylem vessels. Plants have a constant require-
ment for water, explaining the reason why plants use active
transport to obtain water in environments where very little
water is available. The osmotic pressure at the root hairs is
extremely high in arid climates and environments where the
concentration of solutes in soil water is higher when com-
pared to conditions where water is plentiful and accessible.
Water absorbed by root hairs enters the xylem vessels and is
transmitted to the other regions of the plant, such as the cells
of leaves and the stem.
Figure-3.1.: The water molecules dif-
fuse from the outside of the root to the
b. Transportation of water from root to leaves inside through the cortex, epidermis,
pericycle and xylem vessels.
Water is transported from root to leaves by xylem vessels. As you know, the
cells of xylem vessels are not living. Therefore they can not transport water active-
ly. Three factors play a role in the transportation process of water: capillarity, root
pressure and transpiration-cohesion theory.
Capillarity: This is the attraction between water molecules and their vessels.
This situation can be explained in Figure-3.3. The water level in a pipette is high-
er than that of the water-filled container in which it is placed. The level of the water
and the diameter of the pipette is inversely proportional. Water rises in xylem ves-
sels, which are extremely narrow, in fact invisible to the naked eye. This peculiar
aspect results in the upward transport of water .
Root pressure: The concentration of water mole-
cules in the root hairs is less than that of the soil. This
difference in gradient exerts osmotic pressure. This
means that water molecules have a tendency to enter
the roots, resulting in root pressure. The root pressure
reinforces the movement of water from the soil to the
root hairs. The water molecules in the roots are osmot-
ically transmitted to the xylem vessels. Thus, root pres-

Plant Physiology
sure is an extra force which fills the xylem vessels with
water. Experiments have shown that this pressure is
between 6-10 atm. Water molecules can rise a few
meters by this method.
Transpiration-cohesion theory: Cohesion is the
Figure-3.3.:The level of water in the
force which attracts same molecules to each other. Figure-3.2.: Attraction between water tube is inversely proportional to the
The charge attracts other molecules, maintaining cohe- molecules generates a cohesive ten- diameter of it. Water rises more in a
sion. sion between them. narrow tube than in a wide one.

43
 Osmotic pressure increases during both water consumption in
photosynthesis and transpiration at the leaves. A force which pulls
water upward is generated in the upper portion of the plant. This
force is 30 times greater than atmospheric pressure. As a result, leaf
cells are always active in drawing water to the top of the plant.
Consequently, a water chain is formed between the roots and the
leaves of the plant. The links of this chain are interconnected by an
attractive force, known as cohesion. Thus, the water chain is con-
tinuous up through the plant without any break. Water elevation is
halted if air bubbles enter the vessels and the chain is broken.
Transpiration is a prominent factor in maintaining the chain of water
from the roots to the leaves. It can, for example in a tree, transmit
water molecules to a height of 100 meters or more.

2. Transport of Organic Molecules

Organic molecules are transported by the phloem vessels. The
movement of molecules in the phloem cells is bi-directional. That
is, they can move in two directions, either upward or downward. In
contrast, water movement in xylem vessels is upward and unidirec-
tional. The products of photosynthesis, such as glucose and vita-
mins, move downward. Conversely, nitrogenous compounds are
transported upward. Materials are transported through the phloem
vessels due to a concentration gradient which results as follows.
Excess glucose molecules synthesised by photosynthesis are
converted to starch. They are then hydrolyzed back to glucose units
and enter the cells of the phloem. Thus, the density of the phloem
cells increases and water molecules are absorbed from companion
cells. As a result, the internal pressure of the phloem cells increas-
es. Organic molecules move from areas of high pressure to areas
of low pressure as explained by the pressure-flow theory. Glucose
units move downward to the roots and are converted into starch in
the leucoplasts of root cells. They are subsequently hydrolyzed if
required by the root cells.

Figure-3.4.: The organic molecules

are transported from the leaves to the
roots by means of phloem vessels.
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44
 GAS EXCHANGE
Organisms utilize oxygen in their cellular activities in order
to obtain energy. In some of the these reactions, food is bro-
ken down into CO2 and water, by means of oxygen, to extract
energy. This process is known as cellular respiration. The
resultant energy is used by organisms for metabolic activities
such as active transport, protein synthesis, biochemical and
other reactions which require energy in the form of ATP. The
equation for cellular respiration is:

Carbon dioxide is a poisonous substance which must be eliminated as quickly Figure-3.5.: Gas exchange in plants.
as possible. a. Oxygen produced in photosynthe-
sis is sufficient for the needs of a
plant.
Respiration In Plants b. Plants require oxygen to survive in
dark conditions.
Plants are universally known as producers, but they also require oxygen and
nutrients. They constantly catabolize their own carbohydrates in their mitochon-
dria. No oxygen however, is required during the day since it is produced in the cells
by photosynthesis and excess oxygen is released into the atmosphere. However,
oxygen must be obtained from the atmosphere during the night since photosyn-
thesis halts due to the absence of light. Thus the behavior of plants at night close-
ly resembles that of animals.

The structures that are effective in plant respiration are as follows:

Stomata: The stomata are embedded in the leaves and are responsible for
regulating the exchange of gases. The opening and closure of stomata is regulat-
ed by turgor pressure. In the presence of daylight, CO2 is taken in and oxygen is
released since the stomata are open. At night however, CO2 is released and oxy-
gen diffuses through the stomata into the leaves.
Lenticels: Lenticels are only found in the bark of woody stems. Their formation Figure-3.6.: Stoma
involves the following stages: the epidermis is first substituted by spongy tissue during
development of the plant; lenticels are then formed in spongy tissue instead of in the
epidermal tissue. They are constantly open since the cells of lenticels are non-living.
Stomata however, open and close according to external stimuli.
Roots: Gases pass through air-
filled spaces in the soil and diffuse

Plant Physiology
into the plant roots. Simultaneously,
CO2 is released. Meanwhile, the
roots absorb water and minerals
from the soil by active transport.
Considerable amounts of energy are Figure-3.7.: Root hairs and air in soil.
required to maintain plant homeostasis. Some plants living in oxygen-poor soil Figure-3.8.: Gas exchange is per-
formed by the lenticels located in the
possess air roots in order to satisfy their oxygen requirements. bark of woody plants.

45
 EXCRETION
In living things, food and oxygen are transported to the cells by the transport
system. The cells utilize these molecules in their metabolism. In this topic the
method of expulsion of metabolic wastes excreted from the body and the struc-
tures involved in these processes will be discussed.
Excretion is the expulsion of metabolic wastes from cells by the organs or sys-
tems. The functions of the excretory system can be summarized as follows;
v Excretion from living things of toxic wastes produced by the metabolic reac-
tions of cells.
v The maintenance of homeostasis by the balance of water and the ionic con-
tent of the living things.

Excretory Substances
The metabolic wastes of cells are water, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous com-
pounds.

Water and Carbon Dioxide (H2O, CO2)

They are generated during the catabolism of carbohydrates and lipids.

Additionally, deaminated amino acids release H2O and CO2 during cell respiration.
Water and carbon dioxide are excreted by the stomata, lenticel and hydrathodes.

Ammonia (NH3)

Cells also use amino acids in cellular respiration. As you know, amino acids are
nitrogenous compunds and, as a result, ammonia is produced at the end of cel-
lular respiration. It is highly toxic and requires considerable dilution in water for it
to be excreted safely. Plants convert ammonia into uric acid crystals for excretion.
Uric acid is ideal as the excretory product of organisms that need to conserve
water, since this substance is insoluble in water and is excreted together with only
a small amount of water. Members of the family Graminaceae excrete uric acid
crystals from their roots.

Excretion In Plants
There is no specialized excretory system in plants. However, some organs are
involved in excretory processes.

These are:
v Stomata
v Lenticels
v Hydrathodes
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v Vacuoles
v Roots

46
 1. Stoma and Lenticel
Carbon dioxide and water are excreted through stomata and lenticels.
Water released through stomata as vapor is called transpiration.
Plants also use lenticels to release excess carbon dioxide to the outside.

2. Hydrathodes
Water is released from plants living in
marshy environments through hydrath-
odes, open-ended stomata at the edge
of leaves through which water drops are
exuded. Water loss in the from of drops
is known as guttation. Salt is also excret-
ed during this process.
Figure-3.10.: The lower epidermis of a plant showing
3. Vacuoles the large number of stomata.

Some plants neutralize nitrogenous wastes

Figure-3.9.:Guttation in leaves
by crystallization with inorganic salts. For
instance, plants living in calcium-rich soils store
nitrogenous wastes in their vacuoles in the form
of calcium-oxalate crystals. These crystals are
expelled when the leaves are shed. Plants also
convert nitrogenous wastes into color pigments
in their petals.

4. Roots
In addition, some plants release organic and inorganic salts into the soil by
means of their roots. Especially members of family Graminaceae (Poaceae)
excrete some crystals from their roots.

Figure-3.11.:Plants that live in an envi-

ronment where calcium levels are high
use the vacuole as a deposition site,
collects oxalate as needle shaped
crystals.

Plant Physiology
Figure-3.12: Members of family Graminaceae
(Poaceae) excrete some crystals from their
roots

47
 DIGESTION
Organisms obtain the energy required for all their metabolic functions, growth
and for the repair of their damaged tissues from food. The energy that food pro-
vides is necessary for the continuity of life on earth All of the nutrients are essen-
tial for a balanced diet. A deficiency of any of them may give rise to serious meta-
bolic disorders.

Digestion
Organisms ingest their food as a large particles. They have to break down food
into its components to use them. This process is known as digestion. Vitamins,
water and minerals may enter the cells without any change in their composition.
Carbohydrates, lipids and proteins however, require degradation into their
monomeric units with the help of enzymes and water, before passage into the cell.

1. Steps of Digestion
Ingestion of Food: Food is ingested into the body aided by the different adap-
tations of leaves.
Chemical digestion: Chemical digestion is a series of reactions in which food-
stuffs are broken down, aided by water and enzymes.
Absorption: Absorption is the final stage of digestion. After the degradation of
food into its monomeric units, the products are absorbed into the cells. They are
subsequently distributed throughout the whole body via the transport system.

2. Digestion in Plants
Plants lack a specialized digestive system. The molecules synthesized by pho-
tosynthesis may be immediately consumed or stored as starch or lipid to be
hydrolyzed for metabolic functions when needed.
Insectivorous plants, which survive on nitrogen-poor soil, can however, digest
extracellularly. They satisfy their needs by utilizing nitrogen from insect protein.

The general steps of digestion in insectivorous plants are as follows;

v The plant attracts insects by color or scent.
v The insects settle onto the plant where they are either trapped within a row
of spikes or in a pool of digestive enzymes.
v The enzymes secreted by the plant degrade insect protein into its con-
stituent amino acids.
v These amino acids are taken up and used for cellular activities.
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Figure-3.13.:Insectivorous plants.

48
 ENDOCRINE SECRETIONS
Hormones are chemical messengers within an
organism that govern growth and development.
Complex plants have hormones, much as other
multicelled organisms. A hormone is a signaling
molecule released from one cell that changes the
activity of target cell. A target cell is one having a
receptor for a given signaling molecule, either
within the cell or at the surface of its plasma mem-
brane.
Most flowering plants are known to produce
five types of hormones: auxin, cytokinins, gib-
berellins, abscisic acid, and ethylene. Hormones
are produced in small concentrations, but minute
quantities have a huge effect on the cell by con-
trolling plant growth and development through
division, elongation, and differentiation of cells.
The mechanism of plant hormone action
closely resembles that of animals. Plant hormones
are synthesized by a specialized group of cells and
transported to the target organ or structure.
Hormones have become avaliable in recent years.
They are potent even in minute quantities. For
each kilogram of Helianthus tuberosus, only 6
micrograms of the hormone auxin is necessary for
normal growth.
Plant hormones can be categorised into two groups: growth promoters and
growth inhibitors.
1. Growth promoters;
v Auxin v Gibberellins v Cytokinins
2. Growth inhibitors;
v Abscisic acid v Ethylene

Auxin
Auxin is a class of hormone that describes any chemical substance which pro-
motes elongation of coleoptiles and thus elongation of the plant cell. In plants, the

Plant Physiology
natural auxin extracted is indoleacetic acid (IAA), and is produced in the apical
meristem of the shoot. The hormone works by moving from the shoot apex down
to the region of cell elongation and then stimulating the growth of cells.
Auxin also affects cell division and differentiation at various other regions in the
seed, and because of these various functions, the auxin class is often made syn-
thetically into herbicides, as well as for inducing fruit development without polli-
nation. Figure-3.14.: Auxin causes growth of
plants towards sunlight.

