INTRODUCTION

Problem Definition:
What is the gear box how does it transmit the power?
Gears are used for increasing the torque of the source of rotary motion having high
angular momentum and low torque. This high torque is necessary for performance of work. This
phenomenon of increase in torque is called gear reduction and is brought about by coupling of a
smaller gear called the pinion with a larger gear. This results in reduction of torque at the
expense of angular momentum. Such a gearbox is called a reducer. One more application of
gears is to change the axis or plane of rotary motion with or without gear reduction.
When you open a gearbox you will see that the inner construction is very simple. Inside
you will find two gears coupled with one another. The gears may be of spur, helical, cycloid,
worm or bevel type. In case of gear reduction, the diameter of the output is larger than that of the
input gear. If only a change in direction is required, the size of the gears is the same. Spur gears
are used for heavy load but are noisy. If the load is comparatively lesser, helical gears are
preferred as they are silent in operation due to gradual engagement. If change of plane of rotation
is required, hypoid gears are used.
The gear may be either of metal or plastic. This entire arrangement is enclosed in metallic
or plastic housing. The point of contact of the gear teeth is well lubricated with gear oil. The gear
oil must be very clean and free of abrasive materials to avoid wearing of the gears. A gearbox is
used in turbines, windmills, grinders, etc. to change the direction of the rotary motion. In
automobiles a gear box is used for transfer of to power of the engine to the wheels through a
differential.
Speed Reducers, Gearboxes, and Gear-Heads
Speed reducers are a combination of sets of gears as found in gearboxes and gear-heads,
having shafts and bearings, assembled in an enclosed metal housing. The purpose of application
of speed reducers is to convert input to a known output speed, there-by reducing the RPM at the
output with increased torque.
 In its present form of new invention, the multiple speed gear reducer has an input shaft
and a power output shaft, with a series of train of load sharing gears interconnecting the shafts at
the output and input. The gear trains also interconnect two or more reaction gears of different
sizes. These reaction gears are of different sizes, which are connected to the input shaft coaxially,
producing relative rotational motion between the gears and the input shaft. These are then
operatively connected to the gear trains. Each of the reaction gears has a clutch, which
selectively restricts the gear trains to attain a predetermined gear reduction ratio between the
input and output shafts. There are separate coaxially arranged sleeves put around the input shaft,
which is used to mount these reaction gears. The clutches on the sleeves control the reaction
gears in order to maintain the specific gear ratio.
Speed reducers are used in machine tools to set the different speed that is required for
different kinds of machining. The common types of reducers that are used are the pulley pairs of
different diameter, gearboxes, and stepped electric motors. Gear boxes which are termed as
speed reducers are generally found in different machine tools, automobiles, transmission
products, cranes and hoists, etc. The most common type of speed reducers are:
  Worm gear reducers.
 Bevel gearboxes.
 Helical gear reducers.
 Parallel shaft gear reducers.
 Planetary gear reducers.
 In-line helical reducers.
 Right angle reducers.
Gearboxes or speed reducers are constructed out of high performance hardened and
toughened shaved gears, which have been designed to operate smoothly with loss of little power.
The gears and the shafts are assembled in a metallic housing using shafts and bearings. The input
to the speed reducer comes from an electric motor shaft. The gears are of different sizes, having
variety of numbers of teeth and coming in different diameter. The gear combination that is
required to be meshed into each other is selected by the set of levers and clutches, and this
combination enables the speed reducer to run in varied fixed steps. The output of this speed
reducer came from the output shaft. The speed reducer needs to be thoroughly lubricated for the
system to run smoothly.
In designing a speed reducer, the number of teeth of that of the larger gear is divided with
that of the smaller gear. This ratio will provide you with the one you want in a helical and bevel
gear set. For example, with the large gear having 28 teeth, if the smaller one has 14, the speed
reducer ratio between the input and output would give you a ratio of 2:1. However, in worm
gears the ratio is designed in a different way, where the number of teeth in the gear, is selected
with respect to the number of that of the worm threads. If the worm has 2 threads with the gear
having 60, then the speed reducer ratio would be 30:1.
Gearbox
A gearbox or transmission provides speed and torque conversions from a rotating power
source to another device using gear ratios. The most common use is in automobiles where the
transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such
engines need to operate at a relatively high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting,
stopping, and slower travel. The transmission reduces the higher engine speed to the slower
wheel speed, increasing torque in the process.
 Prime movers such as Electric motors, internal combustion engines, steam engines and
turbines produce rotary motion at certain speeds and with certain torques at optimum efficiency.
The motion produced is rarely equal to the motion required to do the necessary work and gear
trains are required to translate the motion economically at maximum efficiency.
It may be possible to use a low cost method of translating the motion e.g. a timing belt
vee belt or chain transmission system. However these methods are limiting in their scope and are
subject to regular maintenance and replacement. The engineered gearbox generally provides the
optimum solution. Many companies provide motorised gear units with the electric motor
mounted directly onto a gearbox providing the drive conditions (torque and speed ) exactly as
required by the user. Once installed to the manufacturers instructions the only maintenance
required is regular lubrication.
Gearboxes can be engineered to allow gear ratio changes to enable output shaft speed
while keeping the input speed and torque at the same value. The primary advantage for using a
gearbox for changing speed is to enable the full power to be transmitted at the different speeds.
Electric motors and other prime movers are rated for a maximum torque at the optimum speed. If
the speed is reduced using electronic controls the resulting developed torque is not proportionally
increased. Gearboxes also allow the input shaft and the output shaft to be in different directions.

