TUT Manual

Second Year Semester-III

Instrumentation Engineering
Subject: Electrical Network & Measurements

Odd Semester

Institutional Vision, Mission and Quality

Policy
Our Vision
To foster and permeate higher and quality education with value added engineering, technology
programs, providing all facilities in terms of technology and platforms for all round development
with societal awareness and nurture the youth with international competencies and exemplary level
of employability even under highly competitive environment so that they are innovative adaptable
and capable of handling problems faced by our country and world at large.

RAIT’s firm belief in new form of engineering education that lays equal stress on academics and
leadership building extracurricular skills has been a major contribution to the success of RAIT as one
of the most reputed institution of higher learning. The challenges faced by our country and world in
the 21 Century needs a whole new range of thought and action leaders, which a conventional
educational system in engineering disciplines are ill equipped to produce. Our reputation in
providing good engineering education with additional life skills ensure that high grade and highly
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followed in the Industry. The project works and summer projects make our students adept at
handling the real life problems and be Industry ready. Our students are well placed in the Industry
and their performance makes reputed companies visit us with renewed demands and vigour.

Our Mission
The Institution is committed to mobilize the resources and equip itself with men and materials of
excellence thereby ensuring that the Institution becomes pivotal center of service to Industry,
academia, and society with the latest technology. RAIT engages different platforms such as
technology enhancing Student Technical Societies, Cultural platforms, Sports excellence centers,
Entrepreneurial Development Center and Societal Interaction Cell. To develop the college to become
an autonomous Institution & deemed university at the earliest with facilities for advanced research
and development programs on par with international standards. To invite international and reputed
national Institutions and Universities to collaborate with our institution on the issues of common
interest of teaching and learning sophistication.

RAIT’s Mission is to produce engineering and technology professionals who are innovative and
inspiring thought leaders, adept at solving problems faced by our nation and world by providing
quality education.

The Institute is working closely with all stake holders like industry, academia to foster knowledge
generation, acquisition, dissemination using best available resources to address the great challenges
being faced by our country and World. RAIT is fully dedicated to provide its students skills that
make them leaders and solution providers and are Industry ready when they graduate from the
Institution.

We at RAIT assure our main stakeholders of students 100% quality for the programmes we deliver.
This quality assurance stems from the teaching and learning processes we have at work at our
campus and the teachers who are handpicked from reputed institutions IIT/NIT/MU, etc. and they
inspire the students to be innovative in thinking and practical in approach. We have installed internal
procedures to better skills set of instructors by sending them to training courses, workshops,
seminars and conferences. We have also a full fledged course curriculum and deliveries planned in
advance for a structured semester long programme. We have well developed feedback system
employers, alumni, students and parents from to fine tune Learning and Teaching processes. These
tools help us to ensure same quality of teaching independent of any individual instructor. Each
classroom is equipped with Internet and other digital learning resources.

The effective learning process in the campus comprises a clean and stimulating classroom
environment and availability of lecture notes and digital resources prepared by instructor from the
comfort of home. In addition student is provided with good number of assignments that would
trigger his thinking process. The testing process involves an objective test paper that would gauge
the understanding of concepts by the students. The quality assurance process also ensures that the
learning process is effective. The summer internships and project work based training ensure
learning process to include practical and industry relevant aspects. Various technical events,
seminars and conferences make the student learning complete.

Our Quality Policy

Our Quality Policy

It is our earnest endeavour to produce high quality engineering professionals who are
innovative and inspiring, thought and action leaders, competent to solve problems
faced by society, nation and world at large by striving towards very high standards in
learning, teaching and training methodologies.

Our Motto: If it is not of quality, it is NOT RAIT!

Dr. Vijay D. Patil

President, RAES
Departmental Vision, Mission

Vision
To be a premier department for the study of Instrumentation Engineering through maintaining high
quality academic standards, state of art resources and teaching that promotes students to achieve
competencies, exemplary level of employability, analytical thinking and independent judgment
necessary to function responsibly and successfully in a highly competitive professional and global
society.

Mission
 Creating knowledge of fundamental principles and innovative technologies through research
within the automation and control areas of Instrumentation and in collaboration with other
disciplines that is distinguished by its impact on academia, industry and society.

 Educating future leaders in academia, industry, and entrepreneurial pursuit, through a

curriculum of theory and application that develops the ability to solve problems individually
and in teams.

 Serving the communities to which we belong, at local, national, and international levels,
combined with a deep awareness of our ethical responsibilities to our profession and society.
 Index
Sr. No. Contents Page No.
1. List of Tutorials 3
2. Tutorial Plan and Course Outcomes 4
3. Study and Evaluation Scheme 5
4. Tutorial No. 1 9
5. Tutorial No. 2 12
6. Tutorial No. 3 15
7. Tutorial No. 4 18
8. Tutorial No. 5 24
9. Tutorial No. 6 27
10. Tutorial No. 7 31
 List of Tutorials
Sr. No. Tutorials Name

(a). Examples indicating concept of super mesh and super node

(b). Examples of indicating the application of Thevenin’s and Norton’s
1
theorem for circuits with dependent sources.