49

Figure-3.15.: Cytokinins have two func-
tions, they are involved in the repair of
damaged tissue and also in the differ-
entiation of meristematic cells.
Figure-3.16.: The plants inoculated
with gibberelin show a clear increase
in size and development.
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Figure-3.17.: Abscisic acid promotes
the formation of bud scars which pro-
tect the meristematic tissue against
adverse conditions.
50
Cytokinins
This group of hormones is produced in the embryo and the roots and are
transported upward in the xylem vessels of adult plants. In an adult plant, growth
and seed production is regulated by cytokinins. They play an important role in the
prevention of decay in picked fruits and are involved in dormancy, the condition in
which all metabolic activities of a plant are greatly reduced as a response to envi-
ronmental conditions.
Cytokinins stimulate cell division, or cytokinesis, and influence the path of dif-
ferentiation by stimulating RNA and protein synthesis. The production of proteins
could be the cause of cytokinins' ability to trigger cell division. The most common
cytokinin found in plants, zeatin, is produced in actively growing tissues, in partic-
ular, roots, embryos, and fruits. Cytokinins can also slow down the aging of some
plant organs by stimulating RNA and protein synthesis, and by mobilizing nutrients
from surrounding tissues.
Gibberellins
Gibberellins stimulate growth in the leaves
and stem. They are produced in roots and
young leaves. In stems, gibberellins stimulate
cell elongation and cell division, as well as
cause bolting. The plant will begin the
process of bolting during the non-flowering
stage, when some plants develop low to the
ground with short internodes. A surge of gib-
berellins causes reproductive growth and
induces the stem to elongate rapidly. They
stimulate the growth of cereal seedlings by stimulating the synthesis of digestive
enzymes that mobilize stored nutrients.
Gibberellin injected into plants requires sunlight and low temperatures for ger-
mination and flowering. Additionally, gibberellins are responsible for germination,
flowering and growth of seedless fruit of long-day plants.
Abscisic Acid (ABA)
Abscidic acid (ABA) is produced in the terminal bud, and helps prepare the
plant for winter and the onset of seed dormancy. The ratio of ABA to the gib-
berellin concentration determines whether the seed will remain dormant or ger-
minate. ABA also acts as a "stress" hormone, helping the plant cope with adverse
conditions. ABA will accumulate in leaves and cause the stomata to close, reduc-
ing transpiration and preventing further water loss. High concentration of ABA has
the following effects;
v it reduces the rate of cell division in meristematic tissues
v it initiates the formation of a bud scar from the seed leaves.
The bud scar protects the meristematic tissues against low temperatures and
drought during the long winter season. The presence of abscisic acid is important
for the protection of the seed in the soil during the winter. In spring, the concen-
tration of ABA decreases and the concentration of gibberellin increases, resulting
in germination. This proves that ABA is an inhibitor of embryo and bud growth.

Ethylene
Maturation of fruit and the life span of the plant are both determined by ethyl-
ene. Its production is directly related to the concentration of auxin. If the amount
of auxin is in excess, ethylene production is stimulated in order to suppress the
effects of auxin by inhibiting growth. Fluctuations in auxin concentration stimulate
the secretion of ethylene which then activates some enzymes in order to;
v convert starch and acids to sugar molecules
v degrade pectin or the cell wall to soften fruit. Figure-3.18.: The function of ethylene
in the maturation of fruit. Ethylene
Ethylene secreted during fruit development affects the ethylene secretion of inhibits ripening of fruit and is used by
other plants. Thus, all plants in the field develop together. agricultural exporters to prevent spoil-
ing of harvested fruit.

PLANT MOVEMENT
The most important characteristic of a living thing is its adaptation to the envi-
ronment and its response to it. In response to an environmental
stimulus, the whole body of a lower plant, such as a unicellular
algae, responds. In higher plants however, distinct regions such as
roots or stems respond to a stimulus.

Plant movement can be categorized into two groups

where;
v Movement in response to the stimulus is dependent on
direction. This group can be further subdivided into tropism
and taxis.
v Movement in response to the stimulus is independent on
direction, also known as nasty.

Taxis
This movement is seen in freely moving organisms such as Euglena. If move-
ment is towards the stimulus, it is termed positive taxis. If movement is away from
the stimulus, it is termed negative taxis. Euglena always move towards sunlight.
This is an example of positive phototaxis.
Figure-3.19.:Phototropism in a plant.
Tropism

Plant Physiology
This movement is seen in higher plants and is categorized as
positive tropism and negative tropism using the same criteria as in
taxis. Movement occurs due to unequal distribution of growth hor-
Type of Stimulus Tropism Affected Organs
1. Light Phototropism Roots (–), Stem (+)
2. Gravity Geotropism Roots (+), Stem (–)
3. Water Hydrotropism Roots (+), Stem (–)

51
 Figure-3.20.:
a. Positive geotropic response is seen in the growing root tip due to the secretion of auxin and calcium ions.
b. The amyloplasts of the root secrete calcium which collects on the downward side of the root, inhibiting the action of auxin. As a result the upward side
of the root grows more and the tip bends in the direction of gravity.
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Figure-3.21.: The effect of auxin on the growth of different regions of a plant. a. If the light source is directly overhead, the plant exhibits no phototropism.
b. Aerial plant growth is always towards the light source.

52
mone. These movements can be summarized as follows.

Figure-3.22.: Thigmonasty in insectivo-

rous plant.

Figure-3.23.: Thigmonasty in mimosa

plant.

Plant Physiology

53
BOTANY

chapter 4
 REPRODUCTION
All living things have a fixed, natural life span. Before the end of
its natural life, an organism must take steps to ensure that its
species continues to exist. It can only achieve this by producing a
new copy of itself before it dies. To reproduce itself is a fundamen-
tal requirement for every living thing. Without any exception, every
individual of a species originates from a preexisting individual. Since
the offspring are genetically identical to their parents, continuity of
the species is maintained.
Living things make copies of themselves in two ways: by asexual
or sexual reproduction. Both are essential to the natural population
balance of our planet.

Asexual Reproduction In Plants

Asexual reproduction is the production of offspring from a single parent by
simple division. The offspring are genetically identical in every aspect since they
are produced by simple division. There are no male and female strains as in sex-
ual reproduction and no meiotic cell division or fertilization. Consequently there is
no variation between successive generations. Asexual reproduction is generally
confined to simple animals, fungi and some plants.
Plants reproduce asexually by means of their vegetative organs. Therefore
reproduction of plants by using their vegetative organs is called vegetative propa-
gation.

1. Vegetative Propagation
Vegetative propagation is seen mostly in flowering
plants. A branch or bud from the parent organism
grows into an independent new plant either on the plant
body itself or some distance away using either stem
tubers or runners. Vegetative propagation is divided into
natural propagation and artificial propagation.

1. Natural Propagation

a. Stem Tubers
Stem tubers are formed by projections of the lowest
axillary buds. The stems that are produced grow down-
wards into the soil. Food molecules such as starch
accumulate at the tips of these stems, increasing their
size to form tubers. A stem tuber is characterized by
many axillary buds or eyes and scale-like leaves. A good
example of a stem tuber is a potato. If one tuber is plant-
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Figure-4.1.: Tubers are specialized

ed in moist soil, each bud develops into a new potato
stems. They are the means of generat- plant.
ing many new individuals from a single
parent.

56
 b. Stolons and Runners Figure-4.2.: Stolons are an effective
means of increasing the size of a pop-
Stolons and runners are horizontal stems that develop ulation without competition between
from axillary buds. They extend over the surface of the soil plants.
forming new plants a distance away from the parent. A run-
ner produces one new plantlet at the tip of the stem where-
as a stolon produces plantlets at regular intervals. The
plantlets remain attached to the plant during their early
development. Strawberry plants, for example, reproduce
using stolons.

c. Rhizomes
Rhizomes are thick, horizontal, root-like stems. They Figure-4.3.: An underground rhizome
gives rise to a number of new plants.
extend from the base of a plant, growing almost always Each is identical to the parent.
underground. Banana plants, for example, produce rhi-
zomes that generally grow under the soil, producing several
new shoots from a single rhizome. Since bananas produce
no seed, farmers can increase their stock of plants by break-
ing off these shoots and planting each one separately.

2. Artificial Propagation
A new plant may be artificially produced or propagated
from its parent plant by different techniques, such as graft-
ing or cuttings.

a. Cuttings
Many trees and bushes are reproduced using artificial
propagation. A root or shoot of the parent plant known as a
cutting is severed and used to form a new plant. The cutting
quickly produces new roots to absorb water from the soil.
This method is most successful if the stem used has no sec-
ondary growth and includes a meristem. Once roots devel-
op, the cutting grows into a mature plant. Willow, poplar and
quince trees are all produced commercially using this
method. Figure-4.4.: Cutting in plants

b. Bud and Stem Grafting

Grafting involves the artificial joining of the

Plant Reproduction
stem of one plant to the roots or rootstock of
another. By this technique, the stem of one
species may be grafted to another of the
same genus. This technique is used commer-
cially in the propagation of fruit trees.
Budding is a form of grafting where a bud
is grafted onto a stock.
Figure-4.6.: Bud grafting
Figure-4.5.: Stem grafting

57
 Advantages of Vegetative and Artificial Propagation
v Genetic continuity is maintained since the new individual has the same
genetic traits as its parent. However, this may result in the deterioration of
the genetic make up of the plant. New traits are only possible by sexual
reproduction since traits are determined by both parents.
v Plants which normally require a long period for seed formation such as
bananas can be propagated rapidly using this technique. Overall, the time
taken to propagate plants artificially is considerably less as compared to
seed formation.

Sexual Reproduction In Plants

Sexual reproduction is the production of new offspring by the fusion of the
nuclei from a pair of reproductive cells. Both must be produced by sexually differ-
ent organisms of the same species. The reproductive cells of each parent are
known as gametes and the process by which the gametes fuse is known as fertil-
ization. The cell produced by fertilization is termed the zygote and it is the first cell
of the new individual. Sexual reproduction differs from asexual reproduction in the
following respects:
v the need for two parents
v its dependence on meiosis and fertilization
v the formation of new gene combinations
Gametes are produced by the reproductive organs or gonads. A single gonad
may produce either male or female gametes, but not both. Most plants and a
small number of animals have both male and female gonads and are known as
hermaphrodites.
All complex plants produce vegetative and generative organs. As has been
explained previously, some plants are capable of asexual reproduction using their
vegetative organs. However, most plants reproduce sexually using their generative
organs.
According to their reproductive mechanism, plants that reproduce generative-
ly are classified into two main groups: flowering and nonflowering .

1. Reproduction In Nonflowering Plants

Nonflowering plants comprise aquatic plants, bryophytes, liverworts, ferns and
horsetails. Most reproduce simply, completing their life cycle by metagenesis.
The most dominant part of the life cycle of most nonflowering plants is the
haploid phase. For instance, aquatic plants are diploid only during the short peri-
od from zygote formation to the production of spores. As the complexity of the
plant increases, the dominance of the haploid phase is reduced and that of the
diploid phase increases.
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Figure-4.7.: Mosses

58
 1. Reproduction in Bryophytes (Moss)
In bryophytes, the haploid phase is dominant and most of the events depend
on waterr. On the other hand, these plants can not reproduce without water. In
reproduction of mosses, sexual and asexual reproduction occur together. This
type of reproduction is known as metagenesis.

Steps of moss reproduction are as follows:

v Sporangium of sporophyte plant produces both male and female spores by
meiotic cell division.
v Spores germinate and haploid gametophyte plants form.
v In gametophyte plant, the antheridium produces male gametes while an
archegonium produces female gametes by mitotic cell division.
v Male and female gametes fuse, and zygote cell forms.
Figure-4.8.: Sporangium of moss.
v Zygote develops into a diploid sporangium on gametophyte plant.

Plant Reproduction

Figure-4.9.: A club moss shows alternation of generations. In its life cycle, the haploid stage is dominant and water dependent.

59
 2. Reproduction in Pteridophytes (Ferns)
Ferns have less dependency on water and can raise their structures up above
ground level due to their vascular bundles in the diploid sporophyte stage. These
features affect the events in their life cycle.

Steps of fern reproduction are as follows:

v Haploid spores are produced by meiotic cell division in sporangium.
v Spores fall to the ground and germinate to form the gametophyte prothal-
lus which is completely independent of the parent plant.
v The prothallus is composed of a green disc approximately only a centime-
tre in diameter with root-like structures or rhizoids. Antheridia and archego-
nia develop on the lower surface and produce sperm and egg.
v Fertilization takes place in the archegonium, after which the zygote develops
Figure-4.10.: Plant and sporangiums into an immature sporophyte while still attached to the prothallus. This acts
of fern. as its energy source until it starts to photosynthesize and live independently.
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Figure-4.11.: A fern also shows alternation of generations. The diploid phase is dominant, the haploid gametophyte is reduced in size.