4-speed manual transmission gearbox1

Function of gear box:
A gear box is containing many gears of different numbers of teeth, arranged in different
shafts which may be solid shafts or splined shafts. In the solid shafts, the gears are fitted in such
a way that they can rotate only and cannot move in the axial directions and also some gap is
provided in between two gears. Whereas in splined shafts two or three gears, which are already
meshed together to act as a single unit, are fitted in such a way that they can rotate and also move
in the axial directions.
Types of Gearboxes
There are five types of gear boxes. These five types of gear boxes are as follows:
Spur Gear Box
Spur gearbox is an effective and durable mechanical equipment, which is used for the
purpose of transmitting power and uniform and constant rotatory motion from one parallel shaft
to the other shaft. Spur gearbox is also considered as a capable industrial tool that provides a
continuous speed drive. This speed drive can be increased or decreased according to the
requirement.
Helical Gear Boxes
Helical gearboxes are quite alike the spur gearboxes in working. These gearboxes possess
teeth that are fitted in a spiral format around the gear. The modern helical gearboxes are usually
designed on a modular concept of construction and are available in different ratios. These
gearboxes are fabricated to work absolutely without any noise, thus used in transmission
operations.
Hardened & Ground Gear Box
Hardened and ground gearboxes are considered one of the best types of gearboxes in the
gears and gearbox manufacturing industry. They are widely used in many industrial applications
in wind mills, cement industry, agro industry, fertilizer plants, aviation industry, and so. They are
fabricated from industry standard raw materials like nickel, titanium, and stainless steel.
Crane Duty Gear Box
These gearboxes are often used in heavy-duty applications. They are one of the advanced
types of gearboxes, which give maximum thermal efficiency. These gearboxes facilitate the
proper meshing of the gear teeth, which results in enhanced performance of the gear. The high
efficiency is also ensured by its precision gearing and accurate bearings. It is often used in
mining, automobiles, and construction industry.
Twin Lobe Blowers
Twin lobe blowers belong to the class of the blowers having positive displacement.
Higher efficiency at moderate compression ratios is the special feature of these industrial
blowers. These blowers are often used in applications demanding relatively continuous flow rate
at different discharge pressures. The contemporary twin lobe blowers are available in the
capacity range 10m3/hr 10,000m3/hr.
Gear Box Housings
Gearbox housing is a housing or a kind of cover to accommodate or fit the gear and
gearing equipment like flanges, shafts, bearings, etc. There are basically two types of such
housings available at present in the market, i.e., cast gearbox housings and fabricated gearbox
housings. Cast housings are made from a process called metal-casting while fabricated housings
are designed in hi-tech machining centers.
Automatic Gearboxes
For most of the Automatic Gearboxes, there is a selected set of possible gear ranges. The
set selection often have a parking pawl features. This feature closes the output shaft of the
transmission. Since 1950's, most of the cars which have sold in USA, equipped with Automatic
gearboxes. But, in rest of the world, this trend has not been followed.
Semiautomatic Gearboxes
The semiautomatic Gearboxes are also known as clutch less manual transmissions or
automated manual transmissions, e-gears, or paddle shift gearboxes. In semiautomatic gear
boxes, there are sensors, processors and actuators. These things help in shifting the gears on the
command of the drivers.
Manual Gearboxes
The history of manual gearboxes is very old. The traditional clutches are used in such
kind of gearboxes. Each time, these gears are selected by electrically controlled motors. After the
selection, these gears detach the clutches and the gears are shifted. Once the clutch gets free, it
can be used again.
Marine Gearboxes
The drive is directly connected to the propeller in a traditional Marine gearbox. Marine
gearboxes fulfill a multiple number of marine related purposes. To meet each and every purpose,
these marine gears do also have a large number of different configurations and installation
processes.
Shaft Mounted Gearboxes
Shaft mounted gearboxes are very closely and firmly design in size. These gears are
directly mounted onto the driven shafts. This mounting process helps these gears in avoiding the
use of coupling and base. In Shaft Mounted gears, there is no problem in the adjustment. The
boxes of the gears are suitable for both forward and reverse motion.
Gear Motors
Gears motors are such type of motors which have a large reduction system. The gearbox
is pertained into the motor. This type of integral arrangement is done in order to increase the
mechanical rotational speed of the motor. But simultaneously, this arrangement reduces the
output speed.
How to change gears
Designing a mechanism to let the driver select the desired gear ration can be quite
complicated. For the purpose of this project, it is acceptable if you use of one of the earliest
designs, a multi-rail gear selector. No car is manufactured with a multi-rail gear selector but is
relatively easier to understand and to design. Here is an example of a multi-rail gear selector
(Automotive Technology by M J Nunney, SAE Publications). You are free to explore your own
version.
 The above is a schematic drawing. Some features are not clearly defined. For example, it
is not clear hw the gear lever and selector finger work to select and push different selector rods.
Your drawings should not have any ambiguity and all components must be clearly defined.
Gearbox ratios and Gear Ratios
Gearbox ratio definition
The ratio of the number of revolutions per minute of the input source in relation to the
number of revolutions per minute of the output source is known as the ratio of the gearbox In the
Materials Handling environment, the main driving source is usually a standard electric motor,
and the gearbox is utilised to reduce the input speed of the electric motor to produce a lower
output speed from the gearbox. This reduction ratio of output speed vs. input speed is known as
the reduction ratio of the gearbox.
Gear ratio definition
Gearboxes generally contain a series of toothed gears connected together as previously
explained. Bevel and spiral bevel gears are used as a pair of gears and the ratio of the gears can
be obtained by dividing the number of teeth in the smaller gear into the number of teeth in the
larger gear.
 e.g. 48/17 = 2.82:1 Ratio
This overall ratio of all the gears contained within a gearbox is known as the gearbox
ratio. The same comments apply to helical gears, whether they be single or double helical. A
combination of bevel or spiral bevel gears can be used in conjunction with spurs or helical gears
in a gearbox. This provides a right-angled drive.
Worm gears are usually used as a single reduction gearbox, but a gearbox can utilize two
sets of worms and wheels or, with one pair of gears with either spur, helical or bevel helical
gears to provide a double reduction and a right angled drive. It should be noted that ratio's given
for worm gear units are usually nominal and not exact. To obtain the exact gearbox ratio, divide
the number of starts in the worm into the number of teeth in the wheel.
The gear ratio of your transmission, timing belt/chain and even your analog clock are
what is responsible for rotational movement and the speed each piece or part achieves. Setting
the correct gear ratio is vital, especially in the automotive industry. The wrong gear ratio will rob
you of power, performance and even keep your vehicle from running at all, in the case of a
timing belt of chain. If you've ever seen two gears working together, one turning the other as the
teeth of the two gears mesh, you've seen a perfect example of gear ratio. This complex sounding
conundrum is nothing more complex and complicated than the teeth of two gears meshing as
they turn. It can also mean two sprockets connected with a chain or two pulleys with a drive belt.
The best example of the sprockets and chain combination is probably the standard timing chain.
This vital piece of engineering is the driving force behind most modern vehicles, though timing
belts are still used by some manufacturers.