(a). Examples on evaluating the transient and steady-state conditions for a R-

2 L, R-C circuits for DC conditions.
(b). Examples for finding different parameters of two port networks.
Examples on Hurwitz Polynomial. Necessary and sufficient condition for
3
Positive real function.Examples on synthesis of R-L-C function.
4 Applications of CRO (Measurements of phase and frequency).
5 Measurement of medium value resistance using bridge.

6 Measurement of Inductance using bridge.

7 Measurement of Capacitance using A.C. Bridges.

Tutorial Plan & Course Outcome
Course Outcomes: Students will be able to

CO1 Analyze AC and DC circuits using different theorems.

CO2 Analyze transient and steady-state response of passive electrical networks.
CO3 Analyze network using poles and zeros and find their parameters like Z, Y, and
ABCD.
CO4 Synthesize the networks using canonical forms.
CO5 Discuss construction and working principle and applications of analog and digital
instruments
CO6 Measure electrical parameter like R, L, C using electrical bridges.

Module Week Course

Tutorials Name
No. No. Outcome
(a). Examples indicating concept of super mesh and
super node
(b). Examples of indicating the application of
1 W1 CO1 & CO2
Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem for circuits with
dependent sources.

(a). Examples on evaluating the transient and steady-

state conditions for a R-L, R-C circuits for DC
2 W2 conditions. CO3 & CO4
(b). Examples for finding different parameters of two
port networks..
Examples on Hurwitz Polynomial. Necessary and
3 W3 sufficient condition for Positive real function. CO4
Examples on synthesis of R-L-C function.
Applications of CRO (Measurements of phase and
4 W4 CO5
frequency).
5 W5 Measurement of medium value resistance using bridge. CO6

6 W6 Measurement of Inductance using bridge. CO6

7 W7 Measurement of Capacitance using A.C. Bridges. CO6

 Study and Evaluation Scheme
Course
Course Name Teaching Scheme Credits Assigned
Code
Theory Practical Tutorial Theory Practical Tutorial Total
ISC
ENM
305
04 01 04 01 05

Course Code Course Name Examination Scheme

Term Work Oral Total
ISC 305 ENM
25 25

Term Work:

1. Term work assessment must be based on the overall performance of the student with
every Tutorial graded from time to time. The grades should be converted into marks
as per the Credit and Grading System manual and should be added and averaged.
2. The final certification and acceptance of term work ensures satisfactory performance
of laboratory work and minimum passing marks in term work.
Electrical Network & Measurements

Tutorial No. 1(A)

Examples indicating concept of super mesh and super node

and

Examples of indicating the application of Thevenin’s and

Norton’s theorem for circuits with dependent sources.
 Tutorial No. 1a
1. Aim: To solve examples indicating concept of super loop and super node.

2. What will you learn by solving this tutorial?

Kirchhoff's current law and voltage law, defined by Gustav Kirchhoff, describe the relation
of values of currents that flow through a junction point and voltages in an electrical circuit
loop, in an electrical circuit.

3. Theory:

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

This is Kirchhoff's first law.
The sum of all currents that enter an electrical circuit junction is 0. When the currents enter
the junction have positive sign and the current that leave the junction have negative sign:

Another way to look at this law is that the sum of currents that enter a junction is equal to the
sum of currents that leave the junction:

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

This is Kirchhoff's second law.
The sum of all voltages or potential differences in an electrical circuit loop is 0.
4. Questions:
a. Find Vab in circuit Below

b. Find V2 in circuit Below

c. Find I1 in circuit Below

d. Find Va in circuit Below

e. Find Va in circuit Below

f. Find I1 in circuit Below

5. Results:

a) Value of Vab In Circuit a is _______________

b) Value of V2 In Circuit b is _______________
c) Value of I1 In Circuit c is _______________
d) Value of Va In Circuit d is _______________
e) Value of Va In Circuit e is _______________
f) Value of I1 In Circuit f is _______________

6. Conclusion and Discussion:

7. QUIZ / Viva Questions:

a) Explain KVL
b) Explain KCL
c) Why Source transformation is used?
d) What is difference between circuit and network?
e) What is difference between loop and node?
f) For N node circuit we will have how many KCL equations?

8. References:

1. Kuo Franklin F., Network analysis and synthesis, 1st ed., Wiley International, 1962.
2. Van Valkenburg M.E., Network analysis, 3rd ed., Eastern Economy Edition, 1983.
3. Roy Chaudhary D., Network and systems, Wiley Eastern Limited, 1991.
4. Hayt William, Kemmerly Jr.Jack E., Engineering circuit Analysis, 6th ed.,
Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi 2002.
5. Edminister Joseph A., Nahvi Mohmood, Electric Circuits, 3rd ed., Tata McGraw
Hill New Delhi 1999.
6. Shyammohan Sudhakar, Circuits and Networks Analysis and Synthesis, 13th
reprint, Tata McGraw Hill, 2000
7. Bruce Carsion A., Circuits, Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning, 2000.
8. Dav Artice M., Linear Circuits Analysis, PWS Publishing Company, 1998.
9. Alexander Charlesk, Mathew N.O., Sadlku, Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,
McGraw Hill, 2000.
Electrical Network & Measurement

Tutorial No. : 1B

Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem

 Tutorial No. 1B
1. Aim: To solve examples of theorem indicating the application of Thevenin’s and Norton’s
theorem in presence of dependent sources.