60
 3. Reproduction in Seed Plants
Most flowering land plants produce seed so are able to reproduce sexually. The
reproductive organs of seed plants are cones or flowers. Most seed plants are her-
maphrodite (both male and female reproductive organs are present on the same
flower). Examples are walnut, pumpkin, corn, wheat and apple. Other species
form a group known as diclinous plants, where male and female sexual structures
are on separate flowers. Of this group, some species are monoecious, their sexu-
al organs are in separate flowers but on the same plant. Examples include pine
trees and maize. A few species are dioceous, their sexual organs are on separate
plants that are either male or female. Examples include fig, mulberry, holly, poplar
and willow.

1. Reproduction In Gymnosperms
The class Gymnospermae contains four groups of seed producing plants:
cycadophyta, ginkophyta, gnetophyta and coniferophyta. Members of all groups
have cones for reproduction. Their reproductive strategy is similar to that of
Figure-4.12.: A gymnosperm tree. A
angiosperms. However, they differ in the following aspects: cycad tree is a gymnosperm.
v Their seeds are naked, as their ovules are not enclosed inside an ovary wall.
In contrast to angiosperms, the distance between the male and female
gametes at pollination is small. The pollen germinates directly on the sur-
face of the ovule.
v The microsporangia consist of small male cones produced at or near the
tips of branches. Each contains few to numerous microspores.
v Many pollen grains are produced and are generally distributed by the wind.
v The megasporangia also consist of cones but are larger and contain ovules.
v They are usually woody when mature and are much more complex in struc-
ture than male cones. Female cones are also produced near to or at the
branch tips.
v Most species are monoecious and produce both male and female cones on
the same sporophyte but in different regions of the plant.
v In contrast to angiosperms, there is no double fertilisation. Only the female
gamete is fertlised to produce a diploid embryo. The haploid endosperm is
generated without any fertilization.
Their life cycle takes two years to complete. The male and female cones start

Plant Reproduction
to form in summer. Their development is slow and they are not visible until early
spring of the following year.

Figure-4.13.: Cones of gymnosperms.

61
 REPRODUCTION IN GYMNOSPERMS

2. Reproduction In Angiosperms
The reproductive organ of Angiosperms is the flower.

1. Structure of a Flower

a. The Perianth
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The parts comprising this structure have no function in the production of

gametes. It protects the reproductive organs and in some cases attracts pollinators.
Figure-4.14.: Flower of an angiosperm.

62
 Sepals: While a flower is developing within a bud, it is fully surrounded and
protected by a ring or whorl of small, green, leaf-like structures known as sepals.
They are collectively known as the calyx.
Petals: They are leaf-like in structure and are generally brightly coloured. They
are collectively known as the corolla and protect the reproductive organs of a
mature flower. The petals of plants that are insect-pollinated are brightly colored
and produce an attractive scent.
The structures involved in gamete formation are as follows:

b. Stamens (Androecium)
The stamens are the male reproductive organs of the flower and are composed
of filaments and anthers. Pollen (male gametes) is produced in the anther. The fil-
ament raises the anther into the air so that its pollen can be dispersed by the wind
or by an insect.

c. Pistils (Gynoecium)
The pistil is the female reproductive organ of a flower. It is generally composed
of three structures: a stigma, a style and an ovary.
Stigma: It is a specialized area located directly above the style and is the site
of pollen reception and germination.
Style: It is a tube-like structure connecting the ovary and the stigma. Pollen
tubes pass down through it to the ovary.
Ovary: The ovary is a spherical structure at the base of the pistil and is formed
by infolded leaves known as carpels. Usually at least several carpels join together
to form a single ovary.

Figure-4.15.: Flowers of angiosperm

Plant Reproduction

Figure-4.16.: Parts of a flower Figure-4.17.: Stamen

63
 2. Formation of Gametes

a. Pollen formation:
Each anther is comprised of four pollen sacs containing pollen grains. The
grains are haploid and contain the meiotically produced male gametes. Their for-
mation involves the formation of a haploid mother cell which divides mitotically to
produce four pollen grains. These remain within sacs until they are mature. The
sacs then burst and release spherical yellow pollen grains. Each grain is sur-
rounded by two layers of membranes. The outer membrane is known as the exine
and is nonliving. It contains pores and has a wrinkled surface, sometimes with
spines and ridges and is resistant to attack from pathogens and chemical sub-
stances. The inner membrane or intine is living and it is from this structure that a
pollen tube forms, passing out through a pore in the exine. Within each pollen
grain is a pair of haploid cells comprising a large vegetative
cell and a small generative cell.

b. Embryo sac formation

Each ovule of the ovary contains an embryo sac produced
by one of the cells of the nucellus which enlarges and divides
meiotically to form four haploid cells. The largest of these
cells forms the embryo sac, and the other three are destroyed
Figure-4.18.: Production of pollen. as the embryo sac develops. After this process is complete,
the embryo sac nucleus divides mitotically. Each daughter cell
moves to opposite ends of the sac. Both divide twice mitoti-
cally producing four cells at either pole. One nucleus from
each pole then moves to the center and both fuse. The resulting diploid cell forms
the primary endosperm nucleus. Those at the base of the embryo sac are known
as the egg apparatus. Those at the top form the antipodal cells, responsible for
the nutrition of the embryo sac. Once all these processes have taken place, fertil-
ization is possible

3. Pollination
Pollination describes the physical movement of mature pollen grains from the
stamens to the stigma. Pollen may move within the same plant - self-pollination -
or between plants - cross-pollination
Figure-4.19.: Self-pollination.

a. Self-Pollination
A plant pollinates itself when pollen is deposited on the stigma of the same
flower or on the stigma of a flower on the same plant. This is advantageous to the
plant in that it ensures that fertilization takes place. However, there is no possibili-
ty of variety in the genotype of the species, resulting in inbreeding.

b. Cross-Pollination
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This occurs when a plant exchanges pollen with others of the same species
after it is deposited on the stigma of a flower from the anthers of the flower of a
Figure-4.20.: Cross-pollination. different plant.

64
 The advantage of cross-pollination is the prevention of inbreeding. It is also
possible in monoecious plants if the stamens and pistils mature at different times.

c. Methods of Pollen Transfer

In order for successful pollination to take place, an agent is needed to trans-
port pollen from one plant to another or between flowers or parts on the same
plant. The mechanisms of pollen transport are follows.
Wind Pollination: The anthers produce large amounts of small, light-weight
pollen, ideally suited to travel long distances. Grasses in particular depend on the
wind for pollination. Figure-4.21.: Insect pollination.

Insect Pollination: Plants pollinated by insects have brightly colored flowers

and can grow in isolation from others of the same species as pollen is brought to
them. The flower entices insects to visit it by using color, nectar as an energy
source, and the pollen itself which the insect can use as food. The color of a flower
and the insect species it attracts are thought to be correlated. For example, bees
are attracted to blue and purple flowers while butterflies prefer red flowers.
The anthers of insect-pollinated plants produce small amounts of large, heavy
pollen which can survive for many hours. The surface of each grain has projec-
tions designed to adhere to the body of an insect. As an insect vis-
its flowers in order to collect nectar, it mechanically transfers pollen
grains from one plant to another. Foxgloves, clover and buttercups
are examples of flowers using this method of pollination.
Water Pollination: This type of pollination is very rare since a
pollen grain is a dry structure and decays after contact with water.
In order to overcome this, the Canadian water weed Elodea
canadensis holds its stigma above the water. The male flowers float
to the surface, open and drift against the stigma, releasing their
pollen. During this process, the pollen does not come into contact
with water.

4. Fertilization
Once a pollen grain has been deposited on the top of the stig-
ma, it responds to the moisture and sugar by germinating and
forming a germ tube. Pollen tubes may grow in any environment
with a suitable concentration of sugar, and it is possible for a pollen
grain to germinate on the stigma of a different species.

Plant Reproduction
After arrival on the stigma, the cell within the pollen divides
mitotically to produce a large vegetative cell and a small generative
cell. The generative cell divides again forming two sperm. These
three cells remain in the tip of the tube. As it approaches the ovule,
only a compatible pollen tube of the same species is attracted by
chemical secretions from the embryo sac.
The pollen tube usually enters the embryo sac through the
micropyle. Double fertilization occurs within the embryo sac as one Figure-4.22.: Fertilization in
angiosperm

65
 sperm nucleus fuses with the egg cell to form a zygote, and the other with the two
polar nuclei to form the endosperm nucleus. Fertilization of the endosperm nucle-
us is known as triple fusion, as three nuclei are involved.
After fertilization, the zygote divides repeatedly to form seed an embryo (small
model of a new organism). The endosperm nucleus divides repeatedly forming
many cells to supply food for the developing seed. Depending on the type of seed,
this tissue may persist or be used in the formation of the cotyledons.
The synergids and antipodal cells in the embryonic sac are not fertilized and
are used as a food source during the process of fertilization.
The structures present at fertilization and the structures they develop into are
as follows:

5. Fruits and Seeds

After double fertilization takes place within the ovule,
the ovule develops into a seed and the ovary surrounding
it develops into a fruit, for example, a pea pod is a fruit
and the peas within it are seeds. Fruit protects the seeds
and assists in dispersal to colonize new areas away from
the parent plant. A fruit may contain one or more seeds.
Some orchid fruits contain several thousand to a few mil-
Figure-4.23.: The ovary wall develops
into a fruit. lion.

6. Dispersal of Fruits and Seeds

A plant can only successfully colonize new areas of its habitat if it has an effec-
tive method of dispersing its seeds. Various strategies are used for this purpose,
all aimed to ensure that the the next generation is distributed evenly and not in
competition with the parent plant. These mechanisms are: self, wind, animal and
Figure-4.24.: Fruit and seed water dispersal.
Self or Mechanical Dispersal: The fruits and seeds of some plants are dis-
persed away from the parent plant by the tension caused through drying of the
fruit wall.
Wind Dispersal: The fruits or seeds of these plants develop outgrowths that
function as wings, for example sycamore, or as a parachute, for example dande-
lion.
Animal Dispersal: Some fruits and seeds develop hooks that will become
attached to the coat of an animal, for example burdock and goosegrass. Other
fruits are attractive to animals as a food source. The fruit is digested while the hard
coated seeds are excreted unharmed and are likely to be deposited some distance
away from their origin. The feces in which they are deposited functions as a fertil-
izer. Examples include blackberry, strawberry and rosehip.
Water Dispersal: Only a few plants use this method. The seed of the coconut,
BOTANY

for example, is surrounded by spongy tissue that helps it to stay afloat.

Figure-4.25.: A plant which distributes
seed by wind.

66
SEED AND FRUIT DISPERSAL METHODS

Plant Reproduction

67
BOTANY

chapter 5
 KINGDOM PLANTAE
How many different kinds of plants do you know?
Grasses, oaks, pines, as well as garden plants might come
to mind. However, a pine is certainly different from grass.
Grass is very different from a moss. These organisms are
all classified as plants and are placed in the kingdom plan-
tae. Which characteristics are shared by these living
things?

Characteristics of Plants
1. They are mostly multicellular and eukaryotic organ-
isms.
2. Plants can make their own food by using solar ener-
gy in choloroplasts.
4. Plants cannot move from one place to another
(nonmotile).
5. All plant cells are covered by a rigid cell wall which
provides support.
6. Many plants continue to grow throughout their life.
7. Some of them have a few types of organs, but there
are no systems.
8. They don't have a nervous system. Their responses to stimuli are slow and
limited.
9. Many plant tissues are organized into larger structures called organs. Roots,
stems, leaves and flowers are plant organs.

Today most scientists separate plants and algae

because they have some different characteristics.

Characteristics of plants Characteristics of algae

1. Plants have a cuticle layer over some of their parts
which prevents water loss.
2. Plants have multicellular gametangia, which is
where reproductive cells are produced.
3. Plants have chlorophyll a, b and orange
carotenoids.
4. Plants have some adaptations to live on land.
BOTANY
1. Algae lack a cuticle, which is a waxy layer over
some parts of plants.
2. Algae have gametangia formed from single cells.
3. Algae contain chlorophyll a and yellow and orange
carotenoids.
4. Algae have some adaptations to live in water.
5. Algae have motile gametes which go towards

5. Plants don’t have motile gametes. female gametes.

70
 ALGAE
Characteristics Of Algae
1. They are eukaryotic organisms which belong to the Kingdom Protista.
2. They are mostly photosynthetic.
3. Their photosynthetic pigments are four different kinds of chlorophyll and
accessory pigments--a variety, including blue, red and brown
4. Require moist environments (lack a waxy cuticle found in terrestrial plants).
5. They may be microscopic or macroscopic. Size ranges from 0.5 m to over
50 m long.
6. They don’t have vascular tissues, true roots, stems, or leaves. Each cell takes
its needed materials directly from outside.
7. They reproduce both sexually and asexually.
Algae are a diverse group of simple, plantlike organisms. Like plants, most
algae use the energy of sunlight to make their own food, a process called photo-
synthesis. However, algae lack the roots, leaves, and other structures typical of
true plants. Algae are the most important photosynthesizing organisms on Earth.
They capture more of the sun's energy and produce more oxygen (a by-product
of photosynthesis) than all plants combined. Algae form the foundation of most
aquatic food webs, which support an abundance of animals.
Algae vary greatly in size and grow in many diverse habitats. Microscopic algae,
called phytoplankton, float or swim in lakes and oceans. Phytoplankton are so
small that 1000 individuals could fit on the head of a pin. The largest forms of
algae are seaweeds that stretch 100 m from the ocean bottom to the water's sur-
face. Although most algae grow in fresh water or seawater, they also grow on soil,
trees, and animals, and even under or inside porous rocks, such as sandstone and
limestone. Algae tolerate a wide range of temperatures and can be found growing
in hot springs, on snow banks, or deep within polar ice.
Algae also form mutually beneficial partnerships with other organisms. For
example, algae live with fungi to form lichens--plantlike or branching growths that
form on boulders, cliffs, and tree trunks. In both cases, the algae provide oxygen
and complex nutrients to their partner, and in return they receive protection and
simple nutrients. This arrangement enables both partners to survive in conditions
that they could not endure alone.