A correct gear ratio is the driving force behind anything that contains rotational motion.
Engines, transmissions, clocks and even windup toys use gears with the correct gear ratio to
produce the motion needed to turn whatever needs to be turned. Whether its belts and drive
shafts or tiny plastic axles and wheels, the correct gear ratio is incredibly important. One of the
best examples of getting the correct gear ratio would be replacing a timing belt. If the proper
teeth are not selected when putting the new timing belt back on, the vehicle will be out of time.
In short, it will run either very poorly, or not at all. That's because the pulleys and gears must
meet at exactly the right point for the rotation to match. If the rotational speed of the gears or
pulleys doesn't match then you have the incorrect gear ratio.
Gear ratio is also used to increase the speed of gears and pulleys. If you have a large gear
turning a smaller gear, the gear ratio will increase the rotational speed of the small gear or pulley,
dramatically. A gear ratio is written as any mathematical ratio: 2:1, 3:2, etc. In an example, if the
large pulley rotated once per every two revolutions of the small pulley, you would have a gear
ratio of 2:1. Gear ratio is an observable factor, as well; look under your hood sometime, or inside
a clock or anything else containing gears; you'll see that larger pulleys and gears usually turn
more slowly than their smaller counterparts. This knowledge is used to create high speeds within
engines and transmissions.
Gear ratio and teeth on the gears are inextricably related. If it weren't for the teeth on the
gears, slight differences in circumference and other manufacturing inconsistencies would lead to
an incorrect gear ratio inevitably. Since the majority of gears use teeth, those inconsistencies
don't matter; the teeth make up the difference and provide for a lack of slippage. Pulleys, on the
other hand, are frequently the same size and have a rubberized, or non-slip, outer covering. This
combines with the autotensioner to keep the belt firmly seated around the pulley, rather than
dangling down below the vehicle.
Gear ratio within a transmission is incredibly important. Gear ratio is what's responsible
for your vehicle's acceleration and top speed. Both wide and close gear ratios have benefits that
are inherent to that type, though most modern transmissions do a good job of running the middle
ground between these two extremes.
The Gears
First decide on what type of gear you want to use. Since the shafts are typically parallel in
this type of gearbox, the choice is between helical gears and spur gears. Helical gears are
generally the preferred choice for the two simple reasons:
 They are typically quieter and smoother
 For the same width, they have a higher rating, which means a more compact gearbox.
 Unfortunately, helical gears will not easily slide into and out of meshes. Therefore, in this
Assignment, you may have to use spur gears.
It is assumed that you already know how to design gears. I expect that you will calculate
the load bearing capacity for the gear meshes and demonstrate that it is lower than the loads you
expect for this project. You must consider static as well as dynamic loads and static strength as
well as fatigue life considerations.
You are reminded that the load bearing capacity for gear meshes is typically based on the
following failure modes:
 Surface Pitting: pitting is failure of the gear surface by production of small holes. All
gear meshes produce some initial pitting but the holes produced during this stage usually
disappear with usage. When the surface is loaded beyond its rated capacity, the holes
grow with usage, eventually leading to tooth breakage. The pitting rating for your gears
must be high enough to avoid this.
 Breakage: Sometimes teeth break due to the bending stresses experienced at the root
area. This failure may occur due to overload or due to fatigue. In either case, it is a
dangerous form of failure and should be avoided. The resistance against tooth breakage in
this form is expressed in terms of a Bending Rating, which should be higher than the
operating loads.
The various types of gears that are used are:
Spur - the axes of the shafts connected by the gears are PARALELL.
Bevel - the axes of the shafts INTERSECT.
Spiral - the axes of the shafts are NON-PARALELL and NON-INTERSECTING.
Helical - A type of spur gear in which although the axes of the shafts are paralell the teeth are cut
on helices instaed of paralell to the axis (i.e. straight across the wheel).
Worm - basically a form of spiral gearing in which the axes of the driving and driven shafts are
usually, though not invariably, at right angles and the velocity ratio is high, the driving wheel
being of a small diameter.
Bevel Gears
Bevel gears are mechanical devices used for transmitting mechanical power and motion.
These gears are widely used for transmitting power and motion between nonparallel axes and are
designed to transmit motion between intersecting axes, generally at right angles. The teeth on
bevel gear can be straight, spiral or hypoid. The gears are suitable when the direction of a shaft's
rotation needs to be changed.
.

