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Job Kurian
Chapter-6
Module 6 Lectures 30 to 35
Measurement of temperature
Keywords: Thermometry, vapor pressure thermometer, resistance thermometer,
thermistors, thermocouples, adiabatic wall temperature, recovery temperature, recovery
coefficient, conduction and radiation errors in temperature measurement.
Topics
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Expansion thermometer or liquid in glass thermometer (LIG)
6.3 Change of state thermometers
6.4 Electrical resistance thermometry
6.4.1 Conductor sensors
6.4.2 Semiconductor sensors
6.5 Thermoelectric thermometry
6. 5.1 Laws of thermocouples
6.5.2 Thermocouple materials
6.5.3 Thermopiles and thermocouples connected in parallel
6.6 Pyrometry
6.6.1 Total radiation pyrometer
6.6.2 Optical pyrometer
6.7 Measurement of temperature in flow
6.7.1 Adiabatic wall temperature or recovery temperature
6.8 Temperature measurement problems in flows
6.8.1 Conduction error
6.8.2 Radiation error
6.8.3 Velocity effects on temperature measurements
6.9 Sensors/probes for measuring stagnation temperature
The instruments to measure temperature have been classified according to the nature of change
produced in the testing body by change in temperature. Based on the above consideration there
are four categories of thermometers .They are:
(1) Expansion Thermometers
(2) Change of State Thermometers
(3) Electrical Thermometers
(4) Radiation and Optical pyrometers
Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras 2
Experimental Gas/Aerodynamics Prof. Job Kurian
Chapter-6
Boiling point of Mercury is 357oC. Liquid in bulb Thermometers making use of Mercury has a
range of -390 to 350oC which are freezing and melting points of Mercury. If alcohol is used the
lower temperature can be upto -620C
Bimetallic thermometers
Bimetallic elements are used for temperature measurement and more widely for sensing and
control purposes Invar rod (coefficient of expansion =2.7x 10-6 cm/oC) and Brass (coefficient
of expansion = 34.2x10-6cm/oC because of their large difference in the values of coefficient of
expansion are used as a very useful combination.
Saturated vapor pressure depends only on the temperature and properties of the liquid and is
independent of the size of the container. The vapor pressure thermometer consists of a (i) bulb
containing a fill liquid (ii) a capillary tube (iii) Bourdon Tube.
The resistance temperature relationship is not linear in the complete temperature range. The
resistance at any particular temperature may be written as
R = R0 [1+α1T+ α2T2+…………αn Tn]
where R0 is the resistance at temperature T=0. The number of terms necessary depends on the
material, the accuracy required and the temperature range covered. Platinum, nickel and copper
require respectively two, three and three of the α constants for accurate representation.
Platinum, for instance, is linear within +/- 0.2% from 255K to 366K, +/- 0.4% in the range
90K to 183K and also in the range 200K to 422K.
If assumed linear,
Rt = Ro 1+α t
1 1
k = β -
T T0
β has a value between 3400 and 4000 depending on the composition of the thermistor.
20 – 100 20mv
100 – 200 18mv
20 – 200 38mv
Here P1, P2 and P3 are the measurement points and Q1 to Q4 are the reference points. The total
output from n thermocouples will be equal to the sum of individual emfs. So the purpose is to
get a more sensitive measurement.
6.6 Pyrometry
The word is derived from pyros + metron. The methods under this are primarily thermal
radiation measurement. There are two distinct instruments. Under this category:
(i) Total Radiation Pyrometer
(ii) Optical pyrometer
Stefan-Boltzman law
According to Stefan – Boltzman law the net rate of exchange of energy between two ideal
radiators A and B is,
q = σ TA4 - TB4
Stefan-Boltzman Constant
In total radiation pyrometers, the radiation from the measured body is focused on some sort of
radiation detector which produces an electric signal. Detectors may be classified as thermal
detectors or photon detectors. Thermal detectors are blackened elements designed to absorb a
maximum of the incoming radiation at all wavelengths. The absorbed radiation causes the
temperature of the detector to rise until equilibrium is reached with heat losses to the
surroundings. The thermal detectors measure this temperature using a resistance thermometer,
thermistor or thermocouple.
In photon detectors, the incoming radiation frees electrons in the detector structure and
produces a measurable electrical effect. These events occur on an atomic or molecular time
scale and hence are faster than the thermal detectors. However, photon detectors have a
sensitivity that varies with wave length, thus incoming radiation of all wavelengths are not
equally treated.
Eλ = C1 λ-5 / e
c 2 / λT
-1
C1 and C2 = constants
T = absolute temperature of blackbody
Filament too bright Filament too cold Filament and source at equal
temperature
Fig.6.12 The heated filament and the temperature source at different temperatures
Stagnation temperature is that reached by the fluid when it is brought to rest adiabatically.
A thermometer moving with the fluid and emitting no thermal radiation would measure static
temperature. An intrusive sensor cannot measure static temperature. Static temperature is
measured by non-intrusive methods or estimated indirectly. (by measuring static pressure and
then density by optical means) or by measuring the speed of sound. The difference between
stagnation temperature T0 and free temperature T if a moving perfect gas can be determined
from
V2
T0 - T =
2Cp
Since, shocks do not change the enthalpy; this equation is true for both subsonic and
supersonic flows.