Plant Classification
The earliest life-forms on this planet are thought to be cyanobacteria, a type of
algae formerly called blue-green algae. Fossilized cyanobacteria have been found
in rocks more than 3 billion years old. Algae were probably the first organisms
capable of photosynthesis and, until the appearance of plants on earth, the only
photosynthesizers for billions of years.

Physical Characteristics
With the exception of the cyanobacteria, algae are eukaryotes--that is, the
Figure-5.1.: Different types of algae.

71
 insides of their cells are organized into separate membrane-wrapped organelles,
including a nucleus and mitochondria. An important organelle found in eukaryot-
ic algae is the chloroplast, which contains the light-absorbing pigments responsi-
ble for capturing the energy in sunlight during photosynthesis. In most algae the
primary pigment is chlorophyll, the same green pigment used in plants. Many
algae also contain secondary pigments, including the carotenoids, which are
brown or yellow, and the phycobilins, which are red or blue.
Like plants, most algae have rigid cell walls composed largely of cellulose.
Many eukaryotic algae have whiplike appendages called flagella attached to their
cell walls. By beating flagella in a rotary movement, these algae are able to move
through water with considerable speed.
Algae come in a variety of shapes and forms. Numerous one-celled algae may
clump together to form a colony. Although these cells are attached to one anoth-
er, each cell within a colony continues to function independently. Still other algae
are multicellular organisms. In the simplest multicellular algae, the cells are joined
end to end, forming filaments, both branched and unbranched. More complex
structures may be shaped like a small disc, tube, club, or even a tree.

The use of algae

Human ingenuity has found many uses for algae. Algae provide food for peo-
ple and livestock, serve as thickening agents in ice cream and shampoo, and are
used as drugs to ward off diseases. More than 150 species of algae are commer-
cially important food sources, and over $2 billion of seaweed is consumed each
year by humans, mostly in Japan, China, and Korea.
The red alga Porphyra, called nori, is the most popular food product.
Algae are considered nutritious because of their high protein content and high
concentrations of minerals, trace elements, and vitamins. The high iodine content
of many edible algae may contribute to the low rates of goiter observed in coun-
tries where people frequently eat algae.
In coastal areas of North America and Europe, seaweeds are fed to farm ani-
mals as a food supplement. Seaweeds also are applied to soils as a fertilizer and
soil conditioner, as their high concentrations of potassium and trace elements
improve crop production.
Seaweeds are a critical source of three chemical extracts used extensively in the
food, pharmaceutical, textile, and cosmetic industries.
Brown algae yield alginic acid, which is used to stabilize emulsions and sus-
pensions. It is found in products such as syrup, ice cream, and paint.
Different species of red algae provide agar, which are used for the preparation
of various gels used in scientific research. Bacteria, fungi, and cell cultures are
commonly grown on agar gels. Agar is also used in the food industry to stabilize
pie fillings and preserve canned meat and fish.
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Algae have been used for centuries, especially in Asian countries, for their pur-
Figure-5.2.: Algae is used in the pro- ported powers to cure or prevent illnesses as varied as cough, gout, gallstones,
duction of these and other materials.

72
goiter, hypertension, and diarrhea. Recently, algae have been surveyed for anti-
cancer compounds.
Algae can also serve as indicators of environmental problems in aquatic
ecosystems. Because algae grow quickly and are sensitive to changing environ-
mental conditions, they are often among the first organisms to respond to
changes.

Classification of Algae
The most common classification system distributes algae in more than one Figure-5.3.: Anadyomene stellata
kingdom. Most algae are classified in the Kingdom Protista, along with other
eukaryotic organisms that lack true specialized tissues. The cyanobacteria, how-
ever, are classified with the bacteria in the Kingdom Prokaryotae, which consists
of prokaryotic organisms. This classification system continues to be intensely
debated as new research increases our understanding of the way that these organ-
isms are related.

1. Green Algae (Division Chlorophyta)

Green algae form the phylum Chlorophyta and are named for their green
chloroplasts, which are similar in composition to the chloroplasts found in land
plants. Green algae range in shape from unicellular plankton that grow in lakes
and oceans to colonial filaments of pond scum to leaflike seaweeds that grow
along rocky and sandy intertidal areas. Some green algae also live on tree trunks Figure-5.4.: Cladophora laetevirens
and soil. Several green algal species are symbiotic, forming lichens with fungi or
living with corals. Green algae may also be found inside freshwater sponges, giv-
ing the sponges a bright green color, and in permanent snow banks, where a sec-
ondary pigment masks the chlorophyll and turns the snow a reddish color.
More than 500 genera and 8000 species of green algae have been identified.
Some familiar green algae include the genus Spirogyra, known for its spiral-
shaped chloroplasts, and the desmids, recognized by their characteristic shape--
two symmetrical halves, joined by a small bridge.
Most green algae reproduce both sexually and asexually. Alternation of gener-
ations, where the algae alternates between gametophyte and sporophyte genera-
tions, is common among the multicellular green algae.
Figure-5.5.: Cladophora laetevirens

Characteristics of Green Algae

1. The green algae are the second largest group of algae.

Plant Classification
2. They are also the most diverse of the algae, with at least 7000 species.
3. They are found mostly in freshwater and on rocks and soil. Most species
float in rivers and lakes. A few species, such as sea lettuce (Ulva), live in salt
water along the coast.
4. Green algae are organisms with a variety of body forms including single
cells, filaments, colonies, and thalli (singular - thallus, multicellular forms
that have a leaf-like shape).
Figure-5.6.: Cladophora laetevirens

73

Figure-5.7.: Ulva fasciata
Figure-5.8.: Callithamnion tetricum
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Figure-5.9.: Palmaria palmata
74
5. Green algae are an important source of oxygen and food for
aquatic organisms. Some are consumed as food by humans.
6. Volvox, Spirogyra and sea lettuce (Ulva) are examples of green
algae.
Ulva:
Ulva is a genus of algae that includes species that look like bright
green sheets and live primarily in marine environments. They live
attached to rocks in the middle zone, and as deep as 10 meters.
Ulva species can be eaten in soups and salads. Ten species of Ulva
exist worldwide. Their size ranges from microscopic to 65 cm.
Ulva species have thalli with expanded blades two cells thick.
They do not differentiate into tissue layers or show much specializa-
tion among cells. They store energy as starch.
Ulva need to be in nitrogen-rich environments. When nitrogen is
available in particularly high concentrations, Ulva are able to take up
more than most species and use it to grow rapidly. This feature of
Ulva makes it very successful in areas that are nitrogen-rich due to
sewage pollution.
2. Red Algae (Division Rhodophyta)
Red algae form the phylum Rhodophyta, with approximately 500
genera and 6000 species, found in warm coastal waters and in water
as deep as 260 m. Their red color is due to a red pigment, phyco-
erythrin, which is well-suited to absorb the blue light that penetrates
deeper into water than the other colors of light. Red algae found in
deep water may be almost black due to a high concentration of phy-
coerythrin. Most red algae are multicellular and come in a variety of
shapes, including filaments, which are shaped like a blade of grass,
and seaweed shapes. Unlike most other eukaryotic algae, red algae have no fla-
gella.
Red algae use diverse strategies to reproduce,
including fragmentation and spore production. One
unusual strategy, found in many species including those
in the genus Polysiphonia, involves the alternation
among three generations.
Almost all red algae live in marine habitats, although
some species are found in fresh water or damp soil.
Many types of seaweed are red algae, typically found
growing along the coast and attaching firmly to the
seafloor using a rootlike holdfast. In some species,
called coralline algae, the cell walls become hardened
with calcium carbonate. Coralline algae are important
members of coral reefs, producing new material and
cementing together other organisms Figure-5.10.: Palmaria
 Characteristics of Red Algae
1. Red algae are some of the oldest eukaryotic organisms on the planet. Fossils
of red algae have been found that are over 2 billion years old.
2. They live in deep water, tropical seas and some fresh ponds.
3. They are typically found in marine waters attached to rocks or other plants.
4. Some red algae are red due to the phycoerythrin pigment, but others are
black, green, yellow or purple.
5. This group includes microscopic and macroscopic members.
6. Red algae do not have flagella at any stage of their life cycle.
7. They are the source of a special gel which is used in agar, ice cream,
whipped cream, fruit syrups, chocolate milk, bread, and macaroni. It is also Figure-5.11.: Prionitis lanceolata
used in toothpaste, pharmaceutical jellies, and many kinds of lotions. Some
red algae are eaten by humans.
8. There are 4000 different species of red algae. Well-known examples of the
red algae are Palmaria, Porphyra and Polysiphonia.

Porphyra:
This alga attaches itself to rocks by multicellu-
lar rhizoidal attachments, usually disc-shaped.
Porphyra contains chlorophyll a, phycobilins, phy-
coerythrin and phycocyanin as pigments. The pri-
mary storage form for Porphyra is starch.
It is edible and does have a few medicinal ben-
efits. It may inhibit the growth of certain tumors. It
also exhibits anti-ulcer activity in shay ulcers.
Porphyra, commonly know as nori, is the most
widely consumed seaweed in the world! It's com- Figure-5.13.: Porphyra leucosticta
monly found in Asian food, especially Japanese
Figure-5.12.: Porphyra.
food, which has lead to the huge nori industry in
Japan. The cultivation of Porphyra originates back as far as 300 years ago but
modern cultivation of Porphyra did not start until the 1960's.

Gelidium:
Gelidium is a genus of red algae with a very wide geographic range. Besides

Plant Classification
being beautiful, it is an economically valuable seaweed used in the production of
agar.
Gelidium is a highly polymorphic genus exhibiting a wide range of size and
structure. Most species are highly branched.
Agar is extracted from Gelidium and it is part of an industry that generates hun-
dreds of thousands of dollars yearly. In some Asian countries, Gelidium is also
eaten.
Figure-5.14.: Gelidium

75

Figure-5.15..: Callithamnion tetricum
3. Brown Algae (Division Phaeophyta)
Brown algae include over 260 genera and 1500 species. Multicellular algae,
they may range from tiny filaments to the largest and most complex algae, such
as the kelps, with leaflike blades and stems that can be up to 100 m long. The
brown or olive color is due to the pigment fucoxanthin. Most brown algae grow in
marine waters near the coast, attached to rocks either along the shoreline or
underneath the ocean surface. Tropical waters have fewer species of brown algae,
although genera such as Sargassum and Turbinaria can dominate in some areas
to form small-scale forests. The life cycles of brown algae vary considerably, but
most demonstrate alternation of generations.

Characteristics of Brown Algae

1. They live mainly in the cold parts of oceans.
2. Members of this group are multicellular and range in size from microscopic
to more than 100 meters. They can grow 30 cm per day.
3. They have special pigments (fucoxanthin) which give them their brown color.
4. Some brown algae have gas-filled structure whose function is to provide flotation.
5. They are used in the production of paint, toothpaste, ice-cream and as food.
Laminaria and Sargassum are well-known examples of brown algae.

Macrocystis pyrifera (Giant kelp):

Giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) is a species of marine alga found along the
Pacific coast of North America. The genus name Macrocystis means "large blad-
der". Macrocystis pyrifera is sometimes referred to as the sequoia of the sea. A
giant kelp forest may vary from several hundred feet to one mile wide and several
miles long. This species may grow 60 cm per day. There are five species of large
brown kelps that may form canopies.
Macrocystis plays an important role
in the marine environment by providing
food and habitat for a wide range of
marine invertebrates.
Giant kelp has been used for years
as a food supplement because it con-
tains iodine, potassium, other minerals,
vitamins and carbohydrates. It is used
to smooth and thicken more than 300
preparations from ice cream to paints,
sauces and toothpaste. Kelp products
are also used in the manufacture of
livestock and poultry feed, pharmaceu-
BOTANY

ticals and fertilizers.