Materials used
Materials used to manufacture these gears are used keeping in mind certain factors
including design life, power transmission requirements, noise generation. Some of the important
materials used are:
 Metal - Steel, cast iron and stainless steel.
 Plastic - Acetal and polycarbonate.
Important specifications to be considered
 Gear center
 Bore diameter
 Shaft diameter
Use of Bevel Gear
These gears find wide application in a number of fields including:
 Automotive industry
 Textile industry
 Industrial engineering products
Spur gears
These gears are made of cast iron and steel having a range up to 5000 mm OD 50
module. The gears categories vary from single stars to multiple stars. These gears are used for
cranes, material holding equipments, chemical plants, sugar plants, mineral processing
equipments and cement plants. These gears are also used in petrochemical sectors, steel rolling
mills and for coal handling equipments.
Parallel shafts having involute teeth are connected by the Spur gears. These parallel
shafts can have either internal or external teeth. No external thrust between the gears is occurred.
These gears are cheap. Although the performance of these gears are not very high but it performs
up to the satisfactory level. For those shafts which rotate in the same plan, these gears are used.
The prominent features of these gears are dedendum, addendum flank and fillet.
Gearing Arrangement for Gearbox
In the gearing arrangement for a gearbox, the various components are: cycloidal, worm,
bevel, planetary, spur and helical. Bevel gear is actually a gear wheel that is meshed with another
bevel gear in such a way so that the shafts can form an angle, which is less than 180º.
 Helical gears join shafts that are parallel. The involute teeth of the helical gears are cut at
an angle to the axis of the rotation. If there are two mating helical gears in the gearing
arrangement of the gearbox, then they must have equal helix angle but opposite hands.
In case of Spur Gears, they connect parallel shafts. They have curled teeth which are
parallel to the shaft and may have either external or internal teeth.
The planetary gears may present in total number of two and they are present either on or
inside a large gear. The intense gear ratio is possible due to these gears. When the intention is to
turn the input in the same direction of the output, then these gears are used. Planetary gears can
be designed along with a set of planetary cones or with a gear set.
Cycloidal gears are used in pair form and they are arranged in such a way so that the
angle formed by them should be equal to180º. The reason behind the formation of 180» is to
provide balance to the load and these gears are driven by many crank shafts. Multiple shafts are
present for sharing the load and to enhance the twisting state firmness.
The Worm Gears are wrapped around a central axle and these have slant plane. This kind
of gear consists one or more than one teeth and these teeth are present in the screwed thread
form.
Mounting
 Foot mounted on vertical surfaces
 Foot mounted below horizontal surface
 Flange mounted onto the prime mover
 Shaft mounted with a torque arm to prevent rotation of gearbox
 When using a gearbox in a non-standard mounting position the lubrication system should
be checked for suitability
Gearbox shafts
The Shafts
The shafts must be designed against failure by overload as well as fatigue. There are
well-established to design shafts and you are referred to appropriate standards or design
textbooks.
Mounting the gears onto the shafts
You must design the method by which the gears are fitted onto the shafts. Some choices
are splines, shrink fits or keys.
You have a free choice but should demonstrate the fitness of your design choice in terms
of torque rating, ease of assembly/disassembly, and any other factors that are applicable.
You must make sure that your shafts (and hub diameters if applicable) have tolerances.
You cannot produce shafts and hubs to precise dimensions. The higher the precision, the higher
the manufacturing cost of delivering that precision. There are standard shaft/hub tolerances that
you need to comply with. Again you are referred to appropriate standards or design textbooks.
A variety of shaft designs are available including the following
 Plain shaft with keyway
 Plain shaft suitable for Friction drive coupling system
 Splined shaft
 Hollow shaft with internal keyway
 Flange
 The selection of the drive shaft system is generally based on space considerations, on the
design of the prime mover of the driven component and on the loading pattern. A proprietary
gearbox is design to best fit in with the existing drive arrangements.
Shaft Orientation
The shafts transfer of motion to and from a gearbox can be supplied in a variety of
designs some of which are listed below.
 Inline shafts .....Epi-cyclic. spur, helical, harmonic
 Parallel shafts .... spur, helical
 Shafts at angles but non intersecting....Helical, Worm, Hypoid, Spiroid gears
 Shafts at angles and intersecting... Bevel gears
 Worm gears and bevel gears are most commonly supplied with shafts at Right angles.
Bearings
The shafts are supported by bearings. Select appropriate type and size of bearing based
on the following considerations:
 Load magnitudes
 Load directions
 Space limitations
The tolerance between the bearing seat and the shaft needs to be specified as it is in the
gear/shaft interface. The bearings need to be mounted on your gearbox casing. Therefore, your
gearbox casing needs to be strong enough to resist the shaft support loads.
Gearbox Housing
The gearbox housing or casing serves the following functions:
 Support the bearing housings as noted above
 Contain the lubricant
 Keep the gears in contact
The first two functions are obvious. The last one refers to the requirement of the gearbox
to resist the torque. This is either done by designing a flange-mounted gearbox or by fixing the
gearbox on the "floor", i.e. chassis. In this project, there are obvious reasons against using a
floor-mounted gearbox. You must be able to figure out what they are.
Lubrication
Lubricants in a gearbox serve the following functions:
 Reduce the coefficient friction between mating surfaces
 Remove the dissipation heat
 Protect bearings and gears against external contaminants
The heat is caused by friction and this corresponds to a loss from your useful power. The
gearbox efficiencies typically range from 90% to 98%. The last function needs gaskets and seals
at the input and output shafts. You must consider lubrication in your design. This consideration
must include choice of lubricant and mode of lubrication.
Main clutch
It is difficult to change gears when the gear train is transmitting torque. Therefore, you
need a clutch between the gearbox and the engine to disengage the gearbox while switching
gears. There are three functions that the clutch should accomplish:
 Enable changinggears while in motion
 Connect a running engine smoothly to the transmission
 Enable temporary stoppage without bringing the gear to neutral or without
stopping the engine
The following figure gives different clutch configurations:
Gearbox Casing
The large gearbox casings are generally castings from cast iron or steel. Cast iron is a
rigid material with excellent vibration damping properties. Fabricated steel gearbox are used for
small batch quantities. Gearboxes used for the transmissions in vehicles are often made from cast
aluminium this is primarily to save weight. The tiny gearbox units are made from a variety of
materials including cast zinc alloys. The important criteria in the gearbox casing design are listed
below.
 Inclusion of safe lifting points to allow installation
 Support of the shaft bearings and hence the gear loadings;
 The transfer of the developed gear forces to supporting structure or further drive
element;
 Containment of lubricant and exclusion of foreign matter;
 Providing a safety and noise barrier;
 Dissipation of the heat generated by gear friction
 Aiding testing, installation, and maintenance by containing all element in one unit;
 Providing convenient access to internals for inspection & maintainance
 Aesthetic benefits
 Enable accessible location of nameplate with all of the gear unit details
To obtain the support-rigidity, safety and reliability in operations, the casings must be
located, fitted and fastened properly to their foundations. Proper provision of ventilation should
be ensured in these casings for removing out the heat which generates during the operations.
Gearbox Materials
A range of gearboxes are constructed from a variety of materials depending on the
industry or the product in which they are being used for. Finest quality materials are used to
manufacture gearboxes for ensuring reliability, ease of maintenance and long life. The specialty
gearboxes materials undergo vibration and endurance test to ensure that the end product is of
premium quality.
 Aluminum Gearbox
 Cast Iron Gearbox
 Bronze Gearbox
 Stainless Steel Gearbox
Cast Iron Gearbox
Cast iron is an important iron-carbon alloy often casted into shape and containing 2 to 4.5
percent carbon, 0.5 to 3 percent silicon. It also contains traces of sulfur, manganese and
phosphorus. The material is popularly used to manufacture gearboxes in a number of commercial
applications.
The metal is strong, durable and apt for manufacturing gearboxes. Rugged cast iron is
used for precise gearing and longer life. The material enables the speed reducer for use in harsh
chemical environments.
Properties Suitable for Gearbox Manufacturing
 Good heat dissipater
 Durable
 Anti corrosion
 Strong
Use of Cast Iron Gearbox
Cast iron gearbox is used in a number of fields and areas including :
 Mining industry
 Power industry
 Conveyors
 Heavy industrial machines
 Paper and pulp industry
Aluminum Gearbox
Aluminum is a commonly available and widely used metal to manufacture a range of
products. It is used for both industrial and domestic applications. This non toxic, non sparkling
and non magnetic metal is also used to manufacture different types of gearbox. It is often used in
die casting and sand casting of gearbox.
Aluminum alloys are extensively used to manufacture a variety of industrial gearbox
finding application in different industries. The metal readily forms alloys with a number of other
metals including zinc, copper, magnesium, silicon and manganese.
Properties Suitable for Gearbox Manufacturing
 Light weight
 Corrosion resistant
 Durable
Uses of Aluminum Gearbox
Aluminum gearbox is used in diverse fields and areas including :
 Agro industry
 Food processing
 Sugar industry
 Cement industry
 Steel industry
Bronze Gearbox
Bronze is a type of copper alloy, containing tin in large amount and with traces of
aluminum, phosphorus, silicon and manganese. It has various industrial uses. Bronze consists of
60% copper and 40% tin. On the other hand, commercial bronze has 90% copper and 10% tin. It
is stronger and less brittle than cast iron.
Bronze gearboxes are manufactured from different kinds of bronze to ensure strength,
reliability and long life.
Properties Suitable for Gearbox manufacturing
 Non corrosive
 Durable
 Strong
Use of Bronze Gearbox
Bronze gearboxes find application in a number of fields including:
 Mining industry
 Power industry
 Conveyors
 Heavy industrial machines
 Paper and pulp industry
Stainless Steel Gearbox
Stainless steel is a ferrous alloy containing minimum of 10% chromium and other
elements. The low maintenance, relatively inexpensive metal is commonly used for many
industrial and commercial applications. Stainless steel is also used to manufacture gearboxes.
The metal has not gained much popularity with the speed reducer manufacturers due to
high cost factor. A stainless steel gearbox costs roughly twice as much as its cast iron
counterpart.
Stainless steel gearboxes are compactly designed and allow higher speeds and torque.
These gearboxes having a high resistance to corrosion are compatible with caustic agents and
also have the ability to withstand harsh chemical processing environments. High-grade stainless
steel material is often used in the food and pharmacy industry.
Properties Suitable for Gearbox Manufacturing
 Anti corrosion
 Anti rusting
 Anti stain
 Recyclable
Use of Stainless Steel Gearbox
The material is used in a number of areas including:
 Food processing industry
 Packaging equipment
 Conveyors
 Pharmaceutical industry
 Chemical industry
Simple Drive Train Rules
1) For any pair of meshing gears the angular velocity ratio is given by
ω2 /ω1 = ω z1 /z2 = ω d1 / d2
ω1 = Input speed (rads/s)
ω2 = Output speed (rads/s)
z1 Number of teeth on input gear
z2 Number of teeth on output gear
d1 Pitch Circle Dia of the input gear
 d2 Pitch Circle Dia of the output gear
The sign is - (Reversing) if both gears are external and + (Same direction)
if one gear is a ring (internal gear)
2) For a train of gear wheels the overall angular velocity ratio is given by
ω2 /ω1
= ω Product of teeth No's Driving gears / Product of teeth No's Driven gears
= ω Product of pitch diameters (Driving gears) / Product of pitch diameters
(Driven gears)
The sign is - (Reversing) if there are an odd number of pairs of external
gears

