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Introduction

You were, perhaps, asked by your teacher in the first class why you opted for
psychology over other subjects. What do you hope to learn? If you were asked this
question, what was your response? Generally, the range of responses which surface
in class to this question are truly bewildering. Most students give inane responses,
like they want to know what others are thinking. But then one also comes across
such responses as knowing oneself, knowing others or more specific responses like
knowing why people dream, why people go out of their way to help others or beat
each other up. All ancient traditions have engaged themselves with questions about
human nature. The Indian philosophical traditions, in particular, deal with questions
relating to why people behave in the manner in which they do. Why are people
generally unhappy? What changes should they bring about in themselves if they
desire happiness in their lives. Like all knowledge, psychological knowledge too is
intended to contribute to human well-being. If the world is full of misery, it is largely
due to humans themselves. Perhaps, you have asked why a 9/11 or war in Iraq
happened. Why innocent people in Delhi, Mumbai, Srinagar or in the North-East
have to face bombs and bullets? Psychologists ask what is in the experiences of
young men which turn them into terrorists seeking revenge. But there is another
side to human nature. You may have heard the name of Major HPS Ahluwalia,
paralysed waist down because of an injury he suffered in a war with Pakistan,
who climbed the Mt. Everest. What moved him to climb such heights? These are not
only questions about human nature which psychology addresses as a human
science. You will be surprised to learn that modern psychology also deals with
somewhat nebulous micro-level phenomenon like consciousness, focusing attention
in the face of noise, or supporters trying to burn down a shopping complex after
their team had scored victory in a football game over its traditional rival. Psychology
cannot claim that answers have been found to these complex questions. But it
surely has improved upon our understanding and how we make sense of these
phenomena. The most striking aspect of the discipline, unlike other sciences, lies in
the study of psychological processes which are largely internal and available to
humans for observation within themselves.

psychology was a study of the soul or mind.


WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
But since then it has moved away considerably
Any knowledge discipline is hard to define. from this focus and established itself as a
Firstly, because it evolves continuously. scientific discipline which deals with processes
Secondly, because the range of phenomena it underlying human experience and behaviour.
studies cannot be captured by any one The range of phenomena it studies, some of
definition. This is even more true of psychology. which we mentioned above, are spread over
Long time back, students like yourself were told several levels, viz. individual, dyadic (two
that the term psychology is derived from two person) group, and organisational. They also
Greek words psyche meaning soul and logos have biological as well as social bases.
meaning science or study of a subject. Thus, Naturally, therefore, the methods required to

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Psychology
study them also vary greatly depending on the trying to understand how the mind works and
phenomenon one wants to study. A discipline to help us improve the uses and applications
is defined both in terms of what it studies and of these mental capacities.
how it studies. In fact, more in terms of how or Psychologists also study experiences of
method/s it uses. Keeping this in view, people. Experiences are subjective in nature.
psychology is defined formally as a science We cannot directly observe or know someone
which studies mental processes, experiences else’s experience. Only the experiencing person
and behaviour in different contexts. In doing can be aware or be conscious of her or his
so, it uses methods of biological and social experiences. Thus, experiences are embedded
sciences to obtain data systematically. It makes in our awareness or consciousness.
sense of these data so that they can be Psychologists have focused on experiences of
organised as knowledge. Let us try to pain being undergone by terminally ill patients
understand the three terms used in the or of psychological pain felt in bereavement,
definition, namely, mental processes, besides experiences which lead to positive
experience, and behaviour. feelings, such as in romantic encounters.
When we say experiences are internal to There are some esoteric experiences also which
the experiencing person, we refer to states of attract attention of psychologists, such as
consciousness or awareness or mental when a Yogi meditates to enter a different level
processes. We use our mental processes when of consciousness and creates a new kind of
we think or try to solve a problem, to know or experience or when a drug addict takes a
remember something. One level at which these particular kind of drug to get a high, even
mental processes are reflected is the brain though such drugs are extremely harmful.
activity. As we think or solve a mathematical Experiences are influenced by internal and the
problem, our brain activities can be observed external conditions of the experiencer. If you
using different techniques of brain imaging. are travelling in a crowded bus during a hot
However, we cannot say that brain activities summer day, you may not experience the
and mental processes are the same, although usual discomfort if you are going for a picnic
they are interdependent. Mental activities and with some close friends. Thus, the nature of
neural activities are mutually overlapping experience can only be understood by
processes but, they are not identical. Unlike analysing a complex set of internal and
the brain, the mind does not have a physical external conditions.
structure or has a location. Mind emerges and Behaviours are responses or reactions we
evolves as our interactions and experiences make or activities we engage in. When
in this world get dynamically organised in the something is hurled at you, your eyes blink in
form of a system which is responsible for the a simple reflex action. You are taking an
occurrence of various mental processes. examination and can feel your heart pounding.
Brain activities provide important clues to You decide to go for a particular movie with a
how our mind functions. But the friend. Behaviours may be simple or complex,
consciousness of our own experiences and short or enduring. Some behaviours are overt.
mental processes are much more than the They can be outwardly seen or sensed by an
neural or brain activities. Even when we are observer. Some are internal or covert. When
asleep some mental activities go on. We you are in a difficult situation while playing a
dream, and receive some information such game of chess you almost feel your hand
as a knock on the door while we are asleep. muscles twitching, trying to experiment with
Some psychologists have shown that we also a move. All behaviours, covert or overt, are
learn and remember in our sleep. Mental associated with or triggered by some stimulus
processes, such as remembering, learning, in the environment or changes that happen
knowing, perceiving, feeling are of interest to internally. You may see a tiger and run or think
psychologists. They study these processes that there is a tiger and decide to flee. Some

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Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
psychologists study behaviour as an students go on to earn a B.Sc. or M.Sc. degree
association between stimulus (S) and response in universities. In fact, two of the most sought
(R). Both stimulus and response can be after emerging disciplines which continuously
internal or external. borrow from psychology are Neuroscience and
Computer Science. Some of us would be aware
Psychology as a Discipline of the fast developing brain imaging techniques
like fMRI, EEG, etc. which make it possible to
As we have discussed above, psychology
study brain processes in real time, i.e. when
studies behaviour, experience and mental
they are actually taking place. Similarly, in IT
processes. It seeks to understand and explain
areas, both human-computer interaction and
how the mind works and how different mental
artificial intelligence cannot possibly grow
processes result in different behaviours. When
without psychological knowledge in cognitive
we observe others as lay or common persons,
processes. Thus, psychology as a discipline
our own points of view or our ways of
today has two parallel streams. One which
understanding the world influence our
makes use of the method in physical and
interpretations of their behaviours and
biological sciences and the other which makes
experiences. Psychologists try to minimise
use of the method of social and cultural
such biases in their explanations of behaviour
sciences in studying various psychological and
and experience in various ways. Some do so
social phenomena. These streams sometimes
by seeking to make their analysis scientific
converge only to drift apart and go their
and objective. Others seek to explain
separate ways. In the first case, psychology
behaviour from the point of view of the
considers itself as a discipline, which focuses
experiencing persons because they think that
largely on biological principles to explain
subjectivity is a necessary aspect of human
human behaviour. It assumes that all
experience. In the Indian tradition, self-
behavioural phenomena have causes which can
reflection and analysis of our conscious
be discovered if we can collect data
experiences, is held to be a major source of
systematically under controlled conditions.
psychological understanding. Many western
Here the aim of the researcher is to know cause
psychologists have also begun to emphasise
and effect relationship so that a prediction of
the role of self-reflection and self-knowledge
the behavioural phenomenon can be made and
in understanding human behaviour and
behaviour can be controlled if need be. On the
experience. Regardless of the differences in the
other hand, psychology as a social science
way psychologists go about the study of
focuses on how behavioural phenomena can
behaviour, mental processes and experiences,
be explained in terms of the interaction that
they seek to understand and explain them in
takes place between the person and the socio-
a systematic and verifiable manner.
cultural context of which s/he is a part. Each
Psychology, though it is a very old
behavioural phenomenon is assumed to have
knowledge discipline, is a young science, if one
multiple causes. Let us now discuss these two
were to take the year of the founding of the
streams separately.
first laboratory of psychology in 1879 in
Leipzig. However, what kind of science is
Psychology as a Natural Science
psychology, still remains a matter of debate,
particularly because of the new interfaces of It has been mentioned earlier that psychology
it that have emerged in recent times. has its roots in philosophy. However, modern
Psychology is generally categorised as a social psychology has developed because of the
science. But it should not come to you as a application of the scientific method to study
surprise that, not only in other countries, but psychological phenomenon. Science places a
also in India, it is also a subject of study offered great deal of emphasis on objectivity which
in the faculty of science, both at the can be obtained if there is consensus on the
undergraduate and post-graduate levels. Many definition of a concept and how it can be

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Psychology
measured. Psychology influenced by Descartes from a farmer’s family. Her grandparents,
and later on by the developments in physics parents and elder brother worked on their farm.
has grown by following what is called a They lived together in their house in the village.
hypothetico-deductive model. The model Ranjita was a good athlete and was the best
suggests that scientific advancement can take long distance runner in the school. She loved
place if you have a theory to explain a meeting people and making friends.
phenomenon. For example, physicists have Unlike her, Shabnam lived with her mother
what is called a Big-bang theory to explain in the same village. Her father worked in an
how the universe came to be formed. Theory office in a town nearby and came home during
is nothing else but a set of statements about holidays. Shabnam was a good artist and loved
how a certain complex phenomenon can be staying home and taking care of her younger
explained with the help of propositions which brother. She was shy and avoided meeting
are interrelated. Based on a theory, scientists people.
deduce or propose a hypothesis, that offers a Last year there was very heavy rain and
tentative explanation of how a certain the river nearby overflowed into the village.
phenomenon takes place. The hypothesis then Many houses in the low lying areas were
is tested and proved true or false based on flooded. The villagers got together and
empirical data that one has gathered. The organised help and gave shelter to people in
theory is revised if data gathered point in a distress. Shabnam’s house was also flooded
different direction than the one suggested by and she came to live in Ranjita’s house with
the hypothesis. Using the above approach her mother and brother. Ranjita was happy
psychologists have developed theories of helping the family and making them feel
learning, memory, attention, perception, comfortable in her house. When the flood water
motivation and emotion, etc. and have made receded, Ranjita’s mother and grandmother
significant progress. Till date, most of the helped Shabnam’s mother to set-up their house.
research in psychology follows this approach. The two families became very close. Ranjita
Apart from this, psychologists have also been and Shabnam also became very good friends.
considerably influenced by the evolutionary In this case of Ranjita and Shabnam, both
approach which is dominant in biological are very different persons. They grew up in
sciences. This approach has also been used different families under complex social and
to explain diverse kinds of psychological cultural conditions. You can see some
phenomenon such as attachment and regularity in the relationship of their nature,
aggression to mention just a few. experience and mental processes with their
social and physical environment. But at the
Psychology as a Social Science same time, there are variations in their
We mentioned above that psychology is behaviours and experiences which would be
recognised more as a social science because dif ficult to predict using the known
it studies the behaviour of human beings in psychological principles. One can understand
their socio-cultural contexts. Humans are not why and how individuals in communities
only influenced by their socio-cultural become quite helpful and self-sacrificing in
contexts, they also create them. Psychology crisis as was the case with the people in the
as a social science discipline focuses on village of Ranjita and Shabnam. But, even in
humans as social beings. Consider the that case, not every villager was equally helpful
following story of Ranjita and Shabnam. and also under similar circumstances not
Ranjita and Shabnam were in the same every community is so forthcoming; in fact,
class. Although, they were in the same class, sometimes, the opposite is true – people
they were just acquainted with each other and become antisocial under similar
their lives were quite different. Ranjita came circumstances indulging in looting and

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Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
exploitation when some crisis occurs. This relationship between the mind and the body
shows that psychology deals with human and that they were parallel to each other.
behaviour and experience in the context of Recent studies in affective neuroscience have
their society and culture. Thus, psychology is clearly shown that there is a relationship
a social science with focus on the individuals between mind and behaviour. It has been
and communities in relation to their socio- shown that using positive visualisation
cultural and physical environment. techniques and feeling positive emotions, one
can bring about significant changes in bodily
processes. Ornish has shown this in a number
UNDERSTANDING MIND AND BEHAVIOUR
of studies with his patients. In these studies a
You will recall that psychology was once person with blocked arteries was made to
defined as a science of the mind. For many visualise that blood was flowing through her/
decades, the mind remained a taboo in his blocked arteries. After practicing this over
psychology because it could not be defined in a period of time, significant relief was obtained
concrete behavioural terms or its location by these patients as the degree of blockage
could not be indicated. If the term “mind” has became significantly less. Use of mental
imagery, i.e. images generated by a person in
returned to psychology, we should thank
her/his mind, have been used to cure various
neuroscientists like Sperry and physicists like
kinds of phobias (irrational fears of objects and
Penrose, who have given it the respect which
situations). A new discipline called
it deserved and now has. There are scientists
Psychoneuroimmunology has emerged which
in various disciplines including psychology,
emphasises the role played by the mind in
who think that a unified theory of the mind is
strengthening the immune system.
a possibility, although it still is far away.
What is mind? Is it the same as brain? It
is true that mind cannot exist without brain,
Activity 1.1
but mind is a separate entity. This can be
Imagine and visualise yourself in the following
appreciated on account of several interesting situations. Mention three psychological processes
cases that have been documented. Some involved in each situation.
patients whose occipital lobes, which are 1. You are writing an essay for a competition.
responsible for vision, were surgically removed 2. You are chatting with a friend on an
have been found to be responding correctly to interesting topic.
3. You are playing football.
location and configuration of visual cues.
4. You are watching a soap opera on TV.
Similarly, an amateur athlete lost his arm in 5. Your best friend has hurt you.
a motorcycle accident but continued to feel 6. You are appearing in an examination.
an “arm” and also continued to feel its 7. You are expecting an important visitor.
movements. When of fered cof fee, his 8. You are preparing a speech to deliver in your
school.
“phantom arm” reached out to the coffee cup
9. You are playing chess.
and when someone pulled it away, he 10. You are trying to figure out the answer of a
protested. There are other similar cases difficult mathematics problem.
documented by neuroscientists. A young man Discuss your answers with the teacher and
who suffered brain injury in an accident, after classmates.
he returned home from the hospital, claimed
that his parents had been replaced by their
“duplicates”. They were imposters. In each of POPULAR NOTIONS ABOUT THE DISCIPLINE
these cases, the person had suffered from OFPSYCHOLOGY
damage of some part of the brain but his
“mind” had remained intact. It was earlier We mentioned above that everyday, almost
believed by scientists that there is no everyone of us acts like a psychologist. We

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Psychology
try to understand why someone behaved in confidence. Dweck’s study tested this. She
the manner in which s/he did and come up took two groups of students who were trained
with ready explanations. Not only this, most for 25 days in solving math problems. The first
of us have developed our own theory of group was given easy problems which they were
human behaviour. If we want some worker always able to solve. The second group had a
to perform better than s/he has in the past, mix of easy and difficult problems. Obviously,
we know that we will need to push her/him. in case of difficult problems, they failed.
Maybe even use a stick because people are Whenever this happened Dweck told them that
basically lazy. Such popular theories of their failure was because they had not tried
human behaviour based on common sense hard enough and persuaded them not to give
may or may not be true if investigated up and keep trying. After the training period
scientifically. In fact, you will find that was over, a new set of math problems were
common sensical explanations of human given to the two groups. What Dweck found
behaviour are based on hindsight and explain goes against common belief. Those who had
very little. For example, if a friend you love always succeeded because they were given
goes away to a distant place, what will easy problems, gave up much faster when they
happen to your attraction for her/him? There faced failure than those who had experience
are two sayings which you may recall to of both success and failure and were taught
answer this question. One of them is “Out of to attribute failure to their lack of effort.
sight, out of mind”. The second one is There are many other common sense
“Distance makes the heart grow fonder”. Both notions which you may not find to be true.
of them make opposite statements, so which Not too long ago it was believed in some
one is true. The explanation you choose will cultures that men are more intelligent than
depend on what happens in your life after women or women cause more accidents than
your friend leaves. Suppose you are able to men. Empirical studies have shown that both
find a new friend, the saying “Out of sight, of these are untrue. Common sense also tells
out of mind” will be used by you or others to us that one is not able to give one’s best if you
explain your behaviour. If you are unable to are asked to perform before a large audience.
find a new friend, you will keep remembering Psychological studies have shown that if you
your friend fondly. In this case, the saying have practiced well, you may actually perform
“Distance makes the heart grow fonder” will better because the presence of others helps
explain your behaviour. Notice that in both your performance.
cases the explanation follows the occurrence It is hoped that as you go through this
of behaviour. Common sense is based on textbook you will discover that many of your
hindsight. Psychology as a science looks for beliefs and understanding of human behaviour
patterns of behaviour which can be predicted will change. You will also gather that
and not explained after the behaviour occurs. psychologists are different from astrologers,
Scientific knowledge generated by tantriks and palm readers because they
psychology often runs against common sense. systematically examine propositions based on
One such example is a study performed by data to develop principles about human
Dweck (1975). She was concerned with behaviour and other psychological phenomena.
children who gave up too easily when faced
with a difficult problem or failure. She Activity 1.2
wondered how they could be helped. Common
sense tells us to give them easy problems in Ask a cross-section of students about what they
order to increase their success rate so that think psychology is? Draw a comparison between
their confidence goes up. Only later should what they say and what the textbook tells you.
we give them difficult problems which they What conclusion can you draw?
will be able to solve because of their new-found

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Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
In the early 20th century, a new perspective
EVOLUTION OF PSYCHOLOGY
called Gestalt psychology emerged in
Psychology as a modern discipline, which is Germany as a reaction to the structuralism of
influenced to a large extent by Western Wundt. It focused on the organisation of
developments, has a short history. It grew out perceptual experiences. Instead of looking at
of ancient philosophy concerned with the components of the mind, the Gestalt
questions of psychological significance. We psychologists argued that when we look at the
mentioned earlier that the formal beginning world our perceptual experience is more than
of modern psychology is traced back to 1879 the sum of the components of the perception.
when the first experimental laboratory was In other words, what we experience is more
established in Leipzig, Germany by Wilhelm than the inputs received from our environment.
Wundt. Wundt was interested in the study of When, for example, light from a series of
conscious experience and wanted to analyse flashing bulbs falls on our retina, we actually
the constituents or the building blocks of the experience movement of light. When we see a
mind. Psychologists during Wundt’s time movie, we actually have a series of rapidly
analysed the structure of the mind through moving images of still pictures falling on our
introspection and therefore were called retina. Thus, our perceptual experience is more
structuralists. Introspection was a procedure than the elements. Experience is holistic; it is
in which individuals or subjects in a Gestalt. We will learn more about the Gestalt
psychological experiments were asked to psychology when we discuss about the nature
describe in detail, their own mental processes of perception in Chapter 5.
or experiences. However, introspection as a Yet another reaction to structuralism came
method did not satisfy many other in the form of behaviourism. Around 1910,
psychologists. It was considered less scientific John Watson rejected the ideas of mind and
because the introspective reports could not consciousness as subject matters of
be verified by outside observers. This led to psychology. He was greatly influenced by the
the development of new perspectives in work of physiologists like Ivan Pavlov on
psychology. classical conditioning. For Watson, mind is not
An American psychologist, William James, observable and introspection is subjective
who had set up a psychological laboratory in because it cannot be verified by another
Cambridge, Massachusetts soon after the observer. According to him, scientific
setting up of the Leipzig laboratory, developed psychology must focus on what is observable
what was called a functionalist approach to and verifiable. He defined psychology as a study
the study of the human mind. William James of behaviour or responses (to stimuli) which
believed that instead of focusing on the can be measured and studied objectively.
structure of the mind, psychology should Behaviourism of Watson was further developed
instead study what the mind does and how by many influential psychologists who are
behaviour functions in making people deal known as behaviourists. Most prominent
with their environment. For example, among them was Skinner who applied
functionalists focused on how behaviour behaviourism to a wide range of situations and
enabled people to satisfy their needs. popularised the approach. We will discuss
According to William James, consciousness Skinner’s work later in this textbook.
as an ongoing stream of mental process Although behaviourists dominated the field
interacting with the environment formed the of psychology for several decades after Watson,
core of psychology. A very influential a number of other approaches and views about
educational thinker of the time, John Dewey, psychology and its subject matter were
used functionalism to argue that human developing around the same time. One person
beings seek to function effectively by adapting who shook the world with his radical view of
to their environment. human nature was Sigmund Freud. Freud

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Psychology
viewed human behaviour as a dynamic unfold their inner potential. They argued that
manifestation of unconscious desires and behaviourism with its emphasis on behaviour
conflicts. He founded psychoanalysis as a as determined by environmental conditions
system to understand and cure psychological undermines human freedom and dignity and
disorders. While Freudian psychoanalysis takes a mechanistic view of human nature.
viewed human beings as motivated by These different approaches filled the
unconscious desire for gratification of pleasure history of modern psychology and provided
seeking (and often, sexual) desires, the multiple perspectives to its development. Each
humanistic perspective in psychology took of these perspectives has its own focus and
a more positive view of human nature. draws our attention to the complexity of
Humanists, such as Carl Rogers and Abraham psychological processes. There are strengths
Maslow, emphasised the free will of human as well as weaknesses in each approach. Some
beings and their natural striving to grow and of these approaches have led to further

Box 1.1 Some Interesting Landmarks in the E volution of Modern PPsychology


Evolution sychology

1879 Wilhelm Wundt establishes the first behaviourism as a major approach to


psychology laboratory in Leipzig, psychology.
Germany. 1954 Humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow
1890 William James publishes Principles of publishes ‘Motivation and Personality’.
Psychology. 1954 Bureau of Psychology is established at
1895 Functionalism is formulated as a system Allahabad.
of psychology. 1955 National Institute of Mental Health and
1900 Sigmund Freud develops Psychoanalysis. Neurosciences (NIMHANS) is established at
1904 Ivan Pavlov wins the Nobel Prize for his Bangalore.
work on digestive system that led to 1962 Hospital for Mental Diseases in Ranchi is
understanding of principles of established.
development of responses. 1973 Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen win the
1905 Intelligence test developed by Binet and Nobel Prize for their work on built-in species-
Simon. specific animal behaviour patter ns that
1916 First Psychology Department at Calcutta emerge without any prior experience/
University is established. learning.
1920 Gestalt psychology is born in Germany. 1978 Herbert Simon wins the Nobel Prize for work
1922 Psychology is included in Indian Science on decision-making.
Congress Association. 1981 David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel win the Nobel
1924 Indian Psychological Association is Prize for their research on vision cells in the
founded. brain.
1924 John B. Watson publishes ‘Behaviourism’, 1981 Roger Sperry wins the Nobel Prize for split-
a book that led to the foundation of brain research.
behaviourism. 1989 National Academy of Psychology (NAOP) India
1928 N.N. Sengupta and Radhakamal Mukerjee was founded.
publish the first textbook on Social 1997 National Brain Research Centre (NBRC) is
Psychology (London : Allen & Unwin). established at Gurgaon, Haryana.
1949 Psychological Research Wing of the 2002 Daniel Kahneman wins the Nobel Prize for
Defence Science Organisation of India is research on human judgment and decision-
established. making under uncertainty.
1951 Humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers 2005 Thomas Schelling wins the Nobel Prize for his
publishes Client-Centred Therapy. work in applying Game Theory to
1953 B.F. Skinner publishes ‘Science and understanding of conflict and cooperation in
Human Behaviour’, strengthening economic behaviour.

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Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
developments in the discipline. Aspects of departure both within the country and abroad.
Gestalt approach and structuralism were These attempts have tried to establish the
combined and led to the development of the truth value of various assertions in Indian
cognitive perspective which focuses on how philosophical traditions through scientific
we know about the world. Cognition is the studies.
process of knowing. It involves thinking, The modern era of Indian psychology
understanding, perceiving, memorising, began in the Department of Philosophy at
problem solving and a host of other mental Calcutta University where the first syllabus
processes by which our knowledge of the world of experimental psychology was introduced
develops, making us able to deal with the and the first psychology laboratory was
environment in specific ways. Some cognitive established in 1915. Calcutta University
psychologists view the human mind as an started the first Department of Psychology in
information processing system like the the year 1916 and another Department of
computer. Mind, according to this view is like Applied Psychology in 1938. The beginning of
a computer and it receives, processes, modern experimental psychology at Calcutta
transforms, stores and retrieves information. University was greatly influenced by the Indian
Modern cognitive psychology views human psychologist Dr. N.N. Sengupta who was
beings as actively constructing their minds trained in USA in the experimental tradition
through their exploration into the physical and of Wundt. Professor G. Bose was trained in
the social world. This view is sometimes called Freudian psychoanalysis, another area which
constructivism. Piaget’s view of child influenced the early development of
development which will be discussed later is psychology in India. Professor Bose
considered a constructivist theory of established Indian Psychoanalytical
development of the mind. Another Russian Association in 1922. Departments of
psychologist Vygotsky went even further to Psychology in the Universities of Mysore and
suggest that the human mind develops Patna were other early centres of teaching and
through social and cultural processes in which research in psychology. From these modest
the mind is viewed as culturally constructed beginnings, modern psychology has grown as
through joint interaction between adults and a strong discipline in India with a large number
children. In other words, while for Piaget of centres of teaching, research and
children actively construct their own minds, applications. There are two centers of
Vygotsky took a view that mind is a joint excellence in psychology supported by the
cultural construction and emerges as a result UGC at Utkal University, Bhubaneswar and
of interaction between children and adults. at the University of Allahabad. About 70
universities offer courses in psychology.
DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA Durganand Sinha in his book Psychology
in a Third World Country: The Indian
The Indian philosophical tradition is rich in Experience published in 1986 traces the
its focus on mental processes and reflections history of modern psychology as a social
on human consciousness, self, mind-body science in India in four phases. According to
relations, and a variety of mental functions him, the first phase till independence was a
such as cognition, perception, illusion, phase with emphasis on experimental,
attention and reasoning, etc. Unfortunately, psychoanalytic and psychological testing
philosophical roots in the Indian tradition have research, which primarily reflected the
not influenced the development of modern development of the discipline in western
psychology in India. The development of the countries. The second phase till the 1960s was
discipline in India continues to be dominated a phase of expansion of psychology in India
by western psychology, although some into different branches of psychology. During
attempts have been made to find points of this phase Indian psychologists showed a

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Psychology
desire to have an Indian identity by seeking
BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
to link western psychology to the Indian
context. They did this by using western ideas Various fields of specialisation in psychology
to understand the Indian situation. However, have emerged over the years. Some of these
psychology in India sought to become relevant are discussed in this section.
for Indian society in the post 1960s phase of
problem-oriented research. Psychologists Cognitive Psychology investigates mental
became more focused on addressing the processes involved in acquisition, storage,
problems of the Indian society. Further, the manipulation, and transfor mation of
limitations of excessive dependence on information received from the environment
western psychology for our social context were along with its use and communication. The
also realised. Leading psychologists major cognitive processes are attention,
emphasised the significance of research, which perception, memory, reasoning, problem
is of relevance to our situation. The search for solving, decision-making and language. You
a new identity of psychology in India led to will be studying these topics later in this
the phase of indigenisation, which started textbook. In order to study these cognitive
during the late 1970s. Besides rejecting the processes, psychologists conduct experiments
western framework, Indian psychologists in laboratory settings. Some of them also follow
stressed the need for developing an an ecological approach, i.e. an approach which
understanding based on a framework, which focuses on the environmental factors, to study
was culturally and socially relevant. This trend cognitive processes in a natural setting.
was also reflected in some attempts to develop Cognitive psychologists often collaborate with
psychological approaches based on traditional neuroscientists and computer scientists.
Indian psychology, which came from our
Biological Psychology focuses on the
ancient texts and scriptures. Thus, this phase
relationship between behaviour and the
is characterised by development in indigenous
physical system, including the brain and the
psychology, which originated from the Indian
rest of the nervous system, the immune
cultural context and was relevant for society
system, and genetics. Biological psychologists
and Indian psychology based on the Indian
often collaborate with neuroscientists,
traditional knowledge system. While these
zoologists, and anthropologists.
developments continue, psychology in India
Neuropsychology has emerged as a field of
is making significant contributions to the field
research where psychologists and
of psychology in the world. It has become more
neuroscientists are working together.
contextual emphasising the need for
Researchers are studying the role of
developing psychological principles, which are
neurotransmitters or chemical substances
rooted in our own social and cultural context.
which are responsible for neural
Alongside, we also find that new research
communication in different areas of the brain
studies involving interfaces with neuro-
and therefore in associated mental functions.
biological and health sciences are being carried
They do their research on people with normal
out.
functioning brain as well as on people with
Psychology in India is now being applied
damaged brain by following advanced
in diverse professional areas. Not only have
technologies like EEG, PET and fMRI, etc.
psychologists been working with children
about which you will study later.
having special problems, they are employed
in hospitals as clinical psychologists, in Developmental Psychology studies the
corporate organisations in the HRD and physical, social and psychological changes
advertising departments, in sports that occur at different ages and stages over a
directorates, in the development sector and life-span, from conception to old age. The
in IT industry. primary concer n of developmental

11
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
psychologists is how we become what we are. Health Psychology focuses on the role of
For many years the major emphasis was on psychological factors (for example, stress,
child and adolescent development. However anxiety) in the development, prevention and
today an increasing number of developmental treatment of illness. Areas of interest for a
psychologists show strong interest in adult health psychologist are stress and coping, the
development and ageing. They focus on the relationship between psychological factors and
biological, socio-cultural and environmental health, patient-doctor relationship and ways
factors that influence psychological of promoting health enhancing factors.
characteristics such as intelligence, cognition,
Clinical and Counselling Psychology deals
emotion, temperament, morality, and social with causes, treatment and prevention of
relationship. Developmental psychologists different types of psychological disorders such
collaborate with anthropologists, as anxiety, depression, eating disorders and
educationists, neurologists, social workers, chronic substance abuse. A related area is
counsellors and almost every branch of counselling, which aims to improve everyday
knowledge where there is a concern for growth functioning by helping people solve problems
and development of a human being. in daily living and cope more effectively with
challenging situations. The work of clinical
Social Psychology explores how people are
psychologists does not differ from that of
affected by their social environments, how
counselling psychologists although a
people think about and influence others.
counselling psychologist sometimes deals with
Social psychologists are interested in such
people who have less serious problems. In
topics as attitudes, conformity and obedience
many instances, counselling psychologists
to authority, interpersonal attraction, helpful
work with students, advising them about
behaviour, prejudice, aggression, social personal problems and career planning. Like
motivation, inter-group relations and so on. clinical psychologists, psychiatrists also study
Cross-cultural and Cultural Psychology the causes, treatment, and prevention of
examines the role of culture in understanding psychological disorders. How are clinical
behaviour, thought, and emotion. It assumes psychologists and psychiatrists different? A
clinical psychologist has a degree in
that human behaviour is not only a reflection
psychology, which includes intensive training
of human-biological potential but also a
in treating people with psychological disorders.
product of culture. Therefore behaviour should
In contrast, a psychiatrist has a medical degree
be studied in its socio-cultural context. As you
with years of specialised training in the
will be studying in different chapters of this
treatment of psychological disorders. One
book, culture influences human behaviour in
important distinction is that psychiatrists can
many ways and in varying degrees. prescribe medications and give electroshock
Environmental Psychology studies the treatments whereas clinical psychologist
interaction of physical factors such as cannot.
temperature, humidity, pollution, and natural Industrial/Organisational Psychology deals
disasters on human behaviour. The influence with workplace behaviour, focusing on both the
of physical arrangement of the workplace on workers and the organisations that employ
health, the emotional state, and interpersonal them. Industrial/organisational psychologists
relations are also investigated. Current topics are concerned with training employees,
of research in this field are the extent to which, improving work conditions, and developing
disposal of waste, population explosion, criteria for selecting employees. For example,
conservation of energy, efficient use of an organisational psychologist might
community resources are associated with and recommend that a company may adopt a new
are functions of human behaviour. management structure that would increase

12
Psychology
communication between managers and staff. psychology, forensic psychology, rural
The background of industrial and psychology, engineering psychology,
organisational psychologists often includes managerial psychology, community
training in cognitive and social psychology. psychology, psychology of women, and
political psychology, to name a few. Try the
Educational Psychology studies how people Activity 1.3 to reflect upon your interest areas
of all ages learn. Educational psychologists in psychology.
primarily help develop instructional methods
and materials used to train people in both
educational and work settings. They are also THEMES OF RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS
concerned with research on issues of relevance
for education, counselling and learning In the previous section, you got some idea of
problems. A related field, school psychology, the various branches of psychology. If you
focuses on designing programmes that were to ask a simple question about “what
promote intellectual, social, and emotional psychologists do?”, the usual answer will be
development of children, including those with that they do several things while working in a
special needs. They try to apply knowledge of variety of settings. However, if you try to
psychology in a school setting. analyse their work, you will notice that they
basically engage in two kinds of activities. One
Sports Psychology applies psychological is research in psychology; the other is
principles to improve sports performance by application of psychology.
enhancing their motivation. Sports psychology What are some of the themes which
is a relatively new field but is gaining provide direction to research and application
acceptance worldwide. of psychology? There are several such themes.
Other Emerging Branches of Psychology : We will focus on some of them.
The interdisciplinary focus on research and
application of psychology has led to the Theme 1 : Psychology like other sciences
emergence of varied areas like aviation attempts to develop principles of behaviour and
psychology, space psychology, military mental processes.
In research, the main concern is with the
understanding and explanation of behaviour
Activity 1.3 and mental events and processes.
Think about the areas of psychology that you have Psychologists, who choose to engage in
read in the text. Go through the list given below research, function more like other scientists.
and rank them from 1 (most interesting) to 11 (least Like them, they draw conclusions which are
interesting). supported by data. They design and conduct
Cognitive psychology experiments or studies under controlled
Biological psychology conditions on a wide range of psychological
Developmental psychology
phenomena. The purpose is to develop general
Social psychology
Cross-cultural and cultural psychology principles about behaviour and mental
Environmental psychology processes. The conclusions drawn on the basis
Health psychology of such studies apply to everybody and are,
Clinical and counselling psychology therefore, universal. Experimental,
Industrial/Organisational psychology
comparative, physiological, developmental,
Educational psychology
Sports psychology social, differential and abnormal psychology
After going through this textbook and completing
are generally regarded as domains
the course you may like to return to this activity representing “basic psychology”.
and mark the changes in your ranking. The themes of research in these fields differ
from each other. For example, experimental

13
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
psychologists study the processes of and biologists. Psychologists look for
perception, learning, memory, thinking, and explanations of various psychological
motivation, etc., using experiment as their phenomena based on individual-environment
method of enquiry, whereas physiological interactions. Although it is difficult,
psychologists attempt to examine psychologists do seek out the relative
physiological bases of these behaviours. importance of heredity and environment in
Developmental psychologists study qualitative explaining human behaviour.
and quantitative changes in behaviour from
the beginning of human life to its end, whereas Theme 3 : Human behaviour is caused.
social psychologists focus on the study of Most psychologists believe that all human
experience and behaviour of individuals as behaviour can be explained in terms of causes
they take place in social contexts. which are internal (to the organism) or external
having location in the outside environment.
Theme 2 : Human behaviour is a function of Causal explanations are central to all sciences
the attributes of persons and environment. because without understanding them no
Kurt Lewin first proposed the famous prediction will be possible. Although,
equation B = f(P,E) – which suggests that psychologists look for causal explanations of
behaviour is the product of a person and her/ behaviour, they also realise that simple linear
his environment. What this equation simply explanations, such as X Causing Y do not hold
tells us is that the variations we find in human true. There is no one cause of behaviour.
behaviour are largely due to the fact that Human behaviour has multiple causes.
persons differ with respect to their various Psychologists, therefore, look for causal
attributes because of their genetic models where a set of interdependent variables
endowments and diverse experiences and so are used to explain a behaviour. When it is
do the environments they are placed in. Here said that behaviour has multiple causes, it
the environment is conceptualised as it is means that it is difficult to pinpoint one cause
perceived or made sense of by the person. of a behaviour because it may itself be caused
Psychologists have for a long time considered by another variable, which in turn may be
that no two individuals are the same, if one caused by some other.
considers their psychological attributes. They
vary with respect to their intelligence, Theme 4 : Understanding of human behaviour
interests, values, aptitudes and various other is culturally constructed.
personality characteristics. In fact, This is a theme which has recently
psychological tests came to be constructed to surfaced. There are psychologists who believe
measure such differences. A discipline that most psychological theories and models
called, differential psychology, which focused are Euro-American in nature and therefore,
on individual differences emerged and do not help us in understanding behaviours
flourished in the late nineteenth and early in other cultural settings. Psychologists from
twentieth century. Most of it still remains in Asia, Africa and Latin America have been
the form of personality psychology. critical of Euro-American approaches which
Psychologists believe that although, core are propagated as universal. A similar critique
psychological processes are universal, they are is made by feminists who argue that
susceptible to individual dispositions. Besides psychology offers a male perspective and
individual differences, psychologists also ignores the perspective of women. They argue
believe that there are variations in behaviour in favour of a dialectical approach which will
which occur due to environmental factors. accommodate both male and female
This is a view which psychologists have taken perspectives in understanding human
from anthropologists, evolutionary theorists behaviour.

14
Psychology
Theme 5 : Human behaviour can be controlled and principles derived from research can be
and modified through the application of meaningfully applied. On the other hand,
psychological principles. research is an integral part of even those fields
Why do scientists like to know how certain of psychology that are mainly characterised
events can be controlled, be they physical or by or subsumed under the category of
psychological? Their concern arises from their application. Due to ever increasing demands
desire to develop techniques or methods that of psychology in different settings, many fields
will improve the quality of human life. that were regarded as primarily “research-
Psychologists also seek the same while oriented” in previous decades, have also
applying knowledge generated by them. gradually turned into “application-oriented”.
This often requires removal of certain Newly emerging disciplines like applied
dif ficulties or adverse conditions that experimental psychology, applied social
individuals experience in different phases of psychology, and applied developmental
their life. Consequently, psychologists make psychology indicate that in fact all psychology
certain interventions into the lives of needy has the potential of application and is basically
people. This applied role of psychologists has, applied in nature.
on the one hand, brought the subject closer Thus, there is seemingly no fundamental
to the life of people in general than other social difference between research and application
science subjects and in knowing the limits of of psychology. These activities are highly
the applicability of its principles. On the other interrelated and mutually reinforcing. Their
hand, this role has also been very helpful in mutual interactions and pervasive influences
popularising psychology as a subject in itself. on each other have become so specific that
Thus, several independent branches of several offshoots have emerged in recent years
psychology have emerged that try to use with very specific emphasis on their subject
psychological theories, principles and facts to matters. Thus, ecological psychology,
diagnose and resolve problems related to environmental psychology, cross-cultural
psychology, biological psychology, space
industrial and organisational settings, clinical
psychology, and cognitive psychology, to
services, education, environment, health,
mention a few, have come up as new and
community development and so on. Industrial
frontier areas of research and application that
psychology, organisational psychology, clinical
previously formed part of other fields of
psychology, educational psychology,
psychology. These newer developments
engineering psychology and sports psychology
require highly specialised research skills and
represent some of the areas in which
training on the part of researchers than ever
psychologists are engaged in delivering
before.
services to individuals, groups or institutions.

Basic vs Applied Psychology PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER DISCIPLINES


It may be noted at this point that various areas Any discipline, which deals with people, would
put under the rubrics of “basic” and “applied” definitely recognise the relevance of the
psychology are identified only on the basis of knowledge of psychology. Similarly
their emphasis on the study of certain subject psychologists also acknowledge the relevance
matters and broader concerns. There is no of other disciplines in understanding human
sharp cleavage between research and behaviour. This trend has led to the emergence
application of psychology. For example, basic of interdisciplinary approach in the field of
psychology provides us with theories and psychology. Researchers and scholars in
principles that form the basis of application science, social science and humanities have
of psychology and applied psychology provides felt the significance of psychology as a
us with different contexts in which the theories discipline. Figure 1.1 clearly shows the

15
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
relationship of psychology with other Economics, Political Science and
disciplines. In studying brain and behaviour, Sociology : As sister social science disciplines,
psychology shares its knowledge with these three have drawn considerably from
neurology, physiology, biology, medicine and psychology and have enriched it as well.
computer science. In studying human Psychology has contributed a great deal to the
behaviour (its meaning, growth and study of micro-level economic behaviour,
development) in a socio-cultural context, particularly in understanding consumer
psychology shares its knowledge with behaviour, savings behaviour and in decision-
anthropology, sociology, social work, political making. American economists have used data
science and economics. In studying mental on consumer sentiments to predict economic
activities involved in creation of literary texts, growth. Three scholars who have worked on
music and drama, psychology shares its such problems have received the Nobel Prize
knowledge with literature, art and music. in Economics, namely H. Simon, D. Kahneman
Some of the major disciplines linked to the and T. Schelling. Like economics, political
field of psychology are discussed below: science too draws considerably from
psychology, particularly, in understanding
Philosophy : Until the end of the 19th century, issues related to exercise of power and
certain concerns that are now part of authority, nature of political conflicts and their
contemporary psychology like, what is the resolutions, and voting behaviour. Sociology
nature of the mind or how do humans come and psychology come together to explain and
understand the behaviour of individuals
to know their motivations and emotions were
within different socio-cultural contexts. Issues
the concerns of philosophers. In the later part
related to socialisation, group and collective
of the 19th century, Wundt and other
behaviour, and intergroup conflicts gain from
psychologists adopted an experimental
both these disciplines.
approach to these questions and
contemporary psychology emerged. Despite Computer Science : From the very beginning,
the emergence of psychology as a science, it the effort of computer science has been in
greatly draws from philosophy, particularly mimicking the human mind. One can see it in
with respect to methods of knowing, and terms of how a ‘computer’ is structured, its
various domains of human nature. memory organised, sequential and
simultaneous (read parallel) processing of
Medicine : Doctors have realised that the information. Computer scientists and
maxim, healthy body requires a healthy mind, engineers are seeking to make computers not
is actually true. A large number of hospitals only more and more intelligent but also
now employ psychologists. The role of machines which can sense and feel.
psychologists in preventing people from Developments in both these disciplines have
engaging in health hazardous behaviours and brought about significant advancement in the
in adhering to the prescribed doctors’ regimen field of cognitive sciences.
are some of the important areas where the
two disciplines have come together. While Law and Criminology : A skilled lawyer and
treating patients suffering from cancer, AIDS, a criminologist requires knowledge of
and the physically challenged, or handling psychology in answering such questions as:
patients in the Intensive Care Unit, and How well a witness remembers an accident, a
patients during post operative care doctors street fight, or a murder? How well can s/he
have also felt the need for psychological report such facts when taking the witness
counselling. A successful doctor looks at the stand in the court? What factors influence the
psychological as well as physical well-being decision which is taken by the jury? What are
of the patients. the dependable signs of guilt and falsehood?

16
Psychology
Political Science Education Economics

Philosophy Music and Fine Arts

Psychology

Computer Science Law/Criminology

Medicine/Psychiatry Mass Communication

Architecture and Engineering Sociology

Fig.1.1 : Psychology and Other Disciplines

What factors are held important in holding a criminal act? Psychologists seek to answer
culprit responsible for her/his action? What these questions. Currently, a number of
degree of punishment is considered just for a psychologists are involved in research on such

17
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
issues, the answers to which would help the
PSYCHOLOGISTS AT WORK
legal system of the country in the future.
Psychologists today work in a variety of
Mass Communication : The print and the settings where they can apply psychological
electronic media have entered in our lives in a principles for teaching and training people to
very big way. They have a major influence on cope effectively with the problems of their lives.
our thinking, attitudes and our emotions. If Often referred to as “human service areas” they
they have brought us closer together, they have include clinical counselling, community,
also reduced cultural diversities. The impact school and organisational psychology.
of the media on the formation of attitudes of Clinical psychologists specialise in
children and their behaviour is a domain helping clients with behavioural problems by
where both these disciplines come together. providing therapy for various mental
Psychology also helps in developing strategies disorders and in cases of anxiety or fear, or
for better and effective communication. A with stresses at home or at work. They work
journalist in reporting news must know the either as private practitioners or at hospitals,
reader’s interests in the story. Since most mental institutions, or with social agencies.
stories deal with human events, knowledge of They may be involved in conducting
their motives and emotions is very important. interviews and administering psychological
A story will be more penetrating if based upon tests to diagnose the client’s problems, and
a background of psychological knowledge and use psychological methods for their treatment
insight. and rehabilitation. Job opportunities in
clinical psychology attract quite a few to this
Music and Fine Arts : Music and psychology field of psychology.
have converged in many areas. Scientists have Counselling psychologists work with
made use of music in raising work persons who suffer from motivational and
performance. Music and emotions is another emotional problems. The problems of their
area in which a number of studies have been clients are less serious than those of the
carried out. Musicians in India have recently clinical psychologists. A counselling
started experimenting with what they call psychologist may be involved in vocational
‘Music Therapy’. In this they use different rehabilitation programmes, or helping persons
‘Ragas’ for curing certain physical ailments. in making professional choices or in adjusting
The efficacy of music therapy still remains to to new and difficult situations of life.
be proven. Counselling psychologists work for public
agencies such as mental health centres,
Architecture and Engineering : At first glance hospitals, schools, colleges and universities.
the relationship between psychology and Community psychologists generally
architecture and engineering would appear focus on problems related to community
improbable. But such is actually not the case. mental health. They work for mental health
Ask any architect, s/he must satisfy her/his agencies, private organisations and state
clients by providing mental and physical space governments. They help the community and
through her design and satisfy aesthetically. its institutions in addressing physical and
Engineers must also take into account human mental health problems. In rural areas they
habits in their plans for safety, for example, may work to establish a mental health centre.
on streets and highways. Psychological In urban areas they may design a drug
knowledge helps in a big way in designing of rehabilitation programme. Many community
all mechanical devices and displays. psychologists also work with special
To sum up, psychology is located at the populations such as the elderly or the
intersection of many fields of knowledge physically or mentally challenged. Besides the
pertaining to human functioning. redir ection and evaluation of various

18
Psychology
programmes and plans, community based social reforms, interventions at the individual
rehabilitation (CBR) is of major interest to levels are also needed in order to change. Many
community psychologists. of these problems are largely of psychological
School psychologists work in nature and they result from our unhealthy
educational systems, and their roles vary thinking, negative attitude towards people and
according to the levels of their training. For self and undesirable patterns of behaviour. A
example, some school psychologists only psychological analysis of these problems helps
administer tests, whereas others also both in having a deeper understanding of these
interpret test results to help students with problems and also in finding their effective
their pr oblems. They also help in the solutions.
formulation of school policies. They facilitate The potential of psychology in solving the
communication between parents, teachers problems of life is being realised more and
and administrators, and also provide teachers more. Media has played a vital role in this
and parents with information about the respect. You may have seen on television
academic progress of a student. counsellors and therapists suggesting
Organisational psychologists render solutions to a variety of problems related to
valuable help in dealing with problems that children, adolescents, adults and the elderly
the executives and employees of an people. You may also find them analysing vital
organisation tend to face in their respective social problems relating to social change and
roles. They provide organisations with development, population, poverty,
consultancy services and organise skill interpersonal or intergroup violence, and
training programmes in order to enhance their environmental degradation. Many
ef ficiency and ef fectiveness. Some psychologists now play an active role in
organisational psychologists specialise in designing and executing intervention
Human Resource Development (HRD), while programmes in order to provide people with a
others in Organisational Development and better quality of life. Hence, it is no surprise
Change Management programmes. that we find psychologists working in diverse
settings such as schools, hospitals, industries,
prisons, business organisations, military
PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
establishments, and in private practice as
The discussion above may have clarified that consultants helping people solve problems in
psychology is not only a subject that satisfies their respective settings.
some of the curiosities of our mind about Besides helping you in rendering social
human nature, but it is also a subject that service to others, the knowledge of psychology
can offer solutions to a variety of problems. is also personally relevant to you in your day-
These may range from purely personal (for to-day life. The principles and methods of
example, a daughter having to face an alcoholic psychology that you will learn in this course
father or a mother dealing with a problem child) should be made use of in analysing and
to those that may be rooted within the family understanding yourself in relation to others.
set up (for example, lack of communication and It is not that we do not think about ourselves.
interaction among family members) or in a But very often, some of us think very highly
larger group or community setting (for example, of ourselves and any feedback that contradicts
terrorist groups or socially isolated our opinion about ourselves is rejected
communities) or may have national or because we engage in what is called a
international dimensions. Problems related to defensive behaviour. In some other cases,
education, health, environment, social justice, persons come to acquire a habit of running
women development, intergroup relations, etc. down themselves. Both conditions do not
are pervasive. While the solution of these permit us to grow. We need to have a positive
problems may involve political, economic and and balanced understanding of ourselves. You

19
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
may use psychological principles in a positive
manner to develop good habits of study for
improving your learning and memory, and for
Key Terms
solving your personal and interpersonal Behaviour, Behaviourism, Cognition, Cognitive
problems by using appropriate decision- approach, Consciousness, Constructivism,
making strategies. You will also find it of use Developmental psychology, Functionalism,
to reduce or alleviate the stress of Gestalt, Gestalt psychology, Humanistic
approach, Introspection, Mind,
examination. Thus, the knowledge of Neuropsychology, Physiological psychology,
psychology is quite useful in our everyday life, Psychoanalysis, Sociology, Stimulus,
and is rewarding from personal as well as Structuralism
social points of view.

Summary
• Psychology is a modern discipline aimed at understanding the complexities of mental
processes, experiences and behaviour of individuals in different contexts. It is treated as a
natural as well as a social science.
• The major schools of psychological thought are structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism,
Gestalt school, psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology and cognitive psychology.
• Contemporary psychology is multivocal as it is characterised by many approaches or
diverse views, which explain behaviour at different levels. These approaches are not
mutually exclusive. Each provides valuable insights into the complexities of human
functioning. The cognitive approach uses thought processes as central to psychological
functions. The humanistic approach views human functioning as characterised by a desire
to grow, be productive and fulfill human potential.
• Today psychologists work in many specialised fields which have their own theories and
methods. They make efforts to develop theories and solve problems in specific domains.
Some of the major fields of psychology are: cognitive psychology, biological psychology,
health psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, educational and school
psychology, clinical and counselling psychology, environmental psychology, industrial/
organisational psychology, sports psychology.
• More recently a need is felt to have multi/interdisciplinary initiatives to arrive at a better
understanding of reality. This has led to a collaboration across disciplines. Interests of
psychology overlap with social sciences (e.g., economics, political science, sociology),
biosciences (e.g., neurology, physiology, medicine), mass communication, and music and
fine arts. Such efforts have led to fruitful research and application.
• Psychology is a discipline not merely contributing to the development of theoretical
knowledge about human behaviour, but contributing to the solution of problems at different
levels. Psychologists are employed to help in diverse activities in a variety of settings
including schools, hospitals, industries, training institutes, military and government
establishments. Many of them are doing private practice and are consultants.

Review Questions
1. What is behaviour? Give examples of overt and covert behaviour.
2. How can you distinguish scientific psychology from the popular notions about the
discipline of psychology?
3. Give a brief account of the evolution of psychology.

20
Psychology
Introduction
You have read in the first chapter that psychology is the study of experiences,
behaviours, and mental processes. You may now be curious to know how
psychologists study these phenomena. In other words, what methods are used to
study behaviour and mental processes? Like all scientists, psychologists seek to
describe, predict, explain and control what they study. For this, psychologists rely
on formal, systematic observations to address their questions. It is the methodology
that makes psychology a scientific endeavour. Psychologists use a variety of research
methods because questions about human behaviour are numerous and all of them
cannot be studied by a single method. Methods such as observation, experimental,
correlational research, survey, psychological testing and case study are more
frequently used to study the problems of psychology. This chapter will familiarise
you with the goals of psychological enquiry, the nature of information or data that
we collect in psychological studies, the diverse range of methodological devices
available for the study of psychology, and some important issues related to
psychological studies.

Prediction : The second goal of scientific


GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY
enquiry is prediction of behaviour. If you are
Like any scientific research, psychological able to understand and describe the behaviour
enquiry has the following goals: description, accurately, you come to know the relationship
prediction, explanation, and control of of a particular behaviour with other types of
behaviour, and application of knowledge so behaviours, events, or phenomena. You can
generated, in an objective manner. Let us try then forecast that under certain conditions
to understand the meaning of these terms. this particular behaviour may occur within a
certain margin of error. For example, on the
Description : In a psychological study, we basis of study, a researcher is able to establish
attempt to describe a behaviour or a a positive relationship between the amount of
phenomenon as accurately as possible. This study time and achievement in different
helps in distinguishing a particular behaviour subjects. Later, if you come to know that a
from other behaviours. For example, the particular child devotes more time for study,
researcher may be interested in observing
you can predict that the child is likely to get
study habits among students. Study habits
good marks in the examination. Prediction
may consist of diverse range of behaviours,
becomes more accurate with the increase in
such as attending all your classes regularly,
the number of persons observed.
submitting assignments on time, planning
your study schedule, studying according to Explanation : The third goal of psychological
the set schedule, revising your work on a daily enquiry is to know the causal factors or
basis etc. Within a particular category there determinants of behaviour. Psychologists are
may be further minute descriptions. The primarily interested in knowing the factors
researcher needs to describe her/his meaning that make behaviour occur. Also, what are the
of study habits. The description requires conditions under which a particular behaviour
recording of a particular behaviour which does not occur. For example, what makes
helps in its proper understanding. some children more attentive in the class? Why

23
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
some children devote less time for study as increase efficiency. Scientific enquiry is also
compared to others? Thus, this goal is conducted to develop new theories or
concerned with identifying the determinants constructs, which leads to further research.
or antecedent conditions (i.e. conditions that
led to the particular behaviour) of the Steps in Conducting Scientific Research
behaviour being studied so that cause-effect Science is not so defined by what it
relationship between two variables (objects) or
investigates as by how it investigates. The
events could be established. scientific method attempts to study a
Control : If you are able to explain why a particular event or phenomenon in an
particular behaviour occurs, you can control objective, systematic, and testable manner.
that behaviour by making changes in its The objectivity refers to the fact that if two
antecedent conditions. Control refers to three or more persons independently study a
things: making a particular behaviour happen, particular event, both of them, to a great
reducing it, or enhancing it. For example, you extent, should arrive at the same conclusion.
can allow the number of hours devoted to For instance, if you and your friend measure
study to be the same, or you can reduce them the length of a table using the same measuring
or there may be an increase in the study hours. device, it is likely that both of you would arrive
The change brought about in behaviour by at the same conclusion about its length.
psychological treatment in terms of therapy The second characteristic of scientific
in persons, is a good example of control. research is that it follows systematic
procedure or steps of investigation. It includes
Application : The final goal of the scientific
the following steps: conceptualisation of a
enquiry is to bring out positive changes in the
problem, collection of data, drawing
lives of people. Psychological research is
conclusions, and revising research conclusions
conducted to solve problems in various
and theory (see Fig.2.1). Let us discuss these
settings. Because of these efforts the quality
steps in some detail.
of life of people is a major concern of
psychologists. For example, applications of (1) Conceptualising a Problem : The process
yoga and meditation help to reduce stress and of scientific research begins when a researcher

1 2
Conceptualising a Problem Collecting Data
Selecting a topic for study Participants, methods,
tools and procedure

4
3
Revising Research
Conclusions Drawing Conclusions

Restating existing hypothesis/ Using statistical methods


formulating revised or a
new theory

Fig.2.1 : Steps in Conducting Scientific Enquiry

24
Psychology
selects a theme or topic for study. Then s/he on television, higher is the degree of aggression
narrows down the focus and develops specific displayed by them’. In your research, you shall
research questions or problems for the study. now try to prove whether the statement is true
This is done on the basis of review of past or false.
research, observations, and personal
experiences. For example, earlier you read that (2) Collecting Data : The second step in
a researcher was interested in observing the scientific research is to collect data. Data
study habits of students. For this purpose, collection requires developing a research
s/he may identify different facets of study design or a blueprint of the entire study. It
habits first, and then decide whether s/he is requires taking decisions about the following
interested in study habits shown in the class four aspects: (a) participants in the study,
or at home. (b) methods of data collection, (c) tools to be
In psychology we study a diverse range of used in research, and (d) procedure for data
problems related to behaviour and collection. Depending upon the nature of the
experiences. These problems may be related study, the researcher has to decide who would
to (a) understanding our own behaviour (for be the participants (or informants) in the
example, how do I feel and behave when I am study. The participants could be children,
in a state of joy or grief? How do we reflect on adolescents, college students, teachers,
our own experiences and behaviour? Why do managers, clinical patients, industrial
workers, or any group of individuals in whom/
we forget?); (b) understanding other
where the phenomenon under investigation
individual’s behaviour (for example, Is Abhinav
is prevalent. The second decision is related to
more intelligent than Ankur? Why is someone
the use of methods of data collection, such as
always not able to complete her or his work on
observation method, experimental method,
time? Can the habit of smoking be controlled?
correlational method, case study, etc. The
Why do some people suffering from chronic
researcher needs to decide about appropriate
illness not take medicines?); (c) group
tools (for example, interview schedule,
influences on individual behaviour (for
observation schedule, questionnaire, etc.) for
example, why does Rahim spend more time
data collection. The researcher also decides
meeting with people than doing his work?,
about how the tools need to be administered
Why does a cyclist perform better when cycling
to collect data (i.e. individual or group). This
before a group of persons than when cycling
is followed by actual collection of data.
alone?); (d) group behaviour (for example, why
does risk-taking behaviour increase when (3) Drawing Conclusions : The next step is to
people are in a group?), and (e) organisational analyse data so collected through the use of
level (for example, why are some organisations statistical procedures to understand what the
more successful than others? How can an data mean. This can be achieved through
employer increase the motivation of graphical representations (such as preparation
employees?). The list is long and you will learn of pie-chart, bar -diagram, cumulative
about these various facets in subsequent frequencies, etc.) and by the use of different
chapters. If you are inquisitive, you can write statistical methods. The purpose of analysis
down a number of problems which you may is to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusions
like to probe. accordingly.
After identification of the problem, the
researcher proceeds by developing a tentative (4) Revising Research Conclusions : The
answer of the problem, which is called researcher may have begun the study with a
hypothesis. For example, based on the earlier hypothesis that there exists a relationship
evidence or your observation, you might between viewing violence on television and
develop a hypothesis ‘greater is the amount aggression among children. S/he has to see
of time spent by children in viewing violence whether the conclusions support this

25
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
hypothesis. If they do, the existing hypothesis/ attempting to disturb its natural flow. For
theory is confirmed. If not, s/he will revise or example, an explorer does not know what s/
state an alternative hypothesis/theory and he is looking for, how to look for it, and what
again test it based on new data and draw to expect. Rather, s/he tries to map an
conclusions which may be verified by future uncharted wilderness, with little or no prior
researchers. Thus, research is a continuous knowledge of the area, and her/his main task
process. is to record detailed descriptions of what is
found in a particular context.
Alternative Paradigms of Research Both scientific and interpretive traditions
are concerned with studying behaviour and
Psychologists suggest that human behaviour
experiences of others. What about our own
can and should be studied following the
personal experiences and behaviour? As a
methods adopted by sciences like physics,
student of psychology, you may ask yourself
chemistry, and biology. The key assumption
the question: why am I feeling sad? Many times
of this view is that human behaviour is
you take a pledge that you will control your
predictable, caused by internal and external diet or devote more time to studies. But when
forces, and can be observed, measured, and it actually comes to eating or studying you
controlled. In order to achieve these goals, the forget this. You might be wondering why one
discipline of psychology, for larger part of the does not have control over one’s behaviour.
twentieth century, restricted itself to the study Should psychology not help you in analysing
of overt behaviour, i.e. the behaviour that your own experiences, thought processes, and
could be observed and measured. It did not behaviour? It certainly should. The
focus on personal feelings, experiences, psychological enquiry does aim at
meanings, etc. understanding the self by reflecting on one’s
In recent years, a different method known own experiences and insights.
as interpretive has emerged. It emphasises
understanding over explanation and
prediction. It takes the stand that, in view of NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DATA
complex and variable nature of human
You may want to consider how psychological
behaviour and experience, its method of data are different as compared to other
investigation should be different from the sciences. Psychologists collect a variety of
method of investigation of the physical world. information from different sources employing
This viewpoint emphasises the importance of diverse methods. The information, also called
how human beings give meaning to events and data (singular = datum), relate to the
actions and interpret them as they occur in a individuals’ covert or overt behaviour, their
particular context. Let us take the experiences subjective experiences, and mental processes.
that may occur in some unique contexts, such Data form an important input in psychological
as persons experiencing suffering due to enquiry. They in fact approximate the reality
external factors (for example, people affected to some extent and provide an opportunity to
by tsunami, earthquake, cyclone) or internal verify or falsify our ideas, hunches, notions,
factors (for instance, prolonged illness, etc.). etc. It should be understood that data are not
In such types of situations, objective independent entities. They are located in a
measurement is neither possible nor desirable. context, and are tied to the method and theory
Everyone interprets reality in her/his own way that govern the process of data collection. In
based on past experiences and contexts. other words, data are not independent of the
Therefore, we need to understand the physical or social context, the persons
subjective interpretation of the reality. The goal involved, and the time when the behaviour
here is to explore the different aspects of occurs. We behave differently when alone than
human experiences and behaviour without in a group, or at home and in office. You may

26
Psychology
hesitate to talk in front of your parents and areas as intelligence, personality, interest,
teachers but not when you are with friends. values, creativity, emotions, motivation,
You may have also noticed that not all people psychological disorders, illusions,
behave in exactly the same manner in the same delusions, hallucinations, perceptual
situation. The method of data collection (survey, judgment, thought processes,
interview, experiment, etc.) used and the consciousness, subjective experiences, etc.
characteristics of respondents (such as,
individual or group, young or old, male or The above information could be from the
female, rural or urban, etc.) also influence the point of view of measurement somewhat crude.
nature and quality of data. It is possible that Like, in the form of categories (such as high/
when you interview a student, s/he may report low, yes/no), ranks which provide ordinal data,
behaving in a particular manner in a given viz. first, second, third, fourth, etc., or scores
situation. But when you go for actual (10, 12, 15, 18, 20, etc.) on scales. We also
observation you may find just the opposite of obtain verbal reports, observation records,
what s/he had reported. Another important personal diaries, field notes, archival data, etc.
feature of data is that it does not in itself speak Such types of infor mation is analysed
about reality. Inferences have to be made from separately using qualitative methods. You will
data. A researcher attaches meaning to the data get some idea about this later in this chapter.
by placing it in its proper context.
In psychology, different types of data or SOME IMPORTANT METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
information are collected. Some of these types
are : In the previous section you read about wide
i) Demographic Information : This information variety of data that we collect in psychological
generally includes personal information like studies. All these varieties of data cannot be
name, age, gender, birth order, number of collected through a single method of enquiry.
siblings, education, occupation, marital Psychologists use a variety of methods like
status, number of children, locality of Observation, Experimental, Correlational,
residence, caste, religion, parental Survey, Psychological Testing, and Case Study
education, occupation, and family income, to collect data. The aim of this section is to
etc. guide you to select the methods which may be
ii) Physical Infor mation : This category appropriate for different research purposes. For
includes information about ecological example:
conditions (hilly/desert/forest), mode of
• You can observe the behaviour of spectators
economy, housing conditions, size of rooms,
watching a football match.
facilities available at home, in the
• You can conduct an experiment to see if
neighbourhood, in the school, mode of
children taking an examination do better
transportation, etc.
in the classroom in which they had studied
iii) Physiological Data : In some studies
the subject or in the examination hall
physical, physiological and psychological
(cause-effect relationship).
data are collected about height, weight,
• You can correlate intelligence with, say, self-
heart rate, level of fatigue, Galvanic Skin
esteem (for prediction purposes).
Resistance (GSR), electrical activity of the
brain measured by Electro-encephalograph • You can survey students’ attitude towards
(EEG), blood oxygen levels, reaction time, privatisation of education.
duration of sleep, blood pressure, pattern • You can use psychological tests to find out
of dream, amount of salivation, running and individual differences.
jumping rates (in case of animal studies), • You can conduct a case study on the
etc., are collected. development of language in a child.
iv) Psychological Information : Psychological The main characteristics of these methods
information collected, may relate to such are described in the following sections.

27
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
Observational Method needs to be made, in what for m the
observation will be recorded, and what
Observation is a very powerful tool of
methods will be used to analyse the observed
psychological enquiry. It is an effective method
behaviour.
of describing behaviour. In our daily life, we
remain busy with observing numerous things
Types of Observation
throughout the day. Many times, we do not
take notice of what we are seeing or what we Observation can be of the following types :
have seen. We see but we do not observe. We (a) Naturalistic vs Controlled Observation :
remain aware of only a few things that we see When observations are done in a natural or
daily. Have you experienced such a thing? You real-life settings (in the above example, it was
may also have experienced that if you carefully a school in which observation was made), it is
observe a person or event for some time, you called naturalistic observation. In this case
come to know many interesting things about the observer makes no effort to control or
the person or the event. A scientific manipulate the situation for making an
observation dif fers from day-to-day observation. This type of observation is
observation in many respects. These are : conducted in hospitals, homes, schools, day
(a) Selection : Psychologists do not observe all care centers, etc. However, many a times you
the behaviour that they encounter. Rather, might need to control certain factors that
they select a particular behaviour for determine behaviour as they are not the focus
observation. For example, you may be of your study. For this reason, many of the
interested to know how children studying in studies in psychology are conducted in the
laboratory. For example, if you read Box 2.1,
Class XI spend their time in school. Two things
you will come to know that smoke could only
are possible at this stage. As a researcher, you
be introduced in a controlled laboratory
might think that you have a fairly good idea
situation. This type of observation, called
about what happens in school. You might
Controlled Laboratory Observation, actually,
prepare a list of activities and go to the school
is obtained in laboratory experiments.
with a view to finding out their occurrences.
Alternatively, you might think that you do not (b) Non-Participant vs Participant Observation :
know what happens in the school and, by your Observation can be done in two ways. One,
observation you would like to discover it. you may decide to observe the person or event
from a distance. Two, the observer may
(b) Recording : While observing, a researcher
become part of the group being observed. In
records the selected behaviour using different
the first case, the person being observed may
means, such as marking tallies for the already
not be aware that s/he is being observed. For
identified behaviour whenever they occur,
example, you want to observe the pattern of
taking notes describing each activity in greater
interaction between teachers and students in
detail using short hand or symbols,
a particular class. There are many ways of
photographs, video recording, etc.
achieving this goal. You can install a video
(c) Analysis of Data : After the observations camera to record the classroom activities,
have been made, psychologists analyse which you can see later and analyse.
whatever they have recorded with a view to Alternatively, you may decide to sit in a corner
derive some meaning out of it. of the class without interfering or participating
It is important to know that making good in their everyday activities. This type of
observations is a skill. A good observer knows observation is called non-participant
what s/he is looking for, whom s/he wants to observation. The danger in this type of set-
observe, when and where the observation up is that the very fact that someone

28
Psychology
Box 2.1 Example of an Experiment

Two American psychologists, Bibb Latane and ignored; within four minutes the room contained
John Darley, conducted a study in 1970. In order enough smoke to interfere with vision and breathing.
to participate in this study, the students of Latane and Darley were primarily interested in
Columbia University arrived individually at a knowing how frequently students simply got up and
laboratory. They were given the impression that left the room to report the emergency. Most (75 per
they would be interviewed on a certain topic. cent) of the students who were waiting alone reported
Each student was sent to a waiting room to the smoke, but those reporting in groups were far
complete a preliminary questionnaire. Some of less. Groups consisting of three naïve students
them found two other people already seated in reported it only 38 per cent of the time. When the
the room, while others sat down alone. Soon after students waited with two other confederates, who
the students had started working on the were instructed before hand by the researchers to
questionnaire, smoke began filling the room do nothing, only 10 per cent students reported
through a wall vent. The smoke could hardly be smoke.

(an outsider) is sitting and observing may bring


a change in the behaviour of students and the Activity 2.1
teacher.
In participant observation, the observer A few students can observe one period when the
psychology teacher is teaching in the class. Note
becomes a part of the school or the group of
down, in detail, what the teacher does, what the
people being observed. In participant students do, and the entire pattern of interaction
observation, the observer takes some time to between the teacher and the students. Discuss
establish a rapport with the group so that they the observations made with other students and
start accepting her/him as one of the group teacher. Note the similarities and differences in
members. However, the degree of involvement observation.
of the observer with the group being observed
would vary depending upon the focus of the
study. Experimental Method
The advantage of the observation method
Experiments are generally conducted to
is that it enables the researcher to study
establish cause-effect relationship between
people and their behaviour in a naturalistic
two sets of events or variables in a controlled
situation, as it occurs. However, the
setting. It is a carefully regulated procedure
observation method is labour intensive, time
in which changes are made in one factor and
consuming, and is susceptible to the
its effect is studied on another factor, while
observer’s bias. Our observation is influenced
keeping other related factors constant. In the
by our values and beliefs about the person or
experiment, cause is the event being changed
the event. You are familiar with the popular
or manipulated. Effect is the behaviour that
saying: "We see things as we are and not as
changes because of the manipulation.
things are". Because of our biases we may
interpret things in a different way than what
The Concept of Variable
the participants may actually mean.
Therefore, the observer should record the You read earlier that in the experimental
behaviour as it happens and should not method, a researcher attempts to establish
interpret the behaviour at the time of causal relationship between two variables.
observation itself. What is a variable? Any stimulus or event

29
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
which varies, that is, it takes on different other. Also, independent variable chosen by
values (or changes) and can be measured is a the researcher is not the only variable that
variable. An object by itself is not a variable. influences the dependent variable. Any
But its attributes are. For example, the pen behavioural event contains many variables. It
that you use for writing is NOT a variable. But also takes place within a context. Independent
there are varieties of pens available in different and dependent variables are chosen because
shapes, sizes, and colour. All of these are of the researcher’s theoretical interest.
variables. The room in which you are sitting However, there are many other relevant or
is NOT a variable but its size is as there are extraneous variables that influence the
rooms of different sizes. The height of the dependent variable, but the researcher may
individuals (5' to 6') is another variable. not be interested in examining their effects.
Similarly, people of different races have These extraneous variables need to be
different colours. Young people have started controlled in an experiment so that a
dyeing their hair in different colours. Thus, researcher is able to pin-point the cause and
colour of hair becomes a variable. Intelligence effect relationship between independent and
is a variable (there are people with varying dependent variables.
levels of intelligence — high, moderate, low).
The presence or absence of persons in the Experimental and Control Groups
room is a variable as shown in the experiment
Experiments generally involve one or more
in Box 2.1. Thus, the variation can be in the
experimental groups and one or more control
quality or quantity of objects/events.
groups. An experimental group is a group in
Variables are of many types. We will
however focus on independent and dependent which members of the group are exposed to
independent variable manipulation. The
variables. Independent variable is that
variable which is manipulated or altered or control group is a comparison group that is
its strength varied by the researcher in the treated in every way like the experimental
experiment. It is the effect of this change in group except that the manipulated variable is
the variable which the researcher wants to absent in it. For example, in the study by
observe or note in the study. In the experiment Latane and Darley, there wer e two
conducted by Latane and Darley (Box 2.1), the experimental groups and one control group.
researchers wanted to examine the effect of As you may have noted, the participants in
the presence of other persons on reporting of the study were sent to three types of rooms.
the smoke. The independent variable was In one room no one was present (control
presence or absence of other persons in the group). In the other two rooms, two persons
room. The variables on which the effect of were already seated (experimental groups). Of
independent variable is observed is called the two experimental groups, one group was
dependent variable. Dependent variable instructed not to do anything when smoke
represents the phenomenon the researcher filled in the room. The other group was not
desires to explain. It is expected that change given any instructions. After the experimental
in the dependent variable will ensue from manipulation had occured the performance
changes in the independent variable. The of the control group measured in terms of
frequency of reporting of smoke in the above reporting of smoke was compared with that
case was the dependent variable. Thus, the of the experimental group. It was found that
independent variable is the cause, and the control group participants reported in
dependent variable the ef fect in any maximum numbers about the emergency,
experimental situation. followed by the first experimental group
One must remember that independent and members where the participants were not
dependent variables are interdependent. given any instructions, and the second
Neither of them can be defined without the experimental group (consisting of

30
Psychology
confederates) reported the emergency • Elimination is not always possible. In such
situation, the least. cases, effort should be made to hold them
It should be noted that in an experiment, constant so that their effect remains the
except for the experimental manipulation, same throughout the experiment.
other conditions are kept constant for both • For controlling organismic (e.g., fear,
experimental and control groups. One motivation) and background variables
attempts to control all those relevant variables (such as rural/urban, caste, socio-
which can influence the dependent variable. economic status) matching is also used.
For example, the speed with which smoke In this procedure the relevant variables in
started entering the rooms, the total amount the two groups are equated or are held
of smoke in the rooms, physical and other constant by taking matched pairs across
conditions of the rooms were similar in case conditions of the experiment.
of all the three groups. The distribution of • Counter-balancing technique is used to
participants to experimental and control
minimise the sequence effect. Suppose
groups was done randomly, a method that
there are two tasks to be given in an
ensures that each person has an equal chance
experiment. Rather than giving the two
of being included in any of the groups. If in
tasks in the same sequence the
one group the experimenter had included only
experimenter may interchange the order
males and in the other group females, the
of the tasks. Thus, half of the group may
results obtained in the study, could be due to
the differences in gender rather than due to receive the tasks in the order of A and B
experimental manipulation. All relevant while the other half in order of B and A or
variables in experimental studies that might the same individual may be given the task
influence the dependent variable need to be in A, B, B, A order.
controlled. These are of three major types: • Random assignment of participants to
organismic variables (such as anxiety, different groups eliminates any potential
intelligence, personality, etc.), situational or systematic differences between groups.
environmental variables operating at the time
The strength of a well-designed experiment
of conducting the experiment (such as noise,
is that it can provide, relatively speaking, a
temperature, humidity), and sequential
convincing evidence of a cause-ef fect
variables. The sequence related variables
relationship between two or more variables.
assume significance when the participants in
However, experiments are often conducted in
experiments are required to be tested in
a highly controlled laboratory situation. In this
several conditions. Exposure to many
sense, they only simulate situations that exist
conditions may result in experimental fatigue,
in the outside world. They are frequently
or practice effects, which may influence the
results of the study and make the criticised for this reason. The experiments may
interpretation of the findings difficult. produce results that do not generalise well,
In order to control relevant variables, or apply to real situations. In other words, they
experimenters use several control techniques. have low external validity. Another limitation
Some illustrations are given below. of the laboratory experiment is that it is not
• Since the goal of an experiment is to always feasible to study a particular problem
minimise extraneous variables, the best experimentally. For example, an experiment
way to handle this problem is to eliminate to study the effect of nutritional deficiency on
them from the experimental setting. For intelligence level of children cannot be
example, the experiment may be conducted as it would be ethically wrong to
conducted in a sound-proof and air- starve anyone. The third problem is that it is
conditioned room to eliminate the effect of difficult to know and control all the relevant
noise and temperature. variables.

31
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
Field Experiments and Quasi Experiments the control group children who experienced
the earthquake but did not lose their parents.
If a researcher wants to have high
Thus, a quasi experiment attempts to
generalisability or to conduct studies which
manipulate an independent variable in a
are not possible in laboratory settings, s/he
may go to the field or the natural setting where natural setting using naturally occurring
the particular phenomenon actually exists. In groups to form experimental and control
other words, s/he may conduct a field groups.
experiment. For example, a researcher may
want to know which method would lead to Correlational Research
better learning among students—lecture or In psychological research, we often wish to
demonstration method. For this, a researcher determine the relationship between two
may prefer to conduct an experiment in the variables for prediction purposes. For
school. The researcher may select two groups example, you may be interested in knowing
of participants; teach one group by whether “the amount of study time” is related
demonstration method and another group by to the “student’s academic achievement”. This
the normal teaching method for sometime. S/ question is different from the one which
he may compare their performance at the end experimental method seeks to answer in the
of the learning session. In such types of sense that here you do not manipulate the
experiments, the control over relevant amount of study time and examine its impact
variables is less than what we find in on achievement. Rather, you simply find out
laboratory experiments. Also, it is more time- the relationship between the two variables to
consuming and expensive. determine whether they are associated, or
Many variables cannot be manipulated in covary or not. The strength and direction of
the laboratory settings. For example, if you the relationship between the two variables is
want to study the effect of an earthquake on represented by a number, known as
children who lost their parents, you cannot correlation coefficient. Its value can range from
create this condition artificially in the +1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0.
laboratory. In such situations, the researcher As you can see, the coef ficient of
adopts the method of quasi (the Latin word correlation is of three types: positive, negative,
meaning “as if ”) experimentation. In such and zero. A positive correlation indicates that
types of experiments, the independent variable as the value of one variable (X) increases, the
is selected rather than varied or manipulated
value of the other variable (Y) will also increase.
by the experimenter. For example, in the
Similarly when variable X decreases, a
experimental group we can have children who
decrease in Y too takes place. Suppose, it is
lost their parents in the earthquake and in found that more time the students spend on
studying, the higher was their achievement
Activity 2.2 score. Also the less they studied, the lower
was their achievement score. This type of
Identify the independent and dependent variables association will be indicated by a positive
from the given hypotheses.
1. Teachers’ classroom behaviour affects
number, and the stronger the association
students’ performance. between studying and achievement, the closer
2. Healthy parent-child relationship facilitates the number would be to +1.0. You may find a
emotional adjustment of children. correlation of +.85, indicating a strong positive
3. Increase in the level of peer pressure increases association between study time and
the level of anxiety.
achievement. On the other hand, a negative
4. Enriching the environment of young children
with special books and puzzles enhances their correlation tells us that as the value of one
performance. variable (X) increases, the value of the other
(Y) decreases. For example, you may

32
Psychology
hypothesise that as the hours of study time panchayati raj institutions for running
increase, the number of hours spent in other programmes related to health, education,
activities will decrease. Here, you are expecting sanitation, etc. However, they have now
a negative correlation, ranging between 0 and evolved into a sophisticated technique which
–1.0. It is also possible that sometimes no helps in inferring various kinds of causal
correlation may exist between the two relationships. Box 2.2 provides an example of
variables. This is called zero correlation. a study using the survey method.
Generally, it is difficult to find zero correlation The survey research uses different
but the correlations found may be close to techniques for collecting information. Included
zero, e.g., -.02 or +.03. This indicates that no among these techniques are: personal
significant relationship exists between two interviews, questionnaires, telephonic surveys,
variables or the two variables are unrelated. and controlled observations. These techniques
are discussed here in some detail.
Survey Research
Personal Interviews
You may have read in the newspapers or seen
on the television that during elections surveys The interview method is one of the most
are conducted to find out if people would vote frequently used methods for obtaining
for a particular political party, or favour a information from people. It is used in diverse
particular candidate. Survey research came kinds of situations. It is used by a doctor to
into existence to study opinions, attitudes and obtain information from the patient, an
social facts. Their main concern initially was employer when meeting a pr ospective
to find out the existing reality or baseline. So employee, a sales person interviewing a
they were used to find out facts such as the housewife to know why she uses a certain
literacy rate at a particular time, religious brand of soap. On television, we often see
affiliations, income level of a particular group media persons interviewing people on issues
of people, etc.They were also used to find out of national and international importance.
the attitude of people towards family planning, What happens in an interview? We see that
the attitude towards giving powers to the two or more persons sit face-to-face with each

Box 2.2 Example of Survey Method

In December 2004, a survey was conducted by nor unhappy, and 7 per cent each fell in the last
“Outlook Saptahik” magazine (10 January 2005) two categories, more or less unhappy, and extremely
to know what makes the people of India happy. unhappy. The second question (Can you buy
The survey was conducted in eight big cities, happiness with money?) had three alternatives (Yes,
namely Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Bangalore, No, Don’t know). About 80 per cent people expressed
Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Jaipur, and Ranchi. that money can’t buy happiness. Another question
817 persons in the age group of 25-55 years tried to know “what gives them maximum
participated in the study. The questionnaire happiness?” More than 50 per cent respondents
used in the survey contained different types of reported that peace of mind (52 per cent) and health
questions. The first question (Are you happy?) (50 per cent) gave them maximum happiness. This
required respondents to give their views on a was followed by responses such as success in work
5-point scale (5=extremely happy, 4=more or less (43 per cent), and family (40 per cent). Another
happy, 3=neither happy nor unhappy, 2=more question asked was to know ‘what do they do when
or less unhappy, 1=extremely unhappy). About they feel unhappy or sad?” It was reported that 36
47 per cent people reported that they were per cent people opted for listening to music, 23 per
extremely happy, 28 per cent were more or less cent found respite in the company of friends, and
happy, 11 per cent said they were neither happy 15 per cent went for a movie.

33
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
other, in which one person (generally called (c) Group to Individuals : It is a situation where
interviewer) asks the questions and the other one group of interviewers interview one
person (called interviewee or respondent) person. You may experience this type of
answers the questions related to a problem. situation when you appear for a job
An interview is a purposeful activity conducted interview.
to derive factual information, opinions and (d) Group to Group : It is a situation where
attitudes, and reasons for particular one group of interviewers interview another
behaviour, etc. from the respondents. It is group of interviewees.
generally conducted face-to-face but sometimes
Interviewing is a skill which requires proper
it can also take place over the phone. training. A good interviewer knows how to make
There can be two broad types of interviews: the respondent at ease and get the optimal
structured or standardised, and answer. S/he remains sensitive to the way a
unstructured or non-standardised. This person responds and, if needed, probes for
distinction is based upon the type of more information. If the respondent gives vague
preparation we make before conducting the
answers, the interviewer may try to get specific
interview. As we have to ask questions during
and concrete answers.
the interview, it is required that we prepare a
The interview method helps in obtaining
list of questions before-hand. The list is called
in-depth information. It is flexible and
an interview schedule. A structured interview
adaptable to individual situations, and can
is one where the questions in the schedule
often be used when no other method is
are written clearly in a particular sequence.
possible or adequate. It can be used even with
The interviewer has little or no liberty to make
changes in the wordings of the questions or children, and non-literate persons. An
the order in which they are to be asked. The interviewer can know whether the respondent
responses to these questions are also, in some understands the questions, and can repeat or
cases, specified in advance. These are called paraphrase questions. However, interviews
close-ended questions. In contrast, in an require time. Often getting information from
unstructured interview the interviewer has the one person may take an hour or more which
flexibility to take decisions about the questions may not be cost-effective.
to be asked, the wording of the questions, and
the sequence in which questions are to be Questionnaire Survey
asked. Since responses are not specified in The questionnaire is the most common,
such type of interviews, the respondent can simple, versatile, and low-cost self-report
answer the questions in the way s/he chooses
method of collecting information. It consists
to. Such questions are called open-ended
of a predetermined set of questions. The
questions. For example, if the researcher
respondent has to read the questions and
wants to know about the happiness level of a
mark the answers on paper rather than
person, s/he may ask: How happy are you?
The respondent may reply to this question the respond verbally to the interviewer. They are
way s/he chooses to answer. in some ways like highly structured interviews.
An interview may have the following Questionnaires can be distributed to a group
combinations of participants in an interview of persons at a time who write down their
situation: answers to the questions and return to the
(a) Individual to Individual : It is a situation researcher or can be sent through mail.
where one interviewer interviews another Generally, two types of questions are used in
person. the questionnaire: open-ended and closed-
(b) Individual to Group : In this situation, one ended. With open-ended questions, the
interviewer interviews a group of persons. respondent is free to write whatever answer
One variant of it is called a Focus Group s/he considers appropriate. In the closed-
Discussion (FGD). ended type, the questions and their probable

34
Psychology
answers are given and the respondent is for conducting surveys. Each method has its
required to select the correct answer. own advantages and limitations. The
Examples of closed-ended questions require researcher needs to exercise caution in
responses like: Yes/No, True/False, Multiple selecting a particular method.
choice, or using a rating scale. In case of rating The survey method has several
scale, a statement is given and the respondent advantages. First, information can be gathered
is asked to give her/his views on a 3-point quickly and efficiently from thousands of
(Agree, Undecided, Disagree), or 5-point persons. Second, since surveys can be
(Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree, conducted quickly, public opinions on new
Strongly Disagree) or 7-point, 9-point, 11- issues can be obtained almost as soon as the
point or 13-point scale. In some cases, the issues arise. There are some limitations of a
participants are asked to rank a number of survey too. First, people may give inaccurate
things in a preferential order. The information because of memory lapses or they
questionnaire is used for collecting may not want to let the researcher know what
background and demographic information, they really believe about a particular issue.
information about past behaviour, attitudes Second, people sometimes offer responses they
and opinions, knowledge about a particular think the researcher wants to hear.
topic, and expectations and aspirations of the
persons. Sometimes a survey is conducted by Psychological Testing
sending the questionnaire by mail. The main
problem of a mailed questionnaire is poor Assessment of individual differences has
response from the respondents. remained one of the important concerns of
psychology fr om the very beginning.
Activity 2.3 Psychologists have constructed different types
of tests for assessment of various human
An investigator wants to study people’s attitude characteristics, such as intelligence, aptitude,
towards welfare programmes by circulating a personality, interest, attitudes, values,
questionnaire via the Internet. Is this study likely educational achievement, etc. These tests are
to reflect the views of the general population used for various purposes, such as personnel
accurately? Why or why not?
selection, placement, training, guidance,
diagnosis, etc., in multiple contexts including
Telephone Survey educational institutions, guidance clinics,
industries, defence establishments, and so
Surveys are also conducted through forth. Have you ever taken a psychological
telephone, and now-a-days you must have test? If you have, you might have seen that a
seen programmes asking you to send your test contains a number of questions, called
views through mobile phones’ SMS. The items, with their probable responses, which
telephone survey helps in reducing time. ar e related to a particular human
However, since the respondents do not know characteristic or attribute. It is important here
the interviewer, the technique is fraught with that the characteristic for which a test has
uncooperativeness, reluctance, and superficial been developed, should be defined clearly and
answers by the respondents. There is also a unambiguously, and all items (questions)
possibility that those responding may differ should be related to that characteristic only.
from those not responding, e.g., on age, You might also notice that often a test is meant
gender, income levels, education levels, etc., for a particular age group. It may or may not
besides their psychological characteristics. have a fixed time limit for answering the
This will lead to very biased kinds of results. questions.
The method of observation have been Technically speaking, a psychological test
discussed earlier. This method is also used is a standardised and objective instrument

35
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
which is used to assess an individual’s is divided into two equal halves employing odd-
standing in relation to others on some mental even method (items 1,3,5,— in one group and
or behavioural characteristics. Two things are items 2,4,6,— in another group) and
worth noting in this definition: objectivity and correlation is computed between the scores
standardisation. Objectivity refers to the fact of odd and even items.
that if two or more researchers administer a For a test to be usable, it should also be
psychological test on the same group of people, valid. Validity refers to the question : “Does
both of them would come up with more or the test measure what it claims to measure”?
less the same values for each person in the For example, if you have constructed a test of
group. In order for a psychological test to mathematics achievement, whether the test
become an objective measure, it is essential is measuring mathematical achievement or
that items should be worded in such a manner for example, language proficiency.
that they communicate the same meaning to Finally, a test becomes a standardised test
different readers. Also, the instructions to the when norms are developed for the test. As
test takers about how to answer the test items mentioned earlier, norm is the normal or
should be specified in advance. The procedure average performance of the group. The test is
of administering the test such as administered on a large number of students.
environmental conditions, time limit, mode of Their average performance standards are set
administration (individual or group) should be based on their age, sex, place of residence,
spelt, and the procedure for scoring of the etc. This helps us in comparing the
participants’ responses need to be described. performance of an individual student with
The construction of a test is a systematic others of the same group. It also helps in
process and involves certain steps. It involves interpreting individuals’ score obtained on a
detailed analysis of items, and estimating test.
reliability, validity, and norms of the whole
test. Types of Tests
Reliability of the test refers to the
consistency of scores obtained by an individual Psychological tests are classified on the basis
on the same test on two different occasions. of their language, mode of administration, and
For example, you administer the test to a difficulty level. Depending upon the language,
group of students today and re-administer it we have verbal, non-verbal, and performance
on the same set of students after some time, tests. Literacy is required for taking verbal
let us say 20 days. If the test is reliable, there tests as the items have to be written in some
should not be any variation in the scores language. In non-verbal tests, items are made
obtained by the students on the two occasions. of symbols or pictures. Performance tests
For this, we can compute test-retest require movement of objects from their
reliability, which indicates the temporal respective places in a particular order.
stability (or stability of the test scores over Depending upon the mode of
time). It is computed by finding out co-efficient administration, psychological tests are divided
of correlation between the two sets of scores into individual or group tests. An individual
on the same set of persons. Another kind of test is administered by the researcher to one
test reliability is called split-half reliability. It person at a time, while group tests can be
gives an indication about the degree of internal administered to large number of persons at
consistency of the test. This is based on the the same time. In individual tests, the
assumption that items of a test if they are from researcher administers the test face to face
the same domain should correlate with each and remains seated before the test taker and
other. If they are from different domains, e.g., notes down the responses. In the group test,
are apples and oranges, then they would not. the instructions about answering the items,
For finding out internal consistency, the test etc., are written on the test, which the test

36
Psychology
taker reads and answers the questions with infor mation about a person’s
accordingly. The test administrator explains background, interests, and past performance.
the instructions to the entire group. Individual
tests are time consuming, but are important Case Study
ways of getting responses from children, and
In this method, the emphasis is given on in-
from those who do not know the language.
depth study of a particular case. Researchers
Group tests are easy to administer and are
focus on cases which can provide critical
also less time consuming. However, the
responses are fraught with certain limitations. infor mation or new lear ning on less
The respondent may not be motivated enough understood phenomena. The case can be an
to answer the questions and may give fake individual with distinguishing characteristics
responses. (for example, a patient showing psychological
Psychological tests are also classified into disorders) or a small group of individuals
speed and power tests. In a speed test, there having some commonality among them (for
is a time limit within which the test taker is example, creative writers like Rabindra Nath
required to answer all the items. Such a test Tagore, and Mahadevi Verma), institutions (for
evaluates the individual on the basis of time example, poorly or successfully functioning
taken to answer the items accurately. In a school or a corporate office), and specific
speed test, all the items are of the same degree events (for example, children exposed to
of difficulty. On the other hand, power test devastation by tsunami, war or vehicular
assesses the underlying ability (or power) of pollution, etc.). The cases that we select for
the individuals by allowing them sufficient study are unique and, therefore, are rich in
time, i.e. these tests do not have any time limit. information. A case study employs multiple
In a power test, the items are generally methods for collecting information, such as
arranged in an increasing order of difficulty. interview, observation, and psychological tests
If a person, for example, is unable to solve the from a variety of respondents who in some
6th item, s/he will have difficulty in answering way or the other might be associated with the
the subsequent items. It is, however, difficult case and can provide useful information. With
to construct a pure speed or power test. the help of case studies, psychologists have
Majority of the tests are a combination of both done research to understand feelings,
speed and power. fantasies, hopes, fears, traumatic experiences,
While tests are often used in research and parental upbringing and so on, that helps to
for making decisions about people, tests must understand a person’s mind and behaviour.
be selected and used with great care. The test Case studies provide a narrative or detailed
user or the decision maker should not rely on descriptions of the events that take place in a
any single test. Test data should be combined person’s life.
A case study is a valuable research tool in
Activity 2.4 the field of clinical psychology and human
development. Freud’s insights that led to the
Take a test with its manual and read it carefully, development of psychoanalytic theory emerged
and identify the following : from his observations and showed that
• Number and type of items
• Information about reliability, validity, and
meticulous records must be maintained on
norms individual cases. Similarly, Piaget developed
• Type of test: verbal or otherwise, individual his theory of cognitive development on the
or groups basis of observations of his three children.
• Type of test: Speed, power, or mixed Case studies have been conducted to
• Any other characteristics understand the pattern of socialisation of
Discuss these with other students and the
teacher.
children. For example, Minturn and Hitchcock
conducted a case study of socialisation of

37
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
children among Rajputs of Khalapur. data. We generally use two methodological
S. Anandalakshmy studied aspects of approaches for the analysis of data. These are:
childhood in a weavers’ community in Varanasi. quantitative and qualitative methods. In this
Case studies provide detailed in-depth section, we will briefly discuss these
depictions of people’s lives. However, while approaches.
generalising on the basis of individual cases
one needs to be very cautious. The problem of
Quantitative Method
validity in a single case study is quite
challenging. It is recommended that the As you may have gathered by now,
information should be collected using multiple psychological tests, questionnaires, structured
strategies from different sources of information interviews, etc. contain a series of close-ended
by a number of investigators. Careful planning questions. That is, the questions and their
of data collection is also very necessary. probable responses are given in these
Throughout the process of data collection the measures. Generally, these responses are
researcher is required to maintain a chain of given in scaled forms. That is, they indicate
evidence for linking various data sources the strength and magnitude of the response.
having bearing on the research questions. For example, they may vary from 1 (low) to 5,
As you have read, each method has its own 7 or 11 (high). The participants’ task is to select
limitations and advantages. Therefore, it is the most appropriate response. Sometimes
desirable that the researcher should not there are right and wrong responses. A
depend upon only one method. A combination researcher assigns a number to each answer
of two or more methods should be used to get (normally “1” for right answers, and “0” for
the real picture. If the methods converge, i.e. wrong answers). At the end, the researcher
they give the same results, one can certainly calculates the total of all these numbers and
be more confident. arrives at an aggregate score, which tells about
the participants’ level on that particular
Activity 2.5 attribute (for example, intelligence, academic
intelligence, etc.). In doing so, the researcher
Identify the most appropriate method of enquiry converts the psychological attributes into a
for the following research problems. quantity (usually numbers).
• Does noise influence the problem solving For the purpose of drawing conclusions,
ability of the people? a researcher may compare individual’s score
• Should there be a dress code for college with that of the group, or compare the scores
students?
• Studying the attitude of students, teachers,
of two groups. This requires use of certain
and parents towards homework. statistical methods about which you will study
• Studying the behaviour of a student in a later. You have already read in mathematics
playgroup and in a classroom. in Class X about the methods of central
• Tracing the major life events of your favourite tendency (mean, median, and mode), methods
leader. of variability (range, quartile deviation,
• Assessing the anxiety level of Class XI
students of your school.
standard deviation), co-efficients of
correlation, and so forth. These and some
other advanced statistical methods enable a
researcher to make inferences and to give
ANALYSIS OF DATA meaning to the data.

In the earlier section, we discussed different


Qualitative Method
methods for collecting information. After data
are collected, the next job of the researcher is Human experiences are very complex. This
to draw conclusions. This requires analysis of complexity is lost when one elicits information

38
Psychology
from a respondent on the basis of a question. decide a point as zero point and proceed
If you want to know how a mother feels about further. As a result, whatever scores we
the loss of her child, you will need to hear her get in psychological studies, are not
story to understand how her experience is absolute in nature; rather, they have
organised and what meaning she has given to relative value.
her suffering. Any attempt at its quantification In some of the studies ranks are used
will not enable you to get at the principles of as scores. For example, on the basis of
organising such experiences. Psychologists marks obtained in some test, the teacher
have developed various qualitative methods arranges the students in an order — 1, 2,
to analyse such data. One of them is Narrative 3, 4, … , and so on. The problem in such
Analysis. Also data are not always available type of assessment is that the difference
in the form of scores. When the researcher between first and second rank holders may
uses the method of participant observation or not be the same as is the difference
unstructured interview, the data are generally between the second and third rank
in a descriptive form—in participants’ own holders. Out of 50, the first rank holder
words, field notes taken by the researchers, might score 48, the second 47, and the
photographs, interview responses noted by the third 40. As you can see, the difference
researcher or taped/video-recorded, informal between the first and the second rank
talks, etc. These type of data cannot be holders is not the same as is the case
converted into scores or subjected to statistical between second and third rank holders.
analysis. Rather, the researcher uses the This also illustrates the relative nature of
technique of content analysis to find out the psychological measurement.
thematic categories and build those categories 2. Relative Nature of Psychological Tools :
taking examples from the data. It is more Psychological tests are developed keeping
descriptive in nature. in view the salient features of a particular
It must be understood that quantitative context. For example, a test developed for
and qualitative methods are not contradictory; urban students may contain items that
rather, they are complementary to each other. demand familiarity with the stimuli
In order to understand a phenomenon in its available in the urban setting—
totality, a suitable combination of both multistoried buildings, airplanes, metro
methods is warranted. railway, etc. Such a test is not suitable for
use with children living in tribal areas who
LIMITATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY would be more at ease with items that
describe their flora and fauna. Similarly,
The advantages and limitations of each a test developed in the Western countries
method have been discussed earlier. In this may or may not be applicable in the Indian
section, you will read some general problems context. Such tests need to be properly
faced by psychological measurement. modified and adapted keeping in view the
characteristics of the context in which they
1. Lack of T rue Zero Point : In physical
are to be used.
sciences measurements do start from zero.
For example, if you want to measure the 3. Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative
length of the table, you can measure it Data : Data from qualitative studies are
starting from zero and can say it is 3' long. largely subjective since they involve
Psychological measurements do not have interpretation on the part of the researcher
a true zero point. For example, no person as well as the person providing data. The
in this world has zero intelligence. All of interpretations may vary from one
us have some degree of intelligence. What individual to the other. It is, therefore,
psychologists do is that they arbitrarily often suggested that in case of qualitative

39
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
studies, the field work should be done by shared with others. In some studies, the
more than one investigator, who at the end technique of deception is used in which
of the day should discuss their the participants are given instructions to
observations and arrive at an agreement think or imagine in certain ways and are
before finally giving it a meaning. In fact, given false information or feedback about
one is better off, if the respondents too their performance (for example, you are
are involved in such meaning-making very intelligent, you are incompetent). It
process. is, therefore, important that the
participants are explained the nature of
the study before its actual
ETHICAL ISSUES
commencement.
As you know, psychological research is 3. Debriefing : Once the study is over, the
concerned with human behaviour, the participants are provided with necessary
researcher is expected to follow certain ethics information to complete their
(or moral principles) while conducting the understanding of research. This is
studies. These principles are: respect for particularly important if deception has
persons’ privacy and choice to participate been used in the study. Debriefing ensures
in the study, beneficence or protecting the that participants leave the study in the
participants in the study from any harm, same physical and mental state as when
and justice or sharing the benefits of they entered. It should offer reassurance
research with all participants. Some of the to the participants. The researcher should
important aspects of these ethical principles make efforts to remove any anxiety or other
are described as follows. adverse effects that participants may have
1. Voluntary Participation : This principle felt as a result of being deceived in the
states that the persons on whom you want course of the study.
to conduct the study should have the 4. Sharing the Results of the Study : In
choice to decide whether to participate or psychological research, after collecting
not to participate in the study. The information from the participants, we come
participants should have the freedom to back to our places of work, analyse the
decide about their participation without data and draw conclusions. It is obligatory
any coercion or excessive inducement, and for the researcher to go back to the
the freedom to withdraw from the research participants and share the results of the
without penalty, once it has begun. study with them. When you go for data
2. Informed Consent : It is essential that the collection, the participants develop certain
participants in a study should understand expectations from you. One of the
what will happen to them during the expectations is that you will tell them
study. The principle of informed consent about their behaviour that you have
states that potential participants must investigated in the study. As a researcher,
receive this information before data from it is our moral duty to go back to the
them are collected, so that they make an participants. This exercise has two
informed decision about participation in advantages. One, you fulfil the
the study. In some of the psychological expectations of the participants. Second,
experiments, electric shock is given to the the participants may tell you their opinion
participants during the experiment. Still about the results, which sometimes may
in some cases obnoxious (e.g., harmful or help you develop new insights.
unpleasant) stimuli are presented. They 5. Confidentiality of Data Source : The
may at times be required to give some participants in a study have the right to
private information, which is generally not privacy. The researcher must safeguard

40
Psychology
their privacy by keeping the information
provided by them in strict confidence. The Key Terms
information should only be used for
research purposes and, in no Case study, Confidentiality, Control group,
circumstances, it should be passed on to Correlational research, Data, Debriefing,
other interested parties. The most effective Dependent variable, Experimental group,
Experimental method, Group test, Hypothesis,
way of protecting the confidentiality of Independent variable, Individual test,
participants is not to record their identities. Interview, Negative correlation, Norms,
This is, however, not possible in certain Objectivity, Observation, Performance tests,
kinds of research. In such cases, code Positive correlation, Power test, Psychological
test, Qualitative method, Quantitative method,
numbers are given on the data sheet, and
Questionnaire, Reliability, Speed test,
the names with the codes are kept Structured interview, Survey, Unstructured
separately. The identification list should be interview, Validity, Variable
destroyed as soon as the research is over.

Summary
• A psychological research is conducted for the purpose of description, prediction, explanation,
control of behaviour, and application of knowledge generated in an objective manner. It
involves the following four steps: conceptualising a problem, collection of data, analysing
data, drawing and revising research conclusions. The psychological research is also
conducted to discover and understand the subjective meanings of events as they occur in a
particular context, and also reflect upon one’s own behaviour and experiences.
• In psychological studies, different types of data including demographic, environmental,
physical, physiological, and psychological information are collected. However, the data in
psychological studies remain located in a context and are tied to the theory and method
used for its collection.
• Different methods are used for collecting information. The observation method is used for
describing the behaviour. It is characterised by selection of a particular behaviour, its recording
and analysis. Observation can be done in a naturalistic or controlled laboratory conditions.
It can take the form of a participant or non-participant observation.
• The experimental method helps in establishing cause-effect relationship. The effect of the
presence of independent variable on the dependent variable is studied using experimental
and control groups.
• The purpose of correlational research is investigating association between variables as well
as making predictions. The relationship between two variables can be positive, zero or
negative, and strength of association varies from +1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0.
• The focus of survey research is to inform about the existing reality. Surveys can be conducted
by using structured and unstructured interviews, mailed questionnaires, and telephone.
• The psychological tests are standardised and objective instruments which help in knowing
one’s standing in comparison to others. Tests can be verbal, non-verbal, and performance
types, which can be administered individually or to the entire group at a time.
• The method of case study gives detailed in-depth information about a particular case.
• The data collected through the use of these methods are analysed through quantitative and
qualitative methods. The quantitative methods allow the use of statistical procedure for
drawing conclusions. Narrative method and method of content analysis are some methods
that are used in case of qualitative research.
• Lack of absolute zero point, relative nature of psychological tools, and subjective interpretation
of qualitative data are some of the limitations of psychological enquiry. Ethical principles of
voluntary participation of the subjects, their informed consent, and sharing of results with
the participants must be followed by a researcher.

41
Chapter 2 • Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
Review Questions
1. What are the goals of scientific enquiry?
2. Describe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry.
3. Explain the nature of psychological data.
4. How do experimental and control groups differ? Explain with the help of an example.
5. A researcher is studying the relationship between speed of cycling and the presence of
people. Formulate a relevant hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent
variables.
6. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of experimental method as a method of enquiry.
7. Dr. Krishnan is going to observe and record children’s play behaviour at a nursery school
without attempting to influence or control the behaviour. Which method of research is
involved? Explain the process and discuss its merits and demerits.
8. Give two examples of the situations where survey method can be used. What are the
limitations of this method?
9. Differentiate between an interview and a questionnaire.
10. Explain the characteristics of a standardised test.
11. Describe the limitations of psychological enquiry.
12. What are the ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a
psychological enquiry?

Project Ideas
1. Conduct a survey of the after-school activities of Class V and Class IX students taking a
sample of 10 students in each. Find information about the time devoted by them in
various activities, such as studying, playing, television viewing, hobbies, etc. Do you find
any difference? What conclusions do you draw and what suggestions would you offer?
2. Conduct a study in your group to see the effect of recitation on learning of poetry. Take 10
six-year olds and divide them into two groups. Give group 1 a new poem to learn and
instruct them to read it loudly for 15 minutes. Take group 2 and give them the same new
poem to learn but instruct them not to read it loudly. After 15 minutes ask the two groups
to recall. Care needs to be taken to see that both the groups are dealt with separately.
After the recall has taken place, note down the observation.
Identify what method of research you used, the hypothesis, the variables and the
kind of experimental design that were there. Compare notes with the other groups and
share the result with your teacher in the class.

42
Psychology
Introduction
Human beings, the homo sapiens, are the most developed organisms among all
creatures on this earth. Their ability to walk upright, larger brain size relative to
body weight, and the proportion of specialised brain tissues make them distinct
from other species. These features have evolved through millions of years and have
enabled them to engage in several complex behaviours. Scientists have attempted
to study the relationship of complex human behaviour with the processes of the
nervous system, particularly of the brain. They have tried to discover the neural
basis of thoughts, feelings, and actions. By understanding the biological aspects of
human beings, you will be able to appreciate how brain, environment and behaviour
interact to generate unique forms of behaviour. In this chapter, we begin with a
general description of the nervous system in an evolutionary perspective. You will
also study the structure and functions of the nervous system. You will learn about
the endocrine system, and its influence on human behaviour. Later in this chapter,
you will also study the notion of culture and show its relevance to the understanding
of behaviour. This will be followed by an analysis of the processes of enculturation,
socialisation, and acculturation.

Evolution occurs through the process of


EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE
natural selection. You know that members of
You must have observed that people differ each species vary greatly in their physical
with respect to their physical and structure and behaviour. The traits or
psychological characteristics. The uniqueness characteristics that are associated with high
of individuals results from the interaction of rate of survival and reproduction of those
their genetic endowments and environmental species are the most likely ones to be passed
on to the next generations. When repeated
demands.
generation after generation, natural selection
In this world, there are millions of different
leads to the evolution of new species that are
species of organisms differing in a variety of
more effectively adapted to their particular
ways. Biologists believe that these species were
environment. This is very similar to the
not always like this; they have evolved to their selective breeding of horses or other animals
present form from their pre-existing forms. It these days. Breeders select the fittest and the
is estimated that the characteristics of modern fastest male and female horses from their
human beings developed some 2,00,000 years stock, and promote them for selective breeding
ago as a result of their continuous interaction so that they can get the fittest horses. Fitness
with the environment. is the ability of an organism to survive and
Evolution refers to gradual and orderly contribute its genes to the next generation.
biological changes that result in a species from Three important features of modern
their pre-existing forms in response to the human beings differentiate them from their
changing adaptational demands of their ancestors: (i) a bigger and developed brain with
environment. Physiological as well as increased capacity for cognitive behaviours
behavioural changes that occur due to the like perception, memory, reasoning, problem
evolution process are so slow that they become solving, and use of language for
visible after hundreds of generations. communication, (ii) ability to walk upright on

44
Psychology
two legs, and (iii) a free hand with a workable or placing different demands on our lives.
opposing thumb. These features have been Such experiences, opportunities and demands
with us for several thousand years. also influence our behaviour considerably.
Our behaviours are highly complex and These influences become more potent and
more developed than those of other species visible as we move from infancy to later years
because we have got a large and highly of life. Thus, besides biological bases, there
developed brain. Human brain development is are cultural bases of behaviour also. You will
evidenced by two facts. Firstly, the weight of learn about the role of culture in behaviour at
the brain is about 2.35 per cent of the total a later point in this chapter.
body weight, and it is the highest among all
species (in elephant it is 0.2 per cent). Secondly,
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR
the human cerebrum is more evolved than
other parts of the brain.
These evolutions have resulted due to the Neurons
influence of environmental demands. Some Neuron is the basic unit of our nervous
behaviours play an obvious role in evolution. system. Neurons are specialised cells, which
For example, the ability to find food, avoid possess the unique property of converting
predators, and defend one’s young are the various for ms of stimuli into electrical
objectives related to the survival of the impulses. They are also specialised for
organisms as well as their species. The reception, conduction and transmission of
biological and behavioural qualities, which are information in the form of electrochemical
helpful in meeting these objectives, increase signals. They receive information from sense
an organism’s ability to pass it on to the future organs or from other adjacent neurons, carry
generation through its genes. The them to the central nervous system (brain and
environmental demands lead to biological and spinal cord), and bring motor information from
behavioural changes over a long period of time. the central nervous system to the motor organs
(muscles and glands).
BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL ROOTS Nearly 12 billion neurons are found in the
human nervous system. They are of many
An important determinant of our behaviour types and vary considerably in shape, size,
is the biological structures that we have chemical composition, and function. Despite
inherited from our ancestors in the form of these differences, they share in common three
developed body and brain. The importance of fundamental components, i.e. soma,
such biological bases becomes obvious when dendrites, and axon.
we observe cases in which brain cells have The soma or cell body is the main body of
been destroyed by any disease, use of drug or the nerve cell. It contains the nucleus of the
an accident. Such cases develop various kinds cell as well as other structures common to living
of physical and behavioural disabilities. Many cells of all types (Figure 3.1). The genetic
children develop mental retardation and other material of the neuron is stored inside the
abnormal symptoms due to transmission of a nucleus and it becomes actively engaged during
faulty gene from the parents. cell reproduction and protein synthesis. The
As human beings, we not only share a soma also contains most of the cytoplasm (cell-
biological system, but also certain cultural fluid) of the neuron. Dendrites are the branch-
systems. These systems are quite varied across like specialised structures emanating from the
human populations. All of us negotiate our soma. They are the receiving ends of a neuron.
lives with the culture in which we are born Their function is to receive the incoming neural
and brought up. Culture provides us with impulses from adjacent neurons or directly
different experiences and opportunities of from the sense organs. On dendrites are found
learning by putting us in a variety of situations specialised receptors, which become active

45
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
when a signal arrives in electrochemical or energy comes into contact with receptors,
biochemical form. The received signals are electrical changes in the nerve potential start.
passed on to soma and then to axon so that Nerve potential is a sudden change in the
the information is relayed to another neuron electrical potential of the surface of a neuron.
or to muscles. The axon conducts the When the stimulus energy is relatively weak,
information along its length, which can be the electrical changes are so small that the
several feet in the spinal cord and less than a nerve impulse is not generated, and we do not
millimeter in the brain. At the terminal point feel that stimulus. If the stimulus energy is
the axon branches into small structures, called relatively strong, electrical impulses are
terminal buttons. These buttons have the generated and conducted towards the central
capability for transmitting information to nervous system. The strength of the nerve
another neuron, gland and muscle. Neurons impulse, however, does not depend on the
generally conduct information in one direction, strength of the stimulus that started the
that is, from the dendrites through soma and impulse. The nerve fibers work according to
axon to the terminal buttons. the “all or none principle”, which means that
The conduction of information from one they either respond completely or do not
place to another in the nervous system is done respond at all. The strength of the nerve
through nerves, which are bundles of axons. impulse remains constant along the nerve
Nerves are mainly of two types: sensory and fiber.
motor. Sensory nerves, also called afferent
nerves, carry information from sense organs Synapse
to central nervous system. On the other hand,
Information is transmitted from one place to
motor nerves, also called efferent nerves, carry
another within the nervous system in the form
information from central nervous system to
of a neural impulse. A single neuron can carry
muscles or glands. A motor nerve conducts
a neural impulse up to a distance covered by
neural commands which direct, control, and
the length of its axon. When the impulse is to
regulates our movements and other responses.
be conducted to a distant part of the body, a
There are some mixed nerves also, but sensory
number of neurons participate in the process.
and motor fibers in these nerves are separate.
In this process, one neuron faithfully relays
the information to a neighboring neuron. The
Nerve Impulse
axon tip of a preceding neuron make
Information travels within the nervous system functional connections or synapse with
in the form of a nerve impulse. When stimulus dendrites of the other neuron. A neuron is
Terminal
Dendrites (receiving end) buttons

Nucleus
Cytoplasm

Soma Myelin sheath

Axon Nodes of ranvier


(transmitting)

Fig.3.1 : The Structure of Neuron

46
Psychology
never physically connected with another functions. Based on location, the nervous
neuron; rather there is a small gap between system can be divided into two parts: Central
the two. This gap is known as synaptic cleft. Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous
The neural impulse from one neuron is System (PNS). The part of the nervous system
transmitted by a complex synaptic found inside the hard bony cases (cranium
transmission process to another neuron. The and backbone) is classified as CNS. Brain and
conduction of neural impulse in the axon is spinal cord are the organs of this system. The
electrochemical, while the nature of synaptic parts of the nervous system other than central
transmission is chemical (Figure 3.2). The nervous system are placed in the PNS. PNS
chemical substances are known as can be further classified into Somatic and
neurotransmitters. Autonomic nervous system. Somatic nervous
system is concerned with voluntary actions,
while the autonomic nervous system performs
functions on which we have no voluntary
control. The organisation of the nervous system
is schematically presented in Figure 3.3.

Terminal
button Nervous System

Synaptic
vesicles Dendrite Peripheral Nervous
Central Nervous System (PNS)
System (CNS) (Neural Tissue outside
Brain and Spinal Cord)

Neurotransmitter
Spinal Cord
Brain
Synaptic cleft (Ascending Pathways,
(Hindbrain, Midbrain,
Interneurons, and
and Forebrain)
Descending Pathway)
Fig.3.2 : Transmission of Nerve Impulse through
Synapse Somatic Nervous Autonomic Nervous
System (SNS) System (ANS)
(Sensory and Motor (Internal System,
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS Nerves, Voluntary) Involuntary)

SYSTEM AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND THEIR


RELATIONSHIP WITH BEHAVIOUR AND Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Division Division
EXPERIENCE (Trouble Shooter) (Housekeeping)

Since our biological structures play an


important role in organisation and execution
of behaviour, we shall look at these structures Endocrine System
in some detail. In particular, you will read
about the nervous system and the endocrine
system, which work together in giving a shape Fig.3.3 : Schematic Representation of the Nervous
System
to human behaviour and experience.