2. What will you learn by solving this tutorial?

Many times we need to reduce complex circuits to simple equivalent circuit indicating
voltage, current and impedance at output port. Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem allow us to
do this. In this tutorial we will see how to reduce any complex circuit into its equivalent.

3. Theory:

Thevenin’s theorem

Thevenin’s theorem states that the two circuits given below are equivalent seen from the
load RL that is the same in both cases.

i a i a

RTh
Linear
Circuit RL RL
DC
VTh

b b

R R
with RL disconnected (= ) = the open-circuitinvoltage = VOC
VTh = Thevenin’s voltage = Vab in

RTh = Thevenin’s resistance = the input resistance with all independent sources turned off
(voltage sources replaced by short circuits and current sources replaced by open circuits).
This is the resistance seen at the terminals ab when all independent sources are turned off.

Norton's Theorem

Formally, Norton’s Theorem states that a linear two terminal resistive circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where
IN is the short-circuit current through the terminals, and RN is the input or equivalent
resistance at the terminals when all independent sources are all turned off.

Norton’s equivalent circuit can be found by transforming the Thevenin equivalent into a
current source in parallel with the Thevenin resistance. Thus, the Norton equivalent circuit
is given below.
 i a

VTh RL
IN  RN  RTh
RTh

4. Questions:

a. Find Thevenin’s equivalent across the terminals ab of network shown below

b. Find Rth in circuit Below

c. Find Vth and Rth in circuit Below

 d. Find In and Rn in circuit Below

e. Find Vth, Rth , In , Rn in circuit Below

5. Results:

g) Value of Vth, Rth , In Circuit a is _______________

h) Value of Rth Circuit b is _______________
i) Value of Vth, Rth In Circuit c is _______________
j) Value of In , Rn In Circuit d is _______________
k) Value of Vth, Rth , In , Rn In Circuit e is _______________

6. Conclusion and Discussion:

7. QUIZ / Viva Questions:

a) Explain Thevenin’s theorem

b) Explain and Norton’s theorem
c) How Thevenin’s equivalent can be useful to design load impedance for maximum
power transfer?
d) How to convert thevenin’s circuit in to Norton’s equivalent circuit?
Electrical Network & Measurements

Tutorial No. 2(A)

Examples on evaluating the transient and steady-state conditions

for a R-L, R-C circuits for DC conditions.
1. Aim: To solve examples on evaluating the transient and steady-state conditions for a R-L,
R-C, R-L-C circuits for DC conditions.

2. What will you learn by solving this tutorial?

Various network theorems give analysis of study state but to get entire response including
transient analysis

3. Theory:

Transients occur because current in inductance and capacitance cannot change

instantaneously. The voltages and currents during this transitional interval are called
transients. And their response is called Transient Response
 Transient Response of Series RC circuit by DC Excitation:

The RC circuit consists of the capacitor C, the resistor R, the battery E and the
switch S. When the switch S is closed in RC circuit, capacitor is charged. Application of the
Kirchoff loop equation for time moment t to RC circuit leads to differential equation. The
solution of the equation reads as follows:
q(t )  EC (1  e t / RC )
is the charge on the capacitor as a function of time. Current in the RC circuit:
dq E  t / RC E  t /  C
i (t )   e  e
dt R R
where time constant
 C  RC
shows characteristic time of the charging process.
Voltage across the capacitor can be found
q( t )
V (t )   E (1  e  t / RC )
C
In reverse situation, when the switch is opened, the capacitor with charge
q0 gets
discharged. These functions are the following:
q(t )  q0e  t / RC
dq q
i (t )    0 e  t / RC
dt RC
q(t ) q0  t / RC
V (t )   e
C C

Transient Response of Series RL circuit by DC Excitation:

The RL circuit consists of the inductor L, resistor R, battery E and the switch S.

When the switch is closed in RL circuit, the current does not jump to its value E/R
instantaneously, but increases smoothly from zero. The reason for that is that the inductor L
responds on the current change (zero ->non-zero) by maintaining self-induced EMF.
Application of the Kirchhoff loop equation for time moment t to RC circuit leads to
differential equation. The solution of the equation reads as follows:
E E
i (t ) (1  e  tR / L )  (1  e  t /  L )
R R
where constant  L  L / R shows characteristic time of the process.
The induced EMF across the inductor can be found:
 di
E L (t )   L   Ee  tR / L
dt
which when t=0 is just –E meaning that at time t=0 the EMF of the battery will be
cancelled completely by the self-induced EMF of the inductor. That is why at t=0 there is
still no current in the RL circuit.

In reverse situation, when the switch is opened, the current does not drop to zero
instantaneously, but will decrease smoothly. Current behaves as
E  tR / L
i (t )  e
R
and the self-induced EMF across the inductor behaves as
di
E L (t )   L  Ee  tR / L
dt

Transient Response of Series LC circuit by DC Excitation:

The LC circuit consists of the capacitor C and the inductor L. The capacitor first
should be charged. Suppose we connect the charged capacitor with charge Q to the inductor.
Then, there will be charge oscillations in the LC circuit. If resistances of all the elements can
be neglected, these charge oscillations can continue infinitely long.