Gearbox Design Features

The design of the gearbox includes the following features..
 Input and output shaft relative positions and orientation
 Support of external forces on shafts
 Design and rigidity of casing
 Type, dimensions and strength of gears
 Method of changing speed /direction if required
 Design and strength of gear shafts
 Gearbox bearings
  Gearbox Seals
 Lubrication
 Noise and vibration
 Couplings to shaft
 Fixing /support of gearbox
 Heat dissipation
 Maintenance provisions
Gearbox Examples
A gearbox is loosely defined as an enclosure for housing gears. Examples of gearboxes
are numerous and some are listed below:
 Watch mechanism
 Bicycle axle gear (Sturmy Archer-3 speed) Sprocket to wheel axle - (Sturmy Archer-
3 speed)
 Power tool gear units - allowing speed reduction, change and reversing
 Automobile synchromesh gearbox -5 speed + reverse - Engine to drive shafts
 Machine tool integral - Electric motor drive to spindle and travelling motions
 Wind turbine gearbox - Turbine to generator
 Steam turbine - speed reduction turbine to generator
 Marine - Gearbox - turbine /diesal prime movers to Prop shaft
 Cranes -Gearbox usind for lifting and travelling motions

These are all specialised applications and the notes on this page relate to gear units
manufactured as separate units for mounting in transmission systems. The normal method of
fixing an enclosed gearbox in industry is to mount it on a rigid horizontal baseplate designed to
absorb vibration. The rotary motion is transferred to the input shaft and from the output shafts
via flexible couplings. There are a number of variations as listed below.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of gear reduction?
Well, the two main disadvantages are #1 you lose speed and #2 you have added weight
for the gear box. But, on the other hand, there are some great advantages to using gear reduction.
First, you bring the bot down to a manageable speed. Second, the motor doesn't have to work as
hard to spin the wheel which means it won't draw as much current from your batteries. And third,
along those lines, the torque produced by the output is inversely proportional to the amount of
reduction in the gear box. Say what? Basically, if you have a 4:1 gear box then the bot moves 1/4
as fast but has 4 times the torque! So you can have a 120 pound robot with the right gearing that
will push a 400 pound load across the floor!
The optimum configuration will give you greatest speed but still have enough torque to
cause the wheels to break traction (peel out) before the motor stalls. That optimum configuration
varies from bot to bot and is up to you to figure out how to best implement it with your own
robot.
INTRODUCTION TO CAD/CAM
CAD/CAM is a term which means computer-aided design and computer-aided
manufacturing. It is the technology concerned with the use of digital computers to perform
certain functions in design and production. This technology is moving in the direction of greater
integration of design and manufacturing, two activities which have traditionally been treated as
district and separate functions in a production firm. Ultimately, CAD/CAM will provide the
technology base for the computer-integrated factory of the future.
Computer – aided design (CAD) can be defined as the use of computer systems to assist
in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. The computer systems consist
of the hardware and software to perform the specialized design functions required by the
particular user firm. The CAD hardware typically includes the computer, one or more graphics
display terminals, keyboards, and other peripheral equipment. The CAD software consists of the
computer programs to implement computer graphics on the system plus application programs to
facilitate the engineering functions of the user company. Examples of these application programs
include stress-strain analysis of components, dynamic response of mechanisms, heat-transfer
calculations, and numerical control part programming.
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) can be defined as the use of computer systems to
plan, manage, and control the operations of manufacturing plant through either direct or indirect
computer interface with the plant’s production resources.
THE DESIGN PROCESS:
The process of designing is characterized by six identifiable steps or phase
1. Recognition of need
2. Definition of problem
3. Synthesis
4. Analysis and optimization
5. Evaluation
6. Presentation
Application of computers for DESIGN:
The various design-related tasks which are performed by a modern computer-aided
design system can be grouped into four functional areas:
 1. Geometric modeling
2. Engineering analysis
3. Design review and evaluation
4. Automated drafting
Geometric modeling
In computer-aided design, geometric modeling is concerned with the computer-
compatible mathematical description of the geometry of an object. The mathematical description
allows the image of the object to be displayed and manipulated on a graphics terminal through
signals from the CPU of the CAD system. The software that provides geometric modeling
capabilities must be designed for efficient use both by the computer and the human designer.
There are several different methods of representing the object in geometric modeling.
The basic form uses wire frames to represent the object. Wire frame geometric modeling is
classified into three types, depending on the capabilities of the interactive computer graphics
system.
The three types are:
2D. Two Dimensional representation is used for a flat object.
2½D. This goes somewhat beyond the 2D capability by permitting a three-dimensional object
to be represented as long as it has no side wall details.
3D. This allows for full three dimensional modeling of a more complex geometry.
The most advanced method of geometric modeling is solid modeling in three dimensions.
Another feature of some CAD systems is color graphics capability. By means of color, it is
possible to display more information on the graphics screen. Colored images help to clarify
components in an assembly, or highlight dimensions, or a host of other purposes.
Engineering analysis
CAD/CAM systems often include or can be interfaced to engineering analysis software which
can be called to operate on the current design model. Examples of this type are
1. Analysis of mass properties
2. Finite element analysis
The analysis may involve stress –strain calculations, heat-transfer computations, or the use of
differential equations to describe the dynamic behavior of the system being designed.
Introduction to Pro-Engineer
Pro-Engineer is a powerful application. It is ideal for capturing the design intent of your
models because at its foundation is a practical philosophy. Founder of this Pro-Engineer is
Parametric Technology Corporation. After this version they are released Pro-E 2000i2 , Pro-E
2001,Pro-e Wildfire, Pro-e Wildfire-2.0, Pro-e Wildfire-3.0, Pro-e Wildfire-4.0, Pro-e Wildfire-
5.0, Creo Elements/Pro
Main Window:
When the Pro-E is started, the main window opens on desktop. The four distinct elements of
the window are:
 Pull-down menu
 Tool bar
 Display area
 Message area
Pull-Down Menus:
The Pro-E pull-down menus are valid in all modes of the system.
File:
Contains commands for manipulating files
Edit:
Contains action commands.
View:
Contains commands for controlling model display and display performance.
Datum:
Creates datum features.
Analysis:
Provides access to options for model, surface, curve and motion analysis, as well as
sensitivity and optimization studies.
Info:
Contains commands for performing queries and generating reports.
Application:
Provides access to various Pro-E modules.
Utilities:
Contains commands for customizing our working environment.
Windows:
Contains commands for managing various Pro-E windows.
Help:
Contains commands for accessing online documentation.
Tool bar:
The Pro-E toolbar contains icons for frequently used options from the pull-down
menus. The tool bar is also customized.
Display area:
Pro-E displays parts, assemblies, drawings, and models on the screen in the display
area. An object’s on the current environment settings.
Message area:
The message area between the toolbar and the display area performs multiple
Functions by:
 Providing status information for every operation performed.
 Providing queries/hints for additional information to complete a command/task.
 Prompting for additional information by sounding a bell.
 Displaying icons in the message area, which represent different forms of
information such as warnings or status prompts.
Model Dialog Box:
A model dialog box creates and modifies model geometry by requesting
required and optional elements from the user. Required elements are modifiable properties of a
Pro-E feature that must be specified to completely define a feature. Optional elements are
additional operations that may perform but are not necessary for completing the feature.
For example, the round command model dialog box is shown below.
Define:
Allows to define add/or change selected elements in the dialog box.
Refs:
Displays the external references of the current selected.
Info:
Generates a listing of the properties of the feature that are created by us.
OK:
Completes the definition of the elements, creating the feature or model entity.
Cancel:
Cancels the current feature or model entity.
Preview:
Allows checking geometry before completing the feature definition. It is not available
until all the required elements have been defined.
Model Tree:
Model Tree is nothing but a History Tree. Because it will show all the features which are
carried out during the creation of part. Model Tree will be displayed for each and every Part (3-D
Models).It is very useful to redefine the parts. We can do the following tasks: Modify, Redefine,
Reroute, Delete, Suppress, Pattern. By using this model tree we can create a note for particular
feature. Also we can get the information from this model tree for any feature and for any model.
To do all those tasks we have to use the following step.
 Open a model Tree from the “Window” menu. (If it is not display) It will show the entire
Feature’s related to that particular part. Then, we have to pick particular feature which we
want to change by using the mouse. Now that particular feature edges are shown as a red
color in the screen.
  Then, press the right click (of the mouse) on that feature, immediately it will show one
pull down menu. That menu contains all the options which are given above.
 Drag the cursor and choose the required option and redefine it.

