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 Guidelines for the manufacture and
construction of hot mix asphalt

Manual 5
January 2008
Fourth Edition

Published by Sabita First published 1988

Postnet Suite 56 Revised 1992
Private Bag X21 Revised 2001
Howard Place 7450 Revised 2008

ISBN 978-1-874968-31-3

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Manuals published by Sabita

Manual 1 Construction of bitumen rubber seals

Manual 2 Bituminous binders for road construction
Manual 3* Test methods for bitumen rubber
Manual 4* Specifications for rubber in binders
Manual 5 Manufacture and construction of hot mix asphalt
Manual 6* Interim specifications for bitumen rubber
Manual 7 SuperSurf: Economic warrants for surfacing unpaved roads
Manual 8 Safe and responsible handling of bituminous products
Manual 9 Bituminous surfacings for temporary deviations
Manual 10 Appropriate standards for bituminous surfacings
Manual 11 Labour enhanced construction for bituminous surfacings
Manual 12 Methods and procedures – Labour enhanced construction for bituminous
surfacings
Manual 13 LAMBS – The design and use of larbe aggregate mixes for bases
Manual 14 GEMS – The design and use of granular emulsion mixes
Manual 15* Technical guidelines for seals using homogeneous modified binders
Manual 16 REACT – Economic analysis for short-term rehabilitation actions
Manual 17 The design and use of porous asphalt mixes
Manual 18 Appropriate standards for the use of sand asphalt
Manual 19 Technical guidelines for bitumen rubber asphalt
Manual 20 Sealing of active cracks in road pavements
Manual 21 ETB – The design and use of emulsion treated bases
Manual 22 Hot mix paving in adverse weather
Manual 23 Bitumen Hauliers’ Code: Guidelines for loading bitumen at refineries
Manual 24 User guide for the design of hot mix asphalt
Manual 25 Quality management in the handling and transport of bituminous binders
Manual 26 Interim guidelines for primes and stone precoating fluids

* These manuals have been withdrawn and their contents incorporated in a manual entitled: The use of
modified binders in road construction published by the Asphalt Academy

Training Guides

TRIP Bituminous pavement repairs: Technical Recommendations in Practice

HMA Hot Mix Asphalt Training Series
HSE Health, Safety and Environmental Guidelines for bitumen and coal tar
products
LCEP Local Councillor Empowerment Programme

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Sabita Video Series

DVD100 Testing of bituminous products

ƒ Penetration bitumen tests
ƒ Bitumen emulsion tests
ƒ Hot mix asphalt tests
ƒ Bitumen rubber tests

DVD200 Repair of blacktop roads

ƒ Training guide for the construction and repair of bituminous surfacings
by hand

DVD300 Hot mix asphalt

ƒ Manufacture, paving and construction of HMA

DVD400 Health, Safety and Environmental Conservation

DVD410 BitSafe – The safe handling of bitumen

DVD420 BitSafe – Treatment of bitumen burns

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In compiling this manual the work of the technical panel – FJ Pretorius, JC Wise, G Catkin,
H Marais, C Lange and JM Onraët – as well as review assistance by PA Myburgh is
acknowledged.

DISCLAIMER

Considerable effort has been made to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the
information contained in this publication. However, neither Sabita nor any of its
members can accept any liability whatsoever for any loss, damage or injury resulting
from the use of this information. The contents of this publication do not necessarily
reflect the views of all members of Sabita.

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PREFACE

This manual presents a set of guidelines for sound and correct practice in the production and
construction of hot mix asphalt (HMA) for roads and airfield pavements. Its purpose is to
ensure that mixes, designed correctly and in accordance with best practice guidelines such
as Sabita’s Manual 24: User Guide for the design of hot mix asphalt, will meet performance
expectations.
While it is not practicable to cover the extensive field of HMA manufacture and construction
comprehensively in this manual, this revision of the 2001 edition brings together current,
extensive experience to guide new entrants to the road industry and students in a range of
processes, procedures and activities ranging from the design of project mixes to their
completion, while also drawing attention to important aspects such as health and safety.
Sabita is confident that this manual will continue to provide a valuable introduction to the
topic and a sound basis for developing more specialist knowledge in HMA technology.

Note: Superscript references in the text direct the reader to reference documents in the
Bibliography (page 52).

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CONTENTS

Acknowledgements.................................................................................................. v
Preface ..................................................................................................................... vi
Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1

Section A Manufacture of HMA ....................................................................... 3

A1 Mix optimisation and approval process ....................................................................... 3
A2 Materials usage and control at the plant ..................................................................... 4
A3 Manufacturing plant types and operation .................................................................... 7
A4 Storage at plant and transportation to site ................................................................ 12
A5 Procedural and legal requirements for HMA manufacture ....................................... 14

Section B Construction of HMA .................................................................... 15

B1 Site and plant preparation ......................................................................................... 15
B2 Tack coat, priming and other substrate/surface preparations ................................... 15
B3 Planning .................................................................................................................... 17
B4 Recording of information ........................................................................................... 17
B5 Paving ....................................................................................................................... 17
B6 Compaction ............................................................................................................... 29
B7 Joint construction and edge forming ......................................................................... 34
B5 Cleaning up and finishing inspections ....................................................................... 40

Section C Quality systems and specialised manufacturing and

construction topics ....................................................................... 41
C1 Constructibility .......................................................................................................... 41
C2 Safety and the environment ...................................................................................... 41
C3 Quality assurance ..................................................................................................... 44
C4 Modified binders....................................................................................................... 47
C5 Product quality enhancing equipment and methods ................................................. 48
C6 Reclaimed asphalt pavement recycling systems ...................................................... 50

Bibliography 52

Appendices

Appendix 1 Flow diagram and time scale to optimise mix design process 53
Appendix 2 Project planning 54
Appendix 3 Manufacturing plant components and functional aspects 56
Appendix 4 Roller type characteristics and operational aspects 64
Appendix 5 Details of substrate preparations for HMA paving 68
Appendix 6 Paving for good riding quality 71
INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this manual is to define and describe, from a practical perspective, the
principles and best practice procedures applicable to the production and placement of hot mix
asphalt (HMA). The manual is prepared specifically for use by paving foremen, asphalt
manufacturers, site engineers, design engineers and quality control personnel.

Hot Mix Asphalt defined

The term hot mix asphalt (HMA) is generally used to describe a variety of mixtures of
aggregate, bitumen and mineral filler that are produced at an elevated temperature in an
asphalt plant. HMA is most commonly divided into three different generic types of mixes, i.e.
continuous-graded, open-graded, and gap-graded – primarily according to the proportions of
various aggregates used in the mix or their particle size distribution (gradation)

Continuous-graded (or dense-graded) mixes can be further subdivided into stone-skeleton

(coarse) and sand-skeleton (fine) mixes, where the load is carried on the stone matrix and
sand matrix respectively.

Open-graded mixes have high void contents and permit free drainage of surface water and
have good road noise absorbing properties. Ultra thin and thin friction courses are included in
this category.

Gap-graded mixes comprise both conventional gap-graded asphalt mixes and stone-mastic
asphalt (SMA) mixes.

Representative gradations of the main type are shown in Figure 1. Pavement designers
specify these different mixture types to satisfy different pavement performance and application
demands.

Figure 1: Representative continuous-graded, open-graded and

gap-graded mixes of 13.2 mm maximum aggregate size

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The aim of specified grading envelopes e.g. continuous-graded, open-graded or gap-graded,
is to ensure mixes generally comply with their overall intended function. Although being a
good guide, these envelopes have often proved to be too restrictive because grading
envelopes in themselves have a limited capacity to define aggregate packing. Consequently
sound engineering practice should be employed to determine the best relative proportions of
the components. Such a process may result in the grading curves that fall beyond the limits of
some envelopes in general use, while ensuring optimal mix design and the attainment of
specified performance characteristics.

Manual Layout

The manual consist of the following three sections:

• Section A: Manufacture of HMA;

• Section B: Construction of HMA;
• Section C: Quality systems and specialised manufacturing and construction topics.

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SECTION A Manufacture of HMA

A1 Mix optimisation and approval process

The aim of all HMA design procedures is to establish the composition of a mix in terms of the
relative proportions of suitable, available materials that will meet the performance criteria and
durability requirements optimally.

The design procedure comprises the formulation of preliminary proposals that can be fine-
tuned during a formal process to facilitate both the consistency of the mixing plant output and
constructability during paving and compaction.

A1.1 Principles of mix design

It is essential for asphalt manufacturers to have some background knowledge of the

engineering demands on the performance of HMA products and how compositional and
volumetric mix principles are mobilised to meet performance characteristics implied in
exacting engineering specifications.

Current asphalt design methods make use of a range of aggregate and binder specifications,
in conjunction with a range of volumetric or spatial composition principles (e.g. those derived
from the Marshall and Gyratory compaction procedures or the Bailey Method) to facilitate
attainment of the desired engineering properties and performance characteristics. Key to this
optimisation process is a clear understanding of the packing characteristics of the mix
components as well as the simulation, in the laboratory, of compaction initially attained under
suitable field compaction procedures. It is also necessary to understand the equilibrium
density attained under the influence of traffic.

Various levels of engineering properties or performance criteria are specified for various
applications. Typical properties employed for dense and gap graded mixes to ensure
adequate product performance, durability and constructability are dealt with in Sabita Manual
24: User guide for the design of hot mix asphalt and covered comprehensively in Interim
guidelines for the design of hot mix asphalt in South Africa, published by the CSIR.

A1.2 Production mix design and approval process

A comprehensive production mix design process ensures that target engineering properties
and performance characteristics are consistently met with raw materials that are
representative of those used in the approved mix design.

If at any time it becomes evident that the asphalt being produced consists of component
materials no longer representative of those used in the current production mix, a review of the
production mix design should follow without delay. Such a review process may result in the
adjustment of the relative proportions of the components to meet the predetermined
engineering properties and/or mix performance characteristics.

Continually ensuring the relevance of the approved production mix design is of critical
importance in the overall quality management process.

The process of finalising a production mix design to meet contractual obligations can be
summarised in the following steps:

• Preliminary meeting with the client or his representative to assess specifications, material
resources and laboratory facilities;
• Assessment of the volumetric and compositional properties of the mix alternatives;
• Assessment of the performance of criteria of selected option(s);
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• Trial section assessment;
• Setting of production mix targets for mix composition and parameters for process control;
• Initial production assessment;
• Production control.

A typical process flow diagram with timetable and responsible parties is detailed in
Appendix 1.

A2 Materials usage and control at the plant

Raw materials used in asphalt manufacture include aggregate (usually crushed stone,
although natural sand is sometimes used), inert or active filler (cement, hydrated lime, PFA)
and a bituminous binder. Sometimes bitumen additives are incorporated (e.g. rubber crumbs,
hydrocarbons and polymers) and, increasingly, slags as well as reclaimed asphalt from
existing road pavements.

Storage arrangements of all raw materials and monitoring of quality need to be carefully
considered and implemented. For instance, all raw materials should be handled and stored
with regard to uniformity and their possible contamination. Also, bitumen should not be
allowed to be overheated and should be handled as outlined in Sabita Manual 8: Guidelines
for the safe and responsible handling of bituminous products. All sampling and testing of
materials should be performed by suitably qualified materials technicians.

A2.1 Aggregates

(a) Stockpiles

The process of quality control of HMA begins with the aggregate stockpiles, irrespective of the
type of manufacturing plant. Proper receiving and stockpiling procedures will limit variation in
aggregate and, hence, mix properties.

Stockpiling management should incorporate the following practices to ensure uniformity and to
minimise segregation:

• The stockpile base should be clean, dry and stable, and should not be allowed to become
contaminated with dust, mud or grass. The base should be sloped to allow free drainage;
• The stockpile should be built in horizontal (or gently sloping) layers. It may be cost-
effective in terms of energy savings to protect the materials in the stockpiles from excess
moisture by means of covers or a roof;
• Stockpiles of the various aggregate sizes or types should be kept separate at all times, by
barriers if necessary;
• Care should be taken to minimise segregation during both the stockpiling and removal
processes. Loading should take place on the entire face of the stockpile, perpendicular to
the direction of aggregate flow.

(b) Sampling and testing

To ensure ongoing relevance of the production mix design, stockpiles of each aggregate
fraction in use should be sampled according to TMH5: Sampling methods for road
construction materials5 on a regular basis, and tested for compliance with the relevant
specifications and matching the properties of aggregates used in the design of the production
mix.

Relevant standards are:

• SANS 1083 – Aggregates from natural sources;

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• Standard methods of testing road construction materials as required in the relevant SANS
standards;
• Contract specifications in force.

The recommended minimum frequency for grading and flakiness index on various aggregate
components is one test per 400 tons.

All sampling and testing of materials should be performed by technicians suitably qualified to
carry out the required testing correctly, and at the required frequency. Test reports should be
submitted to the responsible person on completion.

A2.2 Reclaimed asphalt

In the interests of sustainable practice, reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is becoming an

increasingly valuable resource for the production of HMA. RAP contains both aggregates and
bitumen, and its use can lead to cost savings and reduced reliance on non-renewable material
resources.

The proportion of RAP in HMA will vary depending on the following factors:

1. Specifications and layer position;

2. RAP properties;
3. RAP uniformity; and
4. Plant type and equipment.

To maximise the proportion of RAP in HMA it is important that the material be uniform. For this
purpose proper processing and stockpiling, or even fractioning into more than one size, is
required.

As a guide, the following proportions of RAP and new HMA could be investigated:

Layer or Mix Type % Mass of new HMA

Wearing course 18
Base course 27
Polymer modified wearing course 12
Stone mastic asphalt 3

(a) Stockpiling

Ideally, the need to stockpile reclaimed asphalt should be kept to a minimum by proper
scheduling of the various operations involved in recycled pavement layers. However, since
stockpiling cannot be eliminated, special techniques should be applied to RAP prior to
processing.

It the RAP is delivered in large pieces or slabs, it should be crushed down to less than 50mm
in size before stockpiling for plant use.

RAP may pack together in stockpiles, creating larger particles, which will have an adverse
effect on the process of blending it with virgin component materials. Where this consolidation
has occurred it is good practice to install scalping screens between the RAP cold feed and
transfer belt conveyers.

Detailed recommendations for building stockpiles for reclaimed asphalt are provided in
Section C6.3.

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(b) Fractioning

It is preferred that the RAP materials be fractioned into coarse and fine run, and treated as
“black aggregate” for process control. Where utilisation of RAP is more than 20% of the mix by
mass this requirement generally becomes essential. The fractioned aggregate is normally fed
into the mix from two separated cold bins.

(c) Sampling and testing

Special care should be taken to identify materials with widely varying recovered binder
penetration values.

Sampling must be carried out before production milling to give the user advanced information
on the possible aggregate grading and binder content of the material to be milled; this enables
the stockpiling of materials of differing composition.

When RAP utilisation rates exceed 20%, the bitumen must be recovered from the milled
asphalt to determine the penetration of the aged bitumen. This enables the user to determine
the amount of rejuvenator or binder type to be used to ensure that the final bituminous binder
meets the desired requirements.

A2.3 Bituminous binders

Bitumen must comply with the current edition of the relevant SANS specifications (e.g. SANS
307: Penetration grade bitumens6).

(a) Storage

SANS 10228:2006 sets out how bituminous binders are to be transported, and specifies
procedures and requirements in terms of this standard. Safety procedures during loading and
offloading are covered in Sabita Manual 25: Quality management in the handling and transport
of bituminous binders.

The Occupational, Health and Safety Act (Act No. 85 of 1993) lists the responsibilities of
employers and employees to safeguard the health and safety of employees in the workplace,
and those likely to be affected by their activities. The chief executive officer of the company
has overall responsibility and accountability for health and safety on the terrains or sites
occupied by the company.

(b) Sampling and testing

As the responsibility for product quality passes from the haulier or consignor to the consignee
at the point of offloading, correct sampling techniques and testing are essential components of
the quality management process.