Application of the Kirchoff loop equation for time moment t to LC circuit leads to
differential equation. The solution of the equation reads as follows:
q(t )  Q cos  t
is the charge on the capacitor as a function of time.
1

Frequency LC is the frequency of the charge oscillations.
Current can be found in the LC circuit
dq
i (t )   Q sin  t
dt
 Self-induced EMF across the inductor is
di Q
E L (t )   L  cos  t
dt C
Voltage across the capacitor is
q( t ) Q
V (t )   cos  t
C C
It is easy to see that at each time moment t voltage across the capacitor is minus
EMF self-induced across the inductor.

Important Equations
Value  Valueinitial e t 
Exponential Decay:

Exponential “Decay Upwards”:


Value  Value final 1  et  
Simple RC/RL Time Constant:   RC ;  = L/R

4. Questions:

a. The natural response of an RLC circuit is described by the differential equation

b. In the circuit shown below Vs = 0 for t > 0 The initial condition are V(0) = 6V and

Find v(t) for t>0

c. The circuit shown in fig. Has been open for a long time before closing at t =0. The
initial condition is
 d. For the circuit shown in fig Initial conditions are
Find

𝑑𝑣 𝑑 2 𝑣
e. In the given Network, switch is opened at t=0, solve for V, 𝑑𝑡 , 𝑑2 𝑡 at t=0.

f.

5. Results:

l) Value of v(t) In Circuit is _______________

m) Value of v(t) for t>0 Circuit is _______________
n) Value of v(t) for t>0 In Circuit c is _______________
o) Value of i1(1), i2(1) Circuit is _______________
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 2 𝑣
p) Value of V, 𝑑𝑡 , 𝑑2 𝑡 at t=0 In Circuit is _______________
𝑑𝑖 𝑑 2 𝑖
q) Value of I, , at t>0 In Circuit is _______________
𝑑𝑡 𝑑 2 𝑡

6. Conclusion and Discussion:

7. QUIZ / Viva Questions:

e) What is initial condition of capacitor? Why?

f) What is initial condition of Inductor? Why?
g) What is transient response?
h) Compare transient response, Study state response and total response

8. References:

1. Kuo Franklin F., Network analysis and synthesis, 1st ed., Wiley International, 1962.
2. Van Valkenburg M.E., Network analysis, 3rd ed., Eastern Economy Edition, 1983.
3. Roy Chaudhary D., Network and systems, Wiley Eastern Limited, 1991.
4. Hayt William, Kemmerly Jr.Jack E., Engineering circuit Analysis, 6th ed.,
Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi 2002.
5. Edminister Joseph A., Nahvi Mohmood, Electric Circuits, 3rd ed., Tata McGraw
Hill New Delhi 1999.
6. Shyammohan Sudhakar, Circuits and Networks Analysis and Synthesis, 13th
reprint, Tata McGraw Hill, 2000
7. Bruce Carsion A., Circuits, Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning, 2000.
8. Dav Artice M., Linear Circuits Analysis, PWS Publishing Company, 1998.
9. Alexander Charlesk, Mathew N.O., Sadlku, Fundamentals of Electric Circuits,
McGraw Hill, 2000.
 Electrical Network & Measurements

Tutorial No. 2(B)

Examples for finding different parameters of two port networks

 Tutorial No. 2B
1. Aim: To find various two port network parameter.

2. What will you learn by solving this tutorial?

3. Theory:

A pair of terminals through which a current may enter or leave a network is known as a port.
Two-terminal devices or elements (such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors) result in one-
port networks. Most of the circuits we have dealt with so far are two-terminal or one-port
circuits, represented in Figure (a). We have considered the voltage across or current through
a single pair of terminals—such as the two terminals of a resistor, a capacitor, or an inductor.
We have also studied four-terminal or two-port circuits involving op amps, transistors, and
transformers, as shown in Figure (b). In general, a network may have n ports. A port is an
access to the network and consists of a pair of terminals; the current entering one terminal
leaves through the other terminal so that the net current entering The port equals zero.

Thus, a two-port network has two terminal pairs acting as access points. As shown in Figure
2(b), the current entering one terminal of a pair leaves the other terminal in the pair. Three-
terminal devices such as transistors can be configured into two-port networks.

Our study of two-port networks is for at least two reasons. First, such networks are useful
in communications, control systems, power systems, and electronics. For example, they are
used in electronics to model transistors and to facilitate cascaded design. Second, knowing
the parameters of a two-port network enables us to treat it as a ―black box‖ when embedded
within a larger network.

To characterize a two-port network requires that we relate the terminal quantities V1, V2, I1,
and I2 in Figure 2 (b), out of which two are independent. The various terms that relates these
voltages and currents are called parameters. Our goal in this chapter is to derive six sets of
these parameters. We will show the relatio nship between these parameters and how two-port
networks can be connected in series, parallel, or cascade. As with op amps, we are only
interested in the terminal behavior of the circuits. And we will assume that the two -port
circuits contain no independent sources, although they can contain dependent sources.
Finally, we will apply some of the concepts developed in this chapter to the analysis of
transistor circuits and synthesis of ladder networks.
IMPEDANCE PARAMETERS:

Impedance and admittance parameters are commonly used in the synthesis of filters. They
are also useful in the design and analysis of impedance-matching networks and power
distribution networks. We discuss impedance parameters in this section and admittance
parameters in the next section.