Special features of pro-e

A solid modeler:
Pro-Engineer is a solid modeler-it develops models as solids, allowing us to work in a
three-dimensional environment. In Pro-Engineer,
 The solid models have volumes and surface areas.
 As a solid modeling tool, Pro-E is feature-based, associative and parametric.
Feature based:
Pro-E is feature based. Geometry is composed of a series of easy to understand features.
A feature is the smallest building block in a part model.
Associativity:
Pro-E is a fully-associative system. This means that a change in the design model any
time in the development process is propagated throughout the design, automatically updating all
engineering deliverables, including assemblies, drawings, and manufacturing data. Associativity
makes concurrent engineering possible by encouraging change, without penalty, at ay point in
the development cycle. This enables downstream functions to contribute their knowledge and
expertise early in the development cycle.
Parent-child relationships:
The definition of a feature frequently relies on dimensional and geometric cues taken
from another feature. This kind of relationship is termed a parent-child relationship. The parent-
child relationship is one of the most powerful aspects of Pro-e. when a parent feature is modified,
its children are automatically recreated to reflect the changes in the geometry of the parent
feature. It is therefore essential to reference feature dimensions and geometry so design
modifications are correctly propagated throughout the model. Because children reference
parents, features can exist without children, but children cannot exist without their parents.

Parametric RELATIONSHIP:
 Parametric relation is an important feature in Pro-E. This feature is used to relate the
parameters which are shown in the part. By using the “Switch dims” command from the “Info”
menu we can see Parametric dimensions which is corresponding to the Numeric dimensions.
After giving parametric relation, if we make any change in one input parameter, the changes will
be take affect on all the parameters which is related to the input parameter.
For example, we designed a rectangle box. But we know in future we might be change this
rectangle box as cube. In such type of situation we may give the parametric relation between the
corresponding parameters. So, hereafter whenever we need to change it as cube, just change an
input parameter. The corresponding changes will be take effect on all other parameters and also
on the part.
Sketcher
Sketcher consists of
1. Sketch
2. Dimension
3. Constrain
4. Modify
5. Move
6. Delete
7. Geometric Tools
8. Section Tools
9. Undo
10. Redo
Sketch:
The sketch includes basic geometrical primitives such as
 Point
 Line
 Rectangle
 Arc
 Circle
 Advanced geometry
Which are used in two dimensional as well as three dimensional drawing.
Point:
It has been drawn by picking the point directly on desired place.
Line:
There are two options to draw a line
1. Geometry
2. Centerline
Both geometry and center line has the following options
 2 points
 2 tangent
Rectangle:
Rectangle is drawn directly using the command rectangle.
Arc:
The following are the options in drawing the arc:
1. Tangent End
2. Concentric
3. 3 tangent
4. Fillet
5. Center/ends
Circle:
There are two basic types of drawing a circle. They are geometry and construction.
Both the above said types include the following options
 Center/point
 Concentric
 3 tangent
 Fillet
 3 point