Sampling must be carried out by a competent, trained person in accordance with the
requirement of ASTM D140.

All required safety procedures should be followed during sampling from points and at such
times as are described in Sabita Manual 25: Quality management in the handling and
transport of bituminous binders.

Sampling should be taken in new or clean containers and marked with an indelible marker
with all the relevant information pertaining to the source of the binder, transaction information,
temperature and the name of the person taking the sample.

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The sample volume should be such so as to retain at least 1l of the binder after testing. This
will facilitate further testing should that become necessary. It is recommended that retained
samples be kept for at least six months in a manner that will enable rapid retrieval when
required.

In the interests of safety, sampling should only take place through a sampling valve between
the discharge pump and the receiving tank or, if this is not available, through a sampling valve
situated on the tanker and NOT from the top of the tanker or delivery hoses.

A2.4 Active fillers

Additives used in the manufacture of asphalt (such as cement, lime and PFA) must comply
with the current editions of the relevant SABS specifications, e.g. SANS 471: Portland cement.

(a) Storage

Since filler must be kept dry, storage silos should be adequately sealed. Bagged filler must be
protected from the elements.

The filler delivery system to the mixing plant must be adequately sealed and checked for
ingress of moisture and escape of filler into the air.

(b) Sampling and testing

Each delivery of filler should be accompanied by a certificate of compliance with the relevant
SANS specification for grading.

A2.5 Rubber crumb and other binder modifiers

Granulated rubber for use in asphalt mixes is usually supplied in bags. Storage and sampling
is covered in Sabita Manual 19: Technical guidelines for bitumen-rubber asphalt.

For other binder modifiers see details provided in Section C4, as well as the provisions in the
AsAc publication TG1, Technical Guideline: The use of modified bituminous binders in road
construction. It is also recommended that storage and sampling be carried out in accordance
with supplier’s specifications and generally acceptable engineering practice.

A3 Manufacturing plant types and operation

Operations common to asphalt plants are drying and heating of aggregate, proportioning the
components (aggregate, filler and binder) and mixing them. Plants vary in size and may be
“mobile” or stationary. A “mobile” plant is one which can readily be separated into
components and transported to another site where it can be re-erected.

A3.1 Mixing plant types

Plant types can be divided into four categories:

• Batch type;
• Continuous mix type;
• Drum mix type;
• Modified type to accommodate recycling.

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(a) Batch plant

Aggregates are drawn from storage or stockpiles in controlled amounts in a cold feed unit and
passed through a rotary dryer where they are dried and heated. The heated aggregates then
pass over a screening unit which separates the material into different sized fractions and
deposits them into bins for hot storage. The aggregates and mineral filler (when used) are
then withdrawn from the bins in controlled amounts into a pug mill, where they are combined
with binder and thoroughly mixed in a batch.

The mix is either stored in special bins or loaded into trucks and hauled to the paving site.
Figure 2 illustrates the sequence of these operations. Also shown in Figure 2 is the typical
conversion detail used to feed reclaimed asphalt, by adding the material to be recycled (RAP)
into the weigh hopper.

Where aggregate gradations are consistent and the cold feed calibration system is in good
order, the screening unit may be bypassed. In this case the mix composition is controlled
directly from the cold feed, as for a continuous mixer.

Figure 2: Batch plant with RAP feed conversion

(b) Continuous mix plant

A simplified operational diagram of a typical continuous mixing plant is shown in Figure 3.

A typical continuous mixing plant, the drum mixer, relies on volumetric delivery of aggregate
and other additives from the cold feed unit and volumetric delivery of binder. These materials
then combine in the heating drum to give the specified products. Also illustrated in Figure 3
are the modifications for reclaimed asphalt (RAP) feeding. These include:

• A burner situated at the cold feed end of the dryer-drum;

• Binder feed from the back end of the dryer-drum mixer;
• Material to be recycled fed into the midpoint of dryer-drum mixer.

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 Figure 3: Drum mixer

Various specially adapted continuous mixers exist worldwide. One such type is the counter
flow drum, where the burner is positioned at the end of the drum opposite the aggregate entry
point. The aggregate is heated and dried in the drying drum section. Mixing with binder and
filler takes place in the separate mixing drum section. Another variation, called the double
drum plant, combines these two actions in one drum, with the inside drum used for heating
and the outside for mixing.

A3.2 Plant components

Details of plant components and their functions are summarised in Appendix 3.

A3.3 Plant operation

Asphalt plant operations differ significantly between batch plants and drum mix plants.

(a) Batch plants

Modern batch plants can be operated in three modes:

• Manual;
• Semi Automatic;
• Automatic.

In manual mode, each phase of batching is performed by manipulating an electric switch or

button. These activate pneumatic, hydraulic or electric power systems for weighing, mixing
and discharge.

In semi-automatic mode several batching functions are accomplished automatically. These

generally include operation of the weigh hopper discharge gate, binder weigh bucket, wet
mixing and the pug mill discharge gate in the correct sequence.

In fully automatic mode the plant is almost completely self-acting. Once mix proportions and
timers have been set and plant operation begun, the plant machinery repeats the weighing
and mixing cycle until the operator stops it or until shortage of material or some other
unforeseen event causes the plant controls to halt operation.

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A typical batch plant cycle is illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Batch plant cycle

Optimal mix cycles are between 45 – 50 seconds, of which the wet mixing times are 30 – 35
seconds to ensure adequate coating of the aggregate. The mixing times may have to be
increased if additives such as bitumen modifiers or cellulose fibres are added. Too long a
mixing cycle can result in excessive binder ageing.

(b) Continuous mix plants

To ensure consistency of mix proportions that meet the specified requirements the following
equipment controls are required:

• Separate cold feed controls for each aggregate size;

• Automatic continuous aggregate weighing system;
• Interlocking controls of aggregate cold feed and binder delivery to the drum;
• Automatic burner controls;
• A primary dust collector system capable of feeding collected material back into the system
or to waste.

When operating a drum mixer, regular monitoring of aggregate grading and moisture content
is extremely important. This is because the final mix grading is wholly determined by the
grading of the individual fractions, and the specified binder content is based on dry mass of
aggregate while the sensors are measuring the mass of moist aggregate. Excess moisture in
the aggregate can adversely affect the mix.

Excess moisture will also result in increased energy consumption - each percentage point
increase in moisture content can increase heating fuel costs by up to 12%.

The plant should therefore be equipped with devices to obtain representative samples of each
cold feed unit and the total cold feed. Such a device – a sampling chute fitted at the head of
the cold feed conveyor belt is shown in Figure 5.

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 Figure 5: Sampling device

(c) Temperature control

Since the aggregate makes up about 94% of the total mass of the mix, the temperature of the
aggregate controls the temperature of the mixture. Normally a mixing temperature is
determined by binder viscosity for adequate coating of the aggregates and to facilitate paving
and compaction of the layer. This temperature would naturally be affected by site conditions
and the haul distance, as well as the composition of the mix.

The temperature of the binder is determined by its temperature-viscosity characteristics, and

should be such that the viscosity is in the range of 0.15 - 0.30 Pa.s for mix production.
Compaction, however, can be carried out within a viscosity range as high as 20 Pa.s (see
Figure 6). It is recommended that information on the temperature-viscosity relationship
relevant to the bitumen in use be obtained from the bitumen supplier on a regular basis to
ensure that appropriate temperatures are adopted for the various operations.

Note that the appropriate temperature range for compaction is derived from the temperature-
viscosity relationship of the aged binder.

Modified binders require higher mixing temperatures, depending on the type and percentage
of modifier introduced into the bitumen. For the appropriate ranges, the reader is referred to
the AsAc publication TG1, Technical Guideline: The use of modified bituminous binders in
road construction.

A “harsh” mix will need a lower binder viscosity to facilitate compaction, whereas other mixes
may be compacted satisfactorily at higher binder viscosities (i.e. lower temperatures).

If the aggregate has a higher moisture content than normal, its temperature on discharge from
the dryer drum will be lower unless the cold feed rate has been reduced or the burner fuel and
air rates increased. This temperature should be monitored carefully to ensure that the mix
temperature is adequate for satisfactory compaction, and not so high as to have an adverse
effect on the binder quality.

Conditions in the pug mill are such that the binder will harden excessively if the aggregate
temperature is too high. The large mass of stone holds heat which could rapidly overheat the
thin film of binder coating it; the action of the paddles in the pug mill allows air to come in
contact with these thin films and hardening through oxidation takes place. This, in turn,
reduces the flexibility and durability of the asphalt, shortening its effective life. Mixing should
therefore take place at as low a temperature and short a cycle as will provide complete
coating of the aggregate particles.

11
 Figure 6: Typical temperature/viscosity chart for 60/70 penetration grade bitumen

A4 Storage at plant and transportation to site

A4.1 Hot storage

To prevent plant shutdown through temporary interruptions of paving operations or shortages

of trucks to haul the material from the plant to the paving site, asphalt plants are generally
equipped with storage silos for temporary storage of hot asphalt. (See Figure 7)

Figure 7: Hot storage silo

Storage bins are insulated to cater for storage periods up to 12 hours or longer. Longer
storage periods require specialised planning and storage bin systems to prevent ageing. Hot
storage capacity varies and may be several hundred tons.
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These bins are charged from the top using a variety of conveying systems, for example belt
conveyors, bucket elevators or skip hoists. Most storage bins are cylindrical with a conical
outlet at the bottom.

A4.2 Transport by trucks

(a) Dimensions

Trucks to haul hot mix from the plant to the paving site can be rigid or articulated tipping
vehicles. To facilitate discharging asphalt into the paver hopper, trucks have an elongated
tailpiece to prevent spillage around the paving unit. The overhang of the body should be at
least 750mm, preferably 800mm.

An absolutely minimum clearance of the chassis and/or springs of 650mm should be

maintained when fully loaded, and brake boosters must not extend past the tyres if they have
less than 650mm clearance from the ground when fully loaded.

The chute height above the ground in the tipped position should be not be less than 850mm,
preferably 900mm

(b) Release Agent

To prevent asphalt adhering to the truck body, an approved or acceptable release agent, e.g.
a silicone emulsion, or biodegradable vegetable oil emulsion, should be used. Oil-based
materials such as engine oil, paraffin or diesel fuel should not be used.

(c) Condition

All trucks delivering asphalt must be in good working order, able to carry and tip loads
efficiently, and be issued with a valid roadworthy certificate.

Specific items to be checked are:

• complete absence of oil leaks;

• fully functional brakes;
• good idling and tipping capability, with no hydraulic leaks;
• tail-gate suitable for tipping into paver hopper;
• adequate uphill pull-away capability

(d) Covers

Asphalt in trucks should be covered with a tarpaulin or other suitable thermal insulation
sheeting. Hessian is not acceptable.

The covers should cover the entire surface of the asphalt and be well tied down and kept in
place until tipping.

Although the drop in temperature over short haul distances may not adversely affect the
paving and compaction operations, covering of the load will minimise both heat loss and
hardening of the binder film as a result of exposure to air flow.

13
(e) Loading

Measures should be in place to minimise segregation of the material in the truck body. Loaded
trucks must be weighed on an assized scale and issued with the relevant weigh bridge tickets.
The loaded truck should comply with the legal requirements in respect of maximum axle load
and gross vehicle mass. The number of trucks and their load capacities should be balanced to
plant output and haul distance to ensure a continuous supply of asphalt to the paver. The
following components of truck turnaround time should be taken into account:

• loading;
• weighing,
• load covering;
• travelling;
• manoeuvring and queuing at the paver;
• tipping; and
• return journey.

(f) Driver Requirements

Drivers should be experienced and able and willing to carry out instructions correctly. They
should be aware of company policy and standing instructions regarding the cleaning of the
truck body and disposal of excess material. Essential driver skills include:

• Ability to manoeuvre in confined areas;

• Straight and rapid reverse over long distances;
• Avoidance of damage to works, e.g. kerbs and edges of fresh mats;
• Ability to connect smoothly with the paver and correct release of breaks;
• Controlled tipping without spillage.

A5 Procedural and legal requirements for HMA manufacture

All plants are required to be registered in terms of the provisions of the National environment
management: Air quality act (No. 39 of 2004).
To secure the safety of employees at the plant, all operations should comply with the
provisions of the Occupational health and safety act (No. 85 of 1993) and the regulations
promulgated in terms thereof.
Compliance with the provisions of the Mineral and petroleum resources development act
(No. 28 of 2002) may also be relevant, especially to mobile plants established in rural areas.
It is recommended that plants supplying asphalt operate a quality management system and be
accredited in terms of ISO 9001- 2000.

14
SECTION B Construction of HMA

B1 Site and plant preparation

Quality asphalt paving requires thorough preparation and checking to ensure that:

• Haul roads are in good condition, well maintained and properly drained;
• Enough suitable machines are available to carry out the paving and compaction correctly;
• Enough skilled operators and labourers are on site to carry out the work correctly;
• The supply capability of the asphalt plant and truck fleet is sufficient to keep the paver
moving without interruption;
• All plant and tools are clean and in good condition;
• All road appurtenances such as manhole and valve covers have been reset to new levels
if necessary;
• The base or substrate on which the asphalt is to be laid is correctly prepared and clean
and that the effect of base levels on the final finish and quantities are clearly understood.

B2 Tack coat, priming and other substrate/surface preparations

The performance of HMA is directly dependent on the condition of the support layer(s). For a
full-depth asphalt pavement, if the condition of the granular sub-base and/or lower sub-grade
soil is poor, the ultimate life of the roadway may be significantly reduced. For HMA layers
placed on top of a new, untreated granular base course, the base material should be stable
and the surface firm and dry - it should not be distorted or ravelled by construction traffic. For
mix laid on top of existing asphalt layers, the surface should be properly prepared – potholes
filled, cracks sealed, distress repaired and the surface cleaned. A tack coat should also be
used to ensure a bond between the existing pavement surface and the new asphalt overlay.

Recommended preparation of various types of substrate layers for new HMA paving is
covered in Appendix 5, and summarised in B2.1 below.

B2.1 Surface preparation operations

The following operations are essential to ensure that the substratum is properly prepared for
paving:

• New granular bases should be well constructed. This requires:

o Material of suitable quality, that is adequately compacted and sufficiently dry;
o Finishing to correct levels;
o A good, uniform surface texture;
• That the base be primed, tacked and clean.
Unless a very thick overlay is being constructed it is advisable that all distressed areas in
the underlying layer be either removed or repaired before paving commences;
• If there are cracks in an existing asphalt pavement surface, they should be sealed
individually, or some type of surface treatment should be applied to the whole roadway
area. Joints in concrete pavement that are poorly sealed should be routed out and sealed.
Rocking concrete slabs should be seated;
• Before paving, the area should be measured and a grid of dip measurements taken to
determine:
o Average thickness;
o High and low areas (for possible repairs or corrections);
o Asphalt volume requirements.

15
• Slopes should be checked to ensure surface drainage. A minimum slope of 1% to a runoff
escape point is necessary. Also check for potential ponding, particularly at intersections
and bell mouths;
• A rough, uneven existing asphalt surface should be levelled with asphalt mix, preferably
using a paver to fill in the low spots in the surface. Alternatively, it should be milled with a
precision milling machine to remove the high spots;
• Once the required repairs have been completed, the pavement surface should be cleaned
of all dust, dirt and other debris using multiple passes of a mechanical broom. If brooming
does not remove all accumulated dirt, the use of compressed air or water may be
necessary;
• If the aggregate surface appears smooth or polished, precautions should be taken to
prevent slippage of the newly paved layer. Trial areas should be paved to identify
problems and solutions.

B2.2 Priming of substrate

The priming of granular layers or substrate serves to bind the upper zone (10mm approx.) to
provide protection against the scuffing effects of construction traffic for a limited period, and to
prevent the ingress of water. It will not provide adequate adhesion between the base and an
asphalt layer placed on top of such a granular base as its purpose is to penetrate and
condition the top zone of the base. Hence the application of a tack coat is always
recommended. For more details regarding the use and application of prime coats the reader is
referred to Sabita Manual 26: Interim guidelines for primes and stone precoating fluids.