The Nervous System The Peripheral Nervous System


Human nervous system is the most complex The PNS is composed of all the neurons and
and most developed of all living creatures. nerve fibers that connect the CNS to the rest
Though the nervous system functions as a of the body. The PNS is divided into Somatic
whole, for the ease of study, we can divide it Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous
into many parts depending on its location or System. The autonomic nervous system is

47
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
further divided into Sympathetic and There are thirty one sets of spinal nerves
Parasympathetic systems. The PNS provides coming out of or reaching to the spinal cord.
information to the CNS from sensory receptors Each set has sensory and motor nerves. Spinal
(eyes, ears, skin, etc.) and relays back motor nerves have two functions. The sensory fibers
commands from the brain to the muscles and of the spinal nerves collect sensory information
glands. from all over the body (except the head region)
and send them to the spinal cord from where
The Somatic Nervous System they are then carried out to the brain. In
addition, motor impulses coming down from
This system consists of two types of nerves,
the brain are sent to the muscles by the motor
called cranial nerves and spinal nerves. There
fibers of the spinal nerves.
are twelve sets of cranial nerves which either
emanate from or reach different locations of
The Autonomic Nervous System
the brain. There are three types of cranial
nerves - sensory, motor, and mixed. Sensory This system governs activities which are
nerves collect sensory information from normally not under direct control of
receptors of the head region (vision, audition, individuals. It controls such internal functions
smell, taste, touch, etc.) and carry them to as breathing, blood circulation, salivation,
the brain. The motor nerves carry motor stomach contraction, and emotional reactions
impulses originating from the brain to muscles (Figure 3.4). These activities of the autonomic
of the head region. For example, movements system are under the control of different
of the eyeballs are controlled by motor cranial structures of the brain.
nerves. Mixed nerves have both sensory and The Autonomic Nervous System has two
motor fibers, which conduct sensory and divisions: Sympathetic division and
motor information to and from the brain. Parasympathetic division. Although the effect

Parasympathetic Sympathetic
Stimulates tear glands
Constricts pupil Dilates pupil

Inhibits tear gland Inhibits salivation


Increases salivation Increases sweating

Accelerates heart
Slows heart
Dilates bronchi
Constricts bronchi
Decreases digestive
functions of stomach
Increases digestive
Secretes adrenaline
functions of stomach

Chain of Decreases digestive


Increases digestive
sympathetic functions of intestine
functions of intestine
Spinal ganglia
cord
Inhibits bladder
Contracts bladder

Fig.3.4 : The Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System

48
Psychology
of one division is opposite to the effect of the Brain scanning reveals that while some mental
other, both work together to maintain a state functions are distributed among different
of equilibrium. The sympathetic division deals areas of the brain, many activities are localised
with emergencies when the action must be also. For example, the occipital lobe of the
quick and powerful, such as in situations of brain is a specialised area for vision.
fight or flight. During this period, the digestion
stops, blood flows from internal organs to the Activity 3.1
muscles, and breathing rate, oxygen supply,
heart rate, and blood sugar level increases. Ask some students to make small slips of paper
The Parasympathetic division is mainly and write names of the parts of the nervous
concerned with conservation of energy. It system on them. Put the slips together in a bowl
monitors the routine functions of the internal and ask the students from the class to pick one
slip each. Give them a few minutes and ask them
system of the body. When the emergency is to learn the location and function of the part
over, the parasympathetic division takes over; mentioned in the slip. Each student is to then come
it decelerates the sympathetic activation and forward and introduce him/herself as that part
calms down the individual to a normal and explain the location and functions of that
condition. As a result all body functions like part.
heart beat, breathing, and blood flow return
to their normal levels.
Structure of the Brain
The Central Nervous System For the convenience of study, the brain can
The central nervous system (CNS) is the centre be divided into three parts: Hindbrain,
of all neural activity. It integrates all incoming Midbrain and Forebrain (Figure 3.5).
sensory information, performs all kinds of
cognitive activities, and issues motor
commands to muscles and glands. The CNS Cerebrum Thalamus
comprises (a) brain and (b) spinal cord. You (cerebral cortex)
will now read about the functions of the major Hypothalamus
parts of the brain and for what behaviours is Pineal gland
each part responsible.
Brainstem
Midbrain
The Brain and Behaviour Pons
It is believed that the human brain has evolved Medulla
over millions of years from the brains of lower oblongata
animals, and this evolutionary process still
continues. We can examine the levels of
structures in the brain, from its earliest to the Cerebellum
Pituitary gland
most recent form in the process of evolution.
Spinal cord
The limbic system, brain stem and cerebellum
are the oldest structures, while Cerebral
Cortex is the latest development in the course Fig.3.5 : Structure of the Brain
of evolution. An adult brain weighs about Hindbrain
1.36 kg and contains around 100 billion
This part of the brain consists of the following
neurons. However, the most amazing thing
structures:
about the brain is not its number of neurons
but its ability to guide human behaviour and Medulla Oblongata : It is the lowest part of the
thought. The brain is organised into structures brain that exists in continuation of the spinal
and regions that perform specific functions. cord. It contains neural centres, which

49
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
regulate basic life supporting activities like a vital role in our behaviour. It regulates
breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. This physiological processes involved in emotional
is why medulla is known as the vital centre of and motivational behaviour, such as eating,
the brain. It has some centres of autonomic drinking, sleeping, temperature regulation,
activities also. and sexual arousal. It also regulates and
controls the internal environment of the body
Pons : It is connected with medulla on one
(e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, temperature)
side and with the midbrain on the other. A
and regulates the secretion of hormones from
nucleus (neural centre) of pons receives
various endocrine glands.
auditory signals relayed by our ears. It is
believed that pons is involved in sleep Thalamus : It consists of an egg-shaped cluster
mechanism, particularly the sleep of neurons situated on the ventral (upper) side
characterised by dreaming. It contains nuclei of the hypothalamus. It is like a relay station
affecting respiratory movement and facial that receives all incoming sensory signals from
expressions also. sense organs and sends them to appropriate
parts of the cortex for processing. It also
Cerebellum : This highly developed part of the
receives all outgoing motor signals coming
hindbrain can be easily recognised by its
from the cortex and sends them to appropriate
wrinkled surface. It maintains and controls
parts of the body.
posture and equilibrium of the body. Its main
function is coordination of muscular The Limbic System : This system is composed
movements. Though the motor commands of a group of structures that form part of the
originate in the forebrain, the cerebellum old mammalian brain. It helps in maintaining
receives and coordinates them to relay to the internal homeostasis by regulating body
muscles. It also stores the memory of movement temperature, blood pressure, and blood sugar
patterns so that we do not have to concentrate level. It has close links with the hypothalamus.
on how to walk, dance, or ride a bicycle. Besides hypothalamus, the limbic system
comprises the Hippocampus and Amygdala.
Midbrain The hippocampus plays an important role in
long-term memory. The amygdala plays an
The midbrain is relatively small in size and it
important role in emotional behaviour.
connects the hindbrain with the forebrain. A
few neural centres related to some special The Cerebrum : Also known as Cerebral
reflexes and visual and auditory sensations Cortex, this part regulates all higher levels of
are found here. An important part of midbrain, cognitive functions, such as attention,
known as Reticular Activating System (RAS), perception, learning, memory, language
is responsible for our arousal. It makes us behaviour, reasoning, and problem solving.
alert and active by regulating sensory inputs. The cerebrum makes two-third of the total
It also helps us in selecting information from mass of the human brain. Its thickness varies
the environment. from 1.5 mm to 4 mm, which covers the entire
surface of the brain and contains neurons,
Forebrain neural nets, and bundles of axons. All these
It is considered to be the most important part make it possible for us to perform organised
of the brain because it performs all cognitive, actions and create images, symbols,
emotional, and motor activities. We will associations, and memories.
The cerebrum is divided into two
discuss four major parts of the forebrain:
symmetrical halves, called the Cerebral
hypothalamus, thalamus, limbic system, and
Hemispheres. Although the two hemispheres
cerebrum.
appear identical, functionally one hemisphere
Hypothalamus : The hypothalamus is one of usually dominates the other. For example, the
the smallest structures in the brain, but plays left hemisphere usually controls language

50
Psychology
behaviour. The right hemisphere is usually inside the spine. Its one end is connected with
specialised to deal with images, spatial the medulla of the brain and another is free
relationships, and pattern recognition. These at the tail end. Its structure all along its length
two hemispheres are connected by a white is similar. The butterfly shaped mass of grey
bundle of myelinated fibers, called Corpus matter present in the centre of the spinal cord
Callosum that carries messages back and forth contains association neurons and other cells.
between the hemispheres. Surrounding the grey matter is the white
Cerebral cortex has also been divided into matter of the spinal cord, which is composed
four lobes - Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, of the ascending and descending neural tracts.
Temporal lobe, and Occipital lobe. The Frontal These tracts (collections of nerve fibers)
lobe is mainly concerned with cognitive connect the brain with the rest of the body.
functions, such as attention, thinking, The spinal cord plays the role of a huge cable,
memory, learning, and reasoning, but it also which exchanges innumerable messages with
exerts inhibitory effects on autonomic and the CNS. There are two main functions of the
emotional responses. The Parietal lobe is spinal cord. Firstly, it carries sensory impulses
mainly concerned with cutaneous sensations coming from the lower parts of the body to
and their coordination with visual and auditory the brain; and motor impulses originating from
sensations. The Temporal lobe is primarily the brain to all over the body. Secondly, it
concerned with the processing of auditory performs some simple reflexes that do not
information. Memory for symbolic sounds and involve the brain. Simple reflexes involve a
words resides here. Understanding of speech sensory nerve, a motor nerve, and the
and written language depends on this lobe. The association neurons of the grey matter of the
Occipital lobe is mainly concerned with visual spinal cord.
information. It is believed that interpretation
of visual impulses, memory for visual stimuli Reflex Action
and colour visual orientation is performed by
this lobe. A reflex is an involuntary action that occurs
Physiologists and psychologists have tried very quickly after its specific kind of
to identify specific functions associated with stimulation. The reflex action takes place
specific brain structures. They have found that automatically without conscious decision of
no activity of the brain is performed only by a the brain. Reflex actions are inherited in our
single part of the cortex. Normally, other parts nervous system through evolutionary
are involved, but it is also correct that there is processes, for example, the eye-blinking reflex.
some localisation of functions, i.e. for a Whenever any object suddenly comes near our
particular function, a particular part of the eyes, our eyelids blink. Reflexes serve to
cortex plays a more important role than the protect the organism from potential threats
other parts. For example, if you are driving a and preserve life. Though several reflex actions
car, you see the road and other vehicles by are performed by our nervous system, the
the function of your occipital lobe, hear the familiar reflexes are the knee jerk, pupil
horns by the function of your temporal lobe, constriction, pulling away from very hot or cold
do many motor activities controlled by parietal objects, breathing and stretching. Most reflex
lobe, and make decisions by the help of frontal actions are carried out by the spinal cord and
lobe. The whole brain acts as a well do not involve the brain.
coordinated unit in which different parts
contribute their functions separately. The Endocrine System
The endocrine glands play a crucial role in
Spinal Cord our development and behaviour. They secrete
The spinal cord is a long rope-like collection specific chemical substances, called
of nerve fibers, which run along the full length hor mones, which control some of our

51
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
behaviours. These glands are called ductless Some hormones are secreted at a steady
glands or endocrine glands, because they do rate throughout life, while others are secreted
not have any duct (unlike other glands) to send at an appropriate time in life. For example,
their secretions to specific places. Hormones the growth hormone is released steadily
are circulated by the bloodstream. The through childhood, with some spurt during
endocrine glands form the endocrine system adolescence, but gonadotropic hormones are
of the body. This system works in conjunction secreted at the age of puberty, which
with different parts of the nervous system. The stimulates the secretion of appropriate sex
whole system is thus known as hormones among boys and girls. As a result,
neuroendocrine system. Figure 3.6 shows the primary and secondary sexual changes take
major endocrine glands of the body. place.

Thyroid Gland
This gland is located in the neck. It produces
Pituitary thyroxin that influences the body’s metabolic
rate. Optimum amount of thyroxin is secreted
and regulated by an anterior pituitary
Thyroid
hormone, the Thyroid Stimulating Hormone.
(TSH). The steady secretion of this hormone
maintains the production of energy,
consumption of oxygen and elimination of
Pancreas wastes in body cells. On the other hand,
underproduction of thyroxin leads to physical
and psychological lethargy. If thyroid gland is
removed in young animals, their growth is
Adrenal
glands stunted and they fail to develop sexually.

Ovary Adrenal Gland


(in female)
This gland is located above each kidney. It has
Testes
(in male)
two parts, adrenal cortex and adrenal
medulla, each secreting different hormones.
The secretion of adrenal cortex is controlled
Fig.3.6 : Major Endocrine Glands and regulated by Adrenocorticotrophic
Hormone (ACTH) secreted by anterior pituitary
Pituitary Gland gland. When the secretion of adrenal cortex
This gland is situated within the cranium just goes down, anterior pituitary gets the message
below the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland and increases the secretion of ACTH, which
is divided into anterior pituitary and posterior stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete more
pituitary. The anterior pituitary is directly hormones.
connected with hypothalamus, which The adrenal cortex secretes a group of
regulates its hormonal secretions. The hormones, called corticoids, which are
pituitary gland secretes the growth hormone utilised by the body for a number of
and many other hormones, which direct and physiological purposes, e.g., regulation of
regulate the secretions of many other minerals in the body, particularly sodium,
endocrine glands found in our body. This is potassium, and chlorides. Any disturbance in
why the pituitary gland is known as the its function seriously affects the functions of
“master gland”. the nervous system.

52
Psychology
Adrenal medulla secretes two hormones, preparation of uterus for the possible reception
namely epinephrine and norepinephrine of fertilised ovum.
(also known as adrenaline and noradrenaline, The hormonal system for reproductive
respectively). Sympathetic activation, such as behaviour is much simpler in the male
increased heart rate, oxygen consumption, because there is no cyclic pattern. Testes in
metabolic rate, muscle tone, etc., take place males produce sperm continuously and
through the secretion of these two hormones. secrete male sex hormones called androgens.
Epinephrine and norepinephrine stimulate the The major androgen is testosterone.
hypothalamus, which prolongs emotions in an Testosterone prompts secondary sexual
individual even when the stressor has been changes such as physical changes, growth of
removed. facial and body hairs, deepening of voice, and
increase in sexually oriented behaviour.
Pancreas Increased aggression and other behaviours are
The pancreas, lying near the stomach, has a also linked with testosterone production.
primary role in digestion of food, but it also The normal functioning of all hormones is
secretes a hormone known as insulin. Insulin crucial to our behavioural well-being. Without
helps the liver to break down glucose for use a balanced secretion of hormones, the body
by the body or for storage as glycogen by the would be unable to maintain the state of
liver. When insulin is not secreted in proper internal equilibrium. Without the increased
amount, people develop a disease, called secretion of hormones during the times of
diabetic mellitus or simply diabetes. stress, we would not be able to react effectively
to potential dangers in our environment.
Gonads Finally, without the secretion of hormones at
specific times in our lives, we would not be
Gonads refer to testes in males and ovaries in able to grow, mature and reproduce.
females. The hormones secreted by these
glands control and regulate sexual behaviours
and reproductive functions of males and HEREDITY : GENES AND BEHAVIOUR
females. Secretion of hormones of these glands
We inherit characteristics from our parents in
is initiated, maintained and regulated by a
the form of genes. A child at birth possesses a
hormone, called gonadotrophic hormone
unique combination of genes received from
(GTH) secreted by the anterior pituitary. The
both parents. This inheritance provides a
secretion of GTH starts at the age of puberty
distinct biological blueprint and timetable for
(10 to 14 years in human beings) and
an individual’s development. The study of the
stimulates gonads to secrete hormones, which
inheritance of physical and psychological
in turn stimulates development of primary and
characteristics from ancestors is referred to
secondary sexual characteristics.
as genetics. The child begins life as a single
The ovaries in females produce estrogens
zygote cell (mother’s ovum fertilised by father’s
and progesterone. Estrogens guide the sexual
sperm). Zygote is a tiny cell with a nucleus in
development of the female body. Primary
its center containing chromosomes. These
sexual characteristics related with
chromosomes with all genes are inherited from
reproduction, such as development of ovum
each parent in equal numbers.
or egg cell, appear on every 28 days or so in
the ovary of a sexually mature female.
Chromosomes
Secondary sexual characteristics, such as
breast development, rounded body contours, Chromosomes are the hereditary elements of
widened pelvis, etc., also depend on this the body. They are threadlike-paired
hormone. Progesterone has no role in sexual structures in the nucleus of each cell. The
development. Its function is related with number of chromosomes per nucleus is

53
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
distinctive, and is constant for each living other behavioural traits). The traits, which can
organism. The gametic cells (sperm and ovum) be passed on to the offspring through genetic
have 23 chromosomes but not in pairs. A new material are called its genotype. All biological
generation results from the fusion of a sperm and psychological characteristics that a modern
cell and an egg cell. man possesses are the result of genotype
At the time of conception, the organism inheritance with phenotypical variations.
inherits 46 chromosomes from parents, 23 A given gene can exist in several different
from the mother and 23 from the father. Each forms. Change of a gene from one form to
of these chromosomes contains thousands of another is called mutation. The type of
genes. However, the sperm cell (fathers’) differs mutation that occurs spontaneously in nature
from the egg cell (mother’s) in one important provides variation in genotypes and permits
respect. The 23rd chromosome of the sperm the evolution of new species. Mutation permits
cell can be either the capital X or Y type of the recombination of new genes with the genes
english alphabet. If the X type sperm fertilises already present. This new combination of
the egg cell, the fertilised egg will have an XX genes structure is then put to test in the
23rd chromosome pair, and the child will be a environment, which can select out those
female. On the other hand, if a Y type sperm genotypes that turn out to be best fitted for
the environment.
fertilises the egg, the 23rd chromosome pair
will be XY, and the child will be a male.
Chromosomes are composed mainly of a CULTURAL BASIS : SOCIO-CULTURAL
substance called Deoxyribonucleic Acid SHAPING OF BEHAVIOUR
(DNA). Our genes are composed chiefly of DNA
molecules. The two genes that control the After reading the biological basis of behaviour
development of each trait are situated at the you may have developed an idea that many of
same locus, one on each chromosome of a our behaviours are influenced by hormones
particular pair. The exception is the sex and many others occur as reflexive responses.
chromosomes, i.e. the pair of chromosomes However, hormones and reflexes do not
that determines an individual’s sex. explain all of our behaviour. The hormones
play an important role in regulating human
physiology, but they do not completely control
Activity 3.2 human behaviour. Similarly stereotype (fixed
pattern), which is the most distinguishing
Divide the class in two groups and have a debate feature of a reflex, does not appear with most
on the topic “Psychologists should leave the study
human responses.
of neurons, synapses and the nervous system to
biologists”. One group should speak in favour and We can draw examples from several
the other group against the motion. domains of our life to argue that our behaviour
is more complex than the behaviour of
animals. A major reason for this complexity
is that unlike animals, human beings have a
Genes
culture to regulate their behaviour. Let us
Every chromosome stores thousands of genetic consider the basic need of hunger. We know
commands in the form of genes. These genes that it has a biological basis, which is common
dictate much of the course of an organism’s among animals and human beings, but the
development. They contain instructions for the way this need is gratified by human beings is
production of specific proteins, which regulate extremely complex. For example, some people
the body’s physiological processes and the eat vegetarian food, while others eat non-
expression of phenotypic traits. The observable vegetarian food. How have they become
traits of an organism are called phenotype (e.g., vegetarians and non-vegetarians? Some
body built, physical strength, intelligence, and vegetarians take eggs; others do not. Why is

54
Psychology
that so? Try to think how people have come is also governed by many rules, standards,
to behave so differently in terms of food intake. values, and laws. However, these rules and
If you explore further you will also find standards also remain in a continuous process
variations in the manner in which food is eaten of change.
(e.g., directly with hand, or with the help of These examples illustrate that biological
spoons, forks and knives). factors alone cannot help us very much in
Sexual behaviour can be taken as another understanding human behaviour. The nature
example. We know that this behaviour involves of human beings is very different from those
hormones and reflexive reactions in animals provided to us by biological scientists. Human
and human beings alike. While among animals nature has evolved through an interplay of
sexual behaviour is fairly simple and reflexive biological and cultural forces. These forces
(all animals indulge in sexual behaviour have made us similar in many ways and
almost in the same manner), it is so complex different in others.
among human beings that it can hardly be
described as reflexive. Partner preferences are Concept of Culture
a key feature of human sexual behaviour. The
bases of these preferences widely differ within You have read that human behaviour can
and across societies. Human sexual behaviour be understood only by viewing it in the

Box 3.1 Biological and Cultural Transmission


Transmission

In relatively modern years, a discipline called involves intergenerational learning (via teaching and
sociobiology has emerged that deals with the imitation), which makes it distinct from biological
interaction of biology and society. It explains transmission. In cultural transmission, individuals are
human social behaviour in an evolutionary influenced by people other than their biological
framework on the basis of “inclusive fitness”, parents, while in biological transmission only the
which means that each organism is supposed to parents can be the source of influence. Thus, only
behave in a manner so as to maximise its human beings have “cultural parents” (e.g., members
reproductive success. Researchers, who have of extended families, teachers, and other influential
studied several social behaviours (e.g., courtship, people). Cultural evolution is also not restricted to
mating, child rearing), underscore the continuity intergenerational influences. Ideas are transmitted
of development of biologically related creatures. within generations so much so that it is even possible
They recognise that human behaviour cannot be for older people to model their behaviour after younger
attributed solely to biological predispositions. It ones.
is greatly affected by learning. Heidi Keller, a The two processes are also similar in important
distinguished psychologist, recently argued that ways. Both proceed in interaction with the demands
genetic endowment should not be misunderstood of environment. Both involve changes that either stay
as expressing fixed, deterministic relationships or get lost depending on how adaptive they are (i.e.,
between genes and behaviour. She has proposed how nicely they fit the environment in which they first
the notion of “genetic preparedness”, which occurred). Thus, at the human level, we find evidence
suggests that acquisition of particular behaviours for a “dual inheritance” theory. Biological inheritance
via learning occurs in fairly efficient ways to takes place through genes, while cultural inheritance
facilitate our adaptations with the environment. takes place through memes. The former takes place
It is now believed that human evolution in a “top-down” manner (i.e. from parents to children),
involves both genetic and cultural transmissions. while the latter may also take place in a “bottom-up”
These transmission processes are different in manner (i.e. from children to parents). Dual inheritance
certain respects, but they have parallel features. theory also shows that although biological and cultural
Genetic transmission is a process that occurs in forces may involve different processes, they work as
all organisms in a similar manner, but cultural parallel forces, and interact with each other in offering
transmission is a unique human process. It explanation of an individual’s behaviour.

55
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
socio-cultural context in which it occurs. schooling. This institution also provides with
Human behaviour is fundamentally social. It behavioural expectation for all those who
involves relationships with other people, participate in it . Both teachers and students
reactions to their behaviour, and engagement have a series of roles to play and
with innumerable products made available to responsibilities to share. Individuals, families
us by our predecessors. Although many other and communities have different views about
species are also social like us, human beings schooling. Some believe that school education
are cultural as well. is a valuable thing. They have unshaken faith
You may ask: what does it mean to be that school education can make people
cultural? In order to answer this question, we powerful and change their destiny. Others
will need to understand the meaning of consider it neither valuable nor do they have
culture. In the simplest terms, culture refers faith in its strength as such. Some societies
to “the man-made part of the environment”. emphasise on equal education for boys and
It comprises diverse products of the behaviour girls; others do not. Some groups widely
of many people, including ourselves. These participate in the process of schooling, others
products can be material objects (e.g., tools, (e.g., some tribal groups) participate little or
sculptures), ideas (e.g., categories, norms) or not at all. People with special needs often
social institutions (e.g., family, school). We find remain deprived of school education for a
them almost everywhere. They influence number of reasons. People’s views about
behaviour, although we may not always be communities, gender, caste groups and those
aware of it. with special needs and their educability also
Let us look at some examples. The room differ widely across societies.
you might be in now is a cultural product. It As you look around you will find that
is the result of someone’s architectural ideas much of our life as human beings involves
and building skills. Your room may be interacting with various cultural products,
rectangular, but there are many places where and behaving in accord with them. This means
rooms are not rectangular (e.g., those of that culture shapes our behaviour in a
Eskimos). While reading this chapter you significant manner. However, it may also be
might be sitting on a chair that some people noted at this point that just as culture shapes
designed and built some time ago. Since sitting us, we also shape our culture. Several
in a chair requires a particular posture, this anthropologists have pointed out the mutual
invention is shaping your behaviour. There are influences of culture and psyche on each
societies without chairs. Just try to think how other. They suggest that the relationship
people in those societies would be sitting in between individuals and their social
order to do some reading. surroundings is interactive, and in the course
Students sit on chairs in the “classrooms”, of these interactions, they constitute each
but chairs are not found in all schools. In other. This perspective emphasises that
schools in most villages there are no chairs human beings are not passive recipients of
for students. They sit on the ground, or on a cultural forces. Instead, they themselves create
piece of sack spread over it. That in some the context in which their behaviour is shaped.
societies children gather in rooms facing a
teacher is another kind of cultural product,
called “schooling”. This institution may have Activity 3.3
material aspects, such as buildings, and
Talk to students belonging to different States
ideational aspects, such as the notion that
regarding their food, festivals, dress, customs,
schooling should take place at a specific place etc.
and time, or the idea that individuals attending Prepare a list of the differences and
“schools” must be evaluated and given similarities and discuss with your teacher.
certificates on successful completion of

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Psychology
What is Culture? In the previous paragraphs, we have made
frequent use of the terms culture and
In spite of the fact that culture is always with
society. Often they are considered to carry
us, much confusion exists in defining culture.
similar meaning. Let us note at this point that
It is more like the notion of “energy” in physics
they are not the same thing. A society is a
or “group” in sociology. Some believe that
group of people who occupy a particular
culture really exists out there, and it matters
territory and speak a common language not
to individuals, while others believe that culture
generally understood by neighbouring people.
does not really exist, instead it is an idea
A society may or may not be a single nation,
created and shared by a group of people.
but every society has its own culture, and it is
The innumerable definitions of culture
culture that shapes human behaviour from
commonly point to some of its essential
society to society. Culture is the label for all
features. One is that culture includes
the different features that vary from society
behavioural products of others who preceded
to society. It is these different features of
us. It indicates both substantial and abstract
society whose influences psychologists want
particulars that have prior existence in one
to examine in their studies of human
form or another. Thus, culture is already there
behaviour. Thus, a group of people, who
as we begin life. It contains values that will be
manage their livelihood through hunting and
expressed and a language in which to express
gathering in forests, would present a life
them. It contains a way of life that will be
characterised by certain features that will not
followed by most of us who grow up in that
be found in a society that lives mainly on
context. Such a conceptualisation of culture
agricultural produce or wage earnings.
tends to place it outside the individual, but
there are also treatments of culture that places
Cultural Transmission
it in the minds of individuals. In the latter case,
culture is identified with a historically We have seen earlier that as human beings
transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in we are both biological and socio-cultural
symbols. Culture provides meaning by creatures. As biological creatures, we have
creating significant categories like social certain vital needs. Their fulfilment enhances
practices (e.g., marriage) and roles (e.g., our chances of surviving. In fulfilling these
bridegroom) as well as values, beliefs and needs we use most of our acquired skills. We
premises. As Richard Shweder put it, to learn also have a highly developed capacity to benefit
that “a mother’s sister’s husband is an uncle”, from experiences of our own and those of
one must somehow receive the ‘frame’ of others. No other creature has learning capacity
understanding from others. to the same extent as we have. No other
Whether culture is taken as an existing creature has created an organised system of
reality, or as an abstraction, or both, it exerts learning, called education, and none in this
many real influences on human behaviour. It universe wants to learn as much as we do. As
allows us to categorise and explain many a result, we display many forms of behaviour
important differences in human behaviour that are uniquely human, and creations of
that were previously attributed to biological what we call culture. The processes of
differences. Social and cultural contexts within enculturation and socialisation make us
which human development takes place vary cultural beings.
widely over time and place. For example, some
twenty years ago children in India would not ENCULTURATION
have known several products that are now part
of a child’s world. Similarly an Adivasi living Enculturation refers to all learning that takes
in a remote forest or hilly area would not have place without direct, deliberate teaching. We
a “pizza” or “sandwich” as breakfast. learn certain ideas, concepts, and values

57
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
simply because of their availability in our generation to the next. Its failure in any society
cultural context. For example, what is may endanger the very existence of that
“vegetable” and what is “weed” or what is society.
“cereal” and what is “non-cereal” is defined The concept of socialisation suggests that
by what is already there, previously labelled all human beings are capable of a far greater
as “vegetable” or “cereal” and agreed upon by repertoire of behaviours than they ever exhibit.
people at large. Such concepts are transmitted, We begin life in a particular social context,
both directly and indirectly, and are learned and there we learn to make certain responses
very well because they are an integral part of and not others. The most clear example is our
the life of a cultural group, and are never linguistic behaviour. Although we can speak
questioned. All such examples of learning are any language that exists in this world, we learn
called “enculturation”. to speak only that language which people
Thus, enculturation refers to all learning around us speak. Within this social context
that occurs in human life because of its we also learn many other things (e.g., when
availability in our socio-cultural context. The to express emotions and when to suppress
key element of enculturation is learning by them).
observation. Whenever we learn any content The probability of our behaving in a
of our society by observation, enculturation particular way is greatly affected by people who
is in evidence. These contents are culturally relate to us. Any one who possesses power
shaped by our preceding generations. In this relative to us can socialise us. Such people are
sense, enculturation always refers to learning called “socialisation agents”. These agents
something that is already available. A major include parents, teachers and other elders, who
part of our behaviour is the product of are more knowledgeable in the ways of their
enculturation. In Indian families, many society. Under certain conditions, however, even
complex activities, like cooking, are learned our age peers can affect socialisation.
by observation. There is no prescribed The process of socialisation is not always
curriculum and no textbook for such activities, a smooth transition between the individual
and there is also no deliberate instruction for and the socialisation agent. It sometimes
cooking. involves conflicts. In such situations not only
Although the effects of enculturation are are some responses punished, but some are
obvious, people are generally not aware of also blocked by the behaviour of others in
these effects. They are also generally not aware effective ways. At the same time, several
of what is not available in the society to be responses need to be rewarded so that they
learned. This leads to an apparent paradox acquire greater strength. Thus, reward and
that people who are most thoroughly punishment serve as basic means for
enculturated are often the least aware of their achieving the goals of socialisation. In this
culture’s role in modeling them. sense, all socialisation seems to involve efforts
by others to control behaviour.
SOCIALISATION Socialisation although primarily consists
of deliberate teaching for producing
Socialisation is a process by which individuals “acceptable” behaviour, the process is not
acquire knowledge, skills and dispositions, unidirectional. Individuals are not only
which enable them to participate as effective influenced by their social environment, but
members of groups and society. It is a process they also influence it. In societies that
that continues over the entire life-span, and comprise many social groups, individuals may
through which one learns and develops ways choose those to which they wish to belong.
of effective functioning at any stage of With increased migration, individuals are not
development. Socialisation forms the basis of only socialised once, but are often re-socialised
social and cultural transmission from one differently in their life-span. This process is

58
Psychology
known as acculturation which we will discuss praising) or in other tangible ways (e.g., buying
later in this chapter. chocolates or objects of child’s desire). They
Due to the processes of enculturation and also discourage certain behaviours through
socialisation we find behavioural similarities non-approving behaviours. They also arrange
within societies and behavioural differences to put children in a variety of situations that
across societies. Both processes involve provide them with a variety of positive
learning from other people. In the case of experiences, learning opportunities, and
socialisation, the learning involves deliberate challenges. While interacting with children
teaching. In the case of enculturation, teaching parents adopt different strategies, which are
is not necessary for learning to take place. generally known as parenting styles. A
Enculturation means engagement of people distinction is made between authoritative,
in their culture. Since most of the learning authoritarian and democratic or permissive
takes place with our engagement in our parenting styles. Studies indicate that parents
culture, socialisation can be easily subsumed vary enormously in the treatment of children
under the process of enculturation. in terms of their degree of acceptance and
A good deal of our learning involves both degree of control. The conditions of life in which
enculturation and socialisation. Language parents live (poverty, illness, job stress, nature
learning is a good example. While a lot of of family) also influence the styles they adopt
language learning takes place spontaneously, in socialising children. Grandparental
there is also certain amount of direct teaching proximity and network of social relationships
of the language, such as in grammar courses play considerable role in child socialisation
in elementary schools. On the other hand, directly or through parental influences.
learning of language other than the mother
tongue, such as learning of Hindi by a School
European child, or of French by a child in
India, is completely a deliberate process. School is another important socialising agent.
Since children spend a long time in schools,
Socialisation Agents which provide them with a fairly organised set
up for interaction with teachers and peers,
A number of people who relate to us possess school is today being viewed as a more
power to socialise us. Such people are called important agent of child socialisation than
“socialisation agents”. Parents and family parents and family. Children learn not only
members are the most significant socialisation cognitive skills (e.g., reading, writing, doing
agents. Legal responsibility of child care, too, mathematics) but also many social skills (e.g.,
lies with parents. Their task is to nurture ways of behaving with elders and age mates,
children in such a manner that their natural accepting roles, fulfilling responsibilities). They
potentials are maximised and negative also learn and internalise the norms and rules
behaviour tendencies are minimised or of society. Several other positive qualities, such
controlled. Since each child is also part of a as self-initiative, self-control, responsibility,
larger community or society, several other and creativity are encouraged in schools.
influences (e.g., teachers, peer groups) also These qualities make children more self-
operate on her/his life. We will briefly discuss reliant. If the transaction has been successful,
some of these influences. the skills and knowledge children acquire in
schools either through curriculum or
Parents interaction with teachers and peers also get
Parents have most direct and significant transferred to other domains of their life. Many
impact on children’s development. Children researchers believe that a good school can
respond in different ways to parents in altogether transform a child’s personality. That
different situations. Parents encourage certain is why we find that even poor parents want to
behaviours by rewarding them verbally (e.g., send their children to good schools.

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Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
Peer Groups
ACCULTURATION
One of the chief characteristics of the middle
childhood stage is the extension of social Acculturation refers to cultural and
network beyond home. Friendship acquires psychological changes resulting from contact
great significance in this respect. It provides with other cultures. Contact may be direct
children not only with a good opportunity to (e.g., when one moves and settles in a new
be in company of others, but also for organising culture) or indirect (e.g., through media or
various activities (e.g., play) collectively with the other means). It may be voluntary (e.g., when
members of their own age. Qualities like one goes abroad for higher studies, training,
sharing, trust, mutual understanding, role job, or trade) or involuntary (e.g., through
acceptance and fulfilment develop in interaction colonial experience, invasion, political refuge).
with peers. Children also learn to assert their In both cases, people often need to learn (and
own point of view and accept and adapt to those also they do learn) something new to negotiate
of others. Development of self-identity is greatly life with people of other cultural groups. For
facilitated by the peer group. Since example, during the British rule in India many
communication of children with peer group is individuals and groups adopted several
direct, process of socialisation is generally aspects of British lifestyle. They preferred to
go to the English schools, take up salaried
smooth.
jobs, dress in English clothes, speak English
Media Influences language, and change their religion.
Acculturation can take place any time in
In recent years media has also acquired the one’s life. Whenever it occurs, it requires
property of a socialisation agent. Through re-learning of norms, values, dispositions, and
television, newspapers, books and cinema the patterns of behaviour. Changes in these
external world has made/is making its way aspects require re-socialisation. Sometimes
into our home and our lives. While children people find it easy to learn these new things,
learn about many things from these sources, and if their learning has been successful, shifts
adolescents and young adults often derive in their behaviour easily take place in the
their models from them, particularly from direction of the group that brings in
television and cinema. The exposure to acculturation. In this situation transition to a
violence on television is a major issue of new life is relatively smooth and free from
discussion, since studies indicate that problems. On the other hand, in many
observing violence on television enhances situations people experience difficulties in
aggressive behaviour among children. There dealing with new demands of change. They
is a need to use this agent of socialisation in a find change difficult, and are thrown into a
better way in order to prevent children from state of conflict. This situation is relatively
developing undesirable behaviours. painful as it leads to experience of stress and
other behavioural difficulties by acculturating
individuals and groups.
Activity 3.4 Psychologists have widely studied how
people psychologically change during
Observe 4-5 families belonging to different acculturation. For any acculturation to take
cultural and socio-economic background for
place contact with another cultural group is
about half an hour in the morning and evening
interacting with their children for five days. essential. This often generates some sort of
Do you find any difference in parental conflict. Since people cannot live in a state of
interaction with their sons and daughters? conflict for a long time, they often resort to
Note their distinct pattern of behaviour and certain strategies to resolve their conflicts. For
discuss this with your teacher. a long time it was felt that social or cultural
change oriented towards modernity was

60
Psychology
unidirectional, which meant that all people In order to place some confidence in
confronting the problem of change would move conscious acceptance of change, we need to
from a traditional state to a state of modernity. analyse them at the subjective level. John Berry
However, studies carried out with immigrants is well-known for his studies on psychological
to western countries and native or tribal people acculturation. He argues that there are two
in different parts of the world have revealed important issues that all acculturating
that people have various options to deal with individuals and groups face in culture-contact
the problem of acculturative changes. Thus, situations. One relates to the degree to which
the course of acculturative change is there is a desire to maintain one’s culture and
multidirectional. identity. Another relates to the degree to which
there is a desire to engage in daily interactions
Activity 3.5 with members of other cultural group(s).
Based on people’s positive or negative
Make an attempt to find out people who have answer to these issues, the following four
lived for an extended period of time in different acculturative strategies have been derived:
cultures. Interview and ask them to give some Integration : It refers to an attitude in in
examples of cultural differences and similarities which there is an interest in both, maintaining
in attitudes, norms, and values. one’s original culture and identity, while
staying in daily interaction with other cultural
groups. In this case, there is some degree of
Changes due to acculturation may be cultural integrity maintained while interacting
examined at subjective and objective levels. with other cultural groups.
At the subjective level, changes are often Assimilation : It refers to an attitude,
reflected in people’s attitudes towards change. which people do not wish to maintain their
They are referred to as acculturation attitudes. cultural identity, and they move to become
At the objective level, changes are reflected in an integral part of the other culture. In this
people’s day-to-day behaviours and activities. case, there is loss of one’s culture and identity.
These are referred to as acculturation Separation : It refers to an attitude in
strategies. In order to understand which people seem to place a value on holding
acculturation, it is necessary to examine it at on to their original culture, and wish to avoid
both levels. At the objective level of interaction with other cultural groups. In this
acculturation, one can look at a variety of case, people often tend to glorify their cultural
changes that might be evident in people’s life. identity.
Language, dressing style, means of livelihood, Marginalisation : It refers to an attitude
housing and household goods, ornaments, in which there is little possibility or interest
furniture, means of entertainment, use of in one’s cultural maintenance, and little
technology, travel experience, and exposure interest in having relations with other cultural
to movies, etc. can provide clear indications groups. In this case, people generally remain
of change that individuals and groups might undecided about what they should do, and
have accepted in their life. Based on these continue to stay with a great deal of stress.
indicators, we can easily identify the degree You have read in this chapter that human
to which acculturative change has entered into behaviour is not fully under the control of
an individual’s or a group’s life. The only biological factors alone. Socio-cultural factors
problem is that these indicators do not always interact with biological dispositions of
indicate conscious acceptance of change by individuals to give a particular shape to their
individuals or groups; they are held by people behaviour in a given society. Since societies
because they are easily available and and cultures across the globe are not
economically affordable. Thus, in some cases, homogeneous, human behaviour is also not
these indicators appear somewhat deceptive. expressed in the same way everywhere. This

61
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
allows us to say that besides biological roots,
there are cultural roots of human behaviour.
While genes write the script of biological
Key Terms
transmissions, memes write the script of Acculturation, All-Or-None Property/Principle,
cultural transmissions. The genes and memes Arousal, Axons, Brain stem, Central nervous
work together to allow behaviour to unfold system, Cerebellum, Cerebral cortex,
partly in some similar and partly in different Chromosomes, Cortex, Culture,
ways within and across societies. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), Enculturation,
Understanding of cultural basis of behaviour Endocrine glands, Environment, Evolution,
Genes, Hemispheres, Heredity, Homo
will make you realise that behavioural sapiens, Homeostasis, Hypothalamus,
differences between individuals or groups are Medulla, Memes, Nerve impulse, Neurons,
not due to the structural and functional Nucleus, Reticular Activating System (RAS),
properties of their biological system alone. Skeletal muscles, Socialisation, Soma (Cell
Cultural features of individuals and groups body), Somatic nervous system, Species,
contribute in significant ways in generating Synaptic vesicles
behavioural differences.

Summary
• The human nervous system consists of billions of interconnected, highly specialised cells
called neurons. Neurons or nerve cells control and coordinate all human behaviour.
• The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. Peripheral nervous
system branches out from the CNS to all parts of the body. It has two divisions: the somatic
nervous system (related to the control of skeletal muscles) and the autonomic nervous system
(related to control of internal organs). The autonomic system is sub-divided into the sympathetic
and parasympathetic systems.
• Neurons have dendrites, which receive impulses; and the axon, which transmits impulses
from cell body to other neurons or to muscle tissue.
• Every axon is separated by a gap called synapse. A chemical called neurotransmitter is
released from the axon terminal that carries the message to the other neuron.
• The central core of the human brain includes hindbrain (consisting of the medulla, the pons,
the reticular formation, and the cerebellum), the midbrain, and the thalamus and hypothalamus.
Above the central core lies the forebrain or cerebral hemispheres.
• The limbic system is involved in the regulation of behaviours such as fighting, fleeing etc. It is
comprised of hippocampus, amygdala and hypothalamus.
• The endocrine system consists of the glands; pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal gland,
pancreas and gonads. The hormones secreted by them play a crucial role in behaviour and
development.
• In addition to biological factors, culture is considered an important determinant of human
behaviour. If refers to the man-made part of the environment, which has two aspects —
material and subjective. It refers to a shared way of life of a group of people through which
they derive meanings of their behaviours and base their practices. These meanings and
practices are transmitted through generations.
• Though, biological factors play a general enabling role, the development of specific skills and
competencies is dependent upon the cultural factors and processes.
• We learn about culture through the processes of enculturation and socialisation.
Enculturation refers to all learning that take place without direct, deliberate teaching.
• Socialisation is a process by which individuals acquire knowledge, skills and dispositions,

62
Psychology
which enable them to participate as effective members of groups and society. The most
significant socialisation agents are parents, school, peer groups, mass media, etc.
• Acculturation refers to cultural and psychological changes resulting from contact with other
cultures. The acculturative strategies adopted by individuals during the course of
acculturation are integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalisation.

Review Questions
1. How does the evolutionary perspective explain the biological basis of behaviour?
2. Describe how neurons transmit information?
3. Name the four lobes of the cerebral cortex. What functions do they perform?
4. Name the various endocrine glands and the hormones secreted by them. How does the
endocrine system affect our behaviour?
5. How does the autonomic nervous system help us in dealing with an emergency situation?
6. Explain the meaning of culture and describe its important features.
7. Do you agree with the statement that ‘biology plays an enabling role, while specific aspects
of behaviour are related to cultural factors’. Give reasons in support of your answer.
8. Describe the main agents of socialisation.
9. How can we distinguish between enculturation and socialisation? Explain.
10. What is meant by acculturation? Is acculturation a smooth process? Discuss.
11. Discuss the acculturative strategies adopted by individuals during the course of
acculturation.

Project Ideas
1. Collect information on a person with brain damage. You can take help from a doctor,
consult books or search the internet. Compare it with the normal functioning brain and
prepare a report.
2. Write down your daily routine. This should include the activity undertaken, as well as the
time when it is done. For example, if you watch television between 7 p.m. and 8 p.m.
daily, you should write down the time as well as the activity. Put in as many details as you
can. You could include names of the specific programmes you watch on Television. Make
a separate schedule for weekdays and weekends. The class can examine the daily schedules,
and see which activities are more common amongst the students. Can some cultural
values/beliefs be inferred to underlie common, shared experiences? (for example, that all
students spend many hours in school on a daily basis reflects that they come from cultures
which value school education).

63
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
Introduction
If you look around, you will notice that from birth onwards changes of various
kinds are taking place in an individual’s life, which continue even during old age.
Over a span of time, a human grows and develops, learns to communicate, walk,
count, and read and write. S/he also learns to distinguish between right and wrong.
S/he makes friends, goes through puberty, gets married, rears children, and grows
old. Even though we differ from each other, we share many commonalities. Most of
us learn to walk by the first year and talk by the second year. This chapter will
familiarise you with the changes observed in people during the course of their life-
span in different domains. You will learn about key developmental processes and
changes taking place in major periods during the life-span: prenatal, infancy,
childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. This would be a journey of personal
understanding and self-discovery which should help in your future development.
The study of human development would also help you to deal with others better.

associated with the processes of knowing,


MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT
and experiencing, such as thought,
When we think of development, invariably we perception, attention, problem solving, etc.
think of physical changes, as these are Socio-emotional processes that influence
commonly observed at home with younger development r efer to changes in an
siblings, with parents and grandparents, in individual’s interactions with other people,
school with peers or others around us. From changes in emotions, and in personality. A
conception until the moment of death, we not child’s hug to her/his mother, a young girl’s
only change physically, but we also change in affectionate gesture to her/his sibling, or an
the way we think, use language, and develop adolescent’s sorrow at losing a match are all
social relationships. Remember that, changes reflections of socio-emotional processes deeply
are not confined to any one area of a person’s involved in human development.
life; they occur in the person in an integrated Although you would be reading about the
manner. Development is the pattern of different processes in different chapters of this
progressive, orderly, and predictable changes textbook, it is important to remember that the
biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional
that begin at conception and continue
processes are interwoven. These processes
throughout life. Development mostly involves
influence changes in the development of the
changes — both growth and decline, as
individual as a whole throughout the human
observed during old age.
life-span.
Development is influenced by an interplay
of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional
Life-Span Perspective on Development
processes. Development due to genes
inherited from parents, such as in height and The study of development according to the
weight, brain, heart, and lungs development, Life-Span Perspective (LSP) includes the
etc. all point towards the role of biological following assumptions :
processes. The role of cognitive processes 1. Development is lifelong, i.e. it takes place
in development relate to mental activities across all age groups starting from

65
Chapter 4 • Human Development
conception to old age. It includes both gains 5. Development is influenced by historical
and losses, which interact in dynamic conditions. For example, the experiences
(change in one aspect goes with changes in of 20-year olds who lived through the
others) ways throughout the life-span. freedom struggle in India would be very
2. The various processes of human different from the experiences of 20 year
development, i.e. biological, cognitive, and olds of today. The career orientation of
socio-emotional are interwoven in the school students today is very different from
development of a person throughout the those students who were in schools 50
life-span. years ago.
3. Development is multi-directional. Some 6. Development is the concer n of a
dimensions or components of a given number of disciplines. Different
dimension of development may increase, disciplines like psychology, anthropology,
while others show decrement. For example, sociology, and neuro-sciences study
the experiences of adults may make them human development, each trying to
wiser and guide their decisions. However, provide answers to development
with an increase in age, one’s performance throughout the life-span.
is likely to decrease on tasks requiring 7. An individual responds and acts on
speed, such as running. contexts, which include what was
4. Development is highly plastic, i.e. within inherited, the physical environment, social,
person, modifiability is found in historical, and cultural contexts. For
psychological development, though example, the life events in everyone’s life
plasticity varies among individuals. This are not the same, such as, death of a
means skills and abilities can be improved parent, accident, earthquake, etc., affect
or developed throughout the life-span. the course of one’s life as also the positive

Box 4.1 Growth, Development, Maturation, and Evolution


Evolution

Growth refers to an increase in the size of body commonalities in our growth and development.
parts or of the organism as a whole. It can be For example, most children can sit without support
measured or quantified, for example, growth in by 7 months of age, stand with support by 8 months
height, weight, etc. Development is a process and walk by one year. Once the underlying physical
by which an individual grows and changes structure is sufficiently developed, proficiency in these
throughout the life cycle. The term development behaviours requires adequate environment and little
applies to the changes that have a direction and practice. However, special efforts to accelerate these
hold definite relationship with what precedes it, behaviours do not help if the infant is maturationally
and in turn, will determine what will come after. not ready. These processes seem to “unfold from
A temporary change caused by a brief illness, within”: following an inner, genetically determined
for example, is not considered a part of timetable that is characteristic of the species.
development. All changes which occur as a result Evolution refers to species-specific changes. Natural
of development are not of the same kind. Thus, selection is an evolutionary process that favours
changes in size (physical growth), changes in individuals or a species that are best adapted to
proportion (child to adult), changes in features survive and reproduce. The evolutionary changes are
(disappearance of baby teeth), and acquiring new passed from one generation to the next within a
features are varied in their pace and scope level. species. Evolution proceeds at a very slow pace.
Development includes growth as one of its Emergence of human beings from great apes took
aspects. Maturation refers to the changes that about 14 million years. It has been estimated that
follow an orderly sequence and are largely the ‘Homo sapiens’ came into existence only about
dictated by the genetic blueprint which produces 50,000 years ago.

66
Psychology
influences such as winning an award or characteristics. Phenotypes include physical
getting a good job. People keep on changing traits, such as height, weight, eye and skin
with changing contexts. colour, and many of the psychological
characteristics such as intelligence, creativity,
and personality. These observable
FACTORS INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT characteristics of an individual are the result
Have you observed in your class that some of of the interaction between the person’s
you have dark skin, others have light coloured inherited traits and the environment. You
skins, colour of your hair and eyes are know it is the genetic code which predisposes
different, some of you are tall, others short, a child to develop in a particular way. Genes
some are quiet or sad while others are talkative provide a distinct blueprint and timetable for
the development of an individual. But genes
or cheerful. People also differ with respect to
do not exist in isolation and development
intelligence, learning abilities, memory, and
occurs within the context of an individual’s
other psychological characteristics besides
environment. This is what makes each one of
physical characteristics. Despite these
us a unique person.
variations, no one can be mistaken for any
What are the environmental influences?
other species: we all are homo sapiens. What
How does the environment af fect
causes us to be different from each other but
development? Imagine a child, with genotype
at the same time more like each other? The
that predisposes her/him to be introverted,
answer lies in the interaction of heredity and
in an environment that promotes social
environment.
interaction and extroversion. The influence of
You have already learned in Chapter 3 that such an environment may make the child a
the principles of heredity explain the little extroverted. Let us take another example.
mechanism for transmission of characteristics An individual with “short” height genes, even
by every species from one generation to the if s/he is in a very good nutritional
next. We inherit genetic codes from our environment, will never be able to be taller
parents, which are in every cell of our body. than average. This shows that genes set the
Our genetic codes are alike in one important limit and within that limit the environment
way; they contain the human genetic code. It influences development.
is because of the human genetic code that a You know by now that parents provide the
fertilised human egg grows into a human baby genes for the child’s development. Do you
and cannot grow into an elephant, a bird or a know that they also play an important role in
mouse. determining the type of environment their
Genetic transmission is very complex. children will encounter? Sandra Scarr (1992)
Most characteristics that we observe in believes that the environment parents provide
humans are combinations of larger number for their children depends to some extent on
of genes. You can imagine the combinations their own genetic predisposition. For example,
produced by 80,000 or more genes – if parents are intelligent and are good readers
accounting for a variety of characteristics and they would provide their children with books
behaviours. It is also not possible to possess to read, with the likely outcome that their
all the characteristics made available to us by children would become good readers who
our genetic structure. The actual genetic enjoy reading. A child’s own genotype (what
material or a person’s genetic heritage is s/he has inherited) such as being cooperative,
known as genotype. However, not all of this and attentive is likely to result in teachers and
genetic material is apparent or distinctly parents giving more pleasant response as
identifiable in our observable characteristics. compared to children who are not cooperative
Phenotype is the way an individual’s genotype or not attentive. Besides these, children
is expressed in observable and measurable themselves choose certain environments

67
Chapter 4 • Human Development
based on their genotype. For example, because
of their genotype, children may perform well
in music or sports and they will seek and Macrosystem
spend more time in environments, which will ies Beli
olog Exosystem e fs
enable them to perform their musical skills; Ide
Mesosystem
similarly an athlete would seek sports-related
environment. These interactions with Friends Microsystem Neighbour
environment keep changing from infancy Family School
through adolescence. Environmental The
Peers
Individual
influences are as complex as the genes we
Religious

Trad
inherit. Neighbourhood Work

es
Mass settings

itud
Place

itio
If your class monitor is selected on the Media

Att

ns
basis of being academically bright and a
popular student, do you think it is because of
her/his genes or the influence of the Time
environment? If a child from a rural area who
is very intelligent, is not able to get a job
Chronosystem
because of her/his inability to express herself/
himself fluently or handle computers, do
you think - it is because of genes or
environment?
Fig.4.1 : Bronfenbrenner’s Contextual View of
Development
CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT
Development does not take place in a vacuum. experiences likely to influence an individual’s
It is always embedded in a particular socio- relationships with others. The exosystem
cultural context. As you shall read in this includes events in social settings where the
chapter, transition during one’s lifetime such child does not participate directly, but they
as entering school, becoming an adolescent, influence the childs’ experiences in the
finding jobs, marrying, having children, immediate context. For example, the transfer
retirement, etc. all are joint functions of the of father or mother may cause tension among
biological changes and changes in one’s the parents which might af fect their
environment. The environment can change or interactions with the child or the general
alter during any time of the individual’s life- amenities available to the child like quality of
span. schooling, libraries, medical care, means of
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s contextual view of entertainment, etc. Macrosystem includes the
development emphasises the role of culture in which the individual lives. You have
environmental factors in the development of read in Chapter 3 about the importance of
an individual. This has been depicted in culture in the development of an individual.
Figure 4.1. Chronosystem involves events in the
The microsystem is the immediate individual’s life course, and socio-historical
environment/setting in which the individual circumstances of the time such as, divorce of
lives. It is in these settings where the child parents or parents’ economic setback, and
directly interacts with social agents – the their effect on the child.
family, peers, teachers, and neighbourhood. In a nutshell, Bronfenbrenner’s view is that
The mesosystem consists of relations between a child’s development is significantly affected
these contexts. For instance, how a child’s by the complex world that envelops her/him
parents relate to the teachers, or how the – whether it be the minutiae of the
parents view the adolescent’s friends, are conversations s/he has with her/his

68
Psychology
playmates, or the social and economic life- have dif ferent consequences for
circumstances into which s/he is born. development in dif ferent people. The
Research has shown that children in ecological environment can change or alter
impoverished environments have during any time of the individual’s life-span.
unstimulating environment devoid of books, Therefore, to understand differences in the
magazines, toys, etc., lack experiences such functioning of an individual, it is important
as visits to library, museum, zoo, etc., have to see the individual in the context of her/
parents who are ineffective as role models, and his experiences.
live in overcrowded and noisy surroundings.
As a result of these conditions children are at
a disadvantage and have difficulties in
Activity 4.1
learning.
What would your life be if you lived in a rural
Durganand Sinha (1977) has presented an area or a small town, devoid of all amenities,
ecological model for understanding the which you are used to in a city (or vice-versa)?
development of children in Indian context. Discuss in small groups keeping in mind factors
Ecology of the child could be viewed in terms like poverty, illiteracy, pollution, population, etc.
of two concentric layers. The “upper and the
more visible layers” consist of home, school,
peer groups, and so on. The most important OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
ecological factors influencing development of
the child in the visible upper layer constitute Development is commonly described in terms
the: (i) home, its conditions in terms of of periods or stages. You must have observed
overcrowding, space available to each member, that your younger brother or sister, or parents,
toys, technological devices used, etc., and even yourself, all behave in different ways.
(ii) nature and quality of schooling, facilities If you observe people living in your
to which the child is exposed, and (iii) nature neighbourhood, you would find that they too
of interactions and activities undertaken with do not behave in a similar manner. This
peer groups from childhood onwards. variation is partly because everyone is in a
These factors do not operate different stage of life. Human life proceeds
independently but constantly interact with through different stages. For example, you are
one another. Since these are also embedded at present in the stage of adolescence and after
in a larger and a more pervasive setting, the a few years you will enter the stage of
“surrounding layers” of the child’s ecology adulthood. Developmental stages are assumed
constantly influence the “upper layer” to be temporary and are often characterised
factors. However, their influences are not by a dominant featur e or a leading
always clearly visible. The elements of the characteristic, which gives each period its
uniqueness. During a particular stage,
surrounding layer of ecology constitute the:
individual progresses towards an assumed
(i) general geographical environment. It
goal - a state or ability that s/he must achieve
includes space and facilities for play and
in the same order as other persons before
other activities available outside the home
progressing to the next stage in the sequence.
including general congestion of the locality Of course, individuals do vary with respect to
and density of population, (ii) institutional the time or rate of development from one stage
setting provided by caste, class, and other to another. It may be noted that certain
factors, and (iii) general amenities available patterns of behaviour and certain skills are
to the child like drinking water, electricity, learned more easily and successfully during
means of entertainment and so on. certain stages. These accomplishments of a
The visible and the surrounding layer person become the social expectations of that
factors interact with one another and may stage of development. They are known as

69
Chapter 4 • Human Development
developmental tasks. You will now read The neural connections among these cells
about the different stages of development and develop at a rapid rate.
their main features. The newborn is not as helpless as you
might think. The activities needed to sustain
Prenatal Stage life functions are present in the newborn — it
breathes, sucks, swallows, and discharges the
The period from conception to birth is known
bodily wastes. The newborns in their first week
as the prenatal period. Typically, it lasts for
of life are able to indicate what direction a
about 40 weeks. You know by now that the
sound is coming from, can distinguish their
genetic blueprint guides our development
mother’s voice from the voices of other women,
during the prenatal period and after birth.
and can imitate simple gestures like tongue
Both genetic and environmental factors affect
protrusion and mouth opening.
our development during different periods of
Motor Development : The newborn’s
prenatal stage.
movements are governed by reflexes — which
Prenatal development is also affected by
are automatic, built-in responses to stimuli.
maternal characteristics, which include
They are genetically-carried survival
mother’s age, nutrition, and emotional state.
mechanisms, and are the building blocks for
Disease or infection carried by the mother can
subsequent motor development. Before the
adversely affect prenatal development. For
newborns have had the opportunity to learn,
example, rubella (German measles), genital
reflexes act as adaptive mechanisms. Some
herpes, and Human Immunodeficiency Virus
reflexes present in the newborn — coughing,
(HIV) are believed to cause genetic problems
blinking, and yawning persist throughout their
in the newborn. Another source of threat to
lives. Others disappear as the brain functions
prenatal development is teratogens -
mature and voluntary control over behaviour
environmental agents that cause deviations
starts developing (see Table 4.1).
in normal development that can lead to serious
As the brain is developing, physical
abnormalities or death. Common teratogens development also progresses. As the infant
include drugs, infections, radiations, and grows, the muscles and nervous system
pollution. Intake of drugs (marijuana, heroin, mature which lead to the development of finer
cocaine, etc.), alcohol, tobacco, etc. by women skills. Basic physical (motor) skills include
during pregnancy may have harmful effects grasping and reaching for objects, sitting,
on the foetus and increase the frequency of crawling, walking and running. The sequence
congenital abnormalities. Radiations (such as of physical (motor) development is universal,
X-rays), and certain chemicals near industrial with minor exceptions.
areas can cause permanent change in the Sensory Abilities : You know by now that
genes. Environmental pollutants and toxic newborns are not as incompetent as they look.
wastes like carbon monoxide, mercury and They can recognise their mother’s voice just a
lead are also sources of danger to the unborn few hours after birth and have other sensory
child. capabilities. How well can infants see?
Newborns prefer to look at some stimuli rather
INFANCY than others such as faces, although these
preferences change over the first few months
The brain develops at an amazing rate before of life. The newborn’s vision is estimated to
and after birth. You have already read in be lower than the adult vision. By 6 months it
Chapter 3 about the parts of the brain and improves and by about the first year, vision is
the important role played by cerebrum in almost the same as that of an adult (20/20).
human functions, such as language, Can a newborn see colour? The current
perception, and intelligence. Just before birth consensus is that they might be able to
the newborns have most but not all brain cells. distinguish between red and white colours but

70
Psychology
Table 4.1 Some Major Reflexes in the Newb
Newboorn

Reflex Description Developmental Course

Rooting Turning the head and opening the Disappears between 3 and 6 months
mouth when touched on the cheek
Moro If there is a loud noise, the baby Disappears in 6 to 7 months
will throw her/his arms outward (although reaction to loud noises is
while arching her/his back, and permanent)
then bring the arms together as
if grasping something
Grasp When a finger or some other object is Disappears in 3 to 4 months;
pressed against the baby’s palm, the replaced by voluntary grasping
baby’s fingers close around it
Babinski When the bottom of the baby’s foot Disappears in 8 to 12 months
is stroked, the toes fan out and
then curl

in general they are colour deficient and full of life, experiences the world through senses
colour vision develops by 3 months of age. and interactions with objects — through
What is the nature of hearing in newborns? looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and
Infants can hear immediately after birth. As grasping. The newborn lives in the present.
the infant develops, proficiency at localising What is out of sight is out of mind. For
sound improves. Newborns respond to touch example, if you hide the toy in front of the
and they can even feel pain. Both smell and child with which the child has been playing,
taste capacities are also present in the the young infant would react as if nothing has
newborn. happened, i.e. s/he will not search for the toy.
Cognitive Development : Does a 3 year The child assumes the toy does not exist.
old child understand things the same way as According to Piaget, children at this stage do
would an 8 year old? Jean Piaget stressed that not go beyond their immediate sensory
children actively construct their experience, i.e. lack object permanence —
understanding of the world. Information does the awareness that the objects continue to
not simply enter their minds from the exist when not perceived. Gradually by 8
environment. As children grow, additional months of age the child starts pursuing the
information is acquired and they adapt their object partially covered in her/his presence.
thinking to include new ideas, as this improves The basis of verbal communication seems
their understanding of the world. Piaget to be present in infants. Vocalisation begins
believed that a child’s mind passes through a with the infant’s babbling, sometime between
series of stages of thought from infancy to 3 to 6 months of age. You will read about early
adolescence (see Table 4.2). language development in Chapter 8.
Each stage is characterised by a distinct Socio-emotional Development : Babies
way of thinking and is age related. It is from birth are social creatures. An infant starts
important to remember that it is the different preferring familiar faces and responds to
way of thinking which makes one stage more parent’s presence by cooing and gurgling. They
advanced than the other and not the amount become more mobile by 6 to 8 months of age
of information. This also shows why you at and start showing a preference for their
your age think differently from an 8 year old. mother’s company. When frightened by a new
The child during infancy, i.e. the first two years face or when separated from their mother, they

71
Chapter 4 • Human Development
Table 4.2 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage Approximate Age Characteristics

Sensorimotor 0-2 years Infant explores the world by coordinating


sensory experiences with physical actions.
Preoperational 2-7 years Symbolic thought develops; object
permanence is established; the child cannot
coordinate different physical attributes of an
object.
Concrete operational 7-11 years The child can reason logically about concrete
events and classify objects into different sets.
Is able to perform reversible mental operations
on representations of objects.
Formal operational 11-15 years The adolescent can apply logic more
abstractly; hypothetical thinking develops.

cry or show distress. On being reunited with consistently and appropriately reciprocate to
the parent or caregiver they reciprocate with their signals of love and affection. According to
smiles or hugs. The close emotional bond of Erik Erikson (1968), the first year of life is the
affection that develop between infants and key time for the development of attachment. It
their parents (caregivers) is called represents the stage of developing trust or
attachment. In a classic study by Harlow and mistrust. A sense of trust is built on a feeling of
Harlow (1962), baby monkeys were separated physical comfort which builds an expectation
from their mothers approximately 8 hours of the world as a secure and good place. An
after birth. The baby monkeys were placed in infant’s sense of trust is developed by
experimental chambers and reared for 6 responsive and sensitive parenting. If the
months by surrogate (substitute) “mothers”, parents are sensitive, affectionate, and
one made of wire and the other of cloth. Half accepting, it provides the infant a strong base
the baby monkeys were fed by the wire mother, to explore the environment. Such infants are
half by the cloth mother. Regardless of whether likely to develop a secure attachment. On the
they were fed by the wire or the cloth mother other hand, if parents are insensitive and show
the baby monkeys showed a preference for the dissatisfaction and find fault with the child, it
cloth mother and spent a lot more time with can lead to creating feelings of self-doubt in
her. This study clearly demonstrates that the child. Securely attached infants respond
providing nourishment or feeding was not positively when picked up, move freely, and
crucial for attachment and contact-comfort is play whereas insecurely attached infants feel
important. You too may have seen young anxious when separated and cry due to fear
children having a strong attachment to a and get upset. A close interactive relationship
favourite toy or blanket. There is nothing with warm and affectionate adults is a child’s
unusual in this, as the children know that first step towards healthy development.
the blanket or toy is not their mother. Yet it
provides them comfort. As children grow and CHILDHOOD
become more sure of themselves, they
abandon these objects. The child’s growth slows down during early
Human babies also form an attachment childhood as compared to infancy. The child
with their parents or caregivers who develops physically, gains height and weight,

72
Psychology
learns to walk, runs, jumps, and plays with a and body fat decreases. The brain and the
ball. Socially, the child’s world expands from head grow more rapidly than any other part
the parents to the family and adults near home of the body. The growth and development of
and at school. The child also begins to acquire the brain are important as they help in the
the concepts of good and bad, i.e. develops a maturation of children’s abilities, such as eye-
sense of morality. During childhood, children hand coordination, holding a pencil, and
have increased physical capacities, can attempts made at writing. During middle and
perform tasks independently, can set goals, late childhood years, children increase
and meet adult expectations. The increasing significantly in size and strength; increase in
maturation of the brain along with weight is mainly due to increase in the size of
opportunities to experience the world, the skeletal and muscular systems, as well as
contribute to development of children’s size of some body organs.
cognitive abilities. Motor Development : Gross motor skills
Physical Development : Early develop- during the early childhood years involve the
ment follows two principles : (i) development use of arms and legs, and moving around with
proceeds cephalocaudally, i.e. from the confidence and more purposefully in the
cephalic or head region to the caudal or tail environment. Fine motor skills — finger
region. Children gain control over the upper dexterity and eye-hand coordination —
part of the body before the lower part. This is improve substantially during early childhood.
why you would notice that the infant’s head During these years the child’s preference for
is proportionately larger than her/his body left or right hand also develops. The major
during early infancy or if you see an infant accomplishments in gross and fine motor skills
crawling, s/he will use the arms first and then during early childhood years are given in
shift to using the legs, (ii) growth proceeds from Table 4.3.
the centre of body and moves towards the Cognitive Development : The child’s
extremities or more distal regions — the ability to acquire the concept of object
proximodistal trend, i.e. children gain control permanence enables her/him to use mental
over their torso before their extremities. symbols to represent objects. However, the
Initially infants reach for objects by turning child at this stage lacks the ability that allows
their entire body, gradually they extend their her/him to do mentally what was done
arms to reach for things. These changes are physically before. Cognitive development in
the result of a maturing nervous system and early childhood focuses on Piaget’s stage of
not because of any limitation since even preoperational thought (see Table 4.2). The
visually impaired children show the same child gains the ability to mentally represent
sequence. an object that is not physically present. You
As children grow older, they look slimmer may have observed children draw designs/
as the trunk part of their bodies lengthens figures to represent people, trees, dog, house,

Table 4.3 Major Accomplishments in Gross and FFine


ine Motor Skills

Age in Years Gross Motor Skills Fine Motor Skills

3 years Hopping, jumping, running Build blocks, pick objects with


forefinger and thumb
4 years Climb up and downstairs with Fit jigsaw puzzle precisely
one foot on each step
5 years Run hard, enjoy races Hand, arm, and body all coordinate
with eye movement

73
Chapter 4 • Human Development
etc. This ability of the child to engage in preoperational child would have done? S/he
symbolic thought helps to expand her/his is likely to focus on only one aspect-length or
mental world. The progress in symbolic height. Concrete operations allow the child to
thought continues. A salient feature of focus on different characteristics and not focus
preoperational thought is egocentrism (self- on one aspect of the object. This helps the
focus), i.e. children see the world only in terms child to appreciate that there are different ways
of their own selves and are not able to of looking at things, which also results in the
appreciate others’ point of view. Children decline of her/his egocentrism. Thinking
because of egocentrism, engage in animism - becomes more flexible, and children can think
thinking that all things are living, like oneself. about alternatives when solving problems, or
They attribute life-like qualities to inanimate mentally retrace their steps if required. Even
objects. For example, if a child while running though the preoperational child develops the
slips on the road, s/he might show animism ability to see relationships between different
by saying “road hurt me”. As children grow properties of an object, s/he cannot do
and are approximately between 4 and 7 years abstract thinking, i.e. s/he still cannot
of age they want answers to all their questions manipulate ideas in the absence of objects.
like: Why is the sky blue? How do trees grow? For example, steps required to complete
and so on. Such questions help the child to algebraic equations, or imagining line of
know why things are as they are. Piaget called
longitude or latitude of the earth.
this the stage of intuitive thought. Another
The growing cognitive abilities of children
feature of thought during preoperational stage
facilitate the acquisition of language. You will
is characterised by children having a tendency
read in Chapter 8, how children develop
for centration, i.e. focusing on a single
vocabulary and grammar.
characteristic or feature for understanding an
event. For example, a child may insist on
drinking a “big glass” of juice, preferring a tall Activity 4.2
narrow glass to a short broad one, even though
both might be holding the same amount of Take two transparent glasses of the same size
juice. and pour same amount of water in both. Ask a
As the child grows and is approximately child of Class II and Class V of your school:
whether the glasses contain the same amount of
between 7 and 11 years of age (the period of water? Take another tall thin glass and in front
middle and late childhood) intuitive thought of the child empty water from one of the earlier
is replaced by logical thought. This is the stage glasses to the third glass. Now ask her/him which
of concrete operational thought, which is glass has more water? Did you find any difference
made up of operations — mental actions that in their responses?
allows the child to do mentally what was done
physically before. Concrete operations are also
mental actions that are reversible. In a well- Socio-emotional Development : The
known test, the child is presented with two important dimensions of children’s socio-
identical balls of clay. One ball is rolled by the emotional development are the self, gender
experimenter into a long thin strip and the and moral development. During the early
other ball remains in its original shape. On years of childhood, some important
being asked which has more clay, the child developments in the self take place. The child
of 7 or 8 years, would answer that, both have due to socialisation has developed a sense of
the same amount of clay. This is because the who s/he is and whom s/he wants to be
child imagines the ball rolled into thin strip identified with. The developing sense of
and then into a ball, that means s/he is able independence makes children do things in
to imagine reversible mental action on their own way. According to Erikson, the way
concrete/real objects. What do you think a parents respond to their self-initiated activities

74
Psychology
leads to developing a sense of initiative or understanding in early childhood is limited to
sense of guilt. For example, giving freedom and defining oneself thr ough physical
opportunities for play like cycling, running, characteristics: I am tall, she has black hair, I
skating, etc. and answering children’s am a girl, etc. During middle and late
questions will create a sense of support for childhood, the child is likely to define oneself
the initiative taken. In contrast, if they are through internal characteristics such as, “I
made to feel that their questions are useless, am smart and I am popular” or “I feel proud
and games played by them are stupid, the when teachers assign me responsibility in
children are likely to develop feelings of guilt school”. In addition to defining oneself through
over self-initiated activities, which may persist psychological characteristics, children’s self-
through the children’s later life also. Self- descriptions also include social aspects of self,

Box 4.2 Gender and Sex Roles

Is chess a man’s game or woman’s game or both? of development. Through rewards and punishments,
Is baking a woman’s activity or a man’s activity? they induce in children gender appropriate and
What about driving, debating, and experimenting inappropriate behaviours. Parents often use rewards
in a physics laboratory? Or consider some of the and punishments to teach their daughters to be
products sold on T.V. for young men and young feminine and boys to be masculine. Peer influence is
women? What do they tell about how girls and also considered to be a major contributor to gender
boys should be? socialisation.
Psychologists have meticulously researched Parents restrict school-aged girls more than they
on whether sex differences exist. Research shows restrict school-aged boys, and assign boys and girls
that males have been consistently found to be different types of chores. In everyday interactions,
more aggressive than females. Men perform parents give their daughters a kind of ‘dependence
better than women on tests of sit-ups, short-run training’, and their sons a kind of ‘independence
speeds and long jumps. Women show better, fine training’. Media, including cartoons and commercials
eye-hand coordination than men do, and their are known to perpetuate gender stereotypes.
joints and limbs are more flexible than men’s. Research on gender stereotypes in commercials
What do you think is the origin of these shows that across cultures authority figures in
differences? Are these essential, or in other commercials were males, and women were more likely
words, are women born with certain ‘feminine’ to be shown in dependent and domestic roles, or
traits, and men with certain ‘masculine’ traits? women were more likely to sell body products, and
Or are these differences the creation of the world men more likely to sell sports products.
we live in? Once children learn the role of male or female,
The most powerful roles into which people are they organise their world on the basis of gender also.
socialised are gender roles. They specify the range Children’s attention and behaviour are guided by an
of behaviours which are considered appropriate internal motivation to conform to gender based socio-
for males or females. While sex refers to the cultural standards and stereotypes. Children also
biological dimension of being male or female, actively socialise themselves according to the gender
gender refers to the social dimension of being male mores of their culture. Once they have internalised
or female. There are several aspects of gender. gender standards, they begin to expect gender
Among these, important ones are gender identity appropriate behaviour from themselves. Young boys
of male or female, which most children begin to may refuse to wear feminine clothes in a fancy dress
acquire by the time they are about 3 years old competition. When playing house (ghar-ghar), girls
and can accurately label themselves as boys and may refuse to play the father’s role. Once they have
girls. As they grow, preferences can be evidenced identified with their own gender, children may model
in their toys and play. after a powerful cultural figure of the same gender.
A gender role is a set of expectations that The “gender typing” occurs when individuals are
prescribes how females and males should think, ready to encode and organise information along the
act and feel. Parents are important influences on lines of what is considered appropriate or typical for
gender socialisation especially in the early years males and females in a society.

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Chapter 4 • Human Development
such as references to social groups like being actions are wrong because s/he is punished,
a member of school’s music club, environment and right because s/he is rewarded. As the
club, or any religious group. Children’s self- child grows, i.e. by early adolescence, s/he
understanding also includes social develops moral reasoning through set of rules
comparison. Children are likely to think about of others, such as parents or laws of the
what they can do or cannot do in comparison society. These rules are accepted by the
with others. For example, “I got more marks children as their own. These are “internalised”
than Atul” or “I can run faster than others in in order to be virtuous and to win approval
the class”. This developmental shift leads to from others (not to avoid punishment).
establishing one’s differences from others as Children view rules as absolute guidelines,
an individual. which should be followed. Moral thinking at
Once the children enter school their social this stage is relatively inflexible. As they grow,
world expands beyond their families. They also they gradually develop a personal moral code.
spend greater amount of time with their age You have seen that by the end of childhood
mates or peers. Thus the increased time that a more gradual growth rate enables the child
children spend with their peers shapes their to develop skills of coordination and balance.
development. Language develops and the child can reason
logically. Socially the child has become more
Activity 4.3 involved in social systems, such as family and
peer group. The next section traces changes
Act like a boy if you are a girl or act like a girl if in human development during adolescence
you are a boy for atleast one hour in front of your and adulthood.
friends and parents. Reflect on your experience
and note others’ reaction to your behaviour. You
can also ask them about their reactions. How Activity 4.4
difficult was it to perform like the other gender?
A patient is critically ill, hospitalised for many
years and shows no improvement. Should the life
Moral Development : Another important support system of the patient be withdrawn?
aspect of the child’s development is learning What is your view on euthanasia or “mercy killing”
to differentiate between the rightness or as it is sometimes called. Discuss with your teacher.
wrongness of human acts. The way children
come to distinguish right from wrong, to feel
guilty, to put themselves in other people’s CHALLENGES OF ADOLESCENCE
position, and to help others when they are in
trouble, are all components of moral The term adolescence derives from the Latin
development. Just as children pass through word adolescere, meaning “to grow into
the various stages of cognitive development, maturity”. It is the transitional period in a
according to Lawrence Kohlberg, they pass person’s life between childhood and
through the various stages of moral adulthood. Adolescence is commonly defined
development, which are age related. Kohlberg as the stage of life that begins at the onset of
interviewed children in which they were puberty, when sexual maturity, or the ability
presented with stories in which the characters to reproduce is attained. It has been regarded
face moral dilemmas. Children were asked as a period of rapid change, both biologically
what the characters in the dilemma should and psychologically. Though the physical
do, and why. According to him, children changes that take place during this stage are
approach thinking about right and wrong universal, the social and psychological
differently at different ages. The young child, dimensions of the adolescent’s experiences
i.e. before 9 years of age, thinks in terms of depend on the cultural context. For example,
external authority. According to her/him, in cultures where the adolescent years are

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Psychology
viewed as problematic or confusing, the sexuality is caused by factors such as
adolescent will have very different experiences individual’s awareness of the biological
from someone who is in a culture, where changes taking place and the emphasis placed
adolescent years are viewed as beginning of on sexuality by peers, parents, and society.
adult behaviour and, therefore, undertaking Even then, many adolescents lack adequate
responsible tasks. Although most societies knowledge or have misconceptions about sex
have at least a brief period of adolescence, it and sexuality. Sex is a topic parents find
is not universal across cultures. dif ficult to discuss with children, so
Physical Development : Puberty or sexual adolescents tend to become secretive about
maturity marks the end of childhood and sexual concerns which make exchange of
signifies the beginning of adolescence, which information and communication difficult. The
is characterised by dramatic physical changes concern over adolescent sexuality has become
in both, gr owth rate, and sexual intense in recent times because of the risk of
characteristics. However, puberty is not a AIDS, and other sexually transmitted diseases.
sudden event, but is part of a gradual process. The development of a sexual identity
The hormones released during puberty result defines the sexual orientation and guides
in the development of primary and secondary sexual behaviour. As such it becomes an
sexual characteristics. The primary sex important developmental task for adolescents.
characteristics include those directly related How did you think of yourself at the beginning
to reproduction and the secondary sex of puberty? Adolescents are preoccupied with
characteristics include features or signs of what they are like and develop individual
achieving sexual maturity. Pubertal changes images of what they look like. Another
in boys are marked by acceleration in growth, important developmental tasks during
facial hair, and changes in voice. In girls, rapid adolescence is accepting one’s physical self/
growth in height usually begins about two maturity. Adolescents need to develop a
years before menarche, the onset of realistic image of their physical appearance,
menstruation. The growth spurt generally which is acceptable to them. It is important
begins at the age of 12 or 13 for boys and at to keep in mind that puberty also involves
the age of 10 or 11 for girls. It is normal to cognitive and social changes along with
have variations in the pubertal sequence. For physical changes.
example, among two boys (or two girls) of same Cognitive Developmental Changes :
chronological age, one may complete pubertal Adolescents’ thought becomes more abstract,
sequence before the other has begun it. Both logical, and idealistic; they become more
genetics and environment play a part in this. capable of examining their own thoughts,
For example, identical twins reach menarche others’ thoughts, and what others are thinking
closer in time than do fraternal twins; on an about them. Adolescents’ developing ability to
average, girls from affluent families go through reason gives them a new level of cognitive and
menarche earlier than girls from poor families; social awareness. Piaget believed that formal
and historical trends show that the age of operational thought appears between the age
menarche is declining in industrialised nations of 11 and 15. During this stage adolescent
reflecting better nutrition and advances in thinking expands beyond actual concrete
medical care. experiences and they begin to think more in
Physical development during adolescence abstract terms and reason about them. In
is also accompanied by a number of addition to being abstract, adolescent thought
psychological changes. Around puberty is also idealistic. Adolescents begin to think
adolescents show an increase in interest in about ideal characteristics for themselves and
members of the opposite sex and in sexual others and compare themselves and others
matters and a new awareness of sexual with these ideal standards. For example, they
feelings develops. This increased attention to may think what an ideal parent is like and

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Chapter 4 • Human Development
compare their parents with these ideal the parents; ‘you don’t understand me’. To
standards. This may at times make retain their sense of personal uniqueness they
adolescents wonder which of the new-found may weave stories filled with fantasy around
ideal standards they should adopt. In contrast them to create a world that is away from
to trial and error approach used by children reality. Personal fables are often part of
in earlier stages of development, adolescent adolescent diaries.
thinking becomes more systematic in solving Forming an Identity : You must have
problems — they think of possible courses of sought answers to questions such as : Who
action, why something is happening the way am I? Which subjects should I study? Do I
it is, and systematically seek solutions. Piaget believe in God? The answers to all these
called this type of logical thinking — questions involve the quest to define one’s
hypothetical deductive reasoning. sense of self or the search for identity.
Logical thought also influences the Identity is who you are and what your values,
development of moral reasoning. Social rules commitments and beliefs are. The primary task
are not considered as absolute standards and of adolescence is to establish an identity
moral thinking shows some flexibility. The separate from the parents. During adolescence
adolescent recognises alternative moral a detachment process enables the individual
courses, explores options, and then decides to develop a personalised set of beliefs that
on a personal moral code. For example, should are uniquely her or his own. In the process of
I smoke as everyone I know does? Is it ethical achieving an identity the adolescent could
to copy answers in the examinations? This also experience conflict with parents and within
lends the possibility of adolescents not herself or himself. Those adolescents who can
following society’s norms if they conflict with cope with the conflicting identities develop a
personal code of ethics. For example, new sense of self. Adolescents who are not
individuals at this age might participate in a able to cope with this identity crisis are
protest march for a cause rather than adhere/ confused. This “identity confusion”, according
conform to college norm. to Erikson, can lead to individuals isolating
Adolescents also develop a special kind of themselves from peers and family; or they may
egocentrism. According to David Elkind, lose their identity in the crowd. Adolescents
imaginary audience and personal fable are on one hand, may desire independence but
two components of adolescents’ egocentrism. may also be afraid of it and show a great deal
Imaginary audience is adolescent’s belief that of dependence on their parents. Rapid
others are as preoccupied with them as they fluctuations between self-confidence and
are about themselves. They imagine that insecurity are typical of this stage. Adolescents
people are always noticing them and are may at one time complain of being “treated
observing each and every behaviour of theirs. like a baby” whereas on other occasions they
Imagine a boy who thinks that all will notice may seek comfort by depending on their
the ink spot on his shirt, or a girl with a pimple parents. Seeking an identity involves searching
feels, all people would think how bad her skin for continuity and sameness in oneself, greater
is. It is this imaginary audience, which makes responsibility and trying to get a clear sense
them extremely self-conscious. The personal of who one is, i.e. an identity.
fable is part of the adolescents’ egocentrism The for mation of identity during
that involves their sense of uniqueness. adolescence is influenced by several factors.
Adolescents’ sense of uniqueness makes them The cultural background, family and societal
think that no one understands them or their values, ethnic background, and socio-
feelings. For example, an adolescent girl thinks economic status all prevail upon the
that none can sense the hurt that she feels adolescents’ search for a place in society.
because of being betrayed by a friend. It is Family relationships become less important
quite common to hear the adolescent say to as the adolescent spends more time outside

78
Psychology
the home and develops a strong need for peer delinquency, substance abuse, and eating
support and acceptance. Increased disorders.
interactions with peers provide them with Delinquency : Delinquency refers to a
opportunities for refining their social skills and variety of behaviours, ranging from socially
trying out different social behaviours. Peers unacceptable behaviour, legal offences, to
and parents are dual forces having major criminal acts. Examples include truancy,
influences on adolescents. At times conflicting running away from home, stealing or burglary
situations with parents lead to increased or acts of vandalism. Adolescents with
identification with peers. But generally parents delinquency and behavioural problems tend to
and peers serve complementary functions and have a negative self-identity, decreased trust,
fulfil different needs of the adolescents. and low level of achievement. Delinquency is
Vocational commitment is another factor often associated with low parental support,
influencing adolescent identity formation. The inappropriate discipline, and family discord.
question “What are you going to be when you Often adolescents from communities
grow up?”, requires the ability to think about characterised by poverty, unemployment, and
the future and to be able to set realistic and having feelings of alienation from the middle
achievable goals. In some cultures freedom is class perform antisocial acts to gain attention
given to the young people to choose an and to be popular with their peers. However,
occupation, whereas in certain other cultures most delinquent children do not remain
the option of making this choice is not given delinquent forever. Change in their peer group,
to the children. Here parents’ decision is likely becoming mor e aware of their social
to be accepted by the children. What has been responsibilities and developing feelings of self-
your experience while making a choice in the worth, imitating positive behaviour of the role
selection of subjects? Career counselling in models, breaking negative attitudes, and
schools offers information regarding appraisal overcoming poor self-concept help in reduction
of the students for various courses and jobs of delinquent behaviour.
and provides guidance in making a decision Substance Abuse : Adolescent years are
about career choices. especially vulnerable to smoking, alcohol and
Some Major Concerns : As adults when drug abuse. Some adolescents take recourse
we reflect on our adolescent years and recall to smoking and drugs as a way of coping with
the conflicts, uncertainties, occasional stress. This can interfere with the development
loneliness, group pressures, we feel it was of coping skills and responsible decision-
definitely a vulnerable period. During making. The reasons for smoking and drug
adolescence peer influence, new gained use could be peer pressure and the
freedom, unresolved problems may create adolescents’ need to be accepted by the group,
difficulties for many of you. Conforming to peer or desire to act more like adults, or feel a need
pressure can be both positive and negative. to escape the pressure of school work or social
Adolescents are often confronted with activities. The addictive powers of nicotine
decisions regarding smoking, drugs, alcohol, make it difficult to stop smoking. It has been
and breaking parental rules, etc. These found that adolescents who are more
decisions are taken without much regard to vulnerable to drugs, alcohol, and nicotine use,
the effect they can have. Adolescents may face are impulsive, aggressive, anxious, depressive,
periods of uncertainty, loneliness, self-doubt, and unpredictable, have low self-esteem, and
anxiety, and concern about themselves and low expectation for achievement. Peer pressure
their future, they are also likely to experience and the need to be with their peer group make
excitement, joy, and feelings of competence the adolescent either go along with their
as they over come the developmental demands to experiment with drugs, alcohol,
challenges. You will now read about some of and smoking or be ridiculed. Drug use if
the major challenges faced by adolescents like continued long enough can lead to

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Chapter 4 • Human Development
physiological dependency, i.e. addiction to to live with their parents even after getting
drugs, alcohol or nicotine may seriously married and being financially independent.
jeopardise the rest of the adolescents’ lives. The assumption of adult roles is directed by
Positive relationships with parents, peers, an individual’s social context. The best time
siblings, and adults play an important role in for some of the most important life events (i.e.
preventing drug abuse. In India, a successful marriage, job, having children) might be quite
anti-drug programme is the Society for Theatre different in different cultures but within a
in Education Programme in New Delhi. It uses culture there is similarity in the course of adult
street performances to entertain people development.
between 13 to 25 years of age while teaching In early adulthood, two major tasks are,
them how to say no to drugs. The United exploring the possibilities for adult living and
Nations International Drug Control Programme developing a stable life structure. The twenties
(UNDCP) has chosen the programme as an represent the novice phase of adult
example to be adopted by other non- development. Gradually, a transition from
governmental organisations in the region. dependence to independence should occur.
Eating Disorders : Adolescents’ obsession This could be marked by an image of the kind
with self, living in fantasy world and peer of life the young person wants, especially in
comparisons lead to certain conditions where terms of marriage and a career.
they become obsessed with their own bodies. Career and Work : Earning a living,
Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder that choosing an occupation, and developing a
involves relentless pursuit of thinness through career are important themes for people in their
starvation. It is quite common to see twenties and thirties. Entering work life is a
adolescents eliminate certain foods from their challenging event in anyone’s life. There are
diets or to eat slimming foods only. The media apprehensions regarding dif ferent
also projects thinness, as the most desirable adjustments, proving one’s competence,
image and copying such fashionable image of performance, dealing with competition, and
thinness leads to anorexia nervosa. Bulimia coping with expectations both of the employers
is another form of an eating disorder in which and oneself. It is also the beginning of new
the individual follows a binge-and-purge eating roles and responsibilities. Developing and
pattern. The bulimic goes on an eating binge, evaluating a career becomes an important task
then purges by self-induced vomiting or using of adulthood.
a laxative at times alternating it with fasting. Marriage, Parenthood, and Family : The
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia are primarily adjustments that young adults have to make
female disorders more common in urban when entering a marriage relate to knowing
families. the other person if not known earlier, coping
with each other’s likes, dislikes, tastes, and
choices. If both the partners are working,
ADULTHOOD AND OLD AGE
adjustments are required regarding sharing
and performing roles and responsibilities at
Adulthood
home.
An adult is generally defined as someone who In addition to getting married, becoming a
is responsible, mature, self-supporting, and parent can be a difficult and stressful transition
well integrated into society. There is a variation in young adults, even though it is usually
in developing these attributes, which suggests accompanied by the feeling of love for the baby.
that there is a shift in timing when an How adults experience parenting is affected by
individual becomes an adult or assumes adult different situations such as the number of
roles. Some people take up jobs along with children in the family, the availability of social
their college studies or may get married and support, and the happiness or unhappiness
not pursue their studies. Others may continue of the married couple.

80
Psychology
Death of a spouse or divorce creates a of the challenges, which the aged have to cope
family structure in which a single parent either with include retirement, widowhood, illness,
the mother or the father has to take up the or death in the family. The image of old age is
responsibility of the children. In recent times, changing in certain ways. Now there are people
women are increasingly seeking employment who have crossed seventy years of age or so
outside the home thus creating another type and are quite active, energetic, and creative.
of family in which both parents work. The They are competent and are therefore, valued
stressors when both parents are working are by society in many walks of life. In particular,
quite the same as of a single working parent, we have aged people in politics, literature,
namely, taking care of children, their school- business, art and science. The myth of old age
work, illness, and coping with workload at as an incapacitating and therefore, frightening
home and in the office, etc. Despite the phase of life is changing.
stresses associated with parenting, it provides Of course, the experience of old age also
a unique opportunity for gr owth and depends on the socioeconomic conditions,
satisfaction and is perceived as a way of availability of health care, attitude of people,
establishing concern and guiding the next expectations of society and the available
generation. support system. Work is most important
Physical changes during middle ages are during early adult years, then family becomes
caused by maturational changes in the body. most important and beyond that health
Though individuals may vary in the rate at becomes the most important issue in the
which these changes occur, almost all middle- person’s life. Clearly, successful ageing for
aged people notice gradual deterioration in much of our adult life focuses on how effective
some aspects of their physical functioning we are at work, how loving our relationships
such as decline in vision, sensitivity to glare, are in our family, how good our friendships
hearing loss and changes in physical are, how healthy we are, and how cognitively
appearance (e.g., wrinkles, grey hair or fit we are.
thinning of hair, weight gain). Do cognitive Retirement from active vocational life is
abilities change during adulthood? It is quite significant. Some people perceive
believed that some cognitive abilities decline retirement as a negative change. They
with age while others do not. Decline in consider it as a separation from an important
memory is more in tasks involving long-term source of satisfaction and self-esteem. Others
memory than short-ter m memory. For view it as a shift in life with more time to
example, a middle-aged person can remember pursue their own interests. It is seen that
the telephone number immediately after s/he older adults who show openness to new
has heard it but may not remember it so experiences, more striving and achievement-
efficiently after a few days. Memory tends to oriented behaviour prefer to keep busy and
show greater decline, while wisdom may are better adjusted.
improve with age. Remember that individual Older adults also need to adjust to changes
differences exist in intelligence at every age in the family structure and new roles (grand
and as not all children are exceptional, neither parenting) that have to be learnt. Children
do all adults show wisdom. usually are busy in their careers and families
and may set up independent homes. Older
Old Age adults may depend on their children for
Just when “old age” begins, is not easy to financial support and to overcome their
determine. Traditionally, the age of retirement loneliness (after children have moved out).
was linked to old age. Now that people are This might trigger-off feelings of hopelessness
living longer, age of retiring from work is and depression in some people.
changing, and the cut-of f point for the In old age feeling of loss of energy, and
definition of “old age” is moving upward. Some dwindling of health and financial assets, lead

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Chapter 4 • Human Development
to insecurity and dependency. The elderly tend spouse is usually seen as the most difficult
to look towards others to lean on and to care loss. Those left behind after the death of their
for them. Indian culture favours dependency partner suffer deep grief, cope with loneliness,
of elderly on their children, for old age needs depression, financial loss and are also at risk
caring. In fact, parents in most oriental of many health related problems. Widows by
cultures rear their children with the fond hope far out number widowers, because studies
that they will care for them during old age. It show that women live longer than men and
is important to give the elderly a sense of tend to marry men older than themselves.
security and belonging, a feeling that people During such times, support from children,
care for them (especially in the time of crisis), grandchildren, and friends can help the
and to remember that we all have to grow old individual cope with the loss of spouse.
one day. People in different cultures view death
differently. In the Gond culture in our country,
Activity 4.5 it is believed that death is caused by magic
and demon. In the Tanala cultur e of
Madagascar, natural forces are thought to
Interview people from three different stages of life,
for example, 20-35, 35-60 and over 60 years of cause death. Human development as you have
age. Talk to them about: read in this chapter thus, helps you to
a. Major transitions that have taken place in understand the influence of various factors
their lives. in an individual’s lifetime.
b. How they feel these transitions have affected
them?
Compare the events considered important in
different groups.
Key Terms
Adolescence, Animism, Attachment,
Centration, Cephalocaudal trend, Concrete
Although death is more likely to occur in operational stage, Deductive thought,
late adulthood, death can come at any point Development, Egocentrism, Evolution, Gender,
in development. The deaths, especially of Identity, Infancy, Maturation, Menarche,
Motor development, Object permanence,
children and younger adults, are often Operations, Phenotype, Prenatal period,
perceived to be more tragic than those of Preoperational stage, Primary sex
others. In children and younger adults, death characteristics, Proximodistal trend, Puberty,
is more likely to occur because of accidents Reflexes, Secondary sex characteristics, Self,
but in older adults it is more likely to occur Sensorimotor stage, Teratogens
because of chronic disease. The death of a

Summary
• Prenatal development may be affected by maternal malnutrition, maternal drug use and
some maternal illnesses.
• Motor development follows cephalocaudal and proximodistal trends. Early motor development
depends on both maturation and learning.
• Cultural variations in child rearing can affect the patterns of attachment between the child
and the caregiver.
• According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the main characteristics of sensorimotor
stage is the child’s gradual recognition of the permanence of objects. The preoperational
stage is marked by certain deficiencies in thinking such as centration, irreversibility, and
egocentrism.

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Psychology
• During the concrete operations stage, children develop the ability to perform operations on
mental representations, making them capable of conservation. The stage of formal operations
is more abstract, systematic, and develops logical thought.
• According to Kohlberg, moral reasoning progresses through three levels that are related to
age and determined by cognitive development.
• The growth spurt at puberty is a prominent event involving the development of reproductive
maturity and secondary sex characteristics. According to Erikson, the key challenge of
adolescence is to make some progress towards a sense of identity.
• During adulthood personality is marked by both stability and change. Many landmarks in
adult development involve transitions in family relationships, including adjustment to
marriage, parenthood, and children leaving home.
• Age-related physical transitions during adulthood include changes in appearance, memory,
and in the cognitive domain.

Review Questions
1. What is development? How is it different from growth and maturation?
2. Describe the main features of life-span perspective on development.
3. What are developmental tasks? Explain by giving examples.
4. ‘Environment of the child has a major role in the development of the child’. Support your
answer with examples.
5. How do socio-cultural factors influence development?
6. Discuss the cognitive changes taking place in a developing child.
7. Attachment bonds formed in childhood years have long-term effects. Explain taking
examples from daily life.
8. What is adolescence? Explain the concept of egocentrism.
9. What are the factors influencing the formation of identity during adolescence? Support
your answer with examples.
10. What are the challenges faced by individuals on entry to adulthood?

Project Ideas
1. Think of your experiences during the last 2-3 years and answer the following : Did you
have confrontations with your parents? What were the main problems? How did you
solve your problems, and whose help did you seek? Compare your list with your
classmates. Are there any similarities? Can you now think of better ways of solving the
problems faced by you?
2. Develop a script from a preoperational (4-7 years old) child’s point of view for playing
with friends. Develop the same script for an adolescent. How do these scenarios differ?
How are roles played by your friends different?

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Chapter 4 • Human Development
Introduction
In the previous chapters you have already learnt how we respond to various stimuli
present in the external and internal environment with the help of our receptors.
While some of these receptors are clearly observable (for example, eyes or ears),
others lie inside our body, and are not observable without the help of electrical or
mechanical devices. This chapter will introduce you to various receptors that collect
a variety of information from the external and internal worlds. The focus will be
particularly on the structure and function of eye and ear, including some interesting
processes associated with vision and audition. You will also know some important
things about attention, which helps us to notice and register the information that
our sense organs carry to us. Different types of attention will be described along
with the factors that influence them. At the end, we will discuss the process of
perception that allows us to understand the world in a meaningful way. You will
also have an opportunity to know how we are sometimes deceived by certain types
of stimuli such as figures and pictures.

not only from the external world, but also from


KNOWING THE WORLD
our own body. The information collected by
The world in which we live is full of variety of our sense organs forms the basis of all our
objects, people, and events. Look at the room knowledge. The sense organs register several
you are sitting in. You will find so many things kinds of information about various objects.
around. Just to mention a few, you may see However, in order to be registered, the objects
your table, your chair, your books, your bag, and their qualities (e.g., size, shape, colour)
your watch, pictures on the wall and many must be able to draw our attention. The
other things. Their sizes, shapes, and colours registered information must also be sent to
are also different. If you move to other rooms the brain that constructs some meaning out
of your house, you will notice several other of them. Thus, our knowledge of the world
new things (e.g., pots and pans, almirah, TV). around us depends on three basic processes,
If you go beyond your house, you will find still called sensation, attention, and perception.
many more things that you generally know These processes are highly interrelated; hence,
about (trees, animals, buildings). Such they are often considered as different elements
experiences are very common in our day-to- of the same process, called cognition.
day life. We hardly have to make any efforts
to know them. NATURE AND VARIETIES OF STIMULUS
If someone asks you, “How can you say
that these various things exist in your room, The external environment that surrounds us
or house, or in the outside environment?”, you contains a wide variety of stimuli. Some of
will most probably answer that you see or them can be seen (e.g., a house), while some
experience them all around you. In doing so, can be heard only (e.g., music). There are
you are trying to tell the person that the several others that we can smell (e.g., fragrance
knowledge about various objects becomes of a flower) or taste (e.g., sweets). There are
possible with the help of our sense organs (e.g., still others that we can experience by touching
eyes, ears). These organs collect information (e.g., softness of a cloth). All these stimuli

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Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
provide us with various kinds of information. Functional Limitations of Sense Organs
We have very specialised sense organs to deal
Before we move on to a discussion of sense
with these different stimuli. As human beings
organs, it is important to note that our sense
we are bestowed with a set of seven sense
organs function with certain limitations. For
organs. These sense organs are also known
example, our eyes cannot see things which
as sensory receptors or information gathering
are very dim or very bright. Similarly our ears
systems, because they receive or gather
cannot hear very faint or very loud sounds.
information from a variety of sources. Five of
these sense organs collect information from The same is true for other sense organs also.
the external world. These are eyes, ears, nose, As human beings, we function within a limited
tongue, and skin. While our eyes are primarily range of stimulation. For being noticed by a
responsible for vision, ears for hearing, nose sensory receptor, a stimulus has to be of an
for smell, and tongue for taste, skin is optimal intensity or magnitude. The
responsible for the experiences of touch, relationship between stimuli and the
warmth, cold, and pain. Specialised receptors sensations they evoke has been studied in a
of warmth, cold, and pain are found inside discipline, called psychophysics.
our skin. Besides these five external sense In order to be noticed a stimulus has to
organs, we have also got two deep senses. They carry a minimum value or weight. The
are called kinesthetic and vestibular systems. minimum value of a stimulus required to
They provide us with important information activate a given sensory system is called
about our body position and movement of absolute threshold or absolute limen (AL).
body parts related to each other. With these For example, if you add a granule of sugar to
seven sense organs, we register ten different a glass of water, you may not experience any
variety of stimuli. For example, you may notice sweetness in that water. Addition of a second
whether a light is bright or dim, whether it is granule to water may also not make it taste
yellow, red or green, and so on. With sound sweet. But if you go on adding sugar granules
you may notice whether it is loud or faint, one after another, there will come a point when
whether it is melodious or distracting, and so you will say that the water is now sweet. The
on. These different qualities of stimuli are also minimum number of sugar granules required
registered by our sense organs. to say that the water is sweet will be the AL of
sweetness.
It may be noted at this point that the AL is
SENSE MODALITIES
not a fixed point; instead it varies considerably
Our sense organs provide us with first-hand across individuals and situations depending
information about our external or internal on the people’s organic conditions and their
world. The initial experience of a stimulus or motivational states. Hence, we have to assess
an object registered by a particular sense it on the basis of a number of trials. The
organ is called sensation. It is a process number of sugar granules that may produce
through which we detect and encode a variety the experience of “sweetness” in water on
of physical stimuli. Sensation also refers to 50 per cent of occasions will be called the AL
immediate basic experiences of stimulus of sweetness. If you add more number of sugar
attributes, such as “hard”, “warm”, “loud”, and granules, the chances are greater that the
“blue”, which result fr om appropriate water will be reported more often as sweet than
stimulation of a sensory organ. Different sense plain.
organs deal with different forms of stimuli and As it is not possible for us to notice all
serve different purposes. Each sense organ is stimuli, it is also not possible to differentiate
highly specialised for dealing with a particular between all stimuli. In order to notice two
kind of information. Hence, each one of them stimuli as different from each other, there has
is known as a sense modality. to be some minimum difference between the

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Psychology
value of those stimuli. The smallest difference with the external world. Audition and other
in the value of two stimuli that is necessary to senses also contribute significantly to
notice them as different is called difference information gathering from the external world.
threshold or difference limen (DL). To We shall discuss vision and audition in some
understand it, we may continue with our detail. The main features of other senses can
“sugar water” experiment. As we have seen, be found in Box 5.1.
the plain water is experienced as sweet after Visual sensation starts when light enters
the addition of certain number of sugar the eyes and stimulates our visual receptors.
granules. Let us remember this sweetness. The Our eyes are sensitive to a spectrum of light,
next question is: how many sugar granules the wavelength of which ranges from 380 nm
will be needed in the water in order to to 780 nm (nm refers to nanometer, which is
experience its sweetness as different from the one billionth of a meter). No sensation is
previous sweetness. Go on adding sugar registered beyond this range of light.
granules one after another tasting the water
each time. After addition of a few granules, The Human Eye
you will notice at a point that the water is now A diagram of the human eye is shown in
sweeter than the previous one. The number Figure 5.1. As you can see, our eye is made
of sugar granules added to the water to up of three layers. In the outer layer, there is
generate an experience of sweetness that is a transparent cornea and a tough sclera that
different from the previous sweetness on 50 surrounds the rest of the eye. It protects the
per cent of the occasions will be called the DL eye and maintains its shape. The middle layer
of sweetness. Thus, difference threshold is the is called choroid, which is richly supplied with
minimum amount of change in a physical blood vessels. The inner layer is known as
stimulus that is capable of producing a retina. It contains the photoreceptors (rods
sensation difference on 50 per cent of the and cones) and an elaborate network of
trials. interconnecting neurons.
You may realise by now that understanding The eye is generally compared with a
of sensations is not possible without camera. For example, the eye and camera have
understanding the AL and DL of different types a lens. The lens divides the eye into two
of stimuli (for example, visual, auditory), but unequal chambers, namely aqueous chamber
that is not enough. Sensory processes do not and vitreous chamber. The aqueous chamber
depend only on the stimulus characteristics. is located between the cornea and the lens. It
Sense organs and the neural pathways is smaller in size and is filled with a water-
connecting them to various brain centers also like substance, called aqueous humor. The
play a vital role in this process. A sense organ vitreous chamber is located between the lens
receives the stimulus and encodes it as an and the retina. It is filled with a jelly like
electrical impulse. For being noticed this protein, called vitreous humor. These fluids
electrical impulse must reach the higher brain help in holding the lens at its appropriate place
centers. Any structural or functional defect or and in proper shape. They also allow enough
damage in the receptor organ, its neural flexibility for the occurrence of accommodation
pathway, or the concerned brain area may lead — a process through which the lens changes
to a partial or complete loss of sensation. its shape in order to focus the objects at
varying distances. This process is regulated
Visual Sensation
by ciliary muscles, which are attached to the
Among all sense modalities, vision is the most lens. These muscles flatten the lens to focus
highly developed in human beings. Various the distant objects and thicken it to focus the
estimates indicate that we use it in near objects. Like a camera, the eye also has
approximately 80 per cent of our transactions a mechanism to control the amount of light

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Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
Box 5.1 Other Human Senses

Besides vision and audition, there are other temperature, its pressure on our tongue, and
senses that enrich our perceptions. For example, many other sensations. When these factors are
an orange looks attractive not only because of it removed, we are left with only four basic tastes.
is colour but also because it has got a special Besides, the combination of different flavours in
flavour and taste. These other senses are briefly varied proportions results in a different kind of
described here. flavour which may be quite unique.
1. Smell : The stimulus for smell sensation 3. Touch and other skin senses : Skin is a sensory
consists of molecules of various substances organ that produces sensations of touch
contained in the air. They enter the nasal (pressure), warmth, cold, and pain. In our skin
passage where they dissolve in moist nasal there are specialised receptors for each one of
tissues. This brings them in contact with these sensations. The receptors of touch are not
receptor cells contained in olfactory evenly distributed in our skin. That is why some
epithelium. Human beings possess about 50 areas of our body (e.g., face, fingertips) are more
million of these receptors, whereas dogs sensitive than others (e.g., legs). Pain sensation
possess more than 200 million of these has no specific stimulus. Hence, determining its
receptors. Nevertheless, our ability to detect mechanism has been fairly difficult.
smell is impressive. It is indicated that human 4. The Kinesthetic system : Its receptors are found
beings can recognise and distinguish among primarily in joints, ligaments, and muscles. This
approximately 10,000 different odours. The system gives us information about the location
sense of smell also shows sensory of our body parts in relation to each other, and
adaptation like other senses. allows us to perform simple (e.g., touching one’s
2. Taste : The sensory receptors for taste are nose) and complex movements (e.g., dancing). Our
located inside small bumps on the tongue, visual system provides a great deal of help in
known as papillae. In each papilla there is a this respect.
cluster of taste buds. Human beings possess 5. The Vestibular system : This system gives us
almost 10,000 taste buds. While people claim information about our body position, movement,
to distinguish a large number of flavours in and acceleration — the factors that are critical
food, there are only four basic tastes, namely for maintaining our sense of balance. The sensory
sweet, sour, bitter and salty. How is it then organs of this sense are located in the inner ear.
that we perceive many more? The answer is While vestibular sacs inform us of our body
that we are aware not only of the taste of positions, the semicircular canals inform us about
the food, but also of its smell, its texture, its our movements and acceleration.

entering into it. The iris serves this purpose. (colour) vision. Each eye contains about 100
It is a disc-like coloured membrane lying million rods and about 7 million cones. The
between the cornea and the lens. It controls cones are highly concentrated in the central
the amount of light entering the eye by region of the retina surrounding the fovea,
regulating pupil dilation. In dim light the pupil which is a small circular region of the size of a
dilates; in bright light it contracts. pea. It is also known as the yellow spot. It is
Retina is the inner most layer of an eye. It the region of maximum visual acuity. Besides
is made up of five types of photosensitive cells photoreceptors, retina also contains a bundle
among which rods and cones are most of axons of a cell (called ganglion cell) that
important. Rods are the receptors for scotopic forms the optic nerve, which leads to the
vision (night vision). They operate at low brain.
intensities of light, and lead to achromatic
(colourless) vision. Cones are the receptors for Working of the Eye
photopic (day light) vision. They operate at high Passing through conjunctiva, cornea, and
levels of illumination, and lead to chromatic pupil, the light enters the lens, which focuses

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Psychology
Vitreous humor

Fovea

Cornea
Proximal
Iris stimulus

Aqueous
humor

Optic nerve

Pupil
Distal
stimulus
Lens

Blind spot
Ciliary muscle Retina

Fig.5.1 : Structure of the Human Eye

it on to the retina. Retina is divided into two Adaptation


parts: the nasal half and the temporal half.
The human eye can function at a very large
The inner half portion of the eye (towards the
range of light intensities. Sometimes we have
nose), taking the center of fovea as mid-point,
to undergo a rapid change in illumination
is called the nasal half. The outer half portion
levels. For example, when we go to a matinee
of the eye (towards the temple) from the center show movie, we find it difficult to see things
of fovea is called the temporal half. Light from in the hall on entering into it. However, after
the right visual field stimulates the left half of spending about 15 to 20 minutes there, we
each eye (i.e. the nasal half of the right eye are able to see everything. After the show when
and the temporal half of the left eye), and light we go out into the open, we find the light
from the left visual field stimulates the right outside the hall too bright to see things, or
half of each eye (i.e. the nasal half of the left sometimes even to keep our eyes open.
eye and the temporal half of the right eye). An However, within a minute or so we feel
inverted image of the object is formed on the comfortable, and are able to see things
retina. The neural impulse is transmitted to properly. This adjustment is faster than the
the visual cortex through the optic nerve where one made on entering the hall. The process of
the image is re-inverted and processed. You getting adjusted to different intensities of light
can see in Fig.5.1 that the optic nerve leaves is called ‘visual adaptation’.
the retina from the area that has no Light adaptation refers to the process of
photoreceptors. In this area visual sensitivity adjusting to bright light after exposure to dim
is completely absent. Therefore, it is called the light. This process takes nearly a minute or
blind spot. two. On the other hand, dark adaptation

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Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
refers to the process of adjusting to a dimly Colour Vision
illuminated environment after exposure to
In our interaction with the environment we
bright light. This may take half an hour or
not only experience a variety of objects, but
even longer depending on the previous level
also their colours. It may be noted that colour
of exposure of the eye to light. There are certain
is a psychological property of our sensory
ways in which these processes can be
experience. It is created when our brain
facilitated. An interesting activity is given
interprets the information received from the
below to demonstrate this process to you.
external world. It may be remembered that
light is described physically in terms of
Activity 5.1 wavelength, not in terms of colour. As we have
read earlier, the visible spectrum is a range
Move from a lighted area to a dark room and note of energy (380-780 nm) that our
how much time you take to see things clearly in
that room.
photoreceptors can detect. The energy lower
Next time put on red goggles while you stay or higher than the visible spectrum is harmful
in the lighted place. Then move into the dark room to the eyes. The sun light is a perfect mixture
and note how much time you take to see things of seven colours just like a rainbow. The
clearly in that room. colours observed are violet, indigo, blue,
You will notice that the use of red goggles has
green, yellow, orange, and red, abbreviated
greatly reduced the time required for dark
adaptation. as ‘VIBGYOR’.
Do you know why has this happened?
Discuss with your friends and the teacher. The Dimensions of Colour
A person with normal colour vision can
Photochemical Basis of Light and Dark distinguish more than seven million different
Adaptation : You may wonder why the light shades of colour. Our experiences of colour
and dark adaptations take place. According can be described in terms of three basic
to the classical view, light and dark dimensions, called hue, saturation, and
adaptations occur due to certain brightness. Hue is a property of chromatic
photochemical processes. The rods have a colours. In simple words, it refers to the name
photo-sensitive chemical substance, called of the colour, e.g., red, blue, and green. Hue
rhodopsin or visual purple. By the action of varies with wavelength, and each colour is
light the molecules of this chemical substance identified with a specific wavelength. For
get bleached or broken down. Under such example, blue has a wavelength of about 465
conditions the light adaptation takes place in nm, and green of about 500 nm. Achromatic
the eyes. On the other hand, the dark colours like black, white or grey are not
adaptation is achieved by the removal of light, characterised by hues. Saturation is a
and thereby allowing for restorative processes psychological attribute that refers to the
to regenerate the pigment in the rods with the relative amount of hue of a surface or object.
help of vitamin A. The regeneration of The light of single wavelength (monochromatic)
rhodopsin in rods is a time consuming appears to be highly saturated. As we mix
process. That is why dark adaptation is a different wavelengths, the saturation
slower process than light adaptation. It has decreases. The colour grey is completely
been found that people who suffer from unsaturated. Brightness is the perceived
vitamin A deficiency do not achieve dark intensity of light. It varies across both
adaptation at all, and find it really difficult to chromatic and achromatic colours. White and
move in the dark. This condition is generally black represent the top and bottom of the
known as night blindness. A parallel chemical brightness dimension. White has the highest
believed to be found in cones is known as degree of brightness, whereas black has the
iodopsin. lowest degree.

90
Psychology
Colour Mixtures The Human Ear
There is an interesting relationship among Ear is the primary receptor of auditory stimuli.
colours. They form complementary pairs. While its well-known function is hearing, it
When mixed in correct proportions the also helps us in maintaining our body balance.
complementary colours yield an achromatic The structure of an ear is divided into three
grey or white. Examples of complementary segments, called the external ear, the middle
colours are red-green and yellow-blue. Red, ear, and the inner ear (Fig.5.2).
green and blue are called primary colours, External Ear : It contains two main structures,
because on mixing, the light of these three namely pinna and auditory meatus. Pinna is
colours can produce almost any colour. The a cartilaginous funnel-shaped structure that
most common example is the television screen. collects sound waves from the surroundings.
It contains spots of blue, red and green Auditory meatus is a canal protected by hair
colours. The combinations of these three and wax that carries sound waves from pinna
produce different colours and shades that we to the tympanum or ear drum.
see on the TV screen.
Middle Ear : The middle ear starts with
After Images tympanum, a thin membrane highly sensitive
to sound vibrations. This is followed by the
This is quite an interesting phenomenon tympanic cavity. It is connected to the
related to visual sensations. The effect of a pharynx with the help of Eustachian tube,
visual stimulus persists for some time even which maintains the air pressure in tympanic
after the removal of that stimulus from the cavity. From the cavity the vibrations pass to
visual field. This effect is called after image. three ossicles known as malleus (hammer),
After images are positive and negative. incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup). They
Positive after images resemble the original increase the intensity of sound vibrations
stimulus in terms of hue, saturation, and about 10 times, and send them to the inner
brightness. They usually occur after a brief ear.
intense stimulation of dark adapted eyes. On
the other hand, negative after images appear Inner Ear : The inner ear has a complicated
in complementary colours. These images structure known as membranous labyrinth,
appear when a person stares at the patch of a which is encapsulated in a bony shell called
particular colour for at least 30 seconds, and bony labyrinth. A lymph-like fluid is found in
then transfers the gaze to a neutral the space between bony labyrinth and
background (e.g., a white or grey surface). If membranous labyrinth. This is called
the person looks at the blue colour, the perilymph.
negative after image will appear in yellow. The bony labyrinth has three semi-
Similarly, a red stimulus will yield a negative circular canals at right angle to each other, a
after image of green colour. cavity, called vestibule, and a coiled structure,
called cochlea. The semicircular canals have
Auditory Sensation fine hair cells, which are highly sensitive to
postural changes as well as changes in the
Audition or hearing is also an important sense body orientation. Inside the bony cochlea,
modality that carries great value for us. It there is a membranous cochlea, which is also
provides us with reliable spatial information. known as scala media. It is filled with
Besides orienting us to certain objects or endolymph, and has a spirally coiled
individuals, it plays a vital role in spoken membrane, called basilar membrane. It has
communication also. Auditory sensation got fine hair cells arranged in a series to form
begins when sound enters our ear and the organ of corti. This is the main organ for
stimulates the chief organs of hearing. hearing.

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Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
Hammer

Saccule

Semicircular
Utricle
canals

Anvil
Facial nerve

Auditory nerve

External
canal

Pinna Cochlea

Eustachian tube

Tympanic Round
membrane Stirrup window

Fig.5.2 : Structure of the Human Ear

Working of the Ear disturbs the surrounding medium (i.e. air),


and pushes the air molecules back and forth.
Pinna collects the sound vibrations and serves
This results in changes in pressure that spread
them to the tympanum through the auditory
outward in the form of sound waves, travelling
meatus. From the tympanic cavity the
at a rate of about 1,100 ft/sec. These changes
vibrations are transferred to the three ossicles,
travel in waves much like the ripples set up
which increase their strength and transmit
by a stone thrown into a pond. When these
them to the inner ear. In the inner ear the
sound waves strike our ears, they initiate a
cochlea receives the sound waves. Through
set of mechanical pressure changes that
vibrations the endolymph is set in motion,
ultimately trigger the auditory receptors.
which also vibrates the organ of corti. Finally,
The simplest kind of sound wave is one
the impulses are sent to the auditory nerve,
that causes successive pressure changes over
which emerges at the base of cochlea and
time in the form of a single repeating sine wave
reaches the auditory cortex where the impulse
(Fig.5.3). Sound waves vary in amplitude as
is interpreted.
well as in wavelength. Amplitude is a general
measure of stimulus magnitude. It is the
Sound as a Stimulus
amount of change in pressure, i.e. the extent
We all know that sound is the stimulus for of displacement of the molecules from the
ears. It results from pressure variations in the position of rest. In Fig.5.3 the amplitude of
external environment. Any physical movement sound wave is represented as the distance of

92
Psychology
the crest or trough from its mean position. sound reflects the complexity of its sound
Wavelength is the distance between the two waves. Most of the sounds found in natural
crests. Sound waves are basically formed due environments are complex.
to alternate compression and decompression
(rarefaction) of air molecules. A complete Activity 5.2
change in pressure from compression to
rarefaction and again to compression makes Vision and hearing are generally believed to be
a cycle of the wave. the two most highly prized senses. What would
your life be if you lost any one of your senses?
Which sense would you find more traumatic to
lose? Why? Think and write down.
What if you could magically improve the
performance of one of your senses, which sense
would you choose to improve? Why? Could you
Amplitude

improve the performance of this one sense without


magic? Think and write down.
Discuss with your teacher.