Advanced geometry:
It includes several advanced features such as
 Conic
 Coordinate system
  Elliptic fillet
 Ellipse
 Spline
 Text
 Axis point
Dimensioning:
Dimensions can be added to sections as before. When a dimension is added, a weak
dimension or constraint will be removed automatically. Although extra dimensions are no longer
allowed, it is now possible to make reference dimensions in Sketcher.
Modifying dimensions:
When dimension values are modified, the section is updated immediately. If we don't
want the section to update until we have modified several dimensions, we have to choose Delay
Modify first. After the desired changes have been made, Regenerate should be chosen.
Move:
The Move command allows modifying the section by dragging an entity or vertex to a
new position without having to specify which dimensions to be changed. Move will
automatically determine which dimensions to be varied so that the section changes in a natural
way while preserving all constraints. Move can also be used to drag a dimension to a different
location.
Delete:
Delete command is used to remove the features from the basic window. Delete has many
options such as
 Delete item
 Delete many
 Delete all
Geometric tools:
Geometric tool has the following options:
 Intersect
 Trim
 Divide
 Use edge
  Offset edge
 Mirror
 Move entity
Section tools:
Section tool has the following options:
 Copy draw
 Integrate
 Place section
 Start point
 Toggle
Undo
All Sketcher operations can now be undone with the Undo command. We can hit Undo
repeatedly to reverse actions one after another. Redo is provided, as well.
Part
Protrusion:
Protrusion consists of following options:
1. extrude
2. revolve
3. sweep
4. blend
Extrude:
Extrusion means adding the material from a specified side.
Condition
1. The drawn sketch must be a closed loop.
2. Enough references should be mentioned.
3. Protrusion adds the material perpendicular to the selected plane.
Options for giving depth:
Blind:
By choosing the option blind, we can give directly numerical value.
Thru until:
Adds the material that goes through all the surfaces until it reaches the specified surface.
Up to point/vertex:
Adds the material with a flat bottom that continues until it reaches the specified point or
vertex.
Up to Curve:
Adds the material with a flat bottom that continues until it reaches the specified curve
that you draw in a plane parallel to the placement plane.
Up to Surface:
Adds the material from the selected plane to the selected surface.
Exemption:
For the basic (first) component, there is no option for giving thru next, thru all and thru
until. There is no chance for giving two side blend if one side was chosen.
Revolve:
The revolve option creates a feature by revolving the sketched section around a
centerline. A revolved feature can be created either entirely on one side of the sketching plane, or
symmetrically on both sides of the sketching plane.
To create or redefine a revolved feature, specify the elements in the following order:
 Attributes
 Section
 Direction
 Angle
Rules for sketching a revolved feature:
 The revolved section must have a centerline
 The geometry must be sketched on only one side of the axis of revolution
 If more than one centerline in the sketch, Pro-E uses the first centerline sketched
as the axis of rotation.
 The section must be closed
Options for Specifying the Angle of Revolution:
Variable:
Any angle of revolution less than 360 degrees is specified by using this variable
90 :
Creates the feature with a fixed angle of 90 degrees.
180 :
Creates the feature with a fixed angle of 180 degrees.
270 :
Creates the feature with a fixed angle of 270 degrees.
360 :
Creates the feature with a fixed angle of 360 degrees.
Up To Point/Vertex:
Creates the revolved feature up to a point or vertex. The revolved feature ends when the
section plane reaches the point or vertex.
Up to Plane:
Create the revolved feature up to an existing plane or planar surface that must contain the
axis of revolution.
Assembling of Components:
Mate Option:
Mate option is used to make two surfaces touch one another. When datum Planes are
used, we must specify which sides, red or yellow, to mate.

Mate Offset Option:

Mate Offset Option is used to make two planar surfaces parallel and facing each other.
The offset value determines the distance between the two surfaces.
Align Option:
Align option is used to make two planes as coplanar (Coincident and facing in the
same direction) and to align revolved surfaces or axes to be coaxial.

Align Offset Option:

Align Offset Option is used to align two planar surfaces at an offset parallel and facing in
the same direction.
Insert Option:
Insert option is used to insert a “male” revolved surface into “female” revolved surface,
make their respective axes coaxial. This option is useful when axes are unavailable or
inconvenient for selection.
Orient Option:
Orient Option is used to orient two planar surfaces to be parallel facing in the same
direction. It does not specify the offset.