B2.3 Tack coat

As mentioned above, application of a tack coat should precede paving operations to ensure a
bond between the existing pavement surface and the new asphalt overlay, both during the
construction and in-service phases of the asphalt layer. If a good bond is not formed between
the existing surface and the new overlay, slippage during rolling or thereafter may occur,
leading to the layer being shoved in a longitudinal direction, particularly at zones where the
traffic accelerates or brakes.

To optimise the effectiveness of the tack coat the pavement surface must be free from
anything that might cause slippage, and must be thoroughly cleaned before the tack coat is
applied. All dust and dirt should be removed by mechanical brooming, washing or blowing.

Generally a diluted bitumen emulsion (anionic or cationic stable mix emulsion, diluted 1:1 with
water) is used to provide a complete coverage of the surface with a thin residual binder film on
the surface. Typically, residual bitumen application rates of approximately 0.15 to 0.25 l/m2
are aimed at, depending on the condition of the surface to which the tack coat is applied. An
open-textured surface requires more tack coat than a surface that is tight or dense, and a dry,
aged surface requires more tack coat than a surface that is rich or flushed.

The following key factors should be further considered:

• The binder distributor used to apply the tack coat should be certified to carry out the
operation, and should be checked on site to ensure that all the nozzles are fully functional
and set at the correct angle and height above the pavement surface;
• Where the tack coat application is to take place by hand, an experienced operator using
sound equipment and employing correct spray practices is essential;
• The application rate for the tack coat should be based on the target residual application
rates of net bitumen, which should generally range from 0.15 to 0.25 l/m2 for normal
surfaces;
• Milled pavements may require higher rates of application. A residual net rate of bitumen as
high as 0.35 l/m2 of binder may be needed to ensure a proper bond because of the
increased surface area. On the other hand, too much tack coat may promote slippage of
16
 the new overlay on the old pavement, or may even cause bleeding of the tack material
through thin overlays;
• Whenever possible, it is good practice to spray tack coat well in advance of paving (but not
more than about 18 hours). This enables the tack coat to “set up” and reduce pick-up on
supply truck tyres and the paver;
• Tack coats should not be exposed to traffic for any length of time. If this is inevitable,
proper precautions should be taken, such as reducing the posted speed limit on the
roadway and sanding the surface;
• It is prudent always to apply a tack coat between consecutive layers of new, fresh asphalt.
However, in such cases the net binder application rate should be reduced by up to 50% if
the layers are placed soon after one another.

B3 Planning

Good planning is essential to ensure optimal productivity while maintaining high quality
standards.

To achieve these goals consistently, all phases of the job must be incorporated in the planning
process. Some of the issues vital to the planning process are listed in Appendix 2: Project
Planning.

B4 Recording of information

Details of every load of asphalt dispatched from the asphalt plant to the paving site need to be
recorded on a delivery note, which usually includes the following information:

• Truck registration and load size;

• Temperature and time of load leaving plant;
• Mix details and cumulative tons delivered.

The site worksheet should capture these details and, in addition, record:

• Transit time of each load;

• Delivered mix temperatures;
• Base and air temperatures, weather, and wind conditions;
• Stake values where each load is paved;
• Paved thickness of each load and running average thickness.

B5 Paving

Placing and compacting asphalt is the operation to which all the other processes are directed.
The asphalt is brought to the paving site in trucks and usually deposited directly into the paver.
The paver then spreads the mix at a set width and thickness as it moves forward. In doing so
the paver partially compacts the material by means of its own weight (static) and its tamping-
bar (vibration).

Immediately, if required for gap-graded and semi gap-graded asphalt and while the mix is still
hot, pre-coated chippings can be spread on the freshly paved mat. Steel-wheeled (static
and/or vibratory) and rubber-tyred rollers are driven over the (chipped) mat, further
compacting the mix until the required density is achieved.

17
The use of rolled-in-chips on continuously graded asphalt is suspect in view of the possible
adverse effect on mix performance in terms of durability and permeability, and should only be
prescribed after due consideration of these effects.

After a pavement layer has been compacted and allowed to cool, it is ready to accommodate
traffic loads.

B5.1 Fundamental paver functioning

a) The paver

A typical paver comprises two basic units - a tractor unit and a screed unit as shown in Figure
8.

Figure 8: The paver

Paver tractor units are driven either by wheels or tracks, each type with its advantages and
disadvantages. Paved thicknesses can vary from thin to very thick e.g. 12 mm to 200 mm.
Paving speeds can be up to 15 m/min. Usually the minimum screed width is 2.4 m, while
maximum width with extensions can be up to approximately 6.4 m. The wider the screed, the
more traction is required.

Paving widths of 6.4 m require very good traction and pavers with tracks are usually
recommended in such cases, especially when steep slopes are encountered.

18
The main two paver units comprise the following components:

• The tractor unit has:

o A mechanical drive system carried on wheels or tracks;
o Push rollers at the front to make contact with the loading truck tyres;
o Folding hopper and conveyors to receive and direct the asphalt back towards the
screed;
o Augers that distribute the material laterally in front of the screed;
o Mechanical and hydraulic mechanisms for the functioning of the augers and screed.

• The screed unit consists of:

o The screed unit essentially consists of hardened steel plates attached to a frame.
Heaters for the plates are set into the screed frame. Tamper bars are set in front of
the screed plates, and tamper shields protect the tampers from filling with material
and also act as a backing wall, allowing the augers to transport the mix along the front
of the screed (see Figures 9 and 10);
o This unit is attached to the tractor tow points by the tow arms;
o Hydraulic jacks at the tow points can raise or lower the tow arms to change the “angle
of attack” of the screed unit relative to the paved surface (see Figure 11);
o Hydraulic jacks, attached to the rear of the tractor lift the screed clear of the ground.
However, during paving these jacks are disconnected to allow the screed to float on
the asphalt mat being paved;
o The screed strikes off, partially compacts and irons the surface.

Figure 9: Asphalt feed system

19
b) Paver operation

Automatic feed system

Figure 9 illustrates how material is tipped from the truck into the paver hopper c onto the slats
of the conveyor system d, which transports the material into the paver tunnel from where it
falls onto and in front of the augers e, which feeds the material to the front of the tamper
bar f

Sensors in the conveyor tunnels and above the augers are linked to regulate the flow of
material to ensure that the augers are correctly charged with an appropriate, constant head of
material in front of the screed.

The augers should be set at a height of 50 to 70 mm clear above the finished level of the mat
being laid. If the augers are too high the mix will not be transferred evenly across the screed
and segregation can take place. Augers that are set too low will cause blemishes in the mat.

Figure 10: Screed plate and tamper bar

The screed unit is attached to the side arms in two places to make angle-of-the-screed
adjustments possible (see Figure 11).

Figure 11: Floating screed unit

20
In modern pavers:

• The conveyor and auger on one side of the paver work independently from those on the
other side;
• Sensors mounted on the outside of the screed read the amount of material in the auger
tunnel, and activate the movement of the augers;
• The system should be adjusted so that the augers ideally operate 100% of the time;
• These automatic controls aim to maintain a constant depth of material ahead of the screed
(25 - 50% of the auger depth should be visible);
• Augers can also be reversed so that all asphalt is guided to one side of the screed (for
paving narrower widths);
• Extension augers should be used when the screed is extended to ensure that the material
is distributed evenly along the full length of the screed.

Modern screeds have:

• Tampers to tuck and partially compact the material under the leading edge;
• Vibrators to carry on the partial compaction and to promote even spreading;
• Hydraulic extensions for widening from 2.4 to 4.8 m. Extension boxes can then be added;
• Screed lock that locks the hydraulics to prevent the screed from settling when the paver
stops;
• Crown adjustment to crank the screed for a camber or valley fit;
• Thermostatically controlled heaters (gas or electric) to maintain screed plate temperature
and prevent material from sticking to the screed plate.

Floating screed operation

The floating screed principal works as follows:

• The heavy steel plate at the bottom of the screed is set to a small “angle of attack”, i.e.
upwards in the direction of paving. This angle is set before paving by manual adjustment
on the screed cranks to factory recommendations;
• The screed unit is attached to the tractor unit at the tow points by the tow arms.
Raising the tow points while paving will increase the angle of attack of the screed unit
relative to the paved surface, thus causing the screed to rise, increasing mat thickness;
• Lowering the tow points will have the opposite effect, decreasing mat thickness;
• The tow points are situated near the centre of the paver to ensure that their vertical
movement as a result of surface unevenness is kept to a minimum;
• There are a number of forces at work as the screed is pulled forward. A state of
equilibrium of these forces is illustrated in Figure 11:
o P – Pull on the screed, i.e. the traction exerted by the tractor;
o W – Weight of the screed ;
o H – Resistance of the material against and under the screed;
o R – Reaction supporting the screed, perpendicular to the inclined screed plate.

Thus the screed floats on the material at the level where the forces are in equilibrium
(similar to water-skiing).

Any change in forces P, W and H will cause R to change, resulting in the level of
the screed changing.

• Factors that will cause the screed to rise and fall during paving are:
o Changes to the head of material in front of the screed;
o Changes in paver speed and stop/start paving operations;
o Changes to the angle of attack induced by raising and lowering of the tow points;

21
 o Excessive variations in mix temperature causing H to change;
o Changes to the weight of the screed (e.g. personnel getting on and off the screed
plate).

In addition to changes in the forces acting on the screed, undulations in the base will also
cause the tractor and thus the tow points to move up and down. Automatic screed level control
(see section B5.2.a) is designed to counter this undesired vertical screed movement to ensure
a smooth mat.

c) Other screed operation functions and checks

The screed unit strikes off, partially compacts and irons the surface of the mat as it is pulled
forward. At the same time the tamper bars, shown in Figure 10, oscillate up and down to tuck
the asphalt smoothly under the leading edge of the screed plate. Tamper bar projection below
the level of the screed plates and tamper bar condition are critical. Worn tampers must be
replaced.

Most modern screeds also have vibrators mounted on the unit to continue the partial
compaction and ironing action.

Tamper and vibrator speeds are adjustable and are set for paving speed and type of mix.

The screed unit is usually equipped with heaters to prevent the mix sticking to the screed
plate. They are used to heat the screed at the start of paving operations and to keep it at a
constant temperature when paving.

Raising or lowering the tow points changes the thickness of the mat. Typically a change in tow
point level takes 3 to 6 m to make 70% of the change to the screed level, and up to 10 m to
effect the full change.

Before paving the following items should be checked:

• The bottom surface of the screed plates should be checked for smoothness, cleanliness
and excessive wear. Extension plates should be preset at the same angle and in the same
plane as the bottom surface of the main screed plate;
• Tampers should be checked for excessive wear, adjustment and proper operation.
Excessive wear causes a pitted surface in the mat and improper adjustment will lead to the
mat having a scuffed appearance. The limit of the bottom stroke of the tamper bar should
extend approximately 0.4 mm below the bottom of the screed plate or otherwise as per
manufacturers instruction;
• If the screed is of the vibrating type, the vibrators should be started with the screed in a
raised position to ensure their proper functioning;
• The heating unit should also be checked for proper operation by lighting the burner and
allowing it to burn for a few minutes.

At the end of paving shifts it is important that the paver be properly cleaned. While the
machine is still warm, the hopper, conveyors, augers, tamper bars and screed plates should
be cleaned and given a light spray of release agent to ensure a smooth start the next day.
Special attention to tamper bar cleaning is essential to ensure proper functioning.

22
B5.2 Level and finish controls

a) Automatic screed level controls

Most pavers have tow point controls which can be set by manual or automatic means. As
mentioned above, since it is not good practice to continually adjust tow point elevation
manually, pavers normally operate using an automatic screed level control whereby tow point
elevation is adjusted to a level datum other than the tractor body.

Automatic screed controls have three main components:

• Sensor;
• Control box;
• Hydraulic cylinders to change the tow point settings.

The sensors feed electric impulses to a control box which activates the hydraulic cylinders to
change the tow point setting up or down to achieve the required screed tilt.

Automatic screed level control operates on the principle that if the screed is made to follow a
smooth reference datum, regardless of irregularities in the surface or the variable forces on
the screed, an even surface will result.

Thus, base undulations will be ignored and varying forces acting on the screed will be
adjusted for by the constant adjustment of the elevation of the tow points in relation to a datum
other than the wheelbase of the paver.

Automatic level control results in a more even finish than can be accomplished by the paver
with its wheel base as a reference, or by manual adjustment by the screed operator.

The sequence at the start of paving is as follows:

• Set the tow points for the desired mat thickness;

• Pave the first load, checking mat depth manually and correcting the tow point settings if
necessary;
• Once the tow points are set correctly for the desired depth of spread, the automatic
system is activated;
• The system takes over the settings to produce an even mat.

b) Automatic level control equipment

The equipment and functioning of automatic level control equipment are listed below:

• Level or grade sensors (mechanical or sonic) – normally attached to the side of the
screed and extending forwards. (Figure 12 shows a mechanical type reading an
averaging beam).

23
 Figure 12: Level sensor reading on averaging beam

• Averaging beams:

o The purpose of averaging beams is to average out deviations in the substrate surface
over a distance greater than the wheelbase of the tractor unit;
o Articulated averaging beams (shown in Figure 13A) have two or three levels of
averaging skid sets that can each rotate without meaningfully changing the elevation
of the whole beam. For three-level beams nearly 90% of undulation under any one
skid is removed;

Figure 13A: Two-level articulated averaging beam

o Continuous spring-mounted skid foot beams average out most of the surface
undulations, except where these undulations have very long wavelengths;
o For articulated averaging beams, a cable, stretched from end to end of the beam, is
essential in averaging out vertical movement in the beam. The cable provides a
moving datum for the sensor. Theoretically, the least vertical movement of the cable
takes place at the mid-point of the cable;
o The best position for the sensors is forward of the augers, that is one-third to two-
thirds the length of the tow arm. This position accommodates both the changes in
datum level and changes to forces on the screed;
24
 o On both averaging beam types, the sensors adjust the height of the tow points on
either side of the paver;
o While tow points react immediately to sensor signals, the screed takes some time to
react fully. This translates into 3 to 6 meters of travel for most of the change to be
effected and up to 10m for the full change.

• Joint matching shoe:

This usually consists of a small shoe or ski attached to the paver that slides on an existing
surface, near the paved edge. It is mostly used to track the adjacent mat at a longitudinal
joint to ensure matching levels across the joint. The best position for this device is as
close to the tow point as possible to reduce the lag effect of the screed after tow point
adjustment.

Figure 13B: Joint matching shoe

• Erected stringline

This system consists of a stringline erected to a specific elevation which is independent of

the existing base or substrate elevation. Stringlines are often used for paving asphalt base,
since sub-base levels are seldom accurate enough for an averaging beam to be effective.
The system will also ensure accurate finished asphalt base levels for maintaining a
constant wearing course thickness.

In general the system comprises the following:

o Adjustable pedestals are set to actual design levels, spaced 5 – 10 metres apart to
avoid any sag in the line;
o Thick line (nylon or cord) is stretched tightly across pedestals (or rails put on top of
pedestals) to provide a reference or datum for the sensor arm;

Stringlines can be set up on both sides of paver, but require good driver skills to avoid
damage by reversing trucks.

25
 Figure 14: Stringline

• Constant Cross-fall Sensor:

Typically, a joint matcher on a kerb and channel on one side of the paver in conjunction
with a cross-fall sensor on the screed unit will ensure a constant cross fall, e.g. 2% from
the channel to the opposite paved edge, regardless of base levels.

c) Selection of equipment

Automatic level control should be used on both sides of the paver wherever possible.
However, the level control priority may be different on each side, necessitating the use of
different equipment. For example: on one side a joint matcher may be used to track the
channel, while on the other side an averaging beam may be used to achieve a target mean
thickness.