ATTENTIONAL PROCESSES
one cycle
In the previous section we have discussed
Fig.5.3 : Sound Waves some sensory modalities that help us in
collecting information from the external world
Sound waves are described in terms of and also from our internal system. A large
their frequency, which is measured in terms number of stimuli impinge upon our sense
of cycles per second. Its unit is called Hertz organs simultaneously, but we do not notice
(Hz). Frequency and wavelength have an all of them at the same time. Only a selected
inverse relationship. When the wavelength few of them are noticed. For example, when
increases, the frequency decreases, and when you enter your classroom you encounter
the wavelength decreases, the frequency several things in it, such as doors, walls,
increases. Amplitude and frequency both are windows, paintings on walls, tables, chairs,
physical dimensions. Besides these, there are students, schoolbags, water bottles, and so
three psychological dimensions of sound, on, but you selectively focus only on one or
namely loudness, pitch and timbre. two of them at one time. The process through
Loudness of the sound is determined by which certain stimuli are selected from a group
its amplitude. Sound waves with large of others is generally referred to as attention.
amplitude are perceived as loud; those with At this point it may be noted that besides
small amplitude are perceived as soft. selection, attention also refers to several other
Loudness is measured in decibels (db). Pitch properties like alertness, concentration, and
refers to highness or lowness of a sound. The search. Alertness refers to an individual’s
seven notes used in Indian classical music readiness to deal with stimuli that appear
represent a gradual increase in their pitch. before her/him. While participating in a race
Frequency determines the pitch of a sound in your school, you might have seen the
wave. The higher the frequency, the higher will participants on the starting line in an alert
be the pitch. The range of hearing is generally state waiting for the whistle to blow in order
20 Hz-20,000 Hz. Timbre refers to the nature to run. Concentration refers to focusing of
or quality of a sound. For example, the sound awareness on certain specific objects while
of a car engine and a person talking differ with excluding others for the moment. For example,
respect to quality or timbre. The timbre of a in the classroom, a student concentrates on

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Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
the teacher’s lecture and ignores all sorts of have already indicated that our perceptual
noises coming from different corners of the system has a limited capacity to receive and
school. In search an observer looks for some process information. This means that it can
specified subset of objects among a set of deal only with a few stimuli at a given moment
objects. For example, when you go to fetch of time. The question is, which of those stimuli
your younger sister and brother from the will get selected and processed? Psychologists
school, you just look for them among have identified a number of factors that
innumerable boys and girls. All these activities determine the selection of stimuli.
require some kind of effort on the part of
people. Attention in this sense refers to “effort Factors Affecting Selective Attention
allocation”.
Several factors influence selective attention.
Attention has a focus as well as a fringe.
These generally relate to the characteristics
When the field of awareness is centered on a
of stimuli and the characteristics of
particular object or event, it is called focus or
individuals. They are generally classified as
the focal point of attention. On the contrary,
“external” and “internal” factors.
when the objects or events are away from the
External factors are related to the features
center of awareness and one is only vaguely
of stimuli. Other things held constant, the size,
aware of them, they are said to be at the fringe
intensity, and motion of stimuli appear to be
of attention.
important determinants of attention. Large,
Attention has been classified in a number
bright, and moving stimuli easily catch our
of ways. A process-oriented view divides it into
attention. Stimuli, which are novel and
two types, namely selective and sustained.
moderately complex, also easily get into our
We will briefly discuss the main features of
focus. Studies indicate that human
these types of attention. Sometimes we can
photographs are more likely to be attended to
also attend to two different things at the same
than the photographs of inanimate objects.
time. When this happens, it is called divided
Similarly, rhythmic auditory stimuli are more
attention. Box 5.2 describes when and how
readily attended to than verbal narrations.
the division of attention is possible.
Sudden and intense stimuli have a wonderful
capacity to draw attention.
Selective Attention
Internal factors lie within the individual.
Selective attention is concerned mainly with These may be divided into two main categories,
the selection of a limited number of stimuli or viz. motivational factors and cognitive factors.
objects from a large number of stimuli. We Motivational factors relate to our biological

Box 5.2 Divided Attention

In day-to-day life we attend to several things at time. However, this becomes possible only with highly
the same time. You must have seen people driving practiced activities, because they become almost
a car and talking to a friend, or attending to phone automatic and require less attention to perform than
calls on a mobile set, or putting on sunglasses, or new or slightly practiced activities.
listening to music. If we watch them closely, we Automatic processing has three main
will notice that they are still allocating more effort characteristics; (i) It occurs without intention, (ii) It takes
to driving than to other activities, even though place unconsciously, and (iii) It involves very little (or
some attention is given to other activities. It no) thought processes (e.g., we can read words or tie
indicates that on certain occasions attention can our shoelaces without giving any thought to these
be allocated to more than one thing at the same activities).

94
Psychology
or social needs. When we are hungry, we notice given moment of time are not completely
even a faint smell of food. A student taking an blocked. The filter only attenuates (weakens)
examination is likely to focus on a teacher’s their strength. Thus some stimuli manage to
instructions more than other students. escape through the selective filter to reach
Cognitive factors include factors like interest, higher levels of processing. It is indicated that
attitude, and preparatory set. Objects or personally relevant stimuli (e.g., one’s name
events, which appear interesting, are readily in a collective dinner) can be noticed even at a
attended by individuals. Similarly we pay very low level of sound. Such stimuli, even
quick attention to certain objects or events to though fairly weak, may also generate
which we are favourably disposed. Preparatory response occasionally by slipping through the
set generates a mental state to act in a certain selective filter.
way and readiness of the individual to respond Multimode theory was developed by
to one kind of stimuli and not to others. Johnston and Heinz (1978). This theory
believes that attention is a flexible system that
Theories of Selective Attention allows selection of a stimulus over others at
three stages. At stage one the sensory
A number of theories have been developed to
representations (e.g., visual images) of stimuli
explain the process of selective attention. We
are constructed; at stage two the semantic
will briefly discuss three of these theories.
representations (e.g., names of objects) are
Filter theory was developed by Broadbent
constructed; and at stage three the sensory
(1956). According to this theory, many stimuli
and semantic representations enter the
simultaneously enter our receptors creating
consciousness. It is also suggested that more
a kind of “bottleneck” situation. Moving
processing requires more mental effort. When
through the short-term memory system, they
the messages are selected on the basis of stage
enter the selective filter, which allows only one
one processing (early selection), less mental
stimulus to pass through for higher levels of
effort is required than when the selection is
processing. Other stimuli are screened out at
based on stage three processing (late
that moment of time. Thus, we become aware
selection).
of only that stimulus, which gets access
through the selective filter.
Sustained Attention
Filter-attenuation theory was developed
by Triesman (1962) by modifying Broadbent’s While selective attention is mainly concerned
theory. This theory proposes that the stimuli with the selection of stimuli, sustained
not getting access to the selective filter at a attention is concerned with concentration. It

Box 5.3 Span of Attention

Our attention has a limited capacity to receive span of attention varies within the limit of seven plus
stimuli. The number of objects one can attend to at or minus two. This is popularly known as the “magic
a brief exposure (i.e. a fraction of a second) is called number”. It means that at a time, people can attend to
“span of attention” or “perceptual span”. More a set of five to seven numbers, which can be extended
specifically, the span of attention refers to the to nine or more under exceptional conditions. That is
amount of information an observer can grasp from perhaps the reason why motorbikes or cars are given
a complex array of stimuli at a single momentary a number plate that contains only four digit numbers
exposure. This can be determined by the use of an with some alphabets. In case of violation of driving rules
instrument, called “tachistoscope”. On the basis of a traffic police can easily read and note these numbers
several experiments, Miller has reported that our along with the alphabets.

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Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
refers to our ability to maintain attention on factor. Intense and long lasting stimuli
an object or event for longer durations. It is facilitate sustained attention and result in
also known as “vigilance”. Sometimes people better performance. Temporal uncertainty is
have to concentrate on a particular task for a third factor. When stimuli appear at regular
many hours. Air traffic controllers and radar intervals of time they are attended better than
readers provide us with good examples of this when they appear at irregular intervals.
phenomenon. They have to constantly watch Spatial uncertainty is a fourth factor. Stimuli
and monitor signals on screens. The that appear at a fixed place are readily
occurrence of signals in such situations is attended, whereas those that appear at
usually unpredictable, and errors in detecting random locations are difficult to attend.
signals may be fatal. Hence, a great deal of Attention has several practical
vigilance is required in those situations. implications. The number of objects one can
readily attend to in a single glance is used to
Factors Influencing Sustained Attention design the number plates of motorbikes and
Several factors can facilitate or inhibit an cars so that the traffic police can easily notice
individual’s performance on tasks of sustained them in the case of traffic rule violations
attention. Sensory modality is one of them. (Box 5.3). A number of children fail to perform
Performance is found to be superior when the well in school simply due to the problem of
stimuli (called signals) are auditory than when attention. Box 5.4 presents some interesting
they are visual. Clarity of stimuli is another information about a disorder of attention.

Box 5.4 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (AD


Hyperactivity HD)
(ADHD)

This is a very common behavioural disorder found found to account for ADHD more reliably than other
among children of the primary school age. It is factors. Currently ADHD is considered to have multiple
characterised by impulsivity, excessive motor causes and effects.
activity, and an inability to attend. The disorder is Disagreement remains over the most effective
more prevalent among boys than among girls. If method of treatment of ADHD. A drug, called Ritalin, is
not managed properly, the attention difficulties may widely used, which decreases children’s over-activity
persist into adolescence or adult years. Difficulty and distractibility, and at the same time increases their
in sustaining attention is the central feature of this attention and ability to concentrate. However, it does
disorder, which gets reflected in several other not “cure” the problem, and often also results in such
domains of the child. For example, such children negative side-effects as the suppression in normal
are highly distractible; they do not follow growth of height and weight. On the other hand,
instructions, have difficulty in getting along with behavioural management programmes, featuring
parents, and are negatively viewed by their peers. positive reinforcement and structuring lear ning
They do poorly in school, and show difficulties in materials and tasks in such a way that minimises errors
reading or learning basic subjects in schools in and maximises immediate feedback and success, have
spite of the fact that there is no deficit in their been found quite useful. Successful modification of
intelligence. ADHD is claimed with cognitive behavioural training
Studies generally do not provide evidence for programme in which rewards for desired behaviours
a biological basis of the disorder, whereas some are combined with training in the use of verbal self-
relationship of the disorder with dietary factors, instructions (stop, think, and then do). With this
particularly food colouring, has been documented. procedure, the ADHD children learn to shift their
On the other hand, social-psychological factors (e.g., attention less frequently and to behave reflectively —
home environment, family pathology) have been a learning that is relatively stable over time.

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Psychology
the whole is known as bottom-up processing.
PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES
The notion that recognition process begins
In the previous section we have examined that from the whole, which leads to identification
the stimulation of sensory organs leads us to of its various components is known as top-
experience something such as, a flash of light down processing. The bottom-up approach
or a sound, or a smell. This elementary lays emphasis on the features of stimuli in
experience, called sensation, does not provide perception, and considers perception as a
us with any understanding of the stimulus process of mental construction. The top-down
that stimulated the sense organ. For example, approach lays emphasis on the perceiver, and
it does not inform us about the source of the considers perception as a process of
light, sound or fragrance. In order to make recognition or identification of stimuli. Studies
sense out of the raw material provided by the show that in perception both the processes
sensory system, we process it further. In doing interact with each other to provide us with an
so, we give meaning to stimuli by using our understanding of the world.
learning, memory, motivation, emotions, and
other psychological processes. The process by THE PERCEIVER
which we recognise, interpret or give meaning
to the information provided by sense organs is Human beings are not just mechanical and
called perception. In interpreting stimuli or passive recipients of stimuli from the external
events, individuals often construct them in world. They are creative beings, and try to
their own ways. Thus perception is not merely understand the external world in their own
an interpretation of objects or events of the ways. In this process their motivations and
external or internal world as they exist, instead expectations, cultural knowledge, past
it is also a construction of those objects and experiences, and memories as well as values,
events from one’s own point of view. beliefs, and attitudes play an important role
The process of meaning-making involves in giving meaning to the external world. Some
certain sub-processes. These are shown in of these factors are described here.
Fig.5.4.
Motivation
Processing Approaches in Perception
The needs and desires of a perceiver strongly
How do we identify an object? Do we identify influence her/his perception. People want to
a dog because we have first recognised its furry fulfil their needs and desires through various
coat, its four legs, its eyes, ears, and so on, or means. One way to do this is to perceive
do we recognise these different parts because objects in a picture as something that will
we have first identified a dog? The idea that satisfy their need. Experiments were
recognition process begins from the parts, conducted to examine the influence of hunger
which serve as the basis for the recognition of on perception. When hungry persons were

Fig.5.4 : Sub-processes of Perception

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Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
shown ambiguous pictures, they were found
to perceive them as pictures of food objects
more often than satiated (non-hungry)
persons.

Expectations or Perceptual Sets


The expectations about what we might
perceive in a given situation also influence our
perception. This phenomenon of perceptual
familiarisation or perceptual generalisation
reflects a strong tendency to see what we
expect to see even when the results do not
accurately reflect external reality. For example,
if your milkman delivers you milk daily at
about 5.30 A.M., any knocking at the door
around that time is likely to be perceived as
the presence of the milkman even if it is Fig.5.5 : CEFT
someone else.
the triangle. Those who can do it quickly will
Activity 5.3 be called “field independent”; those who take
long time will be called “field dependent”.
To demonstrate expectancy tell your friend to close
her eyes. Write 12, 13, 14, 15 on the board. Ask
Cultural Background and Experiences
her to open her eyes for 5 seconds, look at the
board, and look down recording what she saw. Different experiences and lear ning
Repeat replacing only the 12, 14, 15 with A, C, D opportunities available to people in different
viz. ‘A 13 C D’. Ask her again to note down
cultural settings also influence their
what she saw. Most people write down B in place
of 13. perception. People coming from a pictureless
environment fail to recognise objects in
pictures. Hudson studied the perception of
pictures by African subjects, and noted several
Cognitive Styles
difficulties. Many of them were unable to
Cognitive style refers to a consistent way of identify objects depicted in pictures (e.g.,
dealing with our environment. It significantly antelope, spear). They also failed to perceive
affects the way we perceive the environment. distance in pictures, and interpreted
There are several cognitive styles that people pictures incorrectly. Eskimos have been found
use in perceiving their environment. One most to make fine distinction among a variety of
extensively used in studies is the “field snow that we may be unable to notice. Some
dependent and field independent” cognitive aboriginal groups of Siberian region have been
style. Field dependent people perceive the found to differentiate among dozens of skin
external world in its totality, i.e. in a global or colours of reindeers, which we would not be
holistic manner. On the other hand, field able to do.
independent people perceive the external These studies indicate that the perceiver
world by breaking it into smaller units, i.e. in plays a key role in the process of perception.
an analytic or differentiated manner. People process and interpret stimuli in their
Look at Fig.5.5. Can you find out the own ways depending on their personal, social
triangle hidden in the picture? How much time and cultural conditions. Due to these factors
do you take to locate it? Try to find out the our perceptions are not only finely tuned, but
time other students of your class take to locate also modified.

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Psychology
and sky stay behind the figure and are
PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATION
perceived as background.
Our visual field is a collection of different To test this experience, look at the Fig.5.6
elements, such as points, lines, and colours. given below. You will see either the white part
However, we perceive these elements as of the figure, which looks like a vase (flower
organised wholes or complete objects. For pot), or the black part of the figure, which looks
example, we see a bicycle as a complete object, like two faces.
not as a collection of different parts (e.g.,
saddle, wheel, handle). The process of
organising visual field into meaningful wholes
is known as form perception.
You may wonder how different parts of an
objects are organised into a meaningful whole.
You may also ask if there are certain factors
that facilitate or inhibit this process of
organisation.
Several scholars have tried to answer such
questions, but the most widely accepted
answer has been given by a gr oup of
researchers, called Gestalt psychologists.
Prominent among them are Köhler, Koffka,
and Wertheimer. Gestalt means a regular
figure or a for m. According to Gestalt
psychologists, we perceive different stimuli not
as discrete elements, but as an organised Fig.5.6 : Rubin’s Vase
“whole” that carries a definite form. They
believe that the form of an object lies in its We distinguish figure from the ground on
whole, which is different from the sum of their the basis of the following characteristics:
parts. For example, a flower pot with a bunch 1. Figure has a definite form, while the
of flowers is a whole. If the flowers are removed, background is relatively formless.
the flower pot still remains a whole. It is the 2. Figure is more organised as compared to
configuration of the flower pot that has its background.
changed. Flower pot with flowers is one 3. Figure has a clear contour (outline), while
configuration; without flowers it is another the background is contourless.
configuration. 4. Figure stands out from the background,
The Gestalt psychologists also indicate that while the background stays behind the
our cerebral processes are always oriented figure.
towards the perception of a good figure or 5. Figure appears more clear, limited, and
pragnanz. That is the reason why we perceive relatively nearer, while the background
everything in an organised form. The most appears relatively unclear, unlimited, and
primitive organisation takes place in the form away from us.
of figure-ground segregation. When we look The discussion presented above indicates
at a surface, certain aspects of the surface that human beings perceive the world in
clearly stand out as separate entities, whereas organised wholes rather than in discrete parts.
others do not. For example, when we see words The Gestalt psychologists have given us several
on a page, or a painting on a wall, or birds laws to explain how and why different stimuli
flying in the sky, the words, the painting, and in our visual field are organised into
the birds stand out from the background, and meaningful whole objects. Let us look at some
are perceived as figures, while the page, wall, of these principles.

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Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
The Principle of Proximity The Principle of Smallness
Objects that are close together in space or time According to this principle, smaller areas tend
are perceived as belonging together or as a to be seen as figures against a larger
group. For example, Fig.5.7 does not look like background. In Fig.5.10 we are more likely to
a square pattern of dots, but as a series of see a black cross rather than a white cross
columns of dots. Similarly, Fig.5.7 also looks within the circle because of this principle.
like a group of dots together in rows.

Fig.5.7 : Proximity

The Principle of Similarity Fig.5.10 : Smallness

Objects that are similar to one another and The Principle of Symmetry
have similar characteristics are perceived as
a group. In Fig.5.8 the little circles and squares This principle suggests that symmetrical areas
are evenly spaced both horizontally and tend to be seen as figures against
vertically so that the proximity does not come asymmetrical backgrounds. For example, in
into play. Instead, we tend to see alternating Fig.5.11 the black areas are seen as figures
columns of circles and squares. (as they have symmetrical properties) against
their white asymmetrical background.

Fig.5.8 : Similarity

The Principle of Continuity Fig.5.11 : Symmetry

This principle states that we tend to perceive The Principle of Surroundedness


objects as belonging together if they appear
to form a continuous pattern. For instance, According to this principle, the areas
we are more likely to identify two lines a-b surrounded by others tend to be perceived as
and c-d crossing than to identify four lines figures. For example, the image in Fig.5.12
meeting at the center p. looks like five figures against the white
background rather than the word ‘LIFT’.

Fig.5.9 : Continuity
LIFT Fig.5.12 : Surroundedness

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Psychology
The Principle of Closure Monocular Cues (Psychological Cues)
We tend to fill the gaps in stimulation and Monocular cues of depth perception are
perceive the objects as whole rather than their effective when the objects are viewed with only
separate parts. For example, in Fig.5.13 the one eye. These cues are often used by artists
small angles are seen as a triangle due to our to induce depth in two dimensional paintings.
tendency to fill the gaps in the object provided Hence, they are also known as pictorial cues.
by our sensory input. Some important monocular cues that help us
in judging the distance and depth in two
dimensional surfaces are described below. You
will find some of them applied in Fig.5.14.

Fig.5.13 : Closure

PERCEPTION OF SPACE, DEPTH, AND DISTANCE


The visual field or surface in which things
exist, move or can be placed is called space.
The space in which we live is organised in three
dimensions. We perceive not only the spatial
attributes (e.g., size, shape, direction) of
various objects, but also the distance between
the objects found in this space. While the
images of objects projected on to our retina Fig.5.14 : Monocular Cues
are flat and two dimensional (left, right, up, The above picture will help you to understand some
down), we still perceive three dimensions in monocular cues: Interposition and relative size (see the
the space. Why does it happen so? It occurs trees). Which other cues can you locate in the picture?
due to our ability to transfer a two dimensional
retinal vision into a three dimensional Relative Size : The size of retinal image allows
perception. The process of viewing the world us to judge distance based on our past and
in three dimensions is called distance or depth present experience with similar objects. As
perception. the objects get away, the retinal image
Depth perception is important in our daily becomes smaller and smaller. We tend to
life. For example, when we drive, we use depth perceive an object farther away when it
to assess the distance of an approaching appears small, and closer when it appears
automobile, or when we decide to call a person bigger.
walking down the street, we determine the
Interposition or Overlapping : These cues occur
loudness with which to call.
when some portion of the object is covered by
In perceiving depth, we depend on two
another object. The overlapped object is
main sources of information, called cues. One
considered farther away, whereas the object
is called binocular cues because they require
that covers it appears nearer.
both eyes. Another is called monocular cues,
because they allow us to perceive depth with Linear Perspective : This reflects a
just one eye. A number of such cues are used phenomenon by which distant objects appear
to change a two dimensional image into a three to be closer together than the nearer objects.
dimensional perception. For example, parallel lines, such as rail tracks,

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Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
appear to converge with increasing distance that are close. The rate of an object’s
with a vanishing point at the horizon. The more movement provides a cue to its distance. For
the lines converge, the farther away they example, when we travel in a bus, closer
appear. objects move “against” the direction of the bus,
whereas the farther objects move “with” the
Aerial Perspective : The air contains
direction of the bus.
microscopic particles of dust and moisture
that make distant objects look hazy or blurry.
Binocular Cues (Physiological Cues)
This effect is called aerial perspective. For
example, distant mountains appear blue due Some important cues to depth perception in
to the scattering of blue light in the three dimensional space are provided by both
atmosphere, whereas the same mountains are the eyes. Three of them have particularly been
perceived to be closer when the atmosphere found to be interesting.
is clear.
Retinal or Binocular Disparity : Retinal
Light and Shade : In the light some parts of disparity occurs because the two eyes have
the object get highlighted, whereas some parts different locations in our head. They are
become darker. Highlights and shadows separated from each other horizontally by a
provide us with information about an object’s distance of about 6.5 centimeters. Because of
distance. this distance, the image formed on the retina
of each eye of the same object is slightly
Relative Height : Larger objects are perceived
different. This difference between the two
as being closer to the viewer and smaller
images is called retinal disparity. The brain
objects as being farther away. When we expect
interprets a large retinal disparity to mean a
two objects to be the same size and they are
close object and a small retinal disparity to
not, the larger of the two will appear closer
mean a distant object, as the disparity is less
and the smaller will appear farther away.
for distant objects and more for the near
Texture Gradient : It represents a phenomenon objects.
by which the visual field having more density
Convergence : When we see a nearby object
of elements is seen farther away. In the
our eyes converge inward in order to bring the
Fig.5.15 the density of stones increases as we
image on the fovea of each eye. A group of
look farther away.
muscles send messages to the brain regarding
the degree to which eyes are turning inward,
and these messages are interpreted as cues
to the perception of depth. The degree of
convergence decreases as the object moves
further away from the observer. You can
experience convergence by holding a finger in
front of your nose and slowly bringing it closer.
The more your eyes turn inward or converge,
the nearer the object appears in space.
Accommodation : Accommodation refers to a
process by which we focus the image on the
Fig.5.15 : Texture Gradient
retina with the help of ciliary muscle. These
Motion Parallax : It is a kinetic monocular cue, muscles change the thickness of the lens of
and hence not considered as a pictorial cue. the eye. If the object gets away (more than 2
It occurs when objects at different distances meters), the muscle is relaxed. As the object
move at a different relative speed. The distant moves nearer, the muscle contracts and the
objects appear to move slowly than the objects thickness of the lens increases. The signal

102
Psychology
about the degree of contraction of the muscle the image that it casts on the retina is a circle,
is sent to the brain, which provides the cue or an ellipse, or roughly a short line (if the
for distance. plate is viewed from the edge). It is also called
form constancy.
Activity 5.4
Brightness Constancy
Hold a pencil in front of you. Close your right eye
and focus on the pencil. Now open the right eye
Visual objects not only appear constant in
and close the left eye. Keep doing it simultaneously their shape and size, they also appear constant
with both the eyes. The pencil will appear to move in their degree of whiteness, greyness, or
from side to side in front of your face. blackness even though the amount of physical
energy reflected from them changes
considerably. In other words, our experience
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES of brightness does not change in spite of the
changes in the amount of reflected light
The sensory information that we receive from reaching our eyes. The tendency to maintain
our environment constantly changes as we apparent brightness constant under different
move around. Yet we form a stable perception amount of illumination is called brightness
of an object seen from any position and in constancy. For example, surface of a paper
any intensity of light. Perception of the objects which appears white in the sun light, is still
as relatively stable in spite of changes in the perceived as white in the room light. Similarly,
stimulation of sensory receptors is called coal that looks black in the sun also looks
perceptual constancy. Here we will examine black in room light.
three types of perceptual constancies that we
commonly experience in our visual domain.
ILLUSIONS
Size Constancy Our perceptions are not always veridical.
The size of an image on our retina changes Sometime we fail to interpret the sensory
with the change in the distance of the object information correctly. This results in a
from the eye. The further away it is, the smaller mismatch between the physical stimuli and
is the image. On the other hand, our its perception. These misperceptions resulting
experience shows that within limits the object from misinterpretation of information received
appears to be about the same size irrespective by our sensory organs are generally known as
of its distance. For example, when you illusions. These are experienced more or less
approach your friend from a distance, your by all of us. They result from an external
perception of the friend’s size does not change stimulus situation and generate the same kind
much despite the fact that the retinal image of experience in each individual. That is why
(image on retina) becomes larger. This illusions are also called “primitive
tendency for the perceived size of objects to organisations”. Although illusions can be
remain relatively unchanged with changes in experienced by the stimulation of any of our
their distance from the observer and the size senses, psychologists have studied them more
of the retinal image is called size constancy. commonly in the visual than in other sense
modalities.
Shape Constancy Some perceptual illusions are universal
and found in all individuals. For example, the
In our perceptions the shapes of familiar rail tracks appear to be converging to all of
objects remain unchanged despite changes in us. These illusions are called universal
the pattern of retinal image resulting from illusions or permanent illusions as they do
differences in their orientation. For example, not change with experience or practice. Some
a dinner plate looks the same shape whether other illusions seem to vary from individual

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Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
to individual; these are called personal to be important. In the absence of these, the
illusions. In this section, we will describe some light points will not appear as moving. They
important visual illusions. will appear either as one point, or as different
points appearing one after another, without
Geometrical Illusions any experience of motion.
Experience of illusions indicates that
In Fig.5.16 the Muller-Lyer illusion has been
people do not always perceive the world as it
shown. All of us perceive line A as shorter than
is; instead they engage in its construction,
line B, although both the lines are equal. This
sometimes based on the features of stimuli
illusion is experienced even by children. There
and sometimes based on their experiences in
are some studies that suggest that even
a given environment. This point will be further
cleared in the section that follows now.

A B
SOCIO-CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON
PERCEPTION
Fig.5.16 : Muller-Lyer Illusion

animals experience this illusion more or less Several psychologists have studied the
processes of perception in different socio-
like us. Besides Muller-Lyer illusion, several
cultural settings. The questions they try to
other visual illusions are experienced by
answer through these studies are: Does
human beings (also birds and animals). In
perceptual organisation of people living in
Fig.5.17 you can see the illusion of vertical
different cultural settings take place in an
and horizontal lines. Although both the lines
uniform manner? Are the perceptual processes
are equal, we perceive the vertical line as longer
universal, or they vary across different cultural
than the horizontal line.
settings? Because we know, people living in
different parts of the world look different, many
psychologists hold the view that their ways of
perceiving the world must be different in some
respects. Let us examine some studies relating
to perception of illusion figures and other
pictorial materials.
Fig.5.17 : Vertical-Horizontal Illusion
You are already familiar with Muller-Lyer
and Vertical-Horizontal illusion figures.
Apparent Movement Illusion Psychologists have used these figures with
several groups of people living in Europe,
This illusion is experienced when some Africa, and many other places. Segall,
motionless pictures are projected one after Campbell, and Herskovits carried out the most
another at an appropriate rate. This illusion extensive study of illusion susceptibility by
is referred to as “phi-phenomenon”. When we comparing samples from remote African
see moving pictures in a cinema show, we are villages and Western urban settings. It was
influenced by this kind of illusion. The found that African subjects showed greater
succession of flickering electrical lights also susceptibility to horizontal-vertical illusion,
generate this illusion. This phenomenon can whereas Western subjects showed greater
be experimentally studied with the help of an susceptibility to Muller-Lyer illusion. Similar
instrument by presenting two or more lights findings have been reported in other studies
in a succession. For the experience of this also. Living in dense forests the African
illusion, Wertheimer had reported the presence subjects regularly experienced verticality (e.g.,
of appropriate level of brightness, size, spatial long trees) and developed a tendency to
gap, and temporal contiguity of different lights overestimate it. The Westerners, who lived in

104
Psychology
an environment characterised by right angles, in villages, and people employed and living in
developed a tendency to underestimate the cities. Their studies indicate that
length of lines characterised by enclosure (e.g., interpretation of pictures is strongly related
arrowhead). This conclusion has been to cultural experiences of people. While people
confirmed in several studies. It suggests that in general can recognise familiar objects in
the habits of perception are learnt differently pictures, those less exposed to pictures have
in different cultural settings. difficulty in the interpretation of actions or
In some studies people living in different events depicted in them.
cultural settings have been given pictures for
identification of objects and interpretation of
depth or other events represented in them.
Hudson did a seminal study in Africa, and
Key Terms
found that people, who had never seen
Absolute threshold, After images, Binocular
pictures, had great difficulty in recognising cues, Bottom-up processing, Cochlea, Cones,
objects depicted in them and in interpreting Dark adaptation, Depth perception, Difference
depth cues (e.g., superimposition). It was threshold, Divided attention, Eustachian tube,
indicated that informal instruction in home Figure-ground segregation, Filter theory,
and habitual exposure to pictures were Filter-attenuation theory, Gestalt, Light
necessary to sustain the skill of pictorial depth adaptation, Loudness, Monocular cues, Organ
of corti, Perceptual constancies, Phi-
perception. Sinha and Mishra have carried out phenomenon, Pitch, Primary colours, Retina,
several studies on pictorial perception using Rhodopsin, Rods, Selective attention,
a variety of pictures with people from diverse Sustained attention, T imbre, Top-down
cultural settings, such as hunters and processing, Visual illusions, Wavelength
gatherers living in forests, agriculturists living

Summary
• Knowledge of our internal and external world becomes possible with the help of senses. Five
of them are external senses, and two are internal senses. The sense organs receive various
stimuli and send them in the form of neural impulses to specialised areas of brain for
interpretation.
• Vision and audition are the two most widely used senses. Rods and cones are the receptors
for vision. Rods function in low intensities of light, whereas cones function at high intensities
of light. They are responsible for achromatic and chromatic vision, respectively.
• Light and dark adaptations are two interesting phenomena of the visual system. Hue, saturation
and brightness are the basic dimensions of colour.
• Sound serves as stimulus for auditory sensations. Loudness, pitch, and timbre are the properties
of sound. Organ of corti located in the basilar membrane is the chief organ of hearing.
• Attention is a process through which we select certain information by filtering out many others
that appear to be irrelevant at a given moment of time. Activation, concentration, and search
are important properties of attention.
• Selective and sustained attention are two major types of attention. Divided attention is evident
in the case of highly practiced tasks in which there is much automaticity of information
processing.
• The span of attention is the magical number of seven plus and minus two.
• Perception refers to the processes of interpretation and informed construction of the information
received from sensory organs. Human beings perceive their world in terms of their motivations,
expectations, cognitive styles, and cultural background.
• Form perception refers to the perception of a visual field set off from rest of the field by visible
contours. The most primitive form of organisation takes place in the form of figure-ground
segregation.

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Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes
• Gestalt psychologists have identified several principles that determine our perceptual
organisations.
• The image of an object projected on to the retina is two dimensional. Three dimensional
perception is a psychological process that depends on correct utilisation of certain monocular
and binocular cues.
• Perceptual constancies refer to invariance of our perceptions of an object seen from any
position and in any intensity of light. There is good evidence for size, shape, and brightness
constancies.
• Illusions are the examples of nonveridical perceptions. They refer to misperceptions resulting
from misinterpretation of information received by our sensory organs. Some illusions are
universal, while others are more personal and culture-specific.
• Socio-cultural factors play an important role in our perceptions by generating differential
familiarity with and salience of stimuli as well as certain habits of perceptual inference
among people.

Review Questions
1. Explain the functional limitations of sense organs.
2. What is meant by light and dark adaptation? How do they take place?
3. What is colour vision and what are the dimensions of colour?
4. How does auditory sensation take place?
5. Define attention. Explain its properties.
6. State the determinants of selective attention. How does selective attention differ from
sustained attention?
7. What is the main proposition of Gestalt psychologists with respect to perception of the
visual field?
8. How does perception of space take place?
9. What are the monocular cues of depth perception? Explain the role of binocular cues in
the perception of depth?
10. Why do illusions occur?
11. How do socio-cultural factors influence our perceptions?

Project Ideas
1. Collect ten advertisements from magazines. Analyse the content and message being
conveyed in each advertisement. Comment on the use of various attentional and perceptual
factors to promote the given product.
2. Give a toy model of a horse/elephant to visually challenged and sighted children. Let the
visually challenged children feel by touching the toy model for some time. Ask the children
to describe the model. Show the same toy model to sighted children. Compare their
descriptions and find out their similarities and differences.
Take another toy model (e.g., a parrot) and give it to a few visually challenged children
to have a feel of it by touching. Then give a sheet of paper and a pencil and ask them to
draw the parrot on the sheet. Show the same parrot to sighted children for some time,
remove the parrot from their sight, and ask to draw the parrot on a sheet of paper.
Compare the drawings of the visually challenged and sighted children and examine
their similarities and differences.

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Psychology
Introduction
At the time of birth every human baby is equipped with the capacity to make a
limited number of responses. These responses occur reflexively whenever
appropriate stimuli are present in the environment. As the child grows and
matures, s/he becomes capable of making diverse types of responses. These
include identifying the images of some persons as one’s mother, father or
grandfather, using a spoon when eating food, and learning how to identify
alphabets, to write, and to combine them into words. S/he also observes others
doing things in specific environmental conditions, and imitates them. Learning
names of objects such as book, orange, mango, cow, boy, and girl, and retaining
them is another important task. As one grows older, one observes many events or
objects, and learns their distinct features. Objects are categorised as ‘furniture’,
‘fruits’, and so on. One also learns to drive a scooter or a car, to communicate with
others effectively, and to interact with others. It is all due to learning that a person
becomes hard working or indolent, socially knowledgeable, skilled, and
professionally competent. Each individual manages her or his life and solves all
kinds of problems because of the capacity to learn and adapt. This chapter focuses
on the various aspects of learning. First, learning is defined and characterised as
a psychological process. Second, an account is presented that explains how one
learns. A number of learning methods that account for simple to complex types of
learning are described. In the third section, some empirical phenomena, that occur
in the course of learning, are explained. In the fourth section, different factors that
determine the speed and extent of learning are described including different
learning styles and learning disabilities.

always involves some kinds of experience. We


NATURE OF LEARNING
experience an event occurring in a certain
As indicated above learning is a key process sequence on a number of occasions. If an event
in human behaviour. It refers to a spectrum happens then it may be followed by certain
of changes that take place as a result of one’s other events. For example, one learns that if
experience. Learning may be defined as “any the bell rings in the hostel after sunset, then
relatively permanent change in behaviour or dinner is ready to be served. Repeated
behavioural potential produced by experience”. experience of satisfaction after doing
One must remember that some behavioural something in a specified manner leads to the
changes occur due to the use of drugs, or formation of habit. Sometimes a single
fatigue. Such changes are temporary. They are experience can lead to learning. A child strikes
a matchstick on the side of a matchbox, and
not considered learning. Changes due to
gets her/his fingers burnt. Such an experience
practice and experience, which are relatively
makes the child learn to be careful in handling
permanent, are illustrative of learning.
the matchbox in future.
Behavioural changes that occur due to
Features of Learning
learning are relatively permanent. They must
The process of learning has certain distinctive be distinguished from the behavioural changes
characteristics. The first feature is that learning that are neither permanent nor learned. For

108
Psychology
example, changes in behaviour often occur or action. Let us understand what is meant
due to the effects of fatigue, habituation, and by the term inference. Suppose you are asked
drugs. Suppose you are reading your textbook by your teacher to memorise a poem. You read
of psychology for sometime or you are trying that poem a number of times. Then you say
to learn how to drive a motor car, a time comes that you have learned the poem. You are asked
when you will feel tired. You stop reading or to recite the poem and you are able to recite
driving. This is a behavioural change due to it. The recitation of the poem by you is your
fatigue, and is temporary. It is not considered per for mance. On the basis of your
learning. performance, the teacher infers that you have
Let us take another case of change in one’s learned the poem.
behaviour. Suppose in the vicinity of your
residence a marriage is being performed. It
PARADIGMS OF LEARNING
generates a lot of noise, which continues till
late night. In the beginning, the noise distracts Learning takes place in many ways. There are
you from whatever you are doing. You feel some methods that are used in acquisition of
disturbed. While the noise continues, you simple responses while other methods are
make some orienting reflexes. These reflexes used in the acquisition of complex responses.
become weaker and weaker, and eventually In this section you will learn about all these
become undetectable. This is also one kind of methods. The simplest kind of learning is
behavioural change. This change is due to called conditioning. Two types of conditioning
continuous exposure to stimuli. It is called
have been identified. The first one is called
habituation. It is not due to learning. You must
classical conditioning, and the second
have noticed that people who are on sedatives
instrumental/operant conditioning. In
or drugs or alcohol, their behaviour changes
addition, we have observational learning,
as it affects physiological functions. Such
cognitive learning, verbal learning, concept
changes ar e temporary in nature and
learning, and skill learning.
disappear, as the effect wears out.
Lear ning involves a sequence of
psychological events. This will become clear if CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
we were to describe a typical learning
experiment. Suppose psychologists are This type of learning was first investigated by
interested in understanding how a list of words Ivan P. Pavlov. He was primarily interested in
is learned. They will go through the following the physiology of digestion. During his studies
sequence : (i) do a pre-test to know how much he noticed that dogs, on whom he was doing
the person knows before learning, (ii) present his experiments, started secreting saliva as
the list of words to be remembered for a fixed soon as they saw the empty plate in which
time, (iii) during this time the list of words is food was served. As you must be aware, saliva
processed towards acquiring new knowledge, secretion is a reflexive response to food or
(iv) after processing is complete, new something in the mouth. Pavlov designed an
knowledge is acquired (this is LEARNING), and experiment to understand this process in
(v) after some time elapses, the processed detail. He again used dogs. In the first phase,
information is recalled by the person. By a dog was placed in a box and harnessed. The
comparing the number of words which a dog was left in the box for some time. This
person now knows as compared to what s/he was repeated a number of times on different
knew in the pre-test, one infers that learning days. In the meantime, a simple surgery was
did take place. conducted, and one end of a tube was
Thus, learning is an inferred process and inserted in the dog’s jaw and the other end of
is different from performance. Performance the tube was put in a measuring glass. The
is a person’s observed behaviour or response experimental setup is illustrated in Figure 6.1.

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Chapter 6 • Learning
In the second phase of the experiment, the Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and salivation
dog was kept hungry and placed in harness which follows it, an Unconditioned Response
with one end of the tube ending in the jaw (UR). After conditioning, salivation started to
and the other end in the glass jar. A bell was occur in the presence of the sound of the bell.
The bell becomes a Conditioned Stimulus
One-way (CS) and saliva secretion a Conditioned
glass wall Response (CR). This kind of conditioning is
called classical conditioning. The procedure
Food
is illustrated in Table 6.1. It is obvious that
the learning situation in classical conditioning
is one of S–S learning in which one stimulus
(e.g., sound of bell) becomes a signal of another
stimulus (e.g., food). Here one stimulus
signifies the possible occurrence of another
stimulus.
Examples of classical conditioning abound
Tube from Cup for Recording in everyday life. Imagine you have just finished
salivary glands measuring saliva device your lunch and feel satisfied. Then you see
some sweet dish served on the adjoining table.
Fig.6.1 : A Dog in Pavlovian Harness for Conditioning This signals its taste in your mouth, and
triggers the secretion of saliva. You feel like
sounded and immediately thereafter food
eating it. This is a conditioned response (CR).
(meat powder) was served to the dog. The dog
Let us take another example. In the early
was allowed to eat it. For the next few days,
stages of childhood, one is naturally afraid of
everytime the meat powder was presented, it
any loud noise. Suppose a small child catches
was preceded by the sound of a bell. After a
an inflated balloon which bursts in her/his
number of such trials, a test trial was
hands making a loud noise. The child becomes
introduced in which everything was the same
afraid. Now the next time s/he is made to hold
as the previous trials except that no food
a balloon, it becomes a signal or cue for noise
followed sounding of the bell. The dog still
and elicits fear response. This happens
salivated to the sound of the bell, expecting
because of contiguous presentation of balloon
presentation of the meat powder as the bell
as a conditioned stimulus (CS) and loud noise
had come to be connected with it. This
as an unconditioned stimulus (US).
association between the bell and food resulted
in acquisition of a new response by the dog,
Determinants of Classical Conditioning
i.e. salivation to the sound of the bell. This
has been termed conditioning. You may have How quickly and strongly acquisition of a
noticed that all dogs salivate when they are response occurs in classical conditioning
presented with food. Food is thus an depends on several factors. Some of the major

Table 6.1 Relationship of Stages of Conditioning and Operations


Stages of Nature of Stimulus Nature of Response
Conditioning
Before Food (US) Salivation (UR)
Sound of the Bell Alertness (No Specific Response)
During Sound of the Bell (CS) + Food (US) Salivation (UR)
After Sound of the Bell (CS) Salivation (CR)

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Psychology
factors influencing learning a CR are described 3. Intensity of Conditioned Stimuli : This
below: influences the course of both appetitive and
1. T ime Relations between Stimuli : The aversive classical conditioning. More intense
classical conditioning procedures, discussed conditioned stimuli are more effective in
below, are basically of four types based on the accelerating the acquisition of conditioned
time relations between the onset of conditioned responses. It means that the more intense the
stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus conditioned stimulus, the fewer are the
(US). The first three are called forward number of acquisition trials needed for
conditioning procedures, and the fourth one conditioning.
is called backward conditioning procedure.
The basic experimental arrangements of these Activity 6.1
procedures are as follows:
a) When the CS and US are presented In order to understand and explain conditioning,
together, it is called simultaneous you may carry out the following exercise. Take
a few pieces of mango pickle on a plate and
conditioning.
show it to the students in the classroom. Ask
b) In delayed conditioning, the onset of them what they experienced in their mouth?
CS precedes the onset of US. The CS Most of your classmates are likely to report
ends before the end of the US. some salivation in their mouth.
c) In trace conditioning, the onset and
end of the CS precedes the onset of US
with some time gap between the two. OPERANT/INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING
d) In backward conditioning, the US
precedes the onset of CS. This type of conditioning was first investigated
It is now well established that delayed by B.F. Skinner. Skinner studied occurrence
conditioning procedure is the most effective of voluntary responses when an organism
way of acquiring a CR. Simultaneous and trace operates on the environment. He called them
conditioning procedures do lead to acquisition operants. Operants are those behaviours or
of a CR, but they require greater number of responses, which are emitted by animals and
acquisition trials in comparison to the delayed human beings voluntarily and are under their
conditioning procedure. It may be noted that control. The term operant is used because the
the acquisition of response under backward organism operates on the environment.
conditioning procedure is very rare. Conditioning of operant behaviour is called
2. Type of Unconditioned Stimuli : The operant conditioning.
unconditioned stimuli used in studies of Skinner conducted his studies on rats and
classical conditioning are basically of two pigeons in specially made boxes, called the
types, i.e. appetitive and aversive. Appetitive Skinner Box. A hungry rat (one at a time) is
unconditioned stimuli automatically elicits placed in the chamber, which was so built that
approach responses, such as eating, drinking, the rat could move inside but could not come
caressing, etc. These responses give out. In the chamber there was a lever, which
satisfaction and pleasure. On the other hand, was connected to a food container kept on the
aversive US, such as noise, bitter taste, electric top of the chamber (see Figure 6.2). When the
shock, painful injections, etc. are painful, lever is pressed, a food pellet drops on the
harmful, and elicit avoidance and escape plate placed close to the lever. While moving
responses. It has been found that appetitive around and pawing the walls (exploratory
classical conditioning is slower and requires behaviour), the hungry rat accidentally presses
greater number of acquisition trials, but the lever and a food pellet drops on the plate.
aversive classical conditioning is established The hungry rat eats it. In the next trial, after
in one, two or three trials depending on the a while the exploratory behaviour again starts.
intensity of the aversive US. As the number of trials increases, the rat takes

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Chapter 6 • Learning
lesser and lesser time to press the lever for response. They include its types – positive or
food. Conditioning is complete when the rat negative, number or frequency, quality –
presses the lever immediately after it is placed superior or inferior, and schedule – continuous
in the chamber. It is obvious that lever pressing or intermittent (partial). All these features
is an operant response and getting food is its influence the course of operant conditioning.
consequence. Another factor that influences this type of
learning is the nature of the response or
behaviour that is to be conditioned. The
interval or length of time that lapses between
occurrence of response and reinforcement also
influences operant learning. Let us examine
some of these factors in detail.

Types of Reinforcement
Reinforcement may be positive or negative.
Positive reinforcement involves stimuli that
have pleasant consequences. They strengthen
and maintain the responses that have caused
them to occur. Positive reinforcers satisfy
Fig.6.2 : Skinner Box
needs, which include food, water, medals,
In the above situation the response is praise, money, status, information, etc.
instrumental in getting the food. That is why, Negative reinforcers involve unpleasant and
this type of lear ning is also called painful stimuli. Responses that lead organisms
instrumental conditioning. Examples of to get rid of painful stimuli or avoid and escape
instrumental conditioning abound in our from them provide negative reinforcement.
everyday life. Children who want to have some Thus, negative reinforcement leads to learning
sweets in the absence of their mother learn to of avoidance and escape responses. For
locate the jar in which mother hides the sweets instance, one learns to put on woollen clothes,
for safekeeping and eat it. Children learn to burn firewood or use electric heaters to avoid
be polite and say ‘please’ to get favours from the unpleasant cold weather. One learns to
their parents and others. One learns to operate move away from dangerous stimuli because
mechanical gadgets such as radio, camera, they provide negative reinforcement. It may
T.V., etc. based on the principle of be noted that negative reinforcement is not
instrumental conditioning. As a matter of fact punishment. Use of punishment reduces or
human beings learn short cuts to attain suppresses the response while a negative
reinforcer increases the probability of
desired goals or ends through instrumental
avoidance or escape response. For instance,
conditioning.
drivers and co-drivers wear their seat belts to
avoid getting injured in case of an accident or
Determinants of Operant Conditioning
to avoid being fined by the traffic police.
You have noted that operant or instrumental It should be understood that no
conditioning is a form of learning in which punishment suppresses a response
behaviour is learned, maintained or changed permanently. Mild and delayed punishment
through its consequences. Such consequences has no effect. The stronger the punishment,
are called reinforcers. A reinforcer is defined the more lasting is the suppression effect but
as any stimulus or event, which increases the it is not permanent.
probability of the occurrence of a (desired) Sometimes punishment has no effect
response. A reinforcer has numerous features, irrespective of its intensity. On the contrary,
which affect the course and strength of a the punished person may develop dislike and

112
Psychology
hatred for the punishing agent or the person some trials it is given and in others it is
who administers the punishment. omitted. Thus, the reinforcement may be
continuous or intermittent. When a desired
Number of Reinforcement and other Features response is reinforced every time it occurs we
call it continuous reinforcement. In contrast,
It refers to the number of trials on which an
in intermittent schedules responses are
organism has been reinforced or rewarded.
sometimes reinforced, sometimes not. It is
Amount of reinforcement means how much
known as partial reinforcement and has been
of reinforcing stimulus (food or water or
found to produce greater resistance to
intensity of pain causing agent) one receives
extinction – than is found with continuous
on each trial. Quality of reinforcement refers
reinforcement.
to the kind of reinforcer. Chickpeas or pieces
of bread are of inferior quality as compared
Delayed Reinforcement
with raisins or pieces of cake as reinforcer.
The course of operant conditioning is usually The ef fectiveness of reinforcement is
accelerated to an extent as the number, dramatically altered by delay in the occurrence
amount, and quality of r einforcement of reinforcement. It is found that delay in the
increases. delivery of reinforcement leads to poorer level
of performance. It can be easily shown by
Schedules of Reinforcement asking children which reward they will prefer
for doing some chore. Smaller rewards
A reinforcement schedule is the arrangement
immediately after doing the chore will be
of the delivery of reinforcement during
preferred rather than a big one after a long
conditioning trials. Each schedule of
gap.
reinforcement influences the course of
conditioning in its own way; and thus
Key Learning Processes
conditioned responses occur with differential
characteristics. The organism being subjected When learning takes place, be it classical or
to operant conditioning may be given operant conditioning, it involves the
reinforcement in every acquisition trial or in occurrence of certain processes. These include

Box 6.1 Classical and Operant Conditioning : Differences


Differences

1. In classical conditioning, the responses are 3. In classical conditioning, the experimenter


under the control of some stimulus because controls the occurrence of US, while in operant
they are reflexes, automatically elicited by conditioning the occurrence of the reinforcer is
the appropriate stimuli. Such stimuli are under the control of the organism that is learning.
selected as US and responses elicited by Thus, for US in classical conditioning the
them as UR. Thus Pavlovian conditioning, in organism remains passive, while in operant
which US elicits responses, is often called conditioning the subject has to be active in order
respondent conditioning.
to be reinforced.
In instrumental conditioning, responses
4. In the two forms of conditioning, the technical
are under the control of the organism and
are voluntary responses or ‘operants’. Thus, terms used to characterise the experimental
in the two forms of conditioning different proceedings are different. Moreover what is called
types of responses are conditioned. reinforcer in operant conditioning is called US in
2. In classical conditioning the CS and US are classical conditioning. An US has two functions.
well-defined, but in operant conditioning CS In the beginning it elicits the response and also
is not defined. It can be inferred but is not reinforces the response to be associated and
directly known. elicited later on by the CS.

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Chapter 6 • Learning
Box 6.2 Learned Helplessness

It is an interesting phenomenon, which is a result suffered the shock through, and did not attempt to
of an interaction between the two forms of escape. This behaviour of the dog was called learned
conditioning. Learned helplessness underlies helplessness.
psychological cases of depression. Seligman and This phenomenon has been shown to be operative
Maier demonstrated this phenomenon in a study in humans also. It has been found that continuous
on dogs. First, they subjected dogs to sound (CS) failure in a set of tasks shows the occurrence of
and electric shock (US) using classical conditioning learned helplessness. In an experimental study, the
procedure. The animal had no scope to escape or subjects are initially given failure experience
avoid the shock. This pairing was repeated a irrespective of their performance. In the second phase
number of times. Then the dogs were subjected to the subjects are given a task. Learned helplessness
shock in an operant conditioning procedure. The is often measured in terms of the subject’s ability and
dogs could escape the shock by pressing their persistence before they give up the task. Continuous
heads against the wall. After having experienced failure leads to little persistence and poor performance.
inescapable shock in the Pavlovian contingency, This shows helplessness. There are numerous studies
the dog failed to escape or avoid shock in the that demonstrate that persistent depression is often
operant conditioning procedure. The dog just caused by learned helplessness.

reinforcement, extinction or non-occurrence lead to the desired response. Such a response


of learned response, generalisation of is shaped by reinforcing successive
learning to other stimuli under some approximations to the desired response.
specifiable conditions, discrimination
between reinforcing and non-reinforcing Extinction
stimuli, and spontaneous recovery.
Extinction means disappearance of a learned
response due to removal of reinforcement from
Reinforcement
the situation in which the response used to
Reinforcement is the operation of occur. If the occurrence of CS-CR is not
administering a reinforcer by the experimenter. followed by the US in classical conditioning,
Reinforcers are stimuli that increase the rate or lever pressing is no more followed by food
or probability of the responses that precede. pellets in the Skinner box, the learned
We have noted that reinforced responses behaviour will gradually be weakened and
increase in rate, while non-reinforced ultimately disappear.
responses decrease in rate. A positive Learning shows resistance to extinction.
reinforcer increases the rate of response that It means that even though the learned
precedes its presentation. Negative reinforcers response is now not reinforced, it would
increase the rate of the response that precedes continue to occur for sometime. However, with
their removal or termination. The reinforcers increasing number of trials without
may be primary or secondary. A primary reinforcement, the r esponse strength
reinforcer is biologically important since it gradually diminishes and ultimately it stops
determines the organism’s survival (e.g., food occurring. How long a learned response shows
for a hungry organism). A secondary reinforcer resistance to extinction depends on a number
is one which has acquired characteristics of of factors. It has been found that with
the reinforcer because of the organism’s increasing number of reinforced trials
experience with the environment. We resistance to extinction increases and learned
frequently use money, praise, and grades as response reaches its highest level. At this level
reinforcers. They are called secondary performance gets stabilised. After that the
reinforcers. Systematic use of reinforcers can number of trials do not make a difference in

114
Psychology
the response strength. Resistance to extinction For example, suppose a child is conditioned
incr eases with increasing number of to be afraid of a person with a long moustache
reinforcements during acquisition trials, and wearing black clothes. In subsequent
beyond that any increase in number of situation, when s/he meets another person
reinforcement reduces the resistance to dressed in black clothes with a beard, the child
extinction. Studies have also indicated that shows signs of fear. The child’s fear is
as the amount of reinforcement (number of generalised. S/he meets another stranger who
food pellets) increases during acquisition is wearing grey clothes and is clean-shaven.
trials, resistance to extinction decreases. The child shows no fear. This is an example of
If reinforcement is delayed during discrimination. Occurrence of generalisation
acquisition trials, the resistance to extinction means failure of discrimination.
increases. Reinforcement in every acquisition Discriminative response depends on the
trial makes the learned response to be less discrimination capacity or discrimination
resistant to extinction. In contrast, learning of the organism.
intermittent or partial reinforcement during
acquisition trials makes a learned response Spontaneous Recovery
more resistant to extinction.
Spontaneous recovery occurs after a learned
Generalisation and Discrimination response is extinguished. Suppose an
organism has learned to make a response for
The processes of generalisation and
getting reinforcement, then the response is
discrimination occur in all kinds of learning.
extinguished and some time lapses. A question
However, they have been extensively
now may be asked, whether the response is
investigated in the context of conditioning.
completely extinguished, and will not occur if
Suppose an organism is conditioned to elicit a
the CS is presented. It has been demonstrated
CR (saliva secretion or any other reflexive
that after lapse of considerable time, the
response) on presentation of a CS (light or
learned or CR recovers and occurs to the CS.
sound of bell). After conditioning is established,
and another stimulus similar to the CS (e.g., The amount of spontaneous recovery depends
ringing of telephone) is presented, the organism on the duration of the time lapsed after the
makes the conditioned response to it. This extinction session. The longer the duration of
phenomenon of responding similarly to similar time lapsed, the greater is the recovery of
stimuli is known as generalisation. Again, learned response. Such recovery occurs
suppose a child has learned the location of a spontaneously. Fig.6.3 shows the
jar of a certain size and shape in which sweets phenomenon of spontaneous recovery.
are kept. Even when the child’s mother is not (1) (2) (3)
around, the child finds the jar and obtains the Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous
sweets. This is a learned operant. Now the (CS+US) (CS alone) recovery
sweets are kept in another jar of a different (CS alone)
size and shape and at a different location in
Strength of the CR

the kitchen. In the absence of the mother the


child locates the jar and obtains the sweets.
This is also an example of generalisation. When
a learned response occurs or is elicited by a
new stimulus, it is called generalisation.
Baseline Rest
Another process, which is complimentary
to generalisation, is called discrimination.
Generalisation is due to similarity while Trials
discrimination is a response due to difference. Fig.6.3 : Phenomenon of Spontaneous Recovery

115
Chapter 6 • Learning
an experimental room in which similar toys
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
were placed around. The children were allowed
The next form of learning takes place by to play with the toys. These groups were
observing others. Earlier this form of learning secretly observed and their behaviours noted.
was called imitation. Bandura and his It was found that those children who saw
colleagues in a series of experimental studies aggressive behaviour being rewarded were
investigated observational learning in detail. most aggressive; children who had seen the
In this kind of learning, human beings learn aggressive model being punished were least
social behaviours, therefore, it is sometimes aggressive. Thus, in observational learning
called social learning. In many situations observers acquire knowledge by observing the
individuals do not know how to behave. They model’s behaviour, but perfor mance is
observe others and emulate their behaviour. influenced by model’s behaviour being
This form of learning is called modeling. rewarded or punished.
Examples of observational lear ning You must have noticed that children
abound in our social life. Fashion designers observe adults’ behaviours, at home and
employ tall, pretty, and gracious young girls during social ceremonies and functions. They
enact adults in their plays and games. For
and tall, smart, and well-built young boys for
instance, young children play games of
popularising clothes of different designs and
marriage ceremonies, birthday parties, thief
fabrics. People observe them on televised
and policeman, house keeping, etc. Actually
fashion shows and advertisements in
they enact in their games what they
magazines and newspapers. They imitate these
observe in society, on television, and read in
models. Observing superiors and likeable
books.
persons and then emulating their behaviour
Children lear n most of the social
in a novel social situation is a common
behaviours by observing and emulating adults.
experience.
The way to put on clothes, dress one’s hair,
In order to understand the nature of
and conduct oneself in society are learned
observational learning we may refer to the through observing others. It has also been
studies conducted by Bandura. In one of his shown that children learn and develop various
well-known experimental study, Bandura personality characteristics through
showed a film of five minutes duration to observational learning. Aggressiveness, pro-
children. The film shows that in a large room social behaviour, courtesy, politeness,
there are numerous toys including a large diligence, and indolence are acquired by this
sized ‘Bobo’ doll. Now a grown-up boy enters method of learning.
the room and looks around. The boy starts
showing aggressive behaviour towards the toys
in general and the bobo doll in particular. He Activity 6.2
hits the doll, throws it on the floor, kicking it
and sitting on it. This film has three versions. You can have first-hand experience of observational
In one version a group of children see the boy learning by doing the following exercise.
(model) being rewarded and praised by an Collect four or five school going children and
demonstrate how to make a boat out of a sheet of
adult for being aggressive to the doll. In the
paper. Do it two or three times and ask the children
second version another group of children see to observe carefully. After having shown how to
the boy being punished for his aggressive fold the paper in different ways for a number of
behaviour. In the third version the third group times, give them sheets of paper and ask them to
of children are not shown the boy being either make a toy boat.
rewarded or punished. Most children will be able to do it somewhat
After viewing a specific version of the film successfully.
all the three groups of children were placed in

116
Psychology
learning can be generalised to other similar
COGNITIVE LEARNING
problem situations.
Some psychologists view learning in terms of
cognitive processes that underlie it. They have Latent Learning
developed approaches that focus on such Another type of cognitive learning is known
processes that occur during learning rather as latent learning. In latent learning, a new
than concentrating solely on S-R and S-S behaviour is learned but not demonstrated
connections, as we have seen in the case of until reinforcement is provided for displaying
classical and operant conditioning. Thus, in it. Tolman made an early contribution to the
cognitive learning, there is a change in what concept of latent learning. To have an idea of
the learner knows rather than what s/he does. latent learning, we may briefly understand his
This form of learning shows up in insight experiment. Tolman put two groups of rats in
learning and latent learning. a maze and gave them an opportunity to
explore. In one group, rats found food at the
Insight Learning end of the maze and soon learned to make
their way rapidly through the maze. On the
Kohler demonstrated a model of learning
other hand, rats in the second group were not
which could not be readily explained by
rewarded and showed no apparent signs of
conditioning. He perfor med a series of
learning. But later, when these rats were
experiments with chimpanzees that involved reinforced, they ran through the maze as
solving complex problems. Kohler placed efficiently as the rewarded group.
chimpanzees in an enclosed play area where Tolman contended that the unrewarded
food was kept out of their reach. Tools such rats had learned the layout of the maze early
as poles and boxes were placed in the in their explorations. They just never displayed
enclosure. The chimpanzees rapidly learned their latent learning until the reinforcement
how to use a box to stand on or a pole to move was provided. Instead, the rats developed a
the food in their direction. In this experiment, cognitive map of the maze, i.e. a mental
learning did not occur as a result of trial and representation of the spatial locations and
error and reinforcement, but came about in directions, which they needed to reach their
sudden flashes of insight. The chimpanzees goal.
would roam about the enclosure for some time
and then suddenly would stand on a box, grab
a pole and strike a banana, which was out of VERBAL LEARNING
nor mal reach above the enclosure. The Verbal learning is different from conditioning
chimpanzee exhibited what Kohler called and is limited to human beings. Human
insight learning – the process by which the beings, as you must have observed, acquire
solution to a problem suddenly becomes clear. knowledge about objects, events, and their
In a nor mal experiment on insight features largely in terms of words. Words then
learning, a problem is presented, followed by come to be associated with one another.
a period of time when no apparent progress is Psychologists have developed a number of
made and finally a solution suddenly emerges. methods to study this kind of learning in a
In insight learning, sudden solution is the rule. laboratory setting. Each method is used to
Once the solution has appeared, it can be investigate specific questions about learning
repeated immediately the next time the of some kind of verbal material. In the study
problem is confronted. Thus, it is clear that of verbal learning, psychologists use a variety
what is learned is not a specific set of of materials including nonsense syllables,
conditioned associations between stimuli and familiar words, unfamiliar words (see Table
responses but a cognitive relationship between 6.2 for sample items), sentences, and
a means and an end. As a result, insight paragraphs.

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Chapter 6 • Learning
Table 6.2 Sample Lists of Items used in Verbal Learning Experiments
Verbal
Nonsense syllables Unfamiliar words Familiar words
YOL ZILCH BOAT
RUV PLUMB NOSE
TOJ VERVE KNOW
LIN BLOUT GOAL
LUF THILL BOWL
GOW SCOFF LOAD
NOK TENOR FEET
RIC WRACK MEET
NEZ BOUGH TENT
TAM MALVE FOAM
SUK PATTER TALE
KOZ MANSE JOKE
GUD KYDRA MALE
MUP BORGE BALM
KUG DEVEN SOLE

Methods used in Studying Verbal Learning begins. One by one the stimulus words are
presented and the participant tries to give the
1. Paired-Associates Learning : This method
correct response term. In case of failure, s/he
is similar to S-S conditioning and S-R learning.
is shown the response word. In one trial all
It is used in learning some foreign language
the stimulus terms are shown. Trials continue
equivalents of mother tongue words. First, a
until the participant gives all the response
list of paired-associates is prepared. The first
words without a single error. The total number
word of the pair is used as the stimulus, and
of trials taken to reach the criterion becomes
the second word as the response. Members of
the measure of paired-associates learning.
each pair may be from the same language or
two different languages. A list of such words 2. Serial Learning : This method of verbal
is given in Table 6.3. learning is used to find out how participants
The first members of the pairs (stimulus learn the lists of verbal items, and what
term) are nonsense syllables (consonant- processes are involved in it. First, lists of verbal
vowel-consonant), and the second are English items, i.e. nonsense syllables, most familiar
nouns (response term). The learner is first or least familiar words, interrelated words, etc.
shown both the stimulus-response pairs are prepared. The participant is presented the
together, and is instructed to remember and entire list and is required to produce the items
recall the response after the presentation of in the same serial order as in the list. In the
each stimulus term. After that a learning trial first trial, the first item of the list is shown,

Table 6.3 Examples of Stimulus – Response PPairs


airs used in PPaired-Associates
aired-Associates Learning
Stimulus - Response Stimulus - Response
GEN – LOOT LUR – ROOF
BEM – TIME RUL – GOLD
DIV – LAMP VAK – HILL
WUF – DEER KER – NAME
JIT – LION HOZ – GOAT
DAX – COAL MUW – BULL

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Psychology
and the participant has to produce the second from a list containing the same association
item. If s/he fails to do so within the prescribed value. On the basis of research findings, the
time, the experimenter presents the second following generalisations have been made.
item. Now this item becomes the stimulus and Learning time increases with increase in
the participant has to produce the third item length of the list, occurrence of words with low
that is the response word. If s/he fails, the association values or lack of relations among
experimenter gives the correct item, which the items in the list. The more time it takes to
becomes the stimulus item for the fourth word. learn the list, stronger will be the learning. In
This procedure is called serial anticipation this respect psychologists have found that the
method. Learning trials continue until the total time principle operates. This principle
participant correctly anticipates all the items states that a fixed amount of time is necessary
in the given order. to learn a fixed amount of material, regardless
of the number of trials into which that time is
3. Free Recall : In this method, participants
divided. The more time it takes to learn, the
are presented a list of words, which they read
stronger becomes the learning.
and speak out. Each word is shown at a fixed
If participants are not restricted to the
rate of exposure duration. Immediately after
serial learning method and are allowed to give
the presentation of the list, the participants
free recall, verbal lear ning becomes
are required to recall the words in any order
organisational. It implies that in free recall
they can. Words in the list may be interrelated
participants recall the words not in their order
or unrelated. More than ten words are
of presentation, but in a new order or
included in the list. The presentation order of
sequence. Bousfield first demonstrated this
words varies from trial to trial. This method is
experimentally. He made a list of 60 words
used to study how participants organise words
that consisted of 15 words drawn from each
for storage in memory. Studies indicate that
of the four semantic categories, i.e. names,
the items placed in the beginning or end of
animals, professions, and vegetables. These
the lists are easier to recall than those placed
words were presented to participants one by
in the middle, which are more difficult to
one in random order. The participants were
recall.
required to make free recall of the words.
However, they recalled the words of each
Determinants of Verbal Learning
category together. He called it category
Verbal learning has been subjected to the most clustering. It is worth noting that, though,
extensive experimental investigations. These the words were presented randomly the
studies have indicated that the course of verbal participants organised them category-wise in
learning is influenced by a number of factors. recall. Here category clustering occurred
The most important determinants are the because of the nature of the list. It has also
different features of the verbal material to be been demonstrated that free recall is always
learned. They include length of the list to be organised subjectively. Subjective organisation
learned and meaningfulness of the material. shows that the participants organise words
Meaningfulness of material is measured in or items in their individual ways and recall
several ways. The number of associations accordingly.
elicited in a fixed time, familiarity of the Verbal learning is usually intentional but
material and frequency of usage, relations a person may learn some features of the words
among the words in the list, and sequential unintentionally or incidentally. In this kind of
dependence of each word of the list on the learning, participants notice features such as
preceding words, are used for assessing whether two or more words rhyme, start with
meaningfulness. Lists of nonsense syllables are identical letters, have same vowels, etc. Thus,
available with different levels of associations. verbal learning is both intentional as well as
The nonsense syllables should be selected incidental.

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Chapter 6 • Learning
Rules that are used to connect the features
Activity 6.3 to form a concept may be very simple or
complex. A rule is an instruction to do
Take the following words and write them on
separate cards, and ask the participants to read something. Keeping in view the rules that are
them aloud one by one. After completion of two used in defining concepts, psychologists have
readings, ask them to write down the words in studied two types of concepts : artificial
any order : book, law, bread, shirt, coat, paper, concepts and natural concepts or categories.
pencil, biscuit, pen, life, history, rice, curd, shoes, Artificial concepts are those that are well-
sociology, sweet, pond, potato, ice-cream, muffler,
defined and rules connecting the features are
and prose. After the presentation, ask them to
write down the words they read, without bothering precise and rigid. In a well-defined concept the
about the order of presentation. features that represent the concept are both
Analyse your data to see whether recalled singly necessary and jointly sufficient.
words show any organisation. Every object must have all the features in order
to become an instance of the concept. On the
other hand, natural concepts or categories are
usually ill-defined. Numerous features are
CONCEPT LEARNING found in the instances of a natural category.
Such concepts include biological objects, real
The world, in which we live, consists of world products, and human artefacts such as
innumerable objects, events and living beings. tools, clothes, houses, etc.
These objects and events are different in their Let us take the example of the concept of
structures and functions. One of the many a square. It is a well-defined concept. It must
things human beings have to do is to organise have four attributes, i.e. closed figure, four
the objects, events, animals, etc., into sides, each side of equal length, and equal
categories so that within the category, objects angles. Thus a square consists of four features
are treated as equivalent even though they are connected by a conjunctive rule. In order to
different in their features. Such understand various rules for creating well-
categorisations involve concept learning. defined concepts let us look at Figure 6.4.

What is a Concept?
A concept is a category that is used to refer to
a number of objects and events. Animal, fruit,
building, and crowd are examples of concepts
or categories. It may be noted that the terms,
concept and category, are interchangeably
used. A concept is defined as ‘a set of features
or attributes connected by some rule’. Instances
of a concept are those objects or events or
behaviours, which have common features. A
feature is any characteristic or aspect of an
object or event or living organism that is
observed in them, and can be considered
equivalent to some features observed or
discriminated in other objects. Features are of
innumerable kinds and their discriminability
depends upon the degree of the observer’s Fig.6.4 : Sixteen figures containing two shapes –
square and triangle, two shades – pink and grey,
perceptual sensitivity. Properties like colour, cross on top and bottom, circles – right or left sides
size, number, shape, smoothness, roughness, of figures. These figures are used as instances of
softness, and hardness are called features. and non-instances of an artificial concept.

120
Psychology
In Figure 6.4 there are 16 cards having shorthand writing, and writing and reading
two shapes - square and triangle, two shades- are examples of skills. Such skills are learned
pink and grey, signs of cross on top or bottom, by practice and exercise. A skill consists of a
and small circle on right side or left side. With chain of perceptual motor responses or as a
the help of these cards one can create a sequence of S-R associations.
number of concepts by using different rules.
The set of features that are connected by some Phases of Skill Acquisition
rule are called relevant features. The features Skill lear ning passes through several
that are not included in the rule are considered qualitatively different phases. With each
to be irrelevant features. For example, in the successive attempt at learning a skill, one’s
cards shown in Figure 6.4 there are four performance becomes smoother and less effort
features — shape, shade, cross or no cross demanding. In other words, it becomes more
on the top, and circle on the right or left side. spontaneous or automatic. It has also been
In creating a conjunctive concept by using shown that in each phase the performance
two features one may use shape and side as improves. In transition from one phase to the
the relevant ones, and leave out two others as next, when the level of performance stands
irrelevant. For such a concept, the exemplars still, it is called performance plateau. Once
and non-exemplars are given in Figure 6.5. the next phase begins, performance starts
You will study more about concepts in Chapter improving and its level starts going up.
8 on thinking. One of the most influential accounts of the
phases of skill acquisition is presented by
Fitts. According to him, skill learning passes
through three phases, viz. cognitive,
associative and autonomous. Each phase or
stage of skill learning involves different types
of mental processes. In the cognitive phase of
skill learning, the learner has to understand
and memorise the instructions, and also
understand how the task has to be performed.
In this phase, every outside cue, instructional
demand, and one’s response outcome have to
be kept alive in consciousness.
The second phase is associative. In this
phase, different sensory inputs or stimuli are
linked with appropriate responses. As the
practice incr eases, errors decrease,
performance improves and time taken is also
Fig.6.5 : The four figures on the top are the reduced. With continued practice, errorless
exemplars of the concept, and rest of the figures are performance begins, though, the learner has
non-exemplars. The exemplars of the concept must to be attentive to all the sensory inputs and
be triangle and grey. Other features are irrelevant.
maintain concentration on the task. Then the
third phase, i.e. autonomous phase, begins.
In this phase, two important changes take
SKILL LEARNING
place in per formance: the attentional
demands of the associative phase decrease,
Nature of Skills
and interference created by external factors
A skill is defined as the ability to perform some reduces. Finally, skilled performance attains
complex task smoothly and efficiently. Car automaticity with minimal demands on
driving, airplane piloting, ship navigating, conscious effort.

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Chapter 6 • Learning
Transitions from one phase to the other score of the experimental group is higher than
clearly show that practice is the only means that of the control group, it implies that
of skill learning. One has to keep on exercising positive transfer has taken place. If the score
and practicing. As the practice increases, is lower than the control group, it means
improvement rate gradually increases; and negative transfer has taken place. If the two
automaticity of errorless per formance groups perform equally well, then it shows that
becomes the hallmark of skill. That is why it transfer effect is zero.
is said that ‘practice makes a man perfect’. It must be noted that in the study of
transfer effect, a distinction is made between
general transfer and specific transfer. It is
TRANSFER OF LEARNING now a well-known fact that prior learning
The term transfer of learning is often called always leads to positive general transfer. It is
transfer of training or transfer effect. It refers only in specific transfer that transfer effects
are positive or negative, and in some
to the effects of prior learning on new learning.
conditions there is zero effect, though in
Transfer is considered to be positive if the
reality, due to general transfer, zero transfer
earlier learning facilitates current learning. It
is theoretically untenable. Let us try to
is considered to be negative transfer if new
understand the nature of general transfer and
learning is retarded. Absence of facilitative or
specific transfer.
retarding ef fect means zero transfer.
Psychologists use specific experimental
designs in the study of transfer effects. One General (Generic) Transfer
such design is presented in Table 6.4 General transfer is not clearly conceptualised
Suppose you want to know whether and defined in its details. However, prior
learning of English language affects learning learning predisposes one to learn another task
of French. To study this you select a large in a better manner. The learning of one task
sample of participants. Now you randomly warms-up the learner to learn the next task
divide the sample into two groups, one to be more conveniently. You must have seen a
used in the experimental condition and the cricketer going to the pitch to take her/his
other as control group. The experimental position near the wicket. The cricketer walks
group of participants learns English language by jumping on one foot then on the other.
for a year and is tested to find out their S/he moves her/his two hands holding the bat
achievement in English. In the second year, sideways to loosen up. When you write answers
they study French. In the end this group is while appearing at the examination, your
tested to find out its achievement scores in writing is slow and sitting position awkward
French. The control group in the first phase for efficient writing. However, you get warmed
does not learn English language and just does up after having written two or three pages. Your
its routine work for one year. In the second speed increases and your body gets well
year, these participants learn French for a year adjusted to the writing task. This continues
and their achievement scores are obtained. until the writing of the last answer is over. After
The achievement scores in French of the two some time, warm-up effect disappears.
groups are then compared. If the achievement Warm-up effect lasts over one session of

Table 6.4 Experimental Design used in the Study of Transf


Transf er Eff
ransfer ects of Learning
Effects
Group of Participants Phase 1 Phase 2
Experimental Learns task A Learns task B
Control Does not learn but rests Learns task B

122
Psychology
learning. Only in that session one can learn 3. In the third case, the stimuli are same
two or more tasks. but responses are different. In such
conditions also some positive transfer
Specific Transfer occurs.
4. In the fourth case, the stimuli are different,
Whenever an organism learns something, it but responses are the same. Therefore new
consists of a series of stimulus-response associations with responses are to be
associations. Any task can be understood as a learned. In this case positive transfer is
chain of discriminable stimuli, each of which obtained.
has to be associated with a specific response. 5. In the fifth case, stimuli and responses are
Specific transfer means the effect of learning the same, but associations are altered.
of task A on learning of task B. The learning of Because of this, alteration negative transfer
task A may make the learning of task B easier occurs in the learning of the second task.
or more difficult or have no such effect. Such It is so because the associations learned
transfers depend on similarity-dissimilarity in the initial task interfere in the learning
between the initial learning task and the second of new associations. Such interferences are
task. The possible relationships between discussed in Chapter 7 which deals with
stimuli and responses are shown in Table 6.5. human memory.

Table 6.5 Similarity-Dissimilarity Relationship between the Initial and Subsequent Learning Tasks
Tasks
S.No. Initial Task Second Task Comments
1. SA – R A SC – RD Both stimuli and responses are different
2. SA – R A SA – R A Stimuli are the same and responses are similar
3. SA – R A SA – R D Stimuli same but responses are different
4. SA – R A SC – RA Stimuli are different but responses same
5. SA – R A S A – RA Same stimuli and responses but associations
interchanged

On the basis of a long series of


FACTORS FACILITATING LEARNING
experimental studies, the following
conclusions have been drawn about specific In the preceding section we examined the
transfer with reference to the situations shown specific determinants of learning, such as
in Table 6.5. contiguous presentation of CS and US in
1. In the first instance, the initial and transfer
classical conditioning; number, amount, and
tasks are very different both in stimuli as
delay of reinforcement in operant conditioning;
well as in responses. Hence no specific
status and attractiveness of models in
transfer is expected. However, due to the
mechanism of general transfer some observational learning; procedure in verbal
degree of positive transfer may occur. lear ning; and the nature of rules and
2. In the second case, the stimuli of the two perceptual features of objects and events in
tasks are the same and responses are concept learning. Now, we shall discuss some
highly similar. Therefore, maximum general deter minants of learning. This
transfer may occur. It has been regularly discussion is not exhaustive. Rather it deals
shown that in this condition positive with some salient factors only which are found
transfer takes place. very important.

123
Chapter 6 • Learning
Continuous vs Partial Reinforcement organism to act for fulfilling the current need.
In experiments on learning the experimenter In other words, motivation energises an
can arrange to deliver reinforcement according organism to act vigorously for attaining some
to a specific schedule. In the context of goal. Such acts persist until the goal is
learning, two kinds of schedules namely attained and the need is satisfied. Motivation
continuous and partial have been found very is a prerequisite for learning. Why does a child
important. In continuous reinforcement the forage in the kitchen when the mother is not
participant is given reinforcement after each in the house? S/he does so because s/he
target response. This kind of schedule of needs sweets to eat for which s/he is trying to
reinforcement produces a high rate of locate the jar in which sweets are kept. During
responding. However, once the reinforcement the course of foraging the child learns the
is withheld, response rates decrease very location of the jar. A hungry rat is placed in a
quickly, and the responses acquired under this box. The animal forages in the box for food.
schedule tend to extinguish. Since organism Incidentally it presses a lever and food drops
is getting reinforcement on each trial, the in the box. With repeated experience of such
effectiveness of that reinforcer is reduced. In activity, the animal learns to press the lever
such schedules where reinforcement is not immediately after the animal is placed there.
continuous, some responses are not Have you ever asked yourself why you are
reinforced. Hence, they are called partial or studying psychology and other subjects in
intermittent reinforcement. There are several Class XI? You are doing so to pass with good
ways in which one might reinforce responses marks or grades in your final examination.
according to an intermittent schedule. It has The more motivated you are, the more hard
been found that partial reinforcement work you do for learning. Your motivation for
schedules often produce very high rates of learning something arises from two sources.
responding, particularly when responses are You learn many things because you enjoy
reinforced according to ratio. In this kind of them (intrinsic motivation) or they provide you
schedule, an organism often makes several the means for attaining some other goal
responses that are not reinforced. Therefore, (extrinsic motivation).
it becomes difficult to tell when a
reinforcement has been discontinued Preparedness for Learning
completely and when it has merely been The members of different species are very
delayed. When reinforcement is continuous it different from one another in their sensory
is easier to tell when it has been discontinued. capacities and response abilities. The
This kind of difference has been found crucial mechanisms necessary for establishing
for extinction. It has been found that extinction associations, such as S-S or S-R, also vary
of a response is more difficult following partial from species to species. It can be said that
reinforcement than following continuous species have biological constraints on their
reinforcement. The fact that the responses learning capacities. The kinds of S-S or S-R
acquired under partial reinforcement are learning an organism can easily acquire
highly resistant to extinction is called partial depends on the associative mechanism it is
reinforcement effect. genetically endowed with or prepared for. A
particular kind of associative learning is easy
Motivation
for apes or human beings but may be
All living organisms have survival needs and extremely difficult and sometimes impossible
human beings, in addition, have growth needs. for cats and rats. It implies that one can learn
Motivation is a mental as well as a only those associations for which one is
physiological state, which arouses an genetically prepared.

124
Psychology
The concept of preparedness may be best and Personality Patterns. A brief description
understood as a continuum or dimension, on of these approaches are given below:
one end of which are those learning tasks or 1. Perceptual Modality are biologically-based
associations which are easy for the members reactions to the physical environment. It
of some species, and on the other end are those refers to the preferences of persons
learning tasks for which those members are through which they take in information
not prepared at all and cannot learn them. In such as auditory, visual, smell,
the middle of the continuum fall those tasks kinesthetic, and tactile.
and associations for which the members are 2. Infor mation Processing distinguishes
neither prepared nor unprepared. They can between the way we are structured to
learn such tasks, but only with great difficulty think, solve problems, and remember
and persistence. information. This may be thought of as the
way we process information. For example,
active/reflective, sensing/intuitive,
THE LEARNER : LEARNING STYLES sequential/global, serial/simultaneous,
etc.
You may have observed that some children, 3. Personality Patterns are the way we
sometimes from the same family, perform well interact with our surroundings. Each one
in school whereas others do not. There has of us has a preferred, consistent, and
been a great deal of research on learning styles distinct way of perceiving, organising, and
over the last several decades. It demonstrates retaining information. This approach
the differences in the way people learn within focuses on understanding how personality
the same class, culture, community or socio- affects the way people interact with the
economic group and those belonging to environment, and how this affects the way
different groups. individuals respond to each other within
Lear ning style may be defined as the learning environment.
‘a learner’s consistent way of responding to There are several dimensions along which
and using stimuli in the context of learning’. In learning styles differ. For example, Anderson
other words, it is ‘the way in which each differentiated between analytic and relational
learner begins to concentrate, processes, and styles of learning. These have been illustrated
retains new and complex information’. It may in Table 6.6. It is clear that people with a
be noted that this interaction occurs differently relational style learn material best through
for everyone. For example, you may have exposure to a full unit or phenomenon. They
noticed that children in your class are unique comprehend parts of the unit only by
in their personalities, cultural experiences, understanding their relationship to the whole.
and values. Different students prefer different On the other hand, people with an analytical
learning environments, learning modalities lear ning style lear n more easily when
and they all have unique strengths, talents, information is presented step by step in a
and weaknesses. cumulative sequential pattern that builds
Therefore, it is necessary to examine each towards a conceptual understanding.
individual’s personal characteristics to One must remember that the various
determine what is most likely to trigger each learning styles are points along a scale that
learner’s concentration, maintain it, respond help us to discover the different forms of
to her or his natural processing style and mental representation. They do not
facilitate long-term memory. There are various characterise people. Therefore, we should not
instruments which are used to determine a divide the population into a set category (e.g.,
student’s learning style. visual person, extrovert, etc.). We are capable
Learning styles are mainly derived from of learning under any style, no matter what
Perceptual Modality, Information Processing, our preference may be.

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Chapter 6 • Learning
Table 6.6 Learning Styles
Relational Style Analytical Style
1. Perceive information as part of total 1. Able to disembed information from total
picture picture (focus on detail)
2. Exhibit intuitive thinking 2. Exhibit sequential and structured
thinking
3. Learn materials that have a human, 3. Learn materials that are inanimate and
social content and are characterised by impersonal more easily
experiential/cultural relevance more
easily
4. Have a good memory for verbally 4. Have a good memory for abstract ideas
presented ideas and infor mation, and irrelevant information
especially if relevant
5. Are more task-oriented concerning non- 5. Are more task-oriented concerning
academic areas academics
6. Are influenced by authority figures’ 6. Are not greatly affected by the opinions
expression of confidence or doubt in of others
students’ ability
7. Prefer to withdraw from unstimulating 7. Show ability to persist unstimulating
task performance task
8. Style conflicts with the traditional 8. Style matches most school
school environment environments

inherent in the child. It is presumed that these


LEARNING DISABILITIES
difficulties originate from problems with the
You must have heard, observed or read that functioning of the central nervous system. It
thousands of children get enrolled for may occur in conjunction with physical
education in schools. Some of them, however, handicaps, sensory impairment, mental
find the demands of educational process too retardation, or without them.
difficult to meet, and they drop out. Such It must be noted that learning disabilities
students are called “drop-outs”. The reasons may be observed as a distinct handicapping
for this are numerous, such as sensory condition in children of average to superior
impairment, mental retardation, social and intelligence, adequate sensory motor systems,
emotional disturbance, poor economic and adequate learning opportunities. If it is
conditions of the family, cultural beliefs and not remedied, it may continue throughout life
norms or other environmental influences. and affect self-esteem, vocation, social
Apart from these conditions, there is another relations, and daily living activities.
source of obstacle in the continuance of
education that is called learning disabilities. Symptoms of Learning Disabilities
It makes school learning, i.e. acquisition of There are many symptoms of learning
knowledge and skills too difficult to grapple disabilities. They become manifest in different
with. Such children also fail to move forward combinations in children who suffer from this
in their learning activities. disorder irrespective of their intelligence,
Learning disability is a general term. It motivation, and hard work for learning.
refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders 1. Difficulties in writing letters, words and
manifested in terms of difficulty in the phrases, reading out text, and speaking
acquisition of learning, reading, writing, appear quite frequently. Quite often they
speaking, reasoning, and mathematical have listening problems, although they
activities. The sources of such disorders are may not have auditory defects. Such

126
Psychology
children are very different from others in of the symptoms related to lear ning
developing learning strategies and plans. disabilities.
2. Learning-disabled children have disorders
of attention. They get easily distracted and
APPLICATIONS OF LEARNING PRINCIPLES
cannot sustain attention on one point for
long. More often than not, attentional The principles of learning have great value for
deficiency leads to hyperactivity, i.e. they enriching human life in all spheres of life. All
are always moving, doing different things, activities and behaviours that make personal,
trying to manipulate things incessantly. social, and economic life peaceful and
3. Poor space orientation and inadequate pleasurable are learned. Their learning should
sense of time are common symptoms. be psychologically guided. Contemporary
Such children do not get easily oriented to psychologists have developed techniques and
new surroundings and get lost. They lack procedures based on the principles of classical
a sense of time and are late or sometimes and operant conditioning, social learning,
too early in their routine work. They also verbal learning, concept learning, and skill
show confusion in direction and misjudge learning for improving many aspects of life.
right, left, up and down. We can have a glimpse of the applications of
4. Learning-disabled children have poor lear ning principles in four areas, i.e.
motor coordination and poor manual organisations, in treatment of maladjustive
dexterity. This is evident in their lack of behaviours, in rearing children, and school
balance, inability to sharpen pencil, handle learning.
doorknobs, difficulty in learning to ride a In organisations, a number of problems
bicycle, etc. such as absenteeism, frequent medical leave,
5. These children fail to understand and indiscipline, and lack of proper skills pose
follow oral directions for doing things. serious problems. Applying the principles of
6. They misjudge relationships as to which lear ning may solve these problems. To
classmates are friendly and which ones are increase attendance and reduce absenteeism
indif ferent. They fail to lear n and an interesting device is used in some
understand body language. organisations. At the end of every third month,
7. Learning-disabled children usually show name slips of employees, not being absent on
perceptual disorders. These may include a single working day are placed in a drum.
visual, auditory, tactual, and kinesthetic Four to five per cent of the names are randomly
misperception. They fail to differentiate a drawn and they are given attractive rewards
call-bell from the ring of the telephone. It for not being absent on a single working day.
is not that they do not have sensory acuity. Such rewards have been found to reduce
They simply fail to use it in performance. absenteeism. To increase the number of
8. Fairly large number of learning-disabled employees, who have not gone on medical leave
children have dyslexia. They quite often for full one year, various benefits are given.
fail to copy letters and words; for example, Such partial rewards reduce the incidence of
they fail to distinguish between b and d, medical leave. With a view to improving
p and q, P and 9, was and saw, unclear discipline, managers start functioning as
and nuclear, etc. They fail to organise verbal models for employees, or employees are placed
materials. under such model managers.
It must be noted that lear ning Based on the principles of learning, a
disabilities are not incurable. Remedial number of therapeutic procedures have been
teaching methods go a long way in helping developed to modify maladaptive and socially
them to learn and become like other students. incapacitating habits and behaviours. In these
Educational psychologists have developed procedures, the principle of extinction is
appropriate techniques for correcting most employed. In the case of those children and

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Chapter 6 • Learning
adults who exhibit irrational and unfounded read in detail about these therapies in Class
fear with accompanying avoidance behaviour, XII.
implosive therapy and flooding are used. The principles of learning are widely used
Implosive therapy starts with the person in teaching. Educational objectives are decided
imagining their most feared form of contact after analysing the instructional tasks and
with the feared object, accompanied by vivid fitting them into various types of learning such
verbal descriptions by the therapist. The as S-S or S-R, verbal, observational, and skill
therapist functions as a coach. On the other learning. Students are told what they have to
hand, flooding is exposure that takes place in learn and appropriate practice conditions
vivo (e.g., with an actual feared object) and is are provided. Students are made active
considered to be the most effective of all participants in the acquisition of information,
treatments for fear. To help those suffering meaning, and correct responses. Teachers act
from excessive anxieties and fears, the as models and mentors for students to
technique of systematic desensitisation is emulate them with a view to promote
used. It is a form of behaviour therapy used appropriate social behaviours and personal
to reduce phobic patients’ anxiety responses habits. Students are provided ample
through counterconditioning, i.e. an attempt opportunities for practice as they are required
to reverse the process of classical conditioning to do homework. Skills are analysed as S-R
by associating the crucial stimulus with a new chains and students are allowed to learn skills
conditioned response. In order to eliminate practically.
habits that are undesirable and injurious for The principles of learning are best applied
health and happiness, aversion therapy is in child rearing provided both the parents are
used. The therapist arranges things in such a aware of the principles of learning. By using
way that occurrence of maladjustive habits the classical conditioning procedure children
generates painful experiences and to avoid are made to learn necessary signs of danger
them clients learn to give them up. For and safety. The behaviour of children can
example, alcohol is paired with an emetic drug easily be modified and shaped through the
(which induces severe nausea and vomiting) use of operant conditioning procedure. By
so that nausea and vomiting become a using rewards judiciously parents can make
conditioned response to alcohol. Modeling children enthusiastic learners. As models and
and systematic use of reinforcement for mentors, parents make children socially
shaping and developing competence are skillful, duty oriented and resourceful.
extensively used. Persons suffering from
excessive shyness and having difficulties in
interpersonal interactions are subjected to
assertive learning. This therapy is also based Key Terms
on the principles of learning. There are persons
who lose mental peace with accelerated rate Associative learning, Biofeedback, Cognitive
map, Concept, Conditioned response,
of breathing, loss of appetite, and rise in blood
Conditioned stimulus, Conditioning,
pressure at the slightest provocation. In such Discrimination, Dyslexia, Extinction, Free
cases psychotherapists give biofeedback recall, Generalisation, Insight, Learning
treatment. This technique is based on the disabilities, Mental set, Modeling, Negative
interaction between classical and instrumental reinforcement, Operant or instrumental
conditioning. In biofeedback, a bodily function conditioning, Positive reinforcement,
Punishment, Reinforcement, Serial learning,
(such as heart rate or blood pressure) is
Spontaneous recovery, Transfer of learning,
monitored and information about the function Unconditioned response, Unconditioned
is fed back to the person to facilitate improved stimulus, Verbal learning
control of the physiological process. You will

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Psychology
Summary
• Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential produced
by experience or practice. It is an inferred process and differs from performance which is the
observed behaviour/response/action.
• The main types of learning are: classical and operant conditioning, observational learning,
cognitive learning, verbal learning, concept learning, and skill learning.
• Pavlov first investigated classical conditioning in the course of studies on digestion in dogs.
In this kind of learning an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus (CS) that
signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response (CR) that anticipates
and prepares the organism for US.
• Skinner first investigated operant or instrumental conditioning (OC). An operant is any
response voluntarily emitted by an organism. OC is a type of learning in which response is
strengthened if followed by reinforcement. A reinforcer can be any event that increases the
frequency of preceding response. Thus, the consequence of a response is crucial. The rate of
OC is influenced by the type, number, schedule, and delay of reinforcement.
• Observational learning is also known as imitation, modeling and social learning. We acquire
knowledge by observing a model’s behaviour. The performance depends on whether the
model’s behaviour is rewarded or punished.
• In verbal learning words get associated with one another on the basis of structural, phonetic,
and semantic similarity and contrast. They are often organised in clusters. In experimental
studies, paired-associates learning, serial learning, and free recall methods are used.
Meaningfulness of material, and subjective organisation influence learning. It may be
incidental also.
• Concept is a category. It involves a set of features connected with a rule or instruction. A
concept can be natural or artificial. Artificial concepts are well-defined while natural concepts
are usually ill-defined. Experimental studies of well-defined concepts have been undertaken
through selection and reception procedures. The natural concepts have fuzzy boundaries.
• Skill refers to the ability to carry out complex tasks smoothly and efficiently. They are learned
by practice and exercise. The skilled performance is the organisation of S-R chain into large
response patterns. It passes through cognitive, associative, and autonomous phases.
• Effect of prior learning on new learning is called transfer of learning. It may be general (e.g.,
warm-up) or specific. It depends on similarity of S-R associations in the two learning tasks.
• Factors facilitating learning include motivation and preparedness of the organism.
• Learning style refers to the way in which each learner begins to concentrate on, process,
and retain new and difficult information.
• Learning disabilities (e.g., reading, writing) restrict learning in people. They are hyperactive,
lack sense of time, and eye-hand coordination, etc.
• The principles of learning are applied in organisations, treatment of maladjustive reactions,
child rearing, and school learning.

Review Questions
1. What is learning? What are its distinguishing features?
2. How does classical conditioning demonstrate learning by association?
3. Define operant conditioning. Discuss the factors that influence the course of operant
conditioning.
4. A good role model is very important for a growing up child. Discuss the kind of learning
that supports it.
5. Explain the procedures for studying verbal learning.
6. What is a skill? What are the stages through which skill learning develops?

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Chapter 6 • Learning
7. How can you distinguish between generalisation and discrimination?
8. How does transfer of learning takes place?
9. Why is motivation a prerequisite for learning?
10. What does the notion of preparedness for learning mean?
11. Explain the different forms of cognitive learning?
12. How can we identify students with learning disabilities?

Project Ideas
1. How do your parents reinforce you for behaving in the ways they think are good for you?
Select five different instances. Compare these with the reinforcement employed by teachers
in the classroom and relate them to the concepts taught in the class.
2. If your younger sister or brother has indulged in some undesirable behaviour, how would
you help her/him to get rid of that behaviour. Make use of the learning principles discussed
in the chapter.

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Psychology
Introduction
All of us are aware of the tricks that memory plays on us throughout our lives. Have
you ever felt embarrassed because you could not remember the name of a known
person you were talking to? Or anxious and helpless because everything you
memorised well the previous day before taking your examination has suddenly
become unavailable? Or felt excited because you can now flawlessly recite lines of
a famous poem you had learnt as a child? Memory indeed is a very fascinating yet
intriguing human faculty. It functions to preserve our sense of who we are, maintains
our interpersonal relationships and helps us in solving problems and taking
decisions. Since memory is central to almost all cognitive processes such as
perception, thinking and problem solving, psychologists have attempted to
understand the manner in which any information is committed to memory, the
mechanisms through which it is retained over a period of time, the reasons why it
is lost from memory, and the techniques which can lead to memory improvement.
In this chapter, we shall examine all these aspects of memory and understand
various theories which explain the mechanisms of memory.
The history of psychological research on memory spans over hundred years.
The first systematic exploration of memory is credited to Hermann Ebbinghaus, a
German psychologist of late nineteenth century (1885). He carried out many
experiments on himself and found that we do not forget the learned material at an
even pace or completely. Initially the rate of forgetting is faster but eventually it
stabilises. Another view on memory was suggested by Frederick Bartlett (1932)
who contended that memory is not passive but an active process. With the help of
meaningful verbal materials such as stories and texts, he demonstrated that memory
is a constructive process. That is, what we memorise and store undergoes many
changes and modifications over time. So there is a qualitative difference in what
was initially memorised by us and what we retrieve or recall later. There are other
psychologists who have influenced memory research in a major way. We shall
review their contributions in this chapter at appropriate places.

you perhaps learned during your early


NATURE OF MEMORY
schooling. Memory is conceptualised as a
Memory refers to retaining and recalling process consisting of three independent,
information over a period of time, depending though interrelated stages. These are
upon the nature of cognitive task you are encoding, storage, and retrieval. Any
required to perform. It might be necessary to information received by us necessarily goes
hold an information for a few seconds. For through these stages.
example, you use your memory to retain an (a) Encoding is the first stage which refers to
unfamiliar telephone number till you have a process by which information is recorded
reached the telephone instrument to dial, or and registered for the first time so that it
for many years you still remember the becomes usable by our memory system.
techniques of addition and subtraction which Whenever an external stimulus impinges on

132
Psychology
our sensory organs, it generates neural human memory came to be seen as a system
impulses. These are received in different areas that processes information in the same way
of our brain for further processing. In as a computer does. Both register, store, and
encoding, incoming information is received manipulate large amount of information and
and some meaning is derived. It is then act on the basis of the outcome of such
represented in a way so that it can be manipulations. If you have worked on a
processed further. computer then you would know that it has a
(b) Storage is the second stage of memory. temporary memory (random access memory
Information which was encoded must also be or RAM) and a permanent memory (e.g., a hard
stored so that it can be put to use later. disk). Based on the programme commands,
Storage, therefore, refers to the process the computer manipulates the contents of its
through which information is retained and
memories and displays the output on the
held over a period of time.
screen. In the same way human beings too
(c) Retrieval is the third stage of memory.
register information, store and manipulate the
Information can be used only when one is able
stored information depending on the task that
to recover it from her/his memory. Retrieval
refers to bringing the stored information to they need to perform. For example, when you
her/his awareness so that it can be used for are required to solve a mathematical problem,
performing various cognitive tasks such as the memory relating to mathematical
problem solving or decision-making. It may operations, such as division or subtraction are
be interesting to note that memory failure can carried out, activated and put to use, and
occur at any of these stages. You may fail to receive the output (the problem solution). This
recall an information because you did not analogy led to the development of the first
encode it properly, or the storage was weak model of memory, which was proposed by
so you could not access or retrieve it when Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. It is known as
required. Stage Model.

INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH : MEMORY SYSTEMS : SENSORY, SHORT-TERM


THE STAGE MODEL AND LONG-TERM MEMORIES

Initially, it was thought that memory is the According to the Stage Model, there are three
capacity to store all information that we memory systems : the Sensory Memory, the
acquire through learning and experience. It Short-term Memory and the Long-term
was seen as a vast storehouse where all Memory. Each of these systems has different
information that we knew was kept so that features and performs different functions with
we could retrieve and use it as and when respect to the sensory inputs (see Fig.7.1). Let
needed. But with the advent of the computer, us examine what these systems are:

Sensory Memory Short-term Long-term


Iconic (Sight) Memory Memory
Echoic (Sound) Store Capacity - Elaborative Permanent
and other senses Attention small Rehearsals Store Capacity -
Information Store Capacity - Duration - less unlimited
large than 30 seconds Duration - upto
Duration - less a life time
than one second

Fig.7.1 : The Stage Model of Memory

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Chapter 7 • Human Memory
Sensory Memory registers where infor mation decays
automatically in less than a second.
The incoming information first enters the
sensory memory. Sensory memory has a large
Long-term Memory
capacity. However, it is of very short duration,
i.e. less than a second. It is a memory system Materials that survive the capacity and
that registers information from each of the duration limitations of the STM finally enter
senses with reasonable accuracy. Often this the long-term memory (abbreviated as LTM)
system is referred to as sensory memories or which has a vast capacity. It is a permanent
sensory registers because informations from storehouse of all informations that may be as
all the senses are registered here as exact recent as what you ate for breakfast yesterday
replica of the stimulus. If you have experienced to as distant as how you celebrated your sixth
visual after-images (the trail of light that stays birthday. It has been shown that once any
after the bulb is switched off) or when you information enters the long-term memory
hear reverberations of a sound when the sound store it is never forgotten because it gets
has ceased, then you are familiar with iconic encoded semantically, i.e. in terms of the
(visual) or echoic (auditory) sensory registers. meaning that any information carries. What
you experience as forgetting is in fact retrieval
Short-term Memory failure; for various reasons you cannot retrieve
the stored information. You will read about
You will perhaps agree that we do not attend retrieval related forgetting later in this chapter.
to all the informations that impinge on our So far we have only discussed the structural
senses. Information that is attended to enters features of the stage model. Questions which
the second memory store called the short-term still remain to be addressed are how does
memory (abbreviated as STM), which holds information travel from one store to another
small amount of information for a brief period and by what mechanisms it continues to stay
of time (usually for 30 seconds or less). in any particular memory store. Let us examine
Atkinson and Shiffrin pr opose that the answers to these questions.
information in STM is primarily encoded How does information travel from one store
acoustically, i.e. in terms of sound and unless to another? As an answer to this question,
rehearsed continuously, it may get lost from Atkinson and Shiffrin propose the notion of
the STM in less than 30 seconds. Note that control processes which function to monitor
the STM is fragile but not as fragile as sensory the flow of information through various

Box 7.1 Working Memory

In recent years, psychologists have suggested that holds a limited number of sounds and unless
the short-term memory is not unitary, rather it may rehearsed they decay within 2 seconds. The second
consist of many components. This multi- component visuospatial sketchpad stores visual and
component view of short-term memory was first spatial information and like phonological loop the
proposed by Baddeley (1986) who suggested that capacity of the sketchpad too is limited. The third
the short-term memory is not a passive storehouse component, which Baddeley calls the Central
but rather a work bench that holds a wide variety Executive, organises information from phonological
of memory materials that are constantly handled, loop, visuospatial sketchpad as well as from the long-
manipulated and transformed as people perform term memory. Like a true executive, it allocates
various cognitive tasks. This work bench is called attentional resources to be distributed to various
the working memory. The first component of the informations needed to perform a given cognitive
working memory is the phonological loop which operation and monitors, plans, and controls behaviour.

134
Psychology
memory stores. As suggested earlier, all as many ways as possible. You can expand
informations which our senses receive are not the information in some kind of logical
registered; if that be the case, imagine the kind framework, link it to similar memories or else
of pressure that our memory system will have can create a mental image. Figure 7.1, that
to cope with. Only that information which is presents the stage model of memory, also
attended to enters the STM from sensory depicts the arrows to show the manner in
registers and in that sense, selective attention, which information travels from one stage to
as you have already read in Chapter 5, is the another.
first control process that decides what will Experiments, which were carried out to
travel from sensory registers to STM. Sense test the stage model of memory, have produced
impressions, which do not receive attention, mixed results. While some experiments
fade away quickly. The STM then sets into unequivocally show that the STM and LTM
motion another control process of are indeed two separate memory stores, other
maintenance rehearsal to retain the evidences have questioned their
information for as much time as required. As distinctiveness. For example, earlier it was
the name suggests, these kinds of rehearsals shown that in the STM information is encoded
simply maintain infor mation through acoustically, while in LTM it is encoded
repetition and when such repetitions semantically, but later experimental evidences
discontinue the information is lost. Another show that information can also be encoded
control process, which operates in STM to semantically in STM and acoustically in LTM.
expand its capacity, is Chunking. Through
chunking it is possible to expand the capacity
of STM which is otherwise 7+2. For example, Activity 7.1
if you are told to remember a string of digits
such as 194719492004 (note that the number I. Try to remember the following list of digits
(individual digits)
exceeds the capacity of STM), you may create
19254981121
the chunks as 1947, 1949, and 2004 and
Now try to memorise them in the following
remember them as the year when India became groups:
independent, the year when the Indian 1 9 25 49 81 121
Constitution was adopted, and the year when Finally memorise them in the following
the tsunami hit the coastal regions of India and manner:
South East Asian countries. 12 32 52 72 92 112
From the STM information enters the long- What difference do you observe?
term memory through elaborative rehearsals. II. Read out the lists given below in a row at the
As against maintenance rehearsals, which are speed of one digit per second to your friend
carried through silent or vocal repetition, this and ask her/him to repeat all the digits in
rehearsal attempts to connect the ‘to be the same order:
retained information’ to the already existing List Digits
infor mation in long-term memory. For 1 (6 digits) 2-6-3-8-3-4
example, the task of remembering the meaning 2 (7 digits) 7-4-8-2-4-1-2
of the word ‘humanity’ will be easier if the 3 (8 digits) 4-3-7-2-9-0-3-6
meanings of concepts such as ‘compassion’, 4 (10 digits) 9-2-4-1-7-8-2-6-5-3
5 (12 digits) 8-2-5-4-7-4-7-7-3-9-1-6
‘truth’ and ‘benevolence’ are already in place.
The number of associations you can create Remember that your friend will recall the
around the new information will determine its digits as soon as you finish the list. Note how
many digits are recalled. The memory score
permanence. In elaborative rehearsals one
of your friend will be the number of digits
attempts to analyse the information in terms correctly recalled by her/him. Discuss your
of various associations it arouses. It involves findings with your classmates and teacher.
organisation of the incoming information in

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Chapter 7 • Human Memory
Shallice and Warrington in the year 1970 produces memory that is fragile and is likely
had cited the case of a man known as KF who to decay rather quickly. However, there is a
met with an accident and damaged a portion third and the deepest level at which
of the left side of his cerebral hemisphere. information can be processed. In order to
Subsequently, it was found that his long-term ensure that the information is retained for a
memory was intact but the short-term memory longer period, it is important that it gets
was seriously affected. The stage model analysed and understood in terms of its
suggests that informations are committed to meaning. For instance, you may think of cat
the long-term memory via STM and if KF’s as an animal that has furs, has four legs, a
STM was affected, how can his long-term tail, and is a mammal. You can also invoke an
memory be normal? Several other studies have image of a cat and connect that image with
also shown that memory processes are similar your experiences. To sum up, analysing
irrespective of whether any information is information in terms of its structural and
retained for a few seconds or for many years phonetic features amounts to shallower
and that memory can be adequately processing while encoding it in terms of the
understood without positing separate memory meaning it carries (the semantic encoding) is
stores. All these evidences led to the the deepest processing level that leads to
development of another conceptualisation memory that resists forgetting considerably.
about memory which is discussed below as Understanding memory as an outcome of
the second model of memory. the manner in which information is encoded
initially has an important implication for
learning. This view of memory will help you
LEVELS OF PROCESSING
realise that while you are learning a new
The levels of processing view was proposed lesson, you must focus on elaborating the
by Craik and Lockhart in 1972. This view meaning of its contents in as much detail as
suggests that the processing of any new possible and must not depend on rote
information relates to the manner in which it memorisation. Attempt this and you will soon
is perceived, analysed, and understood which realise that understanding the meaning of
in turn determines the extent to which it will information and reflecting on how it relates
eventually be retained. Although this view has to other facts, concepts, and your life
undergone many revisions since then, yet its experiences is a sure way to long-term
basic idea remains the same. Let us examine retention.
this view in greater detail.
Craik and Lockhart proposed that it is TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY
possible to analyse the incoming information
at more than one level. One may analyse it in As you have read in Box 7.1, the short-term
terms of its physical or structural features. memory is now seen as consisting of more than
For example, one might attend only to the one component (working memory). In the same
shape of letters in a word say cat - inspite of way it is suggested that long-term memory too
whether the word is written in capital or small is not unitary because it contains a wide
letters or the colour of the ink in which it is variety of information. In view of this,
written. This is the first and the shallowest contemporary formulations envisage long-
level of processing. At an intermediate level term memory as consisting of various types.
one might consider and attend to the phonetic For instance, one major classification within
sounds that are attached to the letters and the LTM is that of Declarative and Procedural
therefore the structural features are (sometimes called nondeclarative) memories.
transformed into at least one meaningful word All information pertaining to facts, names,
say, a word cat that has three specific letters. dates, such as a rickshaw has three wheels or
Analysing information at these two levels that India became independent on August 15

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Psychology
1947 or a frog is an amphibian or you and Episodic memory contains biographical
your friend share the same name, are part of details of our lives. Memories relating to our
declarative memory. Procedural memory, on personal life experiences constitute the
the other hand, refers to memories relating to episodic memory and it is for this reason that
procedures for accomplishing various tasks its contents are generally emotional in nature.
and skills such as how to ride a bicycle, how How did you feel when you stood first in your
to make tea or play basketball. Facts retained class? Or how angry was your friend and what
in the declarative memory are amenable to did s/he say when you did not fulfil a promise?
verbal descriptions while contents of If such incidents did actually happen in your
procedural memory cannot be described life, you perhaps will be able to answer these
easily. For example, when asked you can questions with reasonable accuracy. Although
describe how the game of cricket is played but such experiences are hard to forget, yet it is
if someone asks you how do you ride a bicycle, equally true that many events take place
you may find it difficult to narrate. continuously in our lives and that we do not
Tulving has proposed yet another remember all of them. Besides, there are
classification and has suggested that the painful and unpleasant experiences which are
declarative memory can either be Episodic or not remembered in as much detail as pleasant
Semantic. life experiences.

Box 7.2 Long-term Memory Classification

The study of memory is a fascinating field and events contribute to it. During old age, the most recent
researchers have reported many new phenomena. years of life are likely to be well remembered. However,
The following phenomena show the complex and before this, around 30 years’ of age, decline in certain
dynamic nature of human memory. kinds of memory starts.
Flashbulb Memories : These are memories of Implicit Memory : Recent studies have indicated
events that are very arousing or surprising. Such that many of the memories remain outside the
memories are very detailed. They are like a photo conscious awareness of a person. Implicit memory is
taken with an advanced model camera. You can a kind of memory that a person is not aware of. It is
push the button, and after one minute you have a a memory that is retrieved automatically. One
recreation of the scene. You can look at the interesting example of implicit memory comes from
photograph whenever you want. Flashbulb the experience of typing. If someone knows typing
memories are like images frozen in memory and that means s/he also knows the particular letters
tied to particular places, dates, and times. on the keyboard. But many typists cannot correctly
Perhaps, people put in greater effort in the label blank keys in a drawing of a keyboard. Implicit
formation of these memories, and highlighting memories lie outside the boundaries of awareness.
details might lead to deeper levels of processing In other words, we are not conscious of the fact that
as well as offer more cues for retrieval. a memory or record of a given experience exists.
Autobiographical Memory : These are personal Nevertheless, implicit memories do influence our
memories. They are not distributed evenly behaviour. This kind of memory was found in patients
throughout our lives. Some periods in our lives suffering from brain injuries. They were presented a
produce more memories than others. For instance, list of common words. A few minutes later the patient
no memories are reported pertaining to early was asked to recall words from the list. No memory
childhood particularly during the first 4 to 5 years. was shown for the words. However, if s/he was
This is called childhood amnesia. There is a prompted to say a word that begins with these letters
dramatic increase in the frequency of memories and two letters are given, the patient was able to
just after early adulthood, i.e. in the twenties. recall words. Implicit memories are also observed in
Perhaps emotionality, novelty, and importance of people with normal memories.

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Chapter 7 • Human Memory
Semantic memory, on the other hand, is for various other classifications of long-term
the memory of general awareness and memory.
knowledge. All concepts, ideas and rules of
logic are stored in semantic memory. For
instance, it is because of semantic memory Activity 7.2
that we remember the meaning of say ‘non-
violence’ or remember that 2+6=8 or the STD 1. Think about your early school days. Write
down two separate events that occurred during
code of New Delhi is 011 or that the word
those days, and which you remember vividly.
‘elaphant’ is misspelt. Unlike episodic memory Use separate sheets for writing about each
this kind of memory is not dated; you perhaps event.
will not be able to tell when you learnt the 2. Think of the first month in Class XI. Write down
meaning of non-violence or on which date you two separate events that occurred during the
came to know that Bangalore is the capital of month, and which you remember vividly. Use
Karnataka. Since the contents of semantic separate sheets for each event.
memory relate to facts and ideas of general Compare these in terms of length, felt emotions,
awareness and knowledge, it is affect-neutral and coherence.
and not susceptible to forgetting. See Box 7.2

Activity 7.3
Write the sentences given below on separate cards. Invite some junior students to play this
game with you. Seat her/him across a table in front of you. Tell her/him “In this game you will
be shown some cards one by one at a steady pace, you have to read the question written on
each card and answer it in yes or no”.
Note down the answers.
1. Is the word written in capital letters? BELT
2. Does the word rhyme with the word crew? grew
3. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“____________ study in school”. Students
4. Does the word rhyme with the word gold? mood
5. Is the word written in capital letters? bread
6. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“The son of my uncle is my ____________.” cousin
7. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
My _________ is a vegetable. home
8. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“__________ is a piece of furniture”. Potato
9. Is the word written in capital letters? TABLE
10. Does the word rhyme with the word wears? bears
11. Is the word written in capital letters? marks
12. Does the word rhyme with the word clear? five
13. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“Children like to play __________ .” games
14. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“People usually meet __________ in the bucket.” friends
15. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“My class room is filled with ________.” shirts
16. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“My mother gives me enough pocket __________.” money
After completing the task of reading the cards, ask the students to recall the words about which
the questions were asked. Note down the words recalled. Count the number of words recalled in
the structural, phonological, and semantic types of processing required by the question.
Discuss results with your teacher.

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Psychology
Box 7.3 Methods of Memory M easurement
Measurement

There are many ways in which memory is semantic memory is not amenable to any
measured experimentally. Since there are many forgetting because it embodies general knowledge
kinds of memories, any method appropriate for that we all possess. In sentence verification task,
studying one type of memory may not be suited the participants are asked to indicate whether the
for studying another. The major methods which given sentences are true or false. Faster the
are used for memory measurement are being participants respond, better retained is the
presented here : information needed to verify those sentences (see
a) Free Recall and Recognition (for measuring Activity 7.3 for use of this task in measurement of
facts/episodes related memory) : In free recall semantic knowledge).
method, participants are presented with c) Priming (for measuring information we cannot
some words which they are asked to report verbally) : We store many kinds of
memorise and after some time they are asked information that we can’t report verbally - for
to recall them in any order. The more they instance, information necessary to ride a bicycle
are able to recall, the better their memory is. or play a sitar. Besides, we also store information
In recognition, instead of being asked to that we are not aware of, which is described as
generate items, participants see the items implicit memory. In priming method, participants
that they had memorised along with are shown a list of words, such as garden,
distracter items (those that they had not seen) playground, house, etc. and then they are shown
and their task is to recognise which one of parts of these words like gar, pla, ho, along with
those they had lear nt. The greater the parts of other words they had not seen.
number of recognition of ‘old items’, better is Participants complete parts of seen words more
the memory. quickly than parts of words they had not seen.
b) Sentence Verification Task (for measuring When asked, they are often unaware of this and
semantic memory) : As you have already read, report that they have only guessed.

take variable lengths of time in answering


KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION AND
questions, which require semantic judgments.
ORGANISATION IN MEMORY While responding to question ‘Do birds fly?’ a
In this section we will take a look at the person will take not more than a second but
organisational structure that the contents of answering a question ‘Are birds animals’? may
long-term memory acquire over a period of take longer. Depending upon how much time
time. Since long-term memory holds a very people take in responding to questions such
large amount of information which is put to as these, the nature of organisation in long-
use with amazing efficiency, it would be very term memory has been inferred.
useful to know how our memory system The most important unit of representation
organises its contents so that the right of knowledge in long-term memory is a
information is available at the right moment. concept. Concepts are mental categories for
It is important to note at this point that many objects and events, which are similar to each
ideas relating to organisation of the content other in one or in more than one way.
of long-term memory have resulted from Concepts once formed get organised in
experiments that have employed semantic categories — a category itself is a concept but
retrieval tasks. You will perhaps agree that it also functions to organise similarities among
there cannot be any error in recalling the other concepts based on common features. For
contents of semantic memory. For anyone who example, the word mango is a category
knows that birds fly will not make a mistake because different varieties of mangoes can be
in answering a question — Do birds fly? The subsumed within it and it is also a concept
answer will be in affirmative. But people may within the category of fruit. Concepts may also

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get organised in schema. They are mental of experiments were asked to verify the truth
frameworks which represent our knowledge of the statements such as ‘canary is a bird’ or
and assumptions about the world. For ‘a canary is an animal’ (answer was in Yes/
example, think of a schema of a drawing room. No). These were generally class-inclusion
It will have different objects/things, like a sofa statements in which the subject was word
set, center table, paintings, etc., which are ‘canary’ (perhaps, you know, it is a bird) and
found in a drawing room and where they are the predicate took the form ‘is a’. A critical
found in the drawing room. finding of such experiments was that as the
So far we have examined the concept as predicate became hierarchically more remote
the basic level at which knowledge is from the subject in a sentence, participants
represented in the long-term memory and the took longer time to verify that it is true or false.
notions of category and schema as the first Thus, people took longer to verify that a
level at which concepts are organised. Let ‘canary is an animal’ compared to that which
us now look at a higher level of organisation said ‘canary is a bird’ because bird is an
that concepts acquire in the long-term immediate superordinate category in which
memory. canary is subsumed while animal is a
In the year 1969, Allan Collins and Ross superordinate category which is more distant
Quillian published a landmark research paper and remote from the concept canary.
in which they suggested that knowledge in According to this view, we can store all
long-term memory is organised hierarchically knowledge at a certain level that ‘applies to
and assumes a network structure. Elements all the members of a category without having
of this structure are called nodes. Nodes are to repeat that information at the lower levels
concepts while connections between nodes are in the hierarchy’. This ensures a high degree
labelled relationships, which indicate category of cognitive economy, which means
membership or concept attributes. maximum and efficient use of the capacity of
In order to verify the proposed network long-term memory with minimum
structure of long-term knowledge, participants redundancy.

Has skin
Breathes
Animal
Eats food
Can move around

Has wings
Bird Can fly Has fins
Has feathers Fish Can swim
Has gills

Canary Has long thin legs


Is pink
Ostrich Is tall
Is edible
Can’t fly Salmon
Swims upstream
to lay eggs
Can sing Is yellow
Shark

Can bite Is dangerous

Fig.7.2 : The Hierarchical Network Model

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Psychology
So far we have discussed concept as unit visually. This is known as dual coding
of representation of knowledge in the long- hypothesis, originally proposed by Paivio.
term memory and looked at various ways in According to this hypothesis, concrete nouns
which concepts get organised. Does this mean and information related to concrete objects are
that knowledge is encoded only in word-like encoded and stored in the form of images while
format or can there be other ways of encoding? information related to abstract concepts
It has been shown that information can be assume a verbal and a descriptive code. For
coded in a perceptual format or in terms of example, if you are asked to describe a bird,
images. An image is a concrete form of the first thing that happens is that an image
representation which directly conveys the of a bird is generated and based on this image,
perceptual attributes of an object. If you were you describe a bird. But, on the other hand,
to come across the word ‘school’, an image of the meanings of concepts like ‘truth’ or
your own school will get generated. In fact, ‘honesty’ will not have such accompanying
almost all concrete objects (and concepts) images. So, any information which has been
generate images and the knowledge related to encoded verbally as well as in the form of
them is encoded both verbally as well as images is recalled with greater ease.