Tangent Option:
Tangent option is used to control the contact of two surfaces at their tangency.
Point on Surface Option:
This Option is used to control the contact of a surface with a point.
Edge On Surface Option:
Edge on Surface Option is used to control the contact of a surface with a straight edge.
Coordinate System Option:
Coordinate system option is used to place a component into an assembly by aligning its
coordinate system with a coordinate system in the assembly.
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Introduction
In the field of engineering, it is necessary to obtain the unknown field parameters like
displacement of forces, which can describe the behavior of structures. These unknowns can be
obtained by using exact analytical solutions or energy methods, which are formulated with
governing equilibrium equations on the basis of solid mechanics. However in real practice, the
real structure viz., aircraft, automobiles are large in size with irregular shapes, intermediate
structure, possessing geometrical or material nonlinearity and having complicated loading or
boundary conditions. Hence these are not feasible to be solved by the above analytical solutions.
In these cases to reduce the system to a discrete one by conventional method, a lot of
assumptions must be made which are cumbersome and error prone. With the advancement in
high speed computers tremendous opportunity have been given to the numerical method
approach.
 The finite element method (FEM) (its practical application often known as finite element
analysis (FEA)) is a numerical technique for finding approximate solutions of partial
differential equations (PDE) as well as of integral equations.
 The solution approach is based either on eliminating the differential equation completely
(steady state problems), or rendering the PDE into an approximating system of ordinary
differential equations, which are then numerically integrated using standard techniques
such as Euler's method, Runge-Kutta, etc.
 In solving partial differential equations, the primary challenge is to create an equation
that approximates the equation to be studied, but is numerically stable, meaning that
errors in the input and intermediate calculations do not accumulate and cause the
resulting output to be meaningless.
 For instance, in a frontal crash simulation it is possible to increase prediction accuracy in
"important" areas like the front of the car and reduce it in its rear (thus reducing cost of
the simulation); another example would be the simulation of the weather pattern on Earth,
where it is more important to have accurate predictions over land than over the wide-open
sea.
Definition
Technique of discretizing a continuum into simple geometric shapes element, enforcing
material properties and governing relations on these elements giving due considerations to
loading and boundary conditions which results in a set of equations, whose solutions gives the
appropriate behavior of continuum.
Necessity of FEM
 Algebraic work corresponding to solid mechanics is programmed in systematic matrix
calculations and formulated into a mathematical model. User need not work complicated
algebra but only deal with discretized geometry of physical structure.
 Ability to consider alternate loading and bending conditions for the same geometry.
 Accuracy of the data mainly depends on the number of approximations; the degree of
accuracy will be high with a minimum percentage of error from extra value.
 Faster automatic calculations, which are repetitive in nature, simultaneous display of
modification and part processing results.
 Accurate prediction with adequate details for identifying critical areas of interest like
highly stressed regions.
Finite Element Terminologies
 In Finite Element Method, the actual continuum is represented as an assembly of
subdivisions called Finite Elements. These elements are considered to be interconnected
at finite number of joints called Nodes.
 A Finite Element Mesh represents combination of nodes and elements. Since the actual
variation of Field Variables like displacement, temperature, stress etc., inside the body is
not known, we assume the variation of field variables inside the element, which can be
approximated by single function called Interpolation Function or Shape function.
 The shape functions are different in terms of field variables at nodes. When field
equations are assembled for the whole body, the unknowns will be the nodal values of the
field variable and the equation of matrix form. These can be solved for unknown field
variables.
 Once these are known, shape functions can be defined through any point inside the
element.
Steps involved in FEM
1) Discretization of the structure
It is a process by which the given structure is subdivided into definite number of
elements. These elements are assumed to be connected to each other at nodes. The number, type,
size and arrangement of the elements are to be decided.
2) Selection of Displacement Model
Since the displacement solution of a complex structure under any specified load
conditions cannot be predicted exactly. We assume some suitable displacement function or
modeled to approximate unknown function. The assumed displacement model must be simple
from a computational point of view, but it should satisfy some convergence requirements. In
general, the displacement model is taken in the form of a polynomial.
3) Derivation of element stiffness matrix and load factor
From the assumed displacement mode, the element stiffness matrix (k) and the element
load vector (p) are to be derived using potential energy formulation. The stiffness matrix consists
of coefficients of equilibrium equations derived from the material and geometrical property of an
element. The stiffness matrix relates the nodal displacements with nodal forces.
{F}= [K] * {Q}
Where [K]- Global stiffness matrix
{Q}- Global nodal displacement
{F}- Global load vector
4) Assembly of element equations to obtain overall equilibrium equations
Since the structure is composed of several elements, the individual elements matrices and
load vectors are to be assumed using suitable assembly techniques known as direct stiffness
method and overall equilibrium has to be formulated as,
{F}= [K] * {Q}
5) Solution for unknown displacements
The overall equilibrium equations have to be solved to account for boundary conditions
using some suitable techniques. For example, elimination approach and penalty approach. After
incorporation of boundary conditions, the equilibrium equations are solved for unknown
displacements.
Finite element analysis phases
In general, there are three phases in any computer- aided engineering task:
 Pre- processing- defining the finite element model and environmental factors to be
applied to it
 Analysis solver- solution of finite element model
 Post- processing of results using visualization tools
Pre- processing
The first step in using FEA, pre- processing is constructing a finite element model of the
structure to be analyzed. The input is most FEA packages. This can be either 1D,2D and 3D
form, modeled by line shape or surface representation, respectively, although nowadays 3D
models are predominantly used. The primary objective of the model is to realistically replicate
the important parameters and features of the real model. The simplest mechanism to achieve
modeling similarity in structural analysis is to utilize pre- existing digital blueprints, design files,
CAD models, and or data by importing that into a FEA environment. Once the finite element
geometric model has been created, a meshing procedure is used to define and break up the model
into small elements. In general, a finite element model is defined by a mesh network, which is
made up of the geometric arrangement of the element and nodes. Nodes represent points at
which features such as displacement are calculated. FEA package use nodes number to serve as
an identification tool in viewing solutions in structure such as deflections. Elements are bounded
by sets or nodes and define localized mass and stiffness properties of the model. Elements are
also defined by mesh numbers, which allow references to be made to corresponding deflections
or stresses at specific model location.
Analysis (computation of solution)
The next stage of the FEA process is analysis. The FEM conducts a series of
computational procedures involving applied forces and the properties of the element which
produce a model solution. Such a structural analysis allows the determination of effects of
deformations, strains and stresses which are caused by applied structural loads such as force,
pressure and gravity.
Post- processing
These results can then be studied using visualization tools with in the FEA environment
to then and to fully identify implication of the analysis. Numerical and graphical tools allow the
precise location of data such as stresses and dejection to be identified.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Finite Element Tools
Advantages
 Complex geometry can be analyzed very easily using the Finite Element Method.
 Complex analysis such as vibrations Non-linear analysis, Heat transfer analysis and Fluid
analysis can be easily conducted.
 Complex loading such as inertia and time dependent loading can easily be represented.
 Complex boundary conditions can be easily represented.
 By using the finite element method it is easy to analyze non-homogenous structures.
 Geometric effects such as large displacements, large rotations and contact conditions can
be represented.
 It is a more flexible and responsive information based development process enabling the
modifications of designs at later stages of development.
 Faster return on investment due to reduced development time.
 Fewer physical prototypes and test setups.
Disadvantages
 Computers can only carry a limited amount of significant digits. Due to this round off
errors and error accumulation are common.
 Distorted elements and inadequately modeled geometries can produce errors.
 It is only an approximate technique to model a large technique with a series of
interconnected smaller ones.
 Each element represents a strain value, which may or may not match reality.
 Secondary unknowns (stresses), which are calculated from primary unknowns. Often,
secondary unknowns are of more interest than the primary unknowns.
 Many resources disk space time and time required.
Application

Finite element Mesh of an Aircraft

 Several modern FEM packages include specific components such as thermal,
electromagnetic, fluid, and structural working environments. In a structural simulation,
FEM helps tremendously in producing stiffness and strength visualizations and also in
minimizing weight, materials, and costs.
 FEM allows detailed visualization of where structures bend or twist, and indicates the
distribution of stresses and displacements.
 FEM software provides a wide range of simulation options for controlling the complexity
of both modeling and analysis of a system.
 Similarly, the desired level of accuracy required and associated computational time
requirements can be managed simultaneously. FEM allows entire designs to be
constructed, refined, and optimized before the design is manufactured.
 In summary, benefits of FEM include increased accuracy, enhanced design and better
insight into critical design parameters, virtual prototyping, fewer hardware prototypes, a
faster and less expensive design cycle, increased productivity, and increased revenue.
 Static Analysis: Deflections, stresses, strains, forces and energies.
 Dynamic Analysis: Frequencies, deflections (mode shapes), stresses, strains, forces and
energies.
 Heat Transfer Analysis: Temperature, heat fluxes, thermal gradients and heat flow from
convection faces.
 Fluid Analysis: Pressure, gas temperature, convection coefficients and velocities.
 Other than these electromagnetic analysis and electric current analysis can also be easily
carries out.
 In the Aerospace industries the following types of Finite Element Analysis is common:
Static analysis, Dynamic analysis (natural frequencies), Aerodynamics, Transient
dynamics, Heat transfer, Fracture mechanics, Creep and Plasticity analysis, Composite
materials, Aero elasticity, Metal forming and Crash worthiness.