Automatic level control is more effective than manual control, provided that good paving
practices are maintained. However, roughly 50% of the dips and humps in the base will still
reflect through due to:

• The floating action and lag time of the screed; and

• Differential consolidation due to varying depth of the layer.

Therefore, where finishes of existing layers are poor, the use of correction (levelling) layers is
a very important consideration for good rideability. In such cases multiple layers will improve
final evenness by reducing the unevenness of successive layers.

Level control equipment should be selected on the basis of the main paving priority on each
side of the paver:

• To average out the levels of the base and thus achieve a desired average mat thickness
e.g. wearing course on base – use the Averaging Beam;
• To pave to a design level, e.g. where there are no kerbs or channels – use a String-line
on Pedestals;
• To tie in to an existing level e.g. pave against an adjacent mat – use a Joint Matcher.
However, if the finished profile of the existing mat is poor, an averaging beam should be
considered;
• To achieve a constant cross fall e.g. from a channel to a crown – use an Averaging Beam,
Joint Matcher or String-line one side with the Constant Cross-fall Sensor.

26
d) Loose versus compacted mat thickness and differential compaction

The uncompacted mat behind the screed must be paved thicker than the final required
thickness as compaction reduces the paved, “loose” thickness. The degree of reduction in
thickness differs for various asphalt mixes, and typical examples are:

Material Reduction
LAMBS, BTB 25 to 30%
Continuous graded wearing course 17 to 20%
Open-graded, UTFC 8 to 10%

At the start of paving, the screed is lowered onto blocks (see Figure 15A) of the correct loose
mat thickness. For example, adjacent to a previously completed 40 mm mat the paver screed
should rest on 8 mm blocks placed on the completed mat.

Due to the varying thickness of the mat arising from unevenness of the base or substrate
layer, consolidation of the paved thickness by, say, 20% during compaction results in some of
the undulations of the underlying layer being reflected in the finished surface paved to the
correct profile. This is illustrated in Figure 15B with:

• Top – uncompacted mat:

o - Upper line is top of mat behind paver;
o - Bottom line is top of base.

• Bottom Picture – after compaction:

o - Upper line is no longer flat; the mat has gone down by 20%;
o - Final surface now undulates, following base, but less pronounced.

Figure 15: Starter block (A) and differential compaction (B)

(e) General guidelines

• Every truck load should be checked to ensure that the temperature of the asphalt tipped
into the paver hopper is within an acceptable temperature range;
• Care should be taken to ensure that the truck does not reverse directly on to the push-
rollers on the front of the paver, as this will cause the paver, and thus the screed, to jerk.
27
 This will cause an indentation in the mat surface that will adversely affect rideability. The
truck should stop reversing a short distance from the paver and wait with its brakes
released. The push-rollers will then make contact with the truck tyres as it moves forward
and smoothly push the truck ahead of it. The truck should then commence tipping into the
hopper;
• Once the tow points have been correctly set and the automatic level control activated, the
following good paving practices should be adhered to as they have a major effect on the
final finish:
o Paving at a constant speed, selected to suit the compaction effort;
o A constant supply of material to the paver to reduce start/stop activity to an absolute
minimum.
• Other good paving practices:
o Before paving, the screed plates should be cleaned, checked for wear and then
heated to suit the mix type;
o Tow points should be set correctly for the required mat thickness;
o Paving should always start on starter blocks under the screed;
o Paving lines should be marked out each side of the paver for guidance;
o Extension augers should be attached to suit the paving width;
o Forward movement should only commence once auger boxes are filled over their full
width;
o A constant head of asphalt across the entire width of the screed should be
maintained;
o The hopper should not be emptied between loads. The new load should be added to
the hopper so as to heat up what’s left from the old load;
o The tipping of trucks must be well controlled to avoid spillage in front of the paver;
o Paving thickness should be checked regularly by calculations and with a dip rod and
adjustments made gradually and evenly;
o Excessive manual adjustment of the tow points should not be allowed;
o Frequently check the mat finish between the paver and the rollers with a straight-edge
and visually to identify any problems;
o Walking on the unrolled mat should be avoided;
o Handwork should be limited to areas inaccessible to the paver or for correcting
deficiencies.

B5.3 Hand paving

For the successful laying of asphalt by hand the following should be taken into account:

• Deliveries to site should be staggered according to production capacity to ensure that

material is always at a workable temperature;
• Keep the stockpile covered with a tarpaulin to reduce heat loss;
• For large areas the use of a rubber-wheeled front-end loader (instead of wheelbarrows)
will improve efficiency of distribution from stockpile to working area;
• Dump and spread for short distances only to avoid segregation;
• A lute or the flat-edged, reverse side of a metal rake should be used to spread the asphalt
to the correct depth. The surface should then be smoothed with a straight-edge to achieve
an even surface, before starting compaction;
• An even thickness of premix may be achieved by working to pegs and a builder’s line pre-
set to the required thickness, or by using pre-set rails;
• The supervisor should monitor the asphalt temperature at all times to detect asphalt which
has cooled to the critical cut-off point below which it can no longer be successfully
compacted (for example, for mixes manufactured with 60/70 penetration grade bitumen
this temperature is 80°C.);
• Tight corners and catch pit/gulley surrounds need the skill of an experienced finishing
hand, who may apply the hot mix asphalt using a shovel and roller, and complete the
compaction using a hand-stamper or “pogo” compactor.
28
B6 Compaction

Achieving adequate compaction is a critically important aspect of the construction of HMA to

ensure satisfactory performance of the layer.

Compaction is the process of compressing the asphalt material to:

• Achieve good interlock of the particles; and

• Reduce air voids to an acceptable level.

Compaction accomplishes two important goals:

1. To develop strength and stability of the layer; and

2. To close the passages through which water and air would otherwise pass.

Good compaction will therefore ensure satisfactory structural performance, durability and
protection of underlying layers against the ingress of water, and prevent the asphalt from
oxidative hardening (ageing).

If adequate density is not achieved, the following adverse effects may arise:

• Excessive permeability and oxidation may cause premature ageing, which may lead to
premature cracking or ravelling. This will shorten the service life of the pavement;
• Rutting in the wheel tracks may occur due to further compaction by traffic;
• Insufficient long term traffic compaction and kneading due to premature ageing which is
likely to result in high permeability and brittle distress.

B6.1 Rollers and rolling techniques

The most commonly used rollers for compaction of asphalt in roads are:

• Steel drum rollers

o Static: 10 – 14 tons;
o Vibratory: 4 – 17tons;

• Pneumatic tyre roller (PTR) - minimum of 10 – 25 tons.

For more detail on roller characteristics and operations see Appendix 4.

Rolling is carried out in three stages:

∗
• Breakdown rolling (140°C – 110°C range)
o This stage takes place immediately behind the paver where the mat temperature is
highest;
o Most of the compaction is achieved during this stage, e.g. an increase in density from
about 84% Maximum Theoretic Relative Density (MTRD) behind the screed, to about
91% MTRD.

• Intermediate rolling (120°C – 80°C range)*

o This stage follows directly after breakdown rolling while the mat is still plastic and at a
temperature that will permit further compaction. This stage of compaction should
continue until the required compaction is achieved and the density is increased to the
specified requirement e.g. from 91% to 93% MTRD and the surface is knitted.

∗
These are general temperature ranges for 60/70 pen bitumen, continuously graded mixes and actual values
would depend on layer thickness, mix type, binder type and grade as well as weather conditions.
29
 *
• Finish rolling (90°C – 60°C range)
o During this final stage irregularities in the surface are smoothed over to remove roller
marks with little further densification of the layer;
o Final kneading of the surface is achieved.

Figure 16: Typical compaction train

B6.2 Roller choice

It is essential to use the correct roller combinations during the various rolling stages.

(a) Breakdown rolling

Rollers with the highest compactive effort are used to reach adequate density rapidly on mats
where the temperature is typically in excess of 135°C for continuously graded asphalt. This is
best accomplished by steel wheel rollers, especially three-wheel ones;

• Vibratory rollers have a wider compaction temperature range than static rollers and
achieve density in fewer passes;
• PTR’s can achieve the required density, but on a very hot mat may give rise to rideability
problems.

(b) Intermediate rolling

Intermediate rolling should follow breakdown rolling closely, while the mat is still plastic and at
a temperature that will permit further compaction. This phase of rolling should continue until
all the asphalt placed has been thoroughly compacted.

• This stage is best accomplished by rollers effective at lower temperatures i.e. generally in
the range of 95 - 135°C;
• Vibratory and PTR’s are suitable for this stage, the latter being effective at temperatures
as low as 700C, and where knitting of the surface is required.

(c) Finish rolling

Heavy steel wheel static or vibratory rollers at very low frequency vibration are employed to
iron out any roller marks. This stage should be completed before the mat reaches a
temperature of about 90°C, although evening out of the surface may be achieved at
temperatures as low as 70°C.

The following roller combinations are recommended for various situations:

____________________
∗
These are general temperature ranges for 60/70 pen bitumen, continuously graded mixes and actual values
would depend on layer thickness, mix type, binder type and grade as well as weather conditions.
30
(a) Thin continuously graded mats – 25 to 40 mm

Due to rapid heat loss of these thin layers in conjunction with relatively high internal friction,
only a short compaction window is available. The following equipment is recommended:

• Two breakdown rollers plus one PTR;

• Under unfavourable weather conditions an additional intermediate roller can be added due
to the very short compaction window, i.e. two breakdown rollers plus two PTR’s
(intermediate rollers). Wider rollers are preferred to effect more rapid coverage of the mat.

(b) Thick mats – 60 to 100 mm

Heat retention of a thicker layer provides a longer compaction window. Equipment

recommended includes:

• One breakdown plus two intermediate rollers;

• Vibratory rollers should have variable amplitude control as it is preferable to
commence rolling at high amplitudes, reducing these as rolling of a section of mat
progresses.

(c) Over bridge decks and underground services

A 12 ton static steel wheel roller plus two PTR’s. (Note: Vibratory rollers should not be used)

(d) UTFC and open-graded mixes

• Steel wheel static rollers or heavy vibratory rollers in static mode;

• The wider the roller the better due to very rapid cooling of these mixes.

(e) When “shoving” is likely

On steep inclines or when paving on old polished surfaces:

• Limit rolling with steel wheel rollers to minimum;

• Pave and roll in uphill direction;
• Increase the use of PTR’s.

B6.3 Rolling patterns

To ensure full, uniform coverage of the paved mat it is essential that a regular rolling pattern is
adopted. Rollers vary in width and a particular pattern would not apply to all rollers. For this
reason the best rolling pattern for each roller being used should be established and followed to
obtain the most uniform compaction of the paved width.

Figure 19A illustrates a typical rolling pattern, with the roller covering the width of the mat in
three lanes. The sequence is:

• Start low side of mat – lane 1 – up to paver and back;

• Change direction on cool mat;
• Lane 2 up to paver and a bit further than lane 1, and back;
• Change direction on cool mat;
• Lane 3, again a bit further than lane 2, and back;
• Start again on lane 1 and repeat.

31
Each forward pass of the roller should overlap the previous one, generally by 200mm.
Positions where the direction of rolling is reversed should be staggered to reduce unevenness.
Rolling patterns must be systematic, consistent and disciplined to ensure uniform compaction.

B6.4 Good rolling practices

Before carrying out roller compaction, it should be established that:

• A sufficient number of mechanically sound rollers, including stand-by plant, are on site to
carry out the compaction correctly;
• Skilled operators are available;
• Steel wheel rollers are free from backlash when reversing direction;
• No rollers have oil or grease leaks;
• Pneumatic tyres on rollers are inflated to the appropriate pressure; and
• All sprinkler systems, mats and scrapers are in good operating condition.

To avoid surface blemishes and adverse ride quality, the following practices should be
adhered to (see Figure 17A):

• Rollers should not turn, change direction or be stationary on the hot mat;
• Rollers should not vibrate while standing still or reversing direction;
• Starts, stops and changes in the direction of rolling (i.e. forward and reverse) should be
made evenly;
• To prevent excessive cooling of the mat, rollers should not spray excessive water onto the
drums.

In general, rollers should:

• Roll as close to the paver as possible, particularly for thin mats due to the short
compaction window;
• Roll as a team with a predetermined rolling pattern.

Figure 17A: Paving strip rolling technique

32
When rolling at corners such as are encountered at intersections, sharp turns that may result
in tearing of the mat should be avoided by using multiple passes as illustrated in figure 17B.

Figure 17B: Rolling technique at intersections

Steel drum rollers, both static and vibratory types, should normally be operated with the drive
drum(s) forward, i.e. in the direction of paving, especially during break-down rolling. This will
ensure that the material is tucked under the drive drum by the turning force before it is
compacted and not shoved into a bow-wave by the steering drum (see Figure 17C).

Figure 17C: Pushing and tucking resulting from direction of rolling

There are exceptions to this practice which normally occur on steep grades or cross falls
where the drive drum of the roller could “chatter” on the mat, causing displacement of the mat
and an uneven surface. With the steering drum forward, partial compaction of the asphalt will
be achieved before the heavier drive drum passes over it.

33
B7 Joint construction and edge forming

As poorly constructed and compacted joints lead to a reduction in both riding quality and
pavement performance, their construction needs special attention. It is estimated that as much
as 50% of pavement defects can be ascribed to joint and other low density zones.

Based on research5 as well as the findings of experienced practicing engineers, the following
basic principles for longitudinal joint construction are proposed:

• Cracking and ravelling, the two main distress conditions at joints, are caused by relative
low density and or surface irregularities at the joints. Field densities of at least 91% MTRD
are required at joints; permeability (Marvil test) of less than 5 l/h is preferable;
• Joints falling within wheel tracks should ideally be constructed as hot, echelon-paved joints
whenever feasible. If this is not possible or economically justifiable, paver widths that will
ensure the joints are located at positions where the potential for traffic damage is
minimised need to be employed, or such joints should receive special joint sealing
treatment;
• A low density zone along the unconfined edge(s) of the mat, caused by “squeeze-out”
during rolling, generally extends from 75 mm for thin mats to up to 400 mm from the edge
for very thick mats e.g.100mm thick. (Squeeze-out depends on layer thicknesses, mix
stiffness, base roughness, roller action etc.);
• The permeability in this low-density zone, especially on the vertical interface, can be 10
times higher than on the layer itself (Marvil permeabilities of 30 l/h to 250 l/h are typically
measured on untreated joints). Also density along this unconfined edge can be in the order
of 5% lower than the rest of the mat;
• In contrast, the density along the confined edge of a well constructed mat can be in the
order of 2% higher than the rest of the mat;
• A rolling technique to reduce the “squeeze-out” of the unconfined edge is:
o The edge of the first roller pass should be 100 – 150mm away from the edge, leaving
an unrolled slight ridge along the edge;
o The reverse pass takes place over the ridge during which the roller is supported by the
partially compacted material, thereby reducing “squeeze-out”.
• Treatment of joints to achieve a well sealed, dense and bonded interface must include the
removal of the uncompacted cold-side edge, special compaction of the hot-side edge and
sealing of the interface using suitable raking techniques and/or sealing additives;
• Successive asphalt layers require stepped longitudinal edges and thus straddled joints
with at least 150 mm offsets to ensure discontinuous joints and to reduce water infiltration.

B7.1 Construction of longitudinal joints for dense graded asphalt

Note: This section does not apply to open-graded or UTFC mixes

Longitudinal joints are formed between adjacent paving lanes and are zones where, because
of lack of edge support and more rapid cooling, the joint face of the first lane may be
insufficiently compacted.

Longitudinal joints can be classified as either hot joints or cold joints.

Hot joints occur where pavers operate close together in echelon. The lane paved first does
not cool significantly before placement of the second lane adjacent to it and the joint gets
compacted only after placing of the second lane. Consequently the edge of the first lane does
not require any special treatment.