The terminal voltages can be related to the terminal currents as

Where the z terms are called the impedance parameters, or simply z parameters, and have
units of ohms.

Figure : The linear two-port network: (a) driven by voltage sources, (b) driven by current
The values of the parameters can be evaluated by setting I1 = 0 (input port open-circuited)
or I2 = 0 (output port open-circuited).

Since the z parameters are obtained by open-circuiting the input or output port, they are
also called the open- circuit impedance parameters. Specifically,

z11 = Open-circuit input impedance

z12 = Open-circuit transfer impedance from port 1 to port 2
z21 = Open-circuit transfer impedance from port 2 to port 1
z22 = Open-circuit output impedance

We obtain z11 and z21 by connecting a voltage V1 (or a current source I1) to port 1 with
port 2 open-circuited as in Figure 4 and finding I1 and V2; we then get
ADMITTANCE PARAMETERS:

In the previous section we saw that impedance parameters may not exist for a two -port
network. So there is a need for an alternative means of describing such a network. This need
is met by the second set of parameters, which we obtain by expressing the terminal currents
in terms of the terminal voltages. In either Figure (a) or (b), the terminal currents can be
expressed in terms of the terminal voltages as

y terms are known as the admittance parameters (or, simply, y parameters) and have units of
siemens. The values of the parameters can be determined by setting V1 = 0 (input port
short-circuited) or V2 = 0 (output port short-circuited). Thus,
 Since the y parameters are obtained by short-circuiting the input or output port, they are
also called the short- circuit admittance parameters. Specifically,

y11 = Short-circuit input admittance

y12 = Short-circuit transfer admittance from port 2 to port 1
y21 = Short-circuit transfer admittance from port 1 to port 2
y22 = Short-circuit output admittance

HYBRID PARAMETERS:
The z and y parameters of a two-port network do not always exist. So there is a need for
developing another set
of parameters. This third set of parameters is based on making V1 and I2 the dependent
variables. Thus, we obtain

Or in matrix form

The H terms are known as the hybrid parameters (or, simply, h parameters) because
they are a hybrid combination of ratios. They are very useful for describing electronic
devices such as transistors; it is much easier to measure experimentally the h parameters
of such devices than to measure their z or y parameters. The hybrid parameters are as follows.

It is evident that the parameters h11, h12, h21, and h22 represent an impedance, a voltage gain, a
current gain, and an admittance, respectively. This is why they are called the hybrid parameters. To
be specific,

h11 = Short-circuit input impedance

h12 = Open-circuit reverse voltage gain
h21 = Short-circuit forward current gain
h22 = Open-circuit output admittance

The procedure for calculating the h parameters is similar to that used for the z or y parameters. We
apply a voltage or current source to the appropriate port, short-circuit or open-circuit the other port,
depending on the parameter of interest, and perform regular circuit analysis.

TRANSMISSION PARAMETERS:

Since there are no restrictions on which terminal voltages and currents should be considered
independent and which should be dependent variables, we expect to be able to generate many sets
of parameters. Another set of parameters relates the variables at the input port to those at the output
port. Thus,

The above Equations are relating the input variables (V1 and I1) to the output variables (V2 and
−I2). Notice that in computing the transmission parameters, −I2 is used rather than I2, because the
current is considered to be leaving the network, as shown in Figure 6. This is done merely for
conventional reasons; when you cascade two-ports (output to input), it is most logical to think of
I2 as leaving the two-port. It is also customary in the power − industry to consider I2 as leaving the
two-port.

Figure: Terminal variables used to define the

ABCD parameters.
The two-port parameters in above Eqs. provide a measure of how a circuit transmits voltage and
current from a source to a load. They are useful in the analysis of transmission lines (such as cable
and fiber) because they express sending-end variables (V1 and I1) in terms of
the receiving-end variables (V2 and −I2). For this reason, they are called transmission parameters.
They are also known as ABCD parameters. They are used in the design of telephone systems,
microwave networks, and radars. The transmission parameters are determined as
the transmission parameters are called, specifically,

A = Open-circuit voltage ratio

B = Negative short-circuit transfer impedance
C = Open-circuit transfer admittance
D = Negative short-circuit current ratio

A and D are dimensionless, B is in ohms, and C is in siemens. Since the transmission

parameters provide a direct relationship between input and output variables, they are very useful in
cascaded networks.

4. Questions:

a. Find Z parameter of circuit Below

b. Find Y parameter in circuit Below

c. Find Z parameter of circuit Below

d. Find T parameter of circuit Below

e. Find H parameter of circuit Below

f. Find Y parameter of circuit Below

5. Results:

a) Z parameter of circuit is
b) Y parameter of circuit is
c) Z parameter of circuit is
d) T parameter of circuit is
e) H parameter of circuit is
f) Y parameter of circuit is

6. Conclusion and Discussion:

7. QUIZ / Viva Questions:

a) How Z parameter is calculated

b) How can we make voltage at any port zero?
c) How can we make current at any port zero?