Figure-5.16.: Giant kelp

76
 Classification Of Plants
There are more than 350,000 different
kinds of plants in the world. They vary widely
in their appearance, where they live, how they
reproduce, and so on. How do botanists clas-
sify them?
Botanists classify plants by arranging
them into groups according to their charac-
teristics.
There are many different ways to classify
plants. One way to classify plants is based on
determining whether they contain vascular tis-
sue or not.

PLANTS

1. Nonvascular plants (Division Tollophyta) 2. Vascular plants (Division Tracheophyta)

a. Phylum Bryophyta (mosses)
b. Phylum Hepatophyta (liverworts)
c. Phylum Anthocerophyta (hornworts)
A. Seedless Vascular Plants
a. Phylum Pterophyta (ferns)
b. Phylum Psilotophyta (whisk ferns)
c. Phylum Sphenophyta (horsetails)
d. Phylum Lycophyta (club mosses)
B. Seed Vascular Plants
1. Plants with naked seeds (Gymnospermae)
a. Phylum Coniferophyta (conifers)
b. Phylum Cycadophyta (cycads)

Plant Classification
c. Phylum Ginkgophyta (ginkgo)
d. Phylum Gnetophyta (gnetophytes)
2. Flowering plants (Angiospermae)
a. Class Dicotyledones (dicots)
b. Class Monocotyledones
(monocots)

77
 The Nonvascular Plants (Division Tallophyta)
Plants that don't have a vascular tissue are called nonvascular
plants. They are simpler than vascular plants.

Characteristics of Nonvascular plants

1. Nonvascular plants do not have true roots, stems or leaves.
Instead, they have simple parts.
2. Nonvascular plants are relatively short plants.
3. They usually grow in areas where there is an abundant supply
of water.
4. They reproduce asexually and sexually.
Figure-5.17..: Achrophyllum dentatum
Nonvascular plants are divided into three groups.

These are:
a. Phylum Bryophyta (mosses)
b. Phylum Hepatophyta (liverworts)
c. Phylum Anthocerophyta (hornworts)

1. Phylum Bryophyta (Mosses)

Bryophyta consists of the mosses, and it includes approximately
10,000 species. Mosses are the most common and familiar nonva-
scular plants. They usually grow in a mat formation, which consists
of many plants growing in a tight pack to hold one another up. The
mat usually has a spongy quality which enables it to retain water,
Figure-5.18.: Moss capsule.
thus aiding in reproduction and preventing the plant from drying
out. Mosses possess multicellular, rootlike structures known as rhi-
zoids which they use for attachment and water absorption. All
mosses consist of "stems", either branched or unbranched, that
bear leaflike structures. It is important to note that these "stems",
"roots", and "leaves" are not homologous to those of vascular plants
Ecologically and structurally, mosses are closer to lichens. Both
mosses and lichens depend upon external moisture to transport
nutrients. Because of this they prefer damp places and have evolved
special methods of dealing with long dry periods. Higher plants, on
the other hand, have specialized organs for transporting fluid, allow-
ing them to adapt to a wider variety of habitats.
Phylum Bryophyta, commonly known as bryophytes, are small
multicellular plants that lack xylem and phloem, which are special-
ized conducting tissues in a plant. The transportation of materials
BOTANY

Figure-5.19.: Breutelia elongata through the plant is slow and inefficient. For this reason, they are
found where water is plentiful, like forest floors, damp rocks, in
swamps and bogs, and near streams. Without xylem (a conducting

78
tissue), bryophytes have little in the way of supporting tissues. Most are short,
ranging from 1 to 5 centimeters in height.
Mosses can not live without water. This is really important to them because of
the role water plays in their reproduction. Because of this, mosses tend to live
near sources of water such as streams and river beds, or areas in which water is
abundant, such the rainforests, or just places it rains a lot. They can be found on
tall mountains where little vegetation exists, and the frozen artic tundra, to some
of the great scorching deserts of the world. One type of moss, Sphagnopsida, is
so abundant, that it is estimated that it covers 1% of Earth's land area!
All plants reproduce through alternating generations. Nowhere is this more
apparent than in the mosses. The first generation, the gametophyte, forms the
green leafy structure we ordinarily associate with moss. It produces a sperm and
an egg (the gametes) which unite, when conditions are right, to grow into the next
generation: the sporophyte or spore-bearing structure.
The moss sporophyte is typically a capsule growing on the end of a stalk. The Figure-5.20.: Sporangium of moss.

sporophyte contains no clorophyl of its own: it grows parasitically on its gameto-

phyte mother. As the sporophyte dries out, the capsule release spores which will
grow into a new generation of gametophytes, if they germinate.

Plant Classification

Figure-7.18.: A club moss shows alternation of generations. In its life cycle, the haploid stage is dominant and water dependent.

79
 Sphagnum Mosses (Sphagnopsida)
Sphagnum is one of the few mosses that is commercially har-
vested, being used by gardeners as a growing medium as well as
packaging material for transporting delicate plants. Sphagnum
leaves have hollow cells in which they absorb water; this gives them
the ability to hold 20% of their own weight in water.

2. Phylum Hepatophyta (liverworts)

Figure-5.121.: Sphagnum cristatum
Figure-5.22.: Lumularia cruciata
Figure-5.23.: Asterella australis
3. Phylum Anthocerophyta (Hornworts)
Hornworts are similar in appearance to the thallose liverworts. They are green
and flattened shaped and do not have any leaves or stem but are attached to the
BOTANY
There are approximately 6,500 species of liverworts. They are
widely distributed, occurring from the arctic to the tropics. Most liv-
erworts live in moist places, on damp soil, or on rocks in streams.
Liverworts can vary in size from less then 1 mm to 50 mm or more.
There are two groups of liverworts: leafy and thallose.
The dominant generation in the liverworts is the gametophyte; it
is the larger, long-lived plant, the plant you are most likely to see in
the field. The gametophytes, which range from approximately 0.15
mm to 2.5 cm in width and 2 mm to 25 cm in length, are mostly
prostrate thallose or leafy forms. The thallose gametophytes are flat,
membranous forms with even, slightly wavy, lobed or leafy margins.
These plants differ from mosses in that many do not have their
characteristic stem/leaf structure. Instead, their bodies are divided
into deeply grooved lobes. Some have coil shaped cells in their spo-
rangia which spring out of the capsule when it opens, helping to dis-
perse the spores. Their capsules are usually much simpler than
those of the mosses. Their rhizoids are composed of single, elon-
gated cells, not multiple cells as in mosses.
The Main Differences between mosses and liverworts:
1. Mosses always have a stem and leaves, whereas not all liver-
worts do.
2. Liverwort leaves are arranged in one plane. Those of mosses
are arranged radially around the stem.
3. The capsules and seta (stalk) of mosses are green, brown or
red, depending on age, whereas those of liverworts are dark
brown to black and oval in shape with a clear, transparent seta.
4. Many liverworts have a third row of small leaves under the
stem, but mosses rarely have these.

ground by rhizoids. Their size ranges from 10 mm to 20 mm along their longest

axis. Rarely are they over 2 cm in length.

80
 Hornworts include only about 6 genera and 100 species distrib-
uted thoughout the world. They are the most abundant species in
the Arctic and Antarctica. Hornworts grow on moist soil or, more
rarely, on downed logs. A few, such as Dendroceros, grow as epi-
phytes on tree trunks and branches.
Hornworts reproduce by alternation of generations. In the green
gametophyte phase, hornworts produce energy by photosynthesis.
The hornworts that are produced by spores get their energy by
leeching it from gametophyte hornworts. The spore hornworts are
called sporophytes.
Gametophytes are green and larger than sporophytes, which are
Figure-5.24.: Hornwort sporophytes.
brown at maturity. They do not have distinict leaves and stems.
Gametophytes are strap-shaped, have rhizoids which are colorless
and consist of one or few cells. Sporophytes stand up from the sur-
face of the gametophytes like horns, thus giving them the name.
Their sexual reproduction requires the presence of water.
Hornworts are economically unimportant. They are used in bio-
logical experiments on morphogenesis and hormonal control of
growth.

Anthoceros sp.:
The flattened prostrate and lobed thallus often resembles that of
a thalloid liverwort. Each horn splits into two halves that twist and
curl as they dry out, releasing the spores. This progresses from the
tip to the base of the horn, a process that can take several weeks. Figure-5.25.: Anthoceros sp.
This hornwort is very common on exposed, damp banks.

Megaceros giganteus:
The thallus of this species often has frilly extensions along the
margins; several sporophytes are present. It is found on moist rock
and excessively wet soil.

The Vascular Plants (Division Tracheophyta)

Vascular tissue is a system of tube-like cells that carry materials
throughout a plant. One kind of vascular tissue carries food
(phloem). Another kind carries water and dissolved minerals
(xylem).

Plant Classification
Thus, vascular tissue is the transport system of a plant. Plants
with vascular tissue are called vascular plants, and have roots,
stems and leaves.
Vascular plants demonstrate increased levels of organization by
having organs and organ systems. You are familiar with many vas-
cular plants. Examples of vascular plants are club mosses, horse-
tails, ferns, pine tree, sunflower, grass and onion.
Figure-5.26.: A type of vascular plant.

81
 Characteristics of Vascular plants:
1. Vascular plants have a root, a stem and leaves.
2. Most of them live on land.
3. They are more complex than nonvascular plants.
4. Their size ranges from 1 cm to 100 meters.
Vascular plants are divided into two groups: Pteridophytes and
Spermatophytae (seed plants).
Seedless & seed plants
1. Seedless Vascular Plants

a. Pteridophytes (Ferns)
Seedless vascular plants, also known as ferns and fern allies, are
a diverse group of plants consisting of about 12,000 species. Of
those species, almost all are ferns.
Figure-5.27.: Parts of a fern.
Members of this groups are very widespread in wet areas. Ferns
often grow in areas that most other plants cannot, such as on rock
cliffs and in the tops of trees. Decomposed ferns can mix with the
rock, providing valuable soil for other plants to germinate in.

Characteristics of Pteridophytes
1. Members of Pteridophyta are spore-dispersing plants.
2. Water is requred for reproduction of these plants.
3. Their stems are green and do photosynthesis.
There are four types of pteridophytes: Pterophyta (ferns),
Lycophytes (club moss), Sphenophyta (horse tail), and Psilotophyta
Figure-5.28.: Polypodium polypodi- (whisk ferns).
oides
Pterophyta (ferns):
Ferns have been the most successful of the seedless, spore-producing, vascu-
lar plants, with an extremely widespread distribution. There are as many as 11,000
different species living today. Most live in tropical forests and have leaves that vary
from 1 cm to 500 cm. There are many different types of ferns, including tree ferns,
climbing ferns, aquatic ferns, and the common herbaceous varieties. Pterophyta
is a diverse group of plants with true leaves, roots and stems.
Ferns reproduce by alternation of generation. They produce spores on the
underside of reproductive leaflets. Sprangia (sori) produce spore and release them
when they become mature. There are many distinguishing features of the ferns.
For one, their gametophyte is usually extremely short-lived. They also have wide,
flat, often pinately compound leaves or fronds. The fronds of the fern often grow
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out of a horizontal rhizome that is used to store food under the ground.

Figure-5.29.: Sporangium of fern.

82
 Ferns were abundant in the carboniferous forests that lead to the formation of
fossil fuels, such as coal, petroleum and natural gas. Their importance cannot be
overestimated. Without the fossil fuel resources, our world would be much differ-
ent today.

Polypodium polypodioides:
Resurrection fern is an epiphyte that grows attached to branches
of forest trees and sometimes upon rocks or dry ground. This fern's
long thin rhizomes grow creeping along narrow cracks or in the fur-
rows of the host tree's bark. Along the length of the rhizome the
fronds are arranged in a linear fashion. They are about 15 cm long
and 4 cm wide. The fronds are deeply incised, cut all the way to the
rachis (the leaf stem). When dry, the resurrection fern is gray, scaly
and curled up in a wad, but when moisture returns, the fronds res-
urrect, becoming soft and green and unfurling to regain their origi-
nal shape.
Figure-5.30.: Polypodium sp.
You can maintain resurrection fern on the bark of an oak log, allowing it to dry
out periodically, then spraying it with water to see it unfold in just minutes. But this
weird little fern is at its best on living trees, especially large oaks. If resurrection fern
isn't already growing naturally on trees in your garden, you can gather a starter
plant from a fallen branch in the woods and inoculate your own trees. Get several
inches of the thin rhizome and squeeze it into furrows in the bark of its new host.

b. Phylum Psilotophyta (whisk ferns)

Psilotophyta are all vascular plants. They lack leaves, instead hav-
ing small outgrowths called enations. The enations are not consid-
ered leaves because there is only a vascular bundle just underneath
them. It has underground stems from which the aboveground parts
branch off.
They are anchored by rhizoids. Absorption is aided by fungi
called mycorrhizae. They are found in the tropics. They may be ter-
restrial but are frequently found as epiphytes.
They reproduce by alternation of generations. During their life
cycle, the diploid sporophyte becomes dominant in the life cycle of
seedless plants. The Psilophyta have only two genera and a few
species.