Cold joints occur where the first lane has cooled significantly (e.g. to below 90°C) and was
compacted and finished before paving of the adjacent lane. Where this mat will be exposed to
traffic the edge should be rolled with a pneumatic roller to ensure compaction and traffic

34
safety. Thicker layers should not be rolled-over without edge restraint (e.g. timber boards) due
to the detrimental effect of the lateral squeezing-out of the mix on mat evenness.

The joint face of cold joints (the first lane side) requires special treatment to remove under-
compacted and rounded-off material, and to produce a stable, interlocking face. A roller-
mounted cutting wheel as shown in Figure 18, which leaves a sloping or vertical face, is
recommended for this purpose. After cutting, the trimmings should be removed and a thick (1
l/m2 net) tack coat of bitumen emulsion (preferably filler-enriched) should be applied to the
face.

Figure 18: Cutter on roller

In paving the subsequent lane, the paver should be operated to overlap the adjacent rolled
mat by 25 to 50 mm (See Figure 19A).

The overlapping material should be pushed back or bumped using the flat edge of a rake,
leaving a bump as shown in Figure 19B. It may be necessary to adjust the overlap to achieve
a smooth, properly constructed joint. Rolling should proceed immediately after the joint has
been formed.

Figure 19: Options for rolling longitudinal joints

35
One accepted method of compaction is for the roller to be placed on the first lane overlapping
the second lane by 150 mm as shown in Figure 20A. The roller position is gradually shifted
transversely until a thoroughly compacted, neat joint is obtained. Steel static rollers suit this
rolling method.

Alternatively, rolling may start on the second lane (as shown in Figure 20B) with the roll edge
some 100 mm from the joint and moved transversely towards it, pinching the material on to
the joint. Vibrating rollers suit this method.

B7.2 Longitudinal joints for open-graded and UTFC mixes

A characteristic of these mixes is to allow water to flow into and through them horizontally and
longitudinal joints should in no way prevent this. Therefore:

• The unconfined edge should never be cut back as this tends to close up the face;
• No tack should be applied to the cold mat edge;
• The hot mat should be paved to butt against the cold mat, and should not overlap it.

Figure 20: Two examples of initial rolling of longitudinal joints

B7.3 Transverse joint construction

A transverse joint is formed at a point where work is resumed after a stoppage or at the end of
the day’s work. The techniques used at the “night” joint position differ depending on traffic
requirements and the type of substrate.

Since a poorly constructed transverse joint will cause a noticeable bump and/or durability
problems, particular care should be taken to ensure a smooth riding surface.

Achieving good compaction in the joint area can be difficult and special care should be taken
by:

• firstly cutting back the cold mat sufficiently to remove all poorly compacted areas;
• secondly using good rolling techniques when compacting the new joint.

It is sometimes suggested that transverse joints be constructed at an angle to reduce the

possibility of creating a bump for passing traffic.

As the end of the screed is at right angles to the direction of paving it is suggested that a slight
angle of up to 15 degrees can be accommodated. Angles of the order of say 30 degrees will

36
require extensive hand-work to fill a wedge not reached by the paver. This is most undesirable
as it will compromise rideability and possibly compaction.

To ensure a uniform thickness of mat at a transverse joint it is important for the paver
to continue in the normal fashion right up to the point where the joint is to be formed.
This implies that the head of material in front of the screed remains at a consistent level
up to the location of the joint to ensure that the forces acting on the screed remain in
equilibrium with a constant angle of attack.

The paver should not be allowed to run empty when a transverse joint is to be formed (often
done to limit the amount of asphalt for disposal).

Four situations at transverse joints are described:

• Finishing against an existing mat;

• Finishing on the substrate with a tapered joint;
• Preparation of the joint before resuming paving;
• Resuming paving at a prepared transverse joint.

(a) Finishing of the paved lane against an existing mat (unstepped)

Paving up to the existing prepared joint should be done as follows:

• Approach the joint at the normal paver speed;

• Don’t allow the auger box head to drop ahead of the screed as it approaches the joint;
• Switch off the level sensors as the paver starts climbing onto the existing mat;
• Stop the paver as the screed reaches the joint;
• Raise the screed, move the paver away, and remove excess asphalt;
• Check with a straight edge and correct the levels where necessary;
• Roll and complete the joint as discussed in (d) below.

(b) Finishing off the paved lane with a taper

Where it is required that traffic will traverse the position of the joint, a temporary taper should
be constructed. The length of taper is usually dependent on traffic speed and volume.
Nevertheless the paving routine for the last load of the day is the same:

• Normal paving speed should be maintained with no slowing down;

• While the auger box still has the correct head of material the position of the joint marked
before the paver is stopped;
• The screed is raised and the paver is moved away;
• This leaves excess material at the joint position that is used to form the taper.

There are two methods of constructing such a joint:

Method 1

The material ahead of the marked joint position is temporarily pushed away in a longitudinal
direction and a vertical edge is formed on the face of the mat. To facilitate removal of the taper
before paving continues, treated release paper or similar material to which asphalt will not
adhere is placed ahead of the joint directly on the face of the mat and on the existing
pavement surface. (See figure 21A).

Before subsequent paving starts the loose material is simply removed to the prepared face
and a tack coat of bitumen emulsion applied to the face.

37
Method 2

After the paver has moved away surplus material is formed into a ramp and compaction
proceeds as shown in Figure 21B. Before subsequent paving starts, a saw cut is made into
material of uniform thickness near the screed position to leave only a fully compacted mat with
a true surface. The material ahead of the cut is then removed and a tack coat of bitumen
emulsion applied to the face.

(c) Preparation of the joint before paving

• Remove the temporary taper;

• Check the area of mat just behind the proposed joint position with a straight edge, for any
unevenness in the surface that could cause rideability problems;
• Also visually check the same area for poor surface finish and possible poor compaction;
• If there are any doubtful areas, move the joint position back to remove these areas and
mark the new position on the mat;
• Cut the mat back to the (new) joint position;
• The removal of the taper and the possible cutting back of the mat may result in some
hollows and roughness in the surface of the underlying layer. These must be levelled with
asphalt and compacted before paving restarts to avoid any differential compaction that
could later affect rideability;
• Tack the base area where needed;
• Tack the edge of the joint with neat tack to assist sealing.

(d) Resuming paving at a prepared transfer joint

• Lower the screed onto the correct size starter blocks to suit the loose thickness of the mat;
• Set the tow points to suit the mat thickness;
• Carry out all the correct starting procedures and pull away;
• Stop the paver after about 10m to attend to the joint. (Although this is start/stop paving, it
is necessary to get the joint right before continuing);
• Check and prepare the joint for rolling by;
o Removing excess material off the old mat; and
o Checking the level of the hot mat across the joint with a straightedge.

During this operation handwork should be kept to a minimum and any repairs should be
carried out quickly.

• Rolling
o Start rolling transversely across the mat with just a small overlap (100mm) across the
joint onto the hot mat;
o Where there is no adjacent mat for the roller to move onto, use boards against the
edge of the mat (see figure 22);
o Increase the overlap with each pass until the full drum width is on the hot mat;
o During this rolling, continually check the joint with a straightedge, especially in the
wheel tracks, and repair where necessary;
• When the joint is satisfactory, re-start paving and revert to normal longitudinal rolling.

B7.4 Edges

The outside (exposed) edges of the mat should be rolled concurrently with the longitudinal
joints. In rolling edges, roller wheels are extended 50 mm to 100 mm beyond the mat edge. A
combination of edge raking to produce a 1:4 gradient, and rounding-off rolling using a PTR, is
recommended to ensure a safe, neat, uniformly shaped finished layer edge. Tie-in milling in
combination with the above rolling is needed where new overlays need to be tied-in flush with
existing kerb, channel or concrete edging restraints.
38
Figure 21: Transverse joint using a paper inter-layer (A)
and with a sawn vertical face (B)

Figure 22: Edge protection when rolling transverse joints

39
B8 Cleaning-up and finishing inspections

B8.1 Surface finish

The mat behind the paver should be frequently examined for uniformity, i.e. there should be
no areas of evident excess or deficiency of binder or segregation of aggregates.
Unsatisfactory material in affected areas should be removed to the full depth of the layer and
replaced with new asphalt - even after compaction should deficiencies only become evident at
that stage.

B8.2 Surface tolerances

The importance achieving acceptable surface tolerances and evenness for acceptable riding
quality on modern high-speed roads cannot be over-emphasised. Measured in terms of the
International Roughness Index (IRI) algorithm over, say, an average of 100 m moving area,
average IRI measurements of less then 2, and preferable below 1.4, should be aimed at. The
use of three-level averaging beams (or beams with spring mounted type ski-feet) and various
other methods is essential for riding quality improvement of asphalt layers. Also, correct
paving procedures are essential to achieving good riding quality (see Appendix 6).

Various types of profile measuring equipment e.g. the ARRB walk-behind profilometer and,
laser meters, such as the Road Surface Profiler (RSP) and ARAN are generally used. Any
irregularities, based on the mean or other statistical measures - e.g. maximum or 90th
percentile worst value, measured over a fixed or moving length (say 100 m) that varies vary
more than the specified tolerance for each layer - should be corrected before the next layer is
placed.

In the lower courses, these can usually be corrected by removal; by milling to the correct level-
or by placing levelling layers of material. In the final layer, however, the entire affected area
should be removed promptly and sufficient new material placed to form a true and even
surface. If the required evenness is obtained in the first course of asphalt laid, the subsequent
courses can usually be placed uniformly by simply setting the paver for the thickness desired.
It is however preferable on high profile projects to enhance the riding quality of the finished
pavement by employing full averaging beams both sides of the paver where possible.

B8.3 Opening to traffic

Various factors need to be taken into account to establish an appropriate time for a newly laid
layer to “set-up” before being exposed to traffic loading. These are:

• Ambient temperatures;
• Type and volume of traffic;
• Layer properties, i.e. mix type and thickness;
• Grade and type of binder.

Typically a one-hour to eight-hour period may be required to allow the layer to have sufficient
bearing capacity without undue deformation. Thicker BTB layers may require a longer time.

40
SECTION C Quality systems and specialised manufacturing and
construction topics

C1 Constructability

The ultimate aim of the design, manufacture and construction of asphalt is to produce a
durable layer of acceptable finish that consistently meets expected performance criteria. To
achieve this aim it is of critical importance that the mix components be proportioned in a
manner that will facilitate uniformity of the layer, both as regards its composition and an
acceptable degree of compaction. The mix should therefore not be prone to segregation or be
unduly resistant to compaction.

The following relationships should be considered during the design phase to promote
constructability of the layer i.e. the relative ease with which target properties can be achieved
during the manufacture and construction process:

• Layer thickness and nominal maximum aggregate size (NMAS)∗ of the mix;
• Field density and permeability;
• Riding quality and lift thicknesses.

C1.1 Layer thickness and NMAS

Based on work done by Cooley et al at NCAT6 the following relationships of layer thickness,
NMAS and field density are proposed:

Minimum Minimum Preferred

NMAS (mm) Field Density Thickness Thickness
(% MTRD) (mm) (mm)
6.7 Θ
- 20 25 - 30
9.5 92.5% 30 35 - 45
13.2 93% 45 50 - 65
19.5 93% 80 90 - 100
26.5 94% 100 110 - 125

C1.2 Riding quality versus lift/layer thickness

Increased layer thickness tends to have a negative effect on riding quality due to increased
movement under the rollers during compaction. This effect may worsen when rolling patterns
are irregular. Also, high paver drag (causing slipping or other disturbances) and/or edge kick-
out irregularities may occur.

For optimum riding quality, thick upper base layers may be split into two applications. In
general, layer thicknesses in excess of 70 mm can adversely affect riding quality.

C2 Safety and the environment

There are several hazards attached to the manufacture of hot mix asphalt. Elevated
temperatures associated with asphalt and its components (bituminous binders and
aggregates), noise, moving machinery and manoeuvring earthmoving equipment and trucks at

*
NMAS is the size of the sieve one size larger than the one that retains more than 10% of the aggregates.
Θ
For layers of thickness less than 30mm it is recommended that a permeability test be performed to establish
adequate compaction.
41
the stockpiles and loading zones, constitute conditions that require due care to mitigate
employees’ exposure to associated hazards, thereby preventing serious injury, damage or
even loss of life. Solvents and cleaning aids used in asphalt laboratories pose a threat to good
health. Laboratories, including those on construction sites, should therefore be equipped with
the necessary extraction and ventilation systems to limit exposure to toxic fumes.

At the paving site tally-clerks, screed operators, rake men, laboratory staff taking samples and
haul truck assistants are all exposed to the hazards of passing traffic and moving plant.

Proper induction of new employees into the company’s safety programmes, as well as
ongoing training in the safe handling of materials and proper operation of plant and
equipment, is therefore essential. Manuals and courses have been developed by Sabita that
will assist in minimising exposure to the risks associated with the handling of bituminous
products, as well as first level treatment of injuries and the prevention and fighting of fires.

The processes associated with the manufacture and paving of asphalt, by their very nature
also impact on the environment. Waste products which may contain pollutants, emissions and
noise are generated, and non-renewable natural resources and energy are consumed.
Manufacturers have an obligation to lessen the impact of their operations on the environment
and this can be achieved through innovations that will, e.g., lower manufacturing
temperatures, increase the use of reclaimed asphalt in new mixes, and reduce emissions and
noise. Pavers could be equipped with scavengers in the auger boxes to dispel fumes at a level
that will not affect the breathing of paving staff.

The Occupational Health and Safety Act of South Africa (Act No. 85 of 1993) centres on the
health and safety aspects of employees in the workplace, and of those likely to be affected by
their activities. In terms of this Act the employer and employee have distinct responsibilities
and duties to ensure health and safety in the working environment:

• Employers shall provide and maintain, as far as is reasonably practicable, a working

environment that is safe and without risk to the health and safety of employees;
• Employers must ensure that employees are fully conversant with hazards in their
workplace, and precautionary measures to minimise or eliminate these hazards must be in
place;
• The Chief Executive Officer is the official with overall responsibility and accountability for
health and safety;
• Employees shall adhere to health and safety regulations and take reasonable care for the
health and safety of themselves and of other persons affected by their activities.

It is therefore essential that employers and employees be conversant with the regulations
promulgated in terms of the Act, and that they are understood and followed by each person
involved in the project.

The Sabita Contract Safety File will assist in the compilation of statutory procedures as
stipulated in the Act and the South African Construction Regulations promulgated in terms of
the Act in 2003. Guidance provided covers the development of an occupational health and
safety policy, the principles governing company commitment to the health and safety of its
employees, general duties of staff at work and the appointment and functions of those staff
members with responsibility for implementing the company's health and safety plan.

In addition, this document addresses recommended risk assessment procedures that pertain
specifically to operating plant and equipment directly related to the application of bituminous
products. For safety procedures related to general vehicle and plant operations, users are
referred to Construction Regulations 21 (Construction Vehicles and Mobile Plant), and to
relevant Sabita publications - in particular Sabita's Manual 8: Safe and responsible handling of

42
bituminous products and the Sabita BitSafe course notes: Course on the safe handling of
bitumen for the training of safety officers and operatives.

43
C3 Quality assurance

Quality – a key factor in HMA pavement construction – can be described, in the broadest
sense, as a degree of excellence or the extent to which something is fit for its purpose. More
specifically, product quality is defined as conformance with requirements, freedom from
defects and the sum of its characteristics that reflects its ability to satisfy stated or implied
needs.

It is generally accepted that the term quality assurance encompasses three elements:
process control, acceptance control and independent assurance.

The following are generally accepted definitions of the above terms:

• Quality assurance: All those planned and systematic actions necessary to provide
confidence that a product will perform satisfactorily in service. It deals with the
overarching issue of procurement by the most efficient, economical and satisfactory
means available, and involves the continued evaluation of the activities of planning,
design, development of plans and specifications, advertising and awarding of contracts,
construction and the various interactions of these activities.