Box 7.4 Memory Making : Eyewitness and FFalse


Eyewitness alse Memories

Eyewitness Memory False Memory


Court procedures followed in criminal trials, use An interesting phenomenon called false memory can
the testimony given by the eyewitness of the be induced by powerful imagination of events that did
offense. It is considered to be the most reliable not take place at all. Surprised? Let us look at one
evidence for or against the accused. Some such study carried out by Garry, Manning and Loftus
experiments carried out by Loftus and her in 1996 and understand the features of false memory.
colleagues during the mid-seventies showed that Initially they presented before the participants
the eyewitness’s memory is susceptible to many of their experiments, a list of events that could have
flaws. occurred in their lives. In the first phase of this
The experimental procedure followed by Loftus experiment, they rated the likelihood that each of
was very simple. A film clipping of an event (usually these events actually took place in their lives to the
a car accident) was shown to the participants. This best of their childhood memories. Two weeks later,
was followed by some questions, which interferes they were invited again to the laboratory and were
with encoding of the event. One of the questions asked to imagine those events and visualise as if
was “how fast were the cars going when they they actually happened to them. In particular, events
smashed into each other”. In another question the which were rated low in terms of their likelihood of
verb smashed was replaced with the verb occurrence, were chosen for the task of visualising
contacted. Those who were asked the first question and imagining. This was the second phase of the
(which included the word ‘smashed’) estimated the experiment. Finally, in the third phase, the
speed of the cars as 40.8 mph. Those who were experimenters pretended that they had misplaced
given the second question (i.e. with the word the event likelihood ratings which they had obtained
‘contacted’) estimated that the speed of the cars during the first phase and therefore requested the
was only 31.8 mph. Clearly, the nature of leading participants to respond to the list, once again.
questions changed the memory. In fact, the Interestingly, events which were rated low on
encoding of the event was ‘overwritten’ by likelihood in the first phase but were later visualised
misleading questions. Some of these errors are also and imagined as real were now rated high. The
committed because of affective nature of the event participants reported that those events actually took
itself. For example, events depicting violence or a place in their lives. These findings suggest that
tragedy tend to arouse strong emotions, the memory can be induced and implanted through
eyewitnesses get overwhelmed and do not pay imagination inflation — a finding that provides useful
attention to details while encoding. insights into memory processes.

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Chapter 7 • Human Memory
Information which has been encoded and processes. He conducted simple experiments
stored in the form of images leads to the in which reading of such stimulus materials
development of mental models. There are many was followed by fifteen minutes break and then
routine tasks which require mental models. the participants of his experiment recalled what
For example, following a road direction, they had read. Bartlett used the method of
assembling a bicycle or even preparing to cook serial reproduction in which the participants
an exotic dish from instructions given in a of his experiments recalled the memory
cookery book require that spatial mental materials repeatedly at varying time intervals.
models are created from verbal descriptions. While engaging in serial reproduction of
Mental models, therefore, refer to our belief learned material his participants committed
about the manner in which our environment a wide variety of ‘errors’ which Bartlett
is structured and such beliefs are formed with considered useful in understanding the
the help of concrete images as well as verbal process of memory construction. His
descriptions. participants altered the texts to make them
more consistent with their knowledge, glossed
over the unnecessary details, elaborated the
MEMORY AS A CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS
main theme and transformed the material to
If you were to carefully examine the initial look more coherent and rational.
explorations about memory processes, you will In order to explain such findings, Bartlett
perhaps conclude that memory primarily invoked the term schema, which according
consists of reproduction of stored materials. to him ‘was an active organisation of past
This view was held by Ebbinghaus and his reactions and past experiences’. Schemas refer
followers who emphasised the quantity of to an organisation of past experiences and
information that can be stored in the memory knowledge, which influence the way in which
and judged its accuracy by matching the incoming information is interpreted, stored,
contents of storage and reproduction. If the and later retrieved. Memory, therefore,
reproduced version of the stored material becomes an active process of construction
showed any deviation, it was seen as an error where information is encoded and stored in
and a case of memory failure. This storage terms of a person’s understanding and within
metaphor of memory implied that the memory her/his previous knowledge and expectations.
was a passive occurrence of learnt material
that has been transported to its long-term NATURE AND CAUSES OF FORGETTING
storehouse. This position was challenged by
Bartlett in the early thirties who contended Each one of us has experienced forgetting and
that memory is an active process and all that its consequences almost routinely. Why do we
we have stored undergoes continuous change forget? Is it because the information we
and modification. What we memorise is commit to our long-term memory is somehow
influenced by the meaning we assign to the lost? Is it because we did not memorise it well
stimulus material and once it is committed to enough? Is it because we did not encode the
our memory system, it cannot remain in information correctly or is it because during
isolation from other cognitive processes. storage, it got distorted or misplaced? Many
In essence, therefore, Bartlett saw memory theories have been forwarded to explain
as a constructive and not a reproductive forgetting and now you will read about those
process. Using meaningful materials such as that seem plausible and have received
texts, folk tales, fables, etc. Bartlett attempted considerable attention.
to understand the manner in which content The first systematic attempt to understand
of any specific memory gets affected by a the nature of forgetting was made by Hermann
person’s knowledge, goals, motivation, Ebbinghaus, who memorised lists of nonsense
preferences and various other psychological syllables (CVC trigrams such as NOK or SEP

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Psychology
etc.) and then measured the number of trials decay due to disuse, then people who go to
he took to relearn the same list at varying time sleep after memorising should forget more
intervals. He observed that the course of compared to those who remain awake, simply
forgetting follows a certain pattern which you because there is no way in which memory
can see in Figure 7.3. traces can be put to use during sleep. Results,
however, show just the opposite. Those who
remain awake after memorising (waking

0
100

Amount forgotten (per cent)


Amount retained (per cent)

condition) show greater forgetting than those


who sleep (sleeping condition).

25
20 min.
75

Amount Because trace decay theory did not explain


1 hr. forgotten forgetting adequately, it was soon replaced by
8.8 hrs.
50

50
another theory of forgetting which suggested
that new information that enters the long-term
75
memory interferes with the recall of earlier
25

Amount memories and therefore, interference is the


retained main cause of forgetting.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 30 31 100 Forgetting due to Interference


Time since learning (in days) If forgetting is not due to trace decay then why
does it take place? A theory of forgetting that
Fig.7.3 : Ebbinghaus’s Curve of Forgetting has perhaps been the most influential one is
the interference theory which suggests that
As the figure indicates, the rate of forgetting is due to interference between
forgetting is maximum in the first nine hours, various informations that the memory store
particularly during the first hour. After that contains. This theory assumes that learning
the rate slows down and not much is forgotten and memorising involve for ming of
even after many days. Although Ebbinghaus’s associations between items and once acquired,
experiments constituted initial explorations these associations remain intact in the
and were not very sophisticated yet they have memory. People keep acquiring numerous
influenced memory research in many such associations and each of these rests
important ways. It is now upheld, almost independently without any mutual conflict.
unanimously, that there is always a sharp However, interference comes about at a time
drop in memory and thereafter the decline is of retrieval when these various sets of
very gradual. Let us now examine the main associations compete with each other for
theories, which have been advanced to explain retrieval. This interference process will become
forgetting. clearer with a simple exercise. Request your
friend to learn two separate lists of nonsense
Forgetting due to Trace Decay syllables (list A and list B) one after the other
and after a while ask her/him to recall the
Trace decay (also called disuse theory) is the nonsense syllables of list A. If while trying to
earliest theory of forgetting. The assumption recall the items of list A, s/he recalls some of
here is that memory leads to modification in the items of list B, it is because of the
the central nervous system, which is akin to association formed while learning list B are
physical changes in the brain called memory interfering with the earlier association which
traces. When these memory traces are not were formed while learning list A.
used for a long time, they simply fade away There are atleast two kinds of interferences
and become unavailable. This theory has been that may result in forgetting. Interference can
proved inadequate on several grounds. If be proactive (forward moving) which means
forgetting takes place because memory traces what you have learnt earlier interferes with

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Chapter 7 • Human Memory
Table 7.1 Experimental Designs ffor
or Retroactive and PProactive
roactive Interference
Interference

Retroactive Interference Phase 1 Phase 2 Testing Phase


Experimental participant/group Learns A Learns B Recalls A
Control participant/group Learns A Rests Recalls A

Proactive Interference
Experimental participant/group Learns A Learns B Recalls B
Control participant/group Rests Learns B Recalls B

the recall of your subsequent learning or Forgetting due to Retrieval Failure


retroactive (backward moving) which refers to
Forgetting can occur not only because the
difficulty in recalling what you have learnt
memory traces have decayed over time (as
earlier because of learning a new material. In suggested by the disuse theory) or because
other words, in proactive interference, past independent sets of stored associations
learning interferes with the recall of later compete at the time of recall (as suggested by
learning while in retroactive interference the the interference theory) but also because at
later learning interferes with the recall of past the time of recall, either the retrieval cues are
learning. For example, if you know English absent or they are inappropriate. Retrieval
and you find it difficult to learn French, it is cues are aids which help us in recovering
because of proactive interference and if, on information stored in the memory. This
the other hand, you cannot recall English view was advanced by Tulving and his
equivalents of French words that you are associates who carried out several
currently memorising, then it is an example experiments to show that contents of memory
of retr oactive inter ference. A typical may become inaccessible either due to
experimental design that is used to absence or inappropriateness of retrieval cues
demonstrate proactive and retroactive that are available/employed at the time of
interference has been presented in Table 7.1. recall.

Box 7.5 Repressed Memories

Some individuals undergo experiences that are in highly generalised amnesia. One of the results of
traumatic. A traumatic experience emotionally such flights is the emergence of a disorder known as
hurts a person. Sigmund Freud posited that such ‘fugue state’. Persons who become victims of such a
experiences are repressed into the unconscious state assume a new identity, name, address, etc.
and are not available for retrieval from memory. They have two personalities and one knows nothing
It is a kind of repression — painful, threatening, about the other.
and embarrassing memories are held out of Forgetfulness or loss of memory under stress
consciousness. and high anxiety is not uncommon. Many hard
In some persons, traumatic experiences may working and ambitious students aspire for high
give rise to psychological amnesia. Some scores in final examinations and to achieve such
individuals experience crisis, and are utterly ends they put in long hours in studies. But when
incapable of coping with such events. They close they receive the question paper, they become
their eyes, ears and mind to such harsh realities extremely nervous and forget everything they had
of life, and take mental flight from them. It results prepared well.

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Psychology
Activity 7.4
Given below are two lists of words. First memorise the list in such a way that you are able to
recall the words without any error. Now you take up the second list and memorise it to the
criterion of correct recall error. Forget about the list and read something else for an hour. Now
recall the words in the first list and write them down. Note the total number of words correctly
recalled and the number of words incorrectly recalled.
List 1
Goat Sheep Leopard
Jackal Monkey Camel
Mule Deer Squirrel
Horse Cheetah Wolf
Snake Rabbit Parrot
List 2
Pig Elephant Donkey
Pigeon Cobra Tiger
Mynah Lion Calf
Bears Fox Crow
Buffalo Mouse
Get the cooperation of one of your friends and request her/him to memorise the words of List 1
to the criterion as stated above. Request her/him to sing a song and have a cup of tea with you.
Keep her/him engaged in some conversation for an hour or so. Then request her/him to write
down the words s/he had memorised earlier.
Compare your recall with the one made by your friend.

Let us understand this with the help of an improved. There are a number of strategies
example. Suppose you have memorised a list for improving memory called mnemonics
of meaningful words like hut, wasp, cottage, (pronounced ni-mo-nicks) to help you improve
gold, bronze, ant, etc. in which words belonged your memory. Some of these mnemonics
to six categories (like places of living, names involve use of images whereas others
of insects, types of metal, etc.). If after a while emphasise self-induced organisation of
you are asked to recall those you may recall a learned information. You will now read about
couple of them but if during the second recall mnemonics and some suggestions given for
attempt, you are also provided with category memory improvement.
names, then you may find that your recall is
near total. Category names in this example Mnemonics using Images
act as retrieval cues. Besides category names,
the physical context in which you learn also Mnemonics using images require that you
provides effective retrieval cues. create vivid and interacting images of and
around the material you wish to remember.
The two prominent mnemonic devices, which
ENHANCING MEMORY make interesting use of images, are the
keyword method and the method of loci.
All of us desire to possess an excellent memory
system that is robust and dependable. Who, (a) The Keyword Method : Suppose you want
after all, likes to face situations of memory to learn words of any foreign language. In
failures that lead to so much of anxiety and keyword method, an English word (the
embarrassment? After learning about various assumption here is that you know English
memory related processes, you certainly would language) that sounds similar to the word of
like to know how your memory can be a foreign language is identified. This English

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Chapter 7 • Human Memory
word will function as the keyword. For example, (b) First Letter Technique : In order to employ
if you want to remember the Spanish word for the first letter technique, you need to pick up
duck which is ‘Pato’, you may choose ‘pot’ as the first letter of each word you want to
the keyword and then evoke images of keyword remember and arrange them to form another
and the target word (the Spanish word you want word or a sentence. For example, colours of a
to remember) and imagine them as interacting. rainbow are remembered in this way
You might, in this case, imagine a duck in a (VIBGYOR- that stands for Violet, Indigo, Blue,
pot full of water. This method of learning words Green, Yellow, Orange and Red).
of a foreign language is much superior Mnemonic strategies for memory
compared to any kind of rote memorisation. enhancement are too simplistic and perhaps
underestimate complexities of memory tasks
(b) The Method of Loci : In order to use the
and difficulties people experience while
method of loci, items you want to remember
memorising. In place of mnemonics, a more
are placed as objects arranged in a physical
comprehensive approach to memory
space in the form of visual images. This
improvement has been suggested by many
method is particularly helpful in remembering
psychologists. In such an approach, emphasis
items in a serial order. It requires that you
is laid on applying knowledge about memory
first visualise objects/places that you know
processes to the task of memory improvement.
well in a specific sequence, imagine the objects
Let us examine some of these suggestions.
you want to remember and associate them one
It is suggested that one must :
by one to the physical locations. For example,
(a) Engage in Deep Level Processing : If you
suppose you want to remember bread, eggs,
want to memorise any information well,
tomatoes, and soap on your way to the market,
engage in deep level processing. Craik and
you may visualise a loaf of bread and eggs
Lockhart have demonstrated that processing
placed in your kitchen, tomatoes kept on a
information in terms of meaning that they
table and soap in the bathroom. When you
convey leads to better memory as compared
enter the market all you need to do is to take
to attending to their surface features. Deep
a mental walk along the route from your
processing would involve asking as many
kitchen to the bathroom recalling all the items questions related to the information as
of your shopping list in a sequence. possible, considering its meaning and
examining its relationships to the facts you
Mnemonics using Organisation
already know. In this way, the new information
Organisation refers to imposing certain order will become a part of your existing knowledge
on the material you want to remember. framework and the chances that it will be
Mnemonics of this kind are helpful because remembered are increased.
the framework you create while organisation
(b) Minimise Interference : Interference, as we
makes the retrieval task fairly easy.
have read, is a major cause of forgetting and
(a) Chunking : While describing the features therefore you should try to avoid it as much
of short-term memory, we noted how chunking as possible. You know that maximum
can increase the capacity of short-term interference is caused when very similar
memory. In chunking, several smaller units materials are learned in a sequence. Avoid this.
are combined to form large chunks. For Arrange your study in such a way that you do
creating chunks, it is important to discover not learn similar subjects one after the other.
some organisation principles, which can link Instead, pick up some other subject unrelated
smaller units. Therefore, apart from being a to the previous one. If that is not possible,
control mechanism to increase the capacity distribute your learning/practice. This means
of short-term memory, chunking can be used giving yourself intermittent rest periods while
to improve memory as well. studying to minimise interference.

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Psychology
(c) Give Yourself enough Retrieval Cues : While solve all problems related to retention and
you learn something, think of retrieval cues bring about an over night memory
inherent in your study material. Identify them improvement. In order to improve your
and link parts of the study material to these memory, you need to attend to a wide variety
cues. Cues will be easier to remember of factors which affect your memory such as
compared to the entire content and the links your health status, your interest and
you have created between cues and the motivation, your familiarity with the subject
content will facilitate the retrieval process. matter and so on. In addition, you must learn
Thomas and Robinson have developed to use strategies for memory improvement
another strategy to help students in depending upon the nature of memory tasks
remembering more which they called the you are required to accomplish.
methods of PQRST. This acronym stands for
Preview, Question, Read, Self-recitation, and
Test. Preview refers to giving a cursory look at Key Terms
the chapter and familiarising oneself with its
contents. Question means raising questions Chunking, Cognitive economy, Concepts,
and seeking answers from the lesson. Now Control process, Dual coding, Echoic memory,
Encoding, Episodic memory, Elaborative
start reading and look for answers of questions
rehearsals, Fugue state, Infor mation
you had raised. After reading try to rewrite processing approach, Maintenance
what you have read and at the end test how rehearsals, Memory making, Mnemonics,
much you have been able to understand. Schema, Semantic memory, Serial
At the end, a note of caution must be reproduction, Working memory
sounded. There is no one method that can

Summary
• Memory is seen as consisting of three interrelated processes of encoding, storage and retrieval.
• While encoding is registering the incoming information in a way that it becomes compatible
to the memory system, storage and retrieval refers to holding the information over a period
of time and bringing the information back to one’s awareness, respectively.
• The Stage Model of Memory compares memory processes with the working of a computer
and suggests that incoming information is processed through three distinct stages of sensory
memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.
• Levels of processing view of memory contends that the information can be encoded at any
of the three levels, namely, the structural, the phonetic and the semantic. If an information
is analysed and encoded semantically, which is the deepest level of processing, then it
leads to better retention.
• Long-term memory has been classified in many ways. One major classification is that of
declarative and procedural memory and another is that of episodic and semantic memory.
• Contents of long-term memory get represented in terms of concepts, categories and images
and are organised hierarchically.
• Forgetting refers to loss of stored information over a period of time. After a material is learnt,
there is a sharp drop in its memory and then the decline is very gradual.
• Forgetting has been explained as resulting from trace decay and interference. It may also
be caused due to absence of appropriate cues at the time of retrieval.
• Memory is not only a reproductive but also a constructive process. What we store undergoes
change and modification within one’s past knowledge and schema.
• Mnemonics are strategies for improving memory. While some mnemonics use images, other
emphasise organisation of the learnt material.

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Chapter 7 • Human Memory
Review Questions
1. What is the meaning of the terms ‘encoding’, ‘storage’ and ‘retrieval’?
2. How is information processed through sensory, short-term and long-term memory systems?
3. How are maintenance rehearsals different from elaborative rehearsals?
4. Differenciate between declarative and procedural memories?
5. Describe the hierarchical organisation in long-term memory?
6. Why does forgetting take place?
7. How is retrieval related forgetting different from forgetting due to interference?
8. What evidence do we have to say that ‘memory is a constructive process’?
9. Define mnemonics? Suggest a plan to improve your own memory.

Project Ideas
1. Recall and write down an event of your life that you remember very clearly. Also request
others (those who were participants of that event such as your brother/sister, parents or
other relatives/friends) to do the same. Compare the two recalled versions and look for
discrepancies and similarities. Try to reason why there are similarities and discrepancies.
2. Narrate a story to your friend and ask her/him to write it down after an hour. Also request
her/him to narrate what s/he had written to another person. Continue this process till
you have at least 5 versions of the original story. Compare the various versions and
identify constructive processes in memory.

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Introduction
Think for a moment: how many times and in what ways you are using the word
‘think’ in your day-to-day conversations. Sometimes probably, you use it as a
synonym to remember (I can’t think of her name), pay attention (think about it ) or
convey uncertainty (I think today my friend will visit me). ‘Think’ has a wide range
of meanings which cover a number of psychological processes. However, in
psychology, thinking is a core subject area with an independent existence and a
meaning of its own. In this chapter, we will discuss thinking as a mental activity
directed at solving a problem, making inferences, judging certain facts, and deciding
and choosing between options. Further, the nature and characteristics of creative
thinking, what it involves and how it can be developed will also be discussed.
Have you ever seen a small child building a tower with blocks or sand? The child
would build a tower, dismantle it, make another one and so on and so forth. While
doing this, the child sometimes talks to herself or himself. The speech would primarily
include the steps s/he is following or want to follow (“not this”, “a little small”, “a
tree at the back”), evaluation of the design (“nice”). You also might have experienced
talking to yourself while solving a problem. Why do we talk while we think? What
is the relationship between language and thought? In this chapter, we shall also be
discussing the development of language and the relationship between language
and thought. Before starting our discussion on thinking, it is necessary to discuss
thinking as the base of human cognition.

Thinking is mostly organised and goal


NATURE OF THINKING
directed. All day-to-day activities, ranging from
Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities cooking to solving a math problem have a goal.
or processes and is unique to human beings. One desires to reach the goal by planning,
It involves manipulation and analysis of recalling the steps that one has already
information received from the environment. followed in the past if the task is familiar or
For example, while seeing a painting, you are inferring strategies if the task is new.
not simply focusing on the colour of the Thinking is an internal mental process,
painting or the lines and strokes, rather you which can be inferred from overt behaviour.
are going beyond the given text in interpreting If you see a chess player engrossed in thinking
its meaning and you are trying to relate the for several minutes before making a move, you
information to your existing knowledge. cannot observe what he is thinking. You can
Understanding of the painting involves simply infer what he was thinking or what
creation of new meaning that is added to your strategies he was trying to evaluate, from his
knowledge. Thinking, therefore, is a higher next move.
mental process through which we manipulate
and analyse the acquired or existing Building Blocks of Thought
information. Such manipulation and analysis We already know that thinking relies on
occur by means of abstracting, reasoning, knowledge we already possess. Such
imagining, problem solving, judging, and knowledge is represented either in the form
decision-making. of mental images or words. People usually

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Psychology
think by means of mental images or words. experience in reading a map, remembering
Suppose you are travelling by road to reach a the different places and subsequently locating
place, which you had visited long back. You them in a physical map in your examination.
would try to use the visual representation of In doing this, you were mostly forming and
the street and other places. On the other hand, using mental images. An image is a mental
when you want to buy a storybook your choice representation of a sensory experience; it
would depend upon your knowledge about can be used to think about things, places,
different authors, themes, etc. Here, your and events. You can try out Activity 8.1,
thinking is based on words or concepts. We which demonstrates how images are formed.
shall first discuss mental image and then move
on to concepts as the base of human thought. Activity 8.1
Mental Image Give a map, like the following in Fig.8.2a, to your
friend to observe for 2 minutes and tell her/him
Suppose, I ask you to imagine a cat sitting that later on s/he will be asked to locate the
on a tree with its tail slightly raised and marked places in a blank map. Then present a
curved. You would most likely try to form a map, like the one in Fig.8.2b, with no indications
visual image of the whole situation, of the different places. Ask your friend to locate
the places s/he has seen in the first map. Then
something similar to what the girl in the
ask how s/he was able to locate the places. S/he
picture is doing (Fig.8.1). Or think of another will probably be able to tell you the way s/he
formed an image of the whole situation.

Fig.8.2a : A Map Showing Places


Fig.8.1 : The Girl forming a Mental Image

situation where you are asked to imagine Concepts


yourself standing in front of the Taj Mahal How do you know that a lion is not a bird
and describe what you see. While doing this but a parrot is? You have already read this in
you are actually forming a visual image of Chapter 7. Whenever we come across an
the event. You are probably trying to see object or event familiar or unfamiliar, we try
through your mind’s eye, just like the way to identify the object or event by extracting
you would see a picture. Why is it useful to its characteristics, matching it with the already
draw a map while giving directions to existing category of objects and events. For
someone? Try to remember your earlier example, when we see an apple, we categorise

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Chapter 8 • Thinking
In the library too you have seen books
organised as per subject areas and labelled
so that you would be able to find them
quickly with less effort. Thus, for making our
thought process quick and efficient, we form
concepts and categorise objects and events.
You can find out how children form concepts
by doing Activity 8.2.

Activity 8.2
Take a piece of cardboard and cut triangles,
circles, and squares of three different sizes each,
small, medium and large. Then colour them yellow.
Similarly prepare a second set and colour them
green and a third set and colour them red. Now
Fig.8.2b : A Blank Map Up Side Down you have a set of 27 cards varying in shape, size,
and colour. Ask a child of five to six years of age
to group the similar cards together.
it as fruit, when we see a table we categorise
it as furniture, when we see a dog we
categorise it as an animal, and so on. When If you will try the above activity with a
we see a new object, we try to look for its group of small children, you will observe that
characteristics, match them with there are a number of ways in which the child
characteristics of an existing category, and if would respond. S/he would pile them up into
matching is perfect we give it the name of that different groups based on:
category. For example, while walking on the 1. size: all small triangles, squares, and
road you come across an unfamiliar circles together, all medium sized together,
quadruped of a very small size, with a face and so on.
like a dog, wagging its tail and barking at 2. shape: all triangles together, all circles
strangers. You would no doubt identify it as together, and so on
a dog and probably think that it is of a new 3. colour: all reds together, all yellows
breed, which you have never seen before. You together, and so on
would also conclude that it would bite 4. both size and shape: all small triangles
strangers. A concept thus, is a mental together, all medium triangles together,
representation of a category. It refers to a class and so on.
of objects, ideas or events that share common 5. size, shape and colour: all small circles of
properties. red colour together, all medium circles of
Why do we need to form concepts? yellow colour together, and so on.
Concept formation helps us in organising our You have already learned about concept
knowledge so that whenever we need to learning in Chapter 6, and the use of concepts
access our knowledge, we can do it with less in Human Memory in Chapter 7. Concepts
time and effort. It is something similar to usually fall into hierarchies or levels of
what we do to organise our things at home. understanding. The levels are classified as
Children who are very systematic and superordinate (the highest level), basic
organised, put their things such as books, (an intermediate level), and subordinate
note books, pen, pencil, and other accessories (the lowest level). While speaking we mostly
in specific places in their cupboard, so that use basic level concepts. When a person says,
in the morning, they don’t have to struggle “I saw a dog” a basic level is used. Such a
to find a particular book or the geometry box. statement is much more likely to be made than

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Psychology
“I saw a four legged animal that barks and category of “chair” otherwise under the
wags its tail” or “an animal”. The first category of “table”. Consider another example:
(subordinate) is far too specific than is needed the concept ‘cup’. Cups : (i) are concrete
for conversation, while the second objects, (ii) are concave, (iii) can hold solids
(superordinate) is far too vague to convey the and liquids, (iv) have handles. What about
intended message. Children also learn basic cups we see in the market: with no handle,
level concepts first and then the other levels. with a square shape or unusually big in size?
Most of the concepts people use in thinking In an experiment, the participants were shown
are neither clear nor unambiguous. They are the pictures of cups as in Fig.8.3 and W. Labov
fuzzy. They overlap one another and are often asked them: which of these would you describe
poorly defined. For example, under which as the prototype for the concept “cup”?
category would you put a small stool? Would Participants mostly chose number 5.
you put it under the category of ‘chair’ or Interestingly, some participants call number
under the category of ‘table’? The answer to 4 a bowl and number 9 a vase because they
these questions is that we construct a model were so different.
or prototype. A prototype is the best
representative member of the category. 1 2 3 4
Eleanor Rosch argues that in considering how
people think about concepts, prototypes are 5 13
10
often involved in real life. In prototype
matching, people decide whether an item is a 6 11 14
member of a category by comparing it with
the most typical item(s) of the category. 7
12 15
Therefore, in the above example of the stool,
you would try to compare it with a standard 8
16
study chair (if you consider it as the typical
18
example of a chair) and a small study table (if 17
9
you consider it as the typical example of a 19
table) and then match the properties of the
stool with these two concepts. If it matches
with a chair you would put it under the Fig.8.3 : When is a Cup a “Cup”?

Box 8.1 Culture and Thinking

Our beliefs, values, and social practices influence object separately which is called “analytical thinking”.
the way we think. In a study conducted on Asian people (Japanese, Chinese, Koreans) think more
American and Asian students, pictures like the about the relationship between objects and
following (underwater scene) were used. The backgrounds, which is called “holistic thinking”.
subjects were asked to have a look at the scene
for a brief period and then were asked to describe
what they saw. The American students focussed
on the biggest, brightest, and most outstanding
features (for example, “the large fish swimming
to the right”). In contrast, the Japanese students
focussed on the background (for example, “the
bottom was rocky” or “the water was green”).
Based on these kinds of findings, researchers
concluded that Americans usually analyse each

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Chapter 8 • Thinking
you perform to reach a defined goal, for
THE PROCESSES OF THINKING
example, preparing a quick snack for your
So far we have been discussing what we mean friend who has just arrived at your place. In
by thinking and what is the nature of thinking. problem solving there is an initial state (i.e.
We also learnt that thinking uses mental the problem) and there is an end state (the goal).
images and concepts as the base. Now we will These two anchors are connected by means of
discuss how thinking proceeds in a particular several steps or mental operations. Table 8.1
area: problem solving. would clarify your understanding of various
steps through which one solves a problem.
You can try out the problems given in
PROBLEM SOLVING Activity 8.3 with your friends and observe how
they are approaching the problem. You can
How do we proceed while repairing a broken
ask them the steps they follow while solving
cycle, or planning a summer tour or patching
these problems.
up a broken friendship? In some cases the
solution is reached quickly as in repair of a Obstacles to Solving Problems
bicycle based on immediately available cues
whereas others are more complex and require Two major obstacles to solving a problem are
time and effort. Problem solving is thinking mental set and lack of motivation.
that is goal-directed. Almost all our day-to-
day activities are directed towards a goal. Here Mental Set
it is important to know that problems are not Mental set is a tendency of a person to solve
always in the form of obstacles or hurdles that problems by following already tried mental
one faces. It could be any simple activity that operations or steps. Prior success with a

Table 8.1 Mental Operations Involved in Solving a PProblem


roblem

Let us look at the problem of organising a play in school on the occasion of Teachers’ Day.
Problem solving would involve the following sequence.
Mental operation Nature of problem
1. Identify the problem A week is left for teachers’ day and you are given
the task of organising a play.
2. Represent the problem Organising a play would involve identification of
an appropriate theme, screening of actors,
actresses, arranging money, etc.
3. Plan the solution: Search and survey various available themes for
Set sub-goals a play, and consult teachers and friends who have
the expertise. The play to be decided, based on
such considerations as cost, duration, suitability
for the occasion, etc.
4. Evaluate all solutions (plays) Collect all the information/stage rehearsal.
5. Select one solution and execute it Compare and verify the various options to get the
best solution (the play).
6. Evaluate the outcome If the play (solution) is appreciated, think about
the steps you have followed for future reference
for yourself as well as for your friends.
7. Rethink and redefine problems After this special occasion you can still think about
and solutions ways to plan a better play in future.

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Psychology
experienced this while solving mathematical
Activity 8.3 problems. After completing a couple of
questions, you form an idea of the steps that
Problem 1
Anagrams : Rearrange the letters to form a word. are required to solve these questions and
(You can also construct some similar words) subsequently you go on following the same
NAGMARA steps, until a point where you fail. At this point
BOLMPER you may experience difficulty in avoiding the
SLEVO already used steps. Those steps would
STGNIH
interfere in your thought for new strategies.
TOLUSONI
However, in day-to-day activities we often rely
Problem 2 on past experiences with similar or related
Joining dots : Without lifting your pencil from the problems.
paper, connect all nine dots by drawing four Like mental set, functional fixedness in
straight lines. problem solving occurs when people fail to
solve a problem because they are fixed on a
thing’s usual function. If you have ever used
a hardbound book to hammer a nail, then you
have overcome functional fixedness.

Lack of Motivation
Problem 3 People might be great at solving problems, but
Try out the ‘water in three bottles’ activity with
your friend.
all their skills and talents are of no use if they
There are three bottles, A, B, and C. Bottle A are not motivated. Sometimes people give up
can hold 21 ml., B can hold 127 ml., and C can easily when they encounter a problem or failure
hold 3 ml. The task for your friend is to get 100 ml in implementing the first step. Therefore, there
of water with the help of these three bottles. There is a need to persist in their effort to find a
are six more problems like this. These seven
solution.
problems are given below.
Problems The required The capacity of the
quantity bottles in ml. REASONING
A B C
If you find a person desperately running on
1. 100 21 127 3 the railway platform, you could infer a number
2. 99 14 163 25 of things such as: he is running to catch the
3. 5 18 43 10
4. 21 9 42 6
train which is about to leave, he wants to see
5. 31 20 59 4 off his friend sitting in the train which is about
6. 20 23 49 3 to leave, he has left his bag in the train and
7. 25 28 76 3 wants to get in before the train leaves the
(Answers are given at the end of the chapter) station. To figure out why this person is
running, you could use different kinds of
reasoning, deductive or inductive.
particular strategy would sometimes help in
solving a new problem. However, this tendency Deductive and Inductive Reasoning
also creates a mental rigidity that obstructs Since your previous experience indicates that
the problem solver to think of any new rules people run on the platform to catch a train,
or strategies. Thus, while in some situations you would conclude that this person is getting
mental set can enhance the quality and speed late and is running to catch the train.
of problem solving, in other situations it The kind of reasoning that begins with an
hinders problem solving. You might have assumption is called deductive reasoning.

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Chapter 8 • Thinking
Thus deductive reasoning begins with making conclude that the person had left his bag in
a general assumption that you know or believe the train. One mistake you would probably
to be true and then drawing specific make here is jumping to a conclusion without
conclusion based on this assumption. In other knowing all possible facts.
words, it is reasoning from general to From the above discussion we can
particular. Your general assumption is that conclude that reasoning is the process of
people run on the railway platform only when gathering and analysing information to arrive
they are getting late for the train. The man is at conclusions. In this sense, reasoning is also
running on the platform. Therefore, he is a form of problem solving. The goal is to
getting late for the train. One mistake that you determine what conclusion can be drawn from
are making (and generally people do commit certain given information.
such mistakes in deductive reasoning) is that Most cases of scientific reasoning are
you (they) assume but do not always know if inductive in nature. Scientists and even
the basic statement or assumption is true. If lay persons consider a number of instances
the base information is not true, i.e. people and try to determine what general rule covers
also run on the platform for other reasons then them all. Think of yourself using your
your conclusion would be invalid or wrong. knowledge of problem solving steps discussed
Look at the mouse in Fig.8.4. earlier in planning for a play, or conducting a
project. Your inductive reasoning is being
applied here.
gs,
ur le Analogy is another form of reasoning
h a ve fo gs,
ats le which involves four parts, A is to B as C is to
All c ave four a cat
Ih I a m D with the relation between the first two parts
fore
there being the same as the relation between the
last two. For example, water is to fish as air is
to human; white is to snow as black is to
coal. Analogies can be helpful in solving
problems. They help us in identifying and
visualising the salient attributes of an
object or event, which would otherwise go
unnoticed.

Fig.8.4 : Is the mouse making a True and DECISION-MAKING


Valid Conclusion?
Inductive and deductive reasonings allow us
Another way to figure out why the man is to make judgments. In judgment we draw
running on the platform is to use inductive conclusions, form opinions, evaluate events,
reasoning. Sometimes you would analyse objects, based on knowledge and available
other possible reasons and observe what the evidences. Consider this example, the man is
man is actually doing and then draw a very talkative, likes to mix with people, can
conclusion about his behaviour. Reasoning, convince others with ease — he would be most
that is based on specific facts and observation, suitable for a salesperson’s job. Our judgment
is called inductive reasoning. Inductive of this person is based on the specific
reasoning is drawing a general conclusion characteristics of an expert salesperson. Here
based on particular observation. In the earlier we will discuss how we make decisions and
example, you observed the other person’s judgments.
subsequent action or actions such as: entering Sometimes judgments are automatic and
into the train compartment and returning with require no conscious effort by the person and
a bag. Based on your observation you would occur as a matter of habit, for example,

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Psychology
applying brakes on seeing the red light. will differ. In real life situations we take quick
However, evaluating a novel or a literary text decisions and therefore, it is not possible
requires reference to your past knowledge and always to evaluate every situation thoroughly
experience. Judging the beauty of a painting and exhaustively.
would involve your personal preferences. Thus
our judgments are not independent of our
beliefs and attitudes. We also make changes
NATURE AND PROCESS OF CREATIVE
in our judgments based on newly acquired THINKING
information. Consider this example. A new You might have wondered at times how some
teacher joins the school, students make on-
one for the first time, thought of acts like
the-spot judgment of the teacher as being very
planting a seed, or devising a wheel, or
strict. However, in subsequent classes, they
decorating the walls of caves with drawings,
closely interact with the teacher and make
etc. Perhaps not satisfied with the old ways of
changes in their evaluation. Now they
carrying out day-to-day activities, such
judge the teacher to be extremely student-
persons thought of something original. There
friendly.
are countless others whose creativity has led
Many of the problems you solve each day
to the present day scientific and technological
require you to make decisions. What to wear
for the party? What to eat for dinner? What to progress that we now enjoy. Music, painting,
say to your friend? The answer to all these poetry, and other forms of art that give us
lies in picking or choosing one of several pleasure and joy, are all products of creative
choices. In decision-making, we sometimes thinking.
choose among options based on choices of You might have heard about A.D. Karve, a
personal significance. Judgment and decision- botanist from our country, who got the UK’s
making are interrelated processes. In decision- top energy award for devising a smokeless
making the problem before us is to choose ‘Chullah’. He converted dry, useless sugarcane
among alternatives by evaluating the cost and leaves into clean fuel. You might have also
benefit associated with each alternative. For heard of Class XI student Ashish Panwar, who
example, when you have the option to choose won a bronze medal for assembling a five feet
between psychology and economics as tall robot at the First International Robotics
subjects in Class XI, your decision would be Olympiad held at Glasgow. These are only a
based upon your interest, future prospects, few examples of creativity. Try to think of some
availability of books, efficiency of teachers, etc. other examples of creativity in different fields.
You could evaluate them by talking to seniors It is important to remember that creative
and faculty members and attending a few thinking is not always expressed in
classes, etc. Decision-making differs from extraordinary work. One does not have to be a
other types of problem solving. In decision- scientist or an artist to be a creative thinker.
making we already know the various solutions Everyone has the potential to be creative.
or choices and one has to be selected. Suppose Creative thinking can be applied in almost any
your friend is a very good player of badminton. area of human activity at different levels. It
S/he is getting an opportunity to play at the could be reflected in activities like writing,
state level. At the same time the final teaching, cooking, enacting roles, story telling,
examination is approaching and s/he needs conversation, dialogues, asking questions,
to study hard for it. S/he will have to choose playing games, trying to solve day-to-day
between two options, practising for badminton problems, organising activities, helping others
or studying for the final examination. In this resolve conflicts, and so on. This concept of
situation her/his decision will be based upon ‘Everyday Creativity’, which is reflected in one’s
evaluation of all possible outcomes. way of perceiving thinking and problem solving,
You would observe that people differ in is different from the ‘special talent creativity’
their priorities and therefore their decisions seen in outstanding creative achievements.

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Chapter 8 • Thinking
Nature of Creative Thinking many answers. A few such questions are given
below:
Creative thinking is distinguished from other
• What are the various uses of cloth?
types of thinking by the fact that it involves
• What improvements will you suggest in a
the production of novel and original ideas or
chair so that it becomes more comfortable
solutions to problems. Sometimes, creative
and aesthetically pleasing?
thinking is understood just as a new way of
• What will happen if examinations are
thinking or thinking differently. However, it is abolished in schools?
important to know that, besides novelty, Answers to the above questions require
originality is also an important characteristic divergent thinking which is an open-ended
of creative thinking. Every year new models thinking where the individual can think of
of household appliances, tape-recorders, cars, different answers to the questions or problems
scooters, and television sets produced may not in terms of her/his experiences. Such kind of
be original unless unique features are added thinking helps in producing novel and original
to these products. Creative thinking thus ideas.
refers to originality and uniqueness of ideas Divergent thinking abilities generally
or solutions that did not previously exist. include fluency, flexibility, originality, and
Creative thinking is also generally elaboration.
characterised by what Bruner calls “effective • Fluency is the ability to produce many
surprise”. If the product or idea is unusual, ideas for a given task or a problem. The
the response of most who experience it is one more ideas a person produces, the higher
of instant surprise or of being startled. his fluency ability. For example, more the
Another important criterion that number of uses of a paper cup, more would
characterises creative thinking is its be the fluency.
appropriateness in a particular context. • Flexibility indicates variety in thinking.
Simply thinking of being different without any It may be thinking of different uses of an
purpose, doing things in one’s own ways, being object, or different interpretation of a
non-conformist, indulging in fantasy without picture, story or different ways of solving
any purpose or coming out with a bizarre idea, a problem. In case of uses of a paper cup,
is at times mistaken for creative thinking. for example, one may give an idea to use it
Researchers tend to agree that thinking is said as a container or to draw a circle, etc.
to be creative when it is reality-oriented,
appropriate, constructive, and socially
desirable.
J.P. Guilford, a pioneer in creativity
research, proposed two types of thinking:
convergent and divergent. Convergent
thinking refers to thinking that is required to
solve problems which have only one correct
answer. The mind converges to the correct
solution. To illustrate, look at the question
given below. It is based on a number series,
where you have to find the next number. Only
one right answer is expected.
Q. 3,6,9….. what will come next?
Ans. 12.
Now you try to think of certain questions
for which there is no one right answer but Fig.8.5 : Thinking Divergently

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Psychology
Box 8.2 Lateral Thinking

Edward de Bono has used the term ‘lateral the ‘Six thinking hats’ technique to stimulate different
thinking’ to what Guilford termed as divergent modes of thinking. One can put on or take off these
thinking. He makes a distinction between vertical hats according to the type of thinking required to be
thinking and lateral thinking. Vertical thinking used. White hat means gathering information, facts,
involves mental operations that move in a straight figures, and filling gaps in information. Red hat covers
line back and forth between lower and higher expression of feelings, and emotions on the subject.
level concepts whereas lateral thinking involves Black hat represents judgment, caution and logic.
looking for alter native ways of defining and Yellow hat covers thinking on what will work and
interpreting problems. He states “vertical (logical) why it will be beneficial. Green hat is for creativity,
thinking digs the same hole deeper, i.e. thinking alter natives and changes. Blue hat represents
deeper in the same direction; lateral thinking is thinking about the process and not the ideas as such.
concerned with digging a hole in another place”. The ‘six thinking hats’ reflect different perspectives
De Bono suggests that lateral thinking can help from which an issue or problem is viewed. The
make mental leaps and is likely to create a technique can be used individually as well as in
number of ways of thinking. De Bono developed groups.

• Originality is the ability to produce ideas Divergent thinking is essential in generating


that are rare or unusual by seeing new a wide range of ideas. Convergent thinking is
relationships, combining old ideas with important to identify the most useful or
new ones, looking at things from different appropriate idea.
perspectives etc. Research has shown that
fluency and flexibility are the necessary Activity 8.4
conditions for originality. The more and
varied ideas one produces, the greater the Frame five different kinds of questions requiring
likelihood of original ideas. divergent thinking on issues and problems related
to traffic management/pollution/corruption/
• Elaboration is the ability that enables a
illiteracy/poverty. Share and discuss in the class.
person to go into details and workout
implications of new ideas.
Divergent thinking abilities facilitate
Process of Creative Thinking
generation of a variety of ideas which may not
seem to be related. For example, what are the In recent years, more and more attention has
common ideas for enhancing food production? been given to the way the human mind
The likely answers would be related to quality operates. Research has made it clear that
of seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, and so on. If thinking of new and unusual ideas involve
someone thinks of cultivation in a desert for more than a flash of insight. There are stages
extracting protein from weeds, it would be a before and after the new ideas come.
remote idea. The association here is between The starting point in creative process is
‘food production’ and ‘desert’ or ‘weeds’. the need to think or bring out something new
Ordinarily, we do not associate these together. which initiates the effort. Not everyone
But, if we let our mind free to seek new and experiences this need, as one can be happy
remote associations, a number of combination and contented, in carrying out routine work.
of ideas may arise out of which one or two The need for search of new ideas and solutions
may turn out to be original. You must arises from sensing problems and gaps in
remember that both convergent and divergent information. The process of creative thinking
thinking are important for creative thinking. begins with the preparation stage that

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Chapter 8 • Thinking
appropriateness of ideas or solutions are
tested and judged. Here, convergent thinking
plays its role in selecting the appropriate idea
or solution that works.

DEVELOPING CREATIVE THINKING


As discussed in the previous section, you may
recall that the potential for creative thinking
is in all of us. It is not limited to a few talented
artists or scientists or to a chosen few. The
expression of creative thinking may vary from
individual to individual. Although hereditary
factors are important in determining the extent
to which one can be creative, environmental
Fig.8.6 : The Creative Process factors facilitate or hamper the development
of creative thinking abilities. Research in
requires one to understand the task or different countries including India has shown
problem in hand, analyse the problem, and a slump in the level of creative thinking of
become aware of the background facts and school children at different stages due to
related information. The process evokes environmental factors. On the other hand,
curiosity and excitement to think more and research also indicates that children from
more in different directions. The person tries lower socio-economic groups, ethnic and
to look at the task or problem from different minority groups have substantial untapped
angles and viewpoints. Here, divergent creativity and that they are creative in many
thinking abilities discussed earlier play their different ways.
role to help one extend in new directions. Research has also shown that all of us can
Coming back to the process, when the make better use of our abilities for creative
person is trying to generate alternative ideas thinking through practice and training. We can
and trying to view the problem or task from become more imaginative, flexible, and original
an unusual perspective, there may be a feeling in solving day-to-day problems creatively and
of getting stuck. One may even get disgusted effectively. Development of creative thinking
with failure and may leave the problem or the is important for one’s personal growth and
task for sometime. This is the stage of fulfilment.
incubation. Research shows that creative
ideas may not occur immediately during Barriers to Creative Thinking
incubation when the individual is not The first step in developing creative thinking
consciously thinking about the problem but is to identify inhibiting factors that impede
seeking relaxation from conscious effort. They creative expression and then make conscious
may occur or strike when a person is doing attempts to overcome the same. As we are
something else, for example, going to sleep, discussing, you may analyse how you
waking up, taking a bath or just walking along. approach your tasks and problems.
Followed by incubation is the stage of There are blocks to creative thinking which
illumination - the ‘Aha’! or ‘I have found it’ can be categorised as habitual, perceptual,
experience, the moment we normally associate motivational, emotional, and cultural.
with emergence of creative ideas. There usually Although much habitual learning is necessary
is, a feeling of excitement, even satisfaction, for smooth and efficient functioning within the
of having found a creative idea. Last is the daily routine, the tendency to be overpowered
stage of verification when the worth or by habits particularly in one’s ways of thinking

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can be detrimental to creative expression. We to block creative thinking. Cultural blocks
become so used to thinking and perceiving arise due to the fear of being different, the
things in a familiar way that it becomes tendency to maintain status quo, willingness
difficult to think in novel ways. It may be to accept mediocrity, preservation of personal
related to our tendency to quickly jump to security, social pressure, over dependence on
conclusions, not to see problems from fresh others, etc.
perspectives, be satisfied with routine patterns The fact that everyone has the potential to
of doing things, or resist to overcome pre- be creative and that one can differ in one’s
conceived view points, and not to change expression of creative thinking requires that
immediate judgment, etc. The perceptual we all tap our creative potential and remove
blocks prevent us from being open to novel the barriers as discussed above.
and original ideas. Try to recall the joining
dot problem in Activity 8.3, where you were Activity 8.5
required to connect all nine dots with four
straight lines going through each dot only once Ponder over some statements that we often use
without lifting the pencil or pen from the paper. and which may prevent or aid the emergence of
those creative ideas. List those which may block
The solution to the problem lies in going
new ideas like ‘This is not logical’, ‘Time is too short
beyond the boundaries. We assume that to think any more’, ‘It would not work’, etc. and
boundaries exist whereas they did not. Many positive statements like ‘Is there any other way?’,
would attempt to solve the problem by staying ‘What else?’, etc.
in the square that the nine dots form. There
is nothing in the directions to do this. The
joining dots problem is indicative of the Strategies for Creative Thinking
boundaries and the limitations that are
Research on characteristics of creative people
assumed or self-imposed.
has revealed that there are certain attitudes,
Motivational and emotional blocks also
dispositions, and skills which facilitate creative
interfere with creative thinking which show thinking. Here are some strategies to help you
that creative thinking is not merely a cognitive enhance your creative thinking abilities and
process. Lack of motivation, fear of failure, fear skills:
of being different, fear of ridicule or rejection, • Become more aware and sensitive to be
poor self-concept, negativism, etc. may able to notice and respond to feelings,
hamper creative thinking. For example, some sights, sounds, textures around you. Spot
people may not be motivated enough to extend problems, missing information, anomalies,
themselves and make extra efforts. A person gaps, deficiencies, and so on. Try to notice
may find that s/he can not do it further, may contradictions and incompleteness in
leave the problem in between or may accept situations that others may not do. For this,
the intermediate idea as the final idea. Further, cultivate the habit of wider reading,
some people, for example, have negative exposure to a variety of information, and
assumptions about themselves. They feel that develop the art of asking questions,
they are not capable of doing some tasks. You pondering over the mysteries of situations
may be surprised to know that Thomas Alva and objects.
Edison, the inventor of the bulb, took years of • Generate as many ideas, responses,
experimentation with hundreds of failures solutions or suggestions on a given task
before he produced the first bulb. or situation to increase your flow of
Cultural barriers are related to excessive thoughts. Try deliberately to look for
adherence to traditions, expectations, multiple angles of a task and situation to
conformity pressures, and stereotypes. increase flexibility in your thinking. It
Conformity to some extent is essential for could be, for example, thinking of
social existence but excessive conformity to alternative arrangements of furniture in a
traditions, rituals, and procedures are likely room to generate more space, different

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Chapter 8 • Thinking
ways of conversing with people, looking for work according to your interest and
costs and benefits of a course of study or hobbies. It may be decorating the house,
career, looking for ways of dealing with an improvising or redesigning of old objects,
angry friend, helping others, etc. making use of waste products in multiple
• Osborn’s Brainstorming technique can be ways, completing incomplete ideas in
used to increase fluency and flexibility of unique ways, giving new twist to stories
ideas to open-ended situations. or poems, developing riddles, puzzles,
Brainstorming is based on the principle solving mysteries and so on.
that producing ideas should be kept • Never accept the first idea or solution.
separate from the evaluation of their worth. Many ideas die because we reject them
The basic assumption is to let the minds thinking that the idea might be a silly idea.
think freely and the tendency to put You have to first generate a number of
judgment on the worth of ideas may be possible ideas or solutions, then select the
postponed, i.e. imagination should be best from among them.
given priority over judgment till all the • Get a feedback on the solutions you decide
ideas are exhausted. This helps in on from others who are less personally
increasing the fluency of ideas and piling involved in the task.
up alternatives. Brainstorming can be • Try to think of what solutions someone
practised by playing brainstorming games
else may offer for your problems.
with family members and friends keeping
• Give your ideas the chance to incubate.
its principles in mind. Use of checklists
Allowing time for incubation between
and questions often provide a new twist
production of ideas and the stage of
for ideas like, What other changes? What
evaluation of ideas, may bring in the ‘Aha!’
else? In how many ways could it be done?
experience.
What could be the other uses of this object?
• Sometimes ideas cluster like branches of
and so on.
• Originality can be developed by practicing a tree. It is useful to diagram your thinking
fluency, flexibility, habit of associative so that you can follow each possible branch
thinking, exploring linkages, and fusing to its completion.
distinct or remote ideas. A creative thinker, • Resist the temptation for immediate
it is said, may not evolve new ideas but reward and success and cope with the
evolve new combination of ideas. It is the frustration and failure. Encourage self-
chain of thoughts and cross-fertilisation evaluation.
of ideas that may bring out something new. • Develop independent thinking in making
The idea of the ‘rocking chair’ has come judgments, figuring out things without any
from the combination of ‘chair’ and ‘see- help or resources.
saw’. Practice making unusual and • Visualise causes and consequences and
unexpected associations using analogies. think ahead, predicting things that have
Sometimes finding original ideas/solutions never happened, like, suppose the time
requires a dramatic shift of focus which starts moving backwards, what would
can be facilitated by asking oneself : what happen?, If we had no zero?, etc.
is the opposite of the commonplace or • Be aware of your own defenses concerning
usual solution to the problem? Allow the problem. When we feel threatened by
conflicting thoughts to co-exist. Looking a problem we are less likely to think of
for solutions opposite to the obvious may creative ideas.
lead to original solutions. • Last but not the least, be self-confident
• Engage yourself more frequently in and positive. Never undermine your
activities which require use of imagination creative potential. Experience the joy of
and original thinking rather than routine your creation.

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Thought as Determinant of Language
THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE
The noted Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget
Till now, we have discussed the nature and believed that thought not only determines
meaning of thinking and how thinking is based language, but also precedes it. Piaget argued
on images and concepts. We have also that children form an internal representation
discussed the various processes of thought. of the world through thinking. For example,
Throughout the discussion did you feel that when children see something and later copy
words or language are essential to express what it (a process called imitation), thinking does
we think? This section examines the take place, which does not involve language.
relationship between language and thought: A child’s observation of other’s behaviour and
that language determines thought, that thought imitation of the same behaviour, no doubt
determines language, and that thought and involves thinking but not language. Language
language have different origins. Let us examine is just one of the vehicles of thinking. As
these three viewpoints in some detail. actions become internalised, language may
affect children’s range of symbolic thinking but
Language as Determinant of Thought is not necessary for the origins of thought.
In Hindi and other Indian languages we use a Piaget believed that though language can be
number of different words for various kinship taught to children, understanding of the words
relationships. We have different terms for require knowledge of the underlying concepts
mother’s brother, father’s elder brother, (i.e. thinking). Thus, thought is basic, and
father’s younger brother, mother’s sister’s necessary if language is to be understood.
husband, father’s sister’s husband, and so on.
An English person uses just one word uncle Different Origins of Language and Thought
to describe all these kinship relationships. In The Russian psychologist, Lev Vyogotsky,
the English language there are dozens of words argued that thoughts and language develop
for colours whereas some tribal languages in a child separately until about two years of
have only two to four colour terms. Do such age, when they merge. Before two years
differences matter for how we think? Does an thought is preverbal and is experienced more
Indian child find it easier to think about and in action (Piaget’s sensory motor stage). The
dif ferentiate between various kinship child’s utterances are more automatic reflexes
relationships compared to her English- - crying when uncomfortable - than thought-
speaking counterpart? Does our thinking based. Around two years of age, the child
process depend on how we describe it in our expresses thought verbally and her/his speech
language? reflects rationality. Now children are able to
Benjamin Lee Whorf was of the view that manipulate thoughts using soundless speech.
language determines the contents of thought. He believed that during this period the
This view is known as linguistic relativity development of language and thinking become
hypothesis. In its strong version, this interdependent; the development of
hypothesis holds what and how individuals conceptual thinking depends upon the quality
can possibly think is determined by the of inner speech and vice versa. Thought is used
language and linguistic categories they use without language when the vehicle of thinking
(linguistic determinism). Experimental is non-verbal such as visual or movement-
evidence, however, maintains that it is possible related. Language is used without thought
to have the same level or quality of thoughts when expressing feelings or exchanging
in all languages depending upon the pleasantries, for example “Good morning! How
availability of linguistic categories and are you?” “Very well, I am fine”. When the two
structures. Some thoughts may be easier in functions overlap, they can be used together
one language compared to another. to produce verbal thought and rational speech.

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Chapter 8 • Thinking
be discussing these three characteristics of
DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE AND
language.
LANGUAGE USE
The first characteristic of language is that
Meaning and Nature of Language it involves symbols. Symbols represent
something or someone else, for example, the
In the previous section we discussed the
place where you live is called ‘home’, the place
relationship between language and thought.
where you study is called ‘school’, the thing
In this section, we will examine how human
that you eat is called ‘food’. Words like home,
beings acquire and use language in different
school, food, and numerous other words do
age groups. Think for a moment: what would
not in themselves carry any meaning. When
have happened if you did not have a language
these words are associated with some objects/
to express whatever you wanted to say? In
the absence of language you will not be able events they attain meaning and we begin
to communicate your ideas and feelings, nor recognising those objects/events, etc. with
will you have the opportunity to know or have particular words (symbols). We use symbols
access to what others think and feel. As a child while thinking.
when you first started saying “ma..ma..ma.”, The second characteristic of language is
it not only gave you tremendous boost to that it involves rules. While combining two or
continue repeating this activity but also was more words we usually follow a definite and
a great moment of joy for your parents and accepted order of presenting these words. For
other care-givers. Slowly you learnt to say ‘ma’ example, one would most likely say “I am going
and ‘papa’ and sometime later combined two to school” and not “school am going I”.
or more words to communicate your needs, The third characteristic of language is that
feelings, and thoughts. You learnt words it is used for communicating one’s thought,
appropriate for situations and also learnt the ideas, intentions, and feelings to others. On
rules of putting these words in sentences. many occasions we communicate through the
Initially you learnt to communicate in the use of our body parts, called gestures or
language being used at home (usually the postures. This type of communication is called
mother-tongue), went to school and learnt the non-verbal communication. Some people who
formal language of instruction (in many cases cannot use oral speech, like the ones with
this language is different from the mother- severe hearing and speech problems,
tongue), and were promoted to higher grades communicate through signs. Sign language is
and learnt other languages. If you look back, also a form of language.
you will realise that your journey from crying
and saying “ma..ma..ma” to the attainment of Development of Language
mastery in not one but many languages, has
been a fascinating one. In this section we shall Language is a complex system and unique to
be discussing the salient features of language human beings. Psychologists have tried to
acquisition. teach sign language, use of symbols to
You have been using language all your life. chimpanzees, dolphins, parrots, etc. But it is
Now try to define accurately what it is that observed that, human language is more
you have been using. Language consists of a complex, creative, and spontaneous than the
system of symbols organised by means of system of communication other animals can
certain rules that we use to communicate with learn. There is also a great deal of regularity
each other. You will notice that language has with which children all over the world seem to
three basic characteristics: (a) the presence of be learning the language or languages to which
symbols, (b) a set of rules to organise these they are exposed. When you compare
symbols, and (c) communication. Here we shall individual children, you find that they differ a

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Psychology
great deal in the rate of their language (the exact age varies from child to child) most
development as well as in how they go about children enter the one-word-stage. Their first
it. But when you take a general view of word usually contains one syllable – ma or
children’s acquisition of language all over the da, for instance. Gradually they move to one
world you find some predictable pattern in or more words which are combined to form
which children proceed from almost no use of whole sentences or phrases. So they are called
language to the point of becoming competent holophrases. When they are 18 to 20 months
language users. Language develops through of age, children enter a two-word stage and
some of the stages discussed below. begin to use two words together. The two-word
Newborn babies and young infants make stage exemplifies telegraphic speech. Like
a variety of sounds, which gradually get telegrams (got admission, send money) it
modified to resemble words. The first sound contains mostly nouns and verbs. Close to
produced by babies is crying. Initial crying is their third birthday, i.e. beyond two-and-a-
undifferentiated and similar across various half years, children’s language development
situations. Gradually, the pattern of crying gets focused on rules of the language they
varies in its pitch and intensity to signify hear.
different states such as hunger, pain, and How is language acquired? You must be
sleepiness, etc. These differentiated crying wondering: “How do we learn to speak?” As
sounds gradually become more meaningful with many other topics in psychology, the
cooing sounds (like ‘aaa’, ‘uuu’, etc.) usually question of whether a behaviour develops as
to express happiness. a result of inherited characteristics (nature)
At around six months of age children enter or from the effects of learning (nurture) has
the babbling stage. Babbling involves been raised with regard to language. Most
prolonged repetition of a variety of consonants psychologists accept that both nature and
and vowel sounds (for example, da—, aa—, nurture are important in language
ba—). By about nine months of age these acquisition.
sounds get elaborated to strings of some sound Behaviourist B.F. Skinner believed we
combinations, such as ‘dadadadadada’ into learn language the same way as animals learn
repetitive patterns called echolalia. While the to pick keys or press bars (refer to Chapter 6
early babblings are random or accidental in on Learning). Language development, for the
nature, the later babblings seem to be imitative behaviourists follow the learning principles,
of adult voices. Childr en show some such as association (the sight of bottle with
understanding of a few words by the time they the word ‘bottle’), imitation (adults use of word
are six months old. Around the first birthday “bottle”), and reinforcement (smiles and hugs

Box 8.3 Bilingualism and Multilingualism

Bilingualism refers to attaining proficiency in emotional level. It is possible for individuals to have
communicating through any two languages. multiple mother tongues. The Indian social context is
Learning of more than two languages is referred characterised by grass root multilingualism which
to as multilingualism. The term mother tongue has makes bi/multilingualism a characteristic at the levels
been variously defined as one’s native language, of individual as well as society. Most Indians use more
the language spoken by the individual from the than one language to communicate in various domains
cradle; language ordinarily used at home; of their daily life activities. Thus, multilingualism is a
language spoken by the mother; etc. However, way of life in India. Studies reveal that bilingualism/
generally the mother tongue is viewed as a multilingualism facilitates cognitive, linguistic, and
language with which one identifies at the academic competence of children.

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Chapter 8 • Thinking
when the child says something right). There Language Use
is also evidence that children produce sounds
As we have discussed earlier, language use
that are appropriate to a language of the
involves knowing socially appropriate ways
parent or care-giver and are reinforced for
having done so. The principle of shaping leads of communication. Knowledge of vocabulary
to successive approximation of the desired and syntax of a language does not ensure
responses so that the child eventually speaks proper use of language to achieve the purpose
as well as the adult. Regional differences in of communication in a variety of social
pronunciation and phrasing illustrate how situations. When we use language we have
different patterns are reinforced in different various pragmatic intentions such as
areas. requesting, asking, thanking, demanding,
Linguist Noam Chomsky put forth the etc. In order to effectively serve these social
innate proposition of development of language. goals, language use must be pragmatically
For him the rate at which children acquire correct or contextually appropriate besides
words and grammar without being taught can being grammatical and meaningful. Children
not be explained only by learning principles. often have difficulty with choice of
Children also create all sorts of sentences they appropriate utterances for politeness or for
have never heard and, therefore, could not be requests and their use of language conveys
imitating. Children throughout the world seem a demand or a command instead of a polite
to have a critical period — a period when request. When children are engaged in
learning must occur if it is to occur conversations, they also have difficulty in
successfully — for learning language. Children taking turns in speaking and listening like
across the world also go through the same adults.
stages of language development. Chomsky
believes language development is just like
physical maturation- given adequate care, it
“just happens to the child”. Children are born Key Terms
with “universal grammar”. They readily learn
Bilingualism, Brainstor ming, Concepts,
the grammar of whatever language they hear.
Convergent thinking, Creativity, Decision-
Skinner’s emphasis on learning explains making, Deductive reasoning, Divergent
why infants acquire the language they hear thinking, Functional fixedness, Illumination,
and how they add new words to their Images, Incubation, Inductive reasoning,
vocabularies. Chomsky’s emphasis on our Judgment, Language, Mental representation,
built-in readiness to learn grammar helps Mental set, Multilingualism, Problem solving,
Reasoning, Remote association, Syntax,
explain why children acquire language so
Thinking
readily without direct teaching.

Summary
• Thinking is a complex mental process through which we manipulate information (either
acquired or stored). It is an internal process that can be inferred from behaviour. Thinking
involves mental representations that are either mental images or concepts.
• Complex thought processes are problem solving, reasoning, decision-making, judgment, and
creative thinking.
• Problem solving is thinking directed towards the solution of a specific problem.
• Mental set, functional fixedness, lack of motivation and persistence are some of the hindrances
for effective problem solving.

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Psychology
• Reasoning, like problem solving, is goal directed, involves inference and can be either deductive
or inductive.
• In making judgment, we draw conclusions, form opinions, make evaluations about objects or
events.
• In decision-making one must choose among several available alternatives.
• Judgment and decision-making are interrelated processes.
• Creative thinking involves the production of something new and original — it may be an idea,
object or solution to a problem.
• Developing creative thinking requires overcoming blocks to creative expression and using
strategies to enhance creative thinking skills and abilities.
• Language is distinctly human. It consists of symbols, organised on the basis of certain rules
to communicate intentions, feelings, motives, and desires among human beings.
• Major development in language occurs during the first two to three years of age.
• Language and thought are intricately related.

Review Questions
1. Explain the nature of thinking.
2. What is a concept? Explain the role of concept in the thinking process.
3. Identify obstacles that one may encounter in problem solving.
4. How does reasoning help in solving problems?
5. Are judgment and decision-making interrelated processes? Explain.
6. Why is divergent thinking important in creative thinking process?
7. What are the various barriers to creative thinking?
8. How can creative thinking be enhanced?
9. Does thinking take place without language? Discuss.
10. How is language acquired in human beings?

Project Ideas
1. Observe children of 1 year, 2 years, and 3 years old over a period of one week. Record the
speech and note how the child is learning words and how many words the child has
learnt over this period.
2. Make a collage of news headlines, advertisements, cartoons etc. and arrange them in
your own way to depict a particular theme or a context other than the one in which they
were used. Write an original message or slogan to describe it. Reflect on the steps and the
barriers you experienced in thinking of original ideas.

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Chapter 8 • Thinking
Answers to problems in Activity 8.3

Problem 1 : ANAGRAM, PROBLEM, SOLVE, INSIGHT, SOLUTION.

Problem 2 :

Problem 3 :
The solution for this problem is fill bottle B (127 ml) completely and then pour out water in bottle A (21 ml)
to fill it completely. Now 106 ml is left in bottle B (127ml–21ml). Next pour enough water out of B to fill up C
(3 ml), and then empty the bottle C by pouring out all the water from C. Now there is 103 ml of water in B and
C is empty. Then again pour water from B to fill up C. Now you will be left with 100 ml of water in B.

In case of the first 5 problems, the desired amount can be reached by the sequence B–A–2C. However, the 6th
and 7th problems are critical. In the 6th problem, the desired amount of water is 20 ml and the capacity of
the three bottles are: A can hold 23 ml, B can hold 49 ml and C can hold 3 ml. Observe how the participant
is solving this problem. Most likely he would successfully solve the problem by following the already tried
sequence {49–23–(2 X 3)} without even thinking or trying a simpler and quick method of pouring water from
A to C. If your friend is following this procedure then you can conclude that solving the 5 problems has
formed a mental set in her/his mind. The 7th problem requires a direct solution of pouring water from A to
C. But the mental set is so powerful that many would fail to think of any other steps, other than the already
tried one.

The standard method A simpler method A case where only the simple method works
Problems 1-5 Problem 6 Problem 7

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Psychology
Introduction
Sunita, a girl from a little known town, puts in 10-12 hours of hard work everyday
in order to get through the various engineering entrance examinations. Hemant, a
physically challenged boy, wants to take part in an expedition and trains himself
extensively in a mountaineering institute. Aman saves money from his scholarship
so that he can buy a gift for his mother. These are just a few examples, which
indicate the role motivation plays in human behaviour. Each of these behaviours
are caused by an underlying motive. Behaviour is goal-driven. Goal-seeking
behaviour tends to persist until the goal is achieved. For achieving their goals people
plan and undertake different activities. How is Sunita going to feel if after all the
hard work she has put in, she does not succeed or Aman’s scholarship money gets
stolen. Sunita, perhaps, will be sad and Aman angry. This chapter will help you to
understand the basic concepts of motivation and emotion, and related developments
in these two areas. You will also get to know the concepts of frustration and conflict.
The basic emotions, their biological bases, overt expressions, cultural influences,
their relationship with motivation, and some techniques to help you manage your
emotions better will also be dealt with.

drives, needs, goals, and incentives come


NATURE OF MOTIVATION under the broad cluster of motivation.
The concept of motivation focuses on
explaining what “moves” behaviour. In fact, The Motivational Cycle
the term motivation is derived from the Latin Psychologists now use the concept of need to
word ‘movere’, referring to movement of describe the motivational properties of
activity. Most of our everyday explanation of behaviour. A need is lack or deficit of some
behaviour is given in terms of motives. Why necessity. The condition of need leads to drive.
do you come to the school or college? There
may be any number of reasons for this
behaviour, such as you want to learn or to Need
make friends, you need a diploma or degree
to get a good job, you want to make your
parents happy, and so on. Some combination Reduction of Drive
of these reasons and/or others would explain arousal
why you choose to go in for higher education.
Motives also help in making predictions about
behaviour. A person will work hard in school,
in sports, in business, in music, and in many Achievement Arousal
other situations, if s/he has a very strong need
for achievement. Hence, motives are the
general states that enable us to make Goal-directed
predictions about behaviour in many different behaviour
situations. In other words, motivation is one
of the determinants of behaviour. Instincts, Fig.9.1 : The Motivational Cycle

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Psychology
A drive is a state of tension or arousal or psychosocial per se, rather they are aroused
produced by a need. It energises random in the individual with varying combinations.
activity. When one of the random activities
leads to a goal, it reduces the drive, and the Biological Motives
organism stops being active. The organism The biological or physiological approach to
returns to a balanced state. Thus, the cycle of explain motivation is the earliest attempt to
motivational events can be presented as shown understand causes of behaviour. Most of
in Fig.9.1. the theories, which developed later, carry
Are there different types of motives? Are traces of the influence of the biological
there any biological bases explaining different approach. The approach adhering to the
kinds of motives? What happens if your motive concept of adaptive act holds that organisms
remains unfulfilled? These are some of the have needs (internal physiological imbalances)
questions we will discuss in the following that produce drive, which stimulates
sections. behaviour leading to certain actions towards
achieving certain goals, which reduce the
TYPES OF MOTIVES drive. The earliest explanations of motivation
relied on the concept of instinct. The term
Basically, there are two types of motives : instinct denotes inborn patterns of behaviour
biological and psychosocial. Biological motives that are biologically determined rather than
are also known as physiological motives as learned. Some common human instincts
they are guided mostly by the physiological include curiosity, flight, repulsion,
mechanisms of the body. Psychosocial reproduction, parental care, etc. Instincts are
motives, on the other hand, are primarily innate tendencies found in all members of a
learned from the individual’s interactions with species that direct behaviour in predictable
the various environmental factors. ways. The term instinct most approximately
However, both types of motives are refers to an urge to do something. Instinct has
interdependent on each other. That is, in some an “impetus” which drives the organism to do
kind of situations the biological factors may something to reduce that impetus. Some of
trigger a motive whereas in some other the basic biological needs explained by this
situations, the psychosocial factors may approach are hunger, thirst, and sex, which
trigger the motive. Hence, you should keep in are essential for the sustenance of the
mind that no motive is absolutely biological individual.

Types of Motives

Biological Motives Psychosocial Motives


Focus on the innate, biological causes Focus on psychological and social
of motivation like hormones, (as well as environmental) factors and
neurotransmitters, brain structures how they interact with each other to
(hypothalamus, limbic system, etc.). produce motivation. For example,
For example, hunger, thirst and need for achievement, affiliation, power,
sex motives. curiosity and exploration, and self-
actualisation motives.

Fig.9.2 : Types of Motives

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Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
Hunger for a period of several hours, the mouth and
throat become dry, which leads to dehydration
When someone is hungry, the need for food
of body tissues. Drinking water is necessary
dominates everything else. It motivates people
to wet a dry mouth. But a dry mouth does not
to obtain and consume food. Of course we
always result in water drinking behaviour. In
must eat to live. But, what makes you feel
fact processes within the body itself control
hungry? Studies have indicated that many
thirst and drinking of water. Water must get
events inside and outside the body may trigger
into the tissues sufficiently to remove the
hunger or inhibit it. The stimuli for hunger
include stomach contractions, which signify dryness of mouth and throat.
Motivation to drink water is mainly
that the stomach is empty, a low concentration
of glucose in the blood, a low level of protein triggered by the conditions of the body: loss
and the amount of fats stored in the body. of water from cells and reduction of blood
The liver also responds to the lack of bodily volume. When water is lost by bodily fluids,
fuel by sending nerve impulses to the brain. water leaves the interior of the cells. The
The aroma, taste or appearance of food may anterior hypothalamus contains nerve cells
also result in a desire to eat. It may be noted called ‘osmoreceptors’, which generate nerve
that none of these alone gives you the feeling impulses in case of cell dehydration. These
that you are hungry. All in combination act nerve impulses act as a signal for thirst and
with external factors (such as taste, colour, drinking; when thirst is regulated by loss of
by observing others eating, and the smell of water from the osmoreceptors, it is called
food, etc.) to help you understand that you cellular -dehydration thirst. But what
are hungry. Thus, it can be said that our food mechanisms stop the drinking of water? Some
intake is regulated by a complex feeding- researchers assume that the mechanism
satiety system located in the hypothalamus, which explains the intake of water is also
liver, and other parts of the body as well as responsible for stopping the intake of water.
the external cues available in the environment. Others have pointed out that the role of stimuli
Some physiologists hold that changes in resulting from the intake of water in the
the metabolic functions of the liver result in a stomach must have something to do with
feeling of hunger. The liver sends a signal to a stopping of drinking water. However, the
part of the brain called hypothalamus. The precise physiological mechanisms underlying
two regions of hypothalamus involved in the thirst drive are yet to be understood.
hunger are - the lateral hypothalamus (LH)
and the ventro-medial hypothalamus (VMH). Sex
LH is considered to be the excitatory area. One of the most powerful drives in both
Animals eat when this area is stimulated. animals and human beings is the sex drive.
When it is damaged, animals stop eating and Motivation to engage in sexual activity is a very
die of starvation. The VMH is located in the strong factor influencing human behaviour.
middle of the hypothalamus, which is However, sex is far more than a biological
otherwise known as hunger-controlling area motive. It is different from other primary
which inhibits the hunger drive. Now can you motives (hunger, thirst) in many ways like,
guess about people who overeat and become (a) sexual activity is not necessary for an
obese, and people who eat very little or who individual’s survival; (b) homeostasis (the
are on a diet? tendency of the organism as a whole to
maintain constancy or to attempt to restore
Thirst equilibrium if constancy is disturbed) is not
What would happen to you, if you were the goal of sexual activity; and (c) sex drive
deprived of water for a long time? What makes develops with age, etc. In case of lower
you feel thirsty? When we are deprived of water animals, it depends on many physiological

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Psychology
conditions; in case of human beings, the sex Need for Power
drive is very closely regulated biologically,
Need for power is an ability of a person to
sometimes it is very difficult to classify sex
produce intended effects on the behaviour and
purely as a biological drive.
emotions of another person. The various goals
Physiologists suggest that intensity of the
of power motivation are to influence, control,
sexual urge is dependent upon chemical
persuade, lead, and charm others and most
substances circulating in the blood, known
importantly to enhance one’s own reputation
as sex hormones. Studies on animals as well
in the eyes of other people.
as human beings have mentioned that sex
David McClelland (1975) described four
hormones secreted by gonads, i.e. testes in
general ways of expression of the power
males and the ovaries in females ar e
motive. First, people do things to gain feeling
responsible for sexual motivation. Sexual
of power and strength from sources outside
motivation is also influenced by other
themselves by reading stories about sports
endocrine glands, such as adrenal and
stars or attaching themselves to a popular
pituitary glands. Sexual drive in human
figure. Second, power can also be felt from
beings is primarily stimulated by external
sources within us and may be expressed by
stimuli and its expression depends upon
building up the body and mastering urges and
cultural learning.
impulses. Third, people do things as
individuals to have an impact on others. For
Psychosocial Motives
example, a person argues, or competes with
Social motives are mostly learned or acquired. another individual in order to have an impact
Social groups such as family, neighbourhood, or influence on that person. Fourth, people
friends, and relatives do contribute a lot in do things as members of organisations to have
acquiring social motives. These are complex an impact on others as in the case of the leader
forms of motives mainly resulting from the of a political party; the individual may use the
individual’s interaction with her/his social party apparatus to influence others. However,
environment. for any individual, one of these ways of
expressing power motivation may dominate,
Need for Affiliation but with age and life experiences, it varies.
Most of us need company or friend or want to
Need for Achievement
maintain some form of relationship with
others. Nobody likes to remain alone all the You might have observed some students work
time. As soon as people see some kinds of very hard and compete with others for good
similarities among themselves or they like each marks/grades in the examination, as good
other, they form a group. Formation of group marks/grades will create opportunities for
or collectivity is an important feature of human higher studies and better job prospects. It is
life. Often people try desperately to get close the achievement motivation, which refers to
to other people, to seek their help, and to the desire of a person to meet standards of
become members of their group. Seeking other excellence. Need for achievement, also known
human beings and wanting to be close to them as n-Ach, energises and directs behaviour as
both physically and psychologically is called well as influences the perception of situations.
affiliation. It involves motivation for social During the formative years of social
contact. Need for affiliation is aroused when development, children acquire achievement
individuals feel threatened or helpless and also motivation. The sources from which they learn
when they are happy. People high on this need it, include parents, other role models, and
are motivated to seek the company of others socio-cultural influences. Persons high in
and to maintain friendly relationships with achievement motivation tend to prefer tasks
other people. that are moderately difficult and challenging.

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Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
They have stronger-than-average desire for a hierarchy. His viewpoint about motivation
feedback on their performance, that is to know is very popular because of its theoretical and
how they are doing, so that they can adjust applied value which is popularly known as the
their goals to meet the challenge. “Theory of Self-actualisation” (see Fig.9.3).

Curiosity and Exploration


Often people engage in activities without a
clear goal or purpose but they derive some Self-
kind of pleasure out of it. It is a motivational actualisation
tendency to act without any specific needs
identifiable goal. The tendency to seek for a
Esteem needs
novel experience, gain pleasure by obtaining
information, etc. are signs of curiosity. Hence,
curiosity describes behaviour whose primary Belongingness needs
motive appears to remain in the activities
themselves.
Safety needs
What will happen if the sky falls on us?
Questions of this kind (What will happen if…)
stimulate intellectuals to find answers. Physiological needs
Studies show that this curiosity behaviour is
not only limited to human beings, animals too
show the same kind of behaviour. We are Fig.9.3 : Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
driven to explore the environment by our
curiosity and our need for sensory stimulation. Maslow’s model can be conceptualised as
The need for varied types of sensory a pyramid in which the bottom of this
stimulations is closely related to curiosity. It hierarchy represents basic physiological or
is the basic motive, and exploration and biological needs which are basic to survival
curiosity are the expressions of it. such as hunger, thirst, etc. Only when these
Our ignorance about a number of things needs are met, the need to be free from
around us becomes a powerful motivator to threatened danger arises. This refers to the
explore the world. We get easily bored with safety needs of physical and psychological
repetitive experiences. So we look for nature. Next comes the need to seek out other
something new. people, to love and to be loved. After these
In the case of infants and small children, needs are fulfilled, the individual strives for
this motive is very dominant. They get esteem, i.e. the need to develop a sense of self-
satisfaction from being allowed to explore, worth. The next higher need in the hierarchy
which is reflected in their smiling and reflects an individual’s motive towards the
babbling. Children become easily distressed, fullest development of potential, i.e. self-
when the motive to explore is discouraged, as actualisation. A self-actualised person is self-
you have read in Chapter 4. aware, socially responsive, creative,
spontaneous, open to novelty, and challenge.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS S/he also has a sense of humour and capacity
for deep interpersonal relationships.
There are various views on human motivation, Lower level needs (physiological) in the
the most popular among these is given by hierarchy dominate as long as they are
Abraham H. Maslow (1968; 1970). He unsatisfied. Once they are adequately
attempted to portray a picture of human satisfied, the higher needs occupy the
behaviour by arranging the various needs in individual’s attention and effort. However, it

174
Psychology
must be noted that very few people reach the realise our goal. The blocking of a desired goal
highest level because most people are is painful, but all of us experience it in life in
concerned more with the lower level needs. different degrees. Frustration occurs when an
anticipated desirable goal is not attained and
Activity 9.1 the motive is blocked. It is an aversive state
and no one likes it. Frustration results in a
Actual actions sometimes contradict the hierarchy variety of behavioural and emotional reactions.
of needs. Soldiers, police officers, and fire They include aggressive behaviour, fixation,
personnels have been known to protect others by escape, avoidance, and crying. In fact
facing very endangering situations, seemingly in frustration-aggression is a very famous
direct contradiction to the prominence of safety
hypothesis proposed by Dollard and Miller.
needs.
Why does it happen? Discuss it in your group It states that frustration produces aggression.
and then with your teacher. Aggressive acts are often directed towards the
self or blocking agent, or a substitute. Direct
aggressive acts may be inhibited by the threat
Frustration and Conflict of punishment. The main sources or causes
of frustration are found in: (i) environmental
So far we have taken a look at the various forces, which could be physical objects,
theoretical perspectives on motivation. They constraining situations or even other people
explain the process of motivation and what who prevent a person from reaching a
leads to motivated action and what are the particular goal, (ii) personal factors like
reasons for different motives. Now we will try inadequacies or lack of resources that make
to understand what happens when motivated it difficult or impossible to reach goals, and
action is blocked or it fails due to certain (iii) conflicts between different motives.
reasons. We will also try to understand what
happens when one is faced with more than Conflict
one motive or need at the same time. These
Conflict occurs whenever a person must
two concerns can be explained in the form of
choose between contradictory needs, desires,
two important concepts related to motivation,
motives, or demands. There are three basic
namely frustration and conflict.
forms of conflicts, for example, approach-
approach conflict, avoidance-avoidance
Frustration
conflict, and approach-avoidance conflict.
We come across many occasions when things Approach-approach conflict comes from
go in an unexpected direction and we fail to having to choose between two positives and

A1
Need
A2

Alternative A3
Failure Pathways Conflict Frustration
Drive
A4

Target A5 Aggression
Arousal Behaviour

Fig.9.4 : Need-Conflict-Frustration Route

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Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
Box 9.1 Self-
Self-MMotivation

Here are a few ways of motivating your own self to have but attach it with some small goal).
as well as others: 5. Compliment yourself on being an achiever each time
1. Be planned and organised in whatever you you hit a target (Say “Cheers! I did it”, “I am really
do. good with that”, “I think I can do things smartly”,
2. Learn to prioritise your goals (Rank them 1,2, etc.).
3…). 6. If the targets seem difficult to attain, again break
3. Set short-term targets (In a few days, a week, them up into smaller ones and approach them one
a month, and so on). by one.
4. Reward yourself for hitting the set targets (You 7. Always try to visualise or imagine the outcomes of
could reward yourself with small things like a all the hard work you have to put in to reach your
new pen, chocolates or anything that you want set goals.

desirable alternatives. Avoidance-avoidance the relative strength/importance of one over


conflict comes from choosing between two the other, and environmental factors.
negatives, or mutually undesirable Conflicting situations should be resolved after
alternatives. In real life, these double due consideration of the pros and cons of each
avoidance conflicts involve dilemmas such as of the choices. A point to note here is that
choosing between the dentist and tooth decay, conflicts cause frustration, which in turn, can
roadside food and starvation, etc. Approach- lead to aggression. For instance, a young man
avoidance conflict comes from being attracted who wants to be a musician but is pursuing
to and repelled by the same goal or activity. a course in management due to parental
These types of conflicts are also difficult to pressure and is not able to perform as per
resolve, as they are more troublesome than the expectations of his parents may turn
avoidance conflicts. A central characteristic of aggressive upon being questioned on his poor
approach-avoidance conflict is ambivalence — performance in the course.
a mix of positive and negative conflicts. Some
examples of approach-avoidance conflicts are:
a person wanting to buy a new motorbike but Activity 9.2
not wanting to make monthly payments,
wanting to eat when one is overweight, and Try to answer the following questions and work
on the weaker areas:
planning to marry someone her/his parents
1. List the plans/activities you intend to
strongly disapprove of. Many of life’s important undertake during this week.
decisions have approach-avoidance 2. Do you have any goals set for the month
dimensions. ahead? If yes, what are they? Try to list them.
A major source of frustration lies in 3. Do you have a daily routine chart? If not, then
motivational conflict. In life, we are often try to prepare one by distributing your time
influenced by a number of competing forces judiciously for studies, rest, recreation, and
that propel us in different directions. Such other activities, if any.
4. Are you able to follow your routine chart
situations demonstrate the condition of
successfully? (If you already have one).
conflict. Hence, the simultaneous existence of 5. If you are not able to follow a routine
multiple wishes and needs characterise successfully think about the ways in which
conflict. you could overcome your irregular habits and
In all the cases of conflicts, the selection try to follow them.
of one option against the other depends on

176
Psychology
influence the experience of emotions. These
NATURE OF EMOTIONS
factors are gender, personality, and
‘Swati is very happy. Her examination result psychopathology of certain kinds. Evidence
has been declared today and she has topped indicates that women experience all the
the class. She is feeling euphoric. However, her emotions except anger more intensely than
friend Pranoy is feeling sad, as he has not done men. Men are prone to experience high
well. Among her friends some are feeling intensity and frequency of anger. This gender
jealous of Swati’s achievement. Jeevan who difference has been attributed to the social
has not performed up to his expectation is roles attached to men (competitiveness) and
angry with himself; he feels unhappy that his women (affiliation and caring).
parents would be very disappointed’.
Joy, sorrow, hope, love, excitement, anger, PHYSIOLOGICAL BASES OF EMOTIONS
hate, and many such feelings are experienced
in the course of the day by all of us. The term ‘Divya is desperate to get a job. She has
emotion is often considered synonymous with prepared well for the interview and feels
the terms ‘feeling’ and ‘mood’. Feeling denotes confident. As she enters the room and the
the pleasure or pain dimension of emotion, interview begins, she becomes extremely tense.
which usually involves bodily functions. Mood Her feet go cold, her heart starts pounding, and
is an affective state of long duration but of she is unable to answer appropriately’.
lesser intensity than emotion. Both these Why did this happen? Try thinking about
terms are narrower than the concept of a similar situation that you have faced
emotion. Emotions are a complex pattern of sometime in your life. Can you describe
arousal, subjective feeling, and cognitive probable reasons for this? As we will see, a
interpretation. Emotions, as we experience great deal of physiological changes happen
them, move us internally, and this process when we experience emotion. When we are
involves physiological as well as psychological excited, afraid or angry, these bodily changes
reactions. might be relatively easy to note. All of you must
Emotion is a subjective feeling and the have noted the increase in heart rate,
experience of emotions varies from person to throbbing temples, increased perspiration,
person. In psychology, attempts have been and trembling in your limbs when you are
made to identify basic emotions. It has been angry or excited about something.
noted that at least six emotions are Sophisticated equipment has made it possible
experienced and recognised everywhere. to measure the exact physiological changes
These are: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, that accompany emotions. Both autonomic as
sadness, and surprise. Izard has proposed a well as somatic nervous system play important
set of ten basic emotions, i.e. joy, surprise, roles in the emotional process. The experience
anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, guilt, of emotions is a result of a series of
interest, and excitement with combinations of neurophysiological activations in which
them resulting in other emotional blends. thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and
According to Plutchik, there are eight basic or the cerebral cortex are involved significantly.
primary emotions. All other emotions result Individuals with extensive injury in these brain
from various mixtures of these basic emotions. areas have been known to demonstrate
He arranged these emotions in four pairs of impaired emotional abilities. Selective
opposites, i.e. joy-sadness, acceptance- activation of different brain areas has been
disgust, fear-anger, and surprise-anticipation. experimentally shown to arouse different
Emotions vary in their intensity (high, low) emotions in infants and adults.
and quality (happiness, sadness, fear). One of the earliest physiological theories
Subjective factors and situational contexts of emotion was given by James (1884) and

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Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
Box 9.2 Physiology of Emotion

The nervous system, central as well as peripheral, activity and secretion of endocrine glands, and
plays a vital role in the regulation of emotion. organises the somatic pattern of emotional behaviour.
Thalamus : It is composed of a group of nerve Limbic System : Along with thalamus and
cells and acts as a relay center of sensory nerves. hypothalamus the limbic system plays a vital role in
Stimulation of thalamus produces fear, anxiety, regulation of emotion. Amygdala is a part of limbic
and autonomic reactions. A theory of emotion given system, responsible for emotional control and involves
by Cannon and Bard (1931) emphasises the role formation of emotional memories.
of thalamus in mediating and initiating all Cortex : Cortex is intimately involved in emotions.
emotional experiences. However, its hemispheres have a contrasting role to
Hypothalamus : It is considered the primary play. The left frontal cortex is associated with positive
center for regulation of emotion. It also regulates feelings whereas the right frontal cortex with negative
the homeostatic balance, controls autonomic feelings.

supported by Lange, hence, it has been named However, this theory faced a lot of criticism
the James-Lange theory of emotion (see and fell in disuse. Another theory was
Fig.9.5). The theory suggests that proposed by Cannon (1927) and Bard (1934).
environmental stimuli elicit physiological The Cannon-Bard theory claims that the
responses from viscera (the internal organs entire process of emotion is mediated by
like heart and lungs), which in turn, are thalamus which after perception of the
associated with muscle movement. For emotion-provoking stimulus, conveys this
example, startling at an unexpected intense information simultaneously to the cerebral
noise triggers activation in visceral and cortex and to the skeletal muscles and
muscular organs followed by an emotional sympathetic nervous system. The cerebral
arousal. Put in other words, James-Lange cortex then determines the nature of the
theory argues that your perception about your perceived stimulus by referring to past
bodily changes, like rapid breathing, a experiences. This determines the subjective
pounding heart, and running legs, following experience of the emotion. At the same time
an event, brings forth emotional arousal. The the sympathetic nervous system and the
main implication made by this theory is that muscles provide physiological arousal and
particular events or stimuli provoke particular prepare the individual to take action (see
physiological changes and the individual’s Fig.9.6).
perception of these changes results in the The ANS is divided into two systems,
emotion being experienced. sympathetic and parasympathetic. These two

Road accident Increased heart rate, perspiration Fear

Specific physiological Perception of


Stimulus Emotion experienced
changes physiological changes

Fig.9.5 : James-Lange Theory of Emotion

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Psychology
Sympathetic nervous Physiological changes
system, Muscles enabling action

Stimulus Thalamus

Subjective experience
Cerebral cortex of the emotion

Fig.9.6 : Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

systems function together in a reciprocal the process of experience and expression of


manner. In a stressful situation the emotion.
sympathetic system prepares the body to face
the situation. It strengthens the internal
COGNITIVE BASES OF EMOTIONS
environment of the individual by controlling
the fall in heart rate, blood pressure, blood Most psychologists today believe that our
sugar, etc. It induces a state of physiological cognitions, i.e. our perceptions, memories,
arousal that prepares the individual for fight interpretations are essential ingredients of
or flight response in order to face the stressful
emotions. Stanley Schachter and Jerome
situation. As the threat is removed the
Singer have proposed a two-factor theory in
parasympathetic system gets active and
which emotions have two ingredients:
restores the balance by calming the body. It
restores and conserves energy and brings the physical arousal and a cognitive label. They
individual back to a normal state. presumed that our experience of emotion
Though acting in an antagonistic manner, grows from our awareness of our present
the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems arousal. They also believed that emotions are
are complementary to each other in completing physiologically similar. For example, your

Box 9.3 Lie Detection

Lie detectors are also called polygraphs because crime being investigated. The lie detector or the
they graphically record several bodily reactions polygraph records the changes in neurophysiological
simultaneously which measure the bodily arousal activities that occur while the suspected individual
of the individual. Typically a lie detector measures answers these questions.
changes in blood pressure, heart rate, breathing Though the polygraph makes several objective
rate and depth, and the Galvanic Skin Response recordings, the interpretation of these records relies
(GSR) which indicates variations in the electrical heavily on the subjective judgment by the examiner.
conductivity of the skin. It is also probable that several unrelated factors
The individual being tested is first asked a like fear, pain or anxiety being felt by the individual
series of neutral (control) questions to establish during the test may affect her/his level of arousal.
the baseline. Simple questions are followed by It is possible for the individual to lie with it. The
specific questions that are designed to evoke validity of polygraph results is doubtful; however
responses from a guilty knowledge supposedly these are still used by law-enforcing agencies for
indicating the individual’s involvement in the lie detection.

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Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
Fig.9.7 : Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion

heart beats faster when you are excited or or seen another person’s face, still smile or
scared or angry. You are physiologically frown in the same way that children with
aroused and look to the external world for normal vision do.
explanation. Thus, in their view an emotional But on comparing different cultures we see
experience requires a conscious interpretation that learning plays an important role in
of the arousal. emotions. This happens in two ways. First,
If you are aroused after physical exercise cultural learning influences the expression of
and someone teases you, the arousal already emotions more than what is experienced, for
caused by the exercise may lead to example, some cultures encourage free
provocation. To test this theory, Schachter and emotional expression, whereas other cultures
Singer (1962) injected subjects with teach people, through modeling and
epinephrine, a drug that produces high reinforcement, to reveal little of their emotions
arousal. Then these subjects were made to in public.
observe the behaviour of others, either in an Second, learning has a great deal to do
euphoric manner (i.e. shooting papers at a with the stimuli that produce emotional
waste basket) or in an angry manner (i.e. reactions. It has been shown that individuals
stomping out of the room). As predicted, the with excessive fears (phobia) of elevators,
euphoric and angry behaviour of others automobiles, and the like learnt these fears
influenced the cognitive interpretation of the through modeling, classical conditioning or
subjects’ own arousal. avoidance conditioning.

CULTURAL BASES OF EMOTIONS EXPRESSION OF EMOTIONS


T ill now we have been discussing the Do you get to know that your friend is happy
physiological and the cognitive bases of or sad or indifferent? Does s/he understand
emotions. This section will examine the role your feelings? Emotion is an internal
of culture in emotions. Studies have revealed experience not directly observable by others.
that the most basic emotions are inborn and Emotions are inferred from verbal and non-
do not have to be learned. Psychologists largely verbal expressions. These verbal and non-
have a notion that emotions, especially facial verbal expressions act as the channels of
expressions, have strong biological ties. For communication and enable an individual to
example, children who are visually impaired express one’s emotions and to understand the
from birth and have never observed the smile feelings of others.

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Psychology
Fear Anger Happy Sad

Fig.9.8 : Sketches of Facial Expressions of Emotions

Culture and Emotional Expression behaviours are also significant. You must have
seen how in Indian classical dances like
The verbal channel of communication is
Bharatanatyam, Odissi, Kuchipudi, Kathak
composed of spoken words as well as other
and others, emotions are expressed with the
vocal features of speech like pitch and
help of movements of eyes, legs, and fingers.
loudness of the voice. These non-verbal
The dancers are trained rigorously in the
aspects of the voice and temporal
grammar of body movement and non-verbal
characteristics of speech are called
communication to express joy, sorrow, love,
‘paralanguage’. Other non-verbal channels
anger, and various other forms of emotional
include facial expression, kinetic (gesture,
posture, movement of the body) and proximal states.
(physical distance during face-to-face The processes involved in emotions have
interaction) behaviours. Facial expression is been known to be influenced by culture.
the most common channel of emotional Current research has dealt more specifically
communication. The amount and kind of with the issue of universality or culture
information conveyed by the face is easy to specificity of emotions. Most of this research
comprehend as the face is exposed to the full has been carried out on the facial expression
view of others (see Fig.9.8). Facial expressions of emotions as the face is open to easy
can convey the intensity as well as the observation, is relatively free from complexity
pleasantness or unpleasantness of the and provides a link between subjective
individual’s emotional state. Facial experience and overt expression of an emotion.
expressions play an important role in our Still it must be emphasised that emotions are
everyday lives. There has been some research conveyed not only via face. A felt emotion may
evidence supporting Darwin’s view that facial be communicated through other non-verbal
expressions for basic emotions (joy, fear, channels as well, for example, gaze behaviour,
anger, disgust, sadness, and surprise) are gestures, paralanguage, and proximal
inborn and universal. behaviour. The emotional meaning conveyed
Bodily movements further facilitate the via gestures (body language) varies from
communication of emotions. Can you feel the culture to culture. For example, in China, a
difference between your body movements handclap is an expression of worry or
when you feel angry and movements when you disappointment, and anger is expressed with
feel shy? Theatre and drama provide an laughter. Silence has also been found to
excellent opportunity to understand the convey dif ferent meanings for different
impact of body movements in communicating cultures. For example, in India, deep emotions
emotions. The roles of gestures and proximal are sometimes communicated via silence. This

181
Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
may convey embarrassment during freely, the North American subjects produced
communication in Wester n countries. 40 different responses for the facial expression
Cultural differences have also been found in of anger and 81 different responses for the
the gaze behaviour. It has been observed that facial expression of contempt. The Japanese
the Latin Americans and the Southern produced varied emotional labels for facial
Europeans direct their gaze to the eyes of the expressions of happiness (10 labels), anger (8
interactant. Asians, in particular, Indians and labels), and disgust (6 labels). Ancient Chinese
Pakistanis, prefer a peripheral gaze (looking literature cites seven emotions, namely, joy,
away from the conversational partner) during anger, sadness, fear, love, dislike, and liking.
an interaction. The physical space (proximity) Ancient Indian literature identifies eight such
also divulges different kinds of emotional emotions, namely, love, mirth, energy, wonder,
meaning during emotional exchanges. The anger, grief, disgust, and fear. In Western
Americans, for example, do not prefer an literature, certain emotions like happiness,
interaction too close; the Oriental Indians sadness, fear, anger, and disgust are uniformly
consider a close space comfortable for an treated as basic to human beings. Emotions
interaction. In fact, the touching behaviour in like surprise, contempt, shame, and guilt are
physical proximity is considered reflective of not accepted as basic to all.
emotional warmth. For example, it was In brief, it might be said that there are
observed that the Arabs experience alienation certain basic emotions that are expressed and
during an interaction with the North understood by all despite their cultural and
Americans who prefer to be interacted from ethnic differences, and there are certain others
outside the olfactory (too close) zone. that are specific to a particular culture. Again,
it is important to remember that culture plays
Activity 9.3 a significant role in all processes of emotion.
Both expression and experience of emotions
Emotional expressions vary in their intensity as are mediated and modified by culture specific
well as variety. In your spare time, try collecting ‘display rules’ that delimit the conditions
from old magazines or newspapers as many under which an emotion may be expressed
pictures of different individuals expressing various and the intensity with which it is displayed.
emotions. Make picture cards pasting each
photograph on a piece of cardboard and number
them. You can make a set of such cards that MANAGING NEGATIVE EMOTIONS
represent different emotional expressions. Involve
a group of your friends in the activity. Display Try living a day in which you do not feel any
these cards one by one to your friends and ask
emotion. You would realise that it is difficult
them to identify the emotions being portrayed.
Note down the responses and notice how your even to imagine a life without emotions.
friends differ from each other in labelling the same Emotions are a part of our daily life and
emotion. You can also try to categorise the pictures existence. They form the very fabric of our life
using categories like positive and negative, intense and interpersonal relations.
and subtle emotions, and so on. Try to notice how Emotions exist on a continuum. There are
people differ from each other in expressing the
various intensities of an emotion that can be
same emotion. What could be the reason for such
differences? Discuss in class. experienced by us. You can experience extreme
elation or slight happiness, severe grief or just
pensiveness. However, most of us usually
maintain a balance of emotions.
Culture and Emotional Labeling
When faced with a conflicting situation,
Basic emotions also vary in the extent of individuals attempt to adjust and derive a
elaboration and categorical labels. The coping mechanism either with task or defense-
Tahitian language includes 46 labels for the oriented reactions. These coping patterns help
English word anger. When asked to label them prevent abnormal emotional reactions

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Psychology
such as anxiety, depression etc. Anxiety is a negative emotions and enhancing positive
condition that an individual develops in case emotions.
of failure to adopt an appropriate ego defense. Though most researchers focus their
For example, if the individual fails to adhere attention only on negative emotions like anger,
to a defense of rationalisation for his immoral fear, anxiety, etc., recently the field of ‘Positive
act (like cheating or stealing), he may develop Psychology’ has gained much prominence. As
intense apprehension about the outcomes of the name suggests, positive psychology
such an act. Anxious individuals find it concerns itself with the study of features that
difficult to concentrate or to make decisions enrich life like, hope, happiness, creativity,
even for trivial matters. courage, optimism, cheerfulness, etc.
The state of depression affects an Effective emotion management is the key
individual’s ability to think rationally, feel to effective social functioning in modern times.
realistically, and work effectively. The condition The following tips might prove useful to
overwhelms the mood state of the individual. you for achieving the desired balance of
Because of its enduring nature, the individual emotions :
who suffers from depression develops a variety • Enhance self-awareness : Be aware of
of symptoms like difficulty in falling asleep, your own emotions and feelings. Try to
increased level of psychomotor agitation or gain insight into the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of your
retardation, decreased ability to think or feelings.
concentrate, and loss of interest in personal or • Appraise the situation objectively : It
social activities, etc. has been proposed that emotion is
In daily life, we are often faced with preceded by evaluation of the event. If the
conflicting situations. Under demanding and event is experienced as disturbing, your
stressful conditions, a lot of negative emotions sympathetic nervous system is activated
like fear, anxiety, disgust, etc. develop in an and you feel stressed. If you do not
individual to a considerable extent. Such experience the event as disturbing, then
negative emotions, if allowed to prevail for a there is no stress. Hence, it is you who
long time, are likely to affect adversely the decides whether to feel sad and anxious
person’s psychological and physical health. or happy and relaxed.
This is the reason why most of the stress • Do some self-monitoring : This involves
management programmes emphasise emotion constant or periodic evaluation of your past
management as an integral part of stress accomplishments, emotional and physical
management. The major focus of emotion states, real and vicarious experiences. A
management techniques is the reduction of positive appraisal would enhance your

Box 9.4 Post


ost--Traumatic Stress Disorder

A disaster produces serious disruption of the Either of these conditions may lead to development
functioning of human society, resulting in of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), where the
widespread material or environmental loss, person tends to re-experience the event through
which cannot be dealt with immediately with the flashbacks and get overwhelming thoughts about the
existing resources. Disaster may be natural (like event even after a substantial period of time. This
earthquake/cyclone/tsunami) or man-made (like condition makes a person emotionally disturbed and
war). The trauma an individual experiences the person fails to adopt an appropriate coping
during a disaster may range from mere strategy in regular activities. Emotions manifest in
perception of such an event to actually uniquely recognisable patterns with maladaptive
encountering it, which may be life threatening. behaviour (like depression) and autonomic arousal.

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Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
faith in yourself and lead to enhanced • Be creative : Find and develop an interest
feeling of wellness and contentment. or a hobby. Engage in an activity that
• Engage in self-modeling : Be the ideal for interests and amuses you.
yourself. Repeatedly observe the best parts • Develop and nurture good relation-
of your past performance and use them ships : Choose your friends carefully. In
as an inspiration and motivation to the company of happy and cheerful friends
perform better in the future. you will feel happy in general.
• Perceptual reorganisation and cognitive • Have empathy : Try understanding other’s
restructuring : Try viewing the events feelings too. Make your relationships
differently and visualise the other side of meaningful and valuable. Seek as well as
the coin. Restructure your thoughts to provide support mutually.
enhance positive and reassuring feelings • Participate in community service : Help
and eliminate negative thoughts. yourself by helping others. By doing

Box 9.5 Management of Examination Anxiety

For most of us an approaching examination brings • Inoculation : Inoculate yourself against


about a feeling of a churning stomach and anxiety. stress. Exposure through rehearsals and role-
In fact, any situation which involves performing playing prepares you physically and mentally to
a task and the awareness of being evaluated for face the examination situation better and with
the performance is an anxiety-provoking situation confidence.
for most people. A certain level of anxiety is • Positive thinking : Have faith in yourself.
definitely essential as it motivates and pushes Structure your thoughts with systematically listing
us to put up our best performance but a high level the thoughts that worry you and then rationally
of anxiety becomes an impediment in optimum dealing with them one by one. Emphasise on your
perfor mance and achievement. An anxious strengths. Suggest to yourself to be positive and
individual is highly aroused physiologically and enthusiastic.
emotionally, and hence is not able to perform to • Seek support : Do not hesitate to ask for help
the best of her/his abilities. from your friends, parents, teachers or seniors.
An examination is a potentially stress Talking about a stressful situation to a close
provoking situation and like other stressful person makes one feel light and helps gain insight.
situations coping involves two strategies, i.e. The situation may not be as bad as it seems.
Monitoring or taking effective action, and Blunting
or avoiding the situation. On the other hand, blunting strategies involve
Monitoring involves taking effective and direct avoiding the stressful situation. True, avoidance is
action to deal with the stressful situation. The neither desirable nor possible in an examination
following strategies can be used for monitoring : situation, but the following techniques may prove
• Prepare well : Prepare well for the useful:
examination and prepare well in advance. • Relaxation : Lear n to relax. Relaxation
Give yourself ample time. Familiarise yourself techniques help you calm your nerves and give
with the pattern of question papers and you an opportunity to reframe your thoughts.
frequently asked questions. This gives you a There are many different relaxation techniques.
sense of predictability and control and In general, this involves sitting or lying down in a
reduces the stress potential of the comfortable posture in a quiet place, relaxing your
examination. muscles, reducing the external stimulation as well
• Have a rehearsal : Make yourself go through as minimising the flow of thoughts and focusing.
a mock examination. Ask your friend to test • Exercise : A stressful situation overactivates the
your knowledge. You can also rehearse sympathetic nervous system. Exercise helps in
mentally in your mind. Visualise yourself channelising the excess energy generated by this.
taking the examination completely relaxed and A brief period of light exercise or active sport will
confident and then passing with flying colours. help you concentrate better on your studies.

184
Psychology
community service (for example, helping • Do not ascribe intentions and ulterior
an intellectually challenged child learn an motives to others.
adaptive skill), you will gain important • Resist having irrational beliefs about
insights about your own difficulties. people and events.
• Try to find constructive ways of expressing
Activity 9.4 your anger. Have control on the degree and
duration of anger that you choose to
Think of an intense emotional experience you have express.
gone through recently and explain the sequence • Look inward not outward for anger control.
of events. How did you deal with it? Share it with
• Give yourself time to change. It takes time
your class.
and effort to change a habit.

ENHANCING POSITIVE EMOTIONS


Managing your Anger
Anger is a negative emotion. It carries the mind Our emotions have a purpose. They help us
adapt to the ever-changing environment and
away or in other words, the person looses
are important for our survival and well-being.
control on behavioural functions during the
Negative emotions like fear, anger or disgust
state of anger. The major source of anger is
prepare us mentally and physically for taking
the frustration of motives. However, anger is
immediate action towards the stimulus that
not a reflex, rather it is a result of our thinking.
is threatening. For example, if there was no
Neither is it automatic nor uncontrollable and
fear we would have caught a poisonous snake
caused by others but it is a self-induced choice
in our hand. Though negative emotions protect
that the individual makes. Anger is a result of
us in such situations but excessive or
your thinking and hence is controllable by
inappropriate use of these emotions can
your own thoughts only. Certain key points
become life threatening to us, as it can harm
in anger management are as follows:
our immune system and have serious
• Recognise the power of your thoughts. consequences for our health.
• Realise you alone can control it. Positive emotions such as hope, joy,
• Do not engage in ‘self-talk that burns’. Do optimism, contentment, and gratitude
not magnify negative feelings. energise us and enhance our sense of

Box 9.6 Emotional Intelligence

Expressions of emotion depend on regulation of of emotional intelligence subsumes intrapersonal and


emotion for self or others. Persons who are interpersonal elements. The intrapersonal element
capable of having awareness of emotions for self includes factors like self-awareness (ability to keep
or others and regulate accordingly are called negative emotions and impulses under control), and
emotionally intelligent. Persons who fail to do so, self-motivation (the drive to achieve despite setbacks,
deviate and thereby develop abreaction of developing skills to attain targets and taking initiative
emotion, resulting in psychopathology of certain to act on opportunities). The interpersonal element of
kinds. emotional intelligence includes two components:
By emotional intelligence, we understand social awareness (the awareness and the tendency
‘the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s to appreciate other’s feelings) and social competence
emotions, to discriminate among them and to use (social skills that help to adjust with others, such as
the information to guide one’s thinking and team building, conflict management, skills of
actions’ (Mayer & Salovey, 1999). The concept communicating, etc.).

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Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
emotional well-being. When we experience • Having quality connections with others,
positive affect, we display a greater preference and supportive network of close
for a large variety of actions and ideas. We relationships.
can think of more possibilities and options to • Being engaged in work and gaining
solve whatever problems we face and thus, mastery.
we become proactive. • A faith that embodies social support,
Psychologists have found that people, who purpose and hope, leading a life of
were shown films depicting joy and purpose.
contentment, came up with more ideas • Positive interpretations of most daily
regarding things they would like to do as events.
compared to those who were shown films
evoking anger and fear. Positive emotions give
us a greater ability to cope with adverse Key Terms
circumstances and quickly return to a normal
state. They help us set up long-term plans Amygdala, Anxiety, Arousal, Autonomic
and goals, and form new relationships. Various nervous system, Basic emotions, Biological
ways of enhancing positive emotions are given needs (hunger, thirst, sex), Central nervous
system, Conflict, Emotional intelligence,
below:
Esteem needs, Examination anxiety,
• Personality traits of optimism, Expression of emotions, Frustration,
hopefulness, happiness and a positive self- Hierarchy of needs, Motivation, Motives,
regard. Need, Power motive, Psychosocial motives,
• Finding positive meaning in dire Self-actualisation, Self-esteem
circumstances.

Summary
• The process of persistent behaviour directed towards a specific goal, which results from
certain driving forces, is called motivation.
• There are two types of motivation, namely, biological, and psychosocial motivation.
• Biological motivation focuses on the innate, biological causes of motivation like hormones,
neurotransmitters, brain structures (hypothalamus, limbic system), etc. Examples of biological
motivation are hunger, thirst, and sex.
• Psychosocial motivation explains motives resulting mainly from the interaction of the
individual with his social environment. Examples of psychosocial motives are need for
affiliation, need for achievement, curiosity and exploration, and the need for power.
• Maslow arranged various human needs in an ascending hierarchical order, beginning with
the most basic physiological needs, and then safety needs, love and belongingness needs,
esteem needs, and finally on the top of the hierarchy is the need for self-actualisation.
• Other concepts related to motivation are frustration and conflicts.
• Emotion is a complex pattern of arousal that involves physiological activation, conscious
awareness of feeling, and a specific cognitive label that describes the process.
• Certain emotions are basic like joy, anger, sorrow, surprise, fear, etc. Other emotions are
experienced as a result of combination of these emotions.
• Central and autonomic nervous system play a major role in regulating emotions.
• Culture strongly influences the expression and interpretation of emotions.
• Emotion is expressed through verbal and non-verbal channels.
• It is important to manage emotions effectively in order to ensure physical and psychological
well-being.

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Psychology
Review Questions
1. Explain the concept of motivation.
2. What are the biological bases of hunger and thirst needs?
3. How do the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power influence the behaviour of
adolescents? Explain with examples.
4. What is the basic idea behind Maslow’s hierarchy of needs? Explain with suitable examples.
5. Does physiological arousal precede or follow an emotional experience? Explain.
6. Is it important to consciously interpret and label emotions in order to explain them?
Discuss giving suitable examples.
7. How does culture influence the expression of emotions?
8. Why is it important to manage negative emotions? Suggest ways to manage negative
emotions.

Project Ideas
1. Using Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, analyse what kind of motivational forces might have
motivated the great mathematician S.A. Ramanujan and the great shehnai Maestro Ustad
Bismillah Khan (Bharat Ratna) to perform exceptionally in their respective fields. Now
place yourself and five more known people in terms of need satisfaction. Reflect and
discuss.
2. In many households, family members do not eat without bathing first and practise religious
fasts. How have different social practices influenced your expression of hunger and thirst?
Conduct a survey on five people from different backgrounds and prepare a report.

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Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
If you observe your friends, classmates or relatives, you will find how they
differ from each other in the manner they perceive, learn, and think, as
also in their performance on various tasks. Such individual differences can
be noticed in every walk of life. That people differ from one another is obvious.
Introduction In Class XI, you have learnt about psychological principles that are applied
to understand human behaviour. We also need to know how people differ,
what brings about these differences, and how such differences can be
assessed. You will recall how one of the main concerns of modern psychology
has been the study of individual differences from the time of Galton. This
chapter will introduce you to some of the fundamentals of individual
differences.
One of the most popular psychological attributes which has been of
interest to psychologists is Intelligence. People differ from each other in
their ability to understand complex ideas, adapt to environment, learn from
experience, engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles.
In this chapter, you will study the nature of intelligence, changing definitions
of intelligence, cultural differences in intelligence, range and variations in
the intellectual competencies of people, and the nature of special abilities
or aptitudes.

exemplifies a typical combination of


INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN
various traits. The question which you may
FUNCTIONING
like to pose is how and why people differ.
Individual variations are common within This, in fact, is the subject matter of the
and across all species. Variations add study of individual differences. For
colour and beauty to nature. For a psychologists, individual differences refer to
moment, think of a world around you distinctiveness and variations among
where each and every object is of the same people’s characteristics and behaviour
colour, say red or blue or green. How would patterns.
the world appear to you? Certainly not a While many psychologists believe that
beautiful one! Would you prefer to live in our behaviours are influenced by our
such a world? In all likelihood, your personal traits, some others hold the view
answer will be ‘no’. Like objects, people too that our behaviours are influenced more by
possess different combinations of traits. situational factors. This latter view is
Variability is a fact of nature, and known as situationism, which states that
individuals are no exception to this. They situations and circumstances in which one
vary in terms of physical characteristics, is placed influence one’s behaviour. A
such as height, weight, strength, hair person, who is generally aggressive, may
colour, and so on. They also vary along behave in a submissive manner in the
psychological dimensions. They may be presence of her/his top boss. Sometimes,
intelligent or dull, dominant or submissive, the situational influences are so powerful
creative or not so creative, outgoing or that individuals with differing personality
withdrawn, etc. The list of variations can traits respond to them in almost the same
be endless. Different traits can exist in ways. The situationist perspective views
varying degrees in an individual. In this human behaviour as resulting from
sense, each one of us is unique as s/he interaction of external and internal factors.