Plant Classification
Psilotum sp:
They are found in semitropical and tropical regions. Psilotum
species are composed entirely of stems. True roots are not present
in the embryo, the mature sporophyte or the gametophyte. However
there is a rhizome which gives rise to aerial shoots. The shoots have
minute leaves. There has been much debate regarding the leaves. In
most cases there is no vascular tissue in the leaves. However, there
are cases in which vascular tissue has been found in the leaves.
Figure-5.31.: Psilotum nudum

83

Figure-5.32.: Horsetails.
Figure-5.33.: Club mosses.
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Figure-5.34.: Seeds and fruits.
84
c. Phylum Sphenophyta (horsetails)
Sphenophytes, the horsetails, are spore producing vascular plants. The
Sphenophyta are represented today by one genus, Equisetum, the horsetails or
scouring rushes. These are widely distributed, usually growing in damp areas
along streams, marshes or other wetlands. The plant is essentially stem, but has
a rhizome which puts out adventitious roots. The leaves are a whorl of non-pho-
tosynthetic scales at each node. In addition, they have true roots, stems and
leaves. Some species produce lots of feathery branches. Their cell walls contain
silica, which makes the stems coarse textured, and led to their use as a natural
scouring pad for cookware.
During the Carboniferous period, Sphenophyta grew to be up to 15 meters tall.
There are about 30 surviving species today in a single genus. All tree-sized ones
became extinct. The surviving horsetails are small, distinctive plants that are
almost always found in damp areas along streams or other wetlands.
d. Phylum Lycophyta (club mosses)
The lycophytes are a small and inconspicuous group of plants today, but
in the Carboniferous some lycophytes were forest-forming trees more than
35 meters tall. Lycophytes are the oldest extant group of vascular plants, and
dominated major habitats for 40 million years. These forests lead to the for-
mation of fossils fuels.
Modern lycophytes are small, herbaceous plants. They are usually ever-
green, and have been used as Christmas decorations. 1000 species of
Lycopods exist today. Many club mosses are epiphytes, which are plants that
grow on other plants.
Some lycophytes, such as Selaginella, may form extensive carpets in the
understory of wet tropical forests. Lycopodium is used by florists to some
extent as a foliage plant.
They have rhizomes from which arise adventitious roots. Lycopods are sim-
ple spore-producing vascular plants adapted primarily to moist environments.
2. Seed Vascular Plants (Lignopsida)
The spermatophytes, which means "seed plants", are some of
the most important organisms on Earth. Life on land as we know it
is shaped largely by the activities of seed plants. Soils, forests, and
food are three of the most apparent products of this group.
Seed-producing plants are probably the most familiar plants to
most people, unlike most other seedless plants which are over-
looked because of their size or inconspicuous appearance. Many
seedplants are large or showy. Conifers are seed plants; they include
pines, firs, yew, redwood, and many other large trees. The other
major group of seed-plants are the flowering plants, including plants
whose flowers are showy, but also many plants with reduced flowers,
such as the oaks, grasses, and palms.
 Seed plants have true roots, stems, leaves and flowers. They also
contain vessels which allow movement of fluids, carrying water and
nutrients to the different parts of the plant. Alternation of genera-
tions is seen as in mosses and ferns, but the sporophyte is dominant
in seed plants. Pollen grains are produced in large amounts on
anthers. When one reaches an ovum (egg), a zygote is formed (sex-
ual reproduction). Fertilization and development of gametophytes
occur inside a flower. The gametophyte is the embryo inside the
seed. Germination of the gametophyte ends the gametophytic
stage, and the embryo grows to form a sporophyte plant. Two outer
covers (calyx and corolla) protect the stamens (male organs) and
pistils (female organs).

Characteristics of Seed Plants

1. Seed plants are the most complex group of plants.
2. They have a root, a stem, leaves and cones or flowers.
3. They reproduce sexually and asexually.
4. They produce seeds.
5. Their size ranges from a few millimeters to 100 meters.
6. There are 260,000 existing species which belong to sper-
matophytae.
Figure-5.35.: Picea tree.
Seed plants are divided into two groups depending on whether the seed
carpels are closed or not. These are Gymnospermae and Angiospermae.

1. Plants with naked seeds (Gymnospermae)

Gymnosperm means "naked seed". This is
because the seeds do not develop enclosed
within an ovary but are usually exposed on the
surfaces of reproductive structures, such as
cones. Gymnosperms have seeds but not fruits
or flowers. This group includes all the conifers,
such as pines and firs.
The leaves of many gymnosperms are adapt-
ed to water conservation by having a thick cuti-
cle. Many leaves are needle-like. Scale or needle-

Plant Classification
shaped leaves are renewed constantly and thus
gymnosperms are evergreen. Gymnosperms are
woody plants with secondary growth.
Gymnosperm flowers are single sexed: either
male or female. Pollen is transferred by the wind,
or rarely by insects. Seeds spread when the
cones open. Germination of seeds produces
new trees.
Figure-5.36.: Life cycle of a gymnospermae.

85
 Characteristics of Gymnosperms
1. Gymnosperms produce seeds that develop in cones instead of a flower.
2. Most of them have needle-like leaves.
3. They are evergreen.
4. Gymnosperms are woody plants
There are 63 genera and 722 species of gymnosperms placed into four divi-
sions: conifers, cycads, ginkgos and gnetales.

a. Phylum Coniferophyta (conifers)

The conifers are the best known group of the gymnosperms. They are cone-
bearing trees. All of them have woody stems. Conifers are vascular plants that pro-
duce naked seeds in cones. Most live in the northern latitudes of the world, such
as in North America and Russia. The vast evergreen forests are an important
resource that must be managed and preserved properly. Old growth forests, unfor-
tunately, continue to be logged and include a growing list of endangered species.
Unlike the other "gymnosperm" phyla, however, the conifers are important
today economically and ecologically. The group consists of around 550 species
arranged in seven famies.

Characteristics of Conifers
1. They are green in all seasons.
2. Members of this group are cone bearing plants. Seeds develop
inside the cones.
3. Conifers show wide geographic distribution. In cold areas, they
are the dominant trees of the forests.

Cupressus (Cypress )
Cupressus are trees or large shrubs. Like other conifers Cupressus
is also evergreen. Their branchlets are flattened (comblike). They pro-
duce pollen cones with 4-10 pairs of sporophylls, each sporophyll with
3-10 pollen sacs. Seed cones mature in 2 years. They are distributed
in warm, northern temperate regions.

Picea (Spruce)
Picea is the botanical name for the Spruce tree. These are ever-
green trees that are grown for their decorative and commercial value.
Smaller trees are often used as Christmas trees. They are found in
temperate countries of the Northern Hemisphere.
The cones grow from 3 to 5cm long and have clear reddish-brown
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scales. The Red Spruce may grow up to 24 m high with a 30-60 cm

diameter.

86
 Pine (Pinus)
This popular group consists of evergreen trees and shrubs
that have great decorative and commercial value. They grow
throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Some are found in
Europe, North and Central America, Asia, northern Africa, the
Canary Islands, and the Philippine Islands. Most of them sur-
vive in temperate and cold regions, but some are only found
in warm or subtropical climates. Pine leaves are arranged in
clusters containing from 2 to 5 needles. Male and female
cones grow on the same tree in spring or early summer. The
female flowers are usually reddish colored. They look like tiny
cones. It often takes two and sometimes three years for the
cones to reach maturity. The seeds have "wings" and are dis-
persed by the wind. The white pine can reach a height of 45
m. Figure-5.37.: Pinus pinea tree and
cone.
Cedar (Cedrus)
These evergreen trees are commonly known as Cedar or Cypress
trees. They are originally from the Himalayas, Syria and Cyprus. They are
different from other cone-bearing trees in their needles, which are pro-
duced in thick clusters on very short growths. The flowers are produced
early in fall. It takes 2 years for the seeds to completely ripen; the cones
fall to pieces at that time.
The leading shoot of this tree is sometimes slow growing, but once it
does, growth is rapid. It has a conical shape when young, gradually form-
ing a flat-topped and tiered, mature tree. The leaves are green or grayish-
green.

Figure-5.38.: Cedrus.
Sequoias (Sequoiadendron giganteum)
Sequoias or redwood trees, are huge trees that can kill other trees.
Their thick, spongy bark, 30-60cm thick, protects them from insects and
fires. Many trees show scars of their long lives, with bark peppered with
charred areas and pocked by 3 to 6m vertical scars at their bases.
Sequoias are among the largest living beings on earth. While average
mature sequoias are about 76 m tall, and 4.5 m in diameter, the tallest
trees exceed 91 m in height, and some specimens reach a diameter of 12
m at the base. Sequoias also include the oldest trees: about 2500-3000

Plant Classification
years old.
For all their huge size, the trees have humble beginnings. The egg
shaped cones, which take two years to mature, are rarely more than 8 cm
long, and they nurture incredibly tiny seeds--3,000 weigh no more than
30 gr.
The seed of the giant sequoia is amazingly small and lightweight. It
rarely sprouts in dense vegetation or duff. Giant sequoia seeds depend on
major vegetation disturbances, such as fire or logging, to survive. Figure-5.39.: Cedrus.

87
 b. Phylum Cycadophyta (cycads)
The cycads are a small group of plants with many unique features, an
ancient origin, and a very long history. Cycads are known to have lived 200 mil-
lion years ago. Although once abundant across the globe, the cycads are now
greatly reduced in both numbers and distribution. There are now about 250
species in 11 genera, compared to possibly 300,000 species of flowering plants,
the group that now dominates world vegetation. All cycads are tropical or sub-
tropical and each genus has a restricted geographical range.
Now of greater interest for their uniqueness than for their ecological or eco-
nomic importance, members are scattered around the globe but are restricted
to tropical or subtropical climates.
Their leaves are pinnately compound and distictly palm-like. Leaf develop-
ment typically occurs as an uncoiling of a hooked leaf primordium similar to cir-
cinate vernation in the ferns. The very large divided leaves means that cycad
plants resemble palms or tree-ferns in overall appearance. Cycads, however, dif-
Figure-5.40.: Cycad.
fer greatly in almost all aspects of detailed structure and reproductive behaviour.

Encephalartos woodii (Wood's Cycad)

Encephalartos woodii is a cycad famous for being extinct in nature, and for
the fact that there is no known female specimen on Earth. Encephalartos
woodii is very well represented in botanic gardens and cycad collections
throughout the world. Possibly as many as 500 specimens exist.
Encephalartos woodii is a very handsome plant. The leaves are a dark
glossy green, 2 m to 3 m long, with a gracefully arching shape, giving this cycad
a dense umbrella-shaped crown. Encephalartos woodii reaches majestic pro-
portions, up to 6 m in height, with a trunk diameter of up to 90 cm at the base,
60 cm nearer the crown.
Encephalartos woodii produces six to eight bright orange-yellow cones.
These are large, cylindrical in shape, 40 - 90 cm long. Cones are formed every
2-3 years.
The young leaves of all species of Encephalartos are grazed by sheep, buck,
hyrax and baboons. Encephalartos seeds however are extremely toxic, not the
fleshy pulp that is eaten by birds, baboons, monkeys, rodents and bats, but the
hard-coated kernel.
Figure-5.41.: Encephalartos horrida

c. Phylum Ginkgophyta (ginkgo)

Members of the Ginkgophyta were most numerous during the Jurassic peri-
od about 200 million years ago. Most died out by about 65 million years ago
and only one living species from this division is alive today, Ginkgo biloba.
These trees are considered sacred in Japan and China, and have been used in
temple gardens for thousands of years. Such gardens may have been their sal-
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vation. Many Ginkgo are used along side streets and sidewalks because they are
quite durable and can handle poor soil conditions. They can survive with limit-
ed water supplies and in the presence of air pollution.
Figure-5.42.: Ginkgo fruits and leaves

88
 Ginkgo trees, which may reach a height of more than 30 meters, are very hard.
They are dioecious, with separate male and female plants. The males are more
commonly planted since the females produce seeds that have a nasty odor.
Pollination is by wind. Recently, Ginkgo has become the current herbal rave.

d. Phylum Gnetophyta (gnetophytes)

Most gnetophytes can be found living in the deserts or mountains of Asia,
Africa and South America. The division contains only three genera, which are all
different in structure and adaptations. The genus Gnetum is composed of tropical
climbing plants. The genus Ephedra contains shrublike plants and is the only
genus that can be found in the U.S. The third genus,Welwitschia, is found only in
South Africa. It is a low lying desert dweller that can live over a 100 years.