• Process control: Those actions and considerations necessary to assess production and
construction processes in order to control the level of quality being produced in the end
product. It includes sampling and testing to monitor the process, but usually does not
include acceptance sampling and testing.

• Acceptance control: Sampling testing and the assessment of test results to determine
whether or not the quality of the constructed product is acceptable in terms of the
specifications.

• Independent assurance: A management tool that requires a third party, not directly
responsible for process or acceptance control, to provide an independent assessment of
the product and/or the reliability of test results obtained during process and acceptance
control. The results of independent assurance tests are not used as a basis for product
acceptance.

The principles of formal quality assurance can be applied with considerable benefit to the
manufacture of HMA. It is therefore recommended that the manufacturer has a quality
assurance system in place based on the recommendations of the ISO 9000 series.

This code provides for the following aspects of quality management to be addressed:

• Management responsibility: A statement of quality policy, the organisation of

responsibility and authority and the allocation of resources and personnel to put the
scheme into effect. A senior employee should accept responsibility for ensuring that the
scheme is effective and up-to-date;
• Contract review: A procedure for the regular review of progress on contracts in terms of
customer needs, contract amendments and delivery;
• Document and data control: Written procedures to ensure that documents describing
the control of functions are available at the correct locations and in the correct hands;
• Product identification, control and traceability: Documented product identification to
enable tracing of the location of the product;
• Process control: Documented control procedures and work instructions for all
operations and procedures, including site inspections;

44
• Inspection and testing: Procedures for inspections and testing of incoming goods,
including the manufactured product before, during and after manufacture and
construction. Records of all testing and inspections must be signed off by a designated
responsible person;
• Control of inspection, measuring and test equipment: Procedures and records
covering the regular control and calibration of equipment;
• Inspection and test status: A record of the status of a product in terms of inspection,
testing and acceptability;
• Control of non-conforming products: Implementation of procedures to ensure that
products that do not conform to specified requirements are not delivered inadvertently;
• Corrective and preventative action: A procedure for the ready detection and
prevention of defective products and the implementation of appropriate corrective action;
• Handling, storage, packaging, preservation and delivery: Procedures and methods
for the handling of product to protect its quality up the point of application;
• Quality records: Maintaining quality records that demonstrate that the quality system is
effective and that finished products conform to the specified requirements;
• Internal quality audit: Scheduled, quality audits need to be conducted by the
manufacturer on his plant and equipment and, where appropriate, construction sites;
• Training: All personnel carrying out quality related work must be trained and certified
accordingly.

C3.1 Process control

As part of a process control procedure it is essential that the manufacturer ensures that the
raw materials used in the manufacture of HMA i.e. bituminous binders, aggregates and filler,
comply with his stated requirements in supply agreements, and do not differ significantly in
quality from those materials used in project designs. Having assurance that the raw materials
comply with his requirements, the manufacturer must then take the necessary steps to
measure and record the composition of the mix being manufactured to ensure that the
proportions of component material fall within targeted ranges determined during the project
mix design stage.

(a) Aggregates

Design objectives are the main considerations when selecting aggregates for a project mix
formula. The initial selection of aggregates to be used is based on test data supplied by the
source before delivery to the plant stockpiles. The general characteristics and physical
properties of aggregates for HMA are defined in various specifications, although some clients
may have their own standards. The raw aggregates should come from sources approved by
the employers (or their agents) and should be tested for compliance with designated quality
standards.

(b) Binders

Quality control of bitumen for use in HMA is covered extensively in Sabita manual 25: Quality
management in the handling and transport of bituminous binders. Some aspects of the
sampling and testing of bitumen is dealt with in Section A2.3 (b).

Upon entry to the manufacturing site, the consignor’s and haulier’s documentation should be
inspected to ensure that the correct product is being delivered, whereupon it should be
directed to the right receiving tank. It is recommended that all loads delivered should have a
laboratory certificate of compliance issued by the refinery attached to the weighbridge
certificate. Sampling should proceed in the manner prescribed in Sabita’s Manual 25. It is
recommended that sample volumes be sufficient to enable the retention of at least one litre for
additional testing should this be required to resolve disputes. The minimum testing required for
penetration grade bitumen is Penetration and Softening Point.
45
The consignee’s representative should ensure that the temperature of the binder being
delivered is at an acceptable temperature to allow pumping, and not excessively high so as to
cause premature ageing.

The client or his representative may also sample binder at the plant and conduct tests as part
of a quality control procedure.

It is also advisable that the viscosity temperature relationships are affirmed from time to time
to ensure that appropriate lay down temperatures are being maintained.

(c) Mixtures

Plant control of asphalt mixtures covers a series of interrelated elements. The basic elements
that require process control testing are:

• Mix design:
o Selection of binder, aggregate and compositional design;
o Selection of aggregates;
o Selection of a mixing temperature and lab compaction temperatures.

• Day-to-day plant control and tests:

o Stockpile and cold-feed gradations;
o Hot-bin gradations (for batch plants);
o Cold-feed proportioning adjustments;
o Hot-bin weight adjustments (for batch plants);
o Binder content tests;
o Gradation of aggregate in mix;
o Adjustments of mixing time and temperature;
o Preparation of laboratory specimens for the relevant testing of compositional or
strength parameters.

(d) Field Control of Placement

Process control during placing and compaction should focus on pre-empting the laying of
defective product and enabling corrective action to be taken. It is recommended that a trial
section be constructed during which a modus operandi can be established that will ensure the
construction of a properly compacted layer to the required finish.

It is considered sound practice for the contractor to address the following controls during
construction:

• Application of a tack coat;

• Adequate rate of delivery of asphalt to the paver;
• Paver speed and paver adjustments;
• Level and thickness of the mat;
• Weather conditions as they affect achievement of compaction, roller types, rolling patterns,
coverage and speed;
• Control of yield thickness of layer(s) and pavement evenness.

(e) Risks

On most contracts specifications call for end-result assessment of quality which incorporates
Process Control and Acceptance Control procedures. To limit bias, the system requires the
implementation of random sampling plans to procure samples. The guiding principle of such

46
schemes is to incentivise the contractor to produce a quality product, complying with the
specified product standards, including required compaction levels and finish.

In cases where marginal material or finished product deviations are encountered, protocols for
reassessment or corrective action exist which may lead to conditional acceptance in
conjunction with reduced payment offered to the contractor.

Two types of risks are associated with the judgement of compliance schemes: the contractor’s
risk and the employer’s risk. The contractor’s risk is the probability of rejection of a lot of
material while it is acceptable. The employer’s risk is the probability of accepting a lot when
the lot is unacceptable. These risks arise from the assessed or tested value in relation to the
compliance limits. With the use of conventional probability theory these risks can be quantified
and built into the judgement of compliance procedures. Typically a contractor who has been
assigned to carry out a project should not run an unduly high risk of wrongful rejection;
consequently his risk should be low, say 1%. On the other hand the employer may have to be
prepared to run a higher risk of wrongful acceptance, typically 5%.

C4 Modified binders

Various modifiers, including elastomers (SBR, SBS), rubber crumb, plastomers (EVA),
aliphatic synthetic wax and naturally occurring hydrocarbons are used with penetration binders
to enhance the performance and/or durability of asphalt mixes.

Specifications for properties of modified binders may vary, depending on the client and the
nature of the project. The recommended method of addition is listed in Table C4.1 below. Two
methods of addition are described: “wet-blend” where the additive is pre-blended with the
bitumen, and “dry-blend” where the additive is introduced in the mineral aggregate stream.
Generally the wet-blend method is preferred in all instances as it ensures a more consistent
and uniform binder which is evenly distributed during the mixing process. On the other hand
the dry-blend method permits the manufacture of small quantities in a batch plant pug mill at
short notice, which may not always be possible using a wet-blend method.

Binder additive addition process

Additive Wet-blend Dry-blend

EVA 3 3

SBS 3

SBR 3 3

FT Waxes 3

Gilsonite 3 3

Crumbed rubber 3 3

Carbon Black 3 3

47
C5 Product quality enhancing equipment and methods

Various new manufacturing and construction technologies have recently become available,
which are suitable on high performance contracts to optimise final product quality or reduce
costs.

C5.1 Material transfer-vehicle

The material transfer vehicle (MTV) is designed to act as a shuttle between the asphalt haul
truck and paver. The machine has storage capacity, allowing the contractor to even out the
truck cycles and reduce haul costs. Thermal as well as aggregate segregation is significantly
reduced or even eliminated by the machine’s remixing action. The MTV therefore permits non-
stop paving and improves uniformity, all of which leads to a much improved finished surface.

Figure 23: Material transfer vehicle

C5.2 In-situ asphalt heating devices

Various asphalt-reheating devices are available which can be utilised to either repair areas of
insufficient compaction or to prepare cold joints without costly and time consuming cut or
removal operations.

The older generation type with direct flame heating, which will damage the asphalt binder
significantly, is not recommended. The new type of infrared heating devices, used in
conjunction with rejuvenator additives, has proven to be acceptable in terms of limiting binder
ageing damage.

These devices can greatly accelerate production in work areas with restricted occupation, but
should be used in conjunction with sound engineering judgement. However, the mix ageing
and its effect on durability should be thoroughly assessed and controlled.

C5.3 Plant operating systems

The following manufacturing system enhancements can be utilised to increase product quality:

• High accuracy binder control system – The use of accurate load cell systems, bulk feed
followed by dribble feed injection, and electronic controls increase the accuracy of binder
addition up to 1 kg/batch (±0.05%);
• Aggregate control systems – Advanced weighing and controlled feed systems enable
higher levels of mix consistency (typically 10 kg/batch or to ±0.75% accuracy);
• Automatic plant systems – Full automatic controls enable consistent mixes and early
detection and shut down of defective mix compositions.

48
C5.4 Paver operation systems

Recent advances which can be used to increase product end-quality include:

• Laser guided paving systems for improved riding quality precision (level control set to
predetermined levels relative to a fixed reference system), screed-assist, screed-lock,
slope control, etc;
• Double-layer paving – a capability to pave two mixes or layers in one pass. The benefits of
this type of paving include savings in the application of tack coats, superior interlocking of
the two layers, reduced compaction cost, reduced occupation and closure times and
reduced paving costs;
• Self-tacking pavers – this enables the placement of specialised layers like (ultra) thin
friction courses while avoiding tack coat pick-up and the additional cost of employing
binder distributors.

C5.5 Laboratory testing efficiency advances

The essence of a sound process control by the contractor and acceptance control by the client
or his agent is rooted in proficient laboratories yielding accurate test results. Regular inter-
laboratory calibration and assessment of accuracy of the laboratories carrying out both
acceptance and process control is essential. Preferably a third party laboratory should be
included in the process.

Joint process control and acceptance control laboratories (preferably established at the
asphalt plant or construction site) can be used with great success. The following benefits can
accrue:

• Early detection of mix problems during supply and the adoption of prompt corrective
procedures;
• A more comprehensive and thus more representative testing programme can be
implemented at the same cost, or cost savings can be achieved, should test frequency be
maintained;
• Combined testing teams can complement each other, thereby ensuring correct,
documented test procedures with a resultant reduction in bias;
• Unnecessary conflicts in laboratory results or interpretation, and hence costly delays in
production, can be avoided;
• Common sampling locations can be used, thereby eliminating costs that may arise from
transporting, reheating and ageing.

For this joint testing programme to be reliable and function properly, the following essential
procedures should be in place:

• Senior personnel from both parties must monitor and manage the process thoroughly to
prevent biased assessments by either party or a “witnessing” rather than a “participating”
contribution by either of the parties;
• Both participating laboratories should keep separate, comprehensive records and perform
equipment calibration and comparative testing with other (third party) laboratories;
• Sampling plans, test procedures and sample preparation methods should be agreed by
both parties;
• It is recommended that 5% of samples should be split and submitted to a third party or
client’s laboratory for comparative testing to monitor and evaluate testing reliability.

49
C6 Reclaimed asphalt pavement recycling systems

To counter undesirable emissions split-feed systems, in which the RAP is fed to the drum
mixer separately from the new aggregate, are now commonly employed to produce asphalt
mixes containing reclaimed asphalt.

C6.1 Split-feed systems

With a split-feed system the virgin aggregate is delivered to the burner end of the drum-mix
plant in a conventional manner. The RAP is delivered into a separate entry point near the
midpoint of the drum length, as shown earlier in Figure 24.

Figure 24: Drum mix plant with coater

A variety of designs are employed for the intake system used to introduce the RAP into the
drum. Typically, the drum has a series of ports or entry chutes cut into the shell to allow the
RAP to be introduced from the charging conveyor as the drum turns. At the point at which the
RAP enters the shell, a short length of the flights is often removed or configured so that the
asphalt-coated material can easily be blended with the virgin aggregate. Heating of the RAP
begins as soon as it enters the port and as the combined aggregate is picked up by the flights,
heating and drying of the blend continues.

When RAP is charged into the drum at its midpoint, the feed of virgin aggregate at the burner
end is lessened, thereby reducing the concentration of aggregate in the veil upstream of the
RAP entry point. Consequently the amount of heat transfer to the virgin aggregate is
decreased. As a result the temperature of the gases at the contact point with the RAP is
higher, and there is an increased probability of damaging the asphalt coating on the RAP. This
problem increases in severity as the proportion of RAP used in the recycled mix increases and
the amount of new aggregate decreases accordingly. Methods for reducing the exhaust gas
temperature involve increasing the concentration of virgin aggregates in the veil upstream of
the RAP entry point, as well as raising the temperature of the RAP before it comes into
contact with the heated new aggregate.

Normally, if 20% or less RAP is incorporated in a mix, and a split-feed system is used, minimal
hydrocarbon emissions are produced, depending on the adequacy of the veil of new
aggregate inside the drum and the discharge temperature of the mix. As the percentage of
RAP rises and the moisture content of the RAP increases, there is a greater potential for
emission problems. When the amount of RAP used exceeds 30 percent by weight of the mix,
special consideration needs to be given to the plant type to ensure adequate heat transfer
from the exhaust gases to the virgin aggregate before those gases come in contact with the
RAP.
50
C6.3 RAP stockpiling techniques

In building stockpiles of reclaimed asphalt that has been crushed and screened ready for
processing, particular attention should be paid to the following aspects:

Moisture

As RAP stockpiles have a tendency to hold more moisture and not drain as well compared to
aggregate stockpiles, measures should be taken to prevent the accumulation of high
proportions of moisture as this will have a significant effect on the percentage of RAP that can
be processed. Measures that should be considered to deal with this aspect are:

• All organic matter should be removed and the floor area profiled to provide surface
drainage. Stockpile floors are sometimes paved to assist with drainage and reduce
moisture absorption from the ground. An additional benefit of floor paving is the
prevention of contamination when loading close to floor level;
• Building higher, conical stockpiles to limit the ingress of water;
• Storage of RAP under-roof in open-sided structures. (Covering stockpiles with
tarpaulins or plastic sheets is NOT recommended as this procedure may cause the
accumulation of moisture due to condensation.)
.
Consolidation

When it is expected that some time will elapse before any reclaimed asphalt is used, untoward
consolidation of the material can be avoided by barring heavy material handling equipment
from riding over stockpiles.

Uniformity

For the consistent production of asphalt containing RAP it is advisable to stockpile material
from various sources separately, and to identify these by source. Space constraints and small
quantities of RAP from different sources may require the building of composite stockpiles to be
dealt with at a later date. Consistency of these smaller stockpiles can further be improved by
crushing and screening.

Fractioning

When using high proportions of RAP in asphalt mixes it may be necessary to crush and
screen RAP into various sizes to effect better control over gradation, binder content and
volumetric properties.

Construction of separate coarse and fine RAP stockpiles will also minimise segregation and
allow greater flexibility in adjusting RAP content to meet gradation and binder content targets.

51
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 Jenkins KJ and Douries W. Gyratory compaction and MMLS3 testing of asphalt
wearing and base courses for Cape Town International Airport taxiway rehabilitation.
Institute for Transport Technology ITT Report 1-2001, University of Stellenbosch, South
Africa (2001) 1-40.