2
Psychology
his family and neighbourhood, we may
ASSESSMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
consider assessing her/his personality
ATTRIBUTES
characteristics. For a poorly motivated
Psychological attributes are involved in person, we may assess her/his interests
very simple phenomena like in time taken and preferences. Psychological assessment
to react to a stimulus, i.e. reaction time, uses systematic testing procedures to
and also in highly global concepts like evaluate abilities, behaviours, and personal
happiness. It is difficult to count and qualities of individuals.
specify the number of psychological
attributes that can be assessed. Some Domains of Psychological
Assessment is the first step in Attributes
understanding a psychological attribute. Psychological attributes are not linear or
Assessment refers to the measurement of unidimensional. They are complex and
psychological attributes of individuals and expressed in terms of dimensions. A line
their evaluation, often using multiple is a mere aggregate of many points. A point
methods in terms of certain standards of occupies no space. But think of a box. It
comparison. Any attribute will be said to occupies space. It can be described only in
exist in a person only if it can be measured terms of its three dimensions, i.e. length,
by using scientific procedures. For width, and height. Similar is the case with
example, when we say, “Harish is psychological attributes. They are usually
dominant”, we are referring to the degree multi-dimensional. If you want to have a
of ‘dominance’ in Harish. This statement is complete assessment of a person, you will
based on our own assessment of need to assess how s/he functions in
‘dominance’ in him. Our assessment may various domains or areas, such as
be informal or formal. Formal assessment cognitive, emotional, social, etc.
is objective, standardised, and organised. We will discuss in this chapter some
On the other hand, informal assessment important attributes that are of interest to
varies from case to case and from one psychologists. These attributes are
assessor to another and, therefore, is open categorised on the basis of varieties of tests
to subjective interpretations. Psychologists used in psychological literature.
are trained in making formal assessment 1. Intelligence is the global capacity to
of psychological attributes. understand the world, think rationally,
Once assessment is done, we can use and use available resources effectively
this information to predict how Harish will when faced with challenges. Intelligence
probably behave in future. We may predict tests provide a global measure of a
that Harish, if given a chance to lead a person’s general cognitive competence
team, will most likely be an authoritarian including the ability to profit from
leader. If the predicted consequence is not schooling. Generally, students having
what we want, we may want to intervene low intelligence are not likely to do so
to effect a change in Harish’s behaviour. well in school-related examinations, but
The attribute chosen for assessment their success in life is not associated
depends upon our purpose. In order to only with their intelligence test scores.
help a weak student perform well in 2. Aptitude refers to an individual’s
examinations, we may assess her/his underlying potential for acquiring skills.
intellectual strengths and weaknesses. If a Aptitude tests are used to predict what
person fails to adjust with members of her/ an individual will be able to do if given

3
Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes
proper environment and training. A used for the purposes of clinical
person with high mechanical aptitude diagnosis, guidance, personnel
can profit from appropriate training and selection, placement, and training.
can do well as an engineer. Similarly, Besides objective tests, psychologists
a person having high language aptitude have also developed certain projective
can be trained to be a good writer. tests, especially for the assessment of
3. Interest is an individual’s preference for personality. You will learn about them
engaging in one or more specific in Chapter 2.
activities relative to others. Assessment • Interview involves seeking information
of interests of students may help to from a person on a one-to-one basis. You
decide what subjects or courses they may see it being used when a
can pursue comfortably and with counsellor interacts with a client, a
pleasure. Knowledge of interests helps salesperson makes a door -to-door
us in making choices that promote life survey regarding the usefulness of a
satisfaction and performance on jobs. particular product, an employer selects
4. Personality refers to relatively enduring employees for her/his organisation, or a
characteristics of a person that make journalist interviews important people
her or him distinct from others. on issues of national and international
Personality tests try to assess an importance.
individual’s unique characteristics, e.g. • Case Study is an in-depth study of the
whether one is dominant or submissive, individual in ter ms of her/his
outgoing or withdrawn, moody or psychological attributes, psychological
emotionally stable, etc. Personality history in the context of her/his
assessment helps us to explain an psychosocial and physical environment.
individual’s behaviour and predict how Case studies are widely used by
she/he will behave in future. clinical psychologists. Case analyses of
5. Values are enduring beliefs about an the lives of great people can also be
ideal mode of behaviour. A person highly illuminating for those willing to
having a value sets a standard for lear n from their life experiences.
guiding her/his actions in life and also Case studies are based on data
for judging others. In value assessment, generated by different methods, e.g.
we try to determine the dominant interview, observation, questionnaire,
values of a person (e.g., political, psychological tests, etc.
religious, social or economic). • Observation involves employing
systematic, organised, and objective
Assessment Methods procedures to record behavioural
Several methods are used for psychological phenomena occurring naturally in real
assessment. You have learnt about some time. Certain phenomena such as
of these methods in Class XI. Let us recall mother-child interactions can be easily
their key features. studied through observation. The major
• Psychological Test is an objective problems with observational methods
and standardised measure of an are that the observer has little control
individual’s mental and/or behavioural over the situation and the reports may
characteristics. Objective tests have suffer from subjective interpretations of
been developed to measure all the the observer.
dimensions of psychological attributes • Self-Report is a method in which a
(e.g., intelligence, aptitude, etc.) person provides factual information
described above. These tests are widely about herself/himself and/or opinions,

4
Psychology
beliefs, etc. that s/he holds. Such we discuss some important theories of
infor mation may be obtained by intelligence.
using an interview schedule or a
questionnaire, a psychological test, or Activity
Discovering the Attributes of
a personal diary.
Intelligent Persons 1.1
1. Who is the most intelligent of your
INTELLIGENCE classmates? Think of her/him in
your mind’s eye, and write down
Intelligence is a key construct employed to a few words/phrases describing
that person.
know how individuals differ from one
2. Think of 3 other persons in your
another. It also provides an understanding immediate environment, whom
of how people adapt their behaviour you consider intelligent, and write
according to the environment they live in. down a few words/phrases
In this section, you will read about describing the attributes of each.
intelligence in its various forms. 3. Judge the newer additions with
reference to what you wrote in item
Psychological notion of intelligence is no. 1.
quite different from the common sensical 4. Make a list of all the attributes you
notion of intelligence. If you watch an consider as manifestations of
intelligent person, you are likely to see in intelligent behaviours. Using these
her/him attributes like mental alertness, attributes, try to frame a definition.
5. Discuss your report with your
ready wit, quickness in learning, and
classmates and the teacher.
ability to understand relationships. The 6. Compare it with what the
Oxford Dictionary explains intelligence as researchers have to say about
the power of perceiving, learning, ‘intelligence’.
understanding, and knowing. Early
intelligence theorists also used these
attributes in defining intelligence. Alfred
Binet was one of the first psychologists THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
who worked on intelligence. He defined
Psychologists have proposed several
intelligence as the ability to judge well, theories of intelligence. Theories can be
understand well, and reason well. broadly classified as either representing a
Wechsler, whose intelligence tests are most psychometric/structural approach or an
widely used, understood intelligence in information-processing approach.
terms of its functionality, i.e. its value for The psychometric approach considers
adaptation to environment. He defined it as intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It
the global and aggregate capacity of an expresses the individual’s performance in
individual to think rationally, act terms of a single index of cognitive abilities.
purposefully, and to deal effectively with On the other hand, the information-
her/his environment. Other psychologists, processing approach describes the
such as Gardner and Sternberg have processes people use in intellectual
suggested that an intelligent individual not reasoning and problem solving. The major
only adapts to the environment, but also focus of this approach is on how an
actively modifies or shapes it. You will be intelligent person acts. Rather than
able to understand the concept of focusing on structure of intelligence or its
intelligence and how it has evolved, when underlying dimensions, information-

5
Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes
processing approaches emphasise studying independent of the others. These primary
cognitive functions underlying intelligent abilities are: (i) Verbal Comprehension
behaviour. We will discuss some (grasping meaning of words, concepts, and
representative theories of these ideas), (ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and
approaches. accuracy in numerical and computational
We mentioned above that Alfred Binet skills), (iii) Spatial Relations (visualising
was the first psychologist who tried to patterns and forms), (iv) Perceptual Speed
formalise the concept of intelligence in (speed in perceiving details), (v) Word
terms of mental operations. Prior to him, Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly),
we find the notion of intelligence described (vi) Memory (accuracy in recalling
in general ways in various philosophical information), and (vii) Inductive Reasoning
treatises available in different cultural (deriving general rules from presented
traditions. Binet’s theory of intelligence facts).
was rather simple as it arose from his Arthur Jensen proposed a hierarchical
interest in differentiating more intelligent model of intelligence consisting of abilities
from less intelligent individuals. He, operating at two levels, called Level I and
therefore, conceptualised intelligence as Level II. Level I is the associative learning
consisting of one similar set of abilities in which output is more or less similar to
which can be used for solving any or every the input (e.g., rote learning and memory).
problem in an individual’s environment. Level II, called cognitive competence,
His theory of intelligence is called Uni or involves higher-order skills as they
one factor theory of intelligence. This transform the input to produce an effective
theory came to be disputed when output.
psychologists started analysing data J.P. Guilford proposed the structure-
of individuals, which was collected using of-intellect model which classifies
Binet’s test. intellectual traits among three dimensions:
In 1927, Charles Spearman proposed a operations, contents, and products.
two-factor theory of intelligence Operations are what the respondent does.
employing a statistical method called factor These include cognition, memory
analysis. He showed that intelligence recording, memory retention, divergent
consisted of a general factor (g-factor) and production, convergent production, and
some specific factors (s-factors). The evaluation. Contents refer to the nature of
g-factor includes mental operations which materials or infor mation on which
are primary and common to all intellectual operations are performed.
performances. In addition to the g-factor, These include visual, auditory, symbolic
he said that there are also many specific (e.g., letters, numbers), semantic (e.g.,
abilities. These are contained in what he words) and behavioural (e.g., information
called the s-factor. Excellent singers, about people’s behaviour, attitudes, needs,
architects, scientists, and athletes may be etc.). Products refer to the form in which
high on g-factor, but in addition to this, information is processed by the respondent.
they have specific abilities which allow Products are classified into units, classes,
them to excel in their respective domains. relations, systems, transformations, and
Spearman’s theory was followed by Louis implications. Since this classification
Thurstone’s theory. He proposed the (Guilford, 1988) includes 6ˆ5ˆ6 categories,
theory of primary mental abilities. It therefore, the model has 180 cells. Each cell
states that intelligence consists of seven is expected to have at least one factor or
primary abilities, each of which is relatively ability; some cells may have more than

6
Psychology
one factor. Each factor is described in high on this intelligence can easily
terms of all three dimensions. represent the spatial world in the mind.
The above mentioned theories are Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters,
representations of psychometric approach architects, interior decorators, and
to understand intelligent behaviour. surgeons are likely to have highly
developed spatial intelligence.
Theory of Multiple Intelligences Musical (sensitivity to musical rhythms
and patter ns) : It is the capacity to
Howard Gardner proposed the theory of
produce, create and manipulate musical
multiple intelligences. According to him,
patterns. Persons high on this intelligence
intelligence is not a single entity; rather
are very sensitive to sounds and vibrations,
distinct types of intelligences exist. Each
and in creating new patterns of sounds.
of these intelligences are independent of
Bodily-Kinaesthetic (using whole or
each other. This means that, if a person
portions of the body flexibly and
exhibits one type of intelligence, it does not
creatively) : This consists of the use of the
necessarily indicate being high or low on
whole body or portions of it for display or
other types of intelligences. Gardner also construction of products and problem
put forth that dif ferent types of solving. Athletes, dancers, actors,
intelligences interact and work together to sportspersons, gymnasts, and surgeons
find a solution to a problem. Gardner are likely to have such kind of intelligence.
studied extremely talented persons, who Interpersonal (sensitivity to subtle
had shown exceptional abilities in their aspects of others’ behaviours) : This is the
respective areas, and described eight types skill of understanding the motives, feelings
of intelligence. These are as follows: and behaviours of other people so as to
Linguistic (skills involved in the bond into a comfortable relationship with
production and use of language) : It is the others. Psychologists, counsellors,
capacity to use language fluently and politicians, social workers, and religious
flexibly to express one’s thinking and leaders are likely to possess high
understand others. Persons high on this interpersonal intelligence.
intelligence are ‘word-smart’, i.e. they are Intrapersonal (awareness of one’s own
sensitive to different shades of word feelings, motives, and desires): This refers
meanings, are articulate, and can create to the knowledge of one’s inter nal
linguistic images in their mind. Poets and strengths and limitations and using that
writers are very strong in this component knowledge to effectively relate to others.
of intelligence. Persons high on this ability have finer
Logical-Mathematical (skills in sensibilities regarding their identity,
scientific thinking and problem solving) : human existence, and meaning of life.
Persons high on this type of intelligence can Philosophers and spiritual leaders present
think logically and critically. They engage in examples of this type of intelligence.
abstract reasoning, and can manipulate Naturalistic (sensitivity to the features
symbols to solve mathematical problems. of the natural world) : This involves
Scientists and Nobel Prize winners are likely complete awareness of our relationship
to be strong in this component. with the natural world. It is useful in
Spatial (skills in forming visual images recognising the beauty of different species
and patterns) : It refers to the abilities of flora and fauna, and making subtle
involved in for ming, using, and discriminations in the natural world.
transforming mental images. The person Hunters, farmers, tourists, botanists,

7
Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes
zoologists, and bird watchers possess more Experiential Intelligence: Experiential or
of naturalistic intelligence. creative intelligence is involved in using
past experiences creatively to solve novel
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence problems. It is reflected in creative
Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed the performance. Persons high on this aspect
triarchic theory of intelligence. Sternberg integrate different experiences in an
views intelligence as “the ability to adapt, original way to make new discoveries and
to shape and select environment to inventions. They quickly find out which
accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s information is crucial in a given situation.
society and culture”. According to this
theory, there are three basic types of On the ‘Practical’ Track Activity
intelligence: Componential, Experiential, 1.2
and Contextual. The elements of the You have just been admitted into a
triarchic theory of intelligence are shown school/college. You will take three
in Figure 1.1. examinations during the entire year.
Componential Intelligence : Compo- You sincerely want to receive high
marks in the course. How likely are you
nential or analytical intelligence is the to engage in each of the following
analysis of information to solve problems. actions? Rank the following courses of
Persons high on this ability think action. Match your answer with that
analytically and critically and succeed in of your classmates.
schools. This intelligence has three • Attend classes regularly.
components, each serving a different • Create study groups with your
friends for weekly discussions.
function. First is the knowledge acquisition
• Take detailed notes in the class.
component, which is responsible for • Join a tutorial/coaching centre.
learning and acquisition of the ways of • Prepare written notes for each
doing things. The second is the meta or a chapter.
higher order component, which involves • Read the textbook chapters
planning concerning what to do and how thoroughly.
• Solve the questions of the last three
to do. The third is the per for mance
years.
component, which involves actually doing Talk to your teacher after the class.
things.

Fig.1.1 : Elements of Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

8
Psychology
Contextual Intelligence : Contextual or you perceive the relations among various
practical intelligence involves the ability to concepts and integrate them into a
deal with environmental demands meaningful pattern for comprehension. For
encountered on a daily basis. It may be example, in Raven’s Progressive Matrices
called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’. (RPM) Test, a design is presented from
Persons high on this aspect easily adapt to which a part has been removed. You are
their present environment or select a more required to choose one of the six options
favourable environment than the existing that best completes the design.
one, or modify the environment to fit their Simultaneous processing helps you in
needs. Therefore, they turn out to be grasping the meaning and relationship
successful in life. between the given abstract figures.
Ster nberg’s triarchic theory of Successive processing takes place when
intelligence represents the information- you remember all the information serially
processing approach to understand so that the recall of one leads to the recall
intelligence. of another. Learning of digits, alphabets,
multiplication tables, etc. are examples of
Planning, Attention-arousal, and successive processing.
Simultaneous-successive (PASS) Model Planning : This is an essential feature
of Intelligence of intelligence. After the information is
attended to and processed, planning is
This model has been developed by J.P. activated. It allows us to think of the
Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby (1994). possible courses of action, implement them
According to this model, intellectual to reach a target, and evaluate their
activity involves the interdependent effectiveness. If a plan does not work, it is
functioning of three neurological systems, modified to suit the requirements of the
called the functional units of brain. These task or situation. For example, to take the
units are responsible for arousal/attention, test scheduled by your teacher, you would
coding or processing, and planning have to set goals, plan a time schedule of
respectively. study, get clarifications in case of problems
Arousal/Attention : State of arousal is and if you are not able to tackle the
basic to any behaviour as it helps us in chapters assigned for the test, you may
attending to stimuli. Arousal and attention have to think of other ways (e.g., give more
enable a person to process information. An time, study with a friend, etc.) to meet your
optimal level of arousal focuses our goals.
attention to the relevant aspects of a These PASS processes operate on a
problem. Too much or too little arousal knowledge base developed either formally
would inter fere with attention. For (by reading, writing, and experimenting) or
instance, when you are told by your informally from the environment. These
teacher about a test which s/he plans to processes are interactive and dynamic in
hold, it would arouse you to attend to the nature; yet each has its own distinctive
specific chapters. Arousal forces you to functions. Das and Naglieri have also
focus your attention on reading, learning developed a battery of tests, known as the
and revising the contents of the chapters. Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). It
Simultaneous and Successive consists of verbal as well as non-verbal
Processing : You can integrate the tasks that measure basic cognitive
information into your knowledge system functions presumed to be independent of
either simultaneously or successively. schooling. The battery of tests is meant for
Simultaneous processing takes place when individuals between 5 and 18 years of age.

9
Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes
The results of assessment can be used to intelligence while rich nutrition, good family
remedy cognitive deficits of children with background, and quality schooling
learning problems. increases intelligence. There is a general
This model represents the information- consensus among psychologists that
processing approach to intelligence. intelligence is a product of complex
interaction of heredity (nature) and
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE environment (nurture). Heredity can best be
viewed as something that sets a range
Why are some people more intelligent than within which an individual’s development is
others? Is it due to their heredity, or is it actually shaped by the support and
due to the influence of environmental opportunities of the environment.
factors? You have already read about the
influence of these factors in the Assessment of Intelligence
development of an individual in Class XI. In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon,
made the first successful attempt to
Intelligence: Interplay of Nature and
formally measure intelligence. In 1908,
Nurture
when the scale was revised, they gave the
The evidence for hereditary influences on concept of Mental Age (MA), which is a
intelligence comes mainly from studies on measure of a person’s intellectual
twins and adopted children. The development relative to people of her/his
intelligence of identical twins reared age group. A mental age of 5 means that
together correlate almost 0.90. Twins a child’s performance on an intelligence
separated early in childhood also test equals the average performance level
show considerable similarity in their of a group of 5-year olds. Chronological
intellectual, personality and behavioural Age (CA) is the biological age from birth.
characteristics. The intelligence of identical A bright child’s MA is more than her/his
twins reared in different environments CA; for a dull child, MA is below the CA.
correlate 0.72, those of fraternal twins Retardation was defined by Binet and
reared together correlate almost 0.60, and Simon as being two mental age years below
those of brothers and sisters reared the chronological age.
together correlate about 0.50, while In 1912, William Stern, a German
siblings reared apart correlate about 0.25. psychologist, devised the concept of
Another line of evidence comes from the Intelligence Quotient (IQ). IQ refers to
studies of adopted children, which mental age divided by chronological age,
show that children’s intelligence is more and multiplied by 100.
similar to their biological rather than
MA
adoptive parents. IQ = ˆ 100
CA
With respect to the role of environment,
studies have reported that as children grow The number 100 is used as a multiplier
in age, their intelligence level tends to move to avoid the decimal point. When the MA
closer to that of their adoptive parents. equals the CA, the IQ equals 100. If MA is
Children from disadvantaged homes more than the CA, IQ is more than 100. IQ
adopted into families with higher socio- becomes less than 100 when the MA is less
economic status exhibit a large increase in than the CA. For example, a
their intelligence scores. There is evidence 10-year-old child with a mental age of 12
that environmental deprivation lowers would have an IQ of 120 (12/10 ˆ 100),

10
Psychology
‘mental retardation’, while persons with IQ
Activity ‘Intelligent’ Numbers above 130 are considered to have
1.3 (Computing IQ)
exceptional talents. The IQ score of a
• Find out the IQ of a 14-year-old
child with a mental age of 16. person can be interpreted by referring to
• Find out the mental age of a 12- Table 1.1.
year-old child with an IQ of 90.
Table 1.1 : Classification of People on the
Basis of IQ
whereas the same child with an MA of 7
IQ Range Descriptive Label Per cent in the
would have an IQ of 70 (7/10 ˆ 100). The Population
average IQ in the population is 100,
irrespective of age. Above 130 Very superior 2.2
IQ scor es are distributed in the 120 – 130 Superior 6.7
population in such a way that the scores 110 – 119 High average 16.1
of most people tend to fall in the middle 90 – 109 Average 50.0
range of the distribution. Only a few 80 – 89 Low average 16.1
people have either very high or very low 70 – 79 Borderline 6.7
scores. The frequency distribution for the Below 70 Mentally challenged/ 2.2
IQ scores tends to approximate a bell- retarded
shaped curve, called the normal curve.
This type of distribution is symmetrical
around the central value, called the mean. All persons do not have the same
The distribution of IQ scores in the form intellectual capacity; some are
of a normal distribution is shown in exceptionally bright and some are below
Figure 1.2. average. One practical use of intelligence
The mean IQ score in a population is test is to identify persons at the extremes
100. People with IQ scores in the range of of intellectual functioning. If you refer to
90–110 have normal intelligence. Those Table 1.1, you will notice that about 2 per
with IQ below 70 are suspected to have cent of the population have IQ above 130,

Fig.1.2 : Normal Curve Pattern Showing Distribution of IQ Scores in the Population

11
Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes
and a similar percentage have IQ below 70. function with special attention, to those
The persons in the first group are called who cannot be trained and require
intellectually gifted; those in the second institutional care throughout their lives.
group are termed mentally challenged You have learnt earlier that the mean IQ
or mentally retarded. These two score in the population is 100. These
groups deviate considerably from the figures are used to understand the
normal population in respect of their categories of mentally retarded. The
cognitive, emotional, and motivational different levels of retardation are: mild
characteristics. retardation (IQs 55–69), moderate
retardation (IQs 40–54), severe
Variations of Intelligence retardation (IQs 25–39), and profound
retardation (IQs below 25). Although the
Intellectual Deficiency development of people with mild
On the one hand are the gifted and creative retardation is typically slower than that of
persons we discussed briefly earlier. On the their peers, they can function quite
other hand, there are children who face independently, hold jobs and families. As
enormous difficulty in learning even very the level of retardation increases, the
simple skills. Those children who show difficulties are strongly marked. The people
intellectual deficiency are ter med as with moderate retardation lag behind their
‘mentally challenged’ or ‘mentally retarded’. peers in language and motor skills. They
As a group, there is wide variation among can be trained in self-care skills, and
the mentally deficient or retarded. The simple social and communication skills.
American Association on Mental Deficiency They need to have moderate degree of
(AAMD) views mental retardation as supervision in everyday tasks. Individuals
“significantly sub-average general with profound and severe retardation are
intellectual functioning existing concurrently incapable of managing life and need
with deficits in adaptive behaviour and constant care for their entire lives. You will
manifested during the developmental read more about the characteristics of the
period”. This definition points to three mentally retarded/challenged in Chapter 4.
basic features. First, in order to be judged
as mentally retarded, a person must show Intellectual Giftedness
significantly sub-average intellectual Intellectually gifted individuals show higher
functioning. Persons having IQs below 70 performance because of their outstanding
are judged to have sub-average potentialities. The study of gifted
intelligence. The second relates to deficits individuals began in 1925, when Lewis
in adaptive behaviour. Adaptive behaviour Terman followed the lives of about 1500
refers to a person’s capacity to be children with IQs of 130 and above to
independent and deal effectively with one’s examine how intelligence was related to
environment. The third feature is that the occupational success and life adjustment.
deficits must be observed during the Although the ter ms ‘talent’ and
developmental period, that is between 0 ‘giftedness’ are often used inter -
and 18 years of age. changeably, they mean different things.
Individuals who are categorised as Giftedness is exceptional general ability
having mental retardation show significant shown in superior performance in a wide
variation in their abilities, ranging from variety of areas. Talent is a narrower term
those who can be taught to work and and refers to remarkable ability in a

12
Psychology
specific field (e.g., spiritual, social, These may include life enrichment
aesthetic, etc.). The highly talented are programmes that can sharpen children’s
sometimes called ‘prodigies’. skills in productive thinking, planning,
It has been suggested by psychologists decision-making, and communication.
that giftedness from the teachers’ point of
view depends on a combination of high Types of Intelligence Tests
ability, high creativity, and high Intelligence tests are of several types. On
commitment.
the basis of their administration procedure,
Gifted children show early signs of
they can be categorised as individual or
intellectual superiority. Even during
group tests. They can also be classified as
infancy and early childhood, they show
either verbal or performance tests on the
larger attention span, good recognition
basis of the nature of items used.
memory, preference for novelty, sensitivity
Depending upon the extent to which an
to environmental changes, and early
intelligence test favours one culture over
appearance of language skills. To equate
another, it can be judged as either culture-
giftedness with brilliant academic
fair or culture-biased. You can choose a
performance is not correct. Athletes who
test depending on the purpose of your use.
show superior psychomotor ability are
also gifted. Each gifted student Individual or Group Tests
possesses different strengths, personalities
and characteristics. Some important An individual intelligence test is one which
characteristics of gifted children are : can be administered to one person at a
• Advanced logical thinking, questioning time. A group intelligence test can be
and problem solving behaviour. administered to several persons
• High speed in processing information. simultaneously. Individual tests require
• Superior generalisation and discri- the test administrator to establish a
mination ability. rapport with the subject and be sensitive
• Advanced level of original and creative to her/his feelings, moods and expressions
thinking. during the testing session. Group tests,
however, do not allow an opportunity to be
• High level of intrinsic motivation and
familiar with the subjects’ feelings.
self-esteem.
Individual tests allow people to answer
• Independent and non-confor mist
orally or in a written form or manipulate
thinking.
objects as per the tester’s instructions.
• Preference for solitary academic
Group tests generally seek written answers
activities for long periods.
usually in a multiple-choice format.
Performance on intelligence tests is not
the only measure for identifying the gifted.
Verbal, Non-Verbal, or Performance Tests
Many other sources of information, such as
teachers’ judgment, school achievement An intelligence test may be fully verbal,
record, parents’ interviews, peer and self- fully non-verbal or fully performance-
ratings, etc. can be used in combination based, or it may consist of a mixture of
with intellectual assessment. To reach their items from each category. Verbal tests
full potential, gifted children require special require subjects to give verbal responses
attention and different educational either orally or in a written form. Therefore,
programmes beyond those provided to verbal tests can be administered only to
normal children in regular classrooms. literate people. The non-verbal tests use

13
Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes
pictures or illustrations as test items. is asked to arrange the blocks within a
Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test is time period to produce a given design. A
an example of a non-verbal test. In this major advantage of performance tests is
test, the subject examines an incomplete that they can be easily administered to
pattern and chooses a figure from the persons from different cultures.
alternatives that will complete the pattern.
A specimen item from RPM is given in Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests
Figure 1.3.
Intelligence tests can be culture-fair or
culture-biased. Many intelligence tests
show a bias to the culture in which they
are developed. Tests developed in America
and Europe represent an urban and
middle class cultural ethos. Hence,
educated middle class white subjects
generally perform well on those tests. The
items do not respect the cultural
perspectives of Asia and Africa. The norms
for these tests are also drawn from western
cultural groups. You may be already
familiar with the concept of nor ms
Fig.1.3 : An Item from Raven’s Progressive discussed in Class XI.
Matrices Test It is nearly impossible to design a test
that can be applied equally meaningfully in
Performance tests require subjects to all cultures. Psychologists have tried to
manipulate objects and other materials to develop tests that are culture-fair or
perform a task. Written language is not culturally appropriate, i.e. one that does not
necessary for answering the items. For discriminate against individuals belonging
example, Kohs’ Block Design Test contains to different cultures. In such tests, items
a number of wooden blocks. The subject are constructed in a manner that they

Box Some Misuses of Intelligence Tests


1.1
You might have learnt by now that intelligence tests serve many useful purposes such as
selection, counselling, guidance, self-analysis, and diagnosis. Unless used by a trained
investigator, they may be misused either intentionally or unintentionally. Some of the ill-
effects of intelligence testing by naive testers are:
• Poor performance on a test may attach a stigma to children and thereby adversely
affect their performance and self-respect.
• The tests may invite discriminating practices from parents, teachers and elders in the
society.
• Administering a test biased in favour of the middle class and higher class populations
may underestimate the IQ of children coming from disadvantaged sections of the society.
• Intelligence tests do not capture creative potentialities and practical side of intelligence,
and they also do not relate much to success in life. Intelligence can be a potential factor
for achievement in various spheres of life.
It is suggested that one should guard against erroneous practices associated with
intelligence tests and take the help of trained psychologists to analyse an individual’s
strengths and weaknesses.

14
Psychology
assess experiences common to all cultures (NCERT) has documented Indian tests.
or have questions in which language usage Critical reviews of Indian tests are
is not required. Non-verbal and published in the form of handbooks.
performance tests help reduce the cultural NLEPT has brought out the handbooks in
bias usually associated with verbal tests. the area of intelligence, aptitude,
personality, attitudes, and interests.
Intelligence Testing in India Table 1.2 lists some tests developed in
S.M. Mohsin made a pioneering attempt in India. Among these, Bhatia’s Battery of
constructing an intelligence test in Hindi Performance Tests is quite popular.

Table 1.2 : Some Tests Developed in India

Verbal Performance

• CIE Verbal Group Test of Intelligence by • CIE Non-verbal Group Test of Intelligence
Uday Shankar • Bhatia’s Battery of Performance Tests
• Group Test of General Mental Ability by • Draw-a-Man Test by Pramila Pathak
S. Jalota
• Adaptation of Wechsler Adult Performance
• Group Test of Intelligence by Prayag Mehta Intelligence Scale by R. Ramalingaswamy
• The Bihar Test of Intelligence by S.M. Mohsin
• Group Test of Intelligence by Bureau of
Psychology, Allahabad
• Indian Adaptation of Stanford-Binet Test
(Third Edition) by S.K. Kulshrestha
• Test of General Mental Ability (Hindi) by
M.C. Joshi.

in the 1930s. C.H. Rice attempted to CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE


standardise Binet’s test in Urdu and
Punjabi. At about the same time, A major characteristic of intelligence is that
Mahalanobis attempted to standardise it helps individuals to adapt to their
Binet’s test in Bengali. Attempts were also environment. The cultural environment
made by Indian researchers to develop provides a context for intelligence to
Indian norms for some western tests develop. Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist,
including RPM, WAIS, Alexander’s has argued that culture provides a social
Passalong, Cube Construction, and Kohs’ context in which people live, grow, and
Block Design. Long and Mehta prepared a understand the world around them. For
Mental Measurement Handbook listing out example, in less technologically developed
103 tests of intelligence in India that were societies, social and emotional skills in
available in various languages. Since then, relating to people are valued, while in
a number of tests have either been technologically advanced societies,
developed or adapted from wester n personal achievement founded on abilities
cultures. The National Library of of reasoning and judgment is considered
Educational and Psychological Tests to represent intelligence.
(NLEPT) at the National Council of From your previous reading you know
Educational Research and T raining that culture is a collective system

15
Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes
of customs, beliefs, attitudes, and others in the society. Some non-western
achievements in art and literature. A societies value self-reflection and
person’s intelligence is likely to be tuned collectivistic orientation as opposed to
by these cultural parameters. Many personal achievement and individualistic
theorists have regarded intelligence as orientation.
attributes specific to the person without
regard to their cultural background. The Intelligence in the Indian Tradition
unique features of culture now find some Contrary to technological intelligence,
representation in theories of intelligence. intelligence in the Indian tradition can be
Ster nberg’s notion of contextual or termed as integral intelligence, which
practical intelligence implies that gives emphasis on connectivity with the
intelligence is a product of culture. social and world environment. Indian
Vygotsky also believed that cultures, like thinkers view intelligence from a holistic
individuals, have a life of their own; they perspective where equal attention is paid
grow and change, and in the process to cognitive and non-cognitive processes as
specify what will be the end-product of well as their integration.
successful intellectual development. The Sanskrit word ‘buddhi’ which is
According to him, while elementary mental often used to represent intelligence is far
functions (e.g., crying, attending to more pervasive in scope than the western
mother’s voice, sensitivity to smells, concept of intelligence. Buddhi, according
walking, and running) are universal, the to J.P. Das, includes such skills as mental
manner in which higher mental functions effort, determined action, feelings, and
such as problem solving and thinking opinions along with cognitive competence
operate are largely culture-produced. such as knowledge, discrimination, and
Technologically advanced societies understanding. Among other things,
adopt child rearing practices that foster buddhi is the knowledge of one’s own self
skills of generalisation and abstraction, based on conscience, will and desire. Thus,
speed, minimal moves, and mental the notion of buddhi has affective and
manipulation among children. These motivational components besides a strong
societies promote a type of behaviour, cognitive component. Unlike the western
which can be called technological views, which primarily focus on cognitive
intelligence. In these societies, persons parameters, the following competencies are
are well-versed in skills of attention, identified as facets of intelligence in the
observation, analysis, performance, speed, Indian tradition :
and achievement orientation. Intelligence • Cognitive capacity (sensitivity to
tests developed in western cultures look context, understanding, discrimination,
precisely for these skills in an individual. problem solving, and ef fective
Technological intelligence is not so communication).
valued in many Asian and African • Social competence (respect for social
societies. The qualities and skills regarded order, commitment to elders, the
as intelligent actions in non-western young and the needy, concer n
cultures are sharply different, though the about others, recognising others’
boundaries are gradually vanishing under perspectives).
the influence of western cultures. In • Emotional competence (self-
addition to cognitive competence that is regulation and self-monitoring of
very specific to the individual, the non- emotions, honesty, politeness, good
western cultures look for skills to relate to conduct, and self-evaluation).

16
Psychology
• Entrepreneurial competence information accurately and efficiently. To
(commitment, persistence, patience, know the characteristics of persons who
hard work, vigilance, and goal-directed are high on emotional intelligence, read
behaviours). Box 1.2.
Emotional intelligence is receiving
increasing attention of educators for
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE dealing with students who are affected by
The notion of emotional intelligence stresses and challenges of the outside
broadens the concept of intelligence world. Programmes aimed at improving
beyond the intellectual sphere/domain and students’ emotional intelligence have
considers that intelligence includes beneficial ef fects on their academic
emotions. You may note that it builds on achievement. They encourage cooperative
the concept of intelligence in the Indian behaviour and reduce their antisocial
tradition. Emotional intelligence is a set activities. These programmes are very
of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, useful in preparing students to face the
expression, and regulation of emotions. It challenges of life outside the classroom.
is the feeling side of intelligence. A good IQ
and scholastic record is not enough to be SPECIAL ABILITIES
successful in life. You may find many
people who are academically talented, but Aptitude : Nature and Measurement
are unsuccessful in their own life. They
experience problems in family, workplace By now you have learnt enough about
and interpersonal relationships. What do intelligence. You may recall that
they lack? Some psychologists believe that intelligence tests assess a general mental
the source of their difficulty may be a lack ability. Aptitude refers to special abilities
of emotional intelligence. This concept was in a particular field of activity. It is a
first introduced by Salovey and Mayer who combination of characteristics that indicates
considered emotional intelligence as “the an individual’s capacity to acquire some
ability to monitor one’s own and other’s specific knowledge or skill after training. We
emotions, to discriminate among them, and assess aptitude with the help of selected
to use the information to guide one’s tests. The knowledge of aptitude can help
thinking and actions”. Emotional Quotient us to predict an individual’s future
(EQ) is used to express emotional performance.
intelligence in the same way as IQ is used While assessing intelligence,
to express intelligence. psychologists often found that people with
In simple terms, emotional intelligence similar intelligence differed widely in
refers to the ability to process emotional acquiring certain knowledge or skills. You

Characteristics of Emotionally Intelligent Persons Box


1.2
• Perceive and be sensitive to your feelings and emotions.
• Perceive and be sensitive to various types of emotions in others by noting their body
language, voice and tone, and facial expressions.
• Relate your emotions to your thoughts so that you take them into account while solving
problems and taking decisions.
• Understand the powerful influence of the nature and intensity of your emotions.
• Control and regulate your emotions and their expressions while dealing with self and
others to achieve harmony and peace.

17
Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes
may observe in your class that there are (vi) Space Relations, (vii) Spelling, and
certain areas in which some intelligent (viii) Language Usage. J.M. Ojha has
students do not do well. When you have a developed an Indian adaptation of DAT.
problem in mathematics, you may turn to Several other aptitude tests have been
Aman for help, and with similar difficulties developed in India for measuring scientific,
in literature you may consult Avinash. You scholastic, literary, clerical, and teaching
may request Shabnam to sing for your aptitudes.
annual function, and may turn to John
when facing a problem with your bike.
CREATIVITY
These specific skills and abilities are called
aptitudes. With proper training these In the foregoing sections, you have read
abilities can be considerably enhanced. that there are variations in psychological
In order to be successful in a particular attributes like intelligence, aptitude,
field, a person must have both aptitude personality and so on. Here, you will learn
and interest. Interest is a preference for that there are differences in the potential
a particular activity; aptitude is the for creativity across individuals and the
potentiality to perform that activity. A manner in which creativity is expressed.
person may be interested in a particular Some are highly creative and others are not
job or activity, but may not have the so creative. Some may express creativity in
aptitude for it. Similarly, a person may writing, still others in dance, music, poetry,
have the potentiality for performing a job, science and so on. Manifestations of
but may not be interested in doing that. creativity can be observed in a novel
In both cases, the outcome will not be solution to a problem, an invention,
satisfactory. A student with high composition of a poem, painting, new
mechanical aptitude and strong interest in chemical process, an innovation in law, a
engineering is more likely to be a breakthrough in preventing a disease and
successful mechanical engineer. the like. Despite differences, one common
Aptitude tests are available in two element among these is the production of
forms: independent (specialised) aptitude something new and unique.
tests and multiple (generalised) aptitude We generally think of creativity in terms
tests. Clerical Aptitude, Mechanical of creative persons like Tagore, Einstein,
Aptitude, Numerical Aptitude, and Typing C.V. Raman, Ramanujan etc. who have
Aptitude are independent aptitude tests. made outstanding contributions in
Multiple Aptitude Tests exist in the form different spheres. In recent years, our
of test batteries, which measure aptitude understanding of creativity has broadened.
in several separate but homogeneous Creativity is not just limited to a selected
areas. Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT), few — the artist, the scientist, the poet or
the General Aptitude Tests Battery (GATB), the inventor. An ordinary individual who is
and the Ar med Services Vocational engaged in simple occupations like pottery,
Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) are well-known carpentry, cooking, etc. can also be
aptitude test batteries. Among these, creative. However, it has been said that
DAT is most commonly used in they are not working at the same level of
educational settings. It consists of 8 creativity as an eminent scientist or a
independent subtests: (i) Verbal Reasoning, writer. Hence, we can say that individuals
(ii) Numerical Reasoning, (iii) Abstract vary in terms of the level and the areas in
Reasoning, (iv) Clerical Speed and which they exhibit creativity and that all
Accuracy, (v) Mechanical Reasoning, may not be operating at the same level.

18
Psychology
Einstein’s theory of relativity is an example you have already read in Class XI about
of the highest level of creativity which strategies to enhance creativity.
implies bringing out altogether new ideas,
facts, theory, or a product. Another level Creativity and Intelligence
of creativity is working on what has already One important debate in understanding
been established earlier by way of the variations in creativity has been the
modifications, by putting things in new relationship of creativity with intelligence.
perspectives or to new use. Let us take an example of two students
Research literature suggests that in a class. Sunita is regarded by her
children begin to develop their imagination teachers as an excellent student. She does
during the early years of childhood but her work on time, scores the highest
they express creativity mostly through grades in her class, listens to instructions
physical activities and in non-verbal ways. with care, grasps quickly, reproduces
When language and intellectual functions accurately but she rarely comes out with
are fully developed and store of knowledge ideas which are her own. Rita is another
is adequately available, creativity is student who is just average in her studies
expressed through verbal modes too. Those and has not achieved high grades
who are outstanding in their creativity may consistently. She prefers to learn on her
give an indication about the direction in own. She improvises new ways of helping
which their creativity lies through their her mother at home and comes up with
self-chosen activities. In some cases, new ways of doing her work and
however, opportunities need to be provided assignments. The former is considered to
before they can manifest their hidden be more intelligent and the latter as more
potential for creativity. creative. Thus, a person who has the
How do we explain variations in the ability to learn faster and reproduce
potential for creativity? As in the case of accurately may be considered intelligent
other mental and physical characteristics, more than creative unless s/he devises
such variations can be attributed to the new ways of learning and doing.
complex interaction of heredity and Terman, in the 1920s, found that
environment. There is no disagreement persons with high IQ were not necessarily
that creativity is determined by both creative. At the same time, creative ideas
heredity and environment. Limits of the could come from persons who did not have
creative potential are set by heredity, a very high IQ. Other researches have
environmental factors stimulate the shown that not even one of those identified
development of creativity. How much of the as gifted, followed up throughout their
creative potential can be realised, when adult life, had become well-known for
and in what specific form and direction is creativity in some field. Researchers have
largely determined by environmental also found that both high and low level of
factors such as motivation, commitment, creativity can be found in highly intelligent
family support, peer influences, training children and also children of average
opportunities, etc. Although no amount of intelligence. The same person, thus, can be
training can transform an average person creative as well as intelligent but it is not
to the level of Tagore, Shakespeare, etc. necessary that intelligent ones, in the
but it is also true that every individual can conventional sense, must be creative.
raise her/his level of creative potential Intelligence, therefore, by itself does not
beyond its present level. In this context, ensure creativity.

19
Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes
Researchers have found that the are off-the-beaten track, ability to see new
relationship between creativity and relationships between seemingly unrelated
intelligence is positive. All creative acts things, ability to guess causes and
require some minimum ability to acquire consequences, ability to put things in a
knowledge and capacity to comprehend, new context, etc. This is contrary to the
retain, and retrieve. Creative writers, for tests of intelligence which mostly involve
example, need facility in dealing with convergent thinking. In tests of
language. The artist must understand the intelligence, the person has to think of the
effect that will be produced by a particular right solution to the problem and the focus
technique of painting, a scientist must be is on assessing abilities such as memory,
able to reason and so on. Hence, a certain logical reasoning, accuracy, perceptual
level of intelligence is required for creativity ability, and clear thinking. There is little
but beyond that intelligence does not scope for the expression of spontaneity,
correlate well with creativity. It can be originality, and imagination.
concluded that creativity can take many Since expressions of creativity are
forms and blends. Some may have more of varied, tests have been developed using
intellectual attributes, others may have different stimuli like words, figures, action,
more of attributes associated with and sounds. These tests measure general
creativity. But, what are the attributes of
creative thinking abilities like ability to
a creative person? You may like to discuss
think of a variety of ideas on a given topic/
the attributes which are common to all
situation, alternative ways of looking at
kinds of creative persons.
things, problems or situations, to guess
Creativity tests came into existence to
causes and consequences, to think of
assess variations in terms of the potential
unusual ideas to improve and to use
for creativity in contrast to intelligence.
common objects, ask unusual questions
A general feature of most of the
creativity tests is that they are open-ended. and so on. A few investigators have also
They permit the person to think of different developed tests of creativity in different
answers to the questions or problems in areas such as literary creativity, scientific
terms of her/his experiences, whatever creativity, mathematical creativity, etc.
these may have been. These help the Some of the famous psychologists who
individual to go in different directions. have developed creativity tests are
There are no specified answers to Guilford, Torrance, Khatena, Wallach and
questions or problems in creativity tests. Kogan, Paramesh, Baqer Mehdi, and Passi.
Therefore, there is freedom to use one’s Each test has a standardised procedure, a
imagination and express it in original ways. complete set of manual, and interpretation
Creativity tests involve divergent thinking guide. These can be used only after
and assess such abilities as ability to extensive training in administration and
produce a variety of ideas, i.e. ideas which interpretation of test scores.

Key Terms
Aptitude, Aptitude tests, Case study, Cognitive assessment system, Componential intelligence, Contextual
intelligence, Creativity, Emotional intelligence, Culture-fair test, Experiential intelligence, g-factor,
Individual differences, Intellectual giftedness, Intelligence, Intelligence tests, Intelligence quotient (IQ),
Interest, Interview, Mental age (MA), Mental retardation, Observational method, Planning, Psychological
test, Simultaneous processing, Situationism, Successive processing, Values.

20
Psychology
• Individuals vary in their physical and psychological characteristics. Individual
differences refer to distinctiveness and variations in people’s characteristics and
behaviour patterns.
• A wide variety of personal attributes such as intelligence, aptitude, interests,
personality, and values can be assessed. Psychologists assess these attributes
through psychological tests, interviews, case studies, observations, and self-reports.
• The term ‘intelligence’ refers to an individual’s capacity to understand the world,
think rationally, and use resources effectively to meet the demands of life. Intellectual
development is the product of a complex interplay of hereditary factors (nature), and
environmental conditions (nurture).
• The psychometric approaches to intelligence lay emphasis on studying intelligence
as a constellation of abilities, expressed in quantitative terms such as IQ. The more
recent theories representing information-processing approaches, e.g. Sternberg’s
triarchic theory and Das’s PASS model describe the processes underlying intelligent
behaviour. Howard Gardner suggests that there are eight different kinds of intelligence.
• Intelligence is assessed with the help of specially designed tests. Intelligence tests
may be of verbal or performance type; can be administered individually or in groups;
and may be culturally-biased or culturally-fair. At the two extremes of intelligence
are the intellectually deficient persons and the intellectually gifted.
• Culture provides a context for intellectual development. Western culture promotes
‘technological intelligence’ based on skills of analysis, performance, speed, and
achievement orientation. In contrast, non-western cultures value self-reflection, social
and emotional competence as signs of intelligent behaviour. Indian culture promotes
‘integral intelligence’ that emphasises connectivity with people and the larger social
world.
• Emotional intelligence involves the ability to perceive and manage one’s and other’s
feelings and emotions; to motivate oneself and restrain one’s impulses; and to handle
interpersonal relationships effectively.
• Aptitude refers to an individual’s potential for acquiring some specific skills. Aptitude
tests predict what an individual will be able to do given proper training and
environment.
• Creativity is the ability to produce ideas, objects, or problem solutions that are novel,
appropriate and useful. Certain level of intelligence is necessary to be creative, but a
high level of intelligence, however, does not ensure that a person would certainly be
creative.

Review Questions
1. How do psychologists characterise and define intelligence?
2. To what extent is our intelligence the result of heredity (nature) and environment
(nurture)? Discuss.
3. Explain briefly the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner.
4. How does the triarchic theory help us to understand intelligence?
5. “Any intellectual activity involves the independent functioning of three neurological
systems”. Explain with reference to PASS model.
6. Are there cultural differences in the conceptualisation of intelligence?
7. What is IQ? How do psychologists classify people on the basis of their IQ scores?
8. How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence?
9. All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. How do individuals vary in
their intellectual ability? Explain.
10. Which of the two, IQ or EQ, do you think would be more related to success in life
and why?
11. How is ‘aptitude’ different from ‘interest’ and ‘intelligence’? How is aptitude measured?
12. How is creativity related to intelligence?

21
Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes
Project 1. Observe and interview 5 persons in your neighbourhood in order to see how they differ
Ideas from each other in terms of certain psychological attributes. Cover all the five domains.
Prepare a psychological profile of each person and compare.
2. Select 5 vocations and gather information about the nature of work done by people in
these vocations. Also analyse these vocations in terms of the types of psychological
attributes required for successful performance. Write a report.

Weblinks
http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/anastasi.shtml
http://www.chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/intell.html
http://www.humandimensions.org/emotion.htm
http://www.emotionaliq.com/Gdefault.htm
http://edweb.gsn.org/edref.mi.intro.html
http://www.talentsmart.com
http://www.kent.ac.uk/career/psychotests.com

Pedagogical Hints
1. To introduce the topic, teacher can
initiate discussion on psychological
constructs such as intelligence,
personality, aptitude, values, etc.
This would serve to point out the
difficulty in arriving at one single,
universal explanation of these
constructs.
2. Teacher should draw from the
experiences of the students to
introduce the different psycho-
logical attributes discussed in the
chapter.
3. Some sample items of various tests
(to be collected by the teacher) can
be given to students to generate
their interest.
4. Encourage students to complete the
activities and also to design
activities on their own either
individually or in groups. Initiate
discussion in the class on
observations made by students on
completion of the activities.
5. Students should be encouraged to
relate the concepts to their real-life
experiences.

22
Psychology
Quite often you must have found yourself engaged in knowing and
evaluating your own behaviour and that of others. You must have noticed
how you react and behave in certain situations in a manner different from
others? You may have also often asked questions about your relationships
with others. To find an answer to some of these questions, psychologists
use the notion of self. Similarly when we ask questions such as why people
are different, how they make different meaning of events, and how they
feel and react differently in similar situations (i.e. questions relating to
Introduction variations in behaviour), the notion of personality comes into play. Both
these concepts, i.e. self and personality are intimately related. Self, in fact,
lies at the core of personality.
The study of self and personality helps us understand not only who we
are, but also our uniqueness as well as our similarities with others. By
understanding self and personality, we can understand our own as well
as others’ behaviour in diverse settings. Several thinkers have analysed
the structure and function of self and personality. As a result, we have
different theoretical perspectives on self and personality today. This chapter
will introduce you to some basic aspects of self and personality. You will
also learn some important theoretical approaches to self and personality,
and certain methods of personality assessment.

SELF AND PERSONALITY CONCEPT OF SELF


Self and personality refer to the From your childhood days, you may have
characteristic ways in which we define our spent considerable time thinking about
existence. They also refer to the ways in who you are, and how you are different
which our experiences are organised and from others. By now, you already may have
show up in our behaviour. From common developed some ideas about yourself,
observation we know that different people although you may not be aware of it. Let
hold different ideas about themselves. us try to have some preliminary notion of
These ideas represent the self of a person. our self (i.e. who are we?) by completing
We also know that different people behave Activity 2.1.
in different ways in a given situation, but How easy was it for you to complete
the behaviour of a particular person from these sentences? How much time did you
one situation to another generally remains take? Perhaps it was not as easy as you
fairly stable. Such a relatively stable may have thought at first. While working
patter n of behaviour represents the on it, you were describing your ‘self ’. You
“personality” of that person. Thus, different are aware of your ‘self’ in the same way as
persons seem to possess dif ferent you are aware of various objects in your
personalities. These personalities are surrounding environment, such as a chair
reflected in the diverse behaviour of or a table in your room. A newly born child
persons. has no idea of its self. As a child grows

24
Psychology
older, the idea of self emerges and its disclosing her/his personal identity. Social
for mation begins. Parents, friends, identity refers to those aspects of a person
teachers and other significant persons play that link her/him to a social or cultural
a vital role in shaping a child’s ideas about group or are derived from it. When
self. Our interaction with other people, our someone says that s/he is a Hindu or a
experiences, and the meaning we give to Muslim, a Brahmin or an adivasi or a
them, serve as the basis of our self. The North Indian or a South Indian, or
structure of self is modifiable in the light something like these, s/he is trying to
of our own experiences and the indicate her/his social identity. These
experiences we have of other people. This descriptions characterise the way people
you will notice if you exchange the list you mentally represent themselves as a person.
completed under Activity 2.1 with your Thus, self refers to the totality of an
other friends. individual’s conscious experiences, ideas,
thoughts and feelings with regard to herself
Activity Understanding the Self or himself. These experiences and ideas
2.1 define the existence of an individual both
Please complete the following sentences at the personal and at social levels.
starting with “I am”.
Time Now............. Self as Subject and Self as Object
I am........................................................ If you return to your friends’ descriptions
I am........................................................ in Activity 2.1, you will find that they have
I am........................................................ described themselves either as an entity
I am........................................................
that does something (e.g., I am a dancer)
I am........................................................
I am........................................................ or as an entity on which something is done
I am........................................................ (e.g., I am one who easily gets hurt). In the
I am........................................................ former case, the self is described as a
I am........................................................ ‘subject’ (who does something); in the latter
I am.....................................................
case, the self is described as an ‘object’
Time when you finished..................... (which gets affected).
This means that self can be understood
Notice what they have done. You will as a subject as well as an object. When you
find that they have produced a fairly long say, “I know who I am”, the self is being
list of attributes about how they identify described as a ‘knower’ as well as
themselves. The attributes they have used something that can be ‘known’. As a
for identification tell us about their subject (actor) the self actively engages in
personal as well as social or cultural the process of knowing itself. As an object
identities. Personal identity refers to those (consequence) the self gets observed and
attributes of a person that make her/him comes to be known. This dual status of self
different from others. When a person should always be kept in mind.
describes herself/himself by telling her/his
Kinds of Self
name (e.g., I am Sanjana or Karim), or her/
his qualities or characteristics (e.g., I am There are several kinds of self. They get
honest or hardworking person), or her/his formed as a result of our interactions with
potentialities or capabilities (e.g., I am a our physical and socio-cultural
singer or dancer), or her/his beliefs (e.g., environments. The first elements of self
I am a believer in God or destiny), s/he is may be noticed when a newborn child cries

25
Chapter 2 • Self and Personality
for milk when it is hungry. Although, this more specific level, a person may have a
cry is based on reflex, this later on leads very positive view of her/his athletic
to development of awareness that ‘I am bravery, but a negative view of her/his
hungry’. This biological self in the context academic talents. At an even more specific
of socio-cultural environment modifies level, one may have a positive self-concept
itself. While you may feel hungry for a about one’s reading ability but a negative
chocolate, an Eskimo may not. one about one’s mathematical skills.
A distinction is made between ‘personal’ Finding out an individual’s self-concept is
and ‘social’ self. The personal self leads to not easy. The most frequently used method
an orientation in which one feels primarily involves asking the person about herself/
concerned with oneself. We have talked himself.
above how our biological needs lead to the
development of a ‘biological self’. But, soon Self-esteem
a child’s psychological and social needs in Self-esteem is an important aspect of our
the context of her/his environment lead self. As persons we always make some
other components of personal self to judgment about our own value or worth.
emerge. Emphasis comes to be laid on This value judgment of a person about
those aspects of life that relate only to the herself/himself is called self-esteem. Some
concer ned person, such as personal people have high self-esteem, whereas
freedom, personal responsibility, personal others may have low self-esteem. In order
achievement, or personal comforts. The to assess self-esteem we present a variety
social self emerges in relation with others of statements to a person, and ask her/
and emphasises such aspects of life as him to indicate the extent to which those
cooperation, unity, affiliation, sacrifice, statements are true for her or him. For
support or sharing. This self values example, we may ask a child to indicate the
family and social relationships. Hence, it extent to which statements such as “I am
is also referred to as familial or relational good at homework”, or “I am the one
self. usually chosen for the games”, or “I am
highly liked by my peers”, are true of her/
COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIOURAL ASPECTS him. If a child reports these statements to
OF SELF be true for her/him, her/his self-esteem
will be high in comparison to someone who
Psychologists from all parts of the world says “no”.
have shown interest in the study of self. Studies indicate that by the age of 6 to
These studies have brought out many 7 years, children seem to have formed self-
aspects of our behaviour related to self. As esteem at least in four areas: academic
indicated earlier, all of us carry within us competence, social competence, physical/
a sense of who we are and what makes us athletic competence, and physical
different from everyone else. We cling to appearance, which become more refined
our personal and social identities and feel with age. Our capacity to view ourselves in
safe in the knowledge that it remains terms of stable dispositions permits us to
stable in our lifetime. combine separate self-evaluations into a
The way we perceive ourselves and the general psychological image of ourselves.
ideas we hold about our competencies and This is known as an overall sense of self-
attributes is also called self-concept. At a esteem.
very general level, this view of oneself is, Self-esteem shows a strong relationship
overall, either positive or negative. At a with our everyday behaviour. For example,

26
Psychology
children with high academic self-esteem stop smoking the moment they decide to
perform better in schools than those with do so. Our society, our parents and our
low academic self-esteem, and children own positive experiences can help in the
with high social self-esteem are more liked development of a strong sense of self-
by their peers than those with low social efficacy by presenting positive models
self-esteem. On the other hand, children during the formative years of children.
with low self-esteem in all areas are often
found to display anxiety, depression, and Self-regulation
increasing antisocial behaviour. Studies Self-regulation refers to our ability to
have shown that war m and positive organise and monitor our own behaviour.
parenting helps in the development of high People, who are able to change their
self-esteem among children as it allows behaviour according to the demands of the
them to know that they are accepted as external environment, are high on self-
competent and worthwhile. Children, whose monitoring.
parents help or make decisions for them Many situations of life require
even when they do not need assistance, resistance to situational pressures and
often suffer from low self-esteem. control over ourselves. This becomes
possible through what is commonly
Self-efficacy
known as ‘will power’. As human beings
Self-efficacy is another important aspect we can control our behaviour the way we
of our self. People differ in the extent to want. We often decide to delay or defer the
which they believe they themselves control satisfaction of certain needs. Learning to
their life outcomes or the outcomes are delay or defer the gratification of needs is
controlled by luck or fate or other called self-control. Self-control plays a
situational factors, e.g. passing an key role in the fulfilment of long-term
examination. A person who believes that goals. Indian cultural tradition provides
s/he has the ability or behaviours required us with certain effective mechanisms (e.g.,
by a particular situation demonstrates fasting in vrata or roza and non-
high self-efficacy. attachment with worldly things) for
The notion of self-efficacy is based on developing self-control.
Bandura’s social lear ning theory. A number of psychological techniques
Bandura’s initial studies showed that of self-control have also been suggested.
children and adults learned behaviour by Observation of own behaviour is one of
observing and imitating others. People’s them. This provides us with necessary
expectations of mastery or achievement information that may be used to change,
and their convictions about their own modify, or strengthen certain aspects of
effectiveness also determine the types of self. Self-instruction is another important
behaviour in which they would engage, as technique. We often instruct ourselves to
also the amount of risk they would do something and behave the way we want
undertake. A strong sense of self-efficacy to. Such instructions are quite effective in
allows people to select, influence, and even self-regulation. Self-reinforcement is the
construct the circumstances of their own third technique. This involves rewarding
life. People with a strong sense of self- behaviours that have pleasant outcomes.
efficacy also feel less fearful. For example, you may go to see a movie
Self-efficacy can be developed. People with friends, if you have done well in an
with high self-efficacy have been found to examination. These techniques have been

27
Chapter 2 • Self and Personality
tried out and found quite effective with members of the group maintain their
respect to self-regulation and self-control. individuality. In the Indian culture, the self
is generally not separated from one’s own
group; rather both remain in a state of
CULTURE AND SELF
harmonious co-existence. In the Western
Several aspects of self seem to be linked culture, on the other hand, they often
to the characteristic features of the culture remain at a distance. That is why many
in which an individual lives. Analysis of Western cultures are characterised as
self carried out in the Indian cultural individualistic, whereas many Asian
context reveals a number of important cultures are characterised as collectivistic.
features that are distinct from those found
in the Western cultural context. CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY
The most important distinction between
the Indian and the Western views is the The term ‘personality’ often appears in our
way the boundary is drawn between the day-to-day discussion. The literal meaning
self and the other. In the Western view, this of personality is derived from the Latin
boundary appears to be relatively fixed. word persona, the mask used by actors in
The Indian view of self, on the other hand, the Roman theatre for changing their facial
is characterised by the shifting nature of make-up. After putting on the mask,
this boundary. Thus, our self at one audience expected the person to perform
moment of time expands to fuse with the a role in a particular manner. It did not,
cosmos or include the others. But at the however, mean that the person enacting
next moment, it seems to be completely the given role necessarily possessed those
withdrawn from it and focused fully on qualities.
individual self (e.g., our personal needs or For a layperson, personality generally
goals). The Western view seems to hold refers to the physical or exter nal
clear dichotomies between self and other, appearance of an individual. For example,
man and nature, subjective and objective. when we find someone ‘good-looking’, we
The Indian view does not make such clear often assume that the person also has a
dichotomies. Figure 2.1 illustrates this charming personality. This notion of
relationship. personality is based on super ficial
In the Western culture, the self and the impressions, which may not be correct.
group exist as two different entities with In psychological terms, personality
clearly defined boundaries. Individual refers to our characteristic ways of

Fig.2.1 : Self and Group Boundaries in Western and Indian Cultural Perspectives

28
Psychology
responding to individuals and situations. or external situational demands. Thus,
People can easily describe the way in which personality is adaptive to situations.
they respond to various situations. Certain Once we are able to characterise
catchwords (e.g., shy, sensitive, quiet, someone’s personality, we can predict
concerned, warm, etc.) are often used to how that person will probably behave
describe personalities. These words refer to
in a variety of circumstances. An
different components of personality. In this
understanding of personality allows us to
sense, personality refers to unique and
deal with people in realistic and acceptable
relatively stable qualities that characterise
ways. For example, if you find a child who
an individual’s behaviour across different
does not like orders, the most effective way
situations over a period of time.
to deal with that child will be not to give
If you watch closely, you will find that
orders, but to present a set of acceptable
people do show variations in their
behaviour. One is not always cautious or alternatives from which the child may
impulsive, shy or friendly. Personality choose. Similarly, a child who has feelings
characterises individuals as they appear in of inferiority needs to be treated differently
most circumstances. Consistency in from a child who is self-confident.
behaviour, thought and emotion of an Several other terms are used to refer to
individual across situations and across behavioural characteristics of individuals.
time periods characterises her/his Quite often they are used as synonyms of
personality. For example, an honest person personality. Some of these terms are given
is more likely to remain honest irrespective in Box 2.1 along with their defining
of time or situation. However, situational features. You may read them carefully to
variations in behaviour do occur as they appreciate how they are different from the
help individuals in adapting to their notion of personality.
environmental circumstances.
In brief, personality is characterised by MAJOR APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF
the following features: PERSONALITY
1. It has both physical and psychological
components. Psychologists interested in the study of
2. Its expression in terms of behaviour is personality, try to answer certain questions
fairly unique in a given individual. about the nature and origin of individual
3. Its main features do not easily change differences in personality. You may have
with time. observed that two children in the same
4. It is dynamic in the sense that some of family develop dramatically different
its features may change due to internal personalities. Not only they look physically

Personality-related Terms Box


2.1
Temperament: Biologically based characteristic way of reacting.
Trait: Stable, persistent and specific way of behaving.
Disposition: Tendency of a person to react to a given situation in a particular way.
Character: The overall pattern of regularly occurring behaviour.
Habit: Over learned modes of behaving.
Values: Goals and ideals that are considered important and worthwhile to achieve.

29
Chapter 2 • Self and Personality
different, but they also behave differently of external rewards or threats available in
in different situations. These observations a particular situation. The cross-
often generate curiosity and force us to situational consistency of traits is found to
ask: “Why is it that some people react be quite low. The compelling influence of
differently in a given situation than others situations can be noted by observing
do? Why is it that some people enjoy people’s behaviour in places like a market,
adventurous activities, while others like a courtroom, or a place of worship.
reading, watching television or playing
cards? Are these differences stable all Type Approaches
through one’s life, or are they just short- As we explained above, personality types
lived and situation-specific?” are used to represent and communicate a
A number of approaches and theories set of expected behaviours based on
have been developed to understand and similarities. Efforts to categorise people
explain behavioural differences among into personality types have been made
individuals, and behavioural consistencies since ancient times. The Greek physician
within an individual. These theories are Hippocrates had proposed a typology of
based on different models of human personality based on fluid or humour. He
behaviour. Each throws light on some, but classified people into four types (i.e.,
not all, aspects of personality. sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic and
Psychologists distinguish between type choleric); each characterised by specific
and trait approaches to personality. The behavioural features.
type approaches attempts to comprehend In India also, Charak Samhita, a
human personality by examining certain famous treatise on Ayurveda, classifies
broad patterns in the observed behavioural people into the categories of vata, pitta and
characteristics of individuals. Each kapha on the basis of three humoural
behavioural pattern refers to one type in elements called tridosha. Each refers to a
which individuals are placed in terms of type of temperament, called prakriti (basic
the similarity of their behavioural nature) of a person. Apart from this, there
characteristics with that patter n. In is also a typology of personality based on
contrast, the trait approach focuses on the trigunas, i.e. sattva, rajas, and tamas.
the specific psychological attributes along Sattva guna includes attributes like
which individuals tend to dif fer in cleanliness, truthfulness, dutifulness,
consistent and stable ways. For example, detachment, discipline, etc. Rajas guna
one person may be less shy, whereas includes intensive activity, desire for sense
another may be more; or one person may gratification, dissatisfaction, envy for
be less friendly, whereas another may be others, and a materialistic mentality, etc.
more. Here “shyness” and “friendliness” Tamas guna characterises anger,
represent traits along which individuals arrogance, depression, laziness, feeling of
can be rated in terms of the degree of helplessness, etc. All the three gunas are
presence or absence of the concerned present in each and every person in
behavioural quality or a trait. The different degrees. The dominance of one or
interactional approach holds that the other guna may lead to a particular
situational characteristics play an type of behaviour.
important role in deter mining our Within psychology, the personality
behaviour. People may behave as types given by Sheldon are fairly well-
dependent or independent not because of known. Using body build and temperament
their internal personality trait, but because as the main basis, Sheldon proposed the

30
Psychology
Endomorphic, Mesomorphic, and the absence of Type-A traits. This typology
Ectomorphic typology. The endomorphs has been further extended. Morris has
are fat, soft and round. By temperament suggested a Type-C personality, which is
they are relaxed and sociable. The prone to cancer. Individuals characterised
mesomorphs have strong musculature, are by this personality are cooperative,
rectangular with a strong body build. They unassertive and patient. They suppress
are energetic and courageous. The their negative emotions (e.g., anger), and
ectomorphs are thin, long and fragile in show compliance to authority. More
body build. They are brainy, artistic and recently, a Type-D personality has been
introvert. suggested, which is characterised by
Let us remember that these body proneness to depression.
typologies are simple, and have limited use Personality typologies are usually very
in predicting behaviour of individuals. They appealing, but are too simplistic. Human
are more like stereotypes which people behaviour is highly complex and variable.
hold. Assigning people to a particular personality
Jung has proposed another important type is difficult. People do not fit into such
typology by grouping people into introverts simple categorisation schemes so neatly.
and extraverts. This is widely recognised.
According to this typology, introverts are Trait Approaches
people who prefer to be alone, tend to avoid
others, withdraw themselves in the face of These theories are mainly concerned with
emotional conflicts, and are shy. the description or characterisation of basic
Extraverts, on the other hand, are sociable, components of personality. They try to
outgoing, drawn to occupations that allow discover the ‘building blocks’ of
dealing directly with people, and react to personality. Human beings display a wide
stress by trying to lose themselves among range of variations in psychological
people and social activity. attributes, yet it is possible to club them
In recent years, Friedman and into smaller number of personality traits.
Rosenman have classified individuals into Trait approach is very similar to our
Type-A and Type-B personalities. The two common experience in everyday life. For
researchers were trying to identify example, when we come to know that a
psychosocial risk factors when they person is sociable, we assume that s/he
discovered these types. People will not only be cooperative, friendly and
characterised by Type-A personality seem helping, but also engage in behaviours that
to possess high motivation, lack patience, involve other social components. Thus,
feel short of time, be in a great hurry, and trait approach attempts to identify primary
feel like being always burdened with work. characteristics of people. A trait is
Such people find it difficult to slow down considered as a r elatively enduring
and relax. People with Type-A personality attribute or quality on which one
are more susceptible to problems like individual differs from another. They
hypertension and coronary heart disease include a range of possible behaviours
(CHD). The risk of developing CHD with that are activated accor ding to the
Type-A personality is sometimes even demands of the situation.
greater than the risks caused by high blood To summarise, (a) traits are relatively
pressure, high cholesterol levels, or stable over time, (b) they are generally
smoking. Opposite to this is the Type-B consistent across situations, and (c) their
personality, which can be understood as strengths and combinations vary across

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Chapter 2 • Self and Personality
individuals leading to individual differences situations depends on her/his traits,
in personality. although people sharing the same traits
A number of psychologists have used might express them in different ways.
traits to for mulate their theories of Allport considered traits more like
personality. We will discuss some intervening variables that occur between
important theories. the stimulus situation and response of the
person. This meant that any variation in
Allport’s Trait Theory traits would elicit a different response to
the same situation.
Gordon Allport is considered the pioneer of
trait approach. He proposed that
Cattell: Personality Factors
individuals possess a number of traits,
which are dynamic in nature. They Raymond Cattell believed that there is a
determine behaviour in such a manner common structure on which people differ
that an individual approaches different from each other. This structure could be
situations with similar plans. The traits determined empirically. He tried to identify
integrate stimuli and responses which the primary traits from a huge array of
otherwise look dissimilar. Allport argued descriptive adjectives found in language.
that the words people use to describe He applied a statistical technique, called
themselves and others provide a basis for factor analysis, to discover the common
understanding human personality. He structures. He found 16 primary or source
analysed the words of English language to traits. The source traits are stable, and are
look for traits which describe a person. considered as the building blocks of
Allport, based on this, categorised traits personality. Besides these, there are also
into cardinal, central, and secondary. a number of surface traits that result out
Cardinal traits are highly generalised of the interaction of source traits. Cattell
dispositions. They indicate the goal around described the source traits in terms of
which a person’s entire life seems to opposing tendencies. He developed a test,
revolve. Mahatma Gandhi’s non-violence called Sixteen Personality Factor
and Hitler’s Nazism are examples of Questionnaire (16PF), for the assessment
cardinal traits. Such traits often get of personality. This test is widely used by
associated with the name of the person so psychologists.
strongly that they derive such identities as
the ‘Gandhian’ or ‘Hitlerian’ trait. Less Eysenck’s Theory
pervasive in ef fect, but still quite H.J. Eysenck proposed that personality
generalised dispositions, are called central could be reduced into two broad
traits. These traits (e.g., warm, sincere, dimensions. These are biologically and
diligent, etc.) are often used in writing a genetically based. Each dimension
testimonial or job recommendation subsumes a number of specific traits.
for a person. The least generalised These dimensions are:
characteristics of a person are called (1) Neuroticism vs. emotional stability : It
secondary traits. Traits such as ‘likes refers to the degree to which people
mangoes’ or ‘prefers ethnic clothes’ are have control over their feelings. At one
examples of secondary traits. extreme of the dimension, we find
While Allport acknowledged the people who are neurotic. They are
influence of situations on behaviour, he anxious, moody, touchy, restless and
held that the way a person reacts to given quickly lose control. At the other

32
Psychology
Five-Factor Model of Personality Box
2.2
The controversy regarding the number of basic personality traits has taken an interesting
turn in recent years. Paul Costa and Robert McCrae have examined all possible personality
traits. The findings indicate a set of five factors. They are often called Big Five Factors.
These factors include:
1. Openness to experience : Those who score high on this factor are imaginative, curious,
open to new ideas, and interested in cultural pursuits. In contrast, those who score
low are rigid.
2. Extraversion : It characterises people who are socially active, assertive, outgoing,
talkative, and fun loving. On its opposite are people who are shy.
3. Agreeableness : This factor characterises people who are helpful, co-operative, friendly,
caring, and nurturing. On the opposite are people who are hostile and self-centered.
4. Neuroticism : People who score high on this factor are emotionally unstable, anxious,
worried, fearful, distressed, irritable and hypertensive. On the opposite side are people
who are well adjusted.
5. Conscientiousness : Those who score high on this factor are achievement-oriented,
dependable, responsible, prudent, hardworking and self-controlled. On the opposite
are people who are impulsive.
This five factor model represents an important theoretical development in the field of
personality. It has been found useful in understanding the personality profile of people
across cultures. While it is consistent with the analysis of personality traits found in
different languages, it is also supported by the studies of personality carried out through
different methods. Hence, it is now considered to be the most promising empirical approach
to the study of personality.

extreme lie people who are calm, even- with the other two dimensions mentioned
tempered, reliable and remain under above. A person who scores high on
control. psychoticism dimension tends to be
(2) Extraversion vs. introversion : It refers hostile, egocentric, and antisocial.
to the degree to which people are Eysenck Personality Questionnaire is the
socially outgoing or socially withdrawn. test which is used for studying these
At one extreme are those who are dimensions of personality.
active, gregarious, impulsive and thrill- The trait approach is very popular and
seeking. At the other extreme are many advances in this respect are taking
people who are passive, quiet, cautious place. These are beyond the scope of your
and reserved. present studies. A new formulation has
also been advanced that provides a novel
In a later work Eysenck proposed a
scheme of organising traits. This new
third dimension, called Psychoticism vs.
formulation is given in Box 2.2.
Sociability, which is considered to interact
Psychodynamic Approach
Activity If you were asked to change one aspect This is a highly popular approach to
2.2 of your personality, what would you studying personality. This view owes
like to change and why? If not, why? largely to the contributions of Sigmund
Which aspect of your personality would Freud. He was a physician, and developed
you never want to change? Write a this theory in the course of his clinical
paragraph. Discuss with a friend.
practice. Early in his career he used

33
Chapter 2 • Self and Personality
hypnosis to treat people with physical and repressed unconscious materials to
emotional problems. He noted that many consciousness, thereby helping people to
of his patients needed to talk about their live in a more self-aware and integrated
problems, and having talked about them, manner.
they often felt better. Freud used free
association (a method in which a person is Structure of Personality
asked to openly share all the thoughts, According to Freud’s theory, the primary
feelings and ideas that come to her/his structural elements of personality are
mind), dream analysis, and analysis of three, i.e. id, ego, and superego. They
errors to understand the inter nal reside in the unconscious as forces, and
functioning of the mind. they can be inferred from the ways people
behave (see Fig. 2.2). Let us remember that
Levels of Consciousness
id, ego and superego are concepts, not real
Freud’s theory considers the sources and physical structures. We will discuss these
consequences of emotional conflicts and terms in some detail.
the way people deal with these. In doing
so, it visualises the human mind in terms
of three levels of consciousness. The first
level is conscious, which includes the
thoughts, feelings and actions of which
people are aware. The second level is
preconscious, which includes mental
activity of which people may become aware
only if they attend to it closely. The third
level is unconscious, which includes
mental activity that people are unaware of.
According to Freud, the unconscious is
a reservoir of instinctive or animal drives.
It also stores all ideas and wishes that are
concealed from conscious awareness,
perhaps, because they lead to Fig.2.2 : Structure of Personality in Freudian
psychological conflicts. Most of these arise Theory
from sexual desires which cannot be
expressed openly and therefore are
Id : It is the source of a person’s
repressed. People constantly struggle to
instinctual energy. It deals with immediate
find either some socially acceptable ways
gratification of primitive needs, sexual
to express unconscious impulses, or to
desires and aggressive impulses. It works
keep those impulses away from being
on the pleasure principle, which assumes
expressed. Unsuccessful resolution of
that people seek pleasure and try to avoid
conflicts results in abnormal behaviour.
pain. Freud considered much of a person’s
Analysis of forgetting, mispronunciations,
instinctual energy to be sexual, and the
jokes and dreams provide us with a means
rest as aggressive. Id does not care for
to approach the unconscious. Freud
moral values, society, or other individuals.
developed a therapeutic procedure, called
psychoanalysis. The basic goal of Ego : It grows out of id, and seeks to
psychoanalytic therapy is to bring the satisfy an individual’s instinctual needs in

34
Psychology
accordance with reality. It works by the Ego Defence Mechanisms
reality principle, and often directs the id
According to Freud, much of human
towards more appropriate ways of behaviour reflects an attempt to deal with
behaving. For example, the id of a boy, who or escape from anxiety. Thus, how the ego
wants an ice-cream cone, tells him to grab deals with anxiety largely determines how
the cone and eat it. His ego tells him that people behave. Freud believed that people
if he grabs the cone without asking, he avoid anxiety mainly by developing defence
may be punished. Working on the reality mechanisms that try to defend the ego
principle, the boy knows that the best way against the awareness of the instinctual
to achieve gratification is to ask for needs. Thus, defence mechanism is a way
permission to eat the cone. Thus, while the of reducing anxiety by distorting reality.
id is demanding, unrealistic and works Although some defence against anxiety is
according to pleasure principle, the ego is normal and adaptive, people who use these
patient, reasonable, and works by the mechanisms to such an extent that reality
reality principle. is truly distorted develop various forms of
Superego : The best way to characterise the maladjustment.
superego is to think of it as the moral Freud has described many different
branch of mental functioning. The kinds of defence mechanisms. The most
superego tells the id and the ego whether important is repression, in which anxiety-
provoking behaviours or thoughts are
gratification in a particular instance is
totally dismissed by the unconscious.
ethical. It helps control the id by
When people repress a feeling or desire,
inter nalising the parental authority
they become totally unaware of that wish
through the process of socialisation. For
or desire. Thus, when a person says, “I do
example, if a boy sees and wants an ice-
not know why I did that”, some repressed
cream cone and asks his mother for it, his
feeling or desire is expressing itself.
superego will indicate that his behaviour
Other major defence mechanisms are
is morally correct. This approach towards projection, denial, reaction formation and
obtaining the ice-cream will not create rationalisation. In projection, people
guilt, fear or anxiety in the boy. attribute their own traits to others. Thus,
Thus, in terms of individual functioning a person who has strong aggressive
Freud thought of the unconscious as being tendencies may see other people as acting
composed of three competing forces. In in an excessively aggressive way towards
some people, the id is stronger than the her/him. In denial, a person totally refuses
superego; in others, it is the superego. The to accept reality. Thus, someone suffering
relative strength of the id, ego and from HIV/AIDS may altogether deny her/
superego deter mines each person’s his illness. In reaction formation, a
stability. Freud also assumed that id is person defends against anxiety by adopting
energised by two instinctual forces, called behaviours opposite to her/his true
life instinct and death instinct. He paid feelings. A person with strong sexual urges,
less attention to the death instinct and who channels her/his energy into religious
focused more on the life (or sexual) fervour, presents a classical example of
instinct. The instinctual life force that reaction formation. In rationalisation, a
energises the id is called libido. It works person tries to make unreasonable feelings
on the pleasure principle, and seeks or behaviour seem reasonable and
immediate gratification. acceptable. For example, when a student

35
Chapter 2 • Self and Personality
buys a set of new pens after doing poorly children at this age experience pleasure in
in an examination, s/he may try to moving their bowels. The anal area of the
rationalise her/his behaviour by asserting, body becomes the focus of certain
“I will do much better with these pens”. pleasurable feelings. This stage establishes
People who use defence mechanisms the basis for conflict between the id and
are often unaware of doing so. Each the ego, and between the desire for babyish
defence mechanism is a way for the ego to pleasure and demand for adult, controlled
deal with the uncomfortable feelings behaviour.
produced by anxiety. However, Freud’s
Phallic Stage : This stage focuses on the
ideas about the role of defence
genitals. At around ages four and five
mechanisms have been questioned. For
children begin to realise the differences
example, his claim that projection reduces
between males and females. They become
anxiety and stress has not found support
aware of sexuality and the sexual
in several studies.
relationship between their parents. During
this stage, the male child experiences the
Stages of Personality Development
Oedipus Complex, which involves love for
Freud claims that the core aspects of the mother, hostility towards the father,
personality are established early, remain and the consequent fear of punishment or
stable throughout life, and can be changed castration by the father (Oedipus was a
only with great difficulty. He proposed a Greek king who unknowingly killed his
five-stage theory of personality (also father and then married his mother). A
called psychosexual) development. major developmental achievement of this
Problems encountered at any stage may stage is the resolution of the Oedipus
arrest development, and have long-term complex. This takes place by accepting his
effect on a person’s life. A brief description father’s relationship with his mother, and
of these stages is given here. modelling his own behaviour after his
Oral Stage : A newborn’s instincts are father.
focused on the mouth. This is the infant’s For girls, the Oedipus complex (called
primary pleasure seeking centre. It is the Electra Complex after Electra, a Greek
through the mouth that the baby obtains character, who induced her brother to kill
food that reduces hunger. The infant their mother) follows a slightly different
achieves oral gratification through feeding, course. By attaching her love to the father
thumb sucking, biting and babbling. It is a girl tries to symbolically marry him and
during these early months that people’s raise a family. When she realises that this
basic feelings about the world are is unlikely, she begins to identify with her
established. Thus, for Freud, an adult who mother and copy her behaviour as a means
of getting (or, sharing in) her father’s
considers the world a bitter place probably
af fection. The critical component in
had difficulty during the oral stage of
resolving the Oedipus complex is the
development.
development of identification with the same
Anal Stage : It is found that around ages sex parents. In other words, boys give up
two and three the child learns to respond sexual feelings for their mothers and begin
to some of the demands of the society. One to see their fathers as role models rather
of the principal demands made by parents than as rivals; girls give up their sexual
is that the child learns to control the bodily desires for their father and identify with
functions of urination and defecation. Most their mother.

36
Psychology
Latency Stage : This stage lasts from about worked with him and then moved on to
seven years until puberty. During this develop their own versions of the
period, the child continues to grow psychoanalytic theory. These theorists
physically, but sexual urges are relatively have been called neo-analytic, or post-
inactive. Much of a child’s energy is Freudian in order to differentiate their
channelled into social or achievement- work from Freud’s. These theories are
related activities. characterised by less prominent roles to
Genital Stage : During this stage, the sexual and aggressive tendencies of the id
person attains maturity in psychosexual and expansion of the concept of ego. The
development. The sexuality, fears and human qualities of creativity, competence,
repressed feelings of earlier stages are once and problem solving abilities are
again exhibited. People learn to deal with emphasised. Some of these theories are
members of the opposite sex in a socially briefly described here.
and sexually mature way. However, if the
Carl Jung : Aims and Aspirations
journey towards this stage is marked by
excessive stress or over-indulgence, it may Jung worked with Freud in his early stages
cause fixation to an earlier stage of of career, but later on he broke away from
development. Freud. Jung saw human beings guided as
Freud’s theory also postulates that as much by aims and aspirations as by sex
children proceed from one stage to another and aggression. He developed his own
stage of development, they seem to adjust theory of personality, called analytical
their view of the world. Failure of a child psychology. The basic assumption of his
to pass successfully through a stage leads theory is that personality consists of
to fixation to that stage. In this situation, competing forces and structures within the
the child’s development gets arrested at an individual (that must be balanced) rather
earlier stage. For example, a child who than between the individual and the
does not pass successfully through the demands of society, or between the
phallic stage fails to resolve the Oedipal individual and reality.
complex and may still feel hostile toward Jung claimed that there was a
the parent of the same sex. This failure collective unconscious consisting of
may have serious consequences for the archetypes or primordial images. These
child’s life. Such a boy may come to are not individually acquired, but are
consider that men are generally hostile, inherited. The God or the Mother Earth is
and may wish to relate to females in a a good example of archetypes. They are
dependable relationship. Regression is found in myths, dreams and arts of all
also a likely outcome in such situations. mankind. Jung held that the self strives for
It takes a person back to an earlier stage. unity and oneness. It is an archetype that
Regression occurs when a person’s is expressed in many ways. He devoted
resolution of problems at any stage of much of his efforts to the study of such
development is less than adequate. In this expressions in various traditions.
situation, people display behaviours typical According to him, for achieving unity and
of a less mature stage of development. wholeness, a person must become
increasingly aware of the wisdom available
Post-Freudian Approaches in one’s personal and collective
A number of theorists further developed unconscious, and must learn to live in
their ideas following Freud. Some had harmony with it.

37
Chapter 2 • Self and Personality
Karen Horney : Optimism Erich Fromm : The Human Concerns
Horney was another disciple of Freud who In contrast to Freud’s biological
developed a theory that deviated from basic orientation, Fromm developed his theory
Freudian principles. She adopted a more from a social orientation. He viewed human
optimistic view of human life with beings as basically social beings who
emphasis on human growth and self- could be understood in terms of their
actualisation. relationship with others. He argued that
Horney’s major contribution lies in her psychological qualities such as growth and
challenge to Freud’s treatment of women realisation of potentials resulted from a
as inferior. According to her, each sex has desire for freedom, and striving for
attributes to be admired by the other, and justice and truth.
neither sex can be viewed as superior or Fromm holds that character traits
inferior. She countered that women were (personality) develop from our experiences
more likely to be affected by social and with other individuals. While culture is
cultural factors than by biological factors. shaped by the mode of existence of a given
She argued that psychological disorders society, people’s dominant character traits
were caused by disturbed interpersonal in a given society work as forces in shaping
relationship during childhood. When the social processes and the culture itself.
parents’ behaviour toward a child is His work recognises the value of positive
qualities, such as tenderness and love in
indifferent, discouraging, and erratic, the
personality development.
child feels insecure and a feeling called
basic anxiety results. Deep resentment
Erik Erikson : Search for Identity
toward parents or basic hostility occurs
due to this anxiety. By showing excessive Erikson’s theory lays stress on rational,
dominance or indifference, or by providing conscious ego processes in personality
too much or too little approval, parents can development. In his theory, development is
generate among children feelings of viewed as a lifelong process, and ego
isolation and helplessness which interfere identity is granted a central place in this
with their healthy development. process. His concept of identity crisis of
adolescent age has drawn considerable
Alfred Adler : Lifestyle and Social Interest attention. Erikson argues that young
people must generate for themselves a
Adler’s theory is known as individual central perspective and a direction that can
psychology. His basic assumption is that give them a meaningful sense of unity and
human behaviour is purposeful and goal- purpose.
directed. Each one of us has the capacity Psychodynamic theories face strong
to choose and create. Our personal goals criticisms from many quarters. The major
are the sources of our motivation. The criticisms are as follows:
goals that provide us with security and (1) The theories are largely based on case
help us in overcoming the feelings of studies; they lack a rigorous scientific
inadequacy are important in our basis.
personality development. In Adler’s view, (2) They use small and atypical individuals
every individual suffers from the feelings as samples for advancing generali-
of inadequacy and guilt, i.e. inferiority sations.
complex, which arise from childhood. (3) The concepts are not properly defined,
Overcoming this complex is essential for and it is difficult to submit them to
optimal personality development. scientific testing.

38
Psychology
(4) Freud has used males as the prototype learning principles that involve the use of
of all human personality development. stimuli, responses, and reinforcement in
He overlooked female experiences and different ways. The theories of classical
perspectives. conditioning (Pavlov), instrumental
conditioning (Skinner), and observational
Behavioural Approach learning (Bandura) are well-known to you.
This approach does not give importance to These theories view learning and
maintenance of behaviour from different
the internal dynamics of behaviour. The
angles. The principles of these theories
behaviourists believe in data, which they
have been widely used in developing
feel are definable, observable, and
personality theories. For example,
measurable. Thus, they focus on learning
observational learning theory considers
of stimulus-response connections and their
thought processes extremely important in
reinforcement. According to them,
learning, but these find almost no place in
personality can be best understood as the
classical or instrumental conditioning
response of an individual to the
theories. Observational learning theory
environment. They see the development
also emphasises social learning (based on
simply as a change in response
observation and imitation of others) and
characteristics, i.e. a person learns new
self-regulation, which again is missed out
behaviours in response to new
in other theories.
environments and stimuli.
For most behaviourists, the structural
unit of personality is the response. Each Observe and note your behaviour Activity
characteristics and those of your 2.3
response is a behaviour, which is emitted
friends that have been imbibed from
to satisfy a specific need. As you know, all popular youth icons.
of us eat because of hunger, but we are
also very choosy about foods. For example,
children do not like eating many of the
vegetables (e.g., spinach, pumpkin, gourds, Cultural Approach
etc.), but gradually they learn to eat them. This approach attempts to understand
Why do they do so? According to the personality in relation to the features of
behavioural approach, children may ecological and cultural environment. It
initially learn to eat such vegetables in proposes that a group’s ‘economic
anticipation of appreciation (reinforcement) maintenance system’ plays a vital role in
from their parents. Later on they may the origin of cultural and behavioural
eventually learn to eat vegetables not only variations. The climatic conditions, the
because their parents are pleased with this nature of terrain of the habitat and the
behaviour, but also because they acquire availability of food (flora and fauna) in it
the taste of those vegetables, and find them determine not only people’s economic
good. Thus, the core tendency that activities, but also their settlement
organises behaviour is the reduction of patterns, social structures, division of
biological or social needs that energise labour, and other features such as child-
behaviour. This is accomplished rearing practices. Taken together these
through responses (behaviours) that are elements constitute a child’s overall
reinforced. learning environment. People’s skills,
From your study in Class XI, you may abilities, behavioural styles, and value
recall that there are several different priorities are viewed as strongly linked to

39
Chapter 2 • Self and Personality
these features. Rituals, ceremonies, cultural demands, children in hunting-
religious practices, arts, recreational gathering and agricultural societies
activities, games and play are the means develop and display different personality
through which people’s personality gets patterns.
projected in a culture. People develop
various personality (behavioural) qualities Humanistic Approach
in an attempt to adapt to the ecological and The humanistic theories are mainly
cultural features of a group’s life. Thus, the developed in response to Freud’s theory.
cultural approach considers personality as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow have
an adaptation of individuals or groups to particularly contributed to the development
the demands of their ecology and culture. of humanistic perspective on personality.
Let us try to understand these aspects We will briefly examine their theories.
with a concrete example. As you know, a The most important idea proposed by
good proportion of the world’s population, Rogers is that of a fully functioning
even today, lives in forests and person. He believes that fulfilment is the
mountainous regions with hunting and motivating force for personality
gathering (economic activities) as their development. People try to express their
primary means of livelihood. The Birhor (a capabilities, potentials and talents to the
tribal group) of Jharkhand represent such fullest extent possible. There is an inborn
a population. Most of them live a nomadic tendency among persons that directs them
life, which requires constant movement in to actualise their inherited nature.
small bands from one forest to another in Rogers makes two basic assumptions
search of games and other forest products about human behaviour. One is that
(e.g., fruits, roots, mushrooms, honey, behaviour is goal-directed and worthwhile.
etc.). In the Birhor society, children from The second is that people (who are innately
an early age are allowed enormous freedom good) will almost always choose adaptive,
to move into forests and learn hunting and self-actualising behaviour.
gathering skills. Their child socialisation Rogers’ theory grew out of his
practices are also aimed at making experiences of listening to patients in his
children independent (do many things clinic. He noted that self was an important
without help from elders), autonomous element in the experience of his clients.
(take several decisions for themselves), and Thus, his theory is structured around the
achievement-oriented (accept risks and concept of self. The theory assumes that
challenges such as those involved in people are constantly engaged in the
hunting) from an early age of life. process of actualising their true self.
In agricultural societies, children are Rogers suggests that each person also
socialised to be obedient to elders, has a concept of ideal self. An ideal self is
nurturant to youngsters, and responsible the self that a person would like to be.
to their duties. Since these behavioural When there is a correspondence between
qualities make people more functional in the real self and ideal self, a person is
agricultural societies, they become generally happy. Discrepancy between the
dominant features of people’s personality real self and ideal self often results in
in contrast to independence, autonomy unhappiness and dissatisfaction. Rogers’
and achievement, which are more basic principle is that people have a
functional (and thus highly valued) in tendency to maximise self-concept through
hunting-gathering societies. Because of self-actualisation. In this process, the self
dif ferent economic pursuits and grows, expands and becomes more social.

40
Psychology
Fig.2.3 : Pattern of Adjustment and Self-concept

Rogers views personality development from your study of motivation in Class XI.
as a continuous process. It involves Maslow has given a detailed account of
lear ning to evaluate oneself and psychologically healthy people in terms of
mastering the pr ocess of self- their attainment of self-actualisation, a
actualisation. He recognises the role of state in which people have reached their
social influences in the development of own fullest potential. Maslow had an
self-concept. When social conditions are optimistic and positive view of man who
positive, the self-concept and self-esteem has the potentialities for love, joy and to
are high. In contrast, when the conditions do creative work. Human beings are
are negative, the self-concept and self- considered free to shape their lives and to
esteem are low. People with high self- self-actualise. Self-actualisation becomes
concept and self-esteem are generally possible by analysing the motivations that
flexible and open to new experiences, so govern our life. We know that biological,
that they can continue to grow and self- security, and belongingness needs (called
actualise. survival needs) are commonly found
This situation warrants that an among animals and human beings. Thus,
atmosphere of unconditional positive an individual’s sole concern with the
regard must be created in order to ensure satisfaction of these needs reduces her/
enhancement of people’s self-concept. The him to the level of animals. The real
client-centred therapy that Rogers journey of human life begins with the
developed basically attempts to create this pursuit of self-esteem and self-
condition. actualisation needs. The humanistic
You are already familiar with the approach emphasises the significance of
hierarchy of needs propounded by Maslow positive aspects of life (see Box 2.3).

Who is a Healthy Person? Box


2.3
The humanistic theorists have indicated that healthy personality lies in not mere
adjustment to society. It involves a quest to know oneself deeply and to be true to one’s
own feelings without disguise, and to be oneself in the here-and-now. According to them,
the healthy people share the following characteristics :
1. They become aware of themselves, their feelings, and their limits; accept themselves,
and what they make of their lives as their own responsibility; have ‘the courage to be’.
2. They experience the “here-and-now”; are not trapped.
3. They do not live in the past or dwell in the future through anxious expectations and
distorted defences.

41
Chapter 2 • Self and Personality
ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY her/him about herself/himself. This led to
the use of self-report measures. These are
To know, understand and describe people fairly structured measures, often based on
is a task in which everybody is involved in theory, that require subjects to give verbal
day-to-day life. When we meet new people, responses using some kind of rating scale.
we often try to understand them and even The method requires the subject to
predict what they may do before we objectively report her/his own feelings with
interact with them. In our personal lives, respect to various items. The responses are
we rely on our past experiences, accepted at their face value. They are
observations, conversations and infor - scored in quantitative ter ms and
mation obtained from other persons. This interpreted on the basis of nor ms
approach to understanding others may be developed for the test. Some of the well-
influenced by a number of factors that may known self-report measures are briefly
colour our judgement and reduce described below.
objectivity. Hence, we need to organise our
ef forts more for mally to analyse The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
personalities. A formal effort aimed at Inventory (MMPI)
understanding personality of an individual
This inventory is widely used as a test in
is termed as personality assessment.
personality assessment. Hathaway and
Assessment refers to the procedures
McKinley developed this test as a helping
used to evaluate or differentiate people on
tool for psychiatric diagnosis, but the test
the basis of certain characteristics. The
has been found very effective in identifying
goal of assessment is to understand and
predict behaviour with minimum error and varieties of psychopathology. Its revised
maximum accuracy. In assessment, we try version is available as MMPI-2. It consists
to study what a person generally does, or of 567 statements. The subject has to judge
how s/he behaves, in a given situation. each statement as ‘true’ or ‘false’ for her/
Besides promoting our understanding, him. The test is divided into 10 subscales,
assessment is also useful for diagnosis, which seek to diagnose hypochondriasis,
training, placement, counselling, and other depression, hysteria, psychopathic
purposes. deviate, masculinity-femininity, paranoia,
Psychologists have tried to assess psychasthenia, schizophrenia, mania and
personality in various ways. The social introversion. In India, Mallick and
most commonly used techniques are Joshi have developed the Jodhpur
Psychometric Tests, Self-Report Multiphasic Personality Inventory (JMPI)
Measures, Projective Techniques, and along the lines of MMPI.
Behavioural Analysis. These techniques
are rooted in different theoretical Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)
orientations; hence they throw light on Developed by Eysenck this test initially
different aspects of personality. You have assessed two dimensions of personality,
read about psychometric tests in the called introverted-extraverted and
previous chapter. We will discuss the other emotionally stable-emotionally unstable.
methods. These dimensions are characterised by 32
personality traits. Later on, Eysenck added
Self-report Measures a third dimension, called psychoticism. It
It was Allport who suggested that the best is linked to psychopathology that
method to assess a person is by asking represents a lack of feeling for others, a

42
Psychology
tough manner of interacting with people, to an optimum level under careful
and a tendency to defy social conventions. supervision of an expert, you should not
A person scoring high on this dimension venture into testing and interpreting the
tends to be hostile, egocentric, and personality of your friends who do not
antisocial. This test is also widely used. study psychology.

Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire Projective Techniques


(16 PF)
The techniques of personality assessment
This test was developed by Cattell. On the described so far are known as direct
basis of his studies, he identified a large techniques, because they tend to rely on
set of personality descriptors, which were information directly obtained from the
subjected to factor analysis to identify the person who clearly knows that her/his
basic personality structure. You will learn personality is being assessed. In these
about this statistical technique later. The situations, people generally become self-
test provides with declarative statements, conscious and hesitate to share their
and the subject responds to a specific private feelings, thoughts, and motivations.
situation by choosing from a set of given When they do so, they often do it in a
alternatives. The test can be used with socially desirable manner.
high school level students as well as with The psychoanalytic theory tells us that
adults. It has been found extremely useful a large part of human behaviour is
in career guidance, vocational exploration, governed by unconscious motives. Direct
and occupational testing. methods of personality assessment cannot
Apart from the few popular tests which uncover the unconscious part of our
use self-report technique which have been behaviour. Hence, they fail to provide us
described above, there are several others with a real picture of an individual’s
that try to assess specific dimensions of personality. These problems can be
personality (e.g., authoritarianism, locus of overcome by using indirect methods of
control, optimism, etc.). As you proceed assessment. Projective techniques fall in
further with your study of psychology, you this category.
will come to know more about them. Projective techniques were developed to
The self-report measures suffer from a assess unconscious motives and feelings.
number of problems. Social desirability is These techniques are based on the
one of them. It is a tendency on the part assumption that a less structured or
of the respondent to endorse items in a unstructured stimulus or situation will
socially desirable manner. Acquiescence is allow the individual to project her/his
another one. It is a tendency of the subject feelings, desires and needs on to that
to agree with items/questions irrespective situation. These projections are interpreted
of their contents. It often appears in the by experts. A variety of projective
for m of saying ‘yes’ to items. These techniques have been developed; they use
tendencies render the assessment of various kinds of stimulus materials and
personality less reliable. situations for assessing personality. Some
It is also necessary to sound a note of of them require reporting associations with
caution at this stage. Remember that stimuli (e.g., words, inkblots), some involve
psychological testing and understanding story writing around pictures, some require
personality requires great skill and sentence completions, some require
training. Unless you have acquired these expression through drawings, and some

43
Chapter 2 • Self and Personality
require choice of stimuli from a large set is prepared by asking the subject to tell
of stimuli. where, how, and on what basis was a
While the nature of stimuli and particular response made. Fine judgment
responses in these techniques vary is necessary to place the subject’s
enormously, all of them do share the responses in a meaningful context. The use
following features: and interpretation of this test requires
(1) The stimuli are relatively or fully extensive training. Computer techniques
unstructured and poorly defined. too have been developed for analysis of
(2) The person being assessed is usually data. An example of the Rorschach Inkblot
not told about the purpose of is given in Figure 2.4.
assessment and the method of scoring
and interpretation.
(3) The person is informed that there are
no correct or incorrect responses.
(4) Each response is considered to reveal
a significant aspect of personality.
(5) Scoring and interpretation are lengthy
and sometimes subjective.
Projective techniques are different from
the psychometric tests in many ways. They
cannot be scored in any objective manner.
They generally require qualitative analyses
for which a rigorous training is needed. In
the following pages, some of the well-
known projective techniques are briefly
discussed.

The Rorschach Inkblot Test Fig.2.4 : An Example of the Rorschach Inkblot

This test was developed by Hermann


The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Rorschach. The test consists of 10
inkblots. Five of them are in black and This test was developed by Morgan and
white, two with some red ink, and the Murray. It is a little more structured than
remaining three in some pastel colours. the Inkblot test. The test consists of 30
The blots are symmetrical in design with black and white picture cards and one
a specific shape or form. Each blot is blank card. Each picture card depicts one
printed in the centre of a white cardboard or more people in a variety of situations.
of about 7”ˆ10” size. The blots were Each picture is printed on a card. Some
originally made by dropping ink on a piece cards are used with adult males or females.
of paper and then folding the paper in half Others are used with boys or girls. Still
(hence called inkblot test). The cards are others are used in some combinations.
administered individually in two phases. In Twenty cards are appropriate for a subject,
the first phase, called performance although a lesser number of cards (even
proper, the subjects are shown the cards five) have also been successfully used.
and are asked to tell what they see in each The cards are presented one at a time.
of them. In the second phase, called The subject is asked to tell a story
inquiry, a detailed report of the response describing the situation presented in the

44
Psychology
picture: What led up to the situation, what made to examine whether the focus is on
is happening at the moment, what will the frustrating object, or on protection of
happen in the future, and what the the frustrated person, or on constructive
characters are feeling and thinking? A solution of the problem. The direction of
standard procedure is available for scoring aggression may be towards the
TAT responses. The test has been modified environment, towards oneself, or it may be
for children and for the aged. Uma tuned off in an attempt to gloss over or
Chaudhury’s Indian adaptation of TAT is evade the situation. Pareek has adapted
also available. An example of a TAT card this test for use with the Indian
is given in Figure 2.5. population.

Sentence Completion Test


This test makes use of a number of
incomplete sentences. The starting part of
the sentence is first presented and the
subject has to provide an ending to the
sentence. It is held that the type of
endings used by the subjects reflect their
attitudes, motivation and conflicts. The
test provides subjects with several
opportunities to reveal their underlying
unconscious motivations. A few sample
items of a sentence completion test are
given below.
1. My father——————————————.
2. My greatest fear is —————————.
3. The best thing about my mother is —
—————————.
4. I am proud of ————————————
Fig.2.5 : An Illustration Showing the Drawing of a
————————.
Card of TAT
Draw-a-Person Test
It is a simple test in which the subject is
Rosenzweig’s Picture-Frustration Study
asked to draw a person on a sheet of paper.
(P-F Study)
A pencil and eraser is provided to facilitate
This test was developed by Rosenzweig to drawing. After the completion of the
assess how people express aggression in drawing, the subject is generally asked to
the face of a frustrating situation. The test draw the figure of an opposite sex person.
presents with the help of cartoon like Finally, the subject is asked to make a
pictures a series of situations in which one story about the person as if s/he was a
person frustrates another, or calls character in a novel or play. Some
attention to a frustrating condition. The examples of interpretations are as follows:
subject is asked to tell what the other (1) Omission of facial features
(frustrated) person will say or do. The suggests that the person tries to evade
analysis of responses is based on the type a highly conflict-ridden interpersonal
and direction of aggression. An attempt is relationship.

45
Chapter 2 • Self and Personality
(2) Graphic emphasis on the neck suggests enough potential to reveal her/his
lack of control over impulses. personality. The structured interviews
(3) Disproportionately large head suggests address very specific questions and follow
organic brain disease and pre- a set procedure. This is often done to make
occupation with headaches. objective comparison of persons being
The analysis of personality with the interviewed. Use of rating scales may
help of projective techniques appears fairly further enhance the objectivity of
interesting. It helps us to understand evaluations.
unconscious motives, deep-rooted
conflicts, and emotional complexes of an Observation
individual. However, the interpretation of Behavioural observation is another method
the responses requires sophisticated skills which is very commonly used for the
and specialised training. There are assessment of personality. Although all of
problems associated with the reliability of us watch people and form impressions
scoring and validity of interpretations. But, about their personality, use of observation
the practitioners have found these for personality assessment is a
techniques quite useful. sophisticated procedure that cannot be
carried out by untrained people. It requires
Behavioural Analysis careful training of the observer, and a fairly
A person’s behaviour in a variety of detailed guideline about analysis of
situations can provide us with meaningful behaviours in order to assess the
information about her/his personality. personality of a given person. For example,
Observation of behaviour serves as the a clinical psychologist may like to observe
basis of behavioural analysis. An observer’s her/his client’s interaction with family
report may contain data obtained from members and home visitors. With carefully
interview, observation, ratings, designed observation, the clinical
nomination, and situational tests. We psychologist may gain considerable insight
will examine these different procedures in into a client’s personality.
some detail. In spite of their frequent and
widespread use, observation and interview
Interview methods are characterised by the following
Interview is a commonly used method for limitations:
assessing personality. This involves talking (1) Professional training required for
to the person being assessed and asking collection of useful data through these
specific questions. Diagnostic interviewing methods is quite demanding and time-
generally involves in-depth interviewing consuming.
which seeks to go beyond the replies given
by the person. Interviews may be (2) Maturity of the psychologist is a
structured or unstructured depending on precondition for obtaining valid data
the purpose or goals of assessment. through these techniques.
In unstructured interviews, the (3) Mere presence of the observer may
interviewer seeks to develop an impression contaminate the results. As a stranger,
about a person by asking a number of the observer may influence the
questions. The way a person presents her/ behaviour of the person being observed
himself and answers the questions carries and thus not obtain good data.

46
Psychology
Behavioural Ratings or by developing such scales in which the
response bias is likely to be small.
Behavioural ratings are frequently used for
assessment of personality in educational
Nomination
and industrial settings. Behavioural
ratings are generally taken from people This method is often used in obtaining peer
who know the assessee intimately and assessment. It can be used with persons
have interacted with her/him over a period who have been in long-term interaction
of time or have had a chance to observe and who know each other very well. In
her/him. They attempt to put individuals using nomination, each person is asked to
into certain categories in terms of their choose one or more persons of the group
behavioural qualities. The categories may with whom s/he would like to work, study,
involve different numbers or descriptive play or participate in any other activity.
terms. It has been found that use of The person may also be asked to specify
numbers or general descriptive adjectives the reason for her/his choices.
in rating scales always creates confusion Nominations thus received may be
for the rater. In order to use ratings analysed to understand the personality
effectively, the traits should be clearly and behavioural qualities of the person.
defined in ter ms of carefully stated
This technique has been found to be highly
behavioural anchors.
dependable, although it may also be
The method of rating suffers from the affected by personal biases.
following major limitations:
(1) Raters often display certain biases that Situational Tests
colour their judgments of different
traits. For example, most of us are A variety of situational tests have been
greatly influenced by a single devised for the assessment of personality.
favourable or unfavourable trait. This The most commonly used test of this kind
often forms the basis of a rater’s overall is the situational stress test. It provides
judgment of a person. This tendency is us with information about how a person
known as the halo effect. behaves under stressful situations. The
(2) Raters have a tendency to place test requires a person to perform a given
individuals either in the middle of the task with other persons who are instructed
scale (called middle category bias) by to be non-cooperative and interfering. The
avoiding extreme positions, or in the test involves a kind of role playing. The
extreme positions (called extreme person is instructed to play a role for which
response bias) by avoiding middle s/he is observed. A verbal report is also
categories on the scale. obtained on what s/he was asked to do.
These tendencies can be overcome by The situation may be realistic one, or it
providing raters with appropriate training may be created through a video play.

Key Terms
Anal stage, Archetypes, Cardinal traits, Central traits, Client-centred therapy, Collective unconscious,
Defence mechanisms, Ego, Extraversion, Humanistic approach, Id, Ideal self, Inferiority complex,
Introversion, Latency period, Libido, Metaneeds, Oedipus complex, Personal identity, Phallic stage,
Projective techniques, Psychodynamic approach, Projection, Rationalisation, Reaction formation,
Regression, Repression, Self-efficacy, Self-esteem, Self-regulation, Social identity, Superego, Trait
approach, Type approach, Unconscious.

47
Chapter 2 • Self and Personality
• The study of the self and the personality helps us understand ourselves as well as
others. An individual’s self develops through social interaction with significant others.
• There are different kinds of self such as personal self, social self, and relational self.
Self-esteem and self-efficacy are two very important aspects of behaviour, which
have far-reaching consequences in our life.
• The psychological techniques of self-regulation include systematic observation of one’s
behaviour, self-reinforcement, and self-instruction.
• Personality refers to psychophysical characteristics of a person that are relatively
stable across situations and over time and make her or him unique. Since personality
helps us in adapting to a variety of situations in our life, it is likely to change as a
result of external or internal forces.
• Personality has been studied through several approaches. The most prominent among
these are typological, psychodynamic, behavioural, cultural, and humanistic approaches.
• The typological approach attempts to describe personality in terms of a few types,
which are characterised by a cluster of traits. Allport, Cattell and Eysenck have
advocated a trait approach to personality, which offers a unified view of a person.
• Freud developed psychodynamic approach and discussed personality in terms of a
constant conflict between our internal forces, called id, ego, and superego. In Freud’s
view, unconscious conflicts are rooted in the process of psychosexual development,
which occurs through oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages.
• Post-Freudian theorists focus on interpersonal forces and the contemporary
circumstances of life of the person. Jung, Fromm, Adler, Horney and Erikson brought
out the role of ego and social forces in personality.
• The behavioural approach views personality as the response of an individual to the
environment. They consider response as the structural unit of personality, which is
emitted to satisfy a specific need.
• The cultural approach attempts to comprehend personality in terms of the demands
of adaptation made on individuals by the economic maintenance systems and the
resulting cultural features of a group of people.
• The Humanistic approach focuses on subjective experiences of individuals and their
choices. Rogers emphasised the relationship between the ‘real self’ and the ‘ideal
self’. The congruence of these selves makes a person fully functioning. Maslow
discussed personality in terms of the interplay of needs that motivated people. The
needs could be arranged in a hierarchy from lower-order (survival related) needs to
higher-order (development related) needs.
• Personality assessment refers to the procedure of analysing and evaluating people in
terms of certain psychological characteristics. The goal is to predict an individual’s
behaviour with a high degree of accuracy.
• An individual’s personality can be assessed by using observer reports, projective
techniques, and self-report measures. Observer reports include interview, observation,
ratings, nomination and situational tests. Rorschach Inkblot Test, and Thematic
Apperception Test are widely used projective tests of personality. Self-report measures
attempt to assess personality by using fairly structured tests.

Review Questions
1. What is self ? How does the Indian notion of self differ from the Western notion?
2. What is meant by delay of gratification? Why is it considered important for adult
development?
3. How do you define personality? What are the main approaches to the study of
personality?
4. What is trait approach to personality? How does it differ from type approach?
5. How does Freud explain the structure of personality?
6. How would Horney’s explanation of depression be different from that of Alfred Adler?

48
Psychology
7. What is the main proposition of humanistic approach to personality? What did Maslow
mean by self-actualisation?
8. Discuss the main observational methods used in personality assessment. What
problems do we face in using these methods?
9. What is meant by structured personality tests? Which are the two most widely used
structured personality tests?
10. Explain how projective techniques assess personality. Which projective tests of
personality are widely used by psychologists?
11. Arihant wants to become a singer even though he belongs to a family of doctors. Though
his family members claim to love him but strongly disapprove his choice of career.
Using Carl Rogers’ terminology, describe the attitudes shown by Arihant’s family.

Project 1. We all have some notions about our ideal selves, i.e. and what we would like to be? Take
Ideas time to imagine that you have achieved your ideal self. With this notion of your ideal
self, express your attitudes towards these categories : (a) school, (b) friends, (c) family,
and (d) money. Write a paragraph on each describing your ideal attitudes. Next write all
these categories on four sheets of paper and ask your two friends and two family members
to write about what they perceive to be your real attitudes towards these categories.
These four persons will describe your real self as they see you. Compare your ideal
descriptions with others’ real descriptions in detail. Are they very similar or dissimilar?
Prepare a report on this.
2. Select five persons whom you most admire, either from real life or from history. Collect
information about their contributions in their respective fields and identify the
characteristics in their personality that have impressed you. Do you find any similarities?
Prepare a comparative report.

Weblinks
www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/perscontents.html
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/projective_test

Pedagogical Hints
1. To make students understand the
concept of self, certain activities could
be organised, such as a student may
be asked to tell about herself/himself.
2. Prepare flow charts/diagrams to
explain the concepts. Help students
to prepare charts/diagrams related to
concepts given in the chapter.
3. Emphasise the importance of various
personality assessment techniques in
different spheres of life.
4. Sample items of various tests of
personality could be shown to
generate interest among students.
They could be asked to compare the
test items included in dif ferent
measures of personality.

49
Chapter 2 • Self and Personality
Raj has been studying for his final examination which is going to take
place tomorrow morning. He studies till 1 a.m. in the night. Unable to
concentrate any more, he sets the alarm for 6 a.m. and tries to go off to
sleep. As he is very tense, he keeps tossing and turning in bed. Images
flash through his mind of not being able to secure the marks he needs to
opt for the subjects of his choice. He blames himself for fooling around with
his friends and not preparing thoroughly for the examination. In the morning
he wakes up with a heavy head, misses breakfast, and barely makes it in
Introduction time to school for his examination. He opens the question paper, his heart
pounding, hands clammy with sweat and then he feels his mind has gone
completely blank.
Some of you may have lived through an experience such as Raj’s. The
challenge posed by examinations is common to all students. You are perhaps,
already thinking about a career. What if you are denied this choice? Will
you give up? Life poses challenges all the time. Think of a child who loses
her/his parents at a young age with no one to take care of her/him; a
young woman who loses her husband in a car accident; parents who bring
up children who are physically or mentally challenged; young girls/boys
who have to spend long nights in call centres and then catch up on their
sleep during the day time. Look around yourself and you will find that life
is a big challenge. All of us try to meet these challenges in our own way.
Some of us succeed while others succumb to such life stresses. Life
challenges are not necessarily stressful. Much depends on how a challenge
is viewed. A number 11 batsman in a cricket team will view facing a fast
bowler’s delivery differently than would an opening batsman, who will
look forward to such a challenge. It is said that one’s best comes out when
one is challenged. We will like to consider in this chapter how a life condition
turns into a challenge or a cause of stress. Further, we will also see how
people respond to various life challenges as well as stressful situations.

probability of one’s survival. Stress is like


NATURE, TYPES AND SOURCES OF STRESS
electricity. It gives energy, increases
While waiting to cross the road on a busy human arousal and affects performance.
Monday morning, you may be temporarily However, if the electric current is too high,
stressed. But, because you are alert, it can fuse bulbs, damage appliances, etc.
vigilant and aware of the danger, you are High stress too can produce unpleasant
able to cross the road safely. Faced with effects and cause our performance to
any challenge, we put in additional efforts deteriorate. Conversely, too little stress
and mobilise all our resources and the may cause one to feel somewhat listless
support system to meet the challenge. All and low on motivation which may lead us
the challenges, problems, and difficult to perform slowly and less efficiently. It is
circumstances put us to stress. Thus, if important to remember that not all stress
handled properly, stress increases the is inherently bad or destructive. ‘Eustress’

51
Chapter 3 • Meeting Life Challenges
is the term used to describe the level of demand” that is, regardless of the cause of
stress that is good for you and is one of the threat, the individual will respond with
a person’s best assets for achieving peak the same physiological pattern of reactions.
performance and managing minor crisis. Many researchers do not agree with this
Eustress, however, has the potential of definition as they feel that the stress
turning into ‘distress’. It is this latter response is not nearly as general and non-
manifestation of stress that causes our specific as Selye suggests. Different
body’s wear and tear. Thus, stress can be stressors may produce somewhat different
described as the pattern of responses an patterns of stress reaction, and different
organism makes to stimulus event that individuals may have dif ferent
disturbs the equilibrium and exceeds a characteristic modes of response. You may
person’s ability to cope. recall the case of an opening batsman
mentioned earlier. Each one of us will see
Nature of Stress the situation through our own eyes and it
is our perception of the demands, and our
The word stress has its origin in the Latin ability to meet them, which will determine
words ‘strictus’, meaning tight or narrow whether we are feeling ‘stressed’ or not.
and ‘stringere’, the verb meaning to Stress is not a factor that resides in the
tighten. These root words reflect the individual or the environment, instead it is
inter nal feelings of tightness and embedded in an ongoing process that
constriction of the muscles and breathing involves individuals transacting with their
reported by many people under stress. social and cultural environments, making
Stress is often explained in terms of appraisals of those encounters and
characteristics of the environment that are attempting to cope with the issues that
disruptive to the individual. Stressors are arise. Stress is a dynamic mental/cognitive
events that cause our body to give the state. It is a disruption in homeostasis or
stress response. Such events include an imbalance that gives rise to a
noise, crowding, a bad relationship, or the requirement for resolution of that
daily commuting to school or office. The imbalance or restoration of homeostasis.
reaction to external stressors is called The perception of stress is dependent
‘strain’ (see Fig.3.1). upon the individual’s cognitive appraisal of
Stress has come to be associated with events and the resources available to deal
both the causes as well as effects. However, with them. The stress process, based on
this view of stress can cause confusion. the cognitive theory of stress propounded
Hans Selye, the father of modern stress by Lazarus and his colleagues, is described
research, defined stress as “the non- in Figure 3.2. An individual’s response to
specific response of the body to any a stressful situation largely depends upon

Fig.3.1 : Psychological Meaning of Stress

52
Psychology
the perceived events and how they are are likely to make a secondary appraisal,
interpreted or appraised. Lazarus has which is the assessment of one’s coping
distinguished between two types of abilities and resources and whether they
appraisal, i.e. primary and secondary. will be sufficient to meet the harm, threat
Primary appraisal refers to the perception or challenge of the event. These resources
of a new or changing environment as may be mental, physical, personal or
positive, neutral or negative in its social. If one thinks one has a positive
consequences. Negative events are attitude, health, skills and social support
appraised for their possible harm, threat to deal with the crises s/he will feel less
or challenge. Harm is the assessment of stressed. This two-level appraisal process
the damage that has already been done by determines not only our cognitive and
an event. Threat is the assessment of behavioural responses but also our
possible future damage that may be emotional and physiological responses to
brought about by the event. Challenge external events.
appraisals are associated with more These appraisals are very subjective
confident expectations of the ability to cope and will depend on many factors. One
with the stressful event, the potential to factor is the past experience of dealing
overcome and even profit from the event. with such a stressful condition. If one
When we perceive an event as stressful, we has handled similar situations very

Fig.3.2 : A General Model of the Stress Process

53
Chapter 3 • Meeting Life Challenges
successfully in the past, they would be less (flight) are two general categories of
threatening for her/him. Another factor is behavioural responses. Cognitive
whether the stressful event is perceived as responses include beliefs about the harm
controllable, i.e. whether one has mastery or threat an event poses and beliefs about
or control over a situation. A person who its causes or controllability. These include
believes that s/he can control the onset of responses such as inability to concentrate,
a negative situation, or its adverse and intrusive, repetitive or morbid
consequences, will experience less amount thoughts.
of stress than those who have no such As indicated in Figure 3.2, the stresses
sense of personal control. For example, a which people experience also vary in terms
sense of self-confidence or efficacy can of intensity (low intensity vs. high
determine whether the person is likely to intensity), duration (short-term vs. long-
appraise the situation as a threat or a term), complexity ( less complex vs. more
challenge. Thus, the experience and complex) and predictability (unexpected
outcome of a stressor may vary from vs. predictable). The outcome of stress
individual to individual. Stress, includes all depends on the position of a particular
those environmental and personal events, stressful experience along these
which challenge or threaten the well-being dimensions. Usually more intense,
of a person. These stressors can be prolonged or chronic, complex and
external, such as environmental (noise, air unanticipated stresses have more negative
pollution), social (break-up with a friend, consequences than have less intense,
loneliness) or psychological (conflict, short-term, less complex and expected
frustration) within the individual. stresses. An individual’s experiences of
Very often, these stressors result in a stress depend on the physiological strength
variety of stress reactions, which may be of that person. Thus, individuals with poor
physiological, behavioural, emotional, and physical health and weak constitution
cognitive (see Fig.3.2). At the physiological would be more vulnerable than would be
level, arousal plays a key role in stress- those who enjoy good health and strong
related behaviours. The hypothalamus constitution.
initiates action along two pathways. The Psychological characteristics like
first pathway involves the autonomic mental health, temperament, and self-
nervous system. The adrenal gland concept are relevant to the experience of
releases large amount of catecholamines stress. The cultural context in which we
(epinephrine and norepinephrine) into the live determines the meaning of any event
blood stream. This leads to physiological and defines the nature of response that is
changes seen in fight-or-flight response. expected under various conditions. Finally,
The second pathway involves the pituitary the stress experience will be determined by
gland, which secretes the corticosteroid the resources of the person, such as
(cortisol) which provides energy. The money, social skills, coping style, support
emotional reactions to experience of stress networks, etc. All these factors determine
include negative emotions such as fear, the appraisal of a given stressful situation.
anxiety, embarrassment, anger, depression
or even denial. The behavioural responses Signs and Symptoms of Stress
are virtually limitless, depending on the The way we respond to stress varies
nature of the stressful event. Confrontative depending upon our personality, early
action against the stressor (fight) or upbringing and life experiences. Everyone
withdrawal from the threatening event has their own pattern of stress response.