8. References:

1. Kuo Franklin F.,”Network analysis and synthesis”, 1st ed., Wiley International, 1962.
2. Van Valkenburg M.E., “Network analysis”, 3rd ed., Eastern Economy Edition, 1983.
3. Roy Chaudhary D., “Network and systems”, Wiley Eastern Limited, 1991.
4. Hayt William, Kemmerly Jr.Jack E., “Engineering circuit Analysis”, 6th ed., Tata
McGraw Hill, New Delhi 2002.
5. Edminister Joseph A., Nahvi Mohmood, “ Electric Circuits”, 3rd ed., Tata McGraw
Hill New Delhi 1999.
6. Shyammohan Sudhakar, “ Circuits and Networks Analysis and Synthesis”, 13th
reprint, Tata McGraw Hill, 2000
7. Bruce Carsion A., “Circuits”, Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning, 2000.
8. Dav Artice M., “Linear Circuits Analysis”, PWS Publishing Company, 1998.
9. Alexander Charlesk, Mathew N.O., Sadlku, “ Fundamentals of Electric Circuits”,
McGraw Hill, 2000.
 Electrical Network & Measurements

Tutorial No. 3
Examples on Hurwitz Polynomial. Necessary and sufficient
condition for Positive real function. Examples on synthesis of R-
L-C function.
 Tutorial No. 3
1. Aim: To solve examples indicating concept Network Synthasis.

2. What will you learn by solving this tutorial?

Understanding of transfer function pole zero plot and stability. Identifying Positive real
functions and synthesizing using foster and corer forms
 Electrical Network & Measurements

Tutorial No. 4
Applications of CRO (Measurements of phase and frequency).
 OSCILLOSCOPE MEASUREMENTS

To perform amplitude, frequency, and phase measurements using a calibrated cathode ray
oscilloscope and to make use of Lissajous figures for phase and frequency measurements.

1. THEORY :

1.1 Measurement of Voltage Using CRO :

A voltage can be measured by noting the Y deflection produced by the voltage; using this deflection
in conjunction with the Y-gain setting, the voltage can be calculated as follows :

V = ( no. of boxes in cm. ) x ( selected Volts/cm scale )

1.2 Measurement of Current and Resistance Using a CRO :

Using the general method, a correctly calibrated CRO can be used in conjunction with a known value
of resistance R to determine the current I flowing through the resistor.

1.3 Measurement of Frequency Using a CRO :

A simple method of determining the frequency of a signal is to estimate its periodic time from the
trace on the screen of a CRT. However this method has limited accuracy, and should only be used
where other methods are not available. To calculate the frequency of the observed signal, one has to
measure the period, i.e. the time taken for 1 complete cycle, using the calibrated sweep scale. The
period could be calculated by

T = ( no. of squares in cm) x ( selected Time/cm scale )

Once the period T is known, the frequency is given by

f (Hz)= 1/T(sec)

1.4. Measurement of Phase :

The calibrated time scales can be used to calculate the phase shift between two sinusoidal signals of
the same frequency. If a dual trace or beam CRO is available to display the two signals
simultaneously ( one of the signals is used for synchronization), both of the signals will appear in
proper time perspective and the amount of time difference between the waveforms can be
measured.This, in turn can be utilized to calculate the phase angle , between the two signals.
 
phase shift in cm.
one period in cm.
Figure.1 Phase shift between two signals

Referring to figure.1, the phase shift can be calculated by the formula ;

Phase shift in cm .
 x 360
One period in cm .

Note that the calculation does not involve the actual calibrated timebase setting. In fact, the observed
waveforms can be varied using the horizontal amplifier venire adjustment to obtain as many boxes for
one full scale as desired. Another method for fast calculation is to multiply the scale factor by the
phase difference ( in cm ) where the scale factor is degrees per box or degrees per cm.

1.5 Use of Lissajous Patterns to Calculate Phase Shift :

Lissajous patterns are obtained on the scope simultaneously by applying the two sinusoidal inputs to
be compared at the vertical and horizontal channels. The phase shift is then determined using
measured values taken from resulting Lissajous pattern. This pattern on the CRT screen may be either
a straight line or a circle or an ellipse depending on the amount of phase shift.
o o
Figure.2 shows the resulting closed curve if the phase shift is between 90 and 180 . This pattern is
an ellipse ( inclined at 135 if the two amplitudes are the same ). The angle of inclination at which
the ellipse is generated is of no importance in the phase angle calculation. Noting that the vertical
signal amplitude at instant 1 is

N= ASin(),  can be computed by

  180o - sin -1 ( N / M )
 V =ASin(wt+ 
v
1 1

M
N
2 2 wt


3 3

4 4

1
2 V =BSin(wt)
h
3
4

wt

Figure.2 Lissajous Pattern

Phase angels between 0  90 , the ellipse has a positive slope and angle calculated by the following
o o

formula:

  sin 1 ( N / M )

The actual scale settings do not change the ratio (N/M). Hence try to get an ellipse of maximum
possible size on the CRO for increased accuracy. For phase angles of 90180 , the ellipse has a
negative slope and the angle calculated by the above method must be subtracted from 180 to obtain
the phase shift. Phase angles between 180270 result in Lissajous patterns similar to those for
 : 90 -180, and can not be directly distinguished. One technique for determining, if the phase
shift is less or more than 180, is to add an extra slight phase shift to the signal Vv. If the phase angle
measured increases, then the angle is less than 180. If it decreases, the angle is greater than 180.
Figure 3 shows how to compute the required phase angle.
  =180-sin(N/M)
-1 -1
 =sin(N/M)

II I

III IV

 =180+sin(N/M)  =360-sin(N/M)
-1 -1

Figure.3 Phase angle calculation in 4 quadrants

1.6 Use of Lissajous Patterns For Frequency Measurements :

If a well calibrated CRO timebase is not available, a signal generator can be used to measure the
frequency of an unknown sinusoidal signal. It is connected to the vertical channel ( or horizontal ) and
the calibrated signal source is fed to the horizontal channel ( or vertical ).The frequency of the signal
generator is adjusted so that a steady Lissajous pattern is obtained. The Lissajous pattern can be very
involved to analyze. However, for the frequency measurement, all that is needed is the number of
tangencies ( points at the edge of arcs ) along the vertical and horizontal lines.