2 Sabita. Interim guidelines for the design and construction of Hot Mix Asphalt in South
Africa. June (2001).

3 Epps AL, Ahmed T, Little DC, Hugo F, Poolman P and Mikhail M. Performance
prediction with the MMLS3 at WesTrack. Paper presented at the 9th International
Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Copenhagen. 2002.

4 Wright DFH and Burgers A. Traffic compaction of bituminous concrete surfacings.

Paper represented at the 4th Conference on Asphalt Pavements for Southern Africa,
Cape Town, South Africa. (1984).

5 Kandhal PS and Mallick RB. Longitudinal joint construction techniques for asphalt
pavements. National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT) at Auburn University,
Alabama, USA. NCAT Report No. 97-4. August 1997.

6 Bayley et al. Course notes of Asphalt Academy course on Bailey Design Method.
University of Stellenbosch, 2007.

7 Pretorius FJ, Grobler JE and Onraët J. Development of a fit-for-purpose product

performance specification system for asphalt mixes. 8th Conference on asphalt
pavements for southern Africa (CAPSA).

8 Pretorius FJ, Jenkins KJ, Hugo F and Vietze DF. Innovative asphalt mix design and
construction: Case studies on Cape Town International Airport and Kromboom Parkway.
ARRB, Cairns, Australia. 2003.

9 Kandhal PS and Mallick RB. Longitudinal joint construction techniques for asphalt
pavements. National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT) at Auburn University,
Alabama, USA. NCAT Report No. 97-4. August 1997.

10 Kandhal PS and Mallick RB. A study of longitudinal joint construction techniques in

HMA pavements (Interim report – Colorado Project). National Center for Asphalt
Technology (NCAT) at Auburn University, Alabama, USA. NCAT Report No. 96-3.
February 1996.

11 Asphalt Academy. Course notes: Manufacture and construction of Hot Mix Asphalt.
Department of Public Works, Roads and Transport, Bloemfontein. 4 and 5 July 2006.

12 Janoff MS. Pavement smoothness. National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA),

NAPA Building, 5100 Forbes Blvd, Lanham, MD 20706-4413. Information Series 111.

13 Cooley et al. Effect of maximum aggregate size and lift thicknesses on permeability
and densities of asphalt layers.

14 US Army Corp of Engineers. Hot Mix Asphalt Paving Handbook. 2000.

15 National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA). Recycling Hot Mix Asphalt

pavements. Information series 123, 2007.

52
APPENDIX 1
Flow diagram and time scale to optimise the mix design process

Parties to
Suggested
be
Timetable Process
consulted
(Duration)
by Supplier

Mix design meeting:

Contractor &
Within two weeks • Assess specifications, available resources and test facilities;
Contract
of contract award • Determine provisional aggregate sources, binder, grading proportions and Engineer
volumetric properties.

Assessment of volumetric properties

• Perform laboratory assessments of volumetric properties on selected
Five weeks alternatives; Contract
before start of • Select optimum mix composition based on initial laboratory assessment; Engineer &
production • Fine-tune mix composition and volumetrics and test with a production run; Design
(2 weeks) • Adjust mix composition based on the production run outputs and set Laboratory
targets (e.g. voids, binder content and grading) for performance
assessment.

Performance assessment Contract

Five weeks • Evaluate compliance with specified performance characteristics of plant Engineer &
before start of samples; Specialised
production • Optimise or redesign mix based on outcomes; Testing
(2 weeks) • Submit mix design for approval. Laboratory

Trial section assessment

• Assess constructibility (40 tons run, minimum);
One week before
• Check performance related properties of field samples; Contractor &
start of
• Establish compaction effort required and appropriate rolling pattern; Contract
production
(4 days) • Compare and, if necessary, resolve differences between results on field Engineers
and laboratory samples.

Finalisation of production mix properties

• Select volumetric and compositional targets for production;
• Set tolerances for process and acceptance control;
At least three Contractor &
• Submit process and acceptance control statement on production and
days before start Contract
of production construction temperatures, rolling techniques and plan;
Engineers
• Submit final mix parameters for acceptance control to the client’s
representative.

Initial production assessment:

• Examine the results of three lots; re-assess mix composition and establish
First three whether any fine-tuning of mix proportions or properties is needed; Contractor
production lots • If necessary, re-submit these for process- and acceptance control
purposes.

Production Control:
• Monitor volumetric and compositional properties of the mix on a daily basis
for compliance with the project mix tolerances;
• Frequently monitor binder properties and performance characteristics of Contractor,
Throughout
the mix to ensure that design objectives are consistently being met; Engineer &
production
• If meaningful changes in mix characteristics are evident, reassess Employer
performance characteristics and make the necessary adjustments to the
composition and volumetric properties of the mix.

53
APPENDIX 2

Project planning

By identifying the specific project parameters the contractor can effectively plan each phase
of the project to achieve the optimum balance between production rates, cost-effective
operations and profitability, while ensuring quality hot mix asphalt layers. Typical planning
areas are listed below:

• Site measurement and checking of existing grade conditions to include:

o Identify low/high areas, vertical alignment aspects (i.e. transitions) and other areas
requiring special paving planning, hand corrections, levelling or repair;
o Check that there are adequate falls for drainage;
o Calculate tons required based on actual average thicknesses (usually determined by
a grid of dips);
o Check that adequate substrate construction support exists;
o Deal with street furniture that requires adjustment (e.g. manhole covers etc);
o Decide on applicable tack application.

• Configuration of the paver and level control system:

o Check required paving width and whether the use of screed, auger and auger tunnel
extensions is required;
o Check which level control system is most applicable for each side of the paver (i.e.,
averaging beams, fixed string line, joint-matching shoe or constant cross-fall).

• Other plant requirements:

o Select suitable rolling train, sequence and passes;
o Provide standby paver or rollers if required.

• Material delivery to the paver:

o Check HMA plant capabilities and required delivery in tons per hour;
o Examine the type, suitability and number of trucks for a particular haul distance and
the availability of tarpaulins;
o Check on traffic conditions, haul routes, access to paving site and traffic control
measures.

• Project requirements:
o Establish the sequence of paving, the paving lanes and handwork required;
o Determine the location of longitudinal and transverse joints and the required
treatment of joints;
o Take note of project requirements applicable to mix parameters, compliance limits,
finish, compaction (density) and surface texture.

• Quality assurance:
o Establish a system for recording site data;
o Agree on the responsibility for and timing of site coring and/or nuclear gauge testing;
o Establish a laboratory testing and reporting system;
o Establish a sampling and storing system;
o Agree on a procedure for dealing with any defects.

• Paving site conditions:

o Establish channels of communication on site between engineer, contractor, supplier
and paving crew;
o Agree on a protocol for weather limitations;
o Determine acceptable asphalt mixing and delivery temperature ranges;
o Check surface preparation and weather influences on various surface types;
54
o Assess trial section outcomes;
o Carry out other inspection and assessment routines.

55
APPENDIX 3
Manufacturing plant components and functional aspects

Details of the various components of asphalt plant types listed in Section A3 of this manual
and their functions are described below:

(a) Cold feed system

For all plant types to yield a uniformly acceptable end product, all input materials need to be
accurately proportioned. The importance of feeding each aggregate size to the dryer at the
correct rate of flow cannot therefore be over-emphasised. For this purpose plants are
equipped with cold feed units capable of correct proportioning of the cold (and usually moist)
aggregate fractions being fed to the dryer. A typical unit is shown in Figure A3.1.

Figure A3.1: Typical cold feed unit

Cold feed bins are generally fed by means of front-end loaders from the stockpiles.
Segregation should be prevented at all times.

Feed units are placed under each cold feed compartment. These units are designed to give
a uniform flow of material on to the conveyor belt. Units are calibrated so that the flow rate
can be controlled.

There are various types of feeders, the most popular being the continuous belt feeder shown
in Figure A3.2.

Figure A3.2: Typical cold feed belt feeder

56
In batch plants excessive feed can overload the screens (if used), causing carry-over of finer
aggregate into the coarser aggregate bins. Erratic feeding causes some hot bins to overfill
while starving others, leading to:

• Aggregate layers of varying size in the hot bins, especially the fine aggregate bins,
resulting in alternating rich and lean batches;
• Overloaded dust collection systems;
• Reduced dryer draught.

In drum mix plants, aggregate is weighed before drying. Since the material may contain an
appreciable amount of moisture that will influence the aggregate mass, accurate
measurement of aggregate moisture content is important. From the measurement
adjustments can be made to the automatic binder metering system to ensure that the
amount of binder delivered to the drum is correct for the amount of dry aggregate.

To ensure a uniform flow of material from well managed stockpiles, the following points
should be adhered to:

• Feeder gates should be accurately calibrated and correctly set;

• Gates should be kept free of obstructions. Use of a grizzly over the cold feed
compartments will reduce the likelihood of large stones causing obstructions;
• Prevent arching or packing of fine aggregate in the compartments. Correct use of
vibrators will eliminate this problem.

(b) The dryer

The conventional dryer (Figure A3.3) is a revolving cylinder 1-3m in diameter and 4.5-12m
long, in which aggregate is dried and heated by a burner and, in the case of drum mixers,
mixed with binders.

Inside the dryer steel lifters called “flights” are arranged to ensure circulation and proper
drying of the aggregate. As the dryer rotates these flights lift the aggregate and drop it
through the burner flame and hot gases as illustrated in Figure A3.4.

Figure A3.3: Dryer

57
 Figure A3.4: Flights in dryer

The slope of the dryer drum, its speed of rotation, diameter and length, together with the way
the flights are arranged, all combine to control how long the aggregate takes to pass through
the drum.

The dryer performs two functions:

• It vaporises and removes any moisture in the aggregate;

• It heats the aggregate to the required mixing temperature.

(c) Dust extractors and collectors

All plants must conform to the applicable environmental protection laws, specifically the
National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act No 39 of 2004. Although most plant
operators do not have the sophisticated equipment to monitor emissions daily, specialist
consultants are available to do so.

Dust collection equipment is connected to the dryer unit to meet anti-air-pollution

requirements, and, in some cases, to provide filler for use in the asphalt being produced.

Stack emission other than a plume of steam is an indication that either the burner is set
incorrectly and unburned fuel is causing smoke emissions from the stack, or dust collection
is inefficient, in which case dust is discharged from the stack. Such deficiencies should be
attended to as a matter of urgency.

Three types of dust collectors are commonly used – cyclones, wet scrubbers and filler bag
houses (see Figure A3.5).

58
 1: Cyclone Dust Collector 2: Wet Scrubber 3: Bag House

Figure A3.5: Dust collector types

Cyclone dust collector

Cyclone dust collectors operate on the principle of centrifugal separation. The exhaust gas
and dust from the dryer is sucked into the cyclone where it spirals, throwing the dust
particles against the wall of the container from where they slide downwards to the collection
point (see Figure A3.5 #1 above)

Wet scrubbers

A wet scrubber entraps dust particles in water droplets and removes them from the exhaust
gases. This is done by breaking up the water into small droplets and bringing them into
direct contract with the dust-laden gases. As Figure A3.5 #2 illustrates, gases from the dryer
are introduced into a chamber through one inlet while water is sprayed into the chamber
from nozzles around the periphery. Most wet scrubbers are used in combination with a
centrifugal collector which collects coarser material while the wet scrubber removes the
fines.

Bag houses

A bag house is a large metal housing containing hundreds of synthetic, heat-resistant fabric
bags, usually silicone-treated to increase their ability to collect very fine particles of dust. A
typical installation, shown in Figure A3.5 #3, functions much in the same way as a vacuum
cleaner. A large fan creates suction within the housing, which draws in dirty gas and filters it
through the fabric of the bags.

(d) Screens (batch plants only)

Screens are sometimes used in the batch mixing plant. Aggregate, having been heated and
dried, is carried by the hot elevator – usually an enclosed bucket conveyor – to the screen
unit where vibrating screens separate the aggregates into specific sizes. To perform this
function properly, the total screen area should be large enough to handle the total amount of
feed delivered, and must be in balance with the capacity of both dryer and pug mill. The use
of this system in modern day production in South African practice is reserved for highly
variable aggregate sources.
59
(e) Hot bins (batch plants only)

Hot bins are used for the temporary storage of the heated and screened aggregates in the
various sizes required. Each bin is an individual compartment or a segment of a large
compartment. The partitions between the compartments must be tight, free from wear holes
and high enough to prevent aggregate spillage into an adjacent compartment.

A properly sized hot-bin installation should be large enough to hold enough material of each
size to permit the mixer to operate at full capacity.

(f) Weigh hopper (batch plants only)

Aggregates are withdrawn from the hot bins and deposited into the weigh hopper, which is
suspended from scale beams that weigh the cumulative amounts of aggregate contained.
Figure A3.6 illustrates how the cumulative scale settings are used to control the proportion of
aggregates drawn from each bin.

Figure A3.6: Cumulative weighting of aggregate

The overall efficiency of the mixing process depends on the accuracy of the scales. Hence,
they should be checked daily and serviced regularly.

(g) Binder meters

Batch plants

Aggregate deposited into the plant’s pug mill from the weigh hopper is blended with the
correct proportion of binder. In a typical plant system, the quantity of binder to be introduced
is weighed separately in a weigh pot before being introduced into the pug mill. When the
required mass of binder has been pumped into the weigh pot, a three-way valve in the ring-
line bitumen feed system closes. The binder in the weigh pot is then pumped through spray
bars into the pug mill.

60
 Figure A3.7: Binder metering

Since binder accumulates on the sides of bucket during operation, the tare mass should be
checked regularly for accuracy.

Drum mixers

In a drum mixer the binder is added to the aggregate inside the dryer drum.

Binder metering and delivery is a continuous mechanical proportioning system locked with
the aggregate weigh system to ensure the correct binder content of the mix. The mass of
aggregate being transported into the dryer/mixer, as measured by a sensor under the
aggregate conveyor, determines the quantity of binder delivered into the drum (see Figure
A3.8)

Figure A3.8: Aggregate weigh system (drum mixer)

(h) Pug mill (batch plants only)

The chamber in which the binder and aggregates are mixed in a batch plant is called pug
mill. A twin-shaft mixer is used in virtually all modern asphalt plants, consisting of a lined
mixing chamber with two horizontal shafts on which several paddle shanks, each with two
paddle tips, are mounted. The paddle tips are adjustable and easily replaced.

The paddles must be set to ensure that there are no “dead areas”, i.e. zones where material
can accumulate out of reach of the paddles and thus not be thoroughly mixed. Worn or
broken paddles should be adjusted or replaced before plant start up.

61
Figure A3.9 shows an over-filled pug mill, an under-filled pug mill (both of which will prevent
compliance with specification) and a pug mill filled correctly.

Figure A3.9: Pug mill capacity

(i) Control cabin

The control cabin normally contains all controls necessary to activate, shut-down or adjust
plant operations, and all the dials and indicators necessary to monitor the manufacturing
process.

The cabin should afford the operator a clear view of the entire plant and ancillary operations.

(j) Introduction of filler and other additives:

• Filler: Mineral filler, either extracted from the heated, dried aggregate, or active filler, or
a combination of the two, can be fed back to the aggregate blend, in controlled
proportions in the following ways or combinations thereof:
o Directly to the mix, in which case the active filler portion would require weighing;
o Directly from the primary collector (full amount);
o From secondary collector (e.g. bag house) by metered amount as required.

Filler addition methods for extracted and imported filler (lime, cement, PFA) for various
plant types are as follows:
• Batch Plants: weighed and fed into pug mill;
• Drum Plants: blown into mixing section of drum i.e. the binder addition zone, in such a
way as to prevent loss thereof in the exhaust gas stream.

62
• Other lighter additives such as cellulose fibre and polyamine:
o Batch Plants: pre-packed and introduced into the pug mill at the start of the dry-mix
cycle;
o Drum Plant: continuous feed (similar as for filler above).