54
Psychology
So the warning signs may vary, as may that are often unavoidable such as air
their intensity. Some of us know our pollution, crowding, noise, heat of the
pattern of stress response and can gauge summer, winter cold, etc. Another group of
the depth of the problem by the nature and environmental stresses are catastrophic
severity of our own symptoms or changes events or disasters such as fire,
in behaviour. These symptoms of stress earthquake, floods, etc.
can be physical, emotional and
behavioural. Any of the symptoms can Psychological Stress
indicate a degree of stress which, if left These are stresses that we generate
unresolved, might have serious ourselves in our minds. These are personal
implications. and unique to the person experiencing
them and are internal sources of stress. We
worry about problems, feel anxiety, or
Activity Read the following signs of stress : become depressed. These are not only
3.1 symptoms of stress, but they cause further
Lack of concentration, Memory loss,
Poor decision-making, Inconsistency, stress for us. Some of the important
Irregular attendance and timekeeping, sources of psychological stress are
Low self-esteem, Poor long-ter m frustration, conflicts, internal and social
planning, Frantic bursts of energy, pressures, etc.
Extreme mood swings, Emotional Frustration results from the blocking
outbursts, Worry, Anxiety, Fear,
of needs and motives by something or
Depression, Difficulties with sleep,
Difficulties with eating, Misuse of someone that hinders us from achieving a
drugs, Physical illness, e.g. stomach desired goal. There could be a number of
upset, headache, backache, etc. causes of frustration such as social
Tick those applicable to you and discrimination, interpersonal hurt, low
then discuss in groups of two or three grades in school, etc. Conflicts may occur
students in class. Can you reduce between two or more incompatible needs
some of them? Discuss how? Consult or motives, e.g. whether to study dance or
your teacher. psychology. You may want to continue
studies or take up a job. There may be a
conflict of values when you are pressurised
Types of Stress to take any action that may be against the
values held by you. Internal pressures
The three major types of stress, viz. stem from beliefs based upon expectations
physical and environmental, psychological, from inside us to ourselves such as, ‘I must
and social are listed in Figure 3.2. It is do everything perfectly’. Such expectations
important to understand that all these can only lead to disappointment. Many of
types of stress are interrelated. us drive ourselves ruthlessly towards
achieving unrealistically high standards in
Physical and Environmental Stress
achieving our goals. Social pressures may
Physical stresses are demands that change be brought about from people who make
the state of our body. We feel strained excessive demands on us. This can cause
when we overexert ourselves physically, even greater pressure when we have to
lack a nutritious diet, suffer an injury, or work with them. Also, there are people with
fail to get enough sleep. Environmental whom we face interpersonal difficulties, ‘a
stresses are aspects of our surroundings personality clash’ of sorts.

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Chapter 3 • Meeting Life Challenges
Social Stress injury, the annoying frequent hassles of
everyday life and traumatic events that
These are induced externally and result
from our interaction with other people. affect our lives.
Social events like death or illness in the
Life Events
family, strained relationships, trouble with
neighbours are some examples of social Changes, both big and small, sudden and
stresses. These social stresses vary widely gradual affect our life from the moment we
from person to person. Attending parties are born. We learn to cope with small,
may be stressful for a person who likes to everyday changes but major life events can
spend quiet evenings at home while an be stressful, because they disturb our
outgoing person may find staying at home routine and cause upheaval. If several of
in the evenings stressful. these life events that are planned (e.g.
moving into a new house) or unpredicted
Sources of Stress (e.g. break-up of a long-term relationship)
A wide range of events and conditions can occur within a short period of time, we
generate stress. Among the most important find it difficult to cope with them and
of these are major stressful life events, will be more prone to the symptoms of
such as death of a loved one or personal stress.

Box A Measure of Stressful Life Events


3.1
Holmes and Rahe developed a life event measure of stress. A measure of stressful life
events based on the above scale known as the Presumptive Stressful Life Events Scale has
been developed for the Indian population by Singh, Kaur and Kaur. It is a self-rating
questionnaire made up of fifty-one life changes, which a person may have experienced.
Each of these life events is assigned a numerical value in terms of their severity. For
example, the death of one’s spouse is assigned 95, personal illness or injury 56, failure in
examination 43, appearing for examination or interview 43, change in sleeping habits 33,
as the mean stress score. Both positive and negative events are taken, believing that both
kinds of changes cause stress. The respondent’s stress score is the weighted sum of all the
items/life change events in the past one year checked by her/him.
Some sample items of the measure are :
Life Events Mean Stress Score
Death of a close family member 66
Unexpected accident or trauma 53
Illness of a family member 52
Break-up with friend 47
Appearing for examinations 43
Change in eating habits 27
The mean number of stressful life events experienced over a period of one year without
producing overt physical or mental illness is approximately two. However, the correlations
between life events and susceptibility to any particular illness is low, indicating a weak
association between life events and stress. It has been argued as to whether life events
have caused some stress-related illness or whether stress caused the life events and illness.
The impact of most life events varies from person to person. Factors such as age at which
the event was first experienced, frequency of occurrence, duration of the stressful event
and social support must be studied in evaluating the relationship between stressful life
events and the subsequent illness episode.

56
Psychology
Hassles EFFECTS OF STRESS ON PSYCHOLOGICAL
These are the personal stresses we endure FUNCTIONING AND HEALTH
as individuals, due to the happenings in
our daily life, such as noisy surroundings, What are the effects of stress? Many of the
commuting, quarrelsome neighbours, ef fects are physiological in nature,
electricity and water shortage, traffic however, other changes also occur
snarls, and so on. Attending to various inside stressed individuals. There
emergencies are daily hassles experienced are four major ef fects of stress
by a housewife. There are some jobs in associated with the stressed state, viz.
which daily hassles are very frequent. emotional, physiological, cognitive, and
These daily hassles may sometimes have behavioural.
devastating consequences for the Emotional Effects : Those who suffer from
individual who is often the one coping stress are far more likely to experience
alone with them as others may not even be mood swings, and show erratic behaviour
aware of them as outsiders. The more that may alienate them from family and
stress people report as a result of daily friends. In some cases this can start a
hassles, the poorer is their psychological vicious circle of decreasing confidence,
well-being. leading to more serious emotional
problems. Some examples are feelings of
Traumatic Events anxiety and depression, increased physical
tension, increased psychological tension
These include being involved in a variety
and mood swings. Box 3.2 presents the
of extreme events such as a fire, train or
phenomenon of ‘Examination Anxiety’.
road accident, robbery, earthquake,
tsunami, etc. The effects of these events Physiological Effects : When the human
may occur after some lapse of time and body is placed under physical or
sometimes persist as symptoms of anxiety, psychological stress, it increases the
flashbacks, dreams and intrusive production of certain hormones, such as
thoughts, etc. Severe trauma can also adrenaline and cortisol. These hormones
strain relationships. Professional help will produce marked changes in heart rate,
be needed to cope with them especially if blood pressure levels, metabolism and
they persist for many months after the physical activity. Although, this physical
event is over. reaction will help us to function more
effectively when we are under pressure for
short periods of time, it can be extremely
Activity Identify the stressful events, which you
damaging to the body in the long-term
3.2 and two of your classmates have effects. Examples of physiological effects
experienced in the past one year. List are release of epinephrine and nor -
the stressful events and rank them epinephrine, slowing down of the digestive
from 1 to 5 that have had negative system, expansion of air passages in the
impact in your day-to-day functioning. lungs, increased heart rate, and
Then select those that are common to constriction of blood vessels.
all three of you. Find out how much
ability, skill, and family support your Cognitive Effects : If pressures due to
friends and you have in order to deal stress continue, one may suffer from
with each of these stresses. mental overload. This suffering from high
Discuss these results with your
level of stress can rapidly cause individuals
teacher.
to lose their ability to make sound

57
Chapter 3 • Meeting Life Challenges
decisions. Faulty decisions made at home, Stress and Health
in career, or at workplace may lead to
You must have often observed that many
arguments, failure, financial loss or even of your friends (may be including yourself
loss of job. Cognitive effects of stress are as well!) fall sick during the examination
poor concentration, and reduced short- time. They suffer from stomach upsets,
term memory capacity. body aches, nausea, diarrhoea and fever
Behavioural Effects : Stress affects our etc. You must have also noticed that people
behaviour in the for m of eating less who are unhappy in their personal lives fall
nutritional food, increasing intake of sick more often than those who are happy
stimulants such as caffeine, excessive and enjoy life. Chronic daily stress can
consumption of cigarettes, alcohol and divert an individual’s attention from caring
other drugs such as tranquillisers etc. for herself or himself. When stress is
Tranquillisers can be addictive and have prolonged, it affects physical health and
side effects such as loss of concentration, impairs psychological functioning. People
poor coordination, and dizziness. Some of experience exhaustion and attitudinal
the typical behavioural effects of stress problems when the stress due to demands
seen are disrupted sleep patter ns, from the environment and constraints are
increased absenteeism, and reduced work too high and little support is available from
performance. family and friends. The physical

Box Examination Anxiety


3.2
Examination anxiety is a fairly common phenomenon that involves feelings of tension or
uneasiness that occur before, during, or after an examination. Many people experience
feelings of anxiety around examinations and find it helpful in some ways, as it can be
motivating and create the pressure that is needed to stay focused on one’s performance.
Examination nerves, worry, or fear of failure are normal for even the most talented student.
However, stress of formal examination results in such high degrees of anxiety in some
students that they are unable to perform at a level which matches the potential they have
shown in less stressful classroom situations. Examination stress has been characterised
as “evaluative apprehension” or “evaluative stress” and produces debilitating behavioural,
cognitive, and physiological effects no different from those produced by any other stressor.
High stress can interfere with the student’s preparation, concentration, and performance.
Examination stress can cause test anxiety which adversely affects test performance. Persons
who are high in test anxiety tend to perceive evaluative situations as personally threatening;
in test situations, they are often tense, apprehensive, nervous, and emotionally aroused.
Moreover, the negative self-centred cognitions which they experience distract their attention
and interfere with concentration during examinations. High test anxious students respond
to examination stress with intense emotional reactions, negative thoughts about themselves,
feelings of inadequacy, helplessness, and loss of status and esteem that impair their
performance. Generally, the high test anxious person instead of plunging into a task plunges
inward, that is, either neglects or misinterprets informational cues that may be readily
available to her/him, or experiences attentional blocks. While preparing for examinations,
one must spend enough time for study, overview and weigh one’s strengths and weaknesses,
discuss difficulties with teachers and classmates, plan a revision timetable, condense notes,
space out revision periods, and most importantly on the examination day concentrate on
staying calm.

58
Psychology
exhaustion is seen in the signs of chronic 1. Alarm reaction stage : The presence
fatigue, weakness and low energy. The of a noxious stimulus or stressor
mental exhaustion appears in the form of leads to activation of the adrenal-
irritability, anxiety, feelings of helplessness pituitary-cortex system. This triggers
and hopelessness. This state of physical, the release of hormones producing the
emotional and psychological exhaustion is stress response. Now the individual is
known as burnout. ready for fight or flight.
There is also convincing evidence to 2. Resistance stage : If stress is prolonged,
show that stress can produce changes in the resistance stage begins. The para-
the immune system and increase the sympathetic nervous system calls for
chances of someone becoming ill. Stress more cautious use of the body’s
has been implicated in the development of resources. The organism makes efforts
cardiovascular disorders, high blood to cope with the threat, as through
pressure, as well as psychosomatic confrontation.
disorders including ulcers, asthma, 3. Exhaustion stage : Continued exposure
allergies and headaches. to the same stressor or additional
Researchers estimate that stress plays stressors drains the body of its
an important role in fifty to seventy per resources and leads to the third stage
cent of all physical illnesses. Studies also of exhaustion. The physiological
reveal that sixty per cent of medical visits systems involved in alarm reaction and
are primarily for stress-related symptoms. resistance become ineffective and
susceptibility to stress-related diseases
General Adaptation Syndrome such as high blood pressure becomes
What happens to the body when stress is more likely.
prolonged? Selye studied this issue by Selye’s model has been criticised for
subjecting animals to a variety of stressors assigning a very limited role to
such as high temperature, X-rays and psychological factors in stress. Researchers
insulin injections, in the laboratory over a have reported that the psychological
long period of time. He also observed appraisal of events is important for the
patients with various injuries and illnesses deter mination of stress. How people
in hospitals. Selye noticed a similar pattern respond to stress is substantially
of bodily response in all of them. He called influenced by their perceptions,
this patter n the General Adaptation personalities and biological constitutions.
Syndrome (GAS). According to him, GAS
involves three stages: alarm reaction, Stress and the Immune System
resistance, and exhaustion (see Fig.3.3).
Stress can cause illness by impairing the
workings of the immune system. The
immune system guards the body against
attackers, both from within and outside.
Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on the
links between the mind, the brain and the
immune system. It studies the effects of
stress on the immune system. How does
the immune system work? The white blood
cells (leucocytes) within the immune
Fig.3.3 : The General Adaptation Syndrome system identify and destroy foreign bodies

59
Chapter 3 • Meeting Life Challenges
(antigens) such as viruses. It also leads to Psychological stress is accompanied by
the production of antibodies. There are negative emotions and associated
several kinds of white blood cells or behaviours, including depression, hostility,
leucocytes within the immune system, anger and aggression. Negative emotion
including T cells, B cells and natural killer states are of particular concern to the
cells. T cells destroy invaders, and T-helper study of effects of stress on health. The
cells increase immunological activity. It is incidence of psychological disorders, such
these T-helper cells that are attacked by as panic attacks and obsessive behaviour
the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus increases with the build up of long-term
(HIV), the virus causing Acquired Immuno stress. Worries can reach such a level that
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). B cells they surface as a frightening, painful
produce antibodies. Natural killer cells are physical sensation, which can be mistaken
involved in the fight against both viruses for a heart attack. People under prolonged
and tumours. stress are more prone to irrational fears,
Stress can affect natural killer cell mood swings and phobias, and may
cytotoxicity, which is of major importance experience fits of depression, anger and
in the defence against various infections irritability. These negative emotions appear
and cancer. Reduced levels of natural killer to be related to the function of the immune
cell cytotoxicity have been found in people system. Our ability to interpret our world
who are highly stressed, including and to invest that interpretation with
students facing important examinations, personal meaning and emotion have a
bereaved persons, and those who are powerful and direct effect on the body.
severely depressed. Studies reveal that Negative moods have been associated with
immune functioning is better in individuals poorer health outcomes. Feelings of
receiving social support. Also, changes in hopelessness are related to worsening of
the immune system will have more effect disease, increased risk of injury and death
on health among those whose immune due to various causes.
systems are already weakened. Figure 3.4
depicts this sequence comprising negative Lifestyle
emotions, release of stress hormones Stress can lead to unhealthy lifestyle or
which lead to weakening of the immune health damaging behaviour. Lifestyle is the
system, thereby affecting mental and overall pattern of decisions and behaviours
physical health. that determine a person’s health and

Fig.3.4 : Relation of Stress with Illness

60
Psychology
quality of life. Stressed individuals may be impaired immune response and
more likely to expose themselves to diminished activity of natural killer cells.
pathogens, which are agents causing Individuals show consistent individual
physical illness. People who are stressed differences in the coping strategies they
have poor nutritional habits, sleep less and use to handle stressful situations. These
are likely to engage in other health risking can include both overt and covert
behaviours like smoking and alcohol activities. The three coping strategies given
abuse. Such health impairing behaviours by Endler and Parker are:
develop gradually and are accompanied by Task-oriented Strategy : This involves
pleasant experiences temporarily. However, obtaining information about the stressful
we tend to ignore their long-term damaging situation and about alternative courses of
effects and underestimate the risk they action and their probable outcome; it also
pose to our lives. involves deciding priorities and acting so
Studies have revealed that health as to deal directly with the stressful
promoting behaviour like balanced diet, situation. For example, schedule my time
regular exercise, family support, etc. play better, or think about how I have solved
an important role in good health. Adhering similar problems.
to a lifestyle that includes balanced low fat
Emotion-oriented Strategy : This can
diet, regular exercise and continued
involve efforts to maintain hope and to
activity along with positive thinking
control one’s emotions; it can also involve
enhances health and longevity. The
venting feelings of anger and frustration,
modern lifestyle of excesses in eating, or deciding that nothing can be done to
drinking and the so called fast-paced good change things. For example, tell myself
life has led to violation of basic principles that it is not really happening to me, or
of health in some of us, as to what we eat, worry about what I am going to do.
think or do with our lives.
Avoidance-oriented Strategy : This
involves denying or minimising the
COPING WITH STRESS seriousness of the situation; it also involves
In recent years the conviction has grown conscious suppression of stressful
that it is how we cope with stress and not thoughts and their replacement by self-
the stress one experiences that influences
our psychological well-being, social Respond to the following items on a Activity
functioning and health. Coping is a 5-point scale ranging from 5 = always 3.3
dynamic situation-specific reaction to to 1 = never.
stress. It is a set of concrete responses to I express emotions openly and
stressful situations or events that are directly.
intended to resolve the problem and reduce I work towards my own personal
goals.
stress. The way we cope with stress often I accept situations that cannot be
depends on rigid deep-seated beliefs, based altered.
on experience, e.g. when caught in a traffic I discuss my worries with friends.
jam we feel angry, because we believe that I may not get everything just right.
the traffic ‘should’ move faster. To manage Discuss your answers with your
stress we often need to reassess the way classmates and teacher. The higher
we think and learn coping strategies. the score, the better would be your
ability to cope.
People who cope poorly with stress have an

61
Chapter 3 • Meeting Life Challenges
protective thoughts. Examples of this are
watching TV, phone up a friend, or try to Which of the following coping Activity
be with other people. behaviours are problem-focused? Why? 3.4
• Discussing your problem with a
Lazarus and Folkman has
friend.
conceptualised coping as a dynamic • Feeling sorry for failing in an
process rather than an individual trait. examination.
Coping refers to constantly changing • Finding fault with classmates for
cognitive and behavioural efforts to master, poor marks in tests.
reduce or tolerate the internal or external • Hiding examination results from
parents.
demands that are created by the stressful
• Blaming friends for bad habits.
transaction. Coping serves to allow the • Reading essential books for the
individual to manage or alter a problem annual examination.
and regulate the emotional response to • Making efforts to improve one’s
that problem. According to them coping performance after a setback.
responses can be divided into two types of • Missing school when assignments
responses, problem-focused and emotion- not completed.
Discuss the answers with your
focused. Problem-focused strategies attack classmates and teacher.
the problem itself, with behaviours
designed to gain information, to alter the
event, and to alter belief and commitments. manage stress. Some of these techniques
They increase the person’s awareness, level are:
of knowledge, and range of behavioural
and cognitive coping options. They can act Relaxation Techniques : It is an active
to reduce the threat value of the event. For skill that reduces symptoms of stress and
example “I made a plan of action and decreases the incidence of illnesses such
followed it”. Emotion-focused strategies call as high blood pressure and heart disease.
for psychological changes designed Usually relaxation starts from the lower
primarily to limit the degree of emotional part of the body and progresses up to the
disruption caused by an event, with facial muscles in such a way that the
minimal effort to alter the event itself. For whole body is relaxed. Deep breathing is
used along with muscle relaxation to calm
example “I did some things to let it out of
the mind and relax the body.
my system”. While both problem-focused
and emotion-focused coping are necessary Meditation Procedures : The yogic method
when facing stressful situations, research of meditation consists of a sequence of
suggests that people generally tend to use learned techniques for refocusing of
the former more often than the latter. attention that brings about an altered state
of consciousness. It involves such a
Stress Management Techniques thorough concentration that the meditator
becomes unaware of any outside
Stress is a silent killer. It is estimated to
stimulation and reaches a different state
play a significant role in physical illness
of consciousness.
and disease. Hypertension, heart disease,
ulcers, diabetes and even cancer are linked Biofeedback : It is a procedure to monitor
to stress. Due to lifestyle changes stress is and reduce the physiological aspects of
on the increase. Therefore, schools, other stress by providing feedback about current
institutions, offices and communities are physiological activity and is often
concerned about knowing techniques to accompanied by relaxation training.

62
Psychology
Biofeedback training involves three stages : times a week for 30 minutes at a time.
developing an awareness of the particular Each session must have a warm-up,
physiological response, e.g. heart rate, exercise and cool down phases.
lear ning ways of controlling that
physiological response in quiet conditions;
PROMOTING POSITIVE HEALTH AND
and transferring that control into the
conditions of everyday life. WELL-BEING

Creative Visualisation : It is an effective It is unlikely that we will go through life


technique for dealing with stress. Creative without some experience of personal crises
visualisation is a subjective experience that causing acute pressure for a while. Many
uses imagery and imagination. Before people sail through and rebuild their lives
visualising one must set oneself a realistic very positively. They are likely to have
goal, as it helps build confidence. It is constructive attitudes and also have lots of
easier to visualise if one’s mind is quiet, emotional and social support of various
body relaxed and eyes are closed. This kinds available to them. When we find
reduces the risk of interference from ways of managing these pressures and can
unbidden thoughts and provides the use the energy to create something positive
creative energy needed for turning an out of the situation, then we will have
imagined scene into reality. learned to survive healthily and this will
leave us more stress fit for future crises.
Cognitive Behavioural Techniques :
It is like being immunised against the
These techniques aim to inoculate people
against stress. Stress inoculation training dangers of unhealthy stress.
is one effective method developed by Stress Resistant Personality : Recent
Meichenbaum. The essence of this studies by Kobasa have shown that people
approach is to replace negative and with high levels of stress but low levels of
irrational thoughts with positive and illness share three characteristics, which
rational ones. There are three main phases are referred to as the personality traits of
in this : assessment, stress reduction hardiness. It consists of ‘the three Cs’, i.e.
techniques, and application and follow- commitment, control, and challenge.
through. Assessment involves discussing Hardiness is a set of beliefs about oneself,
the nature of the problem and seeing it the world, and how they interact. It takes
from the viewpoint of the person/client. shape as a sense of personal commitment
Stress reduction involves learning the to what you are doing, a sense of control
techniques of reducing stress such as over your life, and a feeling of challenge.
relaxation and self-instruction. Stress resistant personalities have control
Exercise : Exercise can provide an active which is a sense of purpose and direction
outlet for the physiological arousal in life; commitment to work, family,
experienced in response to stress. Regular hobbies and social life; and challenge, that
exercise improves the efficiency of the is, they see changes in life as normal and
heart, enhances the function of the lungs, positive rather than as a threat.
maintains good circulation, lowers blood Everyone does not have these
pressure, reduces fat in the blood and characteristics, many of us have to relearn
improves the body’s immune system. specific life skills in areas such as rational
Swimming, walking, running, cycling, thinking, and assertiveness to equip
skipping, etc. help to reduce stress. One ourselves better to cope with the demands
must practice these exercises at least four of everyday life, etc.

63
Chapter 3 • Meeting Life Challenges
Life Skills images from the past, which affect our
perception of the present and the future.
Life skills are abilities for adaptive and
Some of the principles of rational thinking
positive behaviour that enable individuals
are: challenging your distorted thinking and
to deal effectively with the demands and
irrational beliefs, driving out potentially
challenges of everyday life. Our ability to
cope depends on how well we are prepared intrusive negative anxiety-provoking
to deal with and counterbalance everyday thoughts, and making positive statements.
demands, and keep equilibrium in our Improving Relationships : The key to a
lives. These life skills can be learned and sound lasting relationship is communi-
even improved upon. Assertiveness, time cation. This consists of three essential
management, rational thinking, improving skills: listening to what the other person
relationships, self-care, and overcoming is saying, expressing how you feel and
unhelpful habits such as perfectionism, what you think, and accepting the other
procrastination, etc. are some life skills person’s opinions and feelings, even if they
that will help to meet the challenges of life. are different from your own. It also
Assertiveness : Assertiveness is a requires us to avoid misplaced jealousy
behaviour or skill that helps to and sulking behaviour.
communicate, clearly and confidently, our Self-care : If we keep ourselves healthy, fit
feelings, needs, wants, and thoughts. It is and relaxed, we are better prepared
the ability to say no to a request, to state physically and emotionally to tackle the
an opinion without being self-conscious, or stresses of everyday life. Our breathing
to express emotions such as love, anger, patterns reflect our state of mind and
etc. openly. If you are assertive, you feel emotions. When we are stressed or
confident, and have high self-esteem and anxious, we tend towards rapid and
a solid sense of your own identity. shallow breathing from high in the chest,
Time Management : The way you spend with frequent sighs. The most relaxed
your time determines the quality of your breathing is slow, stomach-centred
life. Lear ning how to plan time and breathing from the diaphragm, i.e. a dome
delegate can help to relieve the pressure. like muscle between the chest and the
The major way to reduce time stress is to abdominal cavity. Environmental stresses
change one’s perception of time. The like noise, pollution, space, light, colour,
central principle of time management is to etc. can all exert an influence on our mood.
spend your time doing the things that you These have a noticeable effect on our
value, or that help you to achieve your ability to cope with stress, and well-being.
goals. It depends on being realistic about Overcoming Unhelpful Habits : Unhelpful
what you know and that you must do it habits such as perfectionism, avoidance,
within a certain time period, knowing what procrastination, etc. are strategies that
you want to do, and organising your life to help to cope in the short-term but which
achieve a balance between the two. make one more vulnerable to stress.
Rational Thinking : Many stress-related Perfectionists are persons who have to get
problems occur as a result of distorted everything just right. They have difficulty
thinking. The way you think and the way in varying standards according to factors
you feel are closely connected. When we such as time available, consequences of
are stressed, we have an inbuilt selective not being able to stop work, and the effort
bias to attend to negative thoughts and needed. They are more likely to feel tense

64
Psychology
and find it difficult to relax, are critical of Diet : A balanced diet can lift one’s mood,
self and others, and may become inclined give more energy, feed muscles, improve
to avoid challenges. Avoidance is to put the circulation, prevent illness, strengthen the
issue under the carpet and refuse to accept immune system and make one feel better
or face it. Procrastination means putting off to cope with stresses of life. The key to
what we know we need to do. We all are healthy living is to eat three main meals
guilty of saying “I will do it later”. People a day, and eat a varied well-balanced diet.
who procrastinate are deliberately avoiding How much nutrition one needs depends on
confronting their fears of failure or rejection. one’s activity level, genetic make-up,
Various factors have been identified climate, and health history. What people
which facilitate the development of eat, and how much do they weigh involve
positive health. Health is a state of behavioural processes. Some people are
complete physical, mental, social and able to maintain a healthy diet and weight
spiritual well-being, and not merely the while others become obese. When we are
absence of disease or infirmity. Positive stressed, we seek ‘comfort foods’ which are
health comprises the following constructs: high in fats, salt and sugar.
“a healthy body; high quality of personal
relationships; a sense of purpose in life; Exercise : A large number of studies
self-regard, mastery of life’s tasks; and confirm a consistently positive relationship
resilience to stress, trauma, and change”. between physical fitness and health. Also,
Box 3.3 presents the relationship between of all the measures an individual can take
resilience and health. Specifically, factors to improve health, exercise is the lifestyle
that act as stress buffers and facilitate change with the widest popular approval.
positive health are diet, exercise, positive Regular exercise plays an important role in
attitude, positive thinking, and social managing weight and stress, and is shown
support. to have a positive effect on reducing

Resilience and Health Box


3.3
In recent years, there has been a lot of research in understanding resilience in children
and adolescents. Resilience is a dynamic developmental process referring to the maintenance
of positive adjustment under challenging life conditions. It has been described as the capacity
to ‘bounce back’ in the face of stress and adversity. Resilience has been conceptualised as
reflecting feelings of self-worth and self-confidence, autonomy and self-reliance, finding
positive role models, seeking a confidant, cognitive skills such as problem solving, creativity,
resourcefulness, and flexibility and a belief that one’s life has purpose and meaning. Resilient
individuals are able to overcome the effects of trauma, stress and adversity and learn to
live psychologically healthy and meaningful lives.
Resilience has recently been defined in terms of three resources: I HAVE (social and
interpersonal strengths), i.e. ‘people around me I trust and who love me no matter what’, I
AM (inner strengths), i.e. ‘respectful of myself and others’, and I CAN ( interpersonal and
problem solving skills), i.e. ‘find ways to solve problems I face’. For a child to be resilient,
s/he needs to have more than one of these strengths. For example, children may have
plenty of self-esteem (I am), but may lack anyone whom they can turn to for support (I
have), and do not have the capacity to solve problems (I can), will not be resilient. Outcomes
of longitudinal studies of children provide evidence that in spite of extreme vulnerabilities
related to poverty and other social disadvantages, many individuals develop into capable
and caring adults.

65
Chapter 3 • Meeting Life Challenges
tension, anxiety and depression. Physical Social Support : Social support is defined
exercises that are essential for good health as the existence and availability of people
are stretching exercises such as yogic on whom we can rely upon, people who let
asanas and aerobic exercises such as us know that they care about, value, and
jogging, swimming, cycling, etc. Whereas love us. Someone who believes that s/he
stretching exercises have a calming effect, belongs to a social network of
aerobic exercises increase the arousal level communication and mutual obligation
of the body. The health benefits of exercise experiences social support. Perceived
work as a stress buffer. Studies suggest support, i.e. the quality of social support
that fitness per mits individuals to is positively related to health and well-
maintain general mental and physical well- being, whereas social network, i.e. the
being even in the face of negative life quantity of social support is unrelated to
events. well-being, because it is very time-
consuming and demanding to maintain a
Positive Attitude : Positive health and
large social network. Studies have revealed
well-being can be realised by having a
that women exposed to life event stresses,
positive attitude. Some of the factors
who had a close friend, were less likely to
leading to a positive attitude are: having a
be depressed and had lesser medical
fairly accurate perception of reality; a sense
complications during pregnancy. Social
of purpose in life and responsibility;
support can help to provide protection
acceptance and tolerance for different
against stress. People with high levels of
viewpoints of others; and taking credit for
social support from family and friends may
success and accepting blame for failure.
experience less stress when they confront
Finally, being open to new ideas and
a stressful experience, and they may cope
having a sense of humour with the ability
with it more successfully.
to laugh at oneself help us to remain
Social support may be in the form of
centred, and see things in a proper
tangible support or assistance involving
perspective.
material aid, such as money, goods,
Positive Thinking : The power of positive services, etc. For example, a child gives
thinking has been increasingly recognised notes to her/his friend, since s/he was
in reducing and coping with stress. absent from school due to sickness. Family
Optimism, which is the inclination to and friends also provide informational
expect favourable life outcomes, has been support about stressful events. For
linked to psychological and physical well- example, a student facing a stressful event
being. People differ in the manner in which such as a difficult board examination, if
they cope. For example, optimists tend to provided information by a friend who has
assume that adversity can be handled faced a similar one, would not only be able
successfully whereas pessimists anticipate to identify the exact procedures involved,
disasters. Optimists use more problem- but also it would facilitate in determining
focused coping strategies, and seek advice what resources and coping strategies could
and help from others. Pessimists ignore the be useful to successfully pass the
problem or source of stress, and use examination. During times of stress, one
strategies such as giving up the goal with may experience sadness, anxiety, and loss
which stress is interfering or denying that of self-esteem. Supportive friends and
stress exists. family provide emotional support by

66
Psychology
reassuring the individual that she/he is
loved, valued, and cared for. Research has Identify a child in your neighbourhood Activity
who had undergone some major stress 3.5
demonstrated that social support
in life such as a serious accident or been
effectively reduces psychological distress through a recent traumatic experience
such as depression or anxiety, during like a robbery, fire, etc. Talk to the child
times of stress. There is growing evidence and family. Can you identify some
that social support is positively related to factors that have helped her/him to
cope and overcome the trauma? Do you
psychological well-being. Generally, social see any similar factors in your own life?
support leads to mental health benefits for Discuss with your teacher.
both the giver and the receiver.

Key Terms
Alarm reaction, Appraisal, Coping, Exhaustion, General adaptation syndrome, Hardiness, Homeostasis,
Life skills, Optimism, Positive health, Psychoneuroimmunology, Resilience, Social support, Stress,
Stressors.

• Stress is a part of life. Stress is neither a stimulus nor a response but an ongoing
transactional process between the individual and the environment.
• There are three major types of stresses, physical and environmental, psychological
and social. Sources of stress are life events, everyday hassles, traumatic events.
The response to stress is emotional, physiological, cognitive and behavioural.
• Coping is a dynamic situation-specific individual reaction to stress. There are three
main types of coping, task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and avoidance-oriented coping.
Coping responses may be problem-focused or emotion-focused. Problem-focused coping
focuses to alter the environment and acts to reduce the threat value of the event.
Emotion-focused coping are strategies for changing emotions and aim to limit the
degree of emotional disruption caused by the event.
• It is essential to have a healthy lifestyle for handling stress and effective coping.
Assertiveness, time management, rational thinking, improving relationships, self-
care, and overcoming unhelpful habits are life skills that help us to meet life’s
challenges.
• Positive health and well-being come through balanced diet, exercise, positive attitude,
positive optimistic thinking, and social support. There is also a need for overall
harmonious conditions in society. We must avoid taking unhealthy escape routes of
smoking, alcohol, drugs and other harmful behaviours.

Review Questions
1. Explain the concept of stress. Give examples from daily life.
2. State the symptoms and sources of stress.
3. Describe the GAS model and illustrate the relevance of this model with the help of
an example.
4. Enumerate the different ways of coping with stress.
5. Explain the effect of stress on psychological functioning.
6. Describe how life skills can help meet life’s challenges.
7. Discuss the factors that lead to positive health and well-being.
8. How does stress affect the immune system?

67
Chapter 3 • Meeting Life Challenges
9. Give an example of a life event which is likely to be stressful. Suggest reasons why it
is likely to cause different degrees of stress to the person experiencing it.
10. Given what you know about coping strategies, what suggestions would you give to
your friends to avoid stress in their everyday lives.
11. Reflect on the environmental factors that have (a) a positive impact on the being, and
(b) a negative effect.
12. We know that certain lifestyle factors can cause stress and may lead to diseases like
cancer and coronary heart disease, yet we are unable to change our behaviour.
Explain why?

Project 1. Record the stresses in the lives of 5–10 teenagers. Are these different for girls and boys?
Ideas Find out the ways by which they cope with them.
2. Discuss with your parents and grandparents the unique stressors they face in their
lives and how they cope with them.

Weblinks
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/stress.html
http://www.teachhealth.com
http://www.lifepositive.com/stress.html

Pedagogical Hints
1. It is important to make students
realise that stress is an integral part
of life. They must, therefore, be
encouraged to recognise the signs
of stress in themselves and in
others.
2. Students could brainstor m for
possible ways of dealing with
different types of stressors.
3. Drawing examples from students’
lives, they need to be made to
understand the harmful effects of
stress on physical and mental
health.
4. Students should be encouraged to
search for literature in newspapers,
magazines, Internet, etc. suggesting
ways of dealing with stress. This
could be followed by discussion in
the classroom.

68
Psychology
You must have come across people who are unhappy, troubled and
dissatisfied. Their minds and hearts are filled with sorrow, unrest and
tension and they feel that they are unable to move ahead in their lives; they
feel life is a painful, uphill struggle, sometimes not worth living. Famous
analytical psychologist Carl Jung has quite remarkably said, “How can I
be substantial without casting a shadow? I must have a dark side, too, if I
am to be whole and by becoming conscious of my shadow, I remember
once more that I am a human being like any other”. At times, some of you
Introduction may have felt nervous before an important examination, tense and concerned
about your future career or anxious when someone close to you was unwell.
All of us face major problems at some point of our lives. However, some
people have an extreme reaction to the problems and stresses of life. In this
chapter, we will try to understand what goes wrong when people develop
psychological problems, what are the causes and factors which lead to
abnormal behaviour, and what are the various signs and symptoms
associated with different types of psychological disorders?
The study of psychological disorders has intrigued and mystified all
cultures for more than 2,500 years. Psychological disorders or mental
disorders (as they are commonly referred to), like anything unusual may
make us uncomfortable and even a little frightened. Unhappiness,
discomfort, anxiety, and unrealised potential are seen all over the world.
These failures in living are due mainly to failures in adaptation to life
challenges. As you must have studied in the previous chapters, adaptation
refers to the person’s ability to modify her/his behaviour in response to
changing environmental requirements. When the behaviour cannot be
modified according to the needs of the situation, it is said to be maladaptive.
Abnormal Psychology is the area within psychology that is focused on
maladaptive behaviour – its causes, consequences, and treatment.

way), and possibly dangerous (to the


CONCEPTS OF ABNORMALITY AND
person or to others).
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
This definition is a useful starting point
Although many definitions of abnormality from which we can explore psychological
have been used over the years, none has abnormality. Since the word ‘abnormal’
won universal acceptance. Still, most literally means “away from the normal”, it
definitions have certain common features, implies deviation from some clearly defined
often called the ‘four Ds’: deviance, norms or standards. In psychology, we
distress, dysfunction and danger. That is, have no ‘ideal model’ or even ‘normal
psychological disorders are deviant model’ of human behaviour to use as a
(different, extreme, unusual, even bizarre), base for comparison. Various approaches
distressing (unpleasant and upsetting to have been used in distinguishing between
the person and to others), dysfunctional normal and abnormal behaviours. From
(interfering with the person’s ability to these approaches, there emerge two basic
carry out daily activities in a constructive and conflicting views :

70
Psychology
The first approach views abnormal prefers to remain silent even when s/he
behaviour as a deviation from social has questions in her/his mind. Describing
norms. Many psychologists have stated behaviour as maladaptive implies that a
that ‘abnormal’ is simply a label that is problem exists; it also suggests that
given to a behaviour which is deviant from vulnerability in the individual, inability to
social expectations. Abnormal behaviour, cope, or exceptional stress in the
thoughts and emotions are those that differ environment have led to problems in life.
markedly from a society’s ideas of proper If you talk to people around, you will
functioning. Each society has norms, see that they have vague ideas about
which are stated or unstated rules for psychological disorders that are
proper conduct. Behaviours, thoughts and characterised by superstition, ignorance
emotions that break societal norms are and fear. Again it is commonly believed
called abnormal. A society’s norms grow that psychological disorder is something to
from its particular culture — its history, be ashamed of. The stigma attached to
values, institutions, habits, skills, mental illness means that people are
technology, and arts. Thus, a society whose hesitant to consult a doctor or psychologist
culture values competition and because they are ashamed of their
assertiveness may accept aggressive problems. Actually, psychological disorder
behaviour, whereas one that emphasises which indicates a failure in adaptation
cooperation and family values (such as in should be viewed as any other illness.
India) may consider aggressive behaviour
as unacceptable or even abnormal. A Activity
Talk to three people: one of your
society’s values may change over time, friends, a friend of your parents, and 4.1
causing its views of what is psychologically your neighbour.
abnormal to change as well. Serious Ask them if they have seen
questions have been raised about this someone who is mentally ill or who has
definition. It is based on the assumption mental problems. Try to understand
that socially accepted behaviour is not why they find this behaviour
abnormal, what are the signs and
abnormal, and that normality is nothing symptoms shown by this person, what
more than conformity to social norms. caused this behaviour and can this
The second approach views abnormal person be helped.
behaviour as maladaptive. Many Share the information you elicited
psychologists believe that the best criterion in class and see if there are some
for determining the normality of behaviour common features, which make us label
others as ‘abnormal’.
is not whether society accepts it but
whether it fosters the well-being of the
individual and eventually of the group to
Historical Background
which s/he belongs. Well-being is not
simply maintenance and survival but also To understand psychological disorders, we
includes growth and fulfilment, i.e. the would require a brief historical account of
actualisation of potential, which you must how these disorders have been viewed over
have studied in Maslow’s need hierarchy the ages. When we study the history of
theory. According to this criterion, abnormal psychology, we find that certain
conforming behaviour can be seen as theories have occurred over and over again.
abnormal if it is maladaptive, i.e. if it One ancient theory that is still
interferes with optimal functioning and encountered today holds that abnormal
growth. For example, a student in the class behaviour can be explained by the

71
Chapter 4 • Psychological Disorders
operation of supernatural and magical body fluids, viz. blood, black bile, yellow
forces such as evil spirits (bhoot-pret), or bile, and phlegm. Each of these fluids was
the devil (shaitan). Exorcism, i.e. removing seen to be responsible for a different
the evil that resides in the individual temperament. Imbalances among the
through countermagic and prayer, is still humours were believed to cause various
commonly used. In many societies, the disorders. This is similar to the Indian
shaman, or medicine man (ojha) is a notion of the three doshas of vata, pitta
person who is believed to have contact with and kapha which were mentioned in the
supernatural forces and is the medium Atharva Veda and Ayurvedic texts. You
through which spirits communicate with have already read about it in Chapter 2.
human beings. Through the shaman, an In the Middle Ages, demonology and
afflicted person can learn which spirits are superstition gained renewed importance in
responsible for her/his problems and what the explanation of abnormal behaviour.
needs to be done to appease them. Demonology related to a belief that people
A recurring theme in the history of with mental problems were evil and there
abnormal psychology is the belief that are numerous instances of ‘witch-hunts’
individuals behave strangely because their during this period. During the early
bodies and their brains are not working Middle Ages, the Christian spirit of charity
properly. This is the biological or organic prevailed and St. Augustine wrote
approach. In the modern era, there is extensively about feelings, mental anguish
evidence that body and brain processes and conflict. This laid the groundwork for
have been linked to many types of moder n psychodynamic theories of
maladaptive behaviour. For certain types of abnormal behaviour.
disorders, correcting these defective The Renaissance Period was marked
biological processes results in improved by increased humanism and curiosity
functioning. about behaviour. Johann Weyer
Another approach is the psychological emphasised psychological conflict and
approach. According to this point of view, disturbed interpersonal relationships as
psychological problems are caused by causes of psychological disorders. He also
inadequacies in the way an individual insisted that ‘witches’ were mentally
thinks, feels, or perceives the world. disturbed and required medical, not
All three of these perspectives — theological, treatment.
supernatural, biological or organic, and The seventeenth and eighteenth
psychological — have recurred throughout centuries were known as the Age of
the history of Western civilisation. In the Reason and Enlightenment, as the
ancient Western world, it was philosopher- scientific method replaced faith and dogma
physicians of ancient Greece such as as ways of understanding abnor mal
Hippocrates, Socrates, and in particular behaviour. The growth of a scientific
Plato who developed the organismic attitude towards psychological disorders in
approach and viewed disturbed behaviour the eighteenth century contributed to the
as arising out of conflicts between emotion Reform Movement and to increased
and reason. Galen elaborated on the role compassion for people who suffered from
of the four humours in personal character these disorders. Reforms of asylums were
and temperament. According to him, the initiated in both Europe and America. One
material world was made up of four aspect of the reform movement was the
elements, viz. earth, air, fire, and water new inclination for deinstitutionalisation
which combined to form four essential which placed emphasis on providing

72
Psychology
community care for recovered mentally ill each disorder, a description of the main
individuals. clinical features or symptoms, and of other
In recent years, there has been a associated features including diagnostic
convergence of these approaches, which guidelines is provided in this scheme.
has resulted in an interactional, or bio-
psycho-social approach. From this Certain behaviours like eating sand Activity
perspective, all three factors, i.e. biological, would be considered abnormal. But not 4.2
psychological and social play important if it was done after being stranded on
roles in influencing the expression and a beach in a plane crash.
outcome of psychological disorders. Listed below are ‘abnor mal’
behaviours followed by situations
where the behaviours might be
CLASSIFICATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL considered normal.
DISORDERS (i) talking to yourself - you are
praying.
In order to understand psychological (ii) standing in the middle of the street
waving your arms wildly - you are
disorders, we need to begin by classifying
a traffic policeman.
them. A classification of such disorders Think about it and list similar
consists of a list of categories of specific examples.
psychological disorders grouped into
various classes on the basis of some
shared characteristics. Classifications are
useful because they enable users like FACTORS UNDERLYING ABNORMAL
psychologists, psychiatrists and social BEHAVIOUR
workers to communicate with each other In order to understand something as
about the disorder and help in complex as abnor mal behaviour,
understanding the causes of psychological psychologists use different approaches.
disorders and the processes involved in Each approach in use today emphasises a
their development and maintenance. different aspect of human behaviour, and
The American Psychiatric Association explains and treats abnormality in line
(APA) has published an official manual with that aspect. These approaches also
describing and classifying various kinds of emphasise the role of different factors such
psychological disorders. The current as biological, psychological and
version of it, the Diagnostic and interpersonal, and socio-cultural factors.
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, We will examine some of the approaches
IV Edition (DSM-IV), evaluates the patient which are currently being used to explain
on five axes or dimensions rather than just abnormal behaviour.
one broad aspect of ‘mental disorder’. Biological factors influence all aspects
These dimensions relate to biological, of our behaviour. A wide range of biological
psychological, social and other aspects. factors such as faulty genes, endocrine
The classification scheme officially used imbalances, malnutrition, injuries and
in India and elsewhere is the tenth revision other conditions may interfere with normal
of the International Classification of development and functioning of the human
Diseases (ICD-10), which is known as the body. These factors may be potential
ICD-10 Classification of Behavioural and causes of abnormal behaviour. We have
Mental Disorders. It was prepared by the already come across the biological model.
World Health Organisation (WHO). For According to this model, abnor mal

73
Chapter 4 • Psychological Disorders
behaviour has a biochemical or years of life), faulty parent-child relationships
physiological basis. Biological researchers (rejection, overprotection, over -
have found that psychological disorders permissiveness, faulty discipline, etc.),
are often related to problems in the maladaptive family structures (inadequate or
transmission of messages from one neuron disturbed family), and severe stress.
to another. You have studied in Class XI, The psychological models include the
that a tiny space called synapse separates psychodynamic, behavioural, cognitive,
one neuron from the next, and the message and humanistic-existential models. The
must move across that space. When an psychodynamic model is the oldest and
electrical impulse reaches a neuron’s most famous of the modern psychological
ending, the nerve ending is stimulated to models. You have already read about this
release a chemical, called a neuro- model in Chapter 2 on Self and Personality.
transmitter. Studies indicate that Psychodynamic theorists believe that
abnor mal activity by certain neuro- behaviour, whether normal or abnormal, is
transmitters can lead to specific determined by psychological forces within
psychological disorders. Anxiety disorders the person of which s/he is not
have been linked to low activity of the consciously aware. These internal forces
neurotransmitter gamma aminobutyric acid are considered dynamic, i.e. they interact
(GABA), schizophrenia to excess activity of with one another and their interaction
dopamine, and depression to low activity gives shape to behaviour, thoughts and
of serotonin. emotions. Abnormal symptoms are viewed
Genetic factors have been linked to as the result of conflicts between these
mood disorders, schizophrenia, mental forces. This model was first formulated by
retardation and other psychological Freud who believed that three central
disorders. Researchers have not, however, forces shape personality — instinctual
been able to identify the specific genes that needs, drives and impulses (id), rational
are the culprits. It appears that in most thinking (ego), and moral standards
cases, no single gene is responsible for a (superego). Freud stated that abnormal
particular behaviour or a psychological behaviour is a symbolic expression of
disorder. Infact, many genes combine to unconscious mental conflicts that can be
help bring about our various behaviours generally traced to early childhood or
and emotional reactions, both functional infancy.
and dysfunctional. Although there is sound Another model that emphasises the role
evidence to believe that genetic/ of psychological factors is the behavioural
biochemical factors are involved in mental model. This model states that both normal
disorders as diverse as schizophrenia, and abnormal behaviours are learned and
depression, anxiety, etc. and biology alone psychological disorders are the result of
cannot account for most mental disorders. learning maladaptive ways of behaving.
There are several psychological The model concentrates on behaviours that
models which provide a psychological are learned through conditioning and
explanation of mental disorders. These proposes that what has been learned can
models maintain that psychological and be unlearned. Learning can take place by
interpersonal factors have a significant role classical conditioning (temporal association
to play in abnormal behaviour. These in which two events repeatedly occur close
factors include maternal deprivation together in time), operant conditioning
(separation from the mother, or lack of (behaviour is followed by a reward), and
warmth and stimulation during early social learning (learning by imitating

74
Psychology
others’ behaviour). These three types of individual members. Some families have an
conditioning account for behaviour, enmeshed structure in which the members
whether adaptive or maladaptive. are overinvolved in each other’s activities,
Psychological factors are also thoughts, and feelings. Children from this
emphasised by the cognitive model. This kind of family may have difficulty in
model states that abnormal functioning becoming independent in life. The broader
can result from cognitive problems. People social networks in which people operate
may hold assumptions and attitudes about include their social and professional
themselves that are irrational and relationships. Studies have shown that
inaccurate. People may also repeatedly people who are isolated and lack social
think in illogical ways and make support, i.e. strong and fulfilling
overgeneralisations, that is, they may draw interpersonal relationships in their lives
broad, negative conclusions on the basis are likely to become more depressed and
of a single insignificant event. remain depressed longer than those who
Another psychological model is the have good friendships. Socio-cultural
humanistic-existential model which theorists also believe that abnormal
focuses on broader aspects of human functioning is influenced by the societal
existence. Humanists believe that human labels and roles assigned to troubled
beings are born with a natural tendency to people. When people break the norms of
be friendly, cooperative and constructive, their society, they are called deviant and
and are driven to self-actualise, i.e. to fulfil ‘mentally ill’. Such labels tend to stick so
this potential for goodness and growth. that the person may be viewed as ‘crazy’
Existentialists believe that from birth we and encouraged to act sick. The person
have total freedom to give meaning to our gradually learns to accept and play the
existence or to avoid that responsibility.
sick role, and functions in a disturbed
Those who shirk from this responsibility
manner.
would live empty, inauthentic, and
In addition to these models, one of the
dysfunctional lives.
most widely accepted explanations of
In addition to the biological and
abnormal behaviour has been provided by
psychosocial factors, socio-cultural factors
the diathesis-stress model. This model
such as war and violence, group prejudice
states that psychological disorders develop
and discrimination, economic and
when a diathesis (biological predisposition
employment problems, and rapid social
to the disorder) is set off by a stressful
change, put stress on most of us and can
situation. This model has three
also lead to psychological problems in
some individuals. According to the socio- components. The first is the diathesis or
cultural model, abnormal behaviour is the presence of some biological aberration
best understood in light of the social and which may be inherited. The second
cultural forces that influence an individual. component is that the diathesis may carry
As behaviour is shaped by societal forces, a vulnerability to develop a psychological
factors such as family structure and disorder. This means that the person is ‘at
communication, social networks, societal risk’ or ‘predisposed’ to develop the
conditions, and societal labels and roles disorder. The third component is the
become more important. It has been found presence of pathogenic stressors, i.e.
that certain family systems are likely to factors/stressors that may lead to
produce abnor mal functioning in psychopathology. If such “at risk” persons

75
Chapter 4 • Psychological Disorders
are exposed to these stressors, their include worry and apprehensive feelings
predisposition may actually evolve into a about the future; hypervigilance, which
disorder. This model has been applied to involves constantly scanning the
several disorders including anxiety, environment for dangers. It is marked by
depression, and schizophrenia. motor tension, as a result of which the
person is unable to relax, is restless, and
MAJOR PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS visibly shaky and tense.
Another type of anxiety disorder is
Anxiety Disorders panic disorder, which consists of
recurrent anxiety attacks in which the
One day while driving home, Deb felt his person experiences intense terror. A panic
heart beating rapidly, he started sweating attack denotes an abrupt surge of intense
profusely, and even felt short of breath. He anxiety rising to a peak when thoughts of
was so scared that he stopped the car and a particular stimuli are present. Such
stepped out. In the next few months, these thoughts occur in an unpredictable
attacks increased and now he was hesitant manner. The clinical features include
to drive for fear of being caught in traffic shortness of breath, dizziness, trembling,
during an attack. Deb started feeling that palpitations, choking, nausea, chest pain
he had gone crazy and would die. Soon he or discomfort, fear of going crazy, losing
remained indoors and refused to move out control or dying.
of the house. You might have met or heard of
We experience anxiety when we are someone who was afraid to travel in a lift
waiting to take an examination, or to visit or climb to the tenth floor of a building, or
a dentist, or even to give a solo refused to enter a room if s/he saw a
performance. This is normal and expected lizard. You may have also felt it yourself or
and even motivates us to do our task well. seen a friend unable to speak a word of a
On the other hand, high levels of anxiety well-memorised and rehearsed speech
that are distressing and interfere with before an audience. These kinds of fears
effective functioning indicate the presence are termed as phobias. People who have
of an anxiety disorder — the most common phobias have irrational fears related to
category of psychological disorders. specific objects, people, or situations.
Everyone has worries and fears. The Phobias often develop gradually or begin
term anxiety is usually defined as a with a generalised anxiety disorder.
diffuse, vague, very unpleasant feeling of Phobias can be grouped into three main
fear and apprehension. The anxious types, i.e. specific phobias, social phobias,
individual also shows combinations of the and agoraphobia.
following symptoms: rapid heart rate, Specific phobias are the most
shortness of breath, diarrhoea, loss of commonly occurring type of phobia. This
appetite, fainting, dizziness, sweating, group includes irrational fears such as
sleeplessness, frequent urination and intense fear of a certain type of animal, or
tremors. There are many types of anxiety of being in an enclosed space. Intense and
disorders (see Table 4.2). They include incapacitating fear and embarrassment
generalised anxiety disorder, which when dealing with others characterises
consists of prolonged, vague, unexplained social phobias. Agoraphobia is the term
and intense fears that are not attached to used when people develop a fear of
any particular object. The symptoms entering unfamiliar situations. Many

76
Psychology
agoraphobics are afraid of leaving their repeatedly carrying out a particular act or
home. So their ability to carry out normal series of acts that affect their ability to
life activities is severely limited. carry out normal activities. Obsessive
Have you ever noticed someone behaviour is the inability to stop thinking
washing their hands everytime they touch about a particular idea or topic. The person
something, or washing even things like involved, often finds these thoughts to be
coins, or stepping only within the patterns unpleasant and shameful. Compulsive
on the floor or road while walking? People behaviour is the need to perform certain
af fected by obsessive-compulsive behaviours over and over again. Many
disorder are unable to control their compulsions deal with counting, ordering,
preoccupation with specific ideas or are checking, touching and washing.
unable to prevent themselves from Very often people who have been caught
in a natural disaster (such as tsunami) or
have been victims of bomb blasts by
Activity Recall how you felt before your terrorists, or been in a serious accident or
4.3 Class X Board examination. How did in a war-related situation, experience post-
you feel when the examinations were
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD
drawing near (one month before the
examinations; one week before the symptoms vary widely but may include
examinations; on the day of the recurrent dreams, flashbacks, impaired
examination, and when you were concentration, and emotional numbing.
entering the examination hall)? Also try
to recollect what you felt when you Somatoform Disorders
were awaiting your results. Write down
your experiences in terms of bodily These are conditions in which there are
symptoms (e.g. ‘butterflies in the physical symptoms in the absence of a
stomach’, clammy hands, excessive physical disease. In somatoform disorders,
perspiration, etc.) as well as mental the individual has psychological difficulties
experiences (e.g. tension, worry,
and complains of physical symptoms, for
pressure, etc.). Compare your
symptoms with those of your which there is no biological cause.
classmates and classify them as Mild, Somatofor m disorders include pain
Moderate, or Severe. disorders, somatisation disorders,
conversion disorders, and hypochondriasis.

Table 4.1 : Major Anxiety Disorders and their Symptoms

1. Generalised Anxiety Disorder : prolonged, vague, unexplained and intense fears that have no
object, accompanied by hypervigilance and motor tension.
2. Panic Disorder : frequent anxiety attacks characterised by feelings of intense terror and dread;
unpredictable ‘panic attacks’ along with physiological symptoms like breathlessness,
palpitations, trembling, dizziness, and a sense of loosing control or even dying.
3. Phobias : irrational fears related to specific objects, interactions with others, and unfamiliar
situations.
4. Obsessive-compulsive Disorder : being preoccupied with certain thoughts that are viewed by
the person to be embarrassing or shameful, and being unable to check the impulse to repeatedly
carry out certain acts like checking, washing, counting, etc.
5. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) : recurrent dreams, flashbacks, impaired concentration,
and emotional numbing followed by a traumatic or stressful event like a natural disaster,
serious accident, etc.

77
Chapter 4 • Psychological Disorders
Pain disorders involve reports of These symptoms often occur after a
extreme and incapacitating pain, either stressful experience and may be quite
without any identifiable biological sudden.
symptoms or greatly in excess of what Hypochondriasis is diagnosed if a
might be expected to accompany biological person has a persistent belief that s/he
symptoms. How people interpret pain has a serious illness, despite medical
influences their overall adjustment. Some reassurance, lack of physical findings,
pain sufferers can learn to use active and failure to develop the disease.
coping, i.e. remaining active and ignoring Hypochondriacs have an obsessive
the pain. Others engage in passive coping, preoccupation and concer n with the
which leads to reduced activity and social condition of their bodily organs, and they
withdrawal. continually worry about their health.
Patients with somatisation disorders
have multiple and recurrent or chronic Dissociative Disorders
bodily complaints. These complaints are Dissociation can be viewed as severance of
likely to be presented in a dramatic and the connections between ideas and
exaggerated way. Common complaints are emotions. Dissociation involves feelings of
headaches, fatigue, heart palpitations, unreality, estrangement, depersonalisation,
fainting spells, vomiting, and allergies. and sometimes a loss or shift of identity.
Patients with this disorder believe that they Sudden temporary alterations of
are sick, provide long and detailed histories consciousness that blot out painful
of their illness, and take large quantities experiences are a defining characteristic of
of medicine. dissociative disorders. Four conditions
The symptoms of conversion disorders are included in this group: dissociative
are the reported loss of part or all of some amnesia, dissociative fugue, dissociative
basic body functions. Paralysis, blindness, identity disorder, and depersonalisation.
deafness and difficulty in walking are Salient features of somatofor m and
generally among the symptoms reported. dissociative disorders are given in Box 4.1.

Box Salient Features of Somatoform and Dissociative Disorders


4.1
Somatoform Disorders Dissociative Disorders
Hypochondriasis : A person interprets Dissociative amnesia : The person is unable
insignificant symptoms as signs of a serious to recall important, personal information
illness despite repeated medical evaluation often related to a stressful and traumatic
that point to no pathology/disease. report. The extent of forgetting is beyond
normal.
Somatisation : A person exhibits vague and
recurring physical/bodily symptoms such as Dissociative fugue : The person suffers from
pain, acidity, etc., without any organic cause. a rare disorder that combines amnesia with
travelling away fr om a stressful
Conversion : The person suffers from a loss
environment.
or impairment of motor or sensory function
(e.g., paralysis, blindness, etc.) that has no Dissociative identity (multiple personality) :
physical cause but may be a response to The person exhibits two or more separate
stress and psychological problems. and contrasting personalities associated
with a history of physical abuse.

78
Psychology
Dissociative amnesia is characterised main types of mood disorders include
by extensive but selective memory loss that depressive, manic and bipolar disorders.
has no known organic cause (e.g., head Major depressive disorder is defined as a
injury). Some people cannot remember period of depressed mood and/or loss of
anything about their past. Others can no interest or pleasure in most activities,
longer recall specific events, people, places, together with other symptoms which may
or objects, while their memory for other include change in body weight, constant
events remains intact. This disorder is sleep problems, tiredness, inability to think
often associated with an overwhelming clearly, agitation, greatly slowed behaviour,
stress. and thoughts of death and suicide. Other
Dissociative fugue has, as its essential symptoms include excessive guilt or
feature, an unexpected travel away from feelings of worthlessness.
home and workplace, the assumption of a Factors Predisposing towards
new identity, and the inability to recall the Depression : Genetic make-up, or heredity
previous identity. The fugue usually ends is an important risk factor for major
when the person suddenly ‘wakes up’ with depression and bipolar disorders. Age is
no memory of the events that occurred also a risk factor. For instance, women are
during the fugue. particularly at risk during young
Dissociative identity disorder, often adulthood, while for men the risk is
referred to as multiple personality, is the highest in early middle age. Similarly
most dramatic of the dissociative disorders. gender also plays a great role in this
It is often associated with traumatic differential risk addition. For example,
experiences in childhood. In this disorder, women in comparison to men are more
the person assumes alternate personalities likely to report a depressive disorder. Other
that may or may not be aware of each risk factors are experiencing negative life
other. events and lack of social support.
Depersonalisation involves a Another less common mood disorder is
dreamlike state in which the person has a mania. People suf fering from mania
sense of being separated both from self and become euphoric (‘high’), extremely active,
from reality. In depersonalisation, there is excessively talkative, and easily
a change of self-perception, and the distractible. Manic episodes rarely appear
person’s sense of reality is temporarily lost by themselves; they usually alternate with
or changed. depression. Such a mood disorder, in
which both mania and depression are
Mood Disorders alter nately present, is sometimes
Mood disorders are characterised by interrupted by periods of normal mood.
disturbances in mood or prolonged This is known as bipolar mood disorder.
emotional state. The most common mood Bipolar mood disorders were earlier
disorder is depression, which covers a referred to as manic-depressive disorders.
variety of negative moods and behavioural Among the mood disorders, the lifetime
changes. Depression can refer to a risk of a suicide attempt is highest in case
symptom or a disorder. In day-to-day life, of bipolar mood disorders. Several risk
we often use the term depression to refer factors in addition to mental health status
to normal feelings after a significant loss, of a person predict the likelihood of
such as the break-up of a relationship, or suicide. These include age, gender,
the failure to attain a significant goal. The ethnicity, or race and recent occurrence of

79
Chapter 4 • Psychological Disorders
serious life events. Teenagers and young Schizophrenic Disorders
adults are as much at high risk for suicide,
Schizophrenia is the descriptive term for
as those who are over 70 years. Gender is
a group of psychotic disorders in which
also an influencing factor, i.e. men have a
personal, social and occupational
higher rate of contemplated suicide than
functioning deteriorate as a result of
women. Other factors that affect suicide
rates are cultural attitudes toward suicide. disturbed thought processes, strange
In Japan, for instance, suicide is the perceptions, unusual emotional states, and
culturally appropriate way to deal with motor abnormalities. It is a debilitating
feeling of shame and disgrace. Negative disorder. The social and psychological
expectations, hopelessness, setting costs of schizophrenia are tremendous,
unrealistically high standards, and being both to patients as well as to their families
over -critical in self-evaluation are and society.
important themes for those who have
suicidal preoccupations. Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Suicide can be prevented by being The symptoms of schizophrenia can be
alert to some of the symptoms which grouped into three categories, viz. positive
include : symptoms (i.e. excesses of thought,
• changes in eating and sleeping habits emotion, and behaviour), negative
• withdrawal from friends, family and symptoms (i.e. deficits of thought,
regular activities emotion, and behaviour), and
• violent actions, rebellious behaviour, psychomotor symptoms.
running away Positive symptoms are ‘pathological
• drug and alcohol abuse excesses’ or ‘bizarre additions’ to a person’s
• marked personality change behaviour. Delusions, disorganised
• persistent boredom thinking and speech, heightened
• difficulty in concentration perception and hallucinations, and
• complaints about physical symptoms, inappropriate affect are the ones most
and
often found in schizophrenia.
• loss of interest in pleasurable activities.
Many people with schizophrenia
However, seeking timely help from a develop delusions. A delusion is a false
professional counsellor/psychologist belief that is firmly held on inadequate
can help to prevent the likelihood of grounds. It is not affected by rational
suicide. argument, and has no basis in reality.
Delusions of persecution are the most
Activity You may have got some bad news in common in schizophrenia. People with this
4.4 the family (for example, death of a delusion believe that they are being plotted
close relative) or watched your against, spied on, slandered, threatened,
favourite character dying in a film or attacked or deliberately victimised. People
got less marks than you hoped for or
with schizophrenia may also experience
lost your pet. This may have made you
sad and depressed and hopeless delusions of reference in which they
about the future. Try and recall such attach special and personal meaning to the
incidents in your life. List the actions of others or to objects and events.
situations that led to this reaction. In delusions of grandeur, people believe
Compare your list and reactions with themselves to be specially empowered
those of others in class.
persons and in delusions of control, they

80
Psychology
believe that their feelings, thoughts and joy, and other feelings than most people
actions are controlled by others. do. Thus they have blunted affect. Some
People with schizophrenia may not be show no emotions at all, a condition
able to think logically and may speak in known as flat affect. Also patients with
peculiar ways. These formal thought schizophrenia experience avolition, or
disorders can make communication apathy and an inability to start or complete
extremely difficult. These include rapidly a course of action. People with this
shifting from one topic to another so that disorder may withdraw socially and
the nor mal structure of thinking is become totally focused on their own ideas
muddled and becomes illogical (loosening and fantasies.
of associations, derailment), inventing new People with schizophrenia also show
words or phrases (neologisms), and psychomotor symptoms. They move less
persistent and inappropriate repetition of spontaneously or make odd grimaces and
the same thoughts (perseveration). gestures. These symptoms may take
Schizophrenics may have hallucina- extreme forms known as catatonia. People
tions, i.e. perceptions that occur in the in a catatonic stupor remain motionless
absence of external stimuli. Auditory and silent for long stretches of time. Some
hallucinations are most common in show catatonic rigidity, i.e. maintaining
schizophrenia. Patients hear sounds or a rigid, upright posture for hours. Others
voices that speak words, phrases and exhibit catatonic posturing, i.e. assuming
sentences directly to the patient (second- awkward, bizarre positions for long periods
person hallucination) or talk to one another
referring to the patient as s/he (third-
person hallucination). Hallucinations can
Can you list some characters in films Activity
you have seen or books you have read 4.5
also involve the other senses. These who suffered from any of the disorders
include tactile hallucinations (i.e. forms we have studied here like depression
of tingling, burning), somatic hallucina- or schizophrenia showing some of
tions (i.e. something happening inside the these delusions?
body such as a snake crawling inside one’s Can you identify which kind of
stomach), visual hallucinations (i.e. vague delusion each of these is?
1. A person who believes that s/he
perceptions of colour or distinct visions of is going to be the next President of
people or objects), gustatory hallucina- India.
tions (i.e. food or drink taste strange), and 2. One who believes that the
olfactory hallucinations (i.e. smell of intelligence agencies/police are
poison or smoke). conspiring to trap her/him in a spy
People with schizophrenia also show scandal.
3. One who believes that s/he is the
inappropriate affect, i.e. emotions that
incarnation of God and can make
are unsuited to the situation. things happen.
Negative symptoms are ‘pathological 4. One who believes that the tsunami
deficits’ and include poverty of speech, occurred to prevent her/him from
blunted and flat affect, loss of volition, enjoying her/his holidays.
and social withdrawal. People with 5. One who believes that her/his
schizophrenia show alogia or poverty of actions are controlled by the
satellite through a chip implanted
speech, i.e. a reduction in speech and in her/his brain by some
speech content. Many people with extraterrestrial beings.
schizophrenia show less anger, sadness,

81
Chapter 4 • Psychological Disorders
Box Sub-types of Schizophrenia
4.2
According to DSM-IV-TR, the sub-types of schizophrenia and their characteristics are :
• Paranoid type : Preoccupation with delusions or auditory hallucinations; no
disorganised speech or behaviour or inappropriate affect.
• Disorganised type : Disorganised speech and behaviour; inappropriate or flat affect;
no catatonic symptoms.
• Catatonic type : Extreme motor immobility; excessive motor inactivity; extreme
negativism (i.e. resistance to instructions) or mutism (i.e. refusing to speak).
• Undifferentiated type : Does not fit any of the sub-types but meets symptom criteria.
• Residual type : Has experienced at least one episode of schizophrenia; no positive
symptoms but shows negative symptoms.

of time. Sub-types of schizophrenia and adult disorders. Achenbach has identified


their characteristics are described briefly in two factors, i.e. exter nalisation and
Box 4.2. internalisation, which include the majority
of childhood behaviour problems. The
Behavioural and Developmental externalising disorders, or undercontrolled
Disorders problems, include behaviours that are
disruptive and often aggressive and aversive
Apart from those mentioned above, there
to others in the child’s environment. The
are certain disorders that are specific to
internalising disorders, or overcontrolled
children and if neglected can lead to
problems, are those conditions where the
serious consequences later in life. Children
child experiences depression, anxiety, and
have less self-understanding and they have
discomfort that may not be evident to
not yet developed a stable sense of identity
others.
nor do they have an adequate frame of
There are several disorders in which
reference regarding reality, possibility, and
children display disruptive or externalising
value. As a result, they are unable to cope behaviours. We will now focus on three
with stressful events which might be prominent disorders, viz. Attention-deficit
reflected in behavioural and emotional Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD),
problems. On the other hand, although Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), and
their inexperience and lack of self- Conduct Disorder.
sufficiency make them easily upset by The two main features of ADHD are
problems that seem minor to an adult, inattention and hyperactivity-
children typically bounce back more impulsivity. Children who are inattentive
quickly. find it difficult to sustain mental effort
We will now discuss several disorders during work or play. They have a hard time
of childhood like Attention-deficit keeping their minds on any one thing or
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Conduct in following instructions. Common
Disorder, and Separation Anxiety complaints are that the child does not
Disorder. These disorders, if not attended, listen, cannot concentrate, does not follow
can lead to more serious and chronic instructions, is disorganised, easily
disorders as the child moves into distracted, forgetful, does not finish
adulthood. assignments, and is quick to lose interest
Classification of children’s disorders in boring activities. Children who are
has followed a different path than that of impulsive seem unable to control their

82
Psychology
immediate reactions or to think before they excessive anxiety or even panic
act. They find it difficult to wait or take experienced by children at being separated
turns, have difficulty resisting immediate from their parents. Children with SAD
temptations or delaying gratification. Minor may have difficulty being in a room by
mishaps such as knocking things over are themselves, going to school alone, are
common whereas more serious accidents fearful of entering new situations, and cling
and injuries can also occur. Hyperactivity to and shadow their parents’ every move.
also takes many forms. Children with To avoid separation, children with SAD
ADHD are in constant motion. Sitting still may fuss, scream, throw severe tantrums,
through a lesson is impossible for them. or make suicidal gestures.
The child may fidget, squirm, climb and The ways in which children express
run around the room aimlessly. Parents and experience depression are related to
and teachers describe them as ‘driven by their level of physical, emotional, and
a motor’, always on the go, and talk cognitive development. An infant may show
incessantly. Boys are four times more sadness by being passive and
likely to be given this diagnosis than unresponsive; a pre-schooler may appear
girls. withdrawn and inhibited; a school-age
Children with Oppositional Defiant child may be argumentative and
Disorder (ODD) display age-inappropriate combative; and a teenager may express
amounts of stubbornness, are irritable, feelings of guilt and hopelessness.
defiant, disobedient, and behave in a Children may also have more serious
hostile manner. Unlike ADHD, the rates of disorders called Pervasive Developmental
ODD in boys and girls are not very Disorders. These disorders are
different. The terms Conduct Disorder and characterised by severe and widespread
Antisocial Behaviour refer to age- impairments in social interaction and
inappropriate actions and attitudes that communication skills, and stereotyped
violate family expectations, societal norms, patterns of behaviours, interests and
and the personal or property rights of activities. Autistic disorder or autism is
others. The behaviours typical of conduct one of the most common of these disorders.
disorder include aggressive actions that Children with autistic disorder have marked
cause or threaten harm to people or difficulties in social interaction and
animals, non-aggressive conduct that communication, a restricted range of
causes property damage, major interests, and strong desire for routine.
deceitfulness or theft, and serious rule About 70 per cent of children with autism
violations. Children show many different are also mentally retarded.
types of aggressive behaviour, such as Children with autism experience
verbal aggression (i.e. name-calling, profound difficulties in relating to other
swearing), physical aggression (i.e. hitting, people. They are unable to initiate social
fighting), hostile aggression (i.e. directed behaviour and seem unresponsive to other
at inflicting injury to others), and people’s feelings. They are unable to share
proactive aggression (i.e. dominating and experiences or emotions with others. They
bullying others without provocation). also show serious abnor malities in
Inter nalising disorders include communication and language that persist
Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD) and over time. Many autistic children never
Depression. Separation anxiety disorder is develop speech and those who do, have
an inter nalising disorder unique to repetitive and deviant speech patterns.
children. Its most prominent symptom is Children with autism often show narrow

83
Chapter 4 • Psychological Disorders
patter ns of interests and repetitive resulting in extreme obesity or involving
behaviours such as lining up objects or the abuse of substances such as alcohol
stereotyped body movements such as or cocaine, is one of the most severe
rocking. These motor movements may be problems being faced by society today.
self-stimulatory such as hand flapping or Disorders relating to maladaptive
self-injurious such as banging their head behaviours resulting from regular and
against the wall. consistent use of the substance involved
Another group of disorders which are are called substance abuse disorders.
of special interest to young people are These disorders include problems
eating disorders. These include anorexia associated with using and abusing such
nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating. drugs as alcohol, cocaine and heroin,
In anorexia nervosa, the individual has a which alter the way people think, feel and
distorted body image that leads her/him to behave. There are two sub-groups of
see herself/himself as overweight. Often substance-use disorders, i.e. those related
refusing to eat, exercising compulsively to substance dependence and those related
and developing unusual habits such as to substance abuse.
refusing to eat in front of others, the In substance dependence, there is
anorexic may lose large amounts of weight intense craving for the substance to which
and even starve herself/himself to death. the person is addicted, and the person
In bulimia nervosa, the individual may eat shows tolerance, withdrawal symptoms
excessive amounts of food, then purge her/ and compulsive drug-taking. Tolerance
his body of food by using medicines such means that the person has to use more
as laxatives or diuretics or by vomiting. and more of a substance to get the same
The person often feels disgusted and effect. Withdrawal refers to physical
ashamed when s/he binges and is relieved symptoms that occur when a person stops
of tension and negative emotions after or cuts down on the use of a psychoactive
purging. In binge eating, there are substance, i.e. a substance that has the
frequent episodes of out-of-control eating. ability to change an individual’s
consciousness, mood and thinking
Mental Retardation processes.
You have already read about variations In substance abuse, there are
in intelligence in Chapter 1. Mental recurrent and significant adverse
retardation refers to below average consequences related to the use of
intellectual functioning (with an IQ of substances. People who regularly ingest
approximately 70 or below), and deficits or drugs damage their family and social
impairments in adaptive behaviour (i.e. in relationships, perform poorly at work, and
the areas of communication, self-care, create physical hazards.
home living, social/interpersonal skills, We will now focus on the three most
functional academic skills, work, etc.) common forms of substance abuse, viz.
which are manifested before the age of 18 alcohol abuse and dependence, heroin
years. Table 4.2 describes characteristics abuse and dependence, and cocaine
of the mentally challenged persons. abuse and dependence.

Substance-use Disorders Alcohol Abuse and Dependence


Addictive behaviour, whether it involves People who abuse alcohol drink large
excessive intake of high calorie food amounts regularly and rely on it to help

84
Psychology
Table 4.2 : Characteristics of Individuals with Different Levels of Mental Retardation

Area of Mild Moderate Severe


Functioning (IQ range = 50–70) (IQ range = 35–49) (IQ range = 20–34)
and Profound
(IQ = below 20)
Self-help Skills Feeds and dresses Has difficulties and No skills to partial
self and cares for requires training but skills, but some can
own toilet needs can learn adequate care for personal needs
self-help skills on limited basis
Speech and Receptive and Receptive and Receptive language
Communication expressive language expressive language is limited;
is adequate; is adequate; expressive language
understands has speech problems is poor
communication
Academics Optimal learning Very few academic No academic skills
environment; third skills; first or second
to sixth grade grade is maximal
Social Skills Has friends; can Capable of making Not capable of having
learn to adjust friends but has real friends; no social
quickly difficulty in many interactions
social situations
Vocational Can hold a job; Sheltered work Generally no
Adjustment competitive to semi- environment; usually employment; usually
competitive; primarily needs consistent needs constant care
unskilled work supervision
Adult Living Usually marries, Usually does not No marriage or
has children; needs marry or have children; always
help during stress children; dependent dependent on others

them face difficult situations. Eventually For many people the pattern of alcohol
the drinking interferes with their social abuse extends to dependence. That is, their
behaviour and ability to think and work. bodies build up a tolerance for alcohol and

Effects of Alcohol : Some Facts Box


4.3
• All alcohol beverages contain ethyl alcohol.
• This chemical is absorbed into the blood and carried into the central nervous system
(brain and spinal cord) where it depresses or slows down functioning.
• Ethyl alcohol depresses those areas in the brain that control judgment and inhibition;
people become more talkative and friendly, and they feel more confident and happy.
• As alcohol is absorbed, it affects other areas of the brain. For example, drinkers are
unable to make sound judgments, speech becomes less careful and less clear, and
memory falters; many people become emotional, loud and aggressive.
• Motor difficulties increase. For example, people become unsteady when they walk and
clumsy in performing simple activities; vision becomes blurred and they have trouble
in hearing; they have difficulty in driving or in solving simple problems.

85
Chapter 4 • Psychological Disorders
they need to drink even greater amounts danger of heroin abuse is an overdose,
to feel its effects. They also experience which slows down the respiratory centres
withdrawal responses when they stop in the brain, almost paralysing breathing,
drinking. Alcoholism destroys millions of and in many cases causing death.
families, social relationships and careers.
Intoxicated drivers are responsible for Cocaine Abuse and Dependence
many road accidents. It also has serious
effects on the children of persons with this Regular use of cocaine may lead to a
disorder. These children have higher rates pattern of abuse in which the person may
of psychological problems, particularly be intoxicated throughout the day and
anxiety, depression, phobias and function poorly in social relationships and
substance-related disorders. Excessive at work. It may also cause problems in
drinking can seriously damage physical short-ter m memory and attention.
health. Some of the ill-effects of alcohol on Dependence may develop, so that cocaine
health and psychological functioning are dominates the person’s life, more of the
presented in Box 4.3. drug is needed to get the desired effects,

Box Commonly Abused Substances (Following the DSM-IV-TR Classification)


4.4
• Alcohol
• Amphetamines: dextroamphetamines, metaamphetamines, diet pills
• Caffeine: coffee, tea, caffeinated soda, analgesics, chocolate, cocoa
• Cannabis: marijuana or ‘bhang’, hashish, sensimilla
• Cocaine
• Hallucinogens: LSD, mescaline
• Inhalants: gasoline, glue, paint thinners, spray paints, typewriter correction fluid,
sprays
• Nicotine: cigarettes, tobacco
• Opioid: morphine, heroin, cough syrup, painkillers (analgesics, anaesthetics)
• Phencyclidine
• Sedatives

Heroin Abuse and Dependence and stopping it results in feelings of


Heroin intake significantly interferes with depression, fatigue, sleep problems,
social and occupational functioning. Most irritability and anxiety. Cocaine poses
abusers further develop a dependence on serious dangers. It has dangerous effects
heroin, revolving their lives around the on psychological functioning and physical
substance, building up a tolerance for it, well-being.
and experiencing a withdrawal reaction Some of the commonly abused
when they stop taking it. The most direct substances are given in Box 4.4.

Key Terms
Abnormal psychology, Antisocial behaviour, Anxiety, Autism, Deinstitutionalisation, Delusions, Diathesis-
stress model, Eating disorders, Genetics, Hallucinations, Hyperactivity, Hypochondriasis, Mental
retardation, Mood disorders, Neurotransmitters, Norms, Obsessive-compulsive disorders, Phobias,
Schizophrenia, Somatoform disorders, Substance abuses.

86
Psychology
• Abnormal behaviour is behaviour that is deviant, distressing, dysfunctional, and
dangerous. Those behaviours are seen as abnormal which represent a deviation
from social norms and which interfere with optimal functioning and growth.
• In the history of abnormal behaviour, the three perspectives are, i.e. the supernatural,
the biological or organic, and the psychological. In interactional or bio-psycho-social
approach, all three factors, viz. biological, psychological and social play important
roles in psychological disorders.
• Classification of psychological disorders has been done by the WHO (ICD-10) and
the American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV-TR).
• A variety of models have been used to explain abnormal behaviour. These are the
biological, psychodynamic, behavioural, cognitive, humanistic-existential, diathesis-
stress systems, and socio-cultural approaches.
• The major psychological disorders include anxiety, somatoform, dissociative, mood,
schizophrenic, developmental and behavioural, and substance-use disorders.

Review Questions
1. Identify the symptoms associated with depression and mania.
2. Describe the characteristics of hyperactive children.
3. What do you understand by substance abuse and dependence?
4. Can a distorted body image lead to eating disorders? Classify the various forms of it.
5. “Physicians make diagnosis looking at a person’s physical symptoms”. How are
psychological disorders diagnosed?
6. Distinguish between obsessions and compulsions.
7. Can a long-standing pattern of deviant behaviour be considered abnormal? Elaborate.
8. While speaking in public the patient changes topics frequently, is this a positive or
a negative symptom of schizophrenia? Describe the other symptoms and sub-types
of schizophrenia.
9. What do you understand by the term ‘dissociation’? Discuss its various forms.
10. What are phobias? If someone had an intense fear of snakes, could this simple phobia
be a result of faulty learning? Analyse how this phobia could have developed.
11. Anxiety has been called the “butterflies in the stomach feeling”. At what stage does
anxiety become a disorder? Discuss its types.

Project 1. All of us have changes in mood or mood swings all day. Keep a small diary or notebook with
Ideas you and jot down your emotional experiences over 3–4 days. As you go through the day (for
instance, when you wake up, go to school/college, meet your friends, return home), you
will observe that there are many highs and lows, ups and downs in your moods. Note down
when you felt happy or unhappy, felt joy or sadness, felt anger, irritation and other commonly
experienced emotions. Also note down the situations which elicited these various emotions.
After collecting this information, you will have a better understanding of your own moods
and how they fluctuate through the day.
2. Studies have shown that current standards of physical attractiveness have contributed to
eating disorders. Thinness is valued in fashion models, actors, and dancers. To study this,
observe the people around you. Select at least 10 people (they may include your family,
friends and other acquaintances), and rate them in terms of Large, Average and Thin. Then
pick up any fashion or film magazine. Look at the pictures of models, winners of beauty
competitions, and film stars. Write a paragraph or two describing the magazine’s message
to its readers about the normal or acceptable male or female body. Does this view match
what you see as normal body types in the general population?
3. Make a list of movies, TV shows, or plays you have seen where a particular psychological
disorder has been highlighted. Match the symptoms shown to the ones you have read.
Prepare a report.

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Chapter 4 • Psychological Disorders
Weblinks
http://www.mental-health-matters.com/disorders
http://allpsych.com
http://mentalhealth.com

Pedagogical Hints
1. The contents on psychological
disorders have to be handled
sensitively. After becoming familiar
with various kinds of disorders and
their symptoms, students may
begin to feel and may express that
they are suffering from one or more
of the given disorders. It is
important to explain to the
students, not to draw any definite
conclusions on the basis of some
signs/symptoms experienced.
2. Students need to be made aware
that mere knowledge and
information about psychological
disorders do not provide the
necessary skills for either
diagnosing or treating psychological
disorders.
3. Students should be discouraged
from attempting to treat each other,
as they are not qualified to do so.
Specialised training in clinical
psychology/counselling is required
to undertake psycho-diagnostic
testing.

88
Psychology
In the preceding chapter, you have studied about major psychological
disorders and the distress caused by them to the patient and others. In this
chapter, you will learn about the various therapeutic methods that are used
by psychotherapists to help their patients. There are various types of
psychotherapy. Some of them focus on acquiring self-understanding; other
therapies are more action-oriented. All approaches hinge on the basic issue
of helping the patient overcome her/his debilitating condition. The
effectiveness of a therapeutic approach for a patient depends on a number
Introduction of factors such as severity of the disorder, degree of distress faced by others,
and the availability of time, effort and money, among others.
All therapeutic approaches are corrective and helping in nature. All of
them involve an interpersonal relationship between the therapist and the
client or patient. Some of them are directive in nature, such as
psychodynamic, while some are non-directive such as person-centred. In
this chapter, we will briefly discuss some of the major forms of
psychotherapy.

everybody. An untrained person may


NATURE AND PROCESS OF PSYCHOTHERAPY
unintentionally cause more harm than any
Psychotherapy is a voluntary relationship good, (iii) the therapeutic situation involves
between the one seeking treatment or the a therapist and a client who seeks and
client and the one who treats or the receives help for her/his emotional
therapist. The purpose of the relationship problems (this person is the focus of
is to help the client to solve the attention in the therapeutic process), and
psychological problems being faced by her (iv) the interaction of these two persons —
or him. The relationship is conducive for the therapist and the client — results in
building the trust of the client so that the consolidation/for mation of the
therapeutic relationship. This is a
problems may be freely discussed.
confidential, interpersonal, and dynamic
Psychotherapies aim at changing the
relationship. This human relationship is
maladaptive behaviours, decreasing the
central to any sort of psychological therapy
sense of personal distress, and helping the
and is the vehicle for change.
client to adapt better to her/his
All psychotherapies aim at a few or all
environment. Inadequate marital, of the following goals :
occupational and social adjustment also (i) Reinforcing client’s resolve for
requires that major changes be made in an betterment.
individual’s personal environment. (ii) Lessening emotional pressure.
All psychotherapeutic approaches have (iii) Unfolding the potential for positive
the following characteristics : (i) there is growth.
systematic application of principles (iv) Modifying habits.
underlying the dif ferent theories of (v) Changing thinking patterns.
therapy, (ii) persons who have received (vi) Increasing self-awareness.
practical training under expert supervision (vii) Improving interpersonal relations and
can practice psychotherapy, and not communication.

90
Psychology
(viii) Facilitating decision-making. suffering of another but is not able to feel
(ix) Becoming aware of one’s choices in like the other person. Intellectual
life. understanding is cold in the sense that the
(x) Relating to one’s social environment in person is unable to feel like the other
a more creative and self-aware person and does not feel sympathy either.
manner. On the other hand, empathy is present
when one is able to understand the plight
Therapeutic Relationship of another person, and feel like the other
person. It means understanding things
The special relationship between the client from the other person’s perspective, i.e.
and the therapist is known as the putting oneself in the other person’s shoes.
therapeutic relationship or alliance. It is Empathy enriches the therapeutic
neither a passing acquaintance, nor a relationship and transforms it into a
permanent and lasting relationship. There healing relationship.
are two major components of a therapeutic The therapeutic alliance also requires
alliance. The first component is the that the therapist must keep strict
contractual nature of the relationship in confidentiality of the experiences, events,
which two willing individuals, the client feelings or thoughts disclosed by the client.
and the therapist, enter into a partnership The therapist must not exploit the trust
which aims at helping the client overcome and the confidence of the client in anyway.
her/his problems. The second component Finally, it is a professional relationship,
of therapeutic alliance is the limited and must remain so.
duration of the therapy. This alliance lasts
until the client becomes able to deal with Activity
A classmate or friend of yours or your
her/his problems and take control of her/ favourite character in a TV serial may 5.1
his life. This relationship has several have recently experienced a negative
unique properties. It is a trusting and or a traumatic life event (e.g., death
confiding relationship. The high level of of a loved one, break-up of an
trust enables the client to unburden important friendship or relationship)
herself/himself to the therapist and confide of which you are aware. Try to put
her/his psychological and personal yourself in the other person’s shoes,
try to experience how that person is
problems to the latter. The therapist
feeling, what s/he is thinking and try
encourages this by being accepting,
to take her/his perspective of the
empathic, genuine and warm to the client. entire situation. This will help you to
The therapist conveys by her/his words understand better how that person is
and behaviours that s/he is not judging feeling.
the client and will continue to show the
(Note : This exercise may be done in
same positive feelings towards the client class, so that teachers can help
even if the client is rude or confides all the students in overcoming any distress
‘wrong’ things that s/he may have done or experienced).
thought about. This is the unconditional
positive regard which the therapist has for
the client. The therapist has empathy for TYPE OF THERAPIES
the client. Empathy is different from
sympathy and intellectual understanding Though all psychotherapies aim at
of another person’s situation. In sympathy, removing human distress and fostering
one has compassion and pity towards the effective behaviour, they differ greatly in

91
Chapter 5 • Therapeutic Approaches
concepts, methods, and techniques. thoughts and feelings of the client. This
Psychotherapies may be classified into material is interpreted to the client to
three broad groups, viz. the help her/him to confront and resolve
psychodynamic, behaviour, and existential the conflicts and thus overcome
psychotherapies. In ter ms of the problems. Behaviour therapy identifies
chronological order, psychodynamic the faulty conditioning patterns and
therapy emerged first followed by sets up alter nate behavioural
behaviour therapy while the existential contingencies to improve behaviour.
therapies which are also called the third The cognitive methods employed in this
force, emerged last. The classification of type of therapy challenge the faulty
psychotherapies is based on the following thinking patterns of the client to help
parameters: her/him overcome psychological
distress. The existential therapy
1. What is the cause, which has led to the
provides a therapeutic environment
problem?
which is positive, accepting, and non-
Psychodynamic therapy is of the view
judgmental. The client is able to talk
that intrapsychic conflicts, i.e. the
about the problems and the therapist
conflicts that are present within the
acts as a facilitator. The client arrives
psyche of the person, are the source of
at the solutions through a process of
psychological problems. According to
personal growth.
behaviour therapies, psychological
problems arise due to faulty learning of 4. What is the nature of the therapeutic
behaviours and cognitions. The relationship between the client and the
existential therapies postulate that the therapist?
questions about the meaning of one’s Psychodynamic therapy assumes that
life and existence are the cause of the therapist understands the client’s
psychological problems. intrapsychic conflicts better than the
client and hence it is the therapist who
2. How did the cause come into existence?
interprets the thoughts and feelings of
In the psychodynamic therapy,
the client to her/him so that s/he gains
unfulfilled desires of childhood and
an understanding of the same. The
unresolved childhood fears lead to
behaviour therapy assumes that the
intrapsychic conflicts. The behaviour
therapist is able to discern the faulty
therapy postulates that faulty
behaviour and thought patterns of the
conditioning patterns, faulty learning,
client. It further assumes that the
and faulty thinking and beliefs lead to
therapist is capable of finding out the
maladaptive behaviours that, in turn,
correct behaviour and thought
lead to psychological problems. The
patterns, which would be adaptive for
existential therapy places importance
the client. Both the psychodynamic and
on the present. It is the current feelings
the behaviour therapies assume that
of loneliness, alienation, sense of futility
the therapist is capable of arriving at
of one’s existence, etc., which cause
solutions to the client’s problems. In
psychological problems.
contrast to these therapies, the
3. What is the chief method of treatment? existential therapies emphasise that the
Psychodynamic therapy uses the therapist merely provides a warm,
methods of free association and empathic relationship in which the
reporting of dreams to elicit the client feels secure to explore the nature

92
Psychology
and causes of her/his problems by and one’s aspirations, emotions and
herself/himself. motives.
5. What is the chief benefit to the client? 6. What is the duration of treatment?
Psychodynamic therapy values The duration of classical psycho-
emotional insight as the important analysis may continue for several years.
benefit that the client derives from the However, several recent versions of
treatment. Emotional insight is present psychodynamic therapies are completed
when the client understands her/his in 10–15 sessions. Behaviour and
conflicts intellectually; is able to accept cognitive behaviour therapies as well as
the same emotionally; and is able to existential therapies are shorter and are
change her/his emotions towards the completed in a few months.
conflicts. The client’s symptoms and Thus, dif ferent types of psycho-
distresses reduce as a consequence of therapies differ on multiple parameters.
this emotional insight. The behaviour However, they all share the common
therapy considers changing faulty method of providing treatment for
behaviour and thought patterns to psychological distress through psycho-
adaptive ones as the chief benefit of the logical means. The therapist, the
treatment. Instituting adaptive or therapeutic relationship, and the process
healthy behaviour and thought of therapy become the agents of change in
patterns ensures reduction of distress the client leading to the alleviation of
and removal of symptoms. The psychological distress. The process of
humanistic therapy values personal psychotherapy begins by formulating the
growth as the chief benefit. Personal client’s problem. Steps involved in the
growth is the process of gaining formulation of a client’s problem are given
increasing understanding of oneself, in Box 5.1.

Steps in the Formulation of a Client’s Problem Box


5.1
Clinical formulation refers to formulating the problem of the client in the therapeutic model
being used for the treatment. The clinical formulation has the following advantages:
1. Understanding of the problem : The therapist is able to understand the full implications
of the distress being experienced by the client.
2. Identification of the areas to be targetted for treatment in psychotherapy : The theoretical
formulation clearly identifies the problem areas to be targetted for therapy. Thus, if a
client seeks help for inability to hold a job and reports inability to face superiors, the
clinical formulation in behaviour therapy would state it as lack of assertiveness skills
and anxiety. The target areas have thus been identified as inability to assert oneself
and heightened anxiety.
3. Choice of techniques for treatment : The choice of techniques for treatment depends on
the therapeutic system in which the therapist has been trained. However, even within
this broad domain, the choice of techniques, timing of the techniques, and expectations
of outcome of the therapy depend upon the clinical formulation.
The clinical formulation is an ongoing process. Formulations may require reformulations
as clinical insights are gained in the process of therapy. Usually the first one or two sessions
yield enough clinical material for the initial clinical formulation. It is not advisable to start
psychotherapy without a clinical formulation.

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Chapter 5 • Therapeutic Approaches
a therapeutic relationship is established,
Activity Gather infor mation about some and the client feels comfortable, the
5.2 institutions you know which offer therapist makes her/him lie down on the
psychiatric/psychotherapeutic help.
couch, close her/his eyes and asks her/
him to speak whatever comes to mind
without censoring it in anyway. The client
The following sections explain is encouraged to freely associate one
representative therapies from each of the thought with another, and this method is
three major systems of psychotherapy called the method of free association. The
mentioned earlier. censoring superego and the watchful ego
are kept in abeyance as the client speaks
Psychodynamic Therapy whatever comes to mind in an atmosphere
As you have already read, the that is relaxed and trusting. As the
psychodynamic therapy pioneered by therapist does not interrupt, the free flow
Sigmund Freud is the oldest form of of ideas, desires and conflicts of the
psychotherapy. His close collaborator Carl unconscious, which had been suppressed
Jung modified it to what came to be known by the ego, emerge into the conscious
as the analytical psychotherapy. mind. This free uncensored verbal
Subsequently, Freud’s successors, known narrative of the client is a window into the
as Neo-Freudians, established their own client’s unconscious to which the therapist
versions of classical psychodynamic gains access. Along with this technique,
therapy. Broadly, the psychodynamic the client is asked to write down her/his
therapy has conceptualised the structure dreams upon waking up. Psychoanalysts
of the psyche, dynamics between different look upon dreams as symbols of the
components of the psyche, and the source unfulfilled desires present in the
of psychological distress. You have already unconscious. The images of the dreams are
studied these concepts in the chapters on symbols which signify intrapsychic forces.
Self and Personality, and Psychological Dreams use symbols because they are
Disorders. The method of treatment, steps indirect expressions and hence would not
in the treatment, nature of the therapeutic alert the ego. If the unfulfilled desires are
relationship, and the expected outcome expressed directly, the ever-vigilant ego
from the psychodynamic therapy are would suppress them and that would lead
explained below. to anxiety. These symbols are interpreted
according to an accepted convention of
Methods of Eliciting the Nature of translation as the indicators of unfulfilled
Intrapsychic Conflict desires and conflicts.
Since the psychoanalytic approach views
Modality of Treatment
intrapsychic conflicts to be the cause of
psychological disorder, the first step in the Transference and Interpretation are the
treatment is to elicit this intrapsychic means of treating the patient. As the
conflict. Psychoanalysis has invented free unconscious forces are brought into the
association and dream interpretation as conscious realm through free association
two important methods for eliciting the and dream interpretation described above,
intrapsychic conflicts. The free association the client starts identifying the therapist
method is the main method for with the authority figures of the past,
understanding the client’s problems. Once usually childhood. The therapist may be

94
Psychology
seen as the punitive father, or as the anxiety, fear, or shame, which are causing
negligent mother. The therapist maintains the resistance.
a non-judgmental yet permissive attitude Interpretation is the fundamental
and allows the client to continue with this mechanism by which change is effected.
process of emotional identification. This is Confrontation and clarification are the
the process of transference. The therapist two analytical techniques of interpretation.
encourages this process because it In confrontation, the therapist points out
helps her/him in understanding the to the client an aspect of her/his psyche
unconscious conflicts of the client. The that must be faced by the client.
client acts out her/his frustrations, anger, Clarification is the process by which the
fear, and depression that s/he harboured therapist brings a vague or confusing event
towards that person in the past, but could into sharp focus. This is done by
not express at that time. The therapist separating and highlighting important
becomes a substitute for that person in details about the event from unimportant
the present. This stage is called ones. Interpretation is a more subtle
transference neurosis. A full-blown process. It is considered to be the pinnacle
transference neurosis is helpful in making of psychoanalysis. The therapist uses the
the therapist aware of the nature of unconscious material that has been
intrapsychic conflicts suffered by the uncovered in the process of free
client. There is the positive transference association, dream interpretation,
in which the client idolises, or falls in transference and resistance to make the
love with the therapist, and seeks client aware of the psychic contents and
the therapist’s approval. Negative conflicts which have led to the occurrence
transference is present when the client of certain events, symptoms and conflicts.
has feelings of hostility, anger, and Interpretation can focus on intrapsychic
resentment towards the therapist. conflicts or on deprivations suffered in
The process of transference is met with childhood. The repeated process of using
resistance. Since the process of confrontation, clarification, and inter -
transference exposes the unconscious pretation is known as working through.
wishes and conflicts, thereby increasing Working through helps the patient to
the distress levels, the client resists understand herself/himself and the source
transference. Due to resistance, the client of the problem and to integrate the
opposes the progress of therapy in order uncovered material into her/his ego.
to protect herself/himself from the recall The outcome of working through is
of painful unconscious memories. insight. Insight is not a sudden event but
Resistance can be conscious or a gradual process wherein the unconscious
unconscious. Conscious resistance is memories are repeatedly integrated into
present when the client deliberately hides conscious awareness; these unconscious
some information. Unconscious resistance events and memories are re-experienced in
is assumed to be present when the client transference and are worked through. As
becomes silent during the therapy session, this process continues, the client starts to
recalls trivial details without recalling the understand herself/himself better at an
emotional ones, misses appointments, and intellectual and emotional level, and gains
comes late for therapy sessions. The insight into her/his conflicts and
therapist overcomes the resistance by problems. The intellectual understanding
repeatedly confronting the patient about it is the intellectual insight. The emotional
and by uncovering emotions such as understanding, acceptance of one’s

95
Chapter 5 • Therapeutic Approaches
irrational reaction to the unpleasant events faulty patter ns are corrected in the
of the past, and the willingness to change present.
emotionally as well as making the change The clinical application of learning
is emotional insight. Insight is the end theory principles constitute behaviour
point of therapy as the client has gained therapy. Behaviour therapy consists of a
a new understanding of herself/himself. In large set of specific techniques and
turn, the conflicts of the past, defence interventions. It is not a unified theory,
mechanisms and physical symptoms are which is applied irrespective of the clinical
no longer present and the client becomes diagnosis or the symptoms present. The
a psychologically healthy person. symptoms of the client and the clinical
Psychoanalysis is ter minated at this diagnosis are the guiding factors in the
stage. selection of the specific techniques or
interventions to be applied. Treatment of
Duration of Treatment phobias or excessive and crippling fears
Psychoanalysis lasts for several years, with would require the use of one set of
one hour session for 4–5 days per week. techniques while that of anger outbursts
It is an intense treatment. There are three would require another. A depressed client
stages in the treatment. Stage one is the would be treated differently from a client
initial phase. The client becomes familiar who is anxious. The foundation of
with the routines, establishes a therapeutic behaviour therapy is on for mulating
relationship with the analyst, and gets dysfunctional or faulty behaviours, the
some relief with the process of recollecting factors which reinforce and maintain these
the super ficial materials from the behaviours, and devising methods by
consciousness about the past and present which they can be changed.
troublesome events. Stage two is the
middle phase, which is a long process. It Method of Treatment
is characterised by transference, resistance The client with psychological distress or
on the part of the client, and confrontation with physical symptoms, which cannot be
and clarification, i.e. working through on attributed to physical disease, is
the therapist’s part. All these processes interviewed with a view to analyse her/his
finally lead to insight. The third phase is behaviour patterns. Behavioural analysis is
the ter mination phase wherein the conducted to find malfunctioning
relationship with the analyst is dissolved behaviours, the antecedents of faulty
and the client prepares to leave the learning, and the factors that maintain
therapy. or continue faulty learning. Malfunctioning
behaviours are those behaviours which
Behaviour Therapy cause distress to the client. Antecedent
Behaviour therapies postulate that factors are those causes which predispose
psychological distress arises because of the person to indulge in that behaviour.
faulty behaviour patterns or thought Maintaining factors are those factors which
patterns. It is, therefore, focused on the lead to the persistence of the faulty
behaviour and thoughts of the client in the behaviour. An example would be a young
present. The past is relevant only to the person who has acquired the
extent of understanding the origins of the malfunctioning behaviour of smoking and
faulty behaviour and thought patterns. The seeks help to get rid of smoking.
past is not activated or relived. Only the Behavioural analysis conducted by

96
Psychology
interviewing the client and the family thereby increase the reinforcing value of
members reveals that the person started food at dinner. Praising the child when
smoking when he was preparing for the s/he eats properly tends to encourage this
annual examination. He had reported relief behaviour. The antecedent operation is the
from anxiety upon smoking. Thus, anxiety- reduction of food at tea time and the
provoking situation becomes the causative consequent operation is praising the child
or antecedent factor. The feeling of relief for eating dinner. It establishes the
becomes the maintaining factor for him to response of eating dinner.
continue smoking. The client has acquired
the operant response of smoking, which is Behavioural Techniques
maintained by the reinforcing value of relief
from anxiety. A range of techniques is available for
Once the faulty behaviours which changing behaviour. The principles of these
cause distress, have been identified, a techniques are to reduce the arousal level
treatment package is chosen. The aim of of the client, alter behaviour through
the treatment is to extinguish or eliminate classical conditioning or operant
the faulty behaviours and substitute them conditioning with different contingencies of
with adaptive behaviour patterns. The reinforcements, as well as to use vicarious
therapist does this through establishing learning procedures, if necessary.
antecedent operations and consequent Negative reinforcement and aversive
operations. Antecedent operations control conditioning are the two major techniques
behaviour by changing something that of behaviour modification. As you have
precedes such a behaviour. The change already studied in Class XI, Negative
can be done by increasing or decreasing reinforcement refers to following an
the reinforcing value of a particular undesired response with an outcome that
consequence. This is called establishing is painful or not liked. For example, the
operation. For example, if a child gives teacher reprimands a child who shouts in
trouble in eating dinner, an establishing class. This is negative reinforcement.
operation would be to decrease the Aversive conditioning refers to repeated
quantity of food served at tea time. This association of undesired response with an
would increase the hunger at dinner and aversive consequence. For example, an

Relaxation Procedures Box


5.2
Anxiety is a manifestation of the psychological distress for which the client seeks treatment.
The behavioural therapist views anxiety as increasing the arousal level of the client, thereby
acting as an antecedent factor in causing the faulty behaviour. The client may smoke to
decrease anxiety, may indulge in other activities such as eating, or be unable to concentrate
for long hours on her/his study because of the anxiety. Therefore, reduction of anxiety
would decrease the unwanted behaviours of excessive eating or smoking. Relaxation
procedures are used to decrease the anxiety levels. For instance, progressive muscular
relaxation and meditation induce a state of relaxation. In progressive muscular relaxation,
the client is taught to contract individual muscle groups in order to give the awareness of
tenseness or muscular tension. After the client has learnt to tense the muscle group such
as the forearm, the client is asked to let go the tension. The client is told that the tension is
what the client has at present and that s/he has to get into the opposite state. With repeated
practice the client learns to relax all the muscles of the body. You will learn about meditation
at a later point in this chapter.

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Chapter 5 • Therapeutic Approaches
alcoholic is given a mild electric shock and fears. The client is interviewed to elicit fear-
asked to smell the alcohol. With repeated provoking situations and together with the
pairings the smell of alcohol is aversive as client, the therapist prepares a hierarchy
the pain of the shock is associated with it of anxiety-provoking stimuli with the least
and the person will give up alcohol. If an anxiety-provoking stimuli at the bottom of
adaptive behaviour occurs rarely, positive the hierarchy. The therapist relaxes the
reinforcement is given to increase the client and asks the client to think about
deficit. For example, if a child does not do the least anxiety-provoking situation.
homework regularly, positive reinforcement Box 5.2 gives details of relaxation
may be used by the child’s mother by procedures. The client is asked to stop
preparing the child’s favourite dish thinking of the fearful situation if the
whenever s/he does homework at the slightest tension is felt. Over sessions, the
appointed time. The positive reinforcement client is able to imagine more severe fear-
of food will increase the behaviour of doing provoking situations while maintaining the
homework at the appointed time. Persons relaxation. The client gets systematically
with behavioural problems can be given a desensitised to the fear.
token as a reward every time a wanted The principle of reciprocal inhibition
behaviour occurs. The tokens are collected operates here. This principle states that the
and exchanged for a reward such as an presence of two mutually opposing forces
outing for the patient or a treat for the at the same time, inhibits the weaker force.
child. This is known as token economy. Thus, the relaxation response is first built
Unwanted behaviour can be reduced up and mildly anxiety-provoking scene is
and wanted behaviour can be increased imagined, and the anxiety is overcome by
simultaneously through differential the relaxation. The client is able to tolerate
reinforcement. Positive reinforcement for progressively greater levels of anxiety
the wanted behaviour and negative because of her/his relaxed state.
reinforcement for the unwanted behaviour Modelling is the procedure wherein the
attempted together may be one such client learns to behave in a certain way by
method. The other method is to positively observing the behaviour of a role model or
reinforce the wanted behaviour and ignore the therapist who initially acts as the role
the unwanted behaviour. The latter method model. Vicarious learning, i.e. learning by
is less painful and equally effective. For observing others, is used and through a
example, let us consider the case of a girl
who sulks and cries when she is not taken
to the cinema when she asks. The parent Your friend is feeling very nervous Activity
is instructed to take her to the cinema if and panicky before the examinations. 5.3
S/he is pacing up and down, is
she does not cry and sulk but not to take
unable to study and feels s/he has
her if she does. Further, the parent is forgotten all that s/he has learnt. Try
instructed to ignore the girl when she cries to help her/him to relax by inhaling
and sulks. The wanted behaviour of (taking in a deep breath), holding it
politely asking to be taken to the cinema for sometime (5–10 seconds), then
increases and the unwanted behaviour of exhaling (releasing the breath). Ask
crying and sulking decreases. her/him to repeat this 5–10 times.
Also ask her/him to remain focused
You read about phobias or irrational on her/his breathing. You can do
fears in the previous chapter. Systematic the same exercise when you feel
desensitisation is a technique introduced nervous.
by Wolpe for treating phobias or irrational

98
Psychology
process of rewarding small changes in the assumptions about life and problems.
behaviour, the client gradually learns to Gradually the client is able to change the
acquire the behaviour of the model. irrational beliefs by making a change in
There is a great variety of techniques in her/his philosophy about life. The rational
behaviour therapy. The skill of the belief system replaces the irrational belief
therapist lies in conducting an accurate system and there is a reduction in
behavioural analysis and building a psychological distress.
treatment package with the appropriate Another cognitive therapy is that of
techniques. Aaron Beck. His theory of psychological
distress characterised by anxiety or
Cognitive Therapy depression, states that childhood
experiences provided by the family and
Cognitive therapies locate the cause of
society develop core schemas or systems,
psychological distress in irrational
which include beliefs and action patterns
thoughts and beliefs. Albert Ellis
in the individual. Thus, a client, who was
formulated the Rational Emotive Therapy
neglected by the parents as a child,
(RET). The central thesis of this therapy is develops the core schema of “I am not
that irrational beliefs mediate between the wanted”. During the course of life, a critical
antecedent events and their consequences. incident occurs in her/his life. S/he is
The first step in RET is the antecedent- publicly ridiculed by the teacher in school.
belief-consequence (ABC) analysis. This critical incident triggers the core
Antecedent events, which caused the schema of “I am not wanted” leading to the
psychological distress, are noted. The development of negative automatic
client is also interviewed to find the thoughts. Negative thoughts are persistent
irrational beliefs, which are distorting the irrational thoughts such as “nobody loves
present reality. Irrational beliefs may not me”, “I am ugly”, “I am stupid”, “I will not
be supported by empirical evidence in the succeed”, etc. Such negative automatic
environment. These beliefs are thoughts are characterised by cognitive
characterised by thoughts with ‘musts’ distortions. Cognitive distortions are ways
and ‘shoulds’, i.e. things ‘must’ and of thinking which are general in nature but
‘should’ be in a particular manner. which distort the reality in a negative
Examples of irrational beliefs are, “One manner. These patter ns of thought
should be loved by everybody all the time”, are called dysfunctional cognitive
“Human misery is caused by external structures. They lead to errors of cognition
events over which one does not have any about the social reality.
control”, etc. This distorted perception of Repeated occurrence of these thoughts
the antecedent event due to the irrational leads to the development of feelings of
belief leads to the consequence, i.e. anxiety and depression. The therapist uses
negative emotions and behaviours. questioning, which is gentle, non-
Irrational beliefs are assessed through threatening disputation of the client’s
questionnaires and interviews. In the beliefs and thoughts. Examples of such
process of RET, the irrational beliefs are question would be, “Why should everyone
refuted by the therapist through a process love you?”, “What does it mean to you to
of non-directive questioning. The nature of succeed?”, etc. The questions make the
questioning is gentle, without probing or client think in a direction opposite to that
being directive. The questions make the of the negative automatic thoughts
client to think deeper into her/his whereby s/he gains insight into the nature

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Chapter 5 • Therapeutic Approaches
of her/his dysfunctional schemas, and is and self-actualisation, and an innate need
able to alter her/his cognitive structures. to grow emotionally. When these needs are
The aim of the therapy is to achieve this curbed by society and family, human
cognitive restructuring which, in turn, beings experience psychological distress.
reduces anxiety and depression. Self-actualisation is defined as an innate
Similar to behaviour therapy, cognitive or inborn force that moves the person to
therapy focuses on solving a specific become more complex, balanced, and
problem of the client. Unlike psycho- integrated, i.e. achieving the complexity
dynamic therapy, behaviour therapy is and balance without being fragmented.
open, i.e. the therapist shares her/his Integrated means a sense of whole, being
method with the client. It is short, lasting a complete person, being in essence the
between 10–20 sessions. same person in spite of the variety of
experiences that one is subjected to. Just
Cognitive Behaviour Therapy as lack of food or water causes distress,
frustration of self-actualisation also causes
The most popular therapy presently is the
distress.
Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT).
Healing occurs when the client is able
Research into the outcome and
to perceive the obstacles to self-
ef fectiveness of psychotherapy has
actualisation in her/his life and is able to
conclusively established CBT to be a short
remove them. Self-actualisation requires
and efficacious treatment for a wide range
free emotional expression. The family and
of psychological disorders such as anxiety,
society curb emotional expression, as it is
depression, panic attacks, and borderline
feared that a free expression of emotions
personality, etc. CBT adopts a bio-
can har m society by unleashing
psychosocial approach to the delineation of
destructive forces. This curb leads to
psychopathology. It combines cognitive
destructive behaviour and negative
therapy with behavioural techniques.
emotions by thwarting the process of
The rationale is that the client’s distress
emotional integration. Therefore, the
has its origins in the biological,
therapy creates a permissive, non-
psychological, and social realms. Hence,
judgmental and accepting atmosphere in
addressing the biological aspects through
which the client’s emotions can be freely
relaxation procedures, the psychological
expressed and the complexity, balance and
ones through behaviour therapy and
integration could be achieved. The
cognitive therapy techniques and the social
fundamental assumption is that the client
ones with environmental manipulations
has the freedom and responsibility to
makes CBT a comprehensive technique
control her/his own behaviour. The
which is easy to use, applicable to a variety therapist is merely a facilitator and guide.
of disorders, and has proven efficacy. It is the client who is responsible for the
success of therapy. The chief aim of the
Humanistic-existential Therapy
therapy is to expand the client’s awareness.
The humanistic-existential therapies Healing takes place by a process of
postulate that psychological distress arises understanding the unique personal
from feelings of loneliness, alienation, and experience of the client by herself/himself.
an inability to find meaning and genuine The client initiates the process of self-
fulfilment in life. Human beings are growth through which healing takes
motivated by the desire for personal growth place.

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Psychology
Existential Therapy relationship in which the client can
reconnect with her/his disintegrated
Victor Frankl, a psychiatrist and
feelings. The therapist shows empathy, i.e.
neurologist propounded the Logotherapy.
understanding the client’s experience as if
Logos is the Greek word for soul and
it were her/his own, is warm and has
Logotherapy means treatment for the soul.
unconditional positive regard, i.e. total
Frankl calls this process of finding
acceptance of the client as s/he is.
meaning even in life-threatening
Empathy sets up an emotional resonance
circumstances as the process of meaning
between the therapist and the client.
making. The basis of meaning making is a
Unconditional positive regard indicates
person’s quest for finding the spiritual
that the positive warmth of the therapist
truth of one’s existence. Just as there is
is not dependent on what the client reveals
an unconscious, which is the repository of
or does in the therapy sessions. This
instincts (see Chapter 2), there is a
unique unconditional warmth ensures that
spiritual unconscious, which is the
the client feels secure and can trust the
storehouse of love, aesthetic awareness,
therapist. The client feels secure enough to
and values of life. Neurotic anxieties arise
explore her/his feelings. The therapist
when the problems of life are attached to
reflects the feelings of the client in a non-
the physical, psychological or spiritual
judgmental manner. The reflection is
aspects of one’s existence. Frankl
achieved by rephrasing the statements of
emphasised the role of spiritual anxieties
the client, i.e. seeking simple clarifications
in leading to meaninglessness and hence
to enhance the meaning of the client’s
it may be called an existential anxiety, i.e.
statements. This process of reflection helps
neurotic anxiety of spiritual origin. The
the client to become integrated. Personal
goal of logotherapy is to help the patients
relationships improve with an increase in
to find meaning and responsibility in
adjustment. In essence, this therapy helps
their life irrespective of their life
a client to become her/his real self with the
circumstances. The therapist emphasises
therapist working as a facilitator.
the unique nature of the patient’s life and
encourages them to find meaning in their
Gestalt Therapy
life.
In Logotherapy, the therapist is open The German word gestalt means ‘whole’.
and shares her/his feelings, values and This therapy was given by Freiderick (Fritz)
his/her own existence with the client. The Perls together with his wife Laura Perls.
emphasis is on here and now. Transference The goal of gestalt therapy is to increase
is actively discouraged. The therapist an individual’s self-awareness and self-
reminds the client about the immediacy of acceptance. The client is taught to
the present. The goal is to facilitate the recognise the bodily processes and the
client to find the meaning of her/his being. emotions that are being blocked out from
awareness. The therapist does this by
Client-centred Therapy encouraging the client to act out fantasies
about feelings and conflicts. This therapy
Client-centred therapy was given by Carl
can also be used in group settings.
Rogers. Rogers combined scientific rigour
with the individualised practice of client-
Biomedical Therapy
centred psychotherapy. Rogers brought
into psychotherapy the concept of self, with Medicines may be prescribed to treat
freedom and choice as the core of one’s psychological disorders. Prescription of
being. The therapy provides a war m medicines for treatment of mental

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Chapter 5 • Therapeutic Approaches
disorders is done by qualified medical and the implementation of the same
professionals known as psychiatrists. They with the patient/client. If the
are medical doctors who have specialised behavioural system and the CBT school
in the understanding, diagnosis and are adopted to heal an anxious client,
treatment of mental disorders. The nature the relaxation procedures and the
of medicines used depends on the nature cognitive restructuring largely
of the disorders. Severe mental disorders contribute to the healing.
such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder 2. The therapeutic alliance, which is
require anti-psychotic drugs. Common formed between the therapist and the
mental disorders such as generalised patient/client, has healing properties,
anxiety or reactive depression may also because of the regular availability of the
require milder drugs. The medicines therapist, and the war mth and
prescribed to treat mental disorders can empathy provided by the therapist.
cause side-ef fects which need to be 3. At the outset of therapy while the
understood and monitored. Hence, it is patient/client is being interviewed in
essential that medication is given under the initial sessions to understand the
proper medical supervision. Even the nature of the problem, s/he unburdens
drugs which normal individuals use to stay the emotional problems being faced.
awake to study for examinations or to get This process of emotional unburdening
a ‘high’ at a party have dangerous is known as catharsis, and it has
side-ef fects. These drugs can cause healing properties.
addiction, and harm the brain and the 4. There are several non-specific factors
body. Therefore, it is dangerous to self- associated with psychotherapy. Some
medicate with drugs which affect the mind. of these factors are attributed to the
You must have seen people with mental patient/client and some to the
problems being given electric shocks in therapist. These factors are called
films. Electro-convulsive Therapy (ECT) non-specific because they occur across
is another form of biomedical therapy. Mild different systems of psychotherapy and
electric shock is given via electrodes to the across different clients/patients and
brain of the patient to induce convulsions. different therapists. Non-specific factors
The shock is given by the psychiatrist only attributable to the client/patient are
when it is necessary for the improvement motivation for change, expectation of
of the patient. ECT is not a routine improvement due to the treatment, etc.
treatment and is given only when drugs are These are called patient variables.
not effective in controlling the symptoms Non-specific factors attributable to the
of the patient. therapist are positive nature, absence
of unresolved emotional conflicts,
Factors Contributing to Healing in presence of good mental health,
Psychotherapy etc. These are called therapist
As we have read, psychotherapy is a variables.
treatment of psychological distress. There
Ethics in Psychotherapy
are several factors which contribute to the
healing process. Some of these factors are Some of the ethical standards that need to
as follows : be practiced by professional psycho-
1. A major factor in the healing is the therapists are :
techniques adopted by the therapist 1. Informed consent needs to be taken.