The frequency relationship between the horizontal and vertical inputs is given by;

fh No. of tangencies (vertical )


fv No. of tangencies (horizontal )

from which fv , the unknown frequency can be calculated.

2. PRELIMINARY WORK :

2.1 The Lissajous pattern shown in figure.4 is observed on the CRT screen. Find the phase shift
between the signals applied to the X and Y inputs of the scope.
 y(cm.)
4

x(cm.)
2 4

Figure.4

2.2. Figure 5 shows a Lissajous pattern observed on the CRT screen. Determine the frequency
relationship between the signals applied to the X and Y inputs of the scope.

Figure.5

2.3 Two sinusoidal inputs having the same amplitudes but different period, are applied to the X and Y
inputs of the CRO. Draw the Lissajous pattern which will be observed on the CRT, for Ty  4Tx .

2.4 The signals given V1 and V2 are applied to the X and Y inputs of the scope. Sketch the Lissajous
pattern and calculate the phase difference between the two signals.
V1  10Cos( wt )
V2  15Sin ( wt  180)

3. EXPERIMENTAL WORK :

3.1. Set-up the circuit shown in figure.6 , connect the probes to the indicated points. Measure the
phase angles between these two signals and draw them.

15V 3.3K
p-p

10KHz Y

0.22  F

GND

Figure.6

3.2 Set-up the circuit shown in figure.7 , connect the probes to the indicated points. Measure the phase
angles between these two signals and draw them.

3.3K
15V
p-p
100Hz 0.22  F

2.2K

GND

Figure.7

3.3 Set-up the circuit shown in figure .8, connect the probes to the indicated points.

a.Draw the signals at each channel and the resulting Lissajous pattern.

b.Exchange the probe connections and try to obtain the pattern again.
 Transformer
3.3K 
X Y

Signal
15V p-p Generator
220V 12V 200 Hz.
rms rms 1.2K 
GND
GND

EQUIPMENT AND COMPONENT LIST

Oscilloscope

Signal Generator

Transformer (220/12)

Resistors ( 1.2K x 1 , 2.2K x 1 , 3.3K x 1 )

Capacitor ( 0.22 F )
Electrical Network & Measurements
Tutorial No. 5

Measurement of medium value resistance using Kelvin’sbridge.

To study operation of Kelvin’s Bridge and find the value of an unknown resistor.

Apparatus Required: Adtron Trainer Kit, Oscilloscope and Head-phones.

Theory

Electrical resistances are classified as follows:

(a) High resistance: under this category resistance is greater than 0.1 M ohm.

(b) Medium resistance: under this category resistance is ranging from 1 ohm to 0.1M ohm.

(c) Low resistance: under this category resistance value is lower than 1 ohm.

Now the logic of doing this classification is that if we want to measure electrical resistance,
we have to use different devices for different categories. It means if the device is used in
measuring the high resistance gives high accuracy, it may or may not give such high accuracy
in measuring the low value of resistance. So, we have to apply our brain to judge what device
must be used to measure a particular value of electrical resistance. However there are other
kind of methods also like ammeter-voltmeter method, substitution method etc. but they give
large error as compared to bridge method and are avoided in most of the industries. Now let
us again recall our classification done above, as we move from top to bottom the value of
resistance decreases hence, we require more accurate and precise device to measure the low
value of resistance. One of the major drawback of the Wheatstone bridge is that, it can
measure the resistance from few ohm to several mega ohm but to measure low resistance it
gives significant error. So, we need some modification in Wheatstone bridge itself, and the
modified bridge so obtained is Kelvin bridge, which is not only suitable for measuring low
value of resistance but has wide range of applications in the industrial world.

Let us discuss few terms that will be very helpful to us in studying the Kelvin Bridge.

(a) Bridge: They are usually consists of four arms, balance detector and source. They works
on the concept of null point technique. They are very useful in practical applications because
there is no need of making the meter precise linear with an accurate scale. There is no
requirement of measuring the voltage and current, the only need is to check the presence or
absence of current or voltage. However the main concern is that during the null point meter
must be able to pick up fairly small current. A bridge can be defined as the voltage dividers in
parallel and the difference between the two dividers is our output. It is highly useful in
measuring components like electrical resistance, capacitance, inductor and other parameter of
circuit. Accuracy of any bridge is directly related to bridge components.