2. Flowering Plants (Angiospermae)

Angiosperms are vascular flowering plants. They have stems, roots, and leaves.
The angiosperms were the last of the seed plant groups to appear over 140 mil-
lion years ago. All flowering plants produce flowers.
Angiosperms comprise about 90 percent of the Kingdom Plantae. The total
number of described species exceeds 230,000, and many tropical species are as
yet unnamed. They live from sun-baked deserts and windswept alpine summits to
fertile grasslands, freshwater marshes, dense forests and lush mountain meadows. Figure-5.43.: Epedra cones
Relatively few species live submerged in the oceans.
The three largest flowering plant families containing the greatest number of
species are the Sunflower Family (Asteraceae), with about 24,000 species, the
Orchid Family (Orchidaceae), with about 20,000 species, and the Legume or Pea
Family (Fabaceae), with 18,000 species. The total number of species for these
three enormous families alone is approximately 62,000, roughly 25 percent of all
the flowering plant species on earth.

Angiosperm Life Cycle

Flowering plants also exhibit the typical plant alternation of generations. The
dominant phase is the sporophyte, with the gametophyte being much reduced in
size and wholly dependant on the sporopohyte for nutrition. This is not a unique
angiosperm condition, but occurs in all seed plants as well. What makes the
Figure-5.44.: Cone of gymnosperm
angiosperms unique is their flowers and the "double fertilization" that occurs.
Technically this is not double fertilization, but rather a single egg-sperm fusion (fer-
tilization proper) plus a fusion of the second of two sperm cells with two haploid

Plant Classification
cells in the female gametophyte to produce a triploid (3n) endosperm, a nutritive
tissue for the developing embryo.

Somes differences from gymnosperms:

1. Seeds are contained inside ovaria formed by carpelles. Ovaria form fruit.
2. Pollen can not reach the ovary directly. Upon reaching the stigma, the pollen
forms a pollen tube. The pollen reaches the ovum (egg) through the pollen
tube and fertilizes the egg. Figure-5.45.: Flower of angiosperm

89
 HMW: DRAW 3. Gametophytic stage is shorter.
4. Double fertilization occurs. One sperm fertilizes the
egg while another fuses with the polar nuclei to
form the endosperm.
5. May be herbaceous plants as well as woody plants.
6. Flowers have different colors and fragrances to
attract insects.

FLOWER
Unlike gymnosperms such as conifers and cycads,
angiosperms’ seeds are found in a flower. The flower is
the reproductive organ of angiosperms. A flower has 4
main parts. These are corolla, calyx, stamen and pistil.
The corolla is usually the colored part of a flower. Each
leaf of the corolla is called a petal. The calyx is usually
green. Each leaf of the calyx is called a sepal. It protects
the flower in bud before opening. Sepals and petals are
sterile parts of flowers. When these are similar in size and
Figure-5.46.: Parts of angiosperm
flower. shape, they are termed tepals.
The reproductive parts of the flower are the stamen and pistil. The stamen (col-
lectively termed the androecium) is the male reproductive organ of the flower. The
pistil (collectively termed the gynoecium) is the female reproductive organ of the
flower.
Flowers may be complete, where all parts of the flower are present and func-
tional, or incomplete, where one or more parts of the flower are absent. Many
angiosperms produce a single flower on the tip of a shoot. Others produce a stalk
bearing numerous flowers, termed an inflorescence. Many flowers show adapta-
tions for insect pollination, bearing numerous white or yellow petals. Others, like
the grasses, oaks, and elms, are wind pollinated and have their petals reduced and
often inconspicuous.
The angiosperms are classified into 2 groups. These are monocotyledons
(monocots) and dicotyledons (dicots).

Monocotyledons (Class Liliopsida)

Monocots (Monocotyledonous) comprise one of the large divisions of
angiosperm plants. Some of them are the most important staple crops of the world,
such as wheat, barley, rice, maize and rye. Other food crops, such as onion, garlic,
ginger, banana, and asparagus, are also classified as monocots.
Some of the monocots are epiphytes. These are plants that occupy the surface
of trees and other large plants. These include bromeliads, aroids, and orchids.
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There are other important monocot families, including the iris, orchid, lily,
canna, banana, sedge, rush, and palm families.
Figure-5.47.: Flowers of monocot
plant. Characteristics of Monocots

90
 1. Monocots have a single cotyledon (seedling leaf).
2. Monocots have veins which run parallel to the length of the leaf.
3. The monocots also have vascular bundles that are scattered.
4. The monocots have developed an adventitious root structure.
5. Monocots have lost their ability to increase their diameter through second-
ary growth. This also makes monocots lack wood, except palms and agaves.
6. Monocots have underground storage organs, such as the bulbs present in Figure-5.48.: Iris.
irises.

Families of Monocots

Iridaceae (Iris Family)

There are about 1800 species in this family, which occur in both tropical and
temperate regions, but particularly around the Mediterranean, in South Africa and
Central America.
They are mostly grown as decorative plants The members of this family are
herbaceous and have storage organs (rhizomes, corms or bulbs). The leaves are Figure-5.49.: Gladiolus
long and thin, usually arranged in two rows.
Their flower may occur as spikes at the top of stem. There are six petals in two
rings of three. Each ring or whorl may be composed of petals of the same or dif-
ferent shape and size.
Iris, crocus and gladiolus are well known examples of this family.

Liliaceae (Lily Family)

This is one of the largest plant families of
monocotyledons, with about 3500 species dis-
tributed throughout the world. They are mainly
decorative plants, but include some vegetables.
Some species of this family have been used
medicinally. The majority are herbaceous with a
swollen storage organ, but there are also ever-
green succulents and woody evergreen climbers.
The leaves of this family are often long and
thin with parallel veins arising from the base.

Plant Classification
Many members of the family are perennial and
have storage organs such as bulbs, corms or rhi-
zomes. The flowers are often borne in racemes,
although they may also be solitary as in the tulip.
They usually have six petals which may be differ-
ent sizes. There are nearly always six stamens.
Onion, garlic, leek, chives and asparagus are
examples of this family. Figure-5.50.: Asparagus plant and
flower

91
 Orchidaceae (Orchid Family)
Orchids are elegant and beautiful flowering plants. The petals form amazing
shapes and colors. Orchids all have either a root capable of sprouting a new plant
or the base of the stem is swollen into a bulb-like growth. Most orchids of the world
are found in the tropics and are epiphytic, growing on the branches and trunks of
trees. Species found in Britain, however, mostly grow out of the soil. The survival
of most orchids depends upon a close relationship with underground fungi.
Figure-5.51.: Maxillaria fletcheriana The closely related bee-orchid grows flowers which look just like bees. These
pretend bees attract real bees, which think they are in for a chance for mating. As
the bees land on top of the bee-like flowers, they pollinate the flower.

Bromeliaceae
Bromeliads today are grown as ornamen-
tals, such as Guzmania and Vriesia, and for
food, such as the pineapple. In addition,
pineapple stems are a source of commercial
Figure-5.52.: Epidendrum ibaguense protein-digesting enzyme.
The pineapple (Ananas) is the only bromeli-
ad commonly cultivated for food. Though
often associated with Hawaii, it is not native
there, but was introduced as a crop. The fruit
Figure-5.55.: Aecgmea chantinsii.
of the pineapple is a multiple fruit, fromed
when a whole cluster of flowers mature as individual fruits. Each of the diamond-
shaped sections visible on a pineapple comes from a separate flower.

Poaceae
Figure-5.53.: Brocchinia. They are widespread in all climates and
regions. Grasslands made up of species of
Poaceae make up 20% of the world's vegetation
cover. The most important plant family to
humans, the Poaceae is the source of all the
cereal crops cultivated throughout the world,
such as wheat, rice, corn, oats, barley, sugar
cane and sorghum.
The grasses are also significant as grazing
crops and some larger ornamentals. As building
Figure-5.56.: Oryza sativa materials and a source for matting, the bam-
boos are highly valued in Asia.
The Poaceae (or Gramineae) were classified by characters of the spikelet, but
this has changed at present to a focus on different micro and macro anatomical
features, so the arrangement within the family is still somewhat undefined. The
distinctive floral anatomy results in a specialized terminology.
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Habit is as herbs or rarely woody shrubs or trees. Leaves are simple, linear, nar-
Figure-5.54.: Flower of family poa- row and alternate or basal in two ranks (or rows).
ceae.

92
 Araceae
This family includes 110 genera and
about 3700 species. Their distribution is
cosmopolitan, but mostly subtropical and
tropical. Species of this family are used as
indoor ornamentals. They have a large,
fleshy, often brightly colored leaf, which
surrounds a flower spike. Some of them
are grown for tubers. They may have
adventitious roots. Life forms range from
submerged or free-floating aquatics to
Figure-5.57.: Arum terrestrial (sometimes tuberous), and to
epiphytic or hemiepiphytic plants or
climbers. Flower is small and unisexual (moneocious), rarely dioecious. These
plants are herbs, shrubs, lianas or epiphytes.

Arecaceae (Palmae)
This family includes about 200 genera and 3000 species. They are widespread
Figure-5.58.: Amorphophallus titanum
and pantropical, with a few found in the warm temperate regions.
The family is unique as a monocot in that it has an arborescent habit, or is able
to reach great heights without the production of true secondary growth or ' wood',
as well as having large distinctively 'palmate' leaves. Habit is as shrubs, lianas or
trees with an unbranched trunk or stem. Individuals may be up to 60 meters in
height, or remain shorter.
The Arecaceae or, more commonly, the palms, are invaluable to many native
communities of the tropics as a source of food and fibers as well as leaves used
in construction. Coconuts, dates, oil and sago, from which a nutritious flour is
made, are all produced by various taxa.

Cyperaceae
This family includes about 80 genera
and 4000 species. They are widespread
worldwide in moist, temperate and arctic
regions.
Figure-5.59.: Palm
The family is grass-like, but has defin-
ing features (ie., the perigynia) that make

Plant Classification
its morphology unique and separate.
Habit is as perennial herbs (rarely a
shrub), often in wet areas and with a dis-
Figure-5.61.: Cyperus papyrus tinctive three-sided, solid stem. Leaves
are simple and linear.
A species of this family was used as the source of Egyptian 'papyrus' for paper
and boats (Cyperus papyrus). Some tubers are grown as agricultural products
and some species are cultivated as large ornamental grasses in landscaping.
Figure-5.60.: Cyperus

93
 HMW: DRAW & WRITE
Dicotyledons (Class Magnoliopsida)
Dicots, the popular name for dicotyledons, is one of the
two large groups of flowering plants. The dicots make up
the majority of the angiosperms. There are 170,000
species of dicots, including most of the shrubs and trees.
The common name of dicots is due to the presence of two
seed leaves (cotyledons), tiny leaves in the plant embryo.
During germination, the cotyledons will use their enzymes
to digest stored food, allowing initial plant growth.
Dicots are diverse in habit, with half of all the species
being more or less woody-stemmed--a reflection of the
usual presence of a vascular cambium in the class.
Annuals, biennials, vines, epiphytes, aquatics, parasites,
and saprotrophs are also well represented in dicots.
Vascular bundles of the stem are usually borne in a ring
that encloses the pith. Dicots usually contain a taproot, a
single large root that grows deep underneath the plant, and
off which grow short root branches, although some have
an adventitious root system commonly seen in the class of
monocots. Leaves are mostly net-veined.
All legumes, maples, roses, and violets, beverages such
as coffee and cocoa, and a great variety of flowers, oil
seeds, fibers, and woody plants belong to the dicot group.
Class Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledone) is divided into 6
subclasses.

Figure-5.62.: Comparison of flower, seed, root

and leaf in monocots and dicots.

Differences Between Monocots and Dicots

Characteristics of Monocots Characteristics of Dicots

1. Embryo with single cotyledon
2. Pollen with single furrow or pore
3. Flower parts in multiples of three
4. Major leaf veins parallel
5. Stem vascular bundles scattered
BOTANY
1. Embryo with two cotyledons
2. Pollen with three furrows or pores
3. Flower parts in multiples of four or five
4. Major leaf veins reticulated
5. Stem vascular bundles in a ring

6. Roots are adventitious 6. Roots develop from radicle

7. Secondary growth absent 7. Secondary growth often present

94
 Subclass Magnoliidae

Magnoliaceae
There are about 12 genera and 220 species in this family. They are found in
warm temperate regions of the world. They are used as ornamentals and lumber
and also as a source of ethereal oils used in perfumes. The group comprises one
of the oldest known plant families. They are shrubs or trees.

Ranunculaceae - The Buttercup

Family
There are around 1800 species in this
family, which is found mainly in the colder
regions of the world. Most of them are well- Figure-5.66.: Magnolia.
known wild flowers or garden flowers, includ-
ing buttercups, anemones, delphiniums,
aquilegias and clematis. Some species are
particularly poisonous. Nearly all members
of the family are herbaceous, with clematis
being the only woody species.
The flowers may be solitary, but they are
frequently in clusters or spikes. In many
species there are no proper petals, and it is
Figure-5.63.: Anemone. Figure-5.67.: Cleome hasslerian
the brightly coloured calyx which forms the
'flower'.