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Psychology
2. Confidentiality of the client should be SKY has been used as a public health
maintained. intervention technique to alleviate PTSD in
3. Alleviating personal distress and survivors of mass disasters. Yoga
suffering should be the goal of all techniques enhance well-being, mood,
attempts of the therapist. attention, mental focus, and stress
4. Integrity of the practitioner -client tolerance. Proper training by a skilled
relationship is important. teacher and a 30-minute practice every day
5. Respect for human rights and dignity. will maximise the benefits. Research
6. Professional competence and skills are conducted at the National Institute of
essential. Mental Health and Neurosciences
(NIMHANS), India, has shown that SKY
Alternative Therapies reduces depression. Further, alcoholic
patients who practice SKY have reduced
Alternative therapies are so called, because
depression and stress levels. Insomnia is
they are alternative treatment possibilities
treated with yoga. Yoga reduces the time
to the conventional drug treatment or
to go to sleep and improves the quality of
psychotherapy. There are many alternative sleep.
therapies such as yoga, meditation, Kundalini Yoga taught in the USA has
acupuncture, herbal remedies and so on. been found to be effective in treatment of
In the past 25 years, yoga and meditation mental disorders. The Institute for Non-
have gained popularity as treatment linear Science, University of California, San
programmes for psychological distress. Diego, USA has found that Kundalini Yoga
Yoga is an ancient Indian technique is effective in the treatment of obsessive-
detailed in the Ashtanga Yoga of Patanjali’s compulsive disorder. Kundalini Yoga
Yoga Sutras. Yoga as it is commonly called combines pranayama or breathing
today either refers to only the asanas or techniques with chanting of mantras.
body posture component or to breathing Prevention of repeated episodes of
practices or pranayama, or to a depression may be helped by mindfulness-
combination of the two. Meditation refers based meditation or Vipasana. This
to the practice of focusing attention on meditation would help the patients to
breath or on an object or thought or a process emotional stimuli better and hence
mantra. Here attention is focused. In prevent biases in the processing of these
Vipasana meditation, also known as stimuli.
mindfulness-based meditation, there is no
fixed object or thought to hold the
REHABILITATION OF THE MENTALLY ILL
attention. The person passively observes
the various bodily sensations and thoughts The treatment of psychological disorders
that are passing through in her or his has two components, i.e. reduction of
awareness. symptoms, and improving the level of
The rapid breathing techniques to functioning or quality of life. In the case
induce hyperventilation as in Sudarshana of milder disorders such as generalised
Kriya Yoga (SKY) is found to be a anxiety, reactive depression or phobia,
beneficial, low-risk, low-cost adjunct to the reduction of symptoms is associated with
treatment of stress, anxiety, post-traumatic an improvement in the quality of life.
stress disorder (PTSD), depression, stress- However, in the case of severe mental
related medical illnesses, substance abuse, disorders such as schizophrenia, reduction
and rehabilitation of criminal offenders. of symptoms may not be associated with

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Chapter 5 • Therapeutic Approaches
an improvement in the quality of life. Many making, paper bag making and weaving to
patients suffer from negative symptoms help them to form a work discipline. Social
such as disinterest and lack of motivation skills training helps the patients to develop
to do work or to interact with people. interpersonal skills through role play,
Rehabilitation is required to help such imitation and instruction. The objective is
patients become self-sufficient. The aim of to teach the patient to function in a social
rehabilitation is to empower the patient to group. Cognitive retraining is given to
become a productive member of society to improve the basic cognitive functions of
the extent possible. In rehabilitation, the attention, memory and executive functions.
patients are given occupational therapy, After the patient improves sufficiently,
social skills training, and vocational vocational training is given wherein the
therapy. In occupational therapy, the patient is helped to gain skills necessary
patients are taught skills such as candle to undertake productive employment.

Key Terms
Alternative therapy, Behaviour therapy, Biomedical therapy, Client-centred therapy, Cognitive behaviour
therapy, Empathy, Gestalt therapy, Humanistic therapy, Psycho dynamic therapy, Psychotherapy,
Rehabilitation, Resistance, Self-actualisation, Therapeutic alliance, Transference, Unconditional positive
regard.

• Psychotherapy is a treatment for the healing of psychological distress. It is not a


homogenous treatment method. There are about 400 different types of psychotherapy.
• Psychoanalysis, behavioural, cognitive and humanistic-existential are the important
systems of psychotherapy. There are many schools within each of the above systems.
• The important components of psychotherapy are the clinical formulation, i.e. statement
of the client’s problem and treatment in the framework of a particular therapy.
• Therapeutic alliance is the relation between the therapist and the client in which the
client has trust in the therapist and the therapist has empathy for the client.
• The predominant mode of psychotherapy for adults with psychological distress is
individual psychotherapy. The therapist requires to be professionally trained before
embarking on the journey of psychotherapy.
• Alternative therapies such as some yogic and meditative practices have been found
to be effective in treating certain psychological disorders.
• Rehabilitation of the mentally ill is necessary to improve their quality of life once their
active symptoms are reduced.

Review Questions
1. Describe the nature and scope of psychotherapy. Highlight the importance of
therapeutic relationship in psychotherapy.
2. What are the different types of psychotherapy? On what basis are they classified?
3. A therapist asks the client to reveal all her/his thoughts including early childhood
experiences. Describe the technique and type of therapy being used.
4. Discuss the various techniques used in behaviour therapy.
5. Explain with the help of an example how cognitive distortions take place.
6. Which therapy encourages the client to seek personal growth and actualise their
potential? Write about the therapies which are based on this principle.

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Psychology
7. What are the factors that contribute to healing in psychotherapy? Enumerate some
of the alternative therapies.
8. What are the techniques used in the rehabilitation of the mentally ill?
9. How would a social learning theorist account for a phobic fear of lizards/cockroaches?
How would a psychoanalyst account for the same phobia?
10. Should Electro-convulsive Therapy (ECT) be used in the treatment of mental disorders?
11. What kind of problems is cognitive behaviour therapy best suited for?

Project • In school at times you get good points (or gold points or stars) when you do well and
Ideas bad or black points when you do something wrong. This is an example of a token
system. With the help of your classmates make a list of all those school and classroom
activities for which you are rewarded or receive praise from your teacher or appreciation
from your friends. Also make a list of all those activities for which your teacher scolds
you or your classmates get angry with you.
• Describe a person in your past or present who has consistently demonstrated
unconditional positive regard towards you. What effect, if any, did (or does) this have
on you? Explain. Gather the same information from more friends and prepare a report.

Weblinks
http://www.sciencedirect.com
http://allpsych.com
http://mentalhealth.com

Pedagogical Hints
1. Students could be asked to connect
the dif ferent therapeutic
approaches to some of the theories
of personality they have studied in
Chapter 2 on Self and Personality.
2. Role-play and dramatisation of
certain student-related behavioural
issues, such as break-up of
relationship with a friend would
evoke interest among the students
and also emphasise the application
of psychology.
3. As therapy is a highly skilled
process requiring professional
training, students should be
refrained from treating it in a
frivolous manner.
4. Any activity/discussion, which may
have a serious impact on the psyche
of the students, should be properly
transacted in the presence of the
teacher.

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Chapter 5 • Therapeutic Approaches
Social psychology is that branch of psychology which investigates how the
behaviour of individuals is affected by others and the social environment.
All of us form attitudes, or ways of thinking about specific topics and people.
We also form impressions about persons we meet, and assign causes to
Introduction their behaviour. Besides, our own behaviour gets influenced by other
individuals and groups. In some situations, people show pro-social
behaviour, that is, helping the needy and the distressed, without expecting
anything in return. Many of these social behaviours seem to be simple. Yet,
explaining the processes that lie behind these behaviours is a complex matter.
This chapter will describe the basic ideas related to attitudes, social cognition
and pro-social behaviour as explained by social psychologists.

the ways they do — that is, we assign causes


EXPLAINING SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
to the behaviour shown in specific social
Social behaviour is a necessary part of situations. This process is called
human life, and being social means much attribution. Very often, impression
more than merely being in the company of formation and attributions are influenced
others. You may recall from what you by attitudes. These three processes are
studied in Class XI that social psychology examples of mental activities related to the
deals with all behaviour that takes place in gathering and interpretation of information
the actual, imagined, or implied presence about the social world, collectively called
of others. Take this simple example: if you social cognition. Moreover, social cognition
have to memorise a poem and recite it, you is activated by cognitive units called
may have no problem in doing this when schemas. Cognitive processes cannot be
you are by yourself. But if you have to recite directly seen; they have to be inferred on
this poem to an audience, your performance the basis of externally shown behaviour.
might get influenced, because you are now There are other examples of social influence
in a social situation. Even imagining that that are in the form of observable behaviour.
people are listening to your recitation Two such examples are social facilitation/
(although they may not be physically inhibition, i.e. the improvement/decline in
present) may change your performance. performance in the presence of others, and
This is just one example that demonstrates helping, or pro-social behaviour, i.e.
how our social environment influences our responding to others who are in need or
thoughts, emotions and behaviour in distress. In order to understand completely
complex ways. Social psychologists examine how the social context influences the
various forms of social behaviour, and try individual, it is necessary to study both
to explain their basis. Because of social social-cognitive processes and social
influences, people form views, or attitudes behaviour. Social psychologists have shown
about people, and about different issues in that one must go beyond common sense
life, that exist in the form of behavioural and folk wisdom in order to explain how
tendencies. When we meet people, we make people observe and make sense of their own
inferences about their personal qualities. and others’ diverse behaviours. Through
This is called impression formation. We systematic and objective observations, and
are also interested in why people behave in by adopting scientific methods, it is possible

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Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition
to establish logical cause-and-ef fect these views are more than ‘opinions’; they
relationships that explain social behaviour. are examples of attitudes.
This chapter will give an account of the All definitions of attitudes agree that an
fundamental aspects of the topics attitude is a state of the mind, a set of views,
mentioned above. We will begin with a or thoughts, regarding some topic (called
description of attitudes. the ‘attitude object’), which have an
evaluative feature (positive, negative or
neutral quality). It is accompanied by an
NATURE AND COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES
emotional component, and a tendency to
For a few minutes quietly do the following act in a particular way with regard to the
mental exercise. Today, how many times did attitude object. The thought component is
you tell yourself : “In my opinion…” or referred to as the cognitive aspect, the
“Others may say so and so, but I feel…”? emotional component is known as the
What you fill in the blanks are called affective aspect, and the tendency to act
opinions. Now continue the exercise : how is called the behavioural (or conative)
important are these opinions to you? The aspect. Taken together, these three aspects
topics of some of these opinions may be only have been referred to as the A-B-C
moderately important to you; they are components (Af fective-Behavioural-
simply ways of thinking, and it does not Cognitive components) of attitude. Note that
matter much to you that others agree or attitudes are themselves not behaviour, but
disagree with your views. On the other they represent a tendency to behave or act
hand, you may find that some other topics in certain ways. They are part of cognition,
are extremely important to you. If someone along with an emotional component, and
opposes or challenges your views about cannot be observed from outside. Box 6.1
these topics, you get emotional. You may presents an example of an attitude towards
have made some of these views part of your the environment, showing the relationship
behaviour. In other words, if your views are between the three components.
not merely thoughts, but also have Attitudes have to be distinguished from
emotional and action components, then two other closely related concepts, namely,

Box
6.1 A ‘Green Environment’ : The A-B-C Components of an Attitude

Suppose a group of people in your neighbourhood start a tree plantation campaign as part
of a ‘green environment’ movement. Based on sufficient information about the environment,
your view towards a ‘green environment’ is positive (cognitive or ‘C’ component, along with
the evaluative aspect). You feel very happy when you see greenery. You feel sad and angry
when you see trees being cut down. These aspects reflect the affective (emotional), or ‘A’
component of the same attitude. Now suppose you also actively participate in the tree
plantation campaign. This shows the behavioural or ‘B’ component of your attitudes towards
a ‘green environment’. In general, we expect all three components to be consistent with
each other, that is, in the same direction. However, such consistency may not necessarily
be found in all situations. For example, it is quite possible that the cognitive aspect of your
‘green environment’ attitude is very strong, but the affective and behavioural components
may be relatively weaker. Or, the cognitive and affective components may be strong and
positive, but the behavioural component may be neutral. Therefore, predicting one
component on the basis of the other two may not always give us the correct picture about
an attitude.

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Psychology
beliefs and values. Beliefs refer to the allow for neutral attitudes. In this example,
cognitive component of attitudes, and form a neutral attitude towards nuclear research
the ground on which attitudes stand, such would be shown by a rating of 3 on the same
as belief in God, or belief in democracy as a scale. A neutral attitude would have neither
political ideology. Values are attitudes or positive nor negative valence.
beliefs that contain a ‘should’ or ‘ought’
Extremeness : The extremeness of an
aspect, such as moral or ethical values. One
attitude indicates how positive or negative
example of a value is the idea that one
an attitude is. Taking the nuclear
should work hard, or that one should
research example given above, a rating of
always be honest, because honesty is the
1 is as extreme as a rating of 5 : they are
best policy. Values are formed when a
only in the opposite directions (valence).
particular belief or attitude becomes an
Ratings of 2 and 4 are less extreme. A
inseparable part of the person’s outlook on
neutral attitude, of course, is lowest on
life. Consequently, values are difficult to
extremeness.
change.
What is the purpose served by an Simplicity or Complexity (multiplexity) :
attitude? We find that attitudes provide a This feature refers to how many attitudes
background that makes it easier for a there are within a broader attitude. Think
person to decide how to act in new of an attitude as a family containing several
situations. For example, our attitude ‘member’ attitudes. In case of various topics,
towards foreigners may indirectly provide such as health and world peace, people hold
a mental ‘layout’ or ‘blueprint’ for the way many attitudes instead of single attitude.
in which we should behave whenever we An attitude system is said to be ‘simple’ if it
meet one. contains only one or a few attitudes, and
In addition to the affective, cognitive and ‘complex’ if it is made up of many attitudes.
behavioural components, attitudes also Consider the example of attitude towards
have other properties. Four significant health and well-being. This attitude system
features of attitudes are : Valence (positivity is likely to consist of several ‘member’
or negativity), Extremeness, Simplicity or attitudes, such as one’s concept of physical
Complexity (multiplexity), and Centrality. and mental health, views about happiness
and well-being, and beliefs about how one
Valence (positivity or negativity) : The
should achieve health and happiness. By
valence of an attitude tells us whether an
contrast, the attitude towards a particular
attitude is positive or negative towards the
person is likely to consist of mainly one
attitude object. Suppose an attitude (say,
attitude. The multiple member-attitudes
towards nuclear research) has to be
within an attitude system should not be
expressed on a 5-point scale, ranging from
confused with the three components
1 (Very bad), 2 (Bad), 3 (Neutral — neither
described earlier. Each member attitude
good nor bad), and 4 (Good), to 5 (Very
that belongs to an attitude system also has
good). If an individual rates her/his view
A-B-C components.
towards nuclear research as 4 or 5, this is
clearly a positive attitude. This means that Centrality : This refers to the role of a
the person likes the idea of nuclear research particular attitude in the attitude system.
and thinks it is something good. On the An attitude with greater centrality would
other hand, if the rating is 1 or 2, the influence the other attitudes in the system
attitude is negative. This means that the much more than non-central (or peripheral)
person dislikes the idea of nuclear research, attitudes would. For example, in the
and thinks it is something bad. We also attitude towards world peace, a negative

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Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition
attitude towards high military expenditure • Learning attitudes by being rewarded or
may be present as a core or central attitude punished : If an individual is praised for
that influences all other attitudes in the showing a particular attitude, chances
multiple attitude system. are high that s/he will develop that
attitude further. For example, if a
ATTITUDE FORMATION AND CHANGE teenager does yogasanas regularly, and
gets the honour of being ‘Miss Good
Attitude Formation Health’ in her school, she may develop
a positive attitude towards yoga and
One important question that psychologists health in general. Similarly, if a child
are interested in answering is : how are constantly falls ill because s/he eats
attitudes formed? Like many other thoughts junk food instead of proper meals, then
and concepts that develop and become part the child is likely to develop a negative
of our cognitive system, attitudes towards attitude towards junk food, and also a
different topics, things and people also are positive attitude towards eating healthy
formed as we interact with others. However, food.
there are specific conditions that lead to the • Learning attitudes through modelling
formation of specific attitudes. (observing others) : Often it is not
In general, attitudes are lear ned through association, or through reward
through one’s own experiences, and and punishment, that we lear n
through interaction with others. There are attitudes. Instead, we learn them by
a few research studies that show some sort observing others being rewarded or
of inborn aspect of attitudes, but such punished for expressing thoughts, or
genetic factors influence attitudes only showing behaviour of a particular kind
indirectly, along with learning. Therefore, towards the attitude object. For
most social psychologists have focused on example, children may form a respectful
the conditions which lead to the learning attitude towards elders, by observing
of attitudes. that their parents show respect for
elders, and are appreciated for it.
Process of Attitude Formation • Learning attitudes through group or
The processes and conditions of learning cultural norms : Very often, we learn
may be different, resulting in varying attitudes through the norms of our
attitudes among people. group or culture. Norms are unwritten
• Learning attitudes by association : You rules about behaviour that everyone is
might have seen that students often supposed to show under specific
develop a liking for a particular subject circumstances. Over time, these norms
because of the teacher. This is because may become part of our social cognition,
they see many positive qualities in that in the form of attitudes. Learning
teacher; these positive qualities get attitudes through group or cultural
linked to the subject that s/he teaches, norms may actually be an example of
and ultimately get expressed in the form all three forms of learning described
of liking for the subject. In other words, above — learning through association,
a positive attitude towards the subject reward or punishment, and modelling.
is lear ned through the positive For example, offering money, sweets,
association between a teacher and a fruit and flowers in a place of worship is
student. a normative behaviour in some religions.

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Psychology
When individuals see that such groups. Their influence is noticeable
behaviour is shown by others, is especially during the beginning of
expected and socially approved, they adolescence, at which time it is
may ultimately develop a positive important for the individual to feel that
attitude towards such behaviour and the s/he belongs to a group. Therefore, the
associated feelings of devotion. role of reference groups in attitude
• Lear ning through exposure to formation may also be a case of learning
information : Many attitudes are learned through reward and punishment.
in a social context, but not necessarily 3. Personal Experiences : Many attitudes
in the physical presence of others. are for med, not in the family
Today, with the huge amount of environment or through reference
information that is being provided groups, but through direct personal
through various media, both positive experiences which bring about a drastic
and negative attitudes are being formed. change in our attitude towards people
By reading the biographies of self- and our own life. Here is a real-life
actualised persons, an individual may example. A driver in the army went
develop a positive attitude towards hard through a personal experience that
work and other aspects as the means of transformed his life. On one mission, he
achieving success in life. narrowly escaped death although all his
companions got killed. Wondering about
Factors that Influence Attitude Formation the purpose of his own life, he gave up
The following factors provide the context for his job in the army, returned to his
the learning of attitudes through the native village in Maharashtra, and
processes described above. worked actively as a community leader.
Through a purely personal experience
1. Family and School Environment : this individual evolved a strong positive
Particularly in the early years of life, attitude towards community upliftment.
parents and other family members play His efforts completely changed the face
a significant role in shaping attitude of his village.
for mation. Later, the school
environment becomes an important 4. Media-related Influences : Technological
background for attitude formation. advances in recent times have made
Learning of attitudes within the family audio-visual media and the Internet very
and school usually takes place by powerful sources of information that
association, through rewards and lead to attitude formation and change.
In addition, school level textbooks also
punishments, and through modelling.
influence attitude formation. These
2. Reference Groups : Reference groups sources first strengthen the cognitive
indicate to an individual the norms and affective components of attitudes,
regarding acceptable behaviour and and subsequently may also affect the
ways of thinking. Thus, they reflect behavioural component. The media can
learning of attitudes through group or exert both good and bad influences on
cultural norms. Attitudes towards attitudes. On one hand, the media and
various topics, such as political, Internet make people better informed
religious and social groups, than other modes of communication. On
occupations, national and other issues the other hand, there may be no check
are often developed through reference on the nature of information being

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Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition
gathered, and therefore no control over between the P-O attitude, O-X attitude, and
the attitudes that are being formed, or P-X attitude. This is because imbalance is
the direction of change in the existing logically uncomfortable. Therefore, the
attitudes. The media can be used to attitude changes in the direction of balance.
create consumerist attitudes where Imbalance is found when (i) all three
none existed, and can also be harnessed sides of the P-O-X triangle are negative, or
to create positive attitudes to facilitate (ii) two sides are positive, and one side is
social harmony. negative. Balance is found when (i) all three
sides are positive, or (ii) two sides are
Attitude Change negative, and one side is positive.
During the process of attitude formation, Consider the example of dowry as an
and also after this process, attitudes may attitude topic (X). Suppose a person (P) has
be changed and modified through various a positive attitude towards dowry (P-X
influences. Some attitudes change more positive). P is planning to get his son
than others do. Attitudes that are still in married to the daughter of some person (O)
the formative stage, and are more like who has a negative attitude towards dowry
opinions, are much more likely to change (O-X negative). What would be the nature
compared to attitudes that have become of the P-O attitude, and how would it
firmly established, and have become a part determine balance or imbalance in the
of the individual’s values. From a practical situation? If O initially has a positive
point of view, bringing about a change in attitude towards P, the situation would be
people’s attitudes is of interest to unbalanced. P-X is positive, O-P is positive,
community leaders, politicians, producers but O-X is negative. That is, there are two
of consumer goods, advertisers, and others. positives and one negative in the triangle.
Unless we find out how attitudes change, This is a situation of imbalance. One of the
and what conditions account for such three attitudes will therefore have to
change, it would not be possible to take change. This change could take place in the
steps to bring about attitude change. P-X relationship (P starts disliking dowry
as a custom), or in the O-X relationship (O
Process of Attitude Change starts liking dowry as a custom), or in the
O-P relationship (O starts disliking P). In
Three major concepts that draw attention short, an attitude change will have to take
to some important processes in attitude place so that there will be three positive
change are described below : relationships, or two negative and one
(a) The concept of balance, proposed by positive relationship, in the triangle.
Fritz Heider is sometimes described in the (b) The concept of cognitive dissonance
for m of the ‘P-O-X’ triangle, which was proposed by Leon Festinger. It
represents the relationships between three emphasises the cognitive component. Here
aspects or components of the attitude. P is the basic idea is that the cognitive
the person whose attitude is being studied, components of an attitude must be
O is another person, and X is the topic ‘consonant’ (opposite of ‘dissonant’), i.e.,
towards which the attitude is being studied they should be logically in line with each
(attitude object). It is also possible that all other. If an individual finds that two
three are persons. cognitions in an attitude are dissonant,
The basic idea is that an attitude then one of them will be changed in
changes if there is a state of imbalance the direction of consonance. For example,

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Psychology
think about the following ideas attitude, or attitude system, must be in the
(‘cognitions’) : same direction. Each element should
Cognition I : Pan masala causes logically fall in line with other elements. If
mouth cancer which is fatal. this does not happen, then the person
Cognition II : I eat pan masala. experiences a kind of mental discomfort, i.e.
Holding these two ideas or cognitions the sense that ‘something is not quite right’
will make any individual feel that something in the attitude system. In such a state, some
is ‘out of tune’, or dissonant, in the attitude aspect in the attitude system changes in
towards pan masala. Therefore, one of these the direction of consistency, because our
ideas will have to be changed, so that cognitive system requires logical
consonance can be attained. In the example consistency.
given above, in order to remove or reduce (c) The two-step concept was proposed by
the dissonance, I will stop eating pan S.M. Mohsin, an Indian psychologist.
masala (change Cognition II). This would According to him, attitude change takes
be the healthy, logical and sensible way of place in the form of two steps. In the first
reducing dissonance. step, the target of change identifies with the
Festinger and Carlsmith, two social source. The ‘target’ is the person whose
psychologists, conducted an experiment attitude is to be changed. The ‘source’ is
that showed how cognitive dissonance the person through whose influence the
works (see Box 6.2). change is to take place. Identification
Both balance and cognitive dissonance means that the target has liking and regard
are examples of cognitive consistency. for the source. S/he puts herself/himself
Cognitive consistency means that two in the place of the target, and tries to feel
components, aspects or elements of the like her/him. The source must also have a

Telling a Lie for Twenty Dollars Box


6.2
After participating in a very boring experiment, a group of students were asked to tell
another group of students waiting outside that the experiment was very interesting. For
telling this lie to the waiting students, half of the first group of students was paid $ 1, and
the other half were paid $ 20. After some weeks, the participants of the boring experiment
were asked to recall the experiment, and to say how interesting they had found that
experiment to be. The responses showed that the $ 1 group described the experiment as
more interesting than the $ 20 group. The explanation was : the $ 1 students changed
their attitude towards the experiment because they experienced cognitive dissonance.
In the $ 1 group,
The initial cognitions would be : The changed cognitions would be:
(Dissonant cognitions) (Dissonance reduced)
“The experiment was very boring” ; “The experiment was actually interesting” ;
“I told the waiting students that it “I told the waiting students that it was
was interesting”; interesting” ;
“I told a lie for only $ 1.” “I would not have told a lie for only $ 1.”

The $ 20 group did not experience cognitive dissonance. So, they did not change their
attitude towards the experiment, and rated it as very boring.
The cognitions in the $ 20 (No dissonance) group would be :
“The experiment was very boring”;
“I told the waiting students that it was interesting”;
“I told a lie because I was paid $ 20.”

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Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition
positive attitude towards the target, and the central attitudes are more difficult to change
regard and attraction becomes mutual. In than the less extreme, and peripheral (less
the second step, the source herself/himself significant) attitudes are. Simple attitudes
shows an attitude change, by actually are easier to change than multiple
changing her/him behaviour towards the attitudes are.
attitude object. Observing the source’s In addition, one must also consider the
changed attitude and behaviour, the target direction and extent of attitude change. An
also shows an attitude change through attitude change may be congruent — it may
behaviour. This is a kind of imitation or change in the same direction as the existing
observational learning. attitude (for example, a positive attitude
Consider the following example of two- may become more positive, or a negative
step attitude change. Preeti reads in the attitude may become more negative). For
newspapers that a particular soft drink that instance, suppose a person has a somewhat
she enjoys is extremely harmful. But Preeti positive attitude towards empowerment of
sees that her favourite sportsperson has women. Reading about a successful woman
been advertising the same soft drink. She may make this attitude more positive. This
has identified herself with the sportsperson, would be a congruent change. On the other
and would like to imitate her/him. Now, hand, an attitude change may be
suppose the sportsperson wishes to change incongruent — it may change in a direction
people’s attitude towards this soft drink opposite to the existing attitude (for example,
from positive to negative. The sportsperson a positive attitude becomes less positive, or
must first show positive feelings for her/ negative, or a negative attitude becomes less
his fans, and then actually change her/his negative, or positive). In the example just
own habit of consuming that soft drink given, after reading about successful women,
(Step I) — perhaps by substituting it with a a person may think that women might soon
health drink. If the sportsperson actually become too powerful, and neglect their
changes her/his behaviour, it is very likely family responsibilities. This may make the
that now Preeti will also change her attitude person’s existing positive attitude towards
and behaviour, and stop consuming the empowerment of women, less positive, or
harmful soft drink (Step II). even negative. If this happens, then it would
be a case of incongruent change. It has been
Factors that Influence Attitude Change found that, in general, congruent changes
Whether attitudes will change, and if so, to are easier to bring about than are the
incongruent changes in attitudes.
what extent, is a question that puzzles many
Moreover, an attitude may change in the
psychologists. However, most of them agree
direction of the information that is
upon the following major factors that
presented, or in a direction opposite to that
influence attitude change :
of the information presented. Posters
• Characteristics of the existing attitude : describing the importance of brushing one’s
All four properties of attitudes mentioned teeth would strengthen a positive attitude
earlier, namely, valence (positivity or towards dental care. But if people are shown
negativity), extremeness, simplicity or frightening pictures of dental cavities, they
complexity (multiplexity), and centrality may not believe the pictures, and may
or significance of the attitude, determine become less positive about dental care.
attitude change. In general, positive Research has found that fear sometimes
attitudes are easier to change than negative works well in convincing people but if a
attitudes are. Extreme attitudes, and message generates too much fear, it turns

114
Psychology
off the receiver and has little persuasive • Message characteristics : The message
effect. is the information that is presented in order
• Source characteristics : Source to bring about an attitude change. Attitudes
credibility and attractiveness are two will change when the amount of information
features that affect attitude change. that is given about the topic is just enough,
Attitudes are more likely to change when neither too much nor too little. Whether the
the message comes from a highly credible message contains a rational or an
source rather than from a low-credible emotional appeal, also makes a difference.
source. For example, adults who are For example, an advertisement for cooking
planning to buy a laptop are more convinced food in a pressure cooker may point out
by a computer engineer who points out the that this saves fuel such as cooking gas
special features of a particular brand of (LPG) and is economical (rational appeal).
laptop, than they would be by a schoolchild Alternatively, the advertisement may say
who might give the same information. But, that pressure-cooking preserves nutrition,
if the buyers are themselves schoolchildren, and that if one cares for the family, nutrition
they may be convinced more by another would be a major concern (emotional
schoolchild advertising a laptop than they appeal) (see Figure 6.2).
would be by a professional giving the same The motives activated by the message
information (see Figure 6.1). In the case of also deter mine attitude change. For
some products such as cars, sales may example, drinking milk may be said to
increase if they are publicised, not make a person healthy and good-looking,
necessarily by experts, but by popular or more energetic and more successful at
public figures. one’s job.

My laptop is my key
to success — 100 GB
storage capacity, My laptop is my key
light in weight, can to success — 100 GB
do wonders for me !! storage capacity,
Buy one now, and light in weight, can
see how you grow !! do wonders for me !!
Buy one now, and
see how you grow !!

Picture A Picture B

Fig.6.1 : Which Picture will Make You More Eager to Buy a Laptop – Picture A, or Picture B ? Why?

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Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition
Rational appeal Emotional appeal
(saving money) (caring for your family)

Are you spending too If you care for your


much on cooking gas? family, nothing is
Switch to the pressure more important than
cooker, and say nutrition. Switch to
goodbye to your the pressure cooker,
budget problems! and ensure healthy
eating!

Fig.6.2 : Rational and Emotional Appeals

Finally, the mode of spreading letters and pamphlets, or even through


the message plays a significant role. mass media. For example, a positive
Face-to-face transmission of the message attitude towards Oral Rehydration Salts
is usually more effective than indirect (ORS) for young children is more effectively
transmission, as for instance, through created if community social workers and

“ORS will
protect
your child
“ORS will
from heat
protect your
in the
child from
summer”
heat in the
summer”

Fig.6.3 : Face-to-face Interaction versus Media Transmission. Which one works better? Why?

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Psychology
doctors spread the message by talking to • the person’s behaviour is not being
people directly, than by only describing the watched or evaluated by others, and
benefits of ORS on the radio (see Figure 6.3). • the person thinks that the behaviour
These days transmission through visual would have a positive consequence, and
media such as television and the Internet therefore, intends to engage in that
are similar to face-to-face interaction, but behaviour.
not a substitute for the latter.
In the days when Americans were said
• Target characteristics : Qualities of the to be prejudiced against the Chinese,
target, such as persuasibility, strong Richard LaPiere, an American social
prejudices, self-esteem, and intelligence psychologist, conducted the following
influence the likelihood and extent of study. He asked a Chinese couple to travel
attitude change. People, who have a more across the United States, and stay in
open and flexible personality, change more different hotels. Only once during these
easily. Advertisers benefit most from such occasions they were refused service by one
people. People with strong prejudices are of the hotels. Sometime later, LaPiere sent
less prone to any attitude change than those out questionnaires to managers of hotels
who do not hold strong prejudices. Persons and tourist homes in the same areas where
who have a low self-esteem, and do not have the Chinese couple had travelled, asking
sufficient confidence in themselves, change them if they would give accommodation to
their attitudes more easily than those who Chinese guests. A very large percentage said
are high on self-esteem. More intelligent that they would not do so. This response
people may change their attitudes less easily showed a negative attitude towards the
than those with lower intelligence. However, Chinese, which was inconsistent with the
sometimes more intelligent persons change positive behaviour that was actually shown
their attitudes more willingly than less towards the travelling Chinese couple.
intelligent ones, because they base their Thus, attitudes may not always predict
attitude on more information and thinking. actual pattern of one’s behaviour.
Attitude-Behaviour Relationship
We usually expect behaviour to follow Cut out an advertisement from a Activity
newspaper or magazine, that 6.1
logically from attitudes. However, an contains something special and
individual’s attitudes may not always be catches your attention. Write down
exhibited through behaviour. Likewise, the following details about that
one’s actual behaviour may be contrary to advertisement, and present it to your
one’s attitude towards a particular topic. class.
Psychologists have found that there • The topic of the advertisement
(for example, whether the
would be consistency between attitudes and advertisement is about a
behaviour when : consumer product, some food, a
• the attitude is strong, and occupies a company, a health matter, a
central place in the attitude system, national theme, etc.).
• Good and bad consequences of
• the person is aware of her/his attitude, the advertisement.
• there is very little or no external pressure • Whether it contains an emotional
for the person to behave in a particular appeal or a rational appeal.
way. For example, when there is no • Whether it contains a popular
figure : an expert source, or a
group pressure to follow a particular
well-liked person.
norm,

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Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition
Sometimes it is behaviour that decides Prejudices can exist without being
the attitude. In the experiment by Festinger shown in the form of discrimination.
and Carlsmith (see Box 6.2), students who Similarly, discrimination can be shown
got only one dollar for telling others that without prejudice. Yet, the two go together
the experiment was interesting, discovered very often. Wherever prejudice and
that they liked the experiment. That is, on discrimination exist, conflicts are very
the basis of their behaviour (telling others likely to arise between groups within the
that the experiment was interesting, for only same society. Our own society has
a small amount of money), they concluded witnessed many deplorable instances of
that their attitude towards the experiment discrimination, with and without prejudice,
was positive (“I would not have told a lie for based on gender, religion, community,
this small amount of money, which means caste, physical handicap, and illnesses such
that the experiment was actually as AIDS. Moreover, in many cases
interesting”). discriminatory behaviour can be curbed by
law. But, the cognitive and emotional
components of prejudice are more difficult
PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION to change.
Prejudices are examples of attitudes Social psychologists have shown that
towards a particular group. They are prejudice has one or more of the following
usually negative, and in many cases, may sources :
be based on stereotypes (the cognitive • Lear ning : Like other attitudes,
component) about the specific group. As will prejudices can also be learned through
association, reward and punishment,
be discussed below in the section on social
observing others, group or cultural
cognition, a stereotype is a cluster of ideas
norms and exposure to information that
regarding the characteristics of a specific
encourages prejudice. The family,
group. All members belonging to this
reference groups, personal experiences
group are assumed to possess these
and the media may play a role in the
characteristics. Often, stereotypes consist
learning of prejudices (see section on
of undesirable characteristics about the
‘Attitude Formation and Change’).
target group, and they lead to negative
People who learn prejudiced attitudes
attitudes or prejudices towards members
may develop a ‘prejudiced personality’,
of specific groups. The cognitive component
and show low adjusting capacity,
of prejudice is frequently accompanied by
anxiety, and feelings of hostility against
dislike or hatred, the affective component. the outgroup.
Prejudice may also get translated into • A strong social identity and ingroup bias :
discrimination, the behavioural component, Individuals who have a strong sense of
whereby people behave in a less positive social identity and have a very positive
way towards a particular target group attitude towards their own group boost
compared to another group which they this attitude by holding negative
favour. History contains numerous attitudes towards other groups. These
examples of discrimination based on race are shown as prejudices.
and social class or caste. The genocide • Scapegoating : This is a phenomenon by
committed by the Nazis in Germany against which the majority group places the
Jewish people is an extreme example of how blame on a minority outgroup for its own
prejudice can lead to hatred, discrimination social, economic or political problems.
and mass killing of innocent people. The minority is too weak or too small in

118
Psychology
number to defend itself against such tackling the problem of a strong ingroup
accusations. Scapegoating is a group- bias.
based way of expressing frustration, and • Increasing intergroup contact allows for
it often results in negative attitudes or direct communication, removal of
prejudice against the weaker group. mistrust between the groups, and even
• Kernel of truth concept : Sometimes discovery of positive qualities in the
people may continue to hold stereotypes outgroup. However, these strategies are
because they think that, after all, there successful only if :
must be some truth, or ‘kernel of truth’ - the two groups meet in a cooperative
in what everyone says about the other rather than competitive context,
group. Even a few examples are - close interactions between the
sufficient to support the ‘kernel of truth’ groups helps them to know each
idea. other better, and
• Self-fulfilling prophecy : In some cases, - the two groups are not different in
the group that is the target of prejudice power or status.
is itself responsible for continuing the • Highlighting individual identity rather
prejudice. The target group may behave than group identity, thus weakening the
in ways that justify the prejudice, that importance of group (both ingroup and
outgroup) as a basis of evaluating the
is, confirm the negative expectations.
other person. More details about social
For example, if the target group is
identity and intergroup conflict have
described as ‘dependent’ and therefore
been presented in the next chapter on
unable to make progress, the members
Social Influence and Group Processes.
of this target group may actually behave
in a way that proves this description to
be true. In this way, they strengthen SOCIAL COGNITION
the existing prejudice.
‘Cognition’ refers to all those mental
processes that deal with obtaining and
STRATEGIES FOR HANDLING PREJUDICE processing of information. Extending this
idea to the social world, the term ‘social
Knowing about the causes or sources would cognition’ refers to all those psychological
be the first step in handling prejudice. Thus, processes that deal with the gathering and
the strategies for handling prejudice would processing of information related to social
be effective if they aim at : objects. These include all the processes that
(a) minimising opportunities for learning help in understanding, explaining and
prejudices, interpreting social behaviour.
(b) changing such attitudes, The processing of information related to
(c) de-emphasising a narrow social identity social objects (particularly individuals,
based on the ingroup, and groups, people, relationships, social issues,
(d) discouraging the tendency towards self- and the like) differs from the processing of
fulfilling prophecy among the victims of information related to physical objects.
prejudice. People as social objects may themselves
These goals can be accomplished change as the cognitive process takes place.
through : For instance, a teacher who observes a
• Education and infor mation student in school may draw conclusions
dissemination, for correcting stereotypes about her/him that are quite different from
related to specific target groups, and the conclusions drawn by the student’s

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Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition
mother, who observes her/him at home. The The inferences you have drawn are not the
student may show a difference in her/his result of your logical thinking or direct
behaviour, depending on who is watching experience, but are based on pre-conceived
her/him — the teacher or the mother. ideas about a particular group. The next
Social cognition is guided by mental units time you actually meet a member of
called schemas. group G, your impression of this person,
and your behaviour towards her/him will
be influenced by your stereotype. It was
SCHEMAS AND STEREOTYPES
mentioned earlier that stereotypes provide
A schema is defined as a mental structure fertile ground for the growth of prejudices
that provides a framework, set of rules or and biases against specific groups. But
guidelines for processing information about prejudices can also develop without
any object. Schemas (or ‘schemata’) are the stereotypes.
basic units stored in our memory, and
function as shorthand ways of processing IMPRESSION FORMATION AND EXPLAINING
information, thus reducing the time and BEHAVIOUR OF OTHERS THROUGH
mental effort required in cognition. In the
ATTRIBUTIONS
case of social cognition, the basic units are
social schemas. Some attitudes may also Every social interaction begins with the
function like social schemas. We use many formation of an impression about the
different schemas, and come to know about person(s) we meet. Public figures and
them through analysis and examples. applicants appearing for job interviews are
Most of the schemas are in the form of good examples that show it is very
categories or classes. Schemas that important to ‘make a good impression’ on
function in the form of categories are called others. The process of coming to know a
prototypes, which are the entire set of person can be broadly divided into
features or qualities that help us to define two parts : (a) Impression formation, and
an object completely. In social cognition, (b) Attribution.
category-based schemas that are related to The person who forms the impression
groups of people are called stereotypes. is called the perceiver. The individual
These are category-based schemas that are about whom the impression is formed is
overgeneralised, are not directly verified, called the target. The perceiver gathers
and do not allow for exceptions. For infor mation, or responds to a given
example, suppose you have to define a information, about the qualities of the
group G. If you have never directly known target, organises this information, and
or interacted with a member of this group, draws inferences about the target.
you will most likely use your ‘general In attribution, the perceiver goes further,
knowledge’ about the typical member of and explains why the target behaved in a
group G. To that information you will add particular way. Attaching or assigning a
your likes and dislikes. If you have heard cause for the target’s behaviour is the main
more positive things about group G, then idea in attribution. Often perceivers may
your social schema about the whole group form only an impression about the target,
will be more positive than negative. On the but if the situation requires it, they may
other hand, if you have heard more negative also make attributions to the target.
things about group G, your social schema Impression formation and attribution are
will be in the form of a negative stereotype. influenced by :

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Psychology
• the nature of information available to if we are told that a person is ‘tidy’ and
the perceiver, ‘punctual’, we are likely to think that
• social schemas in the perceiver this person must also be ‘hard-working’.
(including stereotypes),
• personality characteristics of the Activity
This exercise will help you to see the
perceiver, and factors in impression formation. You 6.2
• situational factors. will need two participants, a girl and
a boy (who are not students in your
Impression Formation class, and who have not read about
this topic).
The following aspects have been found in Give the following instruction to
impression formation : the participants. For the female
• The process of impression formation participant, please write a male name
consists of the following three sub- in the blank. For the male participant,
processes : please write a female name.
“_________ is a hard-working
(a) Selection : we take into account only student. In your opinion, which of the
some bits of information about the following qualities would also be
target person, found in this student? Please
(b) Organisation : the selected underline all those qualities.”
infor mation is combined in a Intelligent Helpful Selfish
systematic way, and Friendly Punctual Dishonest
Nervous Hot-tempered
(c) Inference : we draw a conclusion See (a) what qualities have been
about what kind of person the chosen?, and (b) whether there is a
target is. difference between the female and
• Some specific qualities influence the male participants?
impression formation more than other
traits do.
• The order or sequence in which Attribution of Causality
information is presented affects the kind After forming an impression, we often go
of impression formed. Mostly, the through the process of assigning causes to
information presented first has a a person’s behaviour. This is also a
stronger effect than the information systematic process, as indicated by the
presented at the end. This is called the researches done on attribution. The
primacy effect (first impressions are the following aspects of attribution have been
lasting impressions). However, if the found.
perceiver may be asked to pay attention • When we assign a cause to a person’s
to all the information, and not merely behaviour, we can broadly classify the
to the first information, whatever cause as being internal — something
information comes at the end may have within the person, or external —
a stronger influence. This is known as something outside the person. For
the recency effect. example, if we see a person A hitting
• We have a tendency to think that a target another person B, as observers we may
person who has one set of positive explain the hitting behaviour by saying
qualities must also be having other that (i) A hit B because A is a hot-
specific positive qualities that are tempered person, which is an internal
associated with the first set. This is (personality-related) cause, or that (ii) A
known as the halo effect. For example, hit B because B behaved in a nasty way,

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Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition
which is an exter nal, situational his own positive and negative experiences
cause. (actor-role), and the attribution made for
• When people make attributions for another person’s positive and negative
success and failure, the causes they give experiences (observer-role). This is called
can be classified into internal or external the actor-observer effect. For example,
factors, and also into stable or unstable if you yourself get good marks in a test,
factors. Bernard Wiener suggested you will attribute it to your own ability
a classification which is shown in or hard work (actor -role, internal
Figure 6.4. Stable factors refer to those attribution for a positive experience). If
causes that do not change with time, you get bad marks, you will say that this
while unstable factors are those that do was because you were unlucky, or that
change. the test was too difficult (actor-role,
• In making attributions, there is an external attribution for a negative
overall tendency for people to give experience). On the other hand, if one
greater weightage to inter nal or of your classmates gets good marks in
dispositional factors, than to external or the test, you will attribute her/his
situational factors. This is called the success to good luck or an easy test
fundamental attribution error. This (observer-role, external attribution for
tendency is stronger in some cultures a positive experience). If the same
than it is in others. For instance, classmate gets bad marks, you are likely
research shows that Indians tend to to say that her/his failure was because
make more exter nal (situational) of low ability or lack of effort (observer-
attributions than Americans do. role, internal attribution for a negative
• There is a difference between the experience). The basic reason for the
attribution made for success, and the dif ference between the actor and
attribution made for failure. In general, observer roles is that people want to
people attribute success to internal have a nice image of themselves, as
factors, such as their ability or hard compared to others.
work. They attribute failure to external So far in this chapter, we have
factors, such as bad luck, the difficulty highlighted the cognitive, or thought-related
of the task, and so on. aspects of social behaviour. Let us now
• A distinction is also found between the examine some aspects of actual behaviour
attribution that a person makes for her/ that can be observed from outside.

Fig.6.4 : Wiener’s Classification of Causal Factors

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Psychology
BEHAVIOUR IN THE PRESENCE OF OTHERS fear of criticism or punishment is
stronger. So the individual performs
One of the first observations made about worse in the presence of others than
social behaviour was that performance on s/he does when alone.
specific tasks is influenced by the mere • If the others present are also performing
presence of others. This is called social the same task, this is called a situation
facilitation. For example, Reena is about of co-action. In this situation, there is
to participate in a music contest. She is very social comparison and competition.
talented, yet she is feeling very nervous Once again, when the task is simple or
about the event. If you were in Reena’s a familiar one, performance is better
place, would you perform better in front of under co-action than when the person
an audience, or when you are alone? As is alone.
early as 1897, Norman Triplett observed In short, task performance can be
that individuals show better performance facilitated and improved, or inhibited and
in the presence of others, than when they worsened by the presence of others. Many
are performing the same task alone. For other kinds of social influence have been
instance, cyclists racing with each other noticed. For example, if we are working
perform better than when they cycle alone. together in a group, the larger the group,
With time more details came to be known the less effort each member puts in. This
about this phenomenon.
• Better performance in the presence of
others is because the person experiences Consider these two situations : Activity
arousal, which makes the person react Situation X. A person is performing a 6.3
in a more intense manner. This solo dance in front of an audience.
explanation was given by Zajonc (this Situation Y. A person is running in a
race with five other athletes.
name is pronounced to rhyme with
Which of the following factors is
‘science’). present in Situation Y, but not in
• The arousal is because the person feels Situation X?
she or he is being evaluated. Cottrell (a) Arousal
called this idea evaluation (b) Evaluation apprehension
apprehension. The person will be (c) Competition
(d) Difficult task
praised if the performance is good
Based on the given situations,
(reward), or criticised if it is bad choose the correct alternative.
(punishment). We wish to get praise and In the presence of an audience,
avoid criticism, therefore we try to evaluation apprehension leads to :
perform well and avoid mistakes. A. Improvement in
• The nature of the task to be performed performance of both
also affects the performance in the familiar and new tasks. Yes No
B. Decline in
presence of others. For example, in the performance of both
case of a simple or familiar task, the familiar and new tasks. Yes No
person is more sure of performing well, C. Improvement in
and the eagerness to get praise or reward performance of
is stronger. So the individual performs familiar tasks, and
better in the presence of others than decline in performance
of new tasks. Yes No
s/he does when alone. But in the case
D. Arousal, which leads
of a complex or new task, the person to C. Yes No
may be afraid of making mistakes. The

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Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition
phenomenon is called social loafing, based behaviour, people do not show such
on diffusion of responsibility. You will read behaviour very often. Immediately after the
about social loafing in the next chapter. Mumbai blasts on 11 July, 2006, the
Diffusion of responsibility, which is often community stepped forward to help the
the basis of social loafing, can also be blast victims in any way they could. By
frequently seen in situations where people contrast, on an earlier occasion, nobody
are expected to help. We will look into this came forward to help a girl on a moving
aspect and other factors in helping suburban train in Mumbai, when her purse
behaviour in the section that follows. was being snatched. The other passengers
did nothing to help, and the girl was thrown
out of the train. Even as the girl was lying
PRO-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
injured on the railway tracks, people living
Throughout the world, doing good to others in the buildings around the area did not
and being helpful is described as a virtue. come to help her.
All religions teach us that we should help The question then is : under what
those who are in need. This behaviour is conditions, and with what motives do people
called helping or pro-social behaviour. Pro- help others? Research on pro-social
social behaviour is very similar to ‘altruism’, behaviour has brought out several factors
which means doing something for or that affect pro-social behaviour.
thinking about the welfare of others without
any self-interest (in Latin ‘alter’ means Factors Influencing Pro-social Behaviour
‘other’, the opposite of ‘ego’ which means • Pro-social behaviour is based on an
‘self’). Some common examples of pro-social inborn, natural tendency in human
behaviour are sharing things, cooperating beings to help other members of their
with others, helping during natural own species. This inborn tendency
calamities, showing sympathy, doing facilitates survival of the species.
favours to others, and making charitable • Pro-social behaviour is influenced by
donations. learning. Individuals who are brought
Pro-social behaviour has the following up in a family environment that sets
characteristics. It must : examples of helping others, emphasises
• aim to benefit or do good to another helping as a value, and praises
person or other persons, helpfulness, and showing more pro-
• be done without expecting anything in social behaviour than individuals who
return, are brought up in a family environment
• be done willingly by the person, and not devoid of these features.
because of any kind of pressure, and • Cultural factors influence pro-social
• involve some difficulty or ‘cost’ to the behaviour. Some cultures actively
person giving help. encourage people to help the needy and
For instance, if a rich person donates a distressed. In cultures that encourage
lot of money that is obtained illegally, with independence, individuals will show less
the idea that her/his photograph and name pro-social behaviour, because people are
will appear in the newspapers, this cannot expected to take care of themselves, and
be called ‘pro-social behaviour’ although the not to depend on help from others.
donation may do good to many people. Individuals in cultures suffering from a
In spite of the great value and shortage of resources may not show a
importance attached to pro-social high level of pro-social behaviour.

124
Psychology
• Pro-social behaviour is expressed when not get help because there are many
the situation activates certain social people standing around the scene of the
norms that require helping others. accident. Each person thinks that it is
Three norms have been mentioned in not her/his responsibility alone to give
the context of pro-social behaviour : help, and that someone else may take
(a) The norm of social responsibility : the responsibility. This phenomenon is
We should help anyone who needs called diffusion of responsibility. On
help, without considering any other the other hand, if there is only one
factor. bystander, this person is more likely to
(b) The norm of reciprocity : We should take the responsibility and actually help
help those persons who have helped the victim.
us in the past. In this chapter, you have learnt about
(c) The norm of equity : We should help the basic concepts of attitudes and social
others whenever we find that it is fair cognition, and got a glimpse of some forms
to do so. For example, many of us of social behaviour. In the next chapter, you
may feel that it is more fair to help a will read about the influence of groups on
person who has lost all belongings the individual.
in a flood, than to help a person who
has lost everything through A. Go to the school library with a pile Activity
gambling. of heavy books and other articles. 6.4
• Pro-social behaviour is affected by the Outside the library, at a convenient
expected reactions of the person who is point, when you find that (a) only
being helped. For example, people might one person (bystander) is present,
be unwilling to give money to a needy (b) more than one person
(bystanders) is present, drop the
person because they feel that the person
books and articles as though that
might feel insulted, or may become happened accidentally. Observe
dependent. the following :
• Pro-social behaviour is more likely to be (a) when there was only one
shown by individuals who have a high bystander, did that person
level of empathy, that is, the capacity come forward to help you to
pick up the fallen articles ?
to feel the distress of the person who is
(b) when there was more than one
to be helped, such as Baba Saheb Amte bystander, how many of them
and Mother Teresa. Pro-social behaviour came forward to help you to
is also more likely in situations that pick up the fallen articles?
arouse empathy, such as the picture of Have a detailed class discussion.
starving children in a famine. Go through some recent
• Pro-social behaviour may be reduced by newspapers and magazines. Collect at
least one report of bystanders giving
factors such as a bad mood, being busy help. Make sure you attach
with one’s own problems, or feeling that newspaper/ magazine clippings along
the person to be helped is responsible with the report. Discuss why the
for her/his own situation (that is, when bystanders gave help in the situation
an internal attribution is made for the that is described. You can also present
need state of the other person). descriptions about people you know
personally, who have helped others in
• Pro-social behaviour may also be
emergencies. Write a brief description
reduced when the number of bystanders of those reports and present them in
is more than one. For example, the your class.
victim of a road accident sometimes does

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Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition
Key Terms
Actor-observer effect, Arousal, Attitudes, Attribution, Balance, Beliefs, Centrality of attitude, Co-action,
Cognitive consistency, Cognitive dissonance, Congruent attitude change, Diffusion of responsibility,
Discrimination, Empathy, Evaluation apprehension, Extremeness of attitude, Fundamental attribution
error, Halo effect, Identification, Incongruent attitude change, Kernel of truth, Persuasibility, Prejudice,
Primacy effect, Pro-social behaviour, Prototype, Recency effect, Scapegoating, Schema, Self-fulfilling
prophecy, Simplicity or complexity (multiplexity) of attitude, Social facilitation, Social loafing, Stereotype,
Valence of attitude, Values.

• Human beings have a need to interact with and relate to others, and to explain their
own as well as others’ behaviour.
• People develop attitudes, or thoughts and behavioural tendencies, through learning
processes, family and school influences, reference groups and the media. Attitudes
have an affective, cognitive and behavioural component, and can be understood in
terms of valence, extremeness, simplicity or complexity (multiplexity) and centrality.
• Attitude change takes according to the balance concept, cognitive consonance and
the two-step concept. Attitude change is affected by characteristics of the source, the
target, and the message. Negative attitudes (prejudices) towards a group often create
conflicts within a society, and are expressed through discrimination, but there are
practical strategies for handling prejudice.
• The entire set of processes involved in understanding the social world around us is
called social cognition, which is guided by mental structures known as social schemas.
One kind of social schema, a stereotype, contains overgeneralised beliefs about a
particular group, often leads to and strengthens prejudices.
• Impression formation takes place in a systematic way, and exhibits effects such as
primacy and recency, and the halo effect.
• People also assign causes to their own and others’ behaviour, and to experiences
such as success and failure, by attributing internal or external causes. Attribution
shows effects such as the fundamental attribution error and actor-observer effect.
• Because of arousal and evaluation apprehension in the presence of others,
performance of familiar tasks may improve (social facilitation) and performance of
unfamiliar or new tasks may decline (social inhibition).
• People respond to others who are in need by helping them (pro-social behaviour),
but this is determined by several factors.

Review Questions
1. Define attitude. Discuss the components of an attitude.
2. Are attitudes learnt? Explain how?
3. What are the factors that influence the formation of an attitude?
4. Is behaviour always a reflection of one’s attitude? Explain with a relevant example.
5. Highlight the importance of schemas in social cognition.
6. Differentiate between prejudice and stereotype.
7. Prejudice can exist without discrimination and vice versa. Comment.
8. Describe the important factors that influence impression formation.
9. Explain how the attribution made by an ‘actor’ would be different from that of an
‘observer’.
10. How does social facilitation take place?
11. Explain the concept of pro-social behaviour.
12. Your friend eats too much junk food, how would you be able to bring about a change
in her/his attitude towards food?

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Psychology
Project 1. Attitudes Towards and Awareness of Waste Management : A Survey
Ideas The problem of household garbage (domestic waste) is common in most Indian cities.
The concern for a clean environment is increasing, but we do not know to what extent
citizens know how to dispose of the garbage that collects in their household. Along
with some of your classmates, conduct a survey in your own colony to find out what
people do about household garbage. Each student may visit two houses in their colony,
and ask the heads of the household the following questions. Their answers must be
written down.
1. What do you do with old newspapers, magazines, tins, and bottles ?
2. What do you do with plastic packets, and other plastic objects (for example, toys,
containers etc.)?
3. How do you dispose of kitchen waste (e.g., vegetable and fruit peels, used tea leaves
or tea-bags, left-over food that cannot be eaten etc.)?
4. How do you dispose of other used objects that contain chemical substances (e.g.
torch cells, used or damaged CDs, cassettes, insecticide and pesticide containers
etc.)?
5. Do you put all the garbage collected in your house everyday in the same place, or do
you put different kinds of garbage in separate dustbins/waste-baskets?
6. What happens to the garbage that is collected from your house and neighbourhood
and where is it taken?
7. What is the meaning of ‘recycling’?
8. What can you do (personally) to make your colony/neighbourhood more clean?
Compare the responses collected by all the students, and see what kind of attitudes
and awareness people show about waste management at the household level.

2. Interpersonal Judgment Exercise


The following exercise will help you to see how well you and your best friend know each
other.
For each quality listed below, give ratings for yourself (Column 1) and for your best
friend in your class (Column 2). Also ask your friend to do the same kind of rating, for
himself/herself (Column 1) and for you (Column 2). Use the following rating scale :
1 2 3 4 5
Very low Low Neither low High Very high
on the quality nor high on the quality

After you and your friend have completed the ratings, copy Column 2 ratings from
your friend’s sheet on your sheet, under Column 3. Compare Column 3 ratings with
Column 1 ratings in the case of each quality. Ask your friend to do the same task – that
is, copy Column 2 ratings from your sheet on her/his sheet, under Column 3, and
compare these ratings with her/his Column 1 ratings. Enter Column 3 minus
Column 1 under Column 4.
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4
You rate You rate Rating of you Column 3
yourself your friend by your friend minus Column 1
Friendly
Tense
Sincere
Pleasant
Open to new ideas
Examine the following. Are there any zeros in Column 4? On which quality is the
difference greatest? On which quality is the difference smallest (other than zero)?

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Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition
In general, have you given yourself a higher or lower rating than what your friend has given
you? Has your friend given herself/himself a higher or lower rating than what you have given
your friend? The sign of the difference (plus or minus) should be noted only to see the direction
of the difference.
The closer the ratings between Column 1 and Column 3 for both of you, the better you
know each other. You can also compare your Column 1 with your friend’s Column 1. The more
similar these two ratings are, the greater the similarity between you and your friend.

Weblinks
http://tip.psychology.org/attitude.html
http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/schema.htm
http://www.12manage.com/methods_heider_attribution_theory.html
http://www.answers.com/topic/social-facilitation

Pedagogical Hints
1. In the topic of attitudes, students
should be made to understand the
distinction between attitudes as
such (with the A-B-C components)
on one hand, and behaviour related
to the attitude, on the other.
2. To explain attitude change, students
may be encouraged to think of real-
life examples of attitude change, for
instance, attempts made by
advertisers to promote their
products through media. Then
discuss whether these attempts to
change attitude are actually
successful or not.
3. To enable students to understand
the relationships among schemas,
prototypes and prejudice, give
examples of how stereotypes, as
forms of prototypes, may lead to
prejudice.
4. In the topic of social cognition,
students should be able to
understand that impression
formation and attribution are basic
cognitive processes that help in
processing information about other
persons. The role of schemas has to
be emphasised in this context.
5. Social facilitation and pro-social
behaviour must be discussed as
aspects that highlight the
behavioural rather than cognitive
aspects of social life.

128
Psychology
Think about your day-to-day life and the various social interactions you
have. In the morning, before going to school, you interact with your family
members; in school, you discuss topics and issues with your teachers and
classmates; and after school you phone up, visit or play with your friends.
Introduction In each of these instances, you are part of a group which not only provides
you the needed support and comfort but also facilitates your growth and
development as an individual. Have you ever been away to a place where
you were without your family, school, and friends? How did you feel? Did
you feel there was something vital missing in your life?
Our lives are influenced by the nature of group membership we have. It
is, therefore, important to be part of groups which would influence us
positively and help us in becoming good citizens. In this chapter, we shall
try to understand what groups are and how they influence our behaviour.
At this point, it is also important to acknowledge that not only do others
influence us, but we, as individuals, are also capable of changing others
and the society. The benefits of cooperation and competition and how they
influence our personal and social lives will also be examined. We will also
see how identity develops — how we come to know ourselves. Similarly,
we would try to understand why sometimes group conflicts arise; examine
the perils of group conflict and apprise ourselves of various conflict resolution
strategies so that we are able to contribute towards making a harmonious
and cohesive society.

family, class and playgroup are examples


NATURE AND FORMATION OF GROUPS
of groups and are different from other
What is a Group? collections of people.
A group may be defined as an organised
The preceding introduction illustrates the system of two or more individuals, who are
importance of groups in our lives. One interacting and interdependent, who have
question that comes to mind is: “How are common motives, have a set of role
groups (e.g., your family, class, and the relationships among its members, and have
group with which you play) different from norms that regulate the behaviour of its
other collections of people?” For example, members.
people who have assembled to watch a Groups have the following salient
cricket match or your school function are characteristics :
at one place, but are not interdependent • A social unit consisting of two or more
on each other. They do not have defined individuals who perceive themselves
roles, status and expectations from each as belonging to the group. This
other. In the case of your family, class, and characteristic of the group helps in
the group with which you play, you distinguishing one group from the
will realise that there is mutual other and gives the group its unique
interdependence, each member has roles, identity.
there are status differentials, and there are • A collection of individuals who have
expectations from each other. Thus, your common motives and goals. Groups

130
Psychology
function either working towards a given is also a collection of people who may be
goal, or away from certain threats present at a place/situation by chance.
facing the group. Suppose you are going on the road and an
• A collection of individuals who are accident takes place. Soon a large number
interdependent, i.e. what one is doing of people tend to collect. This is an example
may have consequences for others. of a crowd. There is neither any structure
Suppose one of the fielders in a cricket nor feeling of belongingness in a crowd.
team drops an important catch during Behaviour of people in crowds is irrational
a match — this will have consequence and there is no interdependence among
for the entire team. members.
• Individuals who are trying to satisfy a Teams are special kinds of groups.
need through their joint association Members of teams often have comple-
also influence each other. mentary skills and are committed to a
• A gathering of individuals who interact common goal or purpose. Members are
with one another either directly or mutually accountable for their activities. In
indirectly. teams, there is a positive synergy attained
• A collection of individuals whose through the coordinated efforts of the
interactions are structured by a set of members. The main differences between
roles and norms. This means that the groups and teams are:
group members perform the same • In groups, performance is dependent
functions every time the group meets on contributions of individual
and the group members adhere to members. In teams, both individual
group norms. Norms tell us how we contributions and teamwork matter.
ought to behave in the group and • In groups, the leader or whoever is
specify the behaviours expected from heading the group holds responsibility
group members. for the work. However in teams,
Groups can be differentiated from other although there is a leader, members
collections of people. For example, a crowd hold themselves responsible.

Picture A Picture B

Fig.7.1 : Look at these Two Pictures


Picture A shows a football team — a group in which members interact with one another, have roles and
goals. Picture B depicts an audience watching the football match — a mere collection of people who by
some coincidence (may be their interest in football) happened to be in the same place at the same time.

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Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes
An audience is also a collection of • Satisfaction of one’s psychological
people who have assembled for a special and social needs : Groups satisfy one’s
purpose, may be to watch a cricket match social and psychological needs such as
or a movie. Audiences are generally passive sense of belongingness, giving and
but sometimes they go into a frenzy and receiving attention, love, and power
become mobs. In mobs, there is a definite through a group.
sense of purpose. There is polarisation in • Goal achievement : Groups help in
attention, and actions of persons are in a achieving such goals which cannot be
common direction. Mob behaviour is attained individually. There is power in
characterised by homogeneity of thought the majority.
and behaviour as well as impulsivity. • Provide knowledge and information :
Group membership provides knowledge
Why Do People Join Groups? and information and thus broadens our
All of you are members of your family, view. As individuals, we may not have
class and groups with which you interact all the required information. Groups
or play. Similarly, other people are also supplement this infor mation and
members of a number of groups at any knowledge.
given time. Dif ferent groups satisfy
Group Formation
different needs, and therefore, we are
simultaneously members of different In this section, we will see how groups are
groups. This sometimes creates pressures formed. Basic to group formation is some
for us because there may be competing contact and some form of interaction
demands and expectations. Most often we between people. This interaction is
are able to handle these competing facilitated by the following conditions:
demands and expectations. People join • Proximity : Just think about your
groups because these groups satisfy a group of friends. Would you have been
range of needs. In general, people join friends if you were not living in the
groups for the following reasons : same colony, or going to the same
• Security : When we are alone, we feel school, or may be playing in the same
insecure. Groups reduce this playground? Probably your answer
insecurity. Being with people gives a would be ‘No’. Repeated interactions
sense of comfort, and protection. As a with the same set of individuals give us
result, people feel stronger, and are less a chance to know them, and their
vulnerable to threats. interests and attitudes. Common
• Status : When we are members of a interests, attitudes, and background
group that is perceived to be important are important determinants of your
by others, we feel recognised and liking for your group members.
experience a sense of power. Suppose • Similarity : Being exposed to someone
your school wins in an inter - over a period of time makes us assess
institutional debate competition, you our similarities and paves the way for
feel proud and think that you are better formation of groups. Why do we like
than others. people who are similar? Psychologists
• Self-esteem : Groups provide feelings of have given several explanations for this.
self-worth and establish a positive social One explanation is that people prefer
identity. Being a member of prestigious consistency and like relationships that
groups enhances one’s self-concept. are consistent. When two people are

132
Psychology
similar, there is consistency and they group, the goal, and how it is to be
start liking each other. For example, achieved. People try to know each other
you like playing football and another and assess whether they will fit in.
person in your class also loves playing There is excitement as well as
football; there is a matching of your apprehensions. This stage is called the
interests. There are higher chances that forming stage.
you may become friends. Another • Often, after this stage, there is a stage
explanation given by psychologists is of intragroup conflict which is referred
that when we meet similar people, they to as storming. In this stage, there is
reinforce and validate our opinions and conflict among members about how the
values, we feel we are right and thus we target of the group is to be achieved,
start liking them. Suppose you are of who is to control the group and its
the opinion that too much watching of resources, and who is to perform what
television is not good, because it shows task. When this stage is complete, some
too much violence. You meet someone sort of hierarchy of leadership in the
who also has similar views. This group develops and a clear vision as to
validates your opinion, and you start how to achieve the group goal.
liking the person who was instrumental • The storming stage is followed by
in validating your opinion. another stage known as norming.
• Common motives and goals : When Group members by this time develop
people have common motives or goals, norms related to group behaviour. This
they get together and form a group leads to development of a positive group
which may facilitate their goal identity.
attainment. Suppose you want to teach • The fourth stage is performing. By this
children in a slum area who are unable time, the structure of the group has
to go to school. You cannot do this evolved and is accepted by group
alone because you have your own members. The group moves towards
achieving the group goal. For some
studies and homework. You, therefore,
groups, this may be the last stage of
form a group of like-minded friends and
group development.
start teaching these children. So you
• However, for some groups, for example,
have been able to achieve what you
in the case of an organising committee
could not have done alone.

Stages of Group Formation


Identifying Stages of Group Activity
Remember that, like everything else in life, Formation 7.1
groups develop. You do not become a
group member the moment you come Select 10 members from your class
randomly and form a committee to
together. Groups usually go through
plan an open house. See how they go
different stages of formation, conflict, ahead. Give them full autonomy to do
stabilisation, performance, and dismissal. all the planning. Other members of the
Tuckman suggested that groups pass class observe them as they function.
through five developmental sequences. Do you see any of these stages
These are: forming, storming, norming, emerging? Which were those? What
was the order of stages? Which stages
performing and adjourning.
were skipped?
• When group members first meet, there Discuss in the class.
is a great deal of uncertainty about the

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Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes
for a school function, there may be Four important elements of group
another stage known as adjourning structure are :
stage. In this stage, once the function • Roles are socially defined expectations
is over, the group may be disbanded. that individuals in a given situation are
expected to fulfil. Roles refer to the
However, it must be stated that all
typical behaviour that depicts a person
groups do not always proceed from one in a given social context. You have the
stage to the next in such a systematic role of a son or a daughter and with this
manner. Sometimes several stages go on role, there are certain role expectations,
simultaneously, while in other instances i.e. including the behaviour expected of
groups may go back and forth through the someone in a particular role. As a
various stages or they may just skip some daughter or a son, you are expected to
of the stages. respect elders, listen to them, and be
During the process of group formation, responsible towards your studies.
groups also develop a structure. We should • Norms are expected standards of
remember that group structure develops behaviour and beliefs established,
as members interact. Over time this agreed upon, and enforced by group
interaction shows regularities in members. They may be considered as
distribution of task to be performed, a group’s ‘unspoken rules’. In your
responsibilities assigned to members, and family, there are norms that guide the
the prestige or relative status of members. behaviour of family members. These

Box
7.1 Groupthink

Generally teamwork in groups leads to beneficial results. However, Irving Janis has suggested
that cohesion can interfere with effective leadership and can lead to disastrous decisions.
Janis discovered a process known as “groupthink” in which a group allows its concerns for
unanimity. They, in fact, “override the motivation to realistically appraise courses of action”.
It results in the tendency of decision makers to make irrational and uncritical decisions.
Groupthink is characterised by the appearance of consensus or unanimous agreement
within a group. Each member believes that all members agree upon a particular decision
or a policy. No one expresses dissenting opinion because each person believes it would
undermine the cohesion of the group and s/he would be unpopular. Studies have shown
that such a group has an exaggerated sense of its own power to control events, and tends
to ignore or minimise cues from the real world that suggest danger to its plan. In order to
preserve the group’s internal harmony and collective well-being, it becomes increasingly
out-of-touch with reality. Groupthink is likely to occur in socially homogenous, cohesive
groups that are isolated from outsiders, that have no tradition of considering alternatives,
and that face a decision with high costs or failures. Examples of several group decisions at
the international level can be cited as illustrations of groupthink phenomenon. These
decisions turned out to be major fiascos. The Vietnam War is an example. From 1964 to
1967, President Lyndon Johnson and his advisors in the U.S. escalated the Vietnam War
thinking that this would bring North Vietnam to the peace table. The escalation decisions
were made despite warnings. The grossly miscalculated move resulted in the loss of 56,000
American and more than one million Vietnamese lives and created huge budget deficits.
Some ways to counteract or prevent groupthink are: (i) encouraging and rewarding critical
thinking and even disagreement among group members, (ii) encouraging groups to present
alternative courses of action, (iii) inviting outside experts to evaluate the group’s decisions,
and (iv) encouraging members to seek feedback from trusted others.

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Psychology
nor ms represent shared ways of some are short-lived (e.g., a committee),
viewing the world. some remain together for many years (e.g.,
• Status refers to the relative social religious groups), some are highly
position given to group members by organised (e.g., army, police, etc.), and
others. This relative position or status others are informally organised (e.g.,
may be either ascribed (given may be spectators of a match). People may belong
because of one’s seniority) or achieved to different types of group. Major types of
(the person has achieved status groups are enumerated below :
because of expertise or hard work). By • primary and secondary groups
being members of the group, we enjoy • formal and informal groups
the status associated with that group. • ingroup and outgroup.
All of us, therefore, strive to be
members of such groups which are Primary and Secondary Groups
high in status or are viewed favourably
A major difference between primary and
by others. Even within a group,
dif ferent members have dif ferent secondary groups is that primary groups
prestige and status. For example, the are pre-existing formations which are
captain of a cricket team has a higher usually given to the individual whereas
status compared to the other members, secondary groups are those which the
although all are equally important for individual joins by choice. Thus, family,
the team’s success. caste, and religion are primary groups
• Cohesiveness refers to togetherness, whereas membership of a political party is
binding, or mutual attraction among an example of a secondary group. In a
group members. As the group becomes primary group, there is a face-to-face
more cohesive, group members start to interaction, members have close physical
think, feel and act as a social unit, and proximity, and they share warm emotional
less like isolated individuals. Members bonds. Primary groups are central to
of a highly cohesive group have a individual’s functioning and have a very
greater desire to remain in the group in major role in developing values and ideals
comparison to those who belong to low of the individual during the early stages of
cohesive groups. Cohesiveness refers to development. In contrast, secondary
the team spirit or ‘we feeling’ or a sense groups are those where relationships
of belongingness to the group. It is among members are more impersonal,
difficult to leave a cohesive group or to indirect, and less frequent. In the primary
gain membership of a group which is group, boundaries are less permeable, i.e.
highly cohesive. Extreme cohesiveness members do not have the option to choose
however, may sometimes not be in a its membership as compared to secondary
group’s interest. Psychologists have groups where it is easy to leave and join
identified the phenomenon of another group.
groupthink (see Box 7.1) which is a
consequence of extreme cohesiveness. Formal and Informal Groups
These groups differ in the degree to which
TYPE OF GROUPS the functions of the group are stated
explicitly and formally. The functions of a
Groups differ in many respects; some have formal group are explicitly stated as in the
a large number of members (e.g., a case of an office organisation. The roles to
country), some are small (e.g., a family), be performed by group members are stated

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Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes
in an explicit manner. The formal and differently and are often perceived negatively
informal groups differ on the basis of in comparison to the ingroup members.
structure. The formation of formal groups Perceptions of ingroup and outgroup affect
is based on some specific rules or laws and our social lives. These differences can be
members have definite roles. There are a easily understood by studying Tajfel’s
set of norms which help in establishing experiments given in Box 7.2.
order. A university is an example of a Although it is common to make these
formal group. On the other hand, the categorisations, it should be appreciated
formation of informal groups is not based that these categories are not real and are
on rules or laws and there is close created by us. In some cultures, plurality
relationship among members. is celebrated as has been the case in India.
We have a unique composite culture which
Ingroup and Outgroup is reflected not only in the lives we live, but
Just as individuals compare themselves also in our art, architecture, and music.
with others in terms of similarities and
differences with respect to what they have Ingroup and Outgroup Activity
and what others have, individuals also Distinctions 7.2
compare the group they belong to with
Think of any interinstitutional
groups of which they are not a member.
competition held in the near past. Ask
The term ‘ingroup’ refers to one’s own your friends to write a paragraph
group, and ‘outgroup’ refers to another about your school and its students,
group. For ingroup members, we use the and about another school and
word ‘we’ while for outgroup members, the students of that school. Ask the class
word ‘they’ is used. By using the words and list the behaviour and
they and we, one is categorising people as characteristics of your schoolmates,
and students of the other school on
similar or different. It has been found that the board. Observe the differences
persons in the ingroup are generally and discuss in the class. Do you also
supposed to be similar, are viewed see similarities? If yes, discuss them
favourably, and have desirable traits. too.
Members of the outgroup are viewed

Box
7.2 The Minimal Group Paradigm Experiments

Tajfel and his colleagues were interested in knowing the minimal conditions for intergroup
behaviour. ‘Minimal group paradigm’ was developed to answer this question. British school-
boys expressed their preference for paintings by two artists — Vassily Kandinsky and Paul
Klee. Children were told that it was an experiment on decision-making. They knew the
groups in which they were grouped (Kandinsky group and Klee group). The identity of other
group members was hidden using code numbers. The children then distributed money
between recipients only by code number and group membership.
Sample distribution matrix :
Ingroup member — 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Outgroup member — 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
You will agree that these groups were created on a flimsy criterion (i.e. preference for
paintings by two artists) which had no past history or future. Yet, results showed that
children favoured their own group.

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Psychology
INFLUENCE OF GROUP ON INDIVIDUAL associates who asked group of male
students to clap or cheer as loudly as
BEHAVIOUR
possible as they (experimenters) were
We have seen that groups are powerful as interested in knowing how much noise
they are able to influence the behaviour of people make in social settings. They varied
individuals. What is the nature of this the group size; individuals were either
influence? What impact does the presence alone, or in groups of two, four and six.
of others have on our performance? We will The results of the study showed that
discuss two situations : (i) an individual although the total amount of noise rose up,
per for ming an activity alone in the as size increased, the amount of noise
presence of others (social facilitation), produced by each participant dropped. In
and (ii) an individual performing an activity other words, each participant put in less
along with the others as part of a larger effort as the group size increased. Why
group (social loafing). Since social does social loafing occur? The explanations
facilitation has been briefly discussed in offered are:
Chapter 6, we would try to understand the • Group members feel less responsible for
phenomenon of social loafing in this the overall task being performed and
section. therefore exert less effort.
• Motivation of members decreases
Social Loafing because they realise that their
contributions will not be evaluated on
Social facilitation research suggests that
individual basis.
presence of others leads to arousal and can
• The performance of the group is not to
motivate individuals to enhance their
be compared with other groups.
performance if they are already good at • There is an improper coordination (or
solving something. This enhancement no coordination) among members.
occurs when a person’s ef forts are • Belonging to the same group is not
individually evaluated. What would happen important for members. It is only an
if efforts of an individual in a group are aggregate of individuals.
pooled so that you look at the performance
of the group as a whole? Do you know Social loafing may be reduced by:
what often happens? It has been found • Making the efforts of each person
that individuals work less hard in a group identifiable.
than they do when performing alone. This • Increasing the pressure to work hard
points to a phenomenon referred to as (making group members committed to
‘social loafing’. Social loafing is a reduction successful task performance).
in individual effort when working on a • Increasing the apparent importance or
collective task, i.e. one in which outputs value of a task.
are pooled with those of other group • Making people feel that their individual
members. An example of such a task is the contribution is important.
game of tug-of-war. It is not possible for • Strengthening group cohesiveness
you to identify how much force each which increases the motivation for
member of the team has been exerting. successful group outcome.
Such situations give opportunities to group
Group Polarisation
members to relax and become a free rider.
This phenomenon has been demonstrated We all know that important decisions are
in many experiments by Latane and his taken by groups and not by individuals

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Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes
alone. For example, a decision is to be view is validated by the public. This is
taken whether a school has to be a sort of bandwagon effect.
established in a village. Such a decision • When you find people having similar
has to be a group decision. We have also views, you are likely to perceive them
seen that when groups take decisions, as ingroup. You start identifying with
there is a fear that the phenomenon of the group, begin showing conformity,
groupthink may sometimes occur (see and as a consequence your views
Box 7.1). Groups show another tendency become strengthened.
referred to as ‘group polarisation’. It has
been found that groups are more likely to
Assessing Polarisation Activity
take extreme decisions than individuals 7.3
alone. Suppose there is an employee who Give the class a short, 5-item attitude
has been caught taking bribe or engaging scale developed by your teacher to
in some other unethical act. Her/his assess attitudes towards capital
colleagues are asked to decide on what punishment. Based on their responses,
punishment s/he should be given. They divide the class into two groups, i.e.
those pro-capital punishment and
may let her/him go scot-free or decide to
those anti-capital punishment. Now
terminate her/his services instead of seat these groups into two different
imposing a punishment which may be rooms and ask them to discuss a recent
commensurate with the unethical act s/he case in which death sentence has been
had engaged in. Whatever the initial given by the court. See how the
position in the group, this position becomes discussion proceeds in the two groups.
After the discussion, re-administer the
much stronger as a result of discussions in
attitude scale to the group members.
the group. This strengthening of the group’s Examine if, in both groups, positions
initial position as a result of group have hardened in comparison to their
interaction and discussion is referred to as initial position as a result of group
group polarisation. This may sometimes discussion.
have dangerous repercussions as groups
may take extreme positions, i.e. from very
weak to very strong decisions. CONFORMITY, COMPLIANCE, AND
Why does group polarisation occur? Let OBEDIENCE
us take an example whether capital
punishment should be there. Suppose you Groups and individuals exert influence on
favour capital punishment for heinous us. This influence may force us to change
crimes, what would happen if you were our behaviours in a particular direction.
interacting with and discussing this issue The term ‘social influence’ refers to those
with like-minded people? After this processes whereby our attitudes and
interaction, your views may become behaviours are influenced by the real or
stronger. This firm conviction is because of imagined presence of other people.
the following three reasons: Throughout the day you may encounter a
• In the company of like-minded people, number of situations where others have
you are likely to hear newer arguments tried to influence you and make you think
favouring your viewpoints. This will in ways they want. Your parents, teachers,
make you more favourable towards friends, radio and television commercials
capital punishment. create one or the other kind of social
• When you find others also favouring influence. Social influence is a part of our
capital punishment, you feel that this life. In some situations, social influence on

138
Psychology
us is very strong as a result of which we a norm. For example, a member of a
tend to do things which we otherwise community group for ‘clean environment’
would have not done. On other occasions, requests you to put a sticker on your bike
we are able to defy influence of others and that reads, ‘Say No to Plastic Bags’. You
may even influence them to adopt our own agree to do so, not because of a group
viewpoint. This section describes three norm, or even because you personally
important group influence processes, i.e. believe in banning plastic bags, but because
conformity, compliance and obedience. you see no harm or problem in putting such
Imagine the following situation in your a sticker on your bike. At the same time,
school. Some of your friends come to you you find it easier to say ‘yes’ rather than ‘no’
with a letter of protest against a rule that to such a harmless (and eventually
has been recently announced, i.e. banning meaningful) request. Identification,
use of mobile phones in the school. according to Kelman, refers to influence
Personally you believe that the rule is very process based on agreement-seeking or
sensible and should be enforced. But you identity-seeking. Internalisation, on the
also know that if you do not sign the letter, other hand, is a process based on
you will lose many friends and get a bad information-seeking.
name for not keeping ‘student unity’. What Yet another for m of behaviour is
would you do in such a situation? What ‘obedience’. A distinguishing feature of
do you think most people of your age obedience is that such behaviour is a
would do? If your answer is that you would response to a person in authority. In the
agree to sign the letter, you have expressed example given above, you may sign the
a for m of social influence called letter more readily if a senior teacher or a
‘confor mity’ which means behaving student leader asks you to do so. In such
according to the group norm, i.e. the a situation, you are not necessarily
expectations of other group members. following a group norm but rather carrying
Persons who do not confor m (called out an instruction or an order. The presence
‘deviants’ or ‘non-conformists’) get noticed of an authority figure immediately makes
more than those who do conform. this behaviour different from conformity.
Kelman distinguished three forms of For instance, you may stop talking loudly
social influence, viz. compliance, in the classroom when the teacher asks you
identification, and internalisation. In to keep quiet, but not when your classmate
compliance, there are external conditions tells you to do the same thing.
that force the individual to accept the We can see that there are some
influence of the significant other. similarities between confor mity,
Compliance also refers to behaving in a compliance, and obedience, but there are
particular way in response to a request also some differences. All three indicate the
made by someone. Thus, in the example influence of others on an individual’s
described above, you may sign the letter behaviour. Obedience is the most direct
with the thought that you were accepting and explicit form of social influence,
the request, not because you agree with whereas compliance is less direct than
other students, but because you have been obedience because someone has requested
requested to do so by a significant member. and thus you comply (here, the probability
This would be a case of compliance also of refusal is there). Conformity is the most
called ‘external/public confor mity’. indirect form (you are conforming because
Compliance could take place even without you do not want to deviate from the norm).

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Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes
Conformity disapproval and obtaining approval from
others. Third, the nor m is seen as
Why do people follow group norms, when
reflecting the views and beliefs of the
the only ‘punishment’ they may face if they
majority. Most people believe that the
do not, is the displeasure of the group, or
majority is more likely to be right rather
being perceived as ‘different’? Why do
than wrong. An instance of this is often
people conform even when they know that observed in quiz shows on television. When
the norm itself is not desirable? a contestant is at a loss for the correct
It seems that the tendency to follow a answer to a question, s/he may opt for an
norm is natural, and does not need any audience opinion, the person most often
special explanation. Yet, we need to tends to choose the same option that the
understand why such a tendency appears majority of the audience chooses. By the
to be natural or spontaneous. First, same reasoning, people conform to the
norms represent a set of unwritten and nor m because they believe that the
informal ‘rules’ of behaviour that provide majority must be right.
information to members of a group about The pioneering experiments on
what is expected of them in specific conformity were carried out by Sherif and
situations. This makes the whole situation Asch. They illustrate some of the
clearer, and allows both the individual and conditions that determine the extent of
the group to function more smoothly. conformity, and also methods that may be
Second, in general, people feel un- adopted for the study of conformity in
comfortable if they are considered groups. These experiments demonstrate
‘different’ from others. Behaving in a way what Sherif called the ‘autokinetic
that differs from the expected form of effect’ (Box 7.3) and the ‘Asch technique’
behaviour may lead to disapproval or (Box 7.4).
dislike by others, which is a form of social What lessons are to be learned from
punishment. This is something that most the results of these experiments on
people fear, often in an imagined way. conformity? The main lesson is that the
Recall the question we ask so often: “What degree of conformity among the group
will people (‘then’) say?” Following the members is determined by many factors
norm is, thus, the simplest way of avoiding which are situation-specific.
Box
7.3 The Autokinetic Effect

Sherif conducted a series of experiments to demonstrate how groups form their norms,
and members make their judgments according to these norms.
Participants were seated in a darkroom, and asked to concentrate on a point of light.
After watching this point of light, each person was asked to estimate the distance through
which the point had moved. This kind of judgment had to be made over a number of trials.
After each trial, the group was given information about the average distance judged by the
members. It was observed that on subsequent trials, subjects modified their judgments in
a way that made them more similar to the group average. The interesting aspect of this
experiment was that the point of light actually did not move at all. The light was only seen
as moving by the participant (therefore, the effect has been called the ‘autokinetic effect’).
Yet in response to instructions from the experimenter, the participants not only judged the
distance the light moved, but also created a norm for this distance. Note that the participants
were not given any information regarding the nature of change, if any, in their judgments
over trials.

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Psychology
Determinants of Conformity Suppose the subject finds that after some
(i) Size of the group : Conformity is rounds of judgment of the lines, there is
greater when the group is small than when another participant who starts agreeing
the group is large. Why does it happen? It with the subject’s answer. Would the
is easier for a deviant member (one who subject now be more likely to conform, or
does not conform) to be noticed in a small less likely to do so? When the dissenting
group. However, in a large group, if there or deviating minority size increases, the
is strong agreement among most of the likelihood of conformity decreases. In fact,
members, this makes the majority it may increase the number of dissenters
stronger, and therefore, the norm is also or non-conformists in the group.
stronger. In such a case, the minority (iii) Nature of the task : In Asch’s
member(s) would be more likely to conform experiment, the task required an answer
because the group pressure would be that could be verified, and could be correct
stronger. or incorrect. Suppose the task involves
(ii) Size of the minority : Take the case giving an opinion about some topic. In
of the Asch experiment (see Box 7.4). such a case, there is no correct or incorrect

Box
Group Pressure and Conformity : The Asch Experiment 7.4
Asch examined how much conformity there would be when one member of a group
experiences pressure from the rest of the group to behave in a specific way, or to give a
particular judgment. A group of seven persons participated in an experiment that was a
‘vision test’. There was actually only one true subject. The other six participants were
associates of the experimenter, or ‘confederates’ as they are called in social psychology.
These confederates were given instructions to give specific responses. Of course, this was
not known to the true subject. All participants were shown a vertical line (standard line)
that had to be compared with three vertical lines of different lengths, A, B, and C (comparison
lines). Participants had to state which of the comparison lines, A, B, or C, was equal to the
standard line.
Standard Line Comparison Lines

A B C

When the experiment began, each participant, by turn, announced her/his answer.
The first five persons gave wrong answers (as they had been instructed to do so). The true
subject’s turn came last-but-one in each round. So the true subject had the experience of
5 persons giving incorrect answers before her/him. The last person (also a confederate)
gave the same incorrect answer as the first five persons. Even if the true subject felt that
these answers were incorrect, a norm had been presented to her/him. There were twelve
trials. Did the true subject conform to the majority answer, or did s/he give her/his own
judgments ?
It was observed that 67 per cent subjects showed conformity, and gave the same incorrect
answer as the majority. Remember that this was a situation in which the answers were to
be given publicly.

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Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes
answer. In which situation is there likely members. Conformity may also occur
to be more conformity, the first one where because of nor mative influence, i.e.
there is something like a correct or an influence based on a person’s desire to be
incorrect answer, or the second one where accepted or admired by others. In such
answers can vary widely without any cases, people conform because deviation
answer being correct or incorrect? You may from group may lead to rejection or at the
have guessed right; conformity would be least, non-acceptance of some form of
less likely in the second situation. punishment. It is generally observed that
(iv) Public or private expression of the group majority determines the final
behaviour : In the Asch technique, the decision, but in certain conditions, a
group members are asked to give their minority may be more influential. This
answers publicly, i.e. all members know occurs when the minority takes a firm and
who has given which response. However, uncompromising stand, thereby creating a
there can be other situations (for example, doubt on the correctness of the majority’s
voting by secret ballot) in which the viewpoint. This creates a conflict within the
behaviour of members is private (not group (see Box 7.4).
known to others). Less conformity is found
under private expression than it is seen Compliance
under public expression. It was stated earlier that compliance refers
(v) Personality : The conditions described simply to behaving in response to a request
above show how the features of the from another person or group even in the
situation are important in determining the absence of a norm. A good example of
degree of conformity shown. We also find compliance is the kind of behaviour shown
that some individuals have a conforming when a salesperson comes to our door.
personality. Such persons have a tendency Very often, this person comes with some
to change their behaviour according to goods that we really do not wish to buy.
what others say or do in most situations. Yet, sometimes to our own surprise, we
By contrast, there are individuals who are find that the salesperson has spoken to us
independent, and do not look for a norm for a few minutes and the conversation has
in order to decide how to behave in a ended with a purchase of what he or she
specific situation. Research has shown wished to sell. So why do people comply?
that highly intelligent people, those who In many situations, this happens
are confident of themselves, those who are because it is an easy way out of the
strongly committed and have a high self- situation. It is more polite and the other
esteem are less likely to conform. party is pleased. In other situations, there
Conformity takes place because of could be other factors at work. The
informational influence, i.e. influence that following techniques have been found to
results from accepting evidence rather work when someone wants another person
than reality. This kind of rational to comply.
conformity can be thought of as learning • The foot-in-the-door technique : The
about the world from the actions of others. person begins by making a small
We learn by observing people, who are the request that the other person is not
best source of information about many likely to refuse. Once the other person
social conventions. New group members carries out the request, a bigger request
lear n about the group’s customs by is made. Simply because the other
observing the actions of other group person has already complied with the

142
Psychology
smaller request, he or she may feel experiment was conducted on pairs. One
uncomfortable refusing the second person in each pair was the “learner”,
request. For example, someone may whose work was to memorise pairs of
come to us on behalf of a group and words. The other participant was the
give us a gift (something free), saying “teacher”, who would read these words
that it is for promotion. Soon aloud and punish the learner when s/he
afterwards, another member of the made errors by giving her/him shock. The
same group may come to us again, and learner would make errors according to
ask us to buy a product made by the prearranged instructions. The teacher was
group. asked to deliver a shock each time the
• The deadline technique : In this learner made errors. The teacher was
technique, a ‘last date’ is announced further told to increase the strength of the
until which a particular product or ‘an shock each time the learner made an error.
offer’ will be available. The aim is to In reality, no shocks were given. The
make people ‘hurry’ and make the instructions were so arranged that the
purchase before they miss the rare teacher was faced with a dilemma —
opportunity. It is more likely that should s/he continue shocks even when
people will buy a product under this they were increasingly painful? The
deadline condition than if there is no experimenter kept on motivating the
such deadline. teacher to continue. In all, 65 per cent
• The door-in-the-face technique : In showed total obedience. Some participants,
this technique, you begin with a large however, protested and asked the session
request and when this is refused a later to end. Milgram’s study suggests that even
request for something smaller, the one ordinary people are willing to harm an
that was actually desired, is made, innocent person if ordered by someone in
which is usually granted by the person. authority.
Why do people obey even when they
Obedience know that their behaviour is harming
When compliance is shown to an others? Psychologists have identified
instruction or order from a person in several reasons for this. Some of these
authority, such as parents, teachers, reasons are :
leaders, or policemen, that behaviour is • People obey because they feel that they
called obedience. Why people show are not responsible for their own
obedience is easy to understand. Most actions, they are simply carrying out
often it is because if we disobey, some orders from the authority.
punishment might follow. Sometimes, it is • Authority generally possesses symbols
because we believe that persons in of status (e.g., uniform, title) which
authority must be obeyed. People in people find difficult to resist.
authority have ef fective means for • Authority gradually increases
enforcing their orders. Milgram conducted commands from lesser to greater levels
an experiment to show that individuals and initial obedience binds the
obey commands from people who are followers for commitment. Once you
strangers. The experimenter informed the obey small orders, slowly there is an
respondents in the study that they were escalation of commitment for the
participating in an experiment to study the person who is in authority and one
effects of punishment on learning. The starts obeying bigger orders.

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Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes
• Many times, events are moving at such example, you can come first in a
a fast speed, for example in a riot competition only if others do not perform
situation, that one has no time to think, to such a level that they can be judged as
just obey orders from above. first. A cooperative goal, on the other hand,
is one in which each individual can attain
the goal only if other members of the group
Activity Demonstrating Obedience in also attain the goal. Let us try to
7.4 Daily Life understand this from an example from
athletics. In a hundred metres race
Do you believe the results of Milgram
studies on obedience to authority? See between six people, only one can be the
for yourself whether obedience occurs winner. Success depends on individual
or not. performance. In a relay race, victory
Take permission from your teacher depends on the collective performance of
to go to one of the junior classes. Go all members of a team. Deutsch
and make a series of requests to the investigated cooperation and competition
students. Some examples of such
requests are :
within groups. College students were
Ask students to change their seats assigned to groups of five persons and
with another student. were required to solve puzzles and
Ask students to croak like a frog. problems. One set of groups, referred to as
Ask students to say ‘jai hind’. the ‘cooperative group’, were told that they
Ask students to put their hands up. would be rewarded collectively for their
(Feel free to add your own ideas)
performance. The other set of groups,
What did you see? Did students
obey you? Ask them why they did so? labelled as ‘competitive group’ were told
Explain to them that you were studying that there was a reward for individual
why we obey seniors. Come back and excellence. Results showed that in
discuss what you saw in the class with cooperative groups, there was more
your teacher and classmates. coordination, there was acceptance for
each other’s ideas, and members were
more friendly than those in the competitive
COOPERATION AND COMPETITION group. The main concern of the members
of the cooperative group was to see that the
People interact with each other in different group excels.
contexts. Behaviours in most social Although competition between
situations are characterised by either individuals within a group may result in
‘cooperation’ or ‘competition’. When groups conflict and disharmony, competition
work together to achieve shared goals, we between groups may increase within group
refer to it as cooperation. The rewards in cohesion and solidarity.
cooperative situations are group rewards Prisoner’s Dilemma Game, which is a
and not individual rewards. However, when two person game in which both parties are
members try to maximise their own faced with cooperation or competition, and
benefits and work for the realisation of self- depending upon their choices both can win
interest, competition is likely to result. or lose, is often used to study cooperation
Social groups may have both competitive or competition. This game is based on an
as well as cooperative goals. Competitive anecdote. Two suspects were quizzed by
goals are set in such a way that each detectives separately. The detectives had
individual can get her/his goal only if only enough evidence to convict them for
others do not attain their goals. For a small offence. Separately the two convicts

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Psychology
Box
Sherif’s Summer Camp Experiments : A Journey from Ingroup Formation to 7.5
Intergroup Competition and Finally Intergroup Cooperation

Sherif conducted a series of experiments on 11–12 year old boys who did not know each
other. The boys were attending a summer camp. Unknown to the boys, there were
researchers in the camp who examined their (the boys) behaviour. The experiment consisted
of four phases, viz. friendship formation, group formation, intergroup competition, and
intergroup cooperation.
• Friendship formation : When the boys arrived at the camp, they spent their initial
time together. They mixed freely with each other and chose their friends for games and
other activities.
• Ingroup formation : The boys were then divided into two groups by the experimenter.
The boys belonging to the two groups lived separately. Members within the group
engaged in cooperative projects to increase cohesiveness. The groups were given separate
names. Over time, they developed their own norms.
• Intergroup competition : The two groups were brought together in several competitive
situations. Matches were organised in which the groups competed against each other.
This competition brought in tension and hostility against each other as a group; so
much so that the groups started calling each other names. At the same time, ingroup
cohesion and loyalty became stronger.
• Intergroup cooperation : To reduce the hostility generated by intergroup competition,
the researchers created a problem which affected both the groups, and both groups
wanted to solve them. Superordinate goals could be achieved only through cooperation
between the groups. The water supply of both groups was disrupted. Members of both
groups helped each other to overcome this. This intergroup cooperation phase reduced
the hostility. This resulted in the development of a superordinate goal, i.e. a goal to
which personal goals were subordinated.
This research is important as it showed that antagonistic and hostile behaviour can be
generated by group situations. At the same time, it shows that hostility between groups
can be reduced by focusing on superordinate goals, which are important and beneficial to
both groups alike.

were offered a chance to confess. If one Player A


confesses and the other does not, the one Cooperation Competition
who confesses will get no punishment and
Competition

her/his confession will be used to convict 3 5


the other with a serious offence. If both
confess, the punishment to both will be 3 0
mild. If neither confesses, each will receive
Player B

a light sentence. This game has been used


in hundreds of experiments to demonstrate 0 2
Cooperation

that when two parties are involved, there


is a conflict between motive to cooperate
and motive to compete (see Figure 7.2). 5 2
For example, there are two players, A
and B. If both cooperate, both get three
points each. If player A competes and wins, Fig.7.2 : Cooperation vs. Competition

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Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes
s/he gets 5 points and B gets 0 points. If you are a hard-working, happy-go-lucky
B competes and wins s/he gets 5 points girl/boy. This answer tells you about your
and A gets 0 points. If both A and B social identity which is one’s self-definition
compete, both get two points each. What of who s/he is. This self-definition may
outcomes do you expect? Why do you include both personal attributes, e.g. hard
expect so? Give reasons. working, happy-go-lucky, or attributes
which you share with others, e.g. girl or
Determinants of Cooperation and boy. Although some aspects of our identity
Competition are determined by physical characteristics,
What factors determine whether people will we may acquire other aspects as a
cooperate or compete? Some of the consequence of our interaction with others
important ones are given below: in society. Sometimes we perceive ourselves
(i) Reward structure : Psychologists as unique individuals and at other times we
believe that whether people will co- perceive ourselves as members of groups.
operate or compete will depend on the Both are equally valid expressions of self.
reward structure. Cooperative reward Our personal identities derived from views
structure is one in which there is of oneself as a unique individual, and social
promotive interdependence. Each is identities derived from groups we perceive
beneficiary of the reward and reward is ourselves to be members of, are both
possible only if all contribute. A important to us. The extent to which we
competitive reward structure is one in define ourselves either at personal or at
which one can get a reward only if social levels is flexible. From your own
others do not get it. experience, you would realise that
(ii) Interpersonal communication : When identification with social groups can have
there is good interpersonal a great deal of importance for your self-
communication, then cooperation is the concept. How do you feel when India wins
likely consequence. Communication a cricket match? You feel elated and proud.
facilitates interaction, and discussion. You feel so because of your social identity
As a result, group members can as an Indian. Social identity is, thus, that
convince each other and learn about aspect of our self-concept which is based
each other. on our group membership. Social identity
(iii) Reciprocity : Reciprocity means that places us, i.e. tells us what and where we
people feel obliged to return what they are in the larger social context, and thus
get. Initial cooperation may encourage helps us to locate ourselves in society. You
more cooperation. Competition may have a social identity of a student of your
provoke more competition. If someone school. Once you have this identity of a
helps, you feel like helping that person; student of your school, you internalise the
on the other hand, if someone refuses values emphasised in your school and
to help you when you need help, you make these values your own. You strive to
would not like to help that person also. fulfil the motto of your school. Social
identity provides members with a shared
SOCIAL IDENTITY set of values, beliefs and goals about
themselves and about their social world.
Have you ever asked the question “who Once you internalise the values of your
am I?” What was your answer to this school, this helps to coordinate and
question? Probably your answer was that regulate your attitudes and behaviour. You

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Psychology
work hard for your school to make it the there is a lack of trust. Hence, conflict
best school in your city/state. When we results.
develop a strong identity with our own • Another reason for intergroup conflict
group, the categorisation as ingroup and is relative deprivation. It arises when
outgroup becomes salient. The group with members of a group compare
which you identify yourself becomes the themselves with members of another
ingroup and others become the outgroup. group, and perceive that they do not
The negative aspect of this own group and have what they desire to have, which
outgroup categorisation is that we start the other group has. In other words,
showing favouritism towards our ingroup by they feel that they are not doing well in
rating it more favourably in comparison to comparison to other groups. This may
the outgroup, and begin devaluating the lead to feelings of deprivation and
outgroup. This devaluation of the outgroup discontentment, which may trigger off
is the basis of a number of intergroup conflict.
conflicts. • Another cause of conflict is one party’s
belief that it is better than the other,
and what it is saying should be done.
INTERGROUP CONFLICT : NATURE AND
When this does not happen, both
CAUSES
parties start accusing each other. One
Conflict is a process in which either an may often witness a tendency to
individual or a group perceives that others magnify even smaller differences,
(individual or group) have opposing thereby conflict gets escalated because
interests, and both try to contradict each every member wants to respect the
other. There is this intense feeling of ‘we’ norms of her/his group.
and ‘other’ (also referred to as ‘they’). • A feeling that the other group does not
There is also a belief by both parties that respect the norms of my group, and
the other will protect only its own interests; actually violates those norms because
their (the other side’s) interests will, of a malevolent intent.
therefore, not be protected. There is not • Desire for retaliation for some harm
only opposition of each other, but they also done in the past could be another
try to exert power on each other. Groups reason for conflict.
have been found to be more aggressive • Biased perceptions are at the root of
than individuals. This often leads to most conflicts. As already mentioned
escalation of conflict. All conflicts are costly earlier, feelings of ‘they’ and ‘we’ lead to
as there is a human price for them. In biased perceptions.
wars, there are both victories and defeats, • Research has shown that when acting
but the human cost of war is far beyond in groups, people are more competitive
all this. Various types of conflict are as well as more aggressive than when
commonly seen in society, which turn out they are on their own. Groups compete
to be costly for both sides as well as for over scarce resources, both material
society. resources, e.g. territory, and money as
Mentioned below are some of the major well as social resources, e.g. respect
reasons for group conflicts. and esteem.
• One major reason is lack of • Perceived inequity is another reason for
communication and faulty communi- conflict. Equity refers to distribution of
cation by both parties. This kind of rewards in proportion to an individual’s
communication leads to suspicion, i.e. contributions, if:

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Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes
Your friends’ • Communication between the groups
Your rewards rewards becomes poor. The groups do not trust
= each other, thereby leading to a
Your contributions Your friends’ breakdown in communication and this
contributions generates suspicion for each other.
• Groups start magnifying their
But, if you contribute more and get differences and start perceiving their
less, you are likely to feel irritated and behaviour as fair and the other’s
exploited. behaviour as unfair.
Conflicts between groups give impetus • Each side tries to increase its own
to a series of social and cognitive processes. power and legitimacy. As a conse-
These processes harden the stand of each quence, the conflict gets escalated
side leading to ingroup polarisation. This shifting from few specific issues to
may result in coalition formation of like- much larger issues.
minded parties, thereby increasing the • Once conflict starts, several other
apprehensions of both parties resulting in factors lead to escalation of conflict.
misperceptions, and biased interpretations Hardening of ingroup opinion, explicit
and attributions. The result is increased threats directed at the outgroup, each
conflict. Present-day society is fraught with
group retaliating more and more, and
various intergroup conflicts. These are
other parties also choosing to take sides
related to caste, class, religion, region,
lead to escalation of conflict.
language, just to name a few of them.
Gardner Murphy wrote a book entitled
‘In the Minds of Men’. Most conflicts begin CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES
in the minds of men and then go to the field.
Explanations of such conflicts can be at the Conflicts can be reduced if we know about
structural, group, and individual levels. their causes. The processes that increase
Structural conditions include high rates of conflict can be turned around to reduce it
poverty, economic and social stratification, also. A number of strategies have been
inequality, limited political and social suggested by psychologists. Some of these
opportunity, etc. Research on group level are :
factors has shown that social identity, Introduction of superordinate goals :
realistic conflict between groups over Sherif’s study, already mentioned in the
resources, and unequal power relations section on cooperation and competition,
between groups lead to escalation of showed that by introducing superordinate
conflict. At the individual level, beliefs, goals, intergroup conflict can be reduced.
biased attitudes, and personality A superordinate goal is mutually beneficial
characteristics are important determinants. to both parties, hence both groups work
It has been found that at the individual cooperatively.
level, there is a progression along a
continuum of violence. Very small acts that Altering perceptions : Conflicts can also
initially may have no significance, like be reduced by altering perceptions and
calling the other group a name, may lead reactions through persuasion, educational
to psychological changes that make further and media appeals, and portrayal of groups
destructive actions possible. differently in society. Promoting empathy
Deutsch identified the following for others should be taught to everyone
consequences of intergroup conflict. right from the beginning.

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Psychology
Increasing intergroup contacts : Conflict there is a conflict. Sometimes it is difficult
can also be reduced by increasing contacts to dissipate conflict through negotiations;
between the groups. This can be done by at that time mediation and arbitration by
involving groups in conflict on neutral a third party is needed. Mediators help
grounds through community projects and both parties to focus their discussions on
events. The idea is to bring them together the relevant issues and reach a voluntary
so that they become more appreciative of agreement. In arbitration, the third party
each other’s stand. However, for contacts has the authority to give a decision after
to be successful, they need to be hearing both parties.
maintained, which means that they should
be supported over a period of time. Structural solutions : Conflict can also be
reduced by redistributing the societal
Redrawing group boundaries : Another
resources according to principles based on
technique that has been suggested by
justice. Research on justice has identified
some psychologists is redrawing the group
several principles of justice. Some of these
boundaries. This can be done by creating
are : equality (allocating equally to every
conditions where groups boundaries are
redefined and groups come to perceive one), need (allocating on the basis of
themselves as belonging to a common needs), and equity (allocating on the basis
group. of contributions of members).

Negotiations : Conflict can also be Respect for other group’s norms : In a


resolved through negotiations and third pluralist society like India, it is necessary
party interventions. Warring groups can to respect and be sensitive to the strong
resolve conflict by trying to find mutually norms of various social and ethnic groups.
acceptable solutions. This requires It has been noticed that a number of
understanding and trust. Negotiation refers communal riots between different groups
to reciprocal communications so as to have taken place because of such
reach an agreement in situations in which insensitivity.

Key Terms
Arbitration, Cohesiveness, Competition, Compliance, Conflict, Conformity, Cooperation, Goal achievement,
Group, Group formation, Groupthink, Identity, Ingroup, Interdependence, Intergroup, Negotiation, Norms,
Obedience, Outgroup, Proximity, Roles, Social facilitation, Social influence, Social inhibition, Social
loafing, Status, Structure, Superordinate goals.

• Groups are different from other collections of people. Mutual interdependence, roles,
status, and expectations are the main characteristics of groups.
• Groups are organised systems of two or more individuals.
• People join groups because they provide security, status, self-esteem, satisfaction of
one’s psychological and social needs, goal achievement, and knowledge and
information.
• Proximity, similarity, and common motives and goals facilitate group formation.
• Generally, group work leads to beneficial results. However, sometimes in cohesive
and homogeneous groups, the phenomenon of groupthink may occur.
• Groups are of different types, i.e. primary and secondary, formal and informal, and
ingroup and outgroup.

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Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes
• Groups influence individual behaviour. Social facilitation and social loafing are two
important influences of groups.
• Conformity, compliance, and obedience are three important forms of social influence.
• Conformity is the most indirect form of social influence; obedience the most direct
form; compliance is in-between the two.
• People interact in social situations by either cooperating or competing.
• One’s self-definition of who s/he is referred to as social identity.
• Group conflicts occur in all societies.
• Group conflicts can be reduced if we know the causes of such conflicts.

Review Questions
1. Compare and contrast formal and informal groups, and ingroups and outgroups.
2. Are you a member of a certain group? Discuss what motivated you to join that
group.
3. How does Tuckman’s stage model help you to understand the formation of groups?
4. How do groups influence our behaviour?
5. How can you reduce social loafing in groups? Think of any two incidents of social
loafing in school. How did you overcome it?
6. How often do you show conformity in your behaviour? What are the determinants of
conformity?
7. Why do people obey even when they know that their behaviour may be harming
others? Explain.
8. What are the benefits of cooperation?
9. How is one’s identity formed?
10. What are some of the causes of intergroup conflict? Think of any international conflict.
Reflect on the human price of this conflict.

Project 1. “S/he who does not ask will never get a bargain.” Collect the newspapers of last one
Ideas month. List the different bargains that were offered by shopkeepers. What compliance
techniques were used by them? Ask your friends how many were attracted by these
bargains.
2. Make a list of different conflicts that have occurred among different houses in the
school. How were these conflicts resolved?
3. Identify any Test series in cricket which India played recently. Collect the newspapers
of that period. Evaluate the reviews of the matches and comments made by Indian and
rival commentators. Do you see any difference between the comments?
4. Imagine that you have to collect money to help an NGO working for the girl child. What
techniques of social influence would you use? Try any two techniques and see the
difference.

Weblinks
http://www.mapnp.org/library/grp_skill/theory/theory.htm
http://www.socialpsychology.org/social.htm
http://www.stanleymilgram.com/main.htm
http://www.psychclassics.yorku.ca/sheriff/chap1.htm

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Psychology
Pedagogical Hints
1. In the topic of nature and formation
of groups, students should be made
to understand the importance of
groups in real-life. Here, it needs to
be emphasised that they should be
careful in choosing groups.
Teachers can ask a few students
how they have become members of
different groups, and what do they
get from membership in these
groups.
2. For explaining social loafing, simple
experiments can be conducted in
the class by asking students to
perform some activities in groups
and then asking them about their
contributions in the activities
undertaken. Learning experience
for students should be on ways to
avoid social loafing.
3. In the topic of cooperation and
competition, students should be
told the benefits of both cooperation
and competition. They should be
able to appreciate that cooperation
is a better strategy in society. Some
cases of real-life where cooperative
efforts have been successful can be
discussed.
4. Students should be able to
appreciate that identities are
important and how our identities
influence our social behaviour.
5. In the section on intergroup conflict,
emphasis should be on conflict
resolution strategies rather than
conflict per se.

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Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes
In the previous two chapters, you read about some topics related to social
behaviour and groups. We will now reflect on a set of social concerns with
a wider scope, which are linked to each other and involve psychological
aspects. These issues have to be understood and resolved at the level of
Introduction the community rather than the individual. It is now known that besides
affecting our physical health, the environment also influences our
psychological processes and behaviour. Human beings also influence the
environment through their behaviour, and some of these effects are
demonstrated in stress-producing environmental conditions, such as noise,
pollution and crowding. At the same time, environmental stressors such as
natural disasters are not under human control. Many damaging
environmental effects can be reduced with the help of environment-friendly
behaviour and a state of preparedness. You will read about the causes and
consequences of some social problems such as aggression and violence,
health, and poverty and discrimination. You will also get a glimpse of how
poverty and deprivation can make people victims of discrimination and
social exclusion. An environment of poverty and deprivation has far-reaching
implications for developing human potential, social harmony and mental
health. Some ways of reducing poverty are also described. In addition,
psychological aspects of health, and the impact of television viewing on
violence as well as other forms of behaviour are explained. This chapter
will show you how psychological understanding can be applied practically
to aspects such as pro-environmental behaviour, the reduction of violence
and discrimination, and promotion of positive health attitudes.