• Binder modifiers: (see section C4)

63
APPENDIX 4
Roller type characteristics and operational aspects

(a) Static steel drum rollers

While the three-wheel type is most commonly used, tandem rollers are also available.
Characteristically the three-wheel type has two large, heavy rear drive wheels that can be
ballasted with water for extra weight and pressure, and a single small, lighter tiller wheel at
the front, which is usually not ballasted.

Compaction with static steel drum rollers is achieved through top-down, high surface
pressures causing the consolidation of asphalt particles into a tightly knit configuration. This
action requires good lubrication, thus these rollers are most effective where the mat is at its
hottest i.e. normally in the breakdown zone. Thus they are normally used as breakdown
rollers

Rolling speeds are typically 4 - 8 km/hr. Steel drum rollers should normally be operated with
the drive drums forward, i.e. in the direction of paving. This will ensure that the material is
tucked under the drive drum by the turning force before it is compacted and not shoved into
a bow-wave by the steering drum.

(d) Vibratory tandem rollers

Typically, vibratory rollers for road construction weigh between 4 and 17 tons, with the
loading usually equally distributed between two tandem drums. Vibration can be set on
either or both drums. Both drums are drive drums.

Vibratory rollers are versatile in their application provided that the amplitude and frequency
are adjustable and appropriate settings selected in conjunction with the speed of rolling.

Vibratory rollers impart a rapid succession of impacts on the surface, which gives rise to
pressure waves that reduce the internal friction of the material and set the particles in motion
to be rearranged into a denser configuration.

Factors affecting the compactive effort of vibratory rollers are:

• Linear drum loading;

• Amplitude and frequency of vibration; and
• Rolling speed.

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 Figure A4.1: Compactive effort of vibratory rollers

The higher the drum loading, the greater is the compactive effort during vibration. Drum
loadings vary from about 40 kg/cm for the very heavy rollers down to 15 kg/cm for the 4 ton
rollers.

These rollers compact effectively when used in vibratory mode, and should not be used in
static mode for the purpose of increasing density.

Vibrating rollers generally achieve density in fewer passes than do static rollers of similar
size.

The rolling speed of vibratory rollers determines the spacing of impacts on the mat. For
optimum spacing, the speed for a roller that vibrates at 3 000 cycles per second would be in
the order of 5 km/hr. For wearing course asphalt low amplitude vibrations, typically 0.3 to
0.4mm, is appropriate. For thick asphalt bases, rolling can start at higher amplitudes e.g. 0.7
to 0.8mm, and as density increases, reduced to the lower amplitude.

Advanced operator skills are required for vibratory rollers. To provide versatility, most
vibratory rollers require that the operator coordinate the frequency, amplitude and speed to
produce an acceptable surface and density. Also, the vibrations must be cut off prior to
stopping or reversing directions. All modern rollers have this facility. Failure to observe the
cut-off precautions will produce a very poor surface.

(c) Pneumatic tyre rollers (PTR’s)

Pneumatic tyre rollers range from 10 to 25 ton in mass and are capable of increasing density
at lower mat temperatures than steel drum rollers. The rear tyres of PTR’s are offset from
the front ones to ensure complete coverage of the mat in a pass. The wheel loadings are

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usually the same on all wheels, these being 200mm wide for 10 – 14 rollers with heavier
ones having 300mm wide tyres.

Compaction with PTR’s is achieved through manipulation and kneading of the mat, causing
consolidation. The confining action of adjacent tyres limits lateral movement during rolling,
making these roller types less likely to shove the mat than steel drum rollers. This makes
PTRs preferable for tender mixes to avoid shoving.

Also, PTR’s provide a more uniform degree of compaction by compacting areas bridged by
steel drum rollers, and also offer a kneading action that tends to close up the surface and
provide a tighter finish.

The compaction effort is determined by three factors:

• Load per wheel;
• Ground contact pressure which is determined by:
o Tyre pressure;
o Tyre contact area; and
• Roller speed.

If the load is kept constant and tyre pressure is increased, the tyre contact area is reduced
and the contact pressure increased.

The correct rolling speed is 4 to 5.5 km/hr to ensure that the kneading action effectively
increases the density of the mat.

PTR’s should preferably not to be used for breakdown rolling or at mat temperatures in
excess of 110°C due to:

• The tyre ruts possible causing final rideability problems;

• Unsightly blemishes on the surface due to “pick-up”.

PTRs work best when the mat has cooled to about 1100C, but are effective down to about
700 or 600C.

To prevent pick-up by the pneumatic tyres on hot mats it is good practice to warm up the
tyres before covering a fresh mat, and to use a release agent on the tyres.

d) Typical roller patterns for various conditions

Recommended rolling effort#

Compactibility of mix
25 mm thick 40 mm thick >60 mm thick
- 2 Roller Team - 2 Roller Team - 2 Roller Team
Tender Mix – Easy
- 60 tons/h Max - 100 tons/h Max - 120 tons/h Max
- 3 Roller Team - 3 Roller Team - 2 to 3* Roller Team
Medium Mix – Average
- 60 tons/h Max - 80 tons/h Max - 120 tons/h Max
N/A - 3 to 4 Roller Team - 2 to 3* Roller Team
Harsh Mix – Difficult
N/A - 60 tons/h Max - 100 tons/h Max
Note * Three rollers maybe necessary up to 90 mm thickness; for two rollers reduce production slightly
#
Average temperature; excluding adverse conditions where increased effort will be essential

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e) Typical compaction window under adverse conditions (winter) paving riding
quality best practice guidelines

Typical available rolling window (time) for various layer types#

Compactibility of mix
40 mm thick 30 mm thick 20 - 25 mm thick
Tender Mix – Easy 20 min 13 min 9 min
Medium Mix - Average 15 min 10 min 7 min
Harsh Mix - Difficult 10 min N/A N/A
#
Note At air temperatures of approx. 10°C, wind speed of approx. 10 km/h, road surface temperatures of 5 – 10°C

67
APPENDIX 5
Details of substrate preparations for HMA paving

1 Granular layer preparation for new HMA pavements

(a) Gravel Sub-base or Sub-grade Soil

If the asphalt pavement is to be placed directly onto gravel sub-base or sub-grade soil, this
support material should meet all requirements in respect of moisture content, density,
support strength, and evenness. The layer should provide a firm foundation for the paved
asphalt layer.

(b) Granular or Crushed Stone Base Courses

If the asphalt layer is to be constructed on a new or existing untreated granular or crushed

stone base layer, this support material should meet all the specified project requirements for
moisture content, density, structural strength, and evenness. Proof rolling of the granular
base should be done before priming, and any noticeable excessive deflections of the base or
indentation of truck wheels in the granular base course material should be evaluated to
assess whether the support layer has sufficient stability to ensure adequate compaction of
the asphalt layer.

If the condition of the granular support layer material is deemed not to be satisfactory, the
layer should be reworked or stabilised to render it suitable for overlaying.

2 Preparation of existing HMA surfacing for overlays

The degree of preparation needed for an existing asphalt pavement depends on the
condition of that surface. At a minimum, distressed areas should be removed and replaced;
potholes properly patched, cracks cleaned out and sealed, and ruts filled in or, preferably,
removed by precision cold milling.

(a) Pavement Replacement and Patching

It is generally inadvisable to attempt to bridge failed areas with new overlay material unless a
very thick overlay is to be constructed. Removal and replacement should be carried out on
all existing pavement areas where severe load-related distress has occurred. All HMA and
granular base materials that have failed should be excavated or cold milled to spoil, or hot
in-situ recycled with reheating equipment. Granular sub-base or sub-grade distortion should
be repaired by undercutting and replacement with suitable backfill material. Proper
subsurface drainage should be installed as necessary where water moisture problems exist.
New granular base course material, stabilised base course layers, or HMA mix should be
placed to bring the strength of the pavement structure in each failed area to the same level
as the surrounding good pavement layers. If HMA is used to patch a large area, it should be
placed with a paver and compacted with one or more large rollers.

Localised distressed areas should be patched properly. Each area should be cut back to
sound pavement and squared up, with the sides as vertical as possible, the loose material
and water in the hole removed, a tack coat applied to the sides and bottom of the hole, the
mix placed in the hole, and the new material adequately compacted, preferably with a roller.
If the pothole or failure area is deeper than 100 mm, the mix should be placed in more than
one layer and each layer compacted properly.

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(b) Crack Filling

The benefits of filling cracks other than those that are patterned and associated with
severely distressed areas, depend, in part, on the width of the cracks. If the cracks are
narrow (less than 5 mm in width), special cold emulsion type filler is needed. Cracks that are
too narrow to be filled with a hot sealing material should be widened with a mechanical
router before sealing is attempted. Alternatively they should be bridged with stress absorbing
materials e.g. grids or geotextiles. If wider cracks are present, they should be cleaned of
debris with blown air. The crack-sealing material should only be inserted when the cracks
are clean and dry. The level of the crack-filling material should be slightly lower than that of
the surrounding pavement surface and should not spill over the top of the crack, where it
could create a bump in the new pavement layer during the rolling process.

(c) Levelling Courses

It is common to place a levelling course on the existing pavement surface to improve the
rideability of the pavement structure by reducing the depth variation and, hence, the
differential compression of the final layer. This levelling course, sometimes called a wedge
and level course or a scratch course, is designed to fill in the low spots on the pavement
surface. This levelling action is accomplished by paving to predetermined levels (string-line
etc.), set to ensure evenness after compaction.

(d) Milling

Milling can be used to remove the high points in the existing surface in lieu of placing a
levelling course (filling in the low spots). Milling can be accomplished over a range of widths
typically from 150 mm to more than 4 m. If equipped with automatic grade and slope controls
similar to those used on an asphalt paver, the precision milling machine is capable of
producing a level surface in one pass over the existing surface. In addition, if the milled
surface is properly cleaned, its texture can enhance the bond between the new and old
layers, and may reduce the possibility of slippage of the overlay over the existing surface.

A pavement surface that has been milled is typically very dusty and dirty. Multiple sweepings
by hand or passes of a mechanical broom are usually needed to remove all of the residual
grit from the milled surface. In some cases it may be necessary to dampen the milled
surface before sweeping, or to air blow or flush the milled surface with water to remove dust
and very fine material completely. Any dust and dirt left on the milled surface will have a
severely adverse effect on the bond between the existing course and the new asphalt
overlay.

3 Preparation of concrete surfacings for HMA overlays

When HMA is placed over a concrete pavement the surface should likewise be properly
prepared. Any severely distressed areas in the concrete slabs should be cut out, removed
and replaced. Corrective work should also be completed on the underlying sub-base or sub-
grade material, where necessary. Any severely spalled areas at joints should be repaired
using partial-depth slab replacement methods. Rocking slabs should also be stabilised and
consideration should also be given to the use of a crack-relief layer between the existing
concrete pavement and the new overlay.

For joints that are poorly sealed, the existing seal material should be removed and the joints
cleaned. When dry, the joints should be resealed with appropriate joint-sealing material.
Care should be taken not to overfill the joints, particularly in cool weather when they are
widely opened. In all cases the joint-sealing material should be below the top of the
surrounding pavement surface. Once the patching and resealing has been completed, the

69
surface of the concrete pavement should be cleaned completely using mechanical brooms
and air blowing or water flushing or both, as required.

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APPENDIX 6
Paving for good riding quality

A number of factors influencing final finish for good riding quality will require attention during
paving and compaction. These are:

• Substrate quality and layer thickness;

• Paving procedures;
• Tipping into the paver hopper; and
• Selection of rollers.

Substrate quality and layer thickness

Evenness of the underlying layer is a prerequisite for achieving good riding quality in the final
paved layer, as even the best paving practice will result in roughly 50% of undulations in the
underlying layer being reflected to the surface. Therefore if good riding quality is a priority,
the use of correction layers should be given serious consideration.

Generally it follows that where multiple thin layers are paved, each layer successively
improves the rideability. On the other hand it may be more difficult to achieve good riding
quality on a thicker mat, due to:

• Differential compaction of the mat;

• Movement and squeeze-out of the mat under the rollers.

With the above in mind, it has been noted that considerably better riding quality will be
achieved by using two layers of 40mm asphalt followed by a 20mm friction course, than by
using 90mm asphalt base followed by a 40mm wearing course.

Paving procedures

To achieve an even mat with good riding quality the following paving procedures are
recommended:

• Automatic auger feed control should be employed at all times to maintain a constant
head of asphalt in front of the screed unit. A fluctuating head changes the forces acting
on the screed, causing the screed to rise or fall which will have a seriously adverse effect
on the riding quality;
• The sensors should be set so that ideally the augers are continuously turning slowly.
This means that asphalt is being fed at a continuous rate across the front of the screed;
• As mentioned before, paving should proceed at a constant speed to maintain a
consistent equilibrium of forces acting on the screed and, hence, the evenness of the
mat. Stoppages should be avoided at all costs, which requires a consistent supply of
material to the paver;
• Automatic level control should be used on both sides of the paver at all times, each type
being selected to suit the site requirements as previously described in the manual.
• Averaging beams should be at least 7 m long and should preferably consist of:
o Adjustable pedestals are set to actual design levels, spaced 5 – 10 metres apart
to avoid any sag in the line;
o a three-level articulated averaging system with a free spanning wire between
ends; or
o an in-line spring mounted multi-skid system).

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 Level control using a Joint Matcher should only be used on an adjacent completed layer
provided it has a good finish. If not, an averaging beam should be used;

• When automatic level control cannot be used, manual adjustment of tow points should
be carried out – an operation that requires considerable skill. During such manual
adjustment the following precautions are necessary:
o Adjustable pedestals are set to actual design levels, spaced 5 – 10 metres apart
to avoid any sag in the line;
o Excessive adjustment should be avoided;
o Any adjustment should be conservatively done and in small increments.
(Typically a change in tow point level takes 3 to 6 m to make 70% of the change
to the screed level, and up to 10 m to effect the full change).

• The paver should be equipped with a “screed-lock” hydraulic system that prevents the
screed from sinking when a stop is unavoidable. The hydraulic pressure must be
checked and set before paving.

Tipping into the paver hopper

In addition the following processes related to asphalt supply to the paver should be followed
to achieve an end product of uniformity and evenness.

• Reversing haul trucks should stop just short of the moving paver and wait with the
brakes released. Moving forward, the paver will smoothly make contact with the truck
and push it ahead, i.e. the paver should impart movement to the truck instead of the
truck backing into the paver. Only then must the truck start tipping into the hopper.
When raised, the body of the haul truck should not come into contact with any portion of
the paver;
• Trucks should have a long enough overhang to tip well into the hopper and not spill in
front of the paver. Spillage can compromise final quality in terms of finish and
compaction for the following reasons:
o The paver has to stop while the spillage is cleared thus affecting the screed level;
o A short length of mat behind the paver will start cooling before being covered by
the rollers;
o Asphalt in the paver will start cooling.

When a paver is forced to stop for a short time to await the next truck, it should be stopped
as quickly and smoothly as possible. Enough mix should remain in the paver hopper to
retain its heat and a tarpaulin cover over the hopper will improve heat retention.
Alternatively, only the hopper should be completely emptied, while the auger box is kept full
at the same head of asphalt in front of the screed.

Selection of rollers

The choice of rollers and rolling techniques will also affect rideability.

Steel-drum rollers should be used as breakdown rollers. PTR’s, if used as breakdown rollers,
tend to form tyre ruts in the fresh asphalt surface that the subsequent rollers may not be able
to completely eliminate.

The thicker the mat, the deeper the ruts. This makes is less likely that a good finish will be
achieved.

• Rollers should not:

o Change lanes on the hot mat;
o be stationary on the hot mat;

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 o vibrate while stationary;
o start, stop or change direction suddenly.

• Rollers should:
o Stagger and angle stop positions on the hot mat;
o Avoid excessive shoving of the mat.

73