Papaveraceae - The Poppy

Family
This is quite a small family, with
about 250 species found mainly in
the northern temperate regions of the
world.
Many are familiar garden plants-
poppies, meconopsis, Californian,
argemone and dendromecon. Few
Figure-5.64.: A flower of Papaveracea
are of economic importance,
although the Opium Poppy (Papaver
somniferum) is the source of opium

Plant Classification
and heroin, and its seeds are used in
baking.
Other species yield oils used in
making soap. Most members of this
Family are herbaceous annuals or
perennials, but there are also a few
shrubs.
Figure-5.65.: Fieldpoppies. Figure-5.68.: Papaver somniferum.

95

Figure-5.69.: White Oak.
Figure-5.70.: Cactaceae
BOTANY
Figure-5.71.: Silene struthioloides
96
Subclass Hamamelidae
Fagaceae
This family includes 8 genera and about
1000 species. They are widespread every-
where in the world except South America and
Africa.
They are shrubs or trees. Leaves are sim-
ple alternate (rarely opposite or whorled).
Some species of this family are used as a
source of timber and cork and as ornamental
shade trees. Chesnut (Castanea), beech tree Figure-5.72.: Castanea saativa
(Fagus) and oak (Quercus) are examples of
this family.
Subclass Caryophyllidae
Cactaceae
This family includes about 1500 species. Figure-5.73.: Cactus with flower.
They are widespread in most arid and semi-
arid regions of the New World and naturalized
in Australia, South Africa, and the
Mediterranean. They are highly valued as
ornamentals with Opuntia, or prickly pear, a
food source in the desert southwest of the
USA.
The family can become a 'pest' taxa with-
out biological controls. It is a succulent that
survives well in xeric environments. Flowers
are large, showy and generally solitary, arising
from the end of the areoles. Habit is as peren-
nial herbs or woody succulents with spines.
Caryophyllaceae Figure-5.74.: Dianthus caryophyllus
The Caryophyllaceae are herbs
or rarely shrubs comprising about
75 genera and 2,000 species fur-
ther characterized by usually
swollen nodes. The leaves are sim-
ple. This family is widespread
everywhere but mainly of temper-
ate or warm-temperate occurrence
in the Northern hemisphere, with
principal centers of distribution in
the Mediterranean region, West
Asia and the Himalayas

Figure-5.75.: A flower of Polygonaceae.
Subclass Dilleniidae
Figure-5.76.: Drossera capensis
Figure-5.77.: Gokiduru.
Polygonaceae
The Polygonaceae includes many
herbs, a number of shrubs, and a few
trees. It is a medium-sized family,
with 30 genera and 750 species,
most of which occur in the north
temperate region of the world. Many
species are mentioned as ornamen-
tals in European garden catalogs, but
few are cultivated as ornamentals in
this part of the world. There are some
species of minor agricultural impor-
tance in North America. The flowers
are usually small.
Droseraceae Figure-5.78: Polygonum lapathifolium
The Sundew Family (Droseraceae) has
over a hundred species growing in bogs in
many parts of the world, especially in
Australia. The leaves act as active traps,
imprisoning insect prey.
Members of the genus Drosera have
leaves with long hairs tipped with glands
that secrete a sticky substance.
It is these shining drops which do not
evaporate in the sun that suggest the
name "sundew". Small insects landing on
the sticky hairs get captured and digested.
Cucurbitaceae Figure-5.79.: Drossera potundifolia
The Gourd Family (Cucurbitaceae) has
about 750 species and includes cucum-
bers squashes and melons.
They are creeping or climbing vines
with simple leaves that are often lobed.
Plant Classification
They are natives of India and they are used
abundantly. They are used by the per-
fumery industry for their wealth of aromas
to provide fragrance to certain products.
The flowers are white, yellow or greenish
and usually have three stamens. The fruit
is called a pepo and many species and
varieties are eaten as fruits or vegetables.
Figure-5.80.: Fruit of Cucurbitaceae
97
 Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) - The Cabbage Family
This is a large family with many plants of
major economic importance, including many
familiar vegetables (cabbage, turnip), oil
crops (oil-seed rape), ornamental plants (wall-
flower, alyssum), and weeds (bittercress).
They are found more or less all over the
world, with most species occurring in the
north temperate region and few in the south-
ern hemisphere. They are mostly annual or
perennial herbaceous plants, with one or two Figure-5.84.: Cabbage
small shrubs or climbers.
Flowers give this plant family its original name of Cruciferae They are cruci-
form, made up of four petals in a cross shape. They are usually in clusters or
Figure-5.81.: Brassica olerbotrytis
heads, and the flowers are very often white or yellow, although they may be red,
blue, orange, white, pink or mauve, particularly in species cultivated for ornament.

Figure-5.82: Begonia
Begoniaceae
Begonias are tropical plants which are
widely grown for their ornamental flowers and
foliage. The name Begonia is in honour of
Michel Begon who was a 17th century
Governor of Canada and a patron of the sci-
ences. There are many species and varieties
of Begonia that can be divided into two
groups, the fibrous-rooted begonias which
are fairly hardy, and tuberous begonias which
have swollen underground tubers.
Figure-5.85.: Begoniarex

Primulaceae
The Primrose family - primu-
laceae- comprises about 1000
species of plants living in temperate
countries. They are mainly herbs.
Some genera, such as primula or
cyclamen, are very interesting for gar-
dening.
Most flowers in the Primulaceae
have five petals and five stamens
which are attached at the centre of a
petal base rather than being arranged
alternately with the petals as they are Figure-5.86.: Fruit of family Primulaceae.
in most flowers with five petals.
BOTANY

Leaves of primroses are of a simple undivided shape. Because most of their flow-
Figure-5.83.: Dodecatheon hender-
ers are fairly large and attractive, primroses are often grown as ornamental plants.
sonii

98
 Subclass Rosidae

Crassulaceae (Sedum Family)

Figure-5.87.: Hylotelephium sieboldii
Crassulaceae is a natural order of
dicotyledons, containing 13 genera and
nearly 500 species; of cosmopolitan distri-
bution, but most strongly developed in
South Africa. The plants are herbs or small
shrubs, generally with thick, fleshy stems
and leaves, adapted for life in dry, especially
rocky places. The species are easily cultivat-
ed and will thrive in almost any soil. They are
readily propagated by seeds, cuttings or
divisions. Plants in the Sedum Family are Figure-15.89.: Hylotelephium sieboldii
mainly low-growing species with thickened
succulent leaves.

Rosaceae
The Rose family -rosaceae- comprises
about 3000 species of plants mainly spread
in temperate countries. They are herbs,
trees, shrubs and climbing plants. Some of
them are very important as edible fruit trees
(almonds, cherries, apples, pears, etc.) or as Figure-15.90.: Strawberry.
cultivated flowers.
In the Rose Family, the basic flower plan
has five sepals, five petals and numerous
stamens, though cultivation has produced
many-petalled varieties. The leaves are
arranged alternately on the stem and they
usually have small modified leaflets (stip-
ules) at the point where a leafstalk grows out
from the stem. Some species in this family
have thorns. Strawberry, apple, plum,
Figure-5.88..: Bartlett pear. peach, cherry and hawthorn all belong in
Family Rosaceae.
Figure-5.91.: Musk rose.
Fabaceae

Plant Classification
Fabaceae or Leguminosae is one of the largest and most useful plant families,
with 17,000 species distributed almost throughout the world. It includes many
well-known vegetables particularly of temperate regions (beans, peas), ornamen-
tal trees in tropical regions (Bauhinia, Flamboyant, Cassia), fodder crops (clover,
lucerne) and weeds (vetches and trefoils), and their growth habits vary from
ground cover and aquatic to shrubs, climbers and trees. Many species of trees in
this family are important for their timber.
Figure-5.92.: Machaerium falciforme

99

Figure-5.93.: Pea vine (fruit).
Figure-5.94.: Milky sap.
Figure-5.95.: Flower of apiaceae.
BOTANY
Figure-5.96: Lemon.
100
The Bean Family has flowers that are of an easily recognizable shape. Some
species of Fabaceae have alkaloids (e.g., lupine) and can cause poisoning in
humans or livestock.
They have five petals with the two lowest ones more or less joined to form a
keel which encloses the stamens and pistil. The flowers may be single, as in the
sweet pea, or in heads, as in the clovers. The fruit is usually a pod enclosing a row
of seeds like the typical pea-pod. Peas, beans, lentils, clover, alfalfa, vetches,
peanuts, wisteria and licorice all belong to this family.
Euphorbiaceae
The Spurge Family (Euphorbiaceae) has a
large number of species, many of which are
tropical shrubs, trees and herbs. Plants in this
family often have a milky juice. They have
been used in home-made medicine to elimi-
nate callouses or warts, applying the latex on
the affected area. Many species have peculiar
flowers that are really clusters of tiny flowers
with no petals or sepals, surrounded by col-
ored, modified leaves or bracts.
Figure-5.97.: Euphorbia helioscopia
Apiaceae (The Celery Family)
The old name for Apiaceae, "Umbelli-
ferae", refers to the arrangement of the flow-
ers in members of the Parsley or Carrot
Family. There are between 2500 and 3000
members of this family, found all over the
world, but mainly in the temperate areas and
rarely in tropical regions. Some well-known
vegetables and herbs are in this family (car-
rot, parsnip, celery, fennel, angelica) and
some are grown as ornamental garden plants Figure-5.98.: Carrot
(Eryngium, Astrantia, Aciphylla). Some are poisonous, notably hemlock.
It is the flowers which gave this plant family its original name of Umbelliferae.
The flowers grow in umbels or clusters forming an umbrella shape. The flower
head may be a single umbel or many smaller umbels making up a large 'flower'.
Rutaceae (The Rue Family)
The Rue Family (Rutaceae) has about
1600 species of trees and shrubs that often
have aromatic oil glands. Citrus fruits such as
the orange belong in this group. There are
several different kinds of orange including the
sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) the sour
orange (Citrus aurantium) and the tangerine
(Citrus reticulata). Figure-5.99.: Orange
 Subclass Asteridae

Asteraceae (The Daisy Family)

This is one of the largest plant
families, with over 25,000 species
distributed all over the world. It
includes shrubs, perennials and
annuals, but not trees or aquatics.
Many of them are weeds, many are
familiar garden flowers, and some
are edible (lettuce and artichoke).
It is the flowers which give this Figure-5.103.: Flower of Asteraceae
plant family its original name of
Figure-5.100.: Crassocephalum crepidioides Compositae. They are composite, or
made up of many individual flowers.
These flowers may be regular with all the petals the same size, or irregular with
some petals larger than others. Each single flower can produce a seed. The seed
is often attached to its own 'parachute'.

Solanaceae (The Potato Family)

The Potato family comprises
about 2500 species of plants spread
all over the world but mainly in trop-
ical America. They are herbs, trees
and shrubs. Many of these species
are very important for mankind
Figure-5.104.: Tomato
because of their value as food (pota-
toes, tomatoes, peppers, etc.),
because of their alkaloid properties
(tobacco, deadly nightshade, Thorn-
apple, henbane, mandrake, etc.)
Figure-5.101.: Potato.
and as garden plants.
Some produce poisonous alkaloids in parts of the plant. The flower parts are
mostly in fives and the fruit is often a berry containing many seeds.

Campanulaceae (The Bellflower Family)

This plant family contains mostly perennial

Figure-5.102.: Kikyou
Plant Classification
plants, although some are annual or biennial,
but hardly any shrubs. Plants of this family are
found in most parts of the world except Africa,
although the majority are found in the temper-
ate regions. The flowers are most usually blue.
The family includes Campanulas,
Symphyandra, Edraianthus, and almost all are
grown for ornament. They may be several feet
tall, or only a few inches. Figure-5.105.: Cardinal

101
 It is the flowers which give this plant family its name. Campanula is Latin for
bell, and the majority of the flowers are bell-shaped to some degree. They may be
long tubular bells, or open starry shapes. Each single flower can produce thou-
sands of seeds. They form in three chambers in the seed capsule, and are usual-
ly tiny.

Apocynaceae (The Periwinkle Family)

This is a large Family with about 1500
species found mainly in tropical regions. It
includes many of the most well-known tropi-
cal ornamental plants (Oleander, Frangipani,
Allamanda, Mandevilla).
Many are large trees with buttress roots
found in rainforests, some are smaller, ever-
Figure-5.106.: Nerium oleander green or deciduous trees. The sap of most
plants is a milky latex, which is often of eco-
nomic importance for medicinial use, or for
the production of rubber.
There is a calyx with five parts, either sep-
arate or joined to form a tube. The flowers are
in clusters and are often large and showy.
They usually have five petals joined into a
tube at the base. There are five stamens
joined together.
Figure-5.107.: Adenium somalens
BOTANY

102
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Plant Classification
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103