(b) Null point: It can be defined as the point at which the null measurement occurs when the
reading of ammeter or voltmeter is zero.
 P.S
The balance equation is given by R 
Q

Procedure:

1. Switch on the unit and see that the LED glows.

2. Observe the sine wave at respective terminals.
3. Now connect the oscilloscope between ground and the terminals marked ‘detector’
4. Connect the unknown resistance to the terminal marked R x (R).
5. Select any multiplier arm by the connecting link.
6. Vary R1 (Q) for minimum position.
7. Similarly vary R2 (P) for minimum position.
8. If the selection of the multiplier is correct then the balance point can be observed on the
oscilloscope.
9. Repeat the above procedure on other values of the multiplier till you get the null point.
On achieving balance point, remove the unknown resistance and then measure the value of R1
(Q) and R2 (P). Also note the value of the multiplier arm R3 (S).
10. Substitute the same in the formula and find the value of R x (R).

Observation Table:

R1 (Q) R2 (P) R3 (S) R x (R)

P.S
R 
Q
Electrical Network & Measurements

Tutorial No. 6
Measurement of Inductance using Maxwell’s bridge.
To find the value of unknown inductance and its resistance with the help of Maxwell’s
Bridge.

Apparatus Required: Adtron Trainer Kit, Oscilloscope and Head-phones.

Theory

This bridge is used to find out the self inductor and the quality factor of the circuit. As it is
based on the bridge method (i.e. works on the principle of null deflection method), it gives
very accurate results. Maxwell Bridge is an AC bridge so before going in further detail let us
know more about the Ac Bridge.

In this circuit R3 and R4 are pure electrical resistances. Putting the value of Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4
in the equation that we have derived above for AC Bridge.

Now equating the real and imaginary parts we get

Following are the important conclusions that can be drawn from the above equations: (a) We
get two balanced equations that are obtained by equating real and imaginary parts this means
that for an ac bridge both the relation (i.e. magnitude and phase) must be satisfied at the same
time. Both the equations are said to be independent if and only if both equation contain single
variable element. This variable can be inductor or resistor.
 (b) The above equations are independent of frequency that means we do not require exact
frequency of the source voltage and also the applied source voltage waveform need not to be
perfectly sinusoidal.

Z1 Z 4  Z 2 Z 3

Null Point: The waveform observed on CRO decreases when potentiometer moved in any
one direction. For example, if it is moved in clockwise direction then the amplitude of the
waveform on CRO decreases and a point is reached where it is minimum. If potentiometer is
further rotated in same direction then the amplitude increases again. The minimum point is
called the null point. The null point doesn’t mean that amplitude is zero but is minimum.

Procedure:

1. Connect jumper links to connect the 1 kHz oscillator to the bridge.

2. Connect unknown capacitance of say 0.01 microfarad at the terminals marked ‘ c1 r1 ’.
3. Select any multiplier arm ( r3 ) say 1k.
4. Connect CRO at the other junction of the bridge ground of CRO at the junction of c1
r1 and c2 and input pin of CRO at the junction of multiplier arm ( r3 ) and unknown
capacitance c1 .
5. Connect the required supply to the unit and switch it ON. See the indicator glows.

Now steadily adjust r4 by moving it either clockwise or anti-clockwise as required such that
null point is achieved on CRO.

Observation Table:

r1 r2 r3 r4 l1 l2
Electrical Network & Measurements

Tutorial No. 7
Measurement of Capacitance using Schering Bridge.
 To find the value of unknown capacitance and its reactance with the help of Schering’s
Bridge.

Apparatus Required: Adtron Trainer Kit, Oscilloscope and Head-phones.

Theory

The Schering Bridge is an electrical circuit used for measuring the insulating
properties of electrical cables and equipment. It has the advantage that the balance equation
is independent of frequency. The connections of the Schering Bridge under balance
conditions are shown in the figure below.

In this diagram:

 c1 = capacitor whose capacitance is to be determined,

 r1 = a series resistance representing the loss in the capacitor c1 ,
 c2 = a standard capacitor,
 r3 = a non-inductive resistance,
 c4 = a variable capacitor,
 r4 = a variable non-inductive resistance in parallel with the variable capacitor c4 .

Now the supply is given to the bridge between the points a and c. The detector is connected
between b and d. From the theory of ac bridges we have at balance condition,

Z1 Z 4  Z 2 Z 3

Substituting the values of z1, z2, z3 and z4 in the above equation, we get
Equating the real and imaginary parts and the separating we get,

Null Point: The waveform observed on CRO decreases when potentiometer moved in any
one direction. For example, if it is moved in clockwise direction then the amplitude of the
waveform on CRO decreases and a point is reached where it is minimum. If potentiometer is
further rotated in same direction then the amplitude increases again. The minimum point is
called the null point. The null point doesn’t mean that amplitude is zero but is minimum.

Procedure:

1. Connect jumper links to connect the 1 kHz oscillator to the bridge.

2. Connect unknown capacitance of say 0.01 microfarad at the terminals marked ‘ c1 r1 ’.
3. Select any multiplier arm ( r3 ) say 1k.
4. Connect CRO at the other junction of the bridge ground of CRO at the junction of c1
r1 and c2 and input pin of CRO at the junction of multiplier arm ( r3 ) and unknown
capacitance c1 .
5. Connect the required supply to the unit and switch it ON. See the indicator glows.

Now steadily adjust r4 by moving it either clockwise or anti-clockwise as required such that
null point is achieved on CRO.

Observation Table

r4 r3 c2 c4 c1 r1