Difference between recovery temperature and static temperature is a fraction of the adiabatic
temperature rise.
Ta - T
K=
To - T
K is called the coefficient of thermal recovery or the recovery coefficient. K represents the
proportion of kinetic energy of the medium recovered as heat. K depends on the shape of the
body and on Mach number, Reynolds number, Prandtl number and on the ratio of specific
heats .
For a given gas Pr and are constant over a wide range of temperatures (For air Pr = 0.72 and
= 1.4) and so recovery coefficient is a function of M and Re only, where, k is the coefficient
μCp
of thermal conductivity Pr = .
k
The coefficient of thermal recovery depends on the shape of the surface. For poorly
streamlined bodies r varies between 0.6 and 0.7 and for well streamlined bodies it is between
0.8 and 0.9. The relationship between recovery temperature and stagnation temperature
depends on the Mach number and can be derived from following two equations:
T0 -1 2
= 1+ M and
T 2
Ta -T
=
T0 -T
-1 2
Ta M
= 1- 2
-1 2
1-μ
T0 1+ M
2
When M exceeds unity a shock appears whose strength increases with increasing incident
Mach number. In the absence of heat transfer a thermometer on the wall of a tube inserted into
a gas stream would indicate a recovery temperature Ta dependent only on the flow
characteristics in the boundary layer around the tube. When, K = 1, Ta = T0.
Tn - T
K=
T0 - T
The value of K can be found by calibrating. With the recovery coefficient known and knowing
Tn as indicated by the instrument, To can be found by substituting in
-1 2
Tn M
= 1- 2
-1 2
1- K
T0 1+ M
2
Assuming steady state situation, heat in at x = (heat out at x+dx) +heat loss at surface.
Assumed that rod temperature is a function of x only. It does not change with time or over rod
cross section at a given x.
qx = qx+dx + ql
dTp d dTp
= -k A + -k A dx
dx dx dx
i. Tp = TW at x = 0
hC
where, m =
kA
TW - Tf hC
Temperature Error = Tp – Tf = (m = )
cosh mL kA
Error is small if Tw is close to Tf and if coshmL is large hence to reduce the error, insulate the
wall cosh mL will be large if m and L are large. So, the probe should be inserted deeper. To
make m large, h should be large (high rate of convectional heat transfer) k should be small. To
C
achieve this support the probe with an insulating material depends on shape of the rod. For
A
C 2π r 2
circular , where r is the radius.
A π r2 r
hl
Nu = , Nu = f(Pr,Re)
k
1 1
Nu = 0.332Pr 3 Re 2
P 4 4
TP - Tf = TW - TP
h
P includes the emittance of the body.
Pstag, nozzle is got by Pstat, tank and Pstat, nozzle is obtained by a barometer.
Tstag nozzle Tstat tank
Tstat nozzle = =
-1 2 -1 2
1+ M 1+ M
2 2
and the test section, the settling chamber temperature can be assumed to be same as the test
section temperature. Mercury thermometers, resistance thermometers or thermocouples could
be used as the sensor.
Well made stagnation temperature probes will have recovery coefficients close to unity over a
wide range of velocities. The gas upstream of the sensor is brought to an optimum velocity
such that heat gained by the sensor due to convection will be balanced by heat lost by
conduction. In order that the flow is not brought to rest completely, the tube is provided with
vents of area 1/4 to 1/8 of the inlet orifice area.
The sensor may be welded to the innermost tube or in the centre of the inner tube. In the first
case it will act as a poorly streamlined body and the recovery coefficient will be ~0.65. In the
latter case the recovery coefficient may be up to 0.9.The innermost tube may be of insulator
material (porcelain) and the outer tubes of heat resistant steel.
Radiation losses can be reduced by heating the shield to a temperature close to the ambient
temperature of the medium. Figure 6.18 gives a miniature probe with heated shied developed
by California Institute of Technology. In this an electrically heated wire on the shield reduces
direct radiation losses and by conduction from the shield. To reduce the heat loss by
conduction through the leads from the thermocouple and its holder, the latter is also heated by
electric heating.
Exercises
Answer the following questions
1. What are required properties of a liquid used in thermometers?
2. Explain a vapor pressure thermometer.
3. How are bimetallic strips useful in thermal control systems?
4. Why is Platinum preferred in resistance type thermometers?
5. What is the resistance temperature relation for thermistors?
6. Graphically compare the resistance temperature relation of a conductor sensor and
thermistor.
7. Why are thermistors preferred for temperature measurement in the lower temperature
regime?
8. What are the important laws of thermocouple?
9. What are thermopiles?
10.What is the working principle of optical pyrometer?
11.Sketch an optical pyrometer.
12.How are stagnation temperature and adiabatic wall temperature related?
13.What is recovery coefficient in a temperature sensor?
14.What factors control the recovery factor?
15.What are the methods to reduce conduction errors in temperature probes?
16.Suggest ways of reducing radiation errors in temperature probes.
17.How is temperature probes calibrated?
18.Sketch a conventional total temperature probe.
19.Why are vents provided on total temperature probes?
20.Why body of some temperature probes is heated electrically?
2. In an experiment to determine the temperature and the associated flow quantities, a total
temperature probe of recovery factor 0.9 was used. The probe gave a temperature value
of 630K. The static temperature is known to be 230K. Find the Mach number of the
flow.
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