A common idea that comes out of these


HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP
questions is that the relationship between
Take a moment and try to answer these human behaviour and the environment
questions : Can a tree be your ‘best friend’? plays a special role in our lives. These
When it gets hot, or when it is crowded, days, there is a growing awareness that
do people become more aggressive? If rivers environmental problems such as noise,
are said to be holy, why do people make air, water and soil pollution, and
them dirty? How can one remedy the unsatisfactory ways of garbage disposal
traumatic effects of a natural disaster such have damaging effects on physical health.
as an earthquake or tsunami, or of a man- Less known is the fact that these forms of
made disaster such as a poisonous gas pollution, along with many other hidden
leak in a factory? Compare two children factors in the environment, influence
who grow up in dif ferent physical psychological health and functioning as
environments, one in an environment filled well. A branch of psychology called
with colourful toys, pictures and books, environmental psychology deals with
and the other in an environment that various psychological issues pertaining to
contains only the bare necessities of life. the human-environment interaction in a
Will the two children develop the same very broad sense of the term.
kind of cognitive skills? People might give The word ‘environment’ refers to all
different answers to these questions. that is around us, literally everything that

153
Chapter 8 • Psychology and Life
surrounds us, including the physical, seats in an of fice for for mal and
social, work, and cultural environment. In informal gatherings.
general, it includes all the forces outside
human beings to which they respond in Different Views of the Human-
some way. In the present section, the Environment Relationship
discussion will centre around the physical There is more than one way of looking at
environment. ‘Ecology’ is the study of the the human-environment relationship,
relationships between living beings and depending largely on how this relationship
their environment. In psychology, the focus is perceived by human beings. A
is on the interdependence between
psychologist named Stokols (1990)
the environment and people, as the
describes three approaches that may be
environment becomes meaningful with
adopted to describe the human-
reference to the human beings who live in
environment relationship.
it. In this context, a distinction can be
(a) The minimalist perspective assumes
made between the natural environment
that the physical environment has
and the built environment. As the name
minimal or negligible influence on
itself suggests, that part of nature which
human behaviour, health and well-
remains untouched by human hand is the
being. The physical environment and
natural environment. On the other hand,
human beings exist as parallel
whatever has been created by human
components.
beings within the natural environment is
(b) The instrumental perspective
the built environment. Cities, houses,
suggests that the physical environment
offices, factories, bridges, shopping malls,
exists mainly for use by human beings
railway tracks, roads, dams, and even
for their comfort and well-being. Most
artificially created parks and ponds are
of the human influences on the
some examples of the built environment
environment reflect the instrumental
which show how human beings have made
perspective.
changes in the environment given by
(c) The spiritual perspective refers to the
nature.
view of the environment as something
The built environment usually involves
to be respected and valued rather than
the concept of environmental design.
The idea of ‘design’ contains some exploited. It implies that human beings
psychological features, such as : recognise the interdependent relation-
• The creativity of the human mind, as ship between themselves and the
expressed in the work of architects, environment, i.e. human beings will
town planners and civil engineers. exist and will be happy only as long as
• The sense of human control over the the environment is kept healthy and
natural environment, as shown in the natural.
building of dams to regulate the natural The traditional Indian view about the
flow of rivers. environment supports the spiritual
• The influence on the kind of social perspective. We have at least two examples
interaction that takes place in the of this perspective in our country, viz. the
designed environment. This feature is customs of the Bishnoi community of
reflected, for instance, in the distance Rajasthan, and the Chipko movement in
between houses in a colony, the the Uttarakhand region (see Box 8.1). By
location of rooms within a home, or in contrast, we also find examples of people
the arrangement of work desks and damaging or destroying the environment,

154
Psychology
Box
The Bishnois and the Chipko Movement
8.1
The Bishnois, a small community in Rajasthan, value their trees and wildlife as much
as their lives. Following one of the 29 rules given by their guru, the Bishnois would do
anything to prevent the destruction of trees by human beings, including hugging the trees
if they are threatened in any way; the destroyer cannot cut the trees without cutting these
human bodies. Similarly, the forest cover in the Himalayan Uttarakhand region has been
protected through the Chipko movement (‘chipko’ literally means ‘sticking to’ or hugging
trees). The aim of this movement is to conserve forests, prevent landslides and soil erosion
in the region, and to support the livelihood of the inhabitants. In the 1960s, when the
forest department of the government was not quite successful in curbing the indiscriminate
felling of trees in large numbers, people of the economically backward Uttarakhand region
expressed their concern through the Chipko movement, which became stronger because
of devastating floods in 1970.
The Chipko movement’s memorandum of demands included six principles: (a) only
specific trees and vegetation suitable for a particular geographical region should be grown,
(b) forests in landslide and soil erosion zones need to be identified and renewed, (c) those
who have been customarily living near the forests and depending on them for survival
should be given the right to do so, (d) the contractor system for commercial timber
exploitation should be abolished, (e) trees used by the villagers must be planted near the
villages, and (f) village cottage industries based on minor forest products should be set
up to provide jobs to locals for checking migration from villages. This movement has been
recognised by environmentalists in India and abroad as well as by the government.

which is a negative instance of the perception. For example, as you have


instrumental perspective. studied in Class XI, a tribal society of
Africa lives in circular huts, that is, in
houses without angular walls. They
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON HUMAN
show less error in a geometric illusion
BEHAVIOUR
(the Muller-Lyer illusion) than people
The human-environment relationship can from cities, who live in houses with
be appreciated fully by understanding that angular walls.
the two influence each other, and depend • Environmental influences on
on each other for their survival and emotions : The environment affects our
maintenance. When we focus our attention emotional reactions as well. Watching
on the effects of the natural environment nature in any form, whether it is a
on human beings, we find a variety of quietly flowing river, a smiling flower, or
environmental influences, ranging from a tranquil mountain top, provides a
physical effects such as a change of kind of joy that cannot be matched by
clothing in response to climate changes to any other experience. Natural disasters,
severe psychological ef fects such as such as floods, droughts, landslides,
serious depression after a natural disaster. quakes on the earth or under the
Some of the ef fects pointed out by ocean, can affect people’s emotions to
psychologists are described below. such an extent that they experience
• Environmental influences on deep depression and sorrow, a sense of
perception : Some aspects of the complete helplessness and lack of
environment influence human control over their lives. Such an

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Chapter 8 • Psychology and Life
influence on human emotions is a Human Influence on the Environment
traumatic experience that changes
Human beings also exert their influence on
people’s lives forever, and can last for
the natural environment for fulfilling their
a very long time after the actual event
physical needs and other purposes. All the
in the form of post-traumatic stress examples of the built environment express
disorder (PTSD). human influence over the environment.
• Ecological influences on occupation, For example, the human being started
living style and attitudes : The building something called ‘houses’ by
natural environment of a particular changing the natural environment in order
region determines whether people living to provide shelter for herself/himself.
in that region rely on agriculture (as Some of these human actions harm and
in the plains), or on other occupations damage the environment, and ultimately
such as hunting and gathering (as in harm themselves, in numerous ways. For
forest, mountainous or desert regions), example, human beings use appliances
or on industries (as in areas that are such as refrigerators and airconditioners
not fertile enough for agriculture). In that generate chemical substances (e.g.,
turn, the occupation determines the CFCs, or chlorofluorocarbons) that pollute
lifestyle and attitudes of the residents the air and, in the long run, may be
of a particular geographical region. responsible for physical diseases such as
Compare the daily routine followed by some forms of cancer. Smoking is known
to pollute the air around us, and the
a person living in a desert with one
burning of plastic or metal articles has
living in a mountainous region, and
disastrous polluting effects on the
with one living on the plains. It has
environment. Cutting down trees, or
been observed that an agricultural
deforestation, may disrupt the carbon cycle
society has to depend on the collective
and the water cycle. This may eventually
efforts of its members. Therefore, the
affect the pattern of rainfall in a region,
members of an agricultural society and increase soil erosion and
develop an attitude of cooperativeness, desertification. Industries that discharge
and consider group interests more effluents, and pump this untreated sewage
important than the individual’s wishes. into rivers, seem to be unconcerned about
They are also closer to nature, more the dangerous physical and psychological
dependent on natural events such as consequences of this kind of pollution.
the monsoon, and may face situations What is the psychological message in
in which necessary natural resources all of these examples? The message is that
such as water are in limited supply. although most of the effects mentioned
Accordingly, the members of an above are physical in nature, human
agricultural society may become more beings have brought about these effects in
fatalistic in their beliefs. On the other order to exhibit their control and power
hand, highly industrialised societies feel over the natural environment. It is
less close to and less dependent on somewhat paradoxical that human beings
nature. Members of industrialised are using technology to change the natural
societies may value independent environment in order to improve the
thinking, develop an attitude of quality of their life but, in reality, they may
competitiveness, and cultivate a belief actually be worsening the quality of life!
of personal control over what happens Noise, pollution, crowding, and
to them. natural disasters are some examples of

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Psychology
environmental stressors, which are • When the noise comes at intervals, and
stimuli or conditions in the environment in an unpredictable way, it is
that create a stress for human beings. As experienced as more disturbing than if
you have already read in Chapter 3, stress the noise is continuously present.
is an unpleasant psychological state which • When the task being performed is
creates tension and anxiety in the difficult, or requires full concentration,
individual. However, human reactions to then intense, unpredictable, and
these varying stressors may differ. Some of uncontrollable noise reduces the level
the damaging environmental effects are of task performance.
described below. • When tolerating or switching off the
noise is within the control of the
Noise person, the number of errors in task
performance decreases.
Any sound that is annoying or irritating,
• In terms of emotional effects, noise
and felt to be unpleasant is said to be
above a certain level causes annoyance,
noise. From common experience it is
and can also lead to sleep disturbance.
known that noise, especially for long
These effects are also reduced if the
periods of time, is uncomfortable, and puts
noise is controllable, or is necessary as
people in an unpleasant mood. Exposure
a part of the person’s occupation.
to noise for a long period of time may lead
However, continued exposure to
to hearing loss. Apart from that, noise has
uncontrollable and annoying noise can
negative effects on mental activity because
have harmful effects on mental health.
it reduces concentration. Many of you
might have experienced this when you From these observations, one may
tried to study for your examination, with conclude that the stressful effects of noise
the neighbours celebrating a marriage with are determined, not only by its high or low
loud music. intensity, but also by the extent to which
Three characteristics of noise have people are able to adapt to it, the nature
been found to determine its effect on task of the task being performed, and whether
per for mance, namely, intensity, noise is predictable and controllable.
predictability, and controllability of
noise. Systematic research on the effects Pollution
of noise on human beings shows the Environmental pollution may be in the
following : form of air, water, and soil pollution. Waste
• When the task being performed is a or garbage that comes from households or
simple mental task, such as addition of from industries are a big source of air,
numbers, noise does not affect overall water, and soil pollution. Scientists know
performance, whether it is loud or soft. it very well that any of these forms of
In such situations, people adapt, or ‘get pollution is hazardous to physical health.
used’ to noise. However, there are some research studies
• If the task being performed is very that have shown direct or indirect
interesting, then, too, the presence of psychological effects of these forms of
noise does not affect performance. This pollution as well. It has to be understood
is because the nature of the task helps that in general, any form of environmental
the individual to pay full attention to pollution may affect the nervous system
the task, and ignore the noise. This because of the presence of toxic
may also be one kind of adaptation. substances and, to that extent, influence

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Chapter 8 • Psychology and Life
psychological processes in some way. cause psychological effects. Such effects
Another form of influence is seen in the are supposed to be more dangerous for the
emotional reactions to pollution which, in smoker; however, those who inhale tobacco
tur n, create discomfort, and have smoke (passive smoking) can also suffer
consequences such as decreased work the negative effects. One researcher found
efficiency, lowered interest in the job, and that inhaling tobacco smoke can increase
increase in anxiety level. People do not like the aggression level of individuals.
to live or work in a locality that is littered The presence of polluting substances in
with garbage, or has a constant foul smell. water and soil are hazardous for physical
Similarly, the presence of dust particles, or health. Some of these chemicals can also
other suspended particles, may give a have damaging psychological effects. The
feeling of suffocation and difficulty in presence of specific chemicals such as lead
breathing, and may actually lead to can cause mental retardation by affecting
respiratory disorders. People who brain development. Such toxic substances
experience this kind of discomfort cannot affect human beings through various
pay full attention to their work, or be in routes, i.e. through water, or through soil
a pleasant mood. by being absorbed by vegetables grown in
Specific psychological effects of air polluted soil.
pollution have been reported by some Another source of toxicity is household
researchers. For example, in one part of and industrial waste, or garbage, which are
Kolkata, the psychological reactions to air non-biodegradable. Common examples of
pollution were compared between a group such waste are plastics, tin or any metal
living in an industrial area, and a group container. This kind of waste material
living in a non-industrial residential area. should be destroyed or burned through
Those living in the industrial area reported special techniques, and the smoke should
greater tension and anxiety than those not be allowed to escape into the air that
living in a non-industrial residential area. people breathe.
In a study conducted in Germany, the
In general, there is sufficient evidence
presence of pollutants such as sulphur
to show that toxic chemicals in the air,
dioxide in the air was found to decrease
water and soil may lead to harmful effects
the ability to concentrate on a task, and
not only on nor mal psychological
lowering performance efficiency.
functioning, but may also cause serious
Pollution caused by leaks of dangerous
mental disorders. Therefore, there is
chemical substances can cause other kinds
absolutely no doubt that all forms of
of harm. The infamous Bhopal gas tragedy
pollution need to be curbed.
of December 1984 that claimed many lives,
also left behind psychological effects
Crowding
because of the gas. Many of those who had
inhaled the poisonous gas, methyl- Most of us are familiar with crowds, which
isocyanate (MIC) along with other are large informal groups of persons
substances, showed disturbances in coming together temporarily without any
memory, attention and alertness. particular goal. For example, when a
There can be harmful air pollution in famous person suddenly appears on the
the home and office environment (indoor road, people who are present in the
environments) also. For example, tobacco situation at the time often collect around
smoke pollution, that is, pollution through the scene, just to watch this person. But
cigarette, cigar or beedi smoking, can also crowding has a different meaning. It refers

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Psychology
to a feeling of discomfort because there are fifteen persons trying to squeeze into four
too many people or things around us, seats in a railway compartment, each
giving us the experience of physical person is likely to experience crowding.
restriction, and sometimes the lack of Place the same fifteen persons in a large
privacy. Crowding is the person’s reaction hall, and nobody experiences crowding.
to the presence of a large number of One may ask : Is crowding always
persons within a particular area or space. experienced in high density settings, and
When this number goes beyond a certain do all people experience its negative effects
level, it causes stress to individuals caught to the same extent? If you answered both
in that situation. In this sense, crowding questions by saying ‘no’, you are right.
is another example of an environmental When we go to a fair (mela) or a wedding
stressor. ceremony, usually the physical setting has
The experience of crowding has the high density, and we enjoy it in that form.
following features : After all, what is a mela or wedding
• Feeling of discomfort, ceremony if there are very few people? On
• Loss or decrease in privacy, the other hand, if there are many people
• Negative view of the space around the sharing a small room, everyone feels
person, and uncomfortable.
• Feeling of loss of control over social The stressful effects of crowding can be
interaction. completely understood only when we look
into its consequences. A summary is given
The psychological consequences of below of the effects of crowding and high
crowding in our country have been density as reported in several research
systematically studied by several Indian studies conducted in India and other
psychologists in many Indian cities such countries.
as Allahabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Varanasi, • Crowding and high density may lead to
and Jaipur as well as some rural areas of abnormal behaviour and aggression.
Rajasthan. Some of these research This was shown many years ago in a
investigations of crowding have been study of rats. These animals were
conducted in the psychology laboratory, placed in an enclosure, initially in small
but many more have been carried out in numbers. As their population increased
commonly encountered settings such as within this enclosed space, they started
households, of fices, traf fic, public showing aggressive and unusual
transport such as autorickshaw, cinema behaviour, such as biting the tails of
halls, etc. The large population of our other rats. This aggressive behaviour
country makes crowding much more here increased to such an extent that
than in other less populated countries. ultimately the animals died in large
This feature has prompted some foreign numbers, thus decreasing the
psychologists to study the effects of population in the enclosure. Among
crowding in India. human beings also, an increase in
It should be understood that the population has sometimes been found
experience of crowding is brought about to be accompanied by an increase in
not merely because of the large number of violent crime.
persons as such, nor merely because of the • Crowding leads to lowered performance
shortage of space. It is related to density, on difficult tasks that involve cognitive
that is, the number of persons within the processes, and has adverse effects on
available space. For example, if there are memory and the emotional state. These

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Chapter 8 • Psychology and Life
negative effects are seen to a smaller Indians in general should have more
extent in people who are used to crowding tolerance than people from
crowded surroundings. other, less populated countries.
• Children growing up in very crowded Competition tolerance is the ability to
households show lower academic put up with a situation in which
performance. They also show a weaker individuals would have to compete with
tendency to continue working on a task many others for even basic resources,
if they are unsuccessful at it, compared including physical space. Since there is
to children growing up in non-crowded a greater possibility of competition for
households. They experience greater resources in a crowded setting, the
conflict with their parents, and get less reaction to that setting would be
support from their family members. influenced by the extent of tolerance for
• The nature of social interaction competition for resources.
determines the degree to which an • Cultural characteristics may determine
individual will react to crowding. For the extent to which a particular
example, if the interaction is on a environment is judged to be subjec-
happy social occasion, such as a party tively more crowded or less crowded.
or public celebration, the presence of a They may also affect the nature and
large number of persons in the same extent of negative reactions to
physical setting may cause no stress at crowding. For example, in cultures that
all. Rather, it may lead to positive emphasise the importance of the group
emotional reactions. At the same time, or collectivity over the individual, the
crowding, in turn, also influences the presence of a large number of people in
nature of social interaction. the surroundings is not taken as an
• Individuals differ in the degree to which undesirable state. On the other hand,
they show negative effects of crowding, in cultures that emphasise the
and also in the nature of these importance of the individual over the
reactions. Two kinds of tolerance can group or collectivity, the presence of
be mentioned that may explain these many other persons in the environment
individual differences, i.e. crowding around us may make us un-
tolerance and competition tolerance. comfortable. Overall, though, regardless
Crowding tolerance refers to the of whether the culture considers the
ability to mentally deal with a high group more important than the
density or crowded environment, such individual, or the other way round, it
as a crowded residence (a large number is clear that in all cultures, crowding is
of persons within a small room). People experienced as being stressful.
who are used to an environment • Personal space, or the comfortable
containing many persons around them physical space one generally likes to
(for example, individuals growing up in maintain around oneself, is affected by
a large family that lives in a small a high density environment. In a
house) develop more crowding tolerance crowded context, there is a restriction
than people who are used to only a few on personal space, and this can also be
persons around them. Our country has a cause of negative reactions to
a large population and many people live crowding.
with large families in small houses. We find many examples of people
This might lead us to expect that responding to the physical environment in

160
Psychology
terms of space. In social situations, a lift, or in a train compartment where
human beings like to maintain a certain there are too many people). In such
physical distance from the person with cramped spaces, an individual is likely to
whom they are interacting. This is called feel crowded, even though objectively, the
interpersonal physical distance, and is a number of persons is not very large. In
part of a broader concept called personal short, people react to available space as a
space, i.e. the physical space we like to part of the physical environment. When
have all around us. One reason for the freedom of movement, the sense of privacy,
negative reactions to crowding, as and personal space cannot be maintained
described earlier, is the decrease in normally, the person experiences stress
personal space. Personal space can vary and responds negatively — with a bad
between people, between situations and mood, or aggressively, and tries to leave
settings, and between cultures. Some the situation as soon as possible.
average distances have been observed in The concept of personal space is
certain cultures. Edward Hall, an important for the following reasons. First,
anthropologist, mentioned four kinds of it explains many of the negative effects of
interpersonal physical distance, depending crowding as an environmental stressor.
on the situation: Second, it tells us about social relation-
• Intimate distance (upto 18 inches) : The ships. For example, two persons sitting or
distance you maintain when you are standing close together are seen to be
talking privately to someone, or friends or related to each other. When you
interacting with a very close friend or visit your school library, and if your friend
relative. is sitting at a table and the place next to
• Personal distance (18 inches to 4 feet) : her/him is empty, you like to sit next to
The distance you maintain when you her/him. But if a person you do not know
are interacting one-to-one with a close is sitting at the table, even if the place next
friend, relative, or even with someone to her/him is empty, it is unlikely that you
not very close to you in a work setting will sit next to this person. Third, it gives
us some idea about how physical space
or other social situation.
can be modified in order to reduce stress
• Social distance (4 to 10 feet) : The
or discomfort in social situations, or to
distance you maintain when the
make social interaction more enjoyable and
interaction is formal, and not close.
fruitful.
• Public distance (10 feet to infinity) : The
Here are some simple examples.
distance you maintain in a formal
Suppose the staff in your school have to
setting, where there is a large number
decide how to arrange chairs when (i) there
of persons. For example, the distance
is a social event, such as a cultural
of an audience from a public speaker,
programme, (ii) there is a meeting between
or a teacher in a classroom.
parents and teachers, and (iii) some guest
It may be noted that these distances are speakers have been invited to address the
maintained voluntarily, keeping in mind students and teachers. Should the
the comfort experienced by the persons arrangement of chairs be the same in all
involved in the interaction. However, when three situations? You will find out more
there is a shortage of space, people are about what kind of seating arrangement
forced to maintain much smaller physical people choose in non-crowded settings
distance from each other (for instance, in if you conduct Activity 8.1.

161
Chapter 8 • Psychology and Life
Activity What Kind of Seating Arrangements Do People Prefer?
8.1
Show the following diagrams, A, B, and C to 5 persons you know, and ask them where
they would like to sit by writing ‘P’ in that place. [The ‘X’ in these pictures indicates the
person who is already sitting there.]
Note the places chosen by these 5 persons. Do these persons choose the same places?
You may repeat this exercise by comparing the chosen places, when, in diagram A, X
is a friend, in diagram B, X is someone you do not know, and in diagram C, X is someone
you know well.

A. X is your friend : B. X is someone you C. X is someone you know


you are joining do not know well, and you well, both of you are
her/him for tea have to do some work participating in a
in the canteen. with her/him as a competition, and each
team member. one wants to win.

Where would you like to sit? Indicate by writing ‘P’ in the chosen place.

Diagram A Diagram B Diagram C


X

Natural Disasters human lives and property. Sadly, they also


lead to a psychological disorder, called
Environmental stressors such as noise,
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
various forms of pollution and crowding Science and technology have now
are the result of human behaviour. By progressed sufficiently to make it possible
contrast, natural disasters are stressful for human beings to predict these events,
experiences that are the result of nature’s to some extent. Yet the psychological
fury, i.e. the consequence of disturbances effects of natural disasters need to be
in the natural environment. Common understood and remedied.
examples of natural disasters are What are the ef fects of natural
earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, cyclones, disasters? First, they leave people
and volcanic eruptions. One finds poverty-stricken, homeless, without any
examples of other disasters also, such as resources, usually along with a loss of
wars, industrial accidents such as the everything they owned. Second, the
leaking of poisonous or radioactive sudden loss of all their belongings as well
elements in industrial plants, or epidemics as their dear ones leaves people shocked
(e.g., the plague that affected some parts and stunned. This is sufficient to create a
of our country in 1994). However, wars and deep-seated psychological disorder. Natural
epidemics are human-made events, disasters are traumatic experiences, i.e.
although their effects can also be as severe emotionally wounding and shocking to
as those of natural disasters. These events those who survive the disaster. Post-
are called ‘disasters’ because they cannot traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a
be prevented, usually come without any severe psychological problem that results
warning, and result in immense damage to from traumatic events such as natural

162
Psychology
disasters. This disorder has the following with proper counselling and psychiatric
features. treatment, PTSD can be remedied at least
• The immediate reaction to a disaster is upto a level where the victims can be
commonly one of disorientation. People motivated, and helped to start life afresh.
take some time to understand the full The poor, women who have lost all their
meaning of what the disaster has done relatives, and orphaned children who are
to them. They may actually deny to survivors of natural disasters need special
themselves that something terrible has treatment and care. As in the case of the
happened. Following the immediate other environmental stressors, people react
reaction are the physical reactions. with dif ferent intensities to natural
• Physical reactions, such as bodily disasters. In general, the intensity of
exhaustion even without physical reaction is affected by :
activity, difficulty in sleeping, change in • The severity of the disaster, and the loss
the eating pattern, increased heartbeat incurred (both in terms of property and
and blood pressure, and getting startled life),
easily can be found among the victims. • The individual’s general coping ability,
• Emotional reactions, such as grief and and
fear, irritability, anger (“Why should • Other stressful experiences before the
this happen to me?”), helplessness, disaster. For example, people who have
hopelessness (“I could do nothing to experienced stress before may find it
prevent this event”), depression, more difficult to deal with yet another
sometimes absolute lack of emotion difficult and stressful situation.
(numbness), guilt feelings for having
Although we are aware that most
survived while someone else in the
natural disasters can be predicted only in
family died, blaming oneself, and lack
a limited way, there are ways of being
of interest in even routine activities.
prepared to minimise their devastating
• Cognitive reactions, such as worry,
consequences in the form of (a) warnings,
difficulty in concentration, reduced
(b) safety measures that can be taken
span of attention, confusion, loss of
immediately after the event, and
memory, or vivid memories that
(c) treatment of psychological disorders.
are unwanted (or nightmares of the
These measures, usually taken at the
event).
community level, are described below.
• Social reactions, such as withdrawal
• Warnings : If you have been listening
from others, getting into conflict with
to the radio in the recent past, you
others, having frequent arguments with
might have heard advertisements that
even loved ones, and feeling rejected or
mention what people should do when
left out. Surprisingly, very often, in the
it is announced that some natural
midst of severe emotional reactions to
disaster, such as a flood, is likely.
stress, some survivors may actually
When cyclones or high tides are
help in the healing processes. Having
predicted, fishermen are asked not to
been through the experience, yet
venture into the sea.
survived it and staying alive, these
• Safety measures : Unfortunately, in
persons may develop a positive outlook
the case of some natural disasters such
on life and, with empathy, pass on this
as earthquakes, even if prediction is
attitude to other survivors.
possible, the events come too suddenly
These reactions may last for a long time, for people to be war ned or to be
in some cases throughout life. However, mentally prepared. Therefore, tips are

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Chapter 8 • Psychology and Life
given beforehand about what to do regard to crowding, it is entirely a human-
when there is an earthquake. made problem. Natural disasters, of
• T reatment of psychological course, are beyond human control. Yet one
disorders : This includes self-help can take the necessary precautions. Some
approaches as well as professional thoughts regarding environment-friendly
treatment. Often, the very first step behaviour are stated in the next section.
involves providing material relief in the
form of food, clothing, medical help,
PROMOTING PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL
shelter, and financial help. Counselling
BEHAVIOUR
at the individual and group level is the
next step. This can take many forms, Pro-environmental behaviour includes
such as encouraging the survivors to both actions that are meant to protect the
talk about their experiences and environment from problems, and to
emotional state, and giving them time promote a healthy environment. Some
for their emotional wounds to heal. promotive actions to protect the
According to some experts who deal environment from pollution are :
with PTSD, one of the key attitudes to • Reducing air pollution by keeping
be developed in the survivors is that of vehicles in good condition, or changing
self-efficacy, i.e. the belief that ‘I can to non-fuel driven vehicles, stopping
do it!’, or ‘I can come out of this phase the practice of smoking.
successfully.’ Psychiatric help may be • Reducing noise pollution by ensuring
needed for those showing extreme stress that noise levels are low, for example,
reactions. Finally, rehabilitation in the discouraging needless honking on the
form of employment and a gradual road, or making rules regarding noisy
return to the normal routine should be music at certain hours.
undertaken. At some stage, follow-up of • Managing disposal of garbage sensibly,
the victims and survivors is also needed for example, by encouraging separation
in order to ensure that they have, of biodegradable garbage from non-
indeed, recovered sufficiently from their biodegradable waste, or composting of
traumatic experience. kitchen waste. These practices need to
be adopted both at home and in public
Activity Ask your teacher to help you to places. Special attention has to be paid
8.2 conduct the following role play, along to the management of industrial and
with your classmates. Some students
hospital waste.
enact the role of victims of a natural
disaster, showing symptoms of PTSD, • Planting trees and ensuring their care,
while some others enact the role of keeping in mind that those plants and
counsellors. Get the opinions of your trees should not be planted that have
classmates and teacher about the adverse health effects.
behaviour shown by the counsellors. • Saying ‘no’ to plastics in any form, thus
reducing toxic wastes that pollute
It may be pointed out that although water, air and the soil.
pollution due to noise, air and water is now • Reducing the non-biodegradable
here to stay, some practices on the part of packaging of consumer goods.
the community can go a long way in • Laws related to construction (especially
making our precious environment less in urban areas) that violate optimal
polluted and healthier for all of us. With environmental design.

164
Psychology
person feels that s/he has lost something
PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL CONCERNS
valuable, and is not getting something
If you ask someone to list the main what s/he deserves. Poverty refers to an
problems that our society faces today, you actual shortage of the resources necessary
can be fairly sure that two problems will for living, and thus can be somewhat
be mentioned, among others — poverty objectively defined. In deprivation, it is
and violence. Both of these phenomena more a question of perceiving or thinking
have noticeable effects on the physical as that one has got less than what one should
well as psychological health of people. It have got. Thus, a poor person may
has to be understood that poverty is not experience deprivation, but poverty is not
merely an economic problem, and violence a necessary condition for experiencing
is not merely a question of breaking the deprivation. The situation of the poor is
law. Rather, these problems can be worsened if they also experience
resolved only if we examine their deprivation. In reality, usually the poor
psychological causes. Psychologists have also feel deprived.
actively explored these issues, and have Both poverty and deprivation are
focused on the causes and consequences linked to social disadvantage, i.e. a
of these phenomena. Each of these social condition because of which some sections
concerns is discussed below. of society are not allowed to enjoy the same
privileges as the rest of society. Social
Poverty and Discrimination disadvantage poses an obstacle to the
growth of these sections. In our society, the
Everyone agrees that poverty is a curse on caste system has been largely the source
society, and the more quickly we get rid of of social disadvantage, but poverty,
it, the better it will be for society. Some irrespective of caste, has also played a role
experts define poverty mainly in economic in creating social disadvantage.
terms, and measure it in terms of income, Further, social disadvantage because
nutrition (the daily calorie intake per of caste and poverty has created the
person), and the amount spent on basic problem of discrimination. You may recall
necessities of life such as food, clothing from Chapters 6 and 7 that discrimination
and shelter. Some other indicators are also is often linked to prejudice. In the context
used, such as physical health and literacy. of poverty, discrimination refers to the
Such measures continue to be used in behaviour that makes a distinction
some contexts. However, from the social between the rich and the poor, favouring
and psychological points of view, economic the rich and the advantaged over the poor
and other physical aspects tell only a small and the disadvantaged. This distinction
part of the story about poverty. From the can be seen in matters of social interaction,
socio-psychological point of view, the most education, and employment. Thus, even if
commonly accepted definition of poverty is the poor or disadvantaged have the
that it is a condition in which there is a capability, they are kept away from
lack of necessities of life in the context of opportunities that are enjoyed by the rest
unequal distribution of wealth in society. of society. The children of the poor do not
Some authors add that the sense of get a chance to study in good schools, or
deprivation and social disadvantage are get good health facilities, and employment.
additional features of poverty. A distinction Social disadvantage and discrimination
between deprivation and poverty is that prevent the poor from improving their
deprivation refers to the state in which a socio-economic condition through their

165
Chapter 8 • Psychology and Life
own efforts, and this makes the poor even • With respect to social behaviour, the
poorer. In short, poverty and poor and deprived sections exhibit an
discrimination are related in such a way attitude of resentment towards the rest
that discrimination becomes both a cause of society.
and a consequence of poverty. Clearly, • Among the ef fects of prolonged
discrimination based on poverty or caste deprivation on cognitive functioning, it
is socially unjust, and has to be removed. has been found that intellectual
Every society wishes to do away with functioning and per for mance on
poverty. To proceed in this direction, it is tasks (such as classification, verbal
important to know the psychological reasoning, time perception, and
dimensions of poverty and deprivation, and pictorial depth perception) is lower
their major causes. among the highly deprived compared to
those who are less deprived. It has also
Psychological Characteristics and Effects of been clarified that the ef fect of
Poverty and Deprivation deprivation is because the nature of the
Considering that poverty and deprivation environment in which children grow
are among the glaring problems of our up — whether it is enriched or
society, Indian social scientists, including impoverished — makes a difference in
sociologists, psychologists and economists, their cognitive development, and this is
have undertaken systematic research on reflected in cognitive task performance.
the poor and deprived sections. Their • With regard to mental health, there is
findings and observations show that an unquestionable relationship
poverty and deprivation do have adverse between mental disorders and poverty
effects on motivation, personality, social or deprivation. The poor are more likely
behaviour, cognitive processes, and mental to suffer from specific mental illnesses
health. compared to the rich, possibly due to
• In terms of motivation, the poor have constant worriness about basic
low aspirations and low achievement necessities, feelings of insecurity, or
motivation, and high need for inability to get medical facilities,
dependence. They explain their especially for mental illnesses. In fact,
successes in terms of luck or fate rather it has been suggested that depression
than ability or hard work. In general, may be a mental disorder largely of the
they believe that events in their lives poor. Besides, the poor experience a
are controlled by factors outside them, sense of hopelessness and a loss of
rather than within them. identity, as though they do not belong
• With regard to personality, the poor and to society. As a result, they also suffer
deprived have low self-esteem, are high from emotional and adjustment
on anxiety and introversion, and dwell problems.
on the immediate present rather than
Major Causes of Poverty
being future-oriented. They prefer
smaller immediate rewards to larger Poverty is sometimes caused by natural
rewards in the long run, because in their disasters such as earthquakes, floods, and
perception, the future is too uncertain. cyclones, or man-made disasters such as
They live with a sense of hopelessness, poisonous gas leaks. When such events
powerlessness, felt injustice, and take place, people suddenly lose all their
experience a loss of identity. possessions and have to face poverty.

166
Psychology
Similarly, one generation of the poor may However, attempts can be made to help
be unable to eradicate their poverty, and people in such regions to find
the next generation continues to remain in alternative means of livelihood, and to
poverty. Apart from these causes, other provide special facilities for their
factors responsible for poverty have been education and employment.
mentioned below. However, there are some • The poverty cycle is another important
dif ferences of opinion regarding the cause of poverty that explains why
importance of these factors. poverty tends to continue among the
• The poor themselves are responsible for same sections of society. Poverty begets
their poverty. According to this view, poverty. Beginning with a low income
the poor lack the ability and motivation and lack of resources, the poor go
to put in effort, and make use of through low health and nutrition, lack
available opportunities. In general, of education, and lack of skills. This
such a view about the poor is rather leads to low employment opportunities,
negative, and does not help at all in which, in turn, continue their low
making them better. income condition, and low health and
• It is not the individual, but a belief nutrition status. The resulting lowered
system, a way of life, and values, in motivational level only makes the
which she/he is brought up, that is the situation worse; the cycle starts and
cause of poverty. This belief system, continues again. Thus, the poverty cycle
called the ‘culture of poverty’, involves an interaction between the
convinces the person that she/he will factors mentioned above, and results in
continue to remain poor, and the belief declining individual motivation, hope,
is carried over from one generation of and sense of control.
the poor to the next.
The only way to tackle the problems
• Economic, social and political factors
associated with poverty and deprivation is
together account for poverty. Because
to work actively as well as earnestly
of discrimination, certain sections of
towards the removal or reduction of
society are denied the opportunities
poverty. Some measures in that direction
needed for getting even the basic
are described below.
necessities of life. The economic system
is made to grow in a disproportionate Measures for Poverty Alleviation
way, through social and political
exploitation, so that the poor are left out Several steps are being taken by the
of the race. All these factors can be government and other groups to work
summed up in the idea of social towards alleviation or reduction of poverty
disadvantage, because of which the poor and its negative consequences.
experience social injustice, deprivation, • Breaking the poverty cycle, and helping
discrimination, and exclusion. the poor to attain self-sufficiency —
• The geographic region in which one Initially, financial relief, medical and
lives is said to be a significant cause of other facilities may have to be provided
poverty. For example, people living in to the poor. Care should be taken to see
regions (such as deserts) that have a that this financial and other help does
shortage of natural resources and a not make the poor dependent on these
harsh climate (such as extreme heat or sources for their livelihood.
cold) end up being poor. This factor • Creating a context for making the poor
cannot be controlled by human beings. take responsibility instead of blame for

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Chapter 8 • Psychology and Life
their poverty — This step will help them is provided through small loans or micro-
to regain a sense of hope, control and credit facilities. This facility is similar to the
identity. idea of the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh.
• Providing educational and employment Following the 73rd amendment of the
opportunities, following the principles Constitution, the aim is to give more power
of social justice — This step may help to people for their development through
the poor to discover their own abilities decentralised planning, and through
and skills, thus enabling them to come people’s participation. ActionAid, an
up to the level of other sections of international group dedicated to the cause
society. This will also help in reducing of the poor, has goals of making the poor
crime and violence by reducing more sensitive to their rights, to equality
frustration, and by encouraging the and justice, and ensuring for them
poor to earn their livelihood through adequate nutrition, health, and facilities for
legal rather than illegal means. education and employment. The Indian
• Measures for improved mental health — branch of this organisation has been
Many of the poverty reduction working for poverty alleviation in our
measures help to improve the physical country.
health of the poor, but their mental These measures cannot be expected to
health still remains a problem to be have magical effects in a short time. But,
tackled ef fectively. With greater if these efforts towards poverty alleviation
awareness of this problem, it is hoped are continued in the right spirit and right
that more attention will be paid to this direction, we may see positive results in
aspect of poverty. the very near future.
• Steps for empowering the poor —
Through the measures mentioned You must have heard the proverb, ‘A Activity
above, the poor should be made more bird in hand is worth two in the 8.3
powerful, capable of living indepen- bush’.
dently and with dignity, without Would people experiencing
depending on the help given by the poverty ‘Agree’ or ‘Disagree’ with this
proverb? Why? Discuss in class with
government or other groups. your teacher.
The concept of ‘Antyodaya’, or the rise
of the ‘last person’ in society, i.e. the
poorest or the most disadvantaged, has Aggression, Violence and Peace
helped a large section of the poor to get Aggression and violence are among the
uplifted to a better economic condition major problems in today’s society, and they
than they have experienced earlier. Under cover a wide range of behaviours — from
Antyodaya programmes, there is provision ragging of newcomers in educational
for health facilities, nutrition, education institutes, through child abuse, domestic
and training for employment — all the violence, murder and rape, to riots and
areas in which the poor need help. Many terrorist attacks.
of these programmes are more active in Psychologists use the term ‘aggression’
rural than in urban regions, as the rural to refer to any behaviour by one person/
poor have even fewer facilities than the persons that is intended to cause harm to
urban poor. In addition, the poor are another person/persons. It can be
encouraged to start their own small-scale demonstrated in actual action or through
businesses. Initial capital for these ventures the use of harsh words or criticism, or even

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Psychology
hostile feelings against others. Forceful 2. Physiological mechanisms : Aggression
destructive behaviour towards another could also be indirectly triggered by
person or object is described as violence. physiological mechanisms, especially by
Some psychologists distinguish aggression the activation of certain parts of the
from violence by pointing out that brain that play a role in emotional
aggressive behaviour involves the intention experience. A general physiological
to harm or injure another person, whereas state of arousal, or feeling activated,
violence may or may not involve such an might often be expressed in the form of
intention. For example, burning buses or aggression. There could be several
other public property during a riot is called factors that cause arousal. For
violence as well as aggression. But, example, as was seen earlier in this
suppose you see a person kicking a chapter, aggression can result from a
motorbike violently. Her/his intention may sense of crowding, especially in hot and
be only to start the vehicle and, therefore, humid weather.
this act will not be considered a case of 3. Child-rearing : The way an individual is
aggression. On the other hand, the person brought up often influences her/his
may also perform the violent act in order aggressiveness. For example, children
to damage the vehicle, because it belongs whose parents use physical punish-
to a person s/he dislikes. In this case, ment end up becoming more aggressive
because harm was intended, the act would than children whose parents use other
be called a case of aggression. disciplinary techniques. This could be
A distinction is also made between because the parent has set an example
instrumental aggression and hostile of aggressive behaviour, which the child
aggression. In instrumental aggression, imitates. It could also be because
the act of aggression is meant to obtain a physical punishment makes the child
certain goal or object. For example, a bully angry and resentful; as the child grows
slaps a new student in school so that up, s/he expresses this anger through
s/he can snatch the newcomer’s chocolate. aggressive behaviour.
Hostile aggression is that which is shown 4. Frustration : Aggression is an
as an expression of anger towards the expression, and consequence of
target, with the intention of harming her/ frustration, i.e. an emotional state that
him, even if the aggressor does not wish arises when a person is prevented from
to obtain anything from the victim. For reaching a goal, or attaining an object
example, a criminal may beat up a person that s/he wants. The person may be
in the community for mentioning his name very close to the goal, and yet does not
to the police. attain it. It has been found that people
in frustrated situations show more
Causes of Aggression aggression than those who are not
Social psychologists have explored the frustrated. In one of the experiments
issue of aggression for several years, and conducted to examine the effects of
have come up with the following views frustration, children were prevented
about the causes of aggression. from getting some attractive toys that
1. Inborn tendency : Aggressiveness is an were visible through a screen. As a
inborn tendency among human beings result, these children were found to be
(as it is in animals). Biologically, this more destructive in play than those
inborn tendency may be meant for self- children who were allowed access
defence. to toys.

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Chapter 8 • Psychology and Life
An American psychologist, John • Observing an aggressive model : Many
Dollard along with his collaborators, research studies conducted by
conducted research specifically to examine psychologists such as Albert Bandura
the frustration-aggression theory. This and his collaborators show the role of
theory proposes that it is frustration that modelling in learning aggression. If a
leads to aggression. As expected, frustrated child observes aggression and violence
persons did demonstrate more aggression on television, s/he may start imitating
than non-frustrated persons. Moreover, that behaviour. Without doubt violence
such aggression was often shown towards and aggression shown on television and
a weaker person who was unlikely, the film media have a power ful
or unable, to react to the aggression. influence on the viewers, especially the
This phenomenon has been called children. But the question is : Does
displacement. Often it is observed that merely seeing violence on television
members of a majority group in society make a person aggressive? Or are there
may be prejudiced (Chapter 6) against other situational factors that actually
members of a minority group, and may make a person show aggression? The
show aggressive behaviour towards a answer is obtained through information
minority group member, such as using about specific situational factors.
abusive language, or even physically • Anger-provoking action by others : If a
assaulting the minority group member. person watches a movie that shows
This may be a case of displaced aggression violence, and is then made to feel angry
arising out of frustration. (for example, through insults or threats,
Later on, as more information was physical aggression, or dishonesty) by
gathered about the causes of aggression, another person, s/he may be more
it became clear that frustration is not the likely to show aggression than if s/he
only, or even a major cause of aggression. is not made to feel angry. In studies
Observations showed that (i) being that tested the frustration-aggression
frustrated does not necessarily make a theory, provoking the person and
person aggressive, and (ii) many other making her/him angry was one way of
situational factors may lead to aggression. inducing frustration.
Some of these situational factors are • Availability of weapons of aggression :
described below. Some researchers have found that
• Lear ning : Among human beings, observing violence leads to a greater
aggression is largely the result of likelihood of aggression on the part of
learning rather than an expression of the observer only if weapons of
an inbor n tendency. Lear ning of aggression like a stick, pistol or knife
aggression can take place in more than are easily available.
one mode. Individuals may exhibit • Personality factors : When interacting
aggression because they have found it with people we notice that some of
rewarding (for example, hostile them seem to be ‘naturally’ more hot-
aggression allows the aggressive person tempered, and show more aggression
to get what s/he wants). This would be than others. We may conclude that
a case of lear ning through direct aggressiveness is thus a personal
reinforcement. Individuals also learn to quality. It has been observed that
be aggressive by observing others people who have very low self-esteem
showing aggression. This is a case of and feel insecure may behave
learning through modelling. aggressively in order to ‘boost their ego’.

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Psychology
Likewise, people who have very high creating the appropriate attitude towards
self-esteem may also show aggression, the general problem of growing aggression.
because they feel that others do not • Parents and teachers should be
place them at the high ‘level’ at which specially careful not to encourage or
they have placed themselves. reward aggression in any form. The use
• Cultural factors : The culture in which of punishment to bring about discipline
one grows up can teach its members to also needs to be changed.
be aggressive or not by encouraging • Opportunities to observe and imitate
and praising aggressive behaviour, or the behaviour of aggressive models
discouraging and criticising such should be reduced drastically.
behaviour. Some tribal communities are Portraying aggression as heroic
traditionally peace-loving, whereas behaviour should be particularly
others see aggression as necessary for avoided, because this may set the stage
survival. for learning through observation.
• Poverty and social injustice may be a
Reducing Aggression and Violence : Some prominent cause of aggression, because
Strategies they can cause frustration in certain
sections of society. Implementing social
Knowing that aggression can have more justice and equality in society may help
than one cause, can anything be done to in reducing frustration levels and
reduce aggression and violence in society? thereby curb aggressive tendencies at
Some of the remedies suggested for least to some extent.
curbing violence and aggression are • Apart from these strategies, at the level
described below. It may not be easy to of the community or society, it is
ensure a society or environment that is free important to inculcate a positive
from frustrating situations. However, the attitude towards peace. We should not
learning of aggression can be curtailed by only reduce aggression, but should also

Box
Mahatma Gandhi on Non-violence: Why Does Non-violence Work? 8.2
“Non-violence is an active force of the highest order. It is the soul-force or the power of
the Godhead within us. Imperfect man cannot grasp the whole of that Essence — he would
not be able to bear its full blaze, but even an infinitesimal fraction of it, when it becomes
active within us, can work wonders.
I am not a visionary; I claim to be a practical idealist. The religion of non-violence
is not meant for the rishis or saints. It is meant for the common people as well. Non-
violence is the law of our species as violence is the law of the brute …. The dignity of
man requires obedience to a higher law — to the strength of the spirit. Non-violence does
not require any outside or outward training. It simply requires the will not to kill even
in retaliation and the courage to face death without revenge. This is no sermon on ahimsa
but cold reason and the statement of a universal law. Given the unquenchable faith in
the law, no provocation should prove too great for the exercise of forbearance.
With satya (truth) combined with ahimsa (non-violence), you can bring the world under
your feet. Satyagrah in its essence is nothing but the introduction of truth and gentleness
in the political, i.e. national life …. By its very nature, non-violence cannot seize power,
nor can that be its goal. However, non-violence can do more; it can effectively control and
guide power without capturing the machinery of government. That is its beauty.”

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Chapter 8 • Psychology and Life
actively develop and maintain peace. as a result of fully functioning machine
Our own cultural values have always which has no blockage. The different
favoured peaceful and harmonious systems of medicine developed in different
co-existence. The father of our nation, cultures are based on these models. There
Mahatma Gandhi, gave the world a new is another fact that you may want to know.
view on peace that was not simply the The World Health Reports by the WHO
absence of aggression. This was the show that in developing countries such as
idea of non-violence, which he himself in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, more
practiced throughout his life (see people die due to communicable diseases
Box 8.2). including HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis (TB),
malaria, respiratory infections, and
Health nutritional deficiencies. In the developed
countries, the leading causes are various
Our understanding about health and well-
cardiovascular diseases, cancers, and
being has undergone a major change in
psychiatric disorders. Such differences may
recent times. It is now conceded that
be explained in terms of how these societies
various health outcomes are not only a
are economically and socially structured
function of disease but the way we think and their psychological underpinnings.
and behave. This finds reflection in the At the individual level, psychologists
definition of ‘health’ provided by the World point to various factors such as health-
Health Organisation (WHO), which related cognitions including attitudes and
includes biological, psychological and beliefs, behaviours and social factors which
social aspects of health. It focuses not only are associated with physical well-being or
on physical but also on mental and illness.
spiritual aspects of health. We will concern (a) Cognitions : You may have observed
ourselves with physical health in this how some people are quick to seek doctor’s
section as you have already read about help while others do not if they are
mental health in the previous chapters. suffering from such symptoms as nausea,
Health and illness are a matter of cold, diarrhoea, smallpox, etc. The
degree. One may be suffering from a variations in seeking help are due to
physically disabling disease but may be differences in mental representations
quite healthy otherwise. You may recall the people make relating to disease, its severity
names of Baba Amte or Stephen Hawkins, and the causes of disease. One may not
both of whom suf fer from crippling seek doctor’s help for a cold if one
diseases but have made great attributes it to eating curd or for leprosy
contributions in their fields. We also find or smallpox if these are attributed to God’s
that people differ across cultures in their annoyance.
thinking about when and how people fall The level of awareness or information
ill and, therefore, in the models which they about disease; and beliefs about how it is
use in prevention of diseases and caused; and about possible ways of
promotion of health. There are traditional relieving the distress or improving health
cultures like Chinese, Indian, and Latin affect help seeking behaviour as well as
American which hold that good health sticking to a doctor’s regimen. Another
results from the harmonious balance of factor which influences our help-seeking
various elements in the body, and ill-health from a doctor is the perception of pain,
results when such a balance is lost. On the which is a function of personality, anxiety
contrary, the Western cultures view health and social norms.

172
Psychology
(b) Behaviour : Psychologists have found a mixed impact. Most of the research
strong evidence which shows that studies have been carried out on children
behaviours we engage in and our lifestyles because they are seen as being more
greatly influence health. People differ vulnerable to the impact of television than
greatly in terms of such behavioural risk adults.
factors as smoking or tobacco use, alcohol First, television provides a large amount
and drug abuse, and unsafe sexual of infotainment in an attractive form, and
behaviour, diet and physical exercise. It is in the visual mode, for which it became a
well accepted now that such behaviours powerful medium of instruction. At the
are associated with incidence of coronary same time, because the programmes are
heart disease (CHD), cancer, and HIV/AIDS attractive, children spend huge amounts of
besides many other diseases. A new time watching them. This reduces their
discipline called Behaviour Medicine has habit of reading and writing, and also their
emerged, which seeks to alleviate stress outdoor activities such as playing.
due to diseases through modification in Second, television watching may have
behaviour. an ef fect on children’s ability to
(c) Social and cultural factors : There is concentrate on one target, their creativity
now a growing body of research which and ability to understand, and also their
shows that social and cultural differences social interactions. On one hand, there are
may influence our physiological responses, excellent programmes that emphasise
and may not be the same across all positive interpersonal attitudes and provide
cultures. For instance, the relationship useful factual infor mation, teaching
between hostility and anger and CHD is children how to design and construct
not found to be the same in all cultures, certain objects. On the other hand, these
(e.g., in India and China). While interaction programmes may distract young viewers
between culture and physiological and inter fere with their ability to
responses requires more evidence, social concentrate on one target.
and cultural norms associated with roles, Third, about forty years ago a serious
and gender, etc. greatly influence our debate was raised in the USA and Canada
health behaviour. In Indian society, regarding the effect of television viewing on
medical advice by or for a female is often aggressiveness and violence among the
delayed because of various reasons — they viewers, especially children. As discussed
are less valued, or because of the belief earlier in the context of aggression, the
that they are hardy, or the shame results of research showed that watching
associated with the disease. violence on television was, indeed, linked
to greater aggressiveness in the viewers. If
Impact of Television on Behaviour the viewers were children, they tended to
There is no doubt that television has been imitate what they saw; they were not
a useful product of technological progress. mature enough to think of the
However, from the point of its psychological consequences of such behaviour. However,
impact on human beings, both positive and some other studies pointed out that merely
negative effects have been observed. Many watching violence on the television does
research studies have inquired into the not make children more aggressive. Other
effects of television viewing on cognitive factors need to be present in the situation.
processes and social behaviour, especially Other research findings show that
in Western cultures. Their findings show watching violence may actually reduce the

173
Chapter 8 • Psychology and Life
natural aggressive tendency of the viewers : evidence to pose a warning to unlimited
what is ‘bottled up’ gets an outlet, and thus television watching.
cleans the system, like a choked drainpipe
being cleaned. This process is called
Make a list of all those pieces of Activity
catharsis. 8.4
information that you obtained by
Fourth, in the case of adults as well as watching TV in the last one week,
children, it is said that a consumerist and write down the answers to the
attitude has developed, and this is due to following questions :
television watching. Numerous products Which shows did you watch?
are advertised, and it is very natural for the Which pieces of infor mation
viewer to get carried away. indicate a positive form of behaviour,
and which ones indicate a negative
No matter how these results are form?
interpreted, there seems to be sufficient

Key Terms
Aggression, Air pollution, Communicable diseases, Competition tolerance, Crowding tolerance, Crowding,
Disaster, Displacement, Ecology, Environment, Environmental psychology, Instrumental perspective,
Modelling, Noise, Peace, Personal space, Physical environment, Post-traumatic stress disorders, Poverty
alleviation, Poverty, Pro-environmental behaviour, Self-efficacy, Social Environment, Spiritual perspective,
Transactional approach.

• We take renewable and non-renewable resources from the physical environment to


meet the needs of growing population, rapid industrialisation and human consumption.
Undesirable human activities have altered the conditions in the environment that
have resulted in pollution, noise, crowding and intensified the occurrence of natural
disasters.
• The environmental crises and their solutions can be understood through transactional
and traditional Indian approach.
• Pollution adversely affects our mental and physical health and psychological
processes.
• Noise also adversely affects our thinking, memory and learning. The elevated sound
levels can cause permanent hearing loss, increase heartbeat, blood pressure and
muscle tension.
• Crowding is the psychological feeling of not having enough space available. Crowding
negatively affects cognitive performance, interpersonal relationships, and physical
and mental health.
• A natural disaster disrupts the normalcy within a society and causes damage,
destruction and human suffering. In the aftermath of a disaster, post-traumatic stress
disorder is the most common feature. Counselling the disaster-affected people and
creating scope for collective activities can reduce such stress. Also, preparedness of
individuals and communities to respond rapidly and effectively to possible disasters
can lessen the adverse effects.
• Pro-environmental behaviour includes both actions that are meant to protect the
environment from problems, and to promote a healthy environment.
• Social and psychological concerns arise out of vexed problems that affect a large
segment of people in a society.

174
Psychology
• Lower economic status entails poverty. It relates to deprivation and disadvantage. It
adversely affects cognitive performance, personality and social behaviour. Many
programmes are being implemented for social and economic empowerment of the
poor.
• Aggression and violence are among the major problems in today’s society. The learning
of aggression can be curtailed by creating the appropriate attitude towards the general
problem of growing aggression.
• Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. The challenge
before the nation is to reduce communicable diseases like diarrhoea, tuberculosis
and HIV/AIDS, and non-communicable diseases like anaemia, cancer, diabetes and
stress-related disorders. Positive lifestyle habits can induce positive emotions, physical
fitness and reduce the health problems.
• Both positive and negative effects of television viewing on human behaviour have
been observed. Most of the research studies have been carried out on children because
they are seen as being more vulnerable to the impact of television than adults.

Review Questions
1. What do you understand by the term ‘environment’? Explain the different perspectives
to understand the human-environment relationship.
2. “Human beings affect and are affected by the environment”. Explain this statement
with the help of examples.
3. What is noise? Discuss the effects of noise on human behaviour.
4. What are the salient features of crowding? Explain the major psychological consequences
of crowding.
5. Why is the concept of ‘personal space’ important for human beings? Justify your answer
with the help of an example.
6. What do you understand by the term ‘disaster’? List the symptoms of post-traumatic
stress disorder. How can it be remedied?
7. What is pro-environmental behaviour? How can the environment be protected from
pollution? Suggest some strategies.
8. How is ‘poverty’ related to ‘discrimination’? Explain the major psychological effects of
poverty and deprivation.
9. Distinguish between ‘instrumental aggression’ and ‘hostile aggression’. Suggest some
strategies to reduce aggression and violence.
10. Discuss the psychological impact of television viewing on human behaviour. How can
its adverse consequences be reduced? Explain.

Project 1. Conduct a survey of 10 households in your locality. Prepare an interview schedule and
Ideas meet the head of each household and ask: What pollutions do you experience? What
are the effects of each pollution on the health of your family members? Summarise the
data, and divide the health effects into physical and mental symptoms or diseases.
Prepare a report and offer suggestions on how pollution can be abetted.
2. Conduct a survey of 20 elderly people in your locality to understand their social problems
and their remedies. Prepare a list of the social problems, and write them on cards (4” ˆ
4”). Request each elderly person to arrange the cards in order of priority, keeping the
most important social problem first and the least important social problem last. Enter
the rank in your schedule against each problem and ask the causes and remedies of
each problem arranged on the card. Prepare a report and discuss it with your teacher.

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Chapter 8 • Psychology and Life
Weblinks
http://library.thinkquest.org/25009/causes/causes.cycle.html
http://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/99/2.18.99/crowding.html
http://www.helpguide.org/mental/psychological_trauma.htm
http://joannecantor.com/montrealpap_fin.htm

Pedagogical Hints
1. Students could be asked to share
their views, by giving real-life
examples, on psychological effects
of noise, pollution, crowding and
natural disasters on human
behaviour.
2. Students may be encouraged to
think of various initiatives taken by
the government and the NGOs
working in the field of environment,
while discussing the topic of
pr omoting pro-environmental
behaviour.
3. Teachers could adopt strategies like
questions, stories, anecdotes,
games, experiments, discussion,
dialogues, examples, analogies,
role-playing, etc. which are helpful
in promoting peace-related values
while transacting the contents of the
chapter.
4. In the topic of psychology and social
concerns, teachers should attempt
to shift from mere imparting of
infor mation to debate and
discussion. This approach to
learning will keep the students alive
to social realities.

176
Psychology
As you have already studied in the previous class, psychology began as an
application-oriented discipline. Psychological testing stands as a prime
example of psychology in action. Psychology touches on many questions
related to our lives. For example, what kind of personality make-up is
Introduction required to become a successful human being? Or what would be the right
vocation for a student studying in Class XII ? Similarly, there are other
questions and curiosities about human beings which psychologists are asked
to answer.
Psychology has two kinds of application-related images: first, as a
service-oriented discipline and second, as a scientific method-driven research
discipline. Both of these are interrelated and inseparable. It would be
important to learn that there are certain factors which contribute in making
psychology application-oriented. First, psychologists have found, both in
the past and present, that solutions to many problems faced by the
individuals, groups, organisations and societies require an understanding
of psychological principles. As problems encountered by individuals as well
as societies have become more evident and acute, psychologists have
responded with concrete solutions. For instance, rapid increase in depressive
tendencies and suicidal rates among adolescents is one such area, where
psychological knowledge dedicated to the issues of adolescent development
is utilised for getting a clearer understanding of the occurrence of these
phenomena, and certain intervention models are developed to assist the
youth experiencing such problems early in their lives. The other reason is
that expertise of psychologists has been highly valued in the marketplace.
Over the past few years, there is a growing acceptability and demand of
psychology as a profession. Various sections of society have developed a
keen interest towards integrating the knowledge of psychology within their
core activities. It can be seen particularly in the army or in the field of
education, where in some states it has become mandatory for the schools
to have a trained counsellor, in the field of management, which seeks help
of psychologists to combat problems related to recruitment and assessment,
employee behaviour, workplace stress, etc., in management of health-related
problems and more recently even in sports. These are not the only areas.
Almost all areas of life are calling for help from psychologists.

One aspect common to all the applied field is required to have interest in other
areas within psychology is a universal people and exhibits a willingness to provide
agreement on the basic assumptions about help by using her/his knowledge of the
human nature and the role of a discipline. One can find active involvement
psychologist in different settings. It is of a psychologist in obtaining the
generally assumed that psychologists have client’s history, her/his socio-cultural
interest in people, their abilities and environment, assessment of her/his
temperaments. A psychologist from any personality and also on other important

178
Psychology
dimensions. One might think that client is of how to differentiate between a pseudo-
a special term, which is mostly used in a psychologist from a real psychologist.
clinical or counselling set-up. In An answer can be constructed by
psychology, a client may refer to an asking such questions like professional
individual/group/organisation who on training, educational background,
her/his own seeks help, guidance or institutional af filiation, and her/his
intervention from a psychologist with experience in providing service. However,
respect to any problem faced by her/him. what is critical is training as a researcher
The term ‘skill’ may be defined as and internalisation of certain professional
proficiency, facility or dexterity that is values. It is now recognised that the
acquired or developed through training and knowledge of tools used by psychologists,
experience. The Webster dictionary defines their methods and theories are required to
it as “possession of the qualities required develop psychological expertise. For
to do something or get something done”. example, a professional psychologist
American Psychological Association addresses the problem at the scientific
(1973) in their task force constituted level. They take their problem to the
with the objective to identify skills laboratory or study it in field settings to
essential for professional psychologists answer various problems. S/he tries to find
recommended at least three sets of skills. the answer in terms of mathematical
These are: assessment of individual probability. Only then does s/he arrive at
differences, behaviour modification skills, psychological principles or laws that can
and counselling and guidance skills. be depended upon.
Recognition and application of these skills Here, another distinction should be
and competencies have strengthened the made. Some psychologists carry out
foundation and practices of applied research to propound or investigate
psychology in a positive way. How can one theoretical formulations while others are
develop into a professional psychologist? concerned with our daily life activities and
behaviour. We need both types of
DEVELOPING AS AN EFFECTIVE psychologists. We need some scientists to
PSYCHOLOGIST develop theories and others to find
solutions to human problems. It is
Most people think that they are some kind important to know about the conditions
of psychologists. We, at times, talk about and competencies that are necessary
intelligence, inferiority complex, identity besides research skills for a psychologist.
crisis, mental blocks, attitude, stress, There are conditions and competencies for
communication barriers and so many other psychologists which have come to be
terms. Generally people pick up such recognised internationally.
terms from popular writings and media. They cover a range of knowledge that
There are a lot of common sense notions a psychologist should possess when
about human behaviour that one develops entering the profession after completing
in the course of their lives. Some regularity their education and training. These apply
in human behaviour is frequently observed to practitioners, academicians, and
by us to warrant generalisation. This kind researchers whose roles involve consulting
of everyday amateur psychology often with students, business, industry, and
misfires, sometimes even proves broader community. It is recognised that
disastrous. There still remains a question it is difficult to develop, implement and

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Chapter 9 • Developing Psychological Skills
measure competencies required in a environmental settings, or are acting as
subject like psychology as the criteria for consultants. These skills include personal
specification, identification and evaluation as well as intellectual skills. It is expected
are not yet fully agreed upon. that it will not be proper to provide any
The basic skills or competencies which form of professional training (in clinical or
psychologists have identified for becoming organisational fields) to students who do
an effective psychologist fall into three not possess these skills. Once a student
broad sections, namely, (a) General Skills, has these skills, subsequent training in
(b) Observational Skills, and (c) Specific her/his area of specialisation would only
Skills. These are discussed in detail here. refine and further hone these skills
required by a professional within her/his
field of specialisation. Some examples of
GENERAL SKILLS
such skills are given in Box 9.1.
These skills are generic in nature and are
needed by all psychologists irrespective of OBSERVATIONAL SKILLS
their field of specialisation. These skills are
essential for all professional psychologists, A great deal of what psychologists as
whether they are working in the field of researchers and practitioners do in the
clinical and health psychology, industrial/ field is to pay attention, watch and listen
organisational, social, educational, or in carefully. They use all the senses, noticing

Box
9.1 Intellectual and Personal Skills
1. Interpersonal Skills: ability to listen and be empathic, to develop respect for/interest in
others’ cultures, experiences, values, points of view, goals and desires, fears, openness
to receive feedback, etc. These skills are expressed verbally and/or non-verbally.
2. Cognitive Skills: ability to solve problems, engage in critical thinking and organised
reasoning, and having intellectual curiosity and flexibility.
3. Affective Skills: emotional control and balance, tolerance/understanding of interpersonal
conflict, tolerance of ambiguity and uncertainty.
4. Personality/Attitude: desire to help others, openness to new ideas, honesty/integrity/
value ethical behaviour, personal courage.
5. Expressive Skills: ability to communicate one’s ideas, feelings and information in verbal,
non-verbal, and written forms.
6. Reflective Skills: ability to examine and consider one’s own motives, attitudes, behaviours
and ability to be sensitive to one’s own behaviour or others.
7. Personal Skills: personal organisation, personal hygiene, time management, and
appropriate dress.

Sensitivity to Diversity : Individual and Cultural Differences


• Knowledge of self (one’s own attitudes, values, and related strengths/limitations) as
one operates in the professional settings with diverse others.
• Knowledge about the nature and impact of individual and cultural diversity in different
situations.
• Ability to work effectively with diverse backgrounds in assessment, treatment, and
consultation.
• Ability to respect and appreciate different cultural norms and beliefs.
• Being sensitive to one’s preferences and also to one’s preference for own group.
• Ability to promote diversity in cultural beliefs and respecting it to promote positive life
outcomes.

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Psychology
what is seen, heard, smelt, tasted, or care not to disclose any information to
touched. A psychologist, thus, is like an anyone.
instrument that absorbs all sources of You are already familiar with two major
information from the environment. You approaches to observation, viz. naturalistic
have already studied about observation in observation and participant observation. Let
Class XI. We will, therefore, focus more on us now consider developing skills about
developing observational skills this year. them.
A psychologist engages in observing Naturalistic Observation is one of the
various facets of surroundings including primary ways of learning about the way
people and varying events. To begin with, people behave in a given setting. Suppose,
a psychologist may begin with carefully you want to learn how people behave in
scrutinising the physical setting in order response to a heavy discount provided by
to capture its “atmosphere”. S/he might a company while visiting a shopping mall.
look at the colour of the floor/ceiling, size For this, you could visit the shopping mall
of the window/doors, type of lighting, where the discounted items are showcased
artefacts/paintings/sculptures, etc. These and systematically observe what people do
small, subtle, and irrelevant looking and say before and after the purchases
signals influence human behaviour, which have been made. Making comparison of
is why a psychologist notes such signals this kind may provide you with useful
in the surroundings. In addition to insights into what is going on.
physical surroundings, a psychologist Participant Observation is the
actively engages in observing people and variation of the method of naturalistic
their actions. This may include the observation. Here the observer is actively
demographic features (age, gender, stature, involved in the process of observing by
race, etc.), ways of dealing and relating becoming an active member of the setting
with others, pattern of behaviours in the where the observation takes place. For
presence of others, etc. A psychologist instance, for the problem mentioned above,
records such details because something of an observer may take a part-time job in a
significance may be revealed in the process shopping mall showroom to become an
of observation. The following points are insider in order to observe variations in the
taken into consideration while making an behaviour of customers. This technique is
observation: widely used by anthropologists whose
• Observe patiently; objective is to gain a firsthand perspective
• Pay close attention to your physical of a system from within which otherwise
surroundings — who, what, when, may not be readily available to an outsider.
where, and how;
• Be aware of people’s reactions, Advantages and Disadvantages of
emotions, and motivations; Observation
• Ask questions that can be answered • Its major advantage is that it allows
while observing; behaviour to be seen and studied in its
• Be yourself, give information about natural setting.
yourself, if asked; • People from outside, or those already
• Observe with an optimistic curiosity; working in a setting, can be trained to
and use it.
• Be ethical, you have to respect privacy, • One disadvantage of it is that events
norms of people you are observing; take being observed are subject to bias due

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Chapter 9 • Developing Psychological Skills
to the feelings of the people involved as skills in assessment, facilitation and
well as of the observers. consultation, behavioural skills to bring
• Generally day-to-day activities in a about individual, group, team and
given setting are fairly routine, which organisational development besides
can go unnoticed by the observer. research skills, etc. Though, specific skills
• Another potential pitfall is that the and competencies are required for a very
actual behaviour and responses of specialised professional functioning,
others may get influenced by the nonetheless, all skill sets do overlap quite
presence of the observer, thus, a bit. They are not exclusive to an area.
defeating the very purpose of Relevant specific skills and competencies
observation. can be classified as follows:
(a) Communication Skills
• Speaking
Activity Evaluating Your Interpersonal • Active listening
9.1 Skills
• Body language or non-verbal skills
Write down on a piece of paper how (b) Psychological Testing Skills
you would describe yourself on the (c) Interviewing Skills
following aspects : (d) Counselling Skills
(a) Friendliness
(b) Mood • Empathy
(c) Sense of humour • Positive regard
(d) Career motivation • Authenticity
(e) Ability to work in teams and
groups Communication Skills
(f) Independence
(g) Desire to be accepted by others The skills we are going to discuss may
(h) Discipline appear abstract. You will, however,
Now form groups of three to five understand them better when you engage
members. Have each member
evaluated by other members in the
in exercises related to them. Let us
group as best as you can on the understand the basics of communication
dimensions given above. Each member process and see what role it plays in
concludes by analysing the similarities fostering relationships and personal
and differences between their self- effectiveness. Learning how to be an
perceptions on these dimensions and effective communicator is not just an
how they are perceived by other
members of the groups.
academic exercise. It is one of the most
important skills you will need to succeed
in life. Your success in this class may well
SPECIFIC SKILLS depend on your ability to communicate.
For example, to do well you should be able
These skills are core/basic to the field of to ask and answer questions, summarise
psychological service. For example, opinions, distinguish facts from opinions,
psychologists working in clinical settings and interact fruitfully with your peers and
need to be trained in various techniques teachers. For this, you will also need
of therapeutic interventions, psychological listening skills in order to comprehend the
assessment, and counselling. Similarly, information presented in class and what
organisational psychologists working in the others say verbally or non-verbally. You
organisational context need to have will be required to have good presentation

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Psychology
Box
Characteristics of Communication 9.2
Communication is dynamic because the process is constantly in a state of change. As the
expectations, attitudes, feelings, and emotions of the persons who are communicating
change, the nature of their communication also changes.
Communication is continuous because it never stops, whether we are asleep or awake we
are always processing ideas or thoughts. Our brain remains active.
Communication is irreversible because once we send a message we cannot take it back.
Once we have made a slip of tongue, given a meaningful glance, or engaged in an emotional
outburst, we cannot erase it. Our apologies or denials can make it light but cannot stamp
out what was communicated.
Communication is interactive because we are constantly in contact with other people and
with ourselves. Others react to our speech and actions, and we react to our own speech
and actions, and then react to those reactions. Thus, a cycle of action and reaction is the
basis of our communication.

skills to give briefings or to present reports interview and small group discussions.
on projects that are part of classroom Public communication is characterised by
assignments. So, what do we mean by a speaker sending a message to an
communication process. It can be said that audience. It may be direct, such as
communication is a conscious or face-to-face messages delivered by the
unconscious, intentional or unintentional speaker to an audience, or indirect,
process in which feelings and ideas are such as message relayed over radio or
expressed as verbal and/or non-verbal television.
messages that are sent, received, and
comprehended. The characteristics of Components of Human Communication
communication are outlined in Box 9.2. When we communicate, we communicate
The process of communication can be selectively. That is, from the wide range of
accidental (having no intent), expressive repertory of words, actions, etc. available
(resulting from the emotional state of the to us, we choose that which we believe is
person), or rhetorical (resulting from the best suited for the idea we wish to express.
specific goal of the communicator). Human When we communicate, we encode (i.e.,
communication occurs on the intra- take ideas, give them meaning and put
personal, interpersonal, and public levels. them into message forms), and send the
Intrapersonal communication involves idea through a channel. It is composed of
communicating with yourself. It en- our primary signal system based on our
compasses such activities as thought senses (i.e., seeing, hearing, tasting,
processes, personal decision making, smelling, and touching). The message is
and focusing on self. Interpersonal sent to someone who receives it using her
communication refers to the or his primary signal system. S/he
communication that takes place between decodes (i.e., translates message into
two or more persons who establish a understandable forms). For example, you
communicative relationship. Forms of may say that you heard a bell or an object
interpersonal communication include face- feels soft. These are examples of verbal
to-face or mediated conversations, communication which express how you

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Chapter 9 • Developing Psychological Skills
understand the signals your senses have B). Your friend received the message using
received. You can also respond at a non- her sensory agent (ears) and decoded it
verbal level. You touch a hot stove, your (understood that you want a pen). Your
fingers pull away quickly, and your eyes friend’s feedback (the word “yes” and
well up with tears. The pulling away of appropriate behaviour of giving a pen to
fingers and welling up of eyes with tears you) indicated that the message was
will communicate to an onlooker the pain successfully received and decoded. The
suffered by you. communication would have been still
The model given in Figure 9.1 shows effective if she had said, “Sorry, I cannot,
the process of communication involving because I am carrying only one pen.”
different stages. You may remember that the act of
As you can see that in any speech itself is not communication.
communication process, the degree to Speech is only a biological act; the
which the communication is effective utterance of sound, possibly the use of
depends on the communicators’ mutual language. Communication is broader; it
understanding of the signals or codes involves a relationship among two or more
being used in transmitting a message and people in which they attempt to share
in receiving. Suppose you are about to meaning so that the intent of message
take an examination and suddenly realise received is the same as the intent of the
that you have not brought your pen to message sent.
class. You ask your friend, “Do you have
an extra pen that you can spare for me?” Speaking
She says “yes” and gives you the pen. One important component of communi-
You have just participated in an cation is speaking with the use of
effective communication transaction. You language. Language involves use of
(communicator A) encoded a message (you symbols which package meaning within
need a pen) and used a channel for them. To be effective, a communicator
transmitting it (vocal chords producing must know how to use language
sound waves) to your friend (communicator appropriately. Because language is

Fig.9.1 : Basic Communication Process

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Psychology
symbolic, it is necessary to be as clear and posture, movement, and appearance,
precise as possible when using words. which provide important cues that may not
Communication takes place within a be obvious merely by listening to the verbal
context. So one needs to consider the part of the message.
other’s frame of reference, that is, the
context used by the sender to say Attention
something. Also whether s/he shares your
Once the stimulus, i.e. the word or visual,
interpretation. If not, it is important to
or both, is received, it reaches the attention
adjust your vocabulary level and choice of
stage of the human processing system. In
words to fit the level of the listener.
this phase, the other stimuli recede so that
Remember that slang expressions, words
unique to a culture or region, and we can concentrate on specific words or
euphemism can sometimes become visual symbols. Normally your attention is
obstacles in good communication. divided between what you are attempting
to listen to, and what is happening around
Listening you, and what is going on in your mind.
Consider, you are watching a movie. The
Listening is an important skill that we use person in front of you is constantly
daily. Your academic success, employment whispering to her/his friend. There is a
achievement, and personal happiness, to buzz in the sound system. You are
a large extent, depend upon your ability to
also worried about the forthcoming
listen effectively. At first, listening may
examination. So your attention is being
appear to you as a passive behaviour, as
pulled in different directions. Divided
it involves silence. But this image of
attention makes it difficult for you to
passivity is far from true. Listening
receive signals or messages.
requires a person to be attentive. S/he
should be patient, non-judgmental and yet
Paraphrasing
have the capacity to analyse and
respond. How would you know that someone has
Hearing and listening are not the same. been listening? Ask her/him to restate
Hearing is a biological activity that involves what you had said. The person in doing
reception of a message through sensory this does not repeat your exact words.
channels. It is only a part of listening, a S/he makes a summary of the ideas just
process that involves reception, attention, received and provides you with a
assignment of meaning, and listener’s restatement of what s/he understands.
response to the message presented. This is called ‘paraphrasing’. It allows you
to understand how much s/he understood
Reception of what was communicated. If someone
The initial step in the listening process is cannot repeat or write down a summary of
the reception of a stimulus or message. A what was said, then s/he probably did not
message could be auditory and/or visual. get the whole message or did not
The hearing process is based on a complex understand it. We can keep this in mind
set of physical interactions that take place when we are listening to our teacher in the
involving the ear and the brain. In addition class or to others. Try to paraphrase what
to using the hearing mechanism, people you heard and if you cannot do so, you
listen through their visual system. They should seek immediate clarification, if
observe a person’s facial expressions, possible.

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Chapter 9 • Developing Psychological Skills
Try verbally paraphrasing the next time listening by being a silent communicator
you are engaged in a demanding when receiving messages from seniors or
conversation, such as when you are elders. Some cultures focus on controlling
receiving directions or when you are in a attention. Buddhism, for instance, has a
conflict situation with a friend. Repeat notion called ‘mindfulness’. This means
to the speaker what you think she or he devoting your complete attention to
had just said in order to check whether whatever you are doing. T raining in
you both received and understood the ‘mindfulness’ which starts in childhood
same thing. You will be surprised how can help to develop longer attention spans
many times conflicts result from and therefore, lead not only to better
miscommunication. listening but also to sympathetic listening.
However, in many cultures, such listening
Assignment of Meaning enhancing concepts are not present.
The process of putting the stimulus we Box 9.3 gives some tips to improve your
have received into some predetermined listening skills.
category develops as we acquire language.
We develop mental categories for Body Language
interpreting the message we receive. For Do you believe that when you commu-
instance, our categorising system for the nicate with another person, your words
word ‘cheese’ may include such factors as communicate the complete meaning of the
a dairy product, its peculiar taste and message? If your answer is yes, then you
colour, all of which help us to relate the are mistaken. We all know that it is
word ‘cheese’ to the sense in which it is possible to communicate a great deal even
used. without using verbal language. We are
aware that non-verbal acts are symbolic
Role of Culture in Listening and closely connected to any talk in
Like the brain, the culture in which we progress. Such non-verbal acts are part of
have been brought up also influences our what is called ‘body language’.
listening and learning abilities. Asian Body language is composed of all those
cultures, such as India, emphasise on messages that people exchange besides

Box
9.3 Some Tips to Improve Your Listening Skills

• Recognise that both the sender as well as the receiver have equal responsibility in
making effective communication.
• Refrain from forming an early judgment about information that is being
communicated. Be open to all ideas.
• Be a patient listener. Do not be in a hurry to respond.
• Avoid ego speak. That is, do not talk only about what you want to talk about. Give
consideration also to others and to what they say.
• Be careful to the emotional responses which certain words are likely to bring about.
• Be aware that your posture affects your listening.
• Control distractions.
• If in doubt, try to paraphrase. Also check with the sender whether s/he has been
correctly understood by you.
• Visualise what is being said. That is, try to translate the message in the form of a
concrete action.

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Psychology
words. While reading body language, we body language occurs in conversing with
must remember that a single non-verbal others without conscious realisation.
signal does not carry complete meaning.
Factors such as gestures, postures, eye Psychological Testing Skills
contact, clothing style, and body The next set of competencies which
movement — all of them have to be psychologists require is concerned with the
considered together, that is, in a cluster. knowledge base of the discipline of
Also, in verbal communication, non-verbal psychology. They involve psychological
signs can have many different meanings. assessment, evaluation and problem
For example, crossing arms over the chest solving with individuals and groups,
may suggest that a person likes to keep
organisation, and the community.
aloof. But, crossed arms accompanied by
Psychologists have always been interested
an erect posture, tightened body muscles,
in understanding individual differences
a set clenched jaw, and narrowing of the
from the time of Galton in the late 19th
eyes are likely to communicate anger.
century. Psychological tests have been
A person’s background and past
devised and are primarily used for the
patterns of behaviour are also considered
determination and analysis of individual
when we analyse body language. The
differences in general intelligence,
consistency between current and past
differential aptitudes, educational
patterns of behaviour, as well as harmony
achievement, vocational fitness, personality,
between verbal and non-verbal
social attitudes, and various non-
communication, is termed as congruency.
intellectual characteristics. Psychological
When you say to your friend, “you do not
tests have also been used for studying a
look well today”, you are basing your
variety of psychological studies on groups
statement on an evaluation of the person’s
besides making an assessment of a
appearance today and comparing it with
particular individual. Psychologists study
how s/he looked in the past. In other
these differences based on factors such as
words, something has changed, and you
occupation, age, gender, education,
see that difference. If you did not have
culture, etc. While using psychological
experience to draw on, you would not have
tests an attitude of objectivity, scientific
noticed the change. Let us recall how much
orientation, and standardised inter-
we use body language to encourage or
pretation must be kept in mind.
discourage conversation. For instance, we
For example, in organisational and
consciously wave at waiters or friends to
catch their attention. Much of the use of personnel work, in business and industry,
where specialised tests are used to select
individuals for specific jobs, it is essential
Activity Observing Non-verbal Behaviour to use actual performance records or
9.2 in Communication ratings as a criterion for establishing
Carefully observe members of your validity of a test. Suppose, the personnel
family. Note their non-verbal behaviour
department wants to know whether a
or body language when they are
talking to someone. Then focus on your certain psychological test can help it to
own non-verbal behaviour in a similar identify potentially best stenographers, it
way. Do you find any similarities must be established that the test
between your non-verbal behaviour or differentiates among employees of several
body language and theirs? Share it performance levels. In addition, it should
with the class.
be found that the performance on the job

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Chapter 9 • Developing Psychological Skills
Box
9.4 Essentials of Psychological Assessment Skills

Psychological assessment is a basic competency required by psychologists. It includes


knowledge of comprehensive and integrated assessment of persons based on interviewing,
psychological testing, and evaluation of the outcomes of psychological services. The skills
needed for psychological assessment are :
• Ability to select and implement multiple methods and means of evaluation in ways
that are responsive to, and respectful of diverse individuals, couples, families, and
groups.
• Ability to utilise systematic approaches to gather data required for taking decisions.
• Knowledge of psychometric issues and bases of assessment methods.
• Knowledge of issues related to integration of different data sources.
• Ability to integrate assessment data from different sources for diagnostic purposes.
• Ability to formulate and apply diagnoses; to understand strengths and limitations of
current diagnostic approaches.
• Capacity for effective use of supervision to implement and enhance skills.
Anyone who uses a psychological test has to be a professionally qualified psychologist
trained in psychological testing. Psychological tests are administered strictly based on
information given in the test manual. The facts required for this purpose are as follows:
• Purpose of the test, i.e. what it has to be used for?
• Target population for which it can be used.
• Type of validation done on the test, i.e. on what basis it can be said that it measures
what it claims to measure?
• The external criteria of validation, i.e. the areas in which it has been found working.
• The reliability indices, i.e. how much error is possible in scores?
• The standardisation sample. That is, when the test was constructed, who were tested,
e.g. Indians or Americans, rural/urban, literate/semi-literate, etc.?
• Time taken in the administration of test.
• Scoring patterns, i.e. what is to be scored and what method is to be used?
• Norms. That is, what kinds are available? What is the appropriate group which is to be
used for interpretation of scores, e.g. male/female, age groups, etc.?
• Influence of any special factors, e.g. presence of others, stress situations, etc.
• Limitations of the test, i.e. who, and what it cannot assess? Conditions in which it may
not give good assessment.

of a newly employed worker selected on the set purpose and uses a focused structure.
basis of a test indeed matches with her/his There are many kinds of interviews. The
test scores. Box 9.4 presents the essentials employment interview is one which most
of psychological assessment skills. of you are likely to face. Some other
for mats are infor mation gathering
interview, counselling interview, interro-
INTERVIEWING SKILLS
gatory interview, radio-television interview,
An interview is a purposeful conversation and research interview.
between two or more people that follows a
basic question and answer for mat. Interview Format
Interviewing is more formal than most Once the objectives of the interview are
other conversations because it has a pre- established, the interviewer prepares an

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Psychology
interview for mat. The basic for mat, asks questions in an attempt to generate
regardless of the interview’s purpose, is information and data that are required for
divided into three stages, namely, opening, the purpose.
the body, and the closing. We would now
discuss these three stages briefly. Sequence of Questions
To accomplish the purpose of an interview,
Opening of the Interview the interviewer prepares a set of questions,
The opening of interview involves also called a schedule, for different
establishing rapport between two domains, or categories s/he wants to cover.
communicators. The purpose is to make To do this, the interviewer must first decide
the interviewee comfortable. Generally, the on the domains/categories under which
interviewer starts the conversation and infor mation is to be generated. For
does most of the talking at the outset. This example, in the questions used in job
interview given in Box 9.5, the interviewer
serves two functions, i.e. it establishes the
selected several categories such as nature
goal of interview, and gives the interviewee
of the organisation last worked for,
time to become comfortable with the
satisfaction with the past job, views on
situation and the interviewer.
product, etc. These categories and the
questions within them are framed ranging
Body of the Interview
from easy-to-answer to difficult-to-answer.
The body of the interview is the heart of Questions are also formulated to assess
the process. In this stage, the interviewer facts as well as subjective assessment.

Box
Types of Interview Questions 9.5
Direct Question: They are explicit and require specific information. For example, “Where
did you last work?”
Open-ended Question: They are less direct and specify only the topic. For example, “How
happy were you with your job on the whole?”
Close-ended Question: They provide response alternatives, narrowing the response
variations. For example, “Do you think knowledge of a product or communication skill is
more important for a salesperson?”
Bipolar Question: It is a form of close-ended question. It requires a yes or no response. For
example, “Would you like to work for the company?”
Leading Question: It encourages a response in favour of a specific answer. For example,
“Wouldn’t you say you are in favour of having officer’s union in the company?”
Mirror Question: They are intended to get a person to reflect on what she or he had said
and expand on it. For example, you said “I work so hard but I am unable to get success.”
Please explain as to why this happens.

Answering Interview Questions


• If you do not understand the question, ask for clarification.
• Restate the question in your answer.
• Answer one question at a time.
• Try to turn negative questions into positive ones.

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Chapter 9 • Developing Psychological Skills
Closing the Interview satisfaction in doing the job well. The
positive feeling thus generated would have
While closing the interview, the interviewer
tremendous impact on overall life
should summarise what s/he has been
able to gather. One should end with a adjustment. Counselling is also one such
discussion of the next step to be taken. domain where a person entering the field
When the interview is ending, the is required to engage in self-introspection
interviewer should give a chance to the in order to assess her/his inclination and
interviewee to ask questions or offer basic skill set for being effective in her/his
comments. vocation.

Meaning and Nature of Counselling


COUNSELLING SKILLS
Counselling provides a system for planning
Another prerequisite for developing as a the interview, analysing the counsellor’s
psychologist is the competence in the and client’s behaviour, and determining the
domain of counselling and guidance. In developmental impact on the client. In this
order to develop these competencies, section, we will discuss skills, concepts,
psychologists must undergo proper and methods that are designed to help
training and education under guided develop concrete competencies. A
supervision. The consequences of getting counsellor is most often interested in
into a wrong vocation are pretty serious. building an understanding of the
If a person enters a job for which s/he does clients problem by focusing on what
not have requisite aptitude, s/he can understanding the client has of her/his
develop serious problems of adjustments, problem and how s/he feels about it. The
develop negative emotions, suffer from actual or objective facts of the problems are
inferiority complex, etc. These difficulties considered less important, and it is
may then come to be projected onto considered more important to work on the
someone else. Contrary to this, if anyone feelings and their acknowledgement by the
who takes a vocation for which s/he is well clients. The focus is more on the person
adapted, there will be considerable and how s/he defines the problem.

Fig.9.2 : Pre-requisites of Counselling Process

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Psychology
Counselling involves helping relation- Developing Effective Relationships
ship, that includes someone seeking help,
For most people who seek help from a
and someone willing to give help, who is counsellor, ef fective or satisfying
capable of or trained to help in a setting that relationships are almost non-existent or
permits help to be given and received infrequent. Since change in behaviour is
(see Fig.9.2). often created and supported by a network
The following elements about of social support, it is essential for clients
counselling are common to the major to start developing more positive
theoretical approaches to counselling : relationships with other persons. The
1. Counselling involves responding to the counselling relationship is the initial
feelings, thoughts, and actions of the vehicle through which this begins. Like all
clients. of us, counsellors too are not perfect, but
2. Counselling involves a basic acceptance they are trained in developing a more
of the client’s perceptions and feelings, healthy and helpful relationship than
without using any evaluative others.
standards. In brief, counselling usually has an all-
3. Confidentiality and privacy constitute inclusive outcome for the clients. Effective
essential ingredients in the counselling behavioural change that takes place in the
setting. Physical facilities that preserve client is multifaceted. It may show up in
this quality are important. the for m of a client taking greater
4. Counselling is voluntary. It takes place responsibility, developing new insight,
when a client approaches a counsellor. learning to engage in different behaviours,
A counsellor never uses any kind of
coercion for obtaining information. Listening and Paraphrasing Activity
5. Counsellors and clients both transmit 9.3
and receive verbal and non-verbal For this activity, three students are
messages during the process. Therefore, needed, A, B, and C.
awareness and sensitivity to the nature A will act as a counsellor, who will
practice listening. Her/his role will be
of the message is an important
to repeat to the client in different words
prerequisite for a counsellor’s what s/he listened. A will listen not
effectiveness. only to what was said but also how it
was said (body language) and the
Breaking the Myths of Counselling feelings behind it.
B will share with A some problems
• Counselling is not merely giving that s/he has been facing in life lately.
information. C will act as an observer and take
• Counselling is not giving advice. notes on how good a listener A is.
• Counselling is not selection and A and B will interact for about
10 minutes. After the interaction is
placement of individuals onto jobs or
over, C will share her/his
for courses. observations. B may also share her/
• Counselling is not the same as his observations with A and C about
interviewing though interviewing may A’s communication.
be involved. The feedback session may be of
• Counselling is not influencing 10 minutes. After it is over, switch roles
so that all three may get a chance to
attitudes, beliefs and behaviour by play the three roles. At the end of the
persuading, admonishing, threatening, activity, summarise what you have
or compelling. learned.

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Chapter 9 • Developing Psychological Skills
and making an effort to develop more with what you value and the way you
effective relationships. feel and relate to your inner self-image.
(ii) Positive Regard for Others: In a
Characteristics of Effective Helper counselling-counsellor relationship, a
Being a trained helper, the counsellor has good relationship allows freedom of
the responsibility for ensuring that her/his expression. It reflects acceptance of the
client is benefited from counselling and its idea that the feelings of both are
therapeutic effects are achieved. To a large important. We should remember that
extent, however, the success of a when we form a new relationship, we
counselling process depends on the skill, experience feelings of uncertainty and
knowledge, attitude, personal qualities and anxiety. Such feelings get minimised
behaviour of a counsellor, any or all of when a counsellor extends a positive
which can enhance or diminish the helping regard to the client by accepting that it
process. In this section, we will discuss is all right to feel the way the client is
four qualities that are associated with feeling. In order to show positive regard
effective counsellors. These include: to others, the following guidelines may
(i) Authenticity, (ii) Positive regard for be kept in mind:
others, (iii) Ability to empathise, and (1) When you are speaking, get into the
(iv) Paraphrasing. habit of using “I” messages rather
Let us understand these qualities than “you” messages. An example of
briefly. this would be, “I understand” rather
(i) Authenticity : Your image or perception than “you should not”.
of yourself makes up your “I”. The self- (2) Respond to what the other person has
perceived “I” is revealed through ideas, said, after checking with her/him.
words, actions, clothing, and your (3) Give the other person the freedom to
life-style. All of these communicate your share feelings or anything s/he
“I” to others. Those who come into close wants to say. Do not interrupt or cut
contact with you also build their own in.
image of you for themselves, and they (4) Do not assume that the other person
also sometimes communicate this image knows what you are thinking.
to you. For example, friends tell you Express yourself according to the
what they like and dislike about you. frame of reference, i.e. in the context
Your teachers and parents praise and/ of the verbal exchange taking place.
or criticise you. You are also evaluated (5) Do not label either yourself or the
by persons you respect. These collective other person (e.g., “you are an
judgments by people you respect, also introvert”, etc.).
called ‘significant others’, develop into a (iii) Empathy: This is one of the most
‘me’. This other perceived ‘me’ is the critical competencies that a counsellor
person that others perceive you to be. needs to have. You have already read
This perception may be the same as or in Chapter 5 that empathy is the ability
different from your own self-perception of a counsellor to understand the
of ‘I’. The degree to which you are aware feelings of another person from her/his
of these perceptions of others as well as perspective. It is like stepping into
of your own perception of your self someone else’s shoes and trying to
indicates that you are self-aware. understand the pain and troubled
Authenticity means that your feelings of the other person. There is a
behavioural expressions are consistent dif ference between sympathy and

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Psychology
professional identity. A critical criterion for
Activity Confronting One’s Fear any professional group is the development
9.4
This activity can be carried out in a and implementation of appropriate ethical
group situation. Everyone in the group standards. Social workers, marriage
writes her/his worst fears/doubts/ counsellors, family therapists, and
anxieties on a piece of paper without psychologists — all have their ethical
disclosing her/his name. After
everyone has finished writing their
codes. Awareness of the ethical standards
fears, all the slips are collected and and codes is extremely important, because
thrown in a big basket. Now, everyone counselling is a part of the service sector.
in the group picks up one slip from the Not following the ethical standards may
basket and reads out aloud the fears have legal implications.
mentioned on that list. Then the group
engages in a discussion about the While learning about the competencies
nature of the fear, the possible reasons of a counsellor, it is important for you to
for a particular fear to exist, the relevant know that the client-counsellor
agencies who are in some form related relationship is built on ethical practice. The
to instilling that fear, the potential ways American Psychological Association (APA)
to overcome it, etc. The same process
is repeated until all the slips in that has developed a code of ethical conduct
basket have been read. At the end of for behaviour and decision-making in
this activity, you should check: actual clinical settings. The practical
• If this activity helped you in knowledge of these ethical domains can
understanding something more
guide the practice of counselling in
about your self.
• What elements other than fear achieving its desired purpose. Some of the
would have also contributed in the APA practice guidelines are:
process of self-awareness? • Knowledge of ethical/professional
• How did you feel when someone codes, standards, and guidelines;
was reading out your fears?
knowledge of statutes, rules,
regulations, and case law relevant to
empathy. In sympathy, you play the the practice of psychology.
saviour. You may think that someone • Recognise and analyse ethical and legal
deserves your kindness. issues across the range of professional
(iv) Paraphrasing: This skill has already activities in the clinical setting.
been discussed in the section on • Recognise and understand the ethical
communication earlier. You will recall dimensions/features of her/his own
that this involves the ability of a attitudes and practice in the clinical
counsellor to reflect on what the client setting.
says and feels using different words. • Seek appropriate infor mation and
consultation when faced with ethical
Ethics of Counselling
issues.
In recent years, counsellors have taken • Practice appropriate professional
important steps to develop their assertiveness related to ethical issues.

Key Terms
Applied psychology, Assessment skills, Cognitive skills, Competence, Counselling, Ethical observation,
Intrapersonal awareness, Intervention and consultation skills, Objectivity, Open mindedness, Problem
solving skills, Psychological assessment, Psychological test, Reflective skills, Self-awareness, Sensitivity,
Trustworthiness.

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Chapter 9 • Developing Psychological Skills
• The general and specific skills form the core competencies essential for a psychologist
to act in a more responsive and ethical manner. Before entering any professional
arena, it, therefore, becomes pertinent for a psychologist to equip herself/himself
with these indispensable competencies.
• General skills include personal as well as intellectual skills. These skills are essential
for all professional psychologists, whether they are working in the field of clinical
and health psychology, industrial/organisational, social, educational, or in
environmental settings or are acting as consultants.
• Specific skills are core/basic to the field of psychological service. For example,
psychologists working in clinical settings need to be trained in various techniques of
therapeutic interventions, psychological assessment, and counselling.
• In order to become an effective psychologist, one needs to have certain characteristics
such as competence, integrity, professional and scientific responsibility, respect for
people’s rights and dignity, etc.
• Observational skills are basic skills and are used by psychologists as a starting
point for providing insights into behaviour. The two major approaches to observation
are naturalistic observation and participant observation.
• Communication is a process that helps in transmitting meaning from one person to
another. Speaking and listening are central to interpersonal communication.
• Language is important for communication. Its use should be done according to the
characteristics of audience. Non-verbal cues such as gestures, postures, hand
movements, etc. are also used to communicate ideas.
• Creating a proper message, tackling environmental noise, and providing feedback
are ways of reducing distortions and making effective communication.
• Interviewing is a process of face-to-face communication. It proceeds through three
stages which include the warm up (opening stage), the question and answer (the
body), and the closing stage.
• Developing the skills of psychological testing is important since tests are important
tools used for the assessment of individuals for various purposes. Proper training is
required for administration, scoring and interpretation of tests.
• Counselling involves helping relationship, that includes someone seeking help, and
someone willing to give help. The qualities that are associated with effective
counsellors are (i) Authenticity, (ii) Positive regard for others, (iii) Ability to empathise,
and (iv) Paraphrasing.

Review Questions
1. What competencies are required for becoming an effective psychologist?
2. What are the generic skills needed by all psychologists?
3. Define communication. Which component of the communication process is most
important? Justify your answer with relevant examples.
4. Describe the set of competencies that must be kept in mind while administering a
psychological test.
5. What is the typical format of a counselling interview?
6. What do you understand by the term counselling? Explain the characteristics of an
effective counsellor.
7. To be an effective counsellor, it is mandatory that s/he undergoes professional
training. Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons in support of your
arguments.
8. What are the ethical considerations in client-counsellor relationships?
9. Identify an aspect of your friend’s personal life that s/he wants to change. As a
student of psychology, think of specific ways in which you can devise a programme
to help your friend modify or solve her/his problem.

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Psychology
Project 1. Identify 3–4 separate fields of psychology. For instance, you can choose a clinical
Ideas psychologist, a counsellor, and an educational psychologist. Obtain information about
the type of work they do and the skills that are used by these psychologists in their
unique setting. You can either develop a questionnaire or conduct personal interviews
with all of them to identify the competencies related to the kind of work that these
psychologists undertake. Prepare a report and discuss in the class.
2. Choose any one skill from the list of competencies for a psychologist. Gather information
about the theoretical and practical aspects of that particular skill. On the basis of the
obtained information suggest some steps to enhance that skill. Make a presentation in
the class.

Weblinks
www.allpsych.com
www.library.unisa.edu.au/resources/subject/counsel.asp

Pedagogical Hints
1. Students could be asked to share
their views on the increasing
applications of psychology in
different areas of life.
2. Students can also be asked to
brainstorm on the possible skills
and competencies needed by
psychologists working in different
areas.
3. Use of innovative methods such as
narration of case vignette and role-
play to demonstrate communication
skills, ef fective listening,
paraphrasing, etc. would be
particularly helpful.

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Chapter 9 • Developing Psychological Skills
GUIDELINES FOR PRACTICALS IN PSYCHOLOGY

Psychological tools and techniques help to studied in Class XI, a psychological test is
uncover the latent aspects of an individual’s essentially an objective and standardised
behaviour. Thus they aid in understanding, measure of a sample of behaviour. In Class
predicting, and controlling the human XII, you will be learning about the concepts of
behaviour, which is the fundamental aim of intelligence and aptitude (Chapter 1),
psychology. Practicals in psychology are personality and self-concept (Chapter 2),
intended to provide students with requisite adjustment and anxiety (Chapter 3), and
knowledge and skills in psychological tools attitude (Chapter 6). You are also required to
and techniques to gain an understanding of undertake practical training in order to
human behaviour. They attempt to provide develop the ability to conduct, score and
hands-on experience to the students with both interpret data generated by the administration
quantitative tools of measurement, such as of the psychological tests in these areas. In
standardised psychological tests and other words, practical training would help you
qualitative tools, such as interview and in assessing various dimensions of human
observation. Practicals are based on the behaviour, such as intellectual ability, overall
principle of learning by doing and thus they personality profile, specific aptitudes, potential
provide an opportunity to the students to put for adjustment, attitudinal profile, self-
into practice whatever psychological principles concept, and level of anxiety.
and theories they have learnt in the classroom.
Before undertaking practical work, it is Test Administration
important to ensure that the students have The accuracy of psychological testing comes
knowledge about various methods of research from standardisation of testing conditions,
in psychology and their merits and demerits, materials, procedures, and norms which form
the behavioural characteristics being an integral part of test development, its
assessed, the nature and uses of psychological administration and interpretation. In this
tests, and the ethical guidelines so as to avoid process, it is expected that students will
their misuse. Keeping in view the syllabus of develop skills to establish rapport with the test
psychology for Class XII, the students would takers to make them comfortable in a relatively
undertake practicals in psychological testing new and different context. Establishing
which would involve using standardised Rapport involves the test administrator’s
psychological tests in different domains, i.e. efforts to arouse the test takers’ interest in
intelligence, personality, aptitude, adjustment, the test, elicit their cooperation, and encourage
attitude, self-concept, and anxiety. They would them to respond in a manner appropriate to
also prepare one case profile which will include the objectives of the test. The main objective
developmental history of the individual (case), of establishing rapport is to motivate the
using both qualitative and quantitative respondents to follow the instructions as fully
approaches. and meticulously as they can. It may be noted
that the nature of the test (e.g., individual or
group, verbal or non-verbal, etc.), and the age
I. PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING and other characteristics of the test takers
determine the use of specific techniques for
Practical work in use of psychological tests the establishment of rapport. For example,
must be carried out under the guidance and while testing children from educationally
supervision of the teacher. As you have already disadvantaged backgrounds, the test

196
Psychology
administrator cannot assume that they will administrator is not adequately qualified,
be motivated to do well on academic tasks, incorrect or inaccurate scoring may render
therefore, in such conditions, the test the test scores worthless.
administrator makes special ef forts to
Any standardised test is accompanied by
establish rapport to motivate them.
a manual which includes the psychometric
When establishing rapport, the test
properties of the test, norms, and references.
administrator also informs the test takers
This gives a clear indication regarding the
about the confidentiality of test data. The test
procedures of the test administration, the
taker is informed about the purpose of the
scoring methods, and time limits, if any, of
test, and how the test results will be used.
the test. The manual also includes instructions
The test taker is assured that such results
to be given to the test takers.
would be kept strictly confidential and be made
A thorough understanding of the test, the
available to a third person (the other two being
test taker, and the testing conditions is
test administrator and test taker) only after
essential for the proper interpretation of test
knowledge and consent of the test taker.
scores. Some information about the test given
The test administration, therefore, is the
in the manual like its reliability, validity,
task of a professionally trained and skilful
norms, etc. are relevant in interpreting any
person under controlled conditions. The
test score. Similarly, some background data
following points may be kept in mind while
about the individual being tested (test taker)
using a test :
are also essential. For example, the same score
• Uniform testing conditions : Basically, the
may be obtained by different individuals for
function of psychological tests is to
different reasons. Therefore, the conclusions
measure differences between individuals
to be drawn from such scores may not be
or between the responses of the same
similar. Finally, some consideration must also
individual on different occasions. If the
be given to special factors that may have
scores obtained by different individuals are
influenced a particular score, such as unusual
to be compared, testing conditions must
testing conditions, temporary emotional
obviously be the same for all. Attention
or physical state of the subject, the extent of
should be given to the selection of a
the test taker’s previous experience with
suitable testing room, which should be free
tests, etc.
from undue noise and distraction. This
The test administrator also provides test
room should provide adequate lighting,
takers with appropriate and understandable
ventilation, seating facilities, etc. for test
explanations of test results and of any
takers.
recommendations stemming from them. It
• Standardised instructions : In order to
may be noted here that even when a test has
secure uniformity of testing conditions, the
been accurately administered, scored, and
test constructor provides detailed
interpreted, providing merely specific
directions for administering the test.
numerical scores (e.g., IQ score, aptitude
Standardised instructions include the
score, etc.) without the opportunity to discuss
exact materials used, time limit (if any),
it further may be harmful to the test taker.
oral instructions to subjects, preliminary
demonstrations, ways of handling queries
Procedure for Test Administration
from subjects, and other possible details
of the testing situation. A psychological test can be administered only
• Training of test administrator : The test by a professionally qualified person. A student
administrator is the person who of psychology at +2 level would not have
administers and scores the test. The reached the stage of a professionally qualified
importance of a trained test administrator person. Therefore, s/he is not fully equipped
is evident. For instance, if the test to interpret the scores of a psychological test

197
Guidelines for Practicals
for any conclusive purpose, e.g. selection, 6. The teacher may use the scores of the
prediction, diagnosis, etc. For this purpose, hypothetical data and demonstrate how to
the test administration may be broken into use the manual to interpret the raw scores
small components/activities. The emphasis with the help of norms.
should be on learning skills for understanding 7. The students are also told how to draw
the concepts on which the test is based, conclusions based on the analysis of data.
developing rapport with the participant, 8. Based on the above guidelines, the
administration of the test including giving students will be required to prepare a
instructions, maintaining optimum testing report of the testing undertaken.
conditions, taking precautions, and doing
scoring of the test. Suggested Format for Writing a
The following steps and guidelines are Psychological Testing Report
suggested to carry out practical work in 1. Problem/Title of the Study (e.g., to study
psychological testing : the level of adjustment/personality/
1. The teacher would introduce the test to aptitude of Class X students).
the students along with the manual and 2. Introduction
the scoring key. The teacher would • Basic Concepts
demonstrate the test to her/his class • Variables
laying stress upon rapport building, 3. Method
imparting instructions, and the • Subject
precautions that need to be taken care of. • Name
The test may then be taken by the entire • Age
class. • Gender
2. The students may be instructed not to • Class
write their names or to use fictitious names
on the response/scoring sheets. The (Note : As the data is to be kept confidential,
response sheets of the students may be the details of the subject may be given
collected by the teacher. In order to under a fictitious number.)
maintain confidentiality, it is desirable that • Material
the response sheets are reshuffled and/or • Brief description of the test (name of
fictitious numbers are given to each the test, author, year, psychometric
response sheet. properties, etc.).
3. One response sheet each may then be • Other materials (e.g., stop watch,
given back by the teacher to students in screen, etc.).
the class for scoring. As per the • Procedure
instructions given in the manual, the • Process of test administration, such as
students would be guided to do the rapport formation, instructions,
scoring. precautions, actual conduct of test, etc.
4. The response/scoring sheets should be • Scoring of the test
kept with the teacher to be used later as • Preparation of graph, psychogram, etc.
hypothetical data for providing hands-on (if required).
experience in interpretation of test scores. 4. Results and Conclusions
5. The students will then be required to • Describing subject’s scores in terms of
conduct the same test on the selected norms and drawing conclusions.
participants with the teacher examining 5. References
their rapport building skills, instruction • List the books, manuals and materials
imparting skills, etc. consulted on the topic.

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Psychology
II. CASE PROFILE 1. Introduction
• A brief introduction of about one or two
Developing a case profile would primarily pages presenting the nature of the
involve the use of qualitative techniques, such problem, its incidence, likely causes,
as observation, interview, survey, etc. During and possible counselling outcomes.
the course of preparing a case profile, the • A half page (brief) summary of the case.
students would gain a first-hand experience 2. Identification of Data
in the use of these qualitative techniques. The • Name (may be fictitious)
main objective of preparing a case profile is • Diagnosed Problem
to understand the individual in totality. This • Voluntary or Referral (i.e., by whom
would further help in establishing the cause referred — such as teacher, parent,
and effect relationship more accurately. The sibling, etc.)
students may prepare a case profile of an 3. Case History
individual who has excelled in areas like • A paragraph giving age, gender, school
sports, academics, music, etc. or having attended, class (grade) presently
special needs like learning disability, autism, enrolled in, etc.
Down’s syndr ome, etc. or those with • Information about socio-economic
interpersonal social problems, i.e. poor body status (SES) consisting of information
image, obesity, temper tantrums, substance about mother’s/father’s education and
abuse, not getting along with peers, occupation, family income, house type,
withdrawn, etc. They may be encouraged to number of members in the family—
find out the background information and brothers, sisters and their birth order,
developmental history of the individual. The adjustment in the family, etc.
students are required to identify the method • Information about physical health,
of inquiry, i.e. interview or observation that physical characteristics (e.g., height
they would like to undertake to get complete and weight), any disability/illness (in
information of the case. A case profile may the past and present), etc.
be prepared based on the suggested format. • Any professional help taken (past and
The students may be encouraged to reflect present), giving a brief history of the
on the causes to draw some preliminary problem, attitude towards counselling
conclusions. (indicating the motivation to seek help,
etc.).
Suggested Format for Preparing a Case • Recording signs (i.e., what is observed
Profile in ter ms of facial expressions,
mannerisms, etc.) and symptoms (i.e.,
A format for case presentation covering broad what the subject reports, for example,
aspects is given below. It is suggested that the fears, worry, tension, sleeplessness,
case be developed in a narrative format along etc.).
the following points: 4. Concluding Comments

199
Guidelines for Practicals
GLOSSARY

Actor-observer effect: The tendency to make Aptitude: A combination of characteristics


different attributions for one’s own experience indicative of individual’s potential to acquire
or behaviour (actor), and for the same some specific skills with training.
experience or behaviour in the case of another
person (observer). Aptitude tests: Tests meant to measure
individual’s potential to predict future
Adaptation: Structural or functional change that performance.
enhances the organism’s survival value.
Archetypes: Jung’s term for the contents of the
Aggression: An overt behaviour intended to hurt collective unconscious; images or symbols
someone, either physically or verbally. expressing the inherited patterns for the
Air pollution: Degraded quality of air is air organisation of experience.
pollution.
Arousal: The tension experienced at the thought
Alarm reaction: The first stage of the general of others being present, and/or performance
adaptation syndrome characterised by an being evaluated.
emergency reaction involving the mobilisation
of energy through adrenal and sympathetic Attitudes: States of the mind, thoughts or ideas
activity. regarding a topic, containing a cognitive,
affective and behavioural component.
Alienation: The feeling of not being part of society
or a group. Attitude object: The target of an attitude.

Anal stage: The second of Freud’s psychosexual Attribution: Explaining our own or others’
stages, which occurs during the child’s behaviour by pointing out the cause(s).
second year. Pleasure is focused on the anus Authority: The rights inherent in a position (e.g.,
and on retention and expulsion of faeces.
managerial) to give orders and to expect the
Anorexia nervosa: Disorder involving severe loss orders to be obeyed,
of body weight, accompanied by an intense
Autism: Pervasive developmental disorder
fear of gaining weight or becoming “fat”.
beginning in infancy and involving a wide
Antisocial personality: A behavioural disorder range of abnormalities, including deficits in
characterised by truancy, delinquency, language, perceptual, and motor
promiscuity, theft, vandalism, fighting, development, defective reality testing, and
violation of common social rules, poor work social withdrawal.
record, impulsiveness, irrationality,
aggressiveness, reckless behaviour, and Balance: The state of an attitude system in which
inability to plan ahead. The particular pattern the attitudes between a person (P) and
of behaviour varies from individual to another individual (O), the person (P) and the
individual. attitude object (X), and between the other
individual (O) and the attitude object (X) are
Anxiety: A state of psychic distress characterised in the same direction, or logically consistent
by fear, apprehension, and physiological with each other.
arousal.
Behaviour therapy: Therapy based on the
Anxiety disorders: Disorders in which anxiety is
principles of behaviouristic learning theories
a central symptom. The disorder is
in order to change the maladaptive behaviour.
characterised by feelings of vulnerability,
apprehension, or fear. Beliefs: The cognitive component of the thoughts
Applied psychology : The practical application of or ideas regarding a topic.
what is known about the mind, brain, and Cardinal trait: According to Allport, a single trait
behaviour as a result of theoretical and that dominates an individual’s entire
experimental psychology. personality.

200
Psychology
Case study: An intensive study of an individual to compete with many others for even basic
or a situation to develop general principles resources, including physical space.
about behaviour.
Compliance: A form of social influence in which
Central traits: The major trait considered in one or more persons, not holding authority,
forming an impression of others. accepts direct requests from one or more
others.
Centrality of attitude: The extent to which a
specific attitude affects the entire attitude Componential intelligence: In Sternberg’s
system. triarchic theory, it refers to ability to think
critically and analytically.
Client-centred (Rogerian) therapy: The
therapeutic approach developed by Carl Conflict: A state of disturbance or tension
Rogers in which therapist helps clients to resulting from opposing motives, drives,
clarify their true feelings and come to value needs or goals.
who they are.
Conformity: A type of social influence in which
Coaction: A situation in which many people are individuals change their attitudes or
performing the same task individually in the behaviour in order to adhere to existing social
presence of others. norms.
Cognition: The process of knowing. The mental Congruent attitude change: Attitude change in
activities associated with thought, decision- the same direction as that of the existing
making, language, and other higher mental attitude.
processes.
Contextual intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic
Cognitive assessment system: A battery of tests theory, it is the practical intelligence used in
designed to measure the four basic PASS solving everyday problems.
(Planning-Attention-Simultaneous-
Successive) processes. Coping: The process of trying to manage demands
that are appraised as taxing or exceeding
Cognitive consistency: A state in which thoughts one’s resources.
or ideas are logically in line with each other.
Counselling: A broad name for a wide variety of
Cognitive dissonance: The state of an attitude procedures for helping individuals achieve
system in which two cognitive elements are adjustment, such as the giving of advice,
logically contradictory, or inconsistent. therapeutic discussion, the administration
Cognitive therapies: Forms of therapy focused and interpretation of tests, and vocational
on changing distorted and maladaptive assistance.
patterns of thought. Counselling interview: An interview whose
Cohesiveness: All forces (factors) that cause group purpose is counselling or providing guidance
members to remain in the group. in the area of personality, vocational choice,
etc.
Collective unconscious: Inherited portion of the
unconscious, as postulated by Carl Jung. The Creativity: The ability to produce ideas, objects,
unconscious shared by all human beings. and problem solutions that are novel and
appropriate.
Communicable disease: An illness due to specific
infectious agent capable of being directly or Crowding: A psychological feeling of too little space;
indirectly transmitted from man to man, perception of crampedness.
animal to animal, or from the environment Crowding tolerance: The ability to mentally deal
to man or animal. with a high density or crowded environment,
Competition: Mutual striving between two such as a crowded residence.
individuals or groups for the same objective. Culture-fair test: A test that does not discriminate
Competition tolerance: The ability to put up with examinees on the basis of their cultural
a situation in which individuals would have experiences.

201
Glossary
Defence mechanisms: According to Freud, ways an electric current through the brain, causing
in which the ego unconsciously tries to cope a convulsion. It is effective in the treatment
with unacceptable id impulses, as in of cases of several depression that fail to
repression, projection, reaction formation, respond to drug therapy.
sublimation, rationalisation, etc.
Emotional intelligence: A cluster of traits or
Deinstitutionalisation: The transfer of former abilities relating to the emotional side of life —
mental patients from institutions into the abilities such as recognising and managing
community. one’s own emotions, being able to motivate
oneself and restrain one’s impulses,
Delusions: Irrational beliefs that are held despite recognising and managing others’ emotions,
overwhelming evidence to the contrary. and handling interpersonal relationships in
Depersonalisation disorder: Dissociative disorder an effective manner. It is expressed in the
in which there is a loss of the sense of self. form of an emotional quotient (EQ) score.

Diathesis-stress model: A view that the interaction Empathy: Reacting to another’s feelings with an
of factors such as biological predisposition emotional response that is similar to the
combined with life stress may cause a specific other’s feelings.
disorder. Environment: Totality, or any aspect of physical
Diffusion of responsibility: The thought that and social set-up that surround and affect
when others are present, one person alone an individual organism.
will not be held responsible for doing, or not Environmental psychology: The branch of
doing, something; other members are also psychology that concentrates on the
responsible and will therefore do the task. interaction between the physical world and
Disaster: A disaster is an unforeseen and often human behaviour.
sudden event that disrupts the normal Evaluation apprehension: The fear of being
conditions within a society and causes evaluated negatively by others who are
widespread damage, destruction, and human present (an audience).
suffering.
Exhaustion: State in which energy resources have
Discrimination: Behaviour that shows a been used up and responsiveness is reduced
distinction being made between two or more to a minimum.
persons, often on the basis of the person’s
(or persons’) membership of a particular Exorcism: Religiously inspired treatment
group. procedure designed to drive out evil spirits
or forces from a “possessed” person.
Displacement: Redirecting an impulse towards a
less threatening or safer target; a key concept Experiential intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic
in psychoanalytic theory; a defence theory, it is the ability to use past experiences
mechanism. creatively to solve novel problems.

Dissociation: A split in consciousness whereby Extraversion: One of the dimensions of personality


certain thoughts, feelings, and behaviour in which interests are directed outwards to
operate independently from others. nature and other people rather than inwards
to the thoughts and feelings of self (introvert).
Ecology: That branch of biology which deals with
the relations of organisms to their Extremeness of attitude: Refers to how far an
environment. attitude is from the neutral point.

Ego: The part of the personality that provides a Factor analysis: Mathematical procedure,
buffer between the id and the outside world. involving correlations, for sorting trait terms
or test responses into clusters or factors; used
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): Commonly in the development of tests designed to
called “shock treatment”. A biological discover basic personality traits. It identifies
treatment for unipolar depression in which items that are homogeneous or internally
electrodes attached to a patient’s head send consistent and independent of others.

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Fluid intelligence: Ability to perceive complex Hardiness: It is a set of beliefs about oneself, the
relationships, reason abstractly, and solve world, and how they interact. It has three
problems. characteristics, i.e. commitment, control, and
challenge.
Free association: A psychodynamic technique in
which the patient describes verbally any Homeostasis: A state of physiological balance
thought, feeling, or image that comes to mind, within the body.
even if it seems unimportant. Humanistic approach: The theory that people are
Fundamental attribution error: The tendency to basically good and tend to grow to higher
attribute internal causes more than external levels of functioning.
causes for behaviour. Humanistic therapy: A therapy in which the
General adaptation syndrome (GAS): It consists underlying assumption is that people have
of three phases : an alarm phase which control over their behaviour, can make
promotes sympathetic nervous system choices about their lives, and are essentially
activity, a resistance phase during which the responsible for solving their own problems.
organism makes efforts to cope with the Hypochondriasis: A psychological disorder in
threat, and an exhaustion phase which which the individual is dominated by
occurs if the organism fails to overcome the preoccupation with bodily processes and fear
threat and depletes its physiological of presumed diseases despite reassurance
resources. from doctors that no physical illness exists.
Genetics: The study of how the qualities of living Id: According to Freud, the impulsive and
things are passed on in their genes. unconscious part of the psyche that operates
through the pleasure principle toward the
Gestalt therapy: An approach to therapy that
gratification of instinctual drives. The id is
attempts to integrate a client’s thoughts, conceived as the true unconscious, or the
feelings, and behaviour into a unified whole. deepest part of the psyche.
g-factor: General intelligence factor referring to a Ideal self: The kind of person we would like to be.
basic intellectual capacity underlying all Also called ego-ideal/idealised self-image.
manifestations of intelligence.
Identification: The process of feeling one with
Group: Two or more persons who interact with one another person, usually resulting from liking
another, have shared goals, are or extreme regard for the other person.
interdependent, and consider themselves as
members of group. Identity: The distinguishing character of the
individual: who each of us is, what our roles
Group test: A test designed to be administered to are, and what we are capable of.
more than one individual at the same time,
in contrast to individual test. Incongruent attitude change: Attitude change in
a direction opposite to that of the existing
Groupthink: A mode of thinking in which the attitude.
desire to reach unanimous agreement over-
Individual differences: Distinctiveness and
rides the wish to adopt proper, rational,
unique variations among people’s
decision-making procedures; an example of
characteristics and behaviour patterns.
group polarisation.
Individual test: A test that must be given to a
Hallucination: A false perception which has a
single individual at a time, typically by a
compulsive sense of the reality of objects
specially trained person. The Binet and
although relevant and adequate stimuli for
Wechsler intelligence tests are examples of
such perception is lacking. It is an abnormal individual tests.
phenomenon.
Industrial/organisational psychology: A sub-
Halo effect: The tendency to link positive qualities field of psychology that focuses on
with other positive qualities about which relationship between people and work. In the
information is not available. contemporary context, the emphasis has

203
Glossary
shifted fr om industrial psychology to Life skills: Abilities for adaptive and positive
organisational psychology, which includes behaviour that enable individuals to deal
industrial and all other organisations. effectively with the environment.
Inferiority complex: According to Adler, a complex Lifestyle: In the context of health psychology, the
developed by adults who have not been able overall pattern of decisions and behaviours
to overcome the feelings of inferiority they that determine health and quality of life.
developed as children, when they were small
Meditation: A technique of tur ning one’s
and limited in their knowledge about the
concentration inward and achieving an
world.
altered state of consciousness.
Ingroup: The social group to which an individual
Mental age (MA): A measure of intellectual
perceives herself or himself as belonging
functioning expressed in terms of age.
(“us”). The group with which one identifies.
The other groups are outgroups. Mental retardation: Sub-average intellectual
functioning combined with varying degrees
Instrumental perspective: The approach that of deficits in adaptive behaviour.
suggests that the physical environment exists
mainly for use by human beings for their Metaneeds: In the hierarchy of needs, those at
comfort and well-being. the top, such as self-actualisation, self-
esteem, aesthetic needs, and the like, which
Intellectual giftedness: Exceptional general can only be satisfied when lower order needs
intellectual efficiency shown in superior are satisfied.
performance in a wide range of tasks.
Modelling: A process of learning in which an
Intelligence: The capacity to understand the individual acquires responses by observing
world, to think rationally, and to use and imitating others.
resources ef fectively when faced with
challenges. Mood disorder: Disorder affecting one’s emotional
state, including depression and bipolar
Intelligence quotient (IQ): An index derived from disorder.
standardised intelligence tests indicating a
ratio of mental age to chronological age. Neurotransmitter: Chemicals that carry messages
across the synapse to the dendrite (and
Intelligence tests: Tests designed to measure sometimes the cell body) of a receiver neuron.
person’s level of intelligence.
Noise: An unwanted sound, one that brings about
Interest: An individual’s preference for one or more a negative affective response.
specific activities.
Normal probability curve: A symmetrical, bell-
Interview: Verbal interaction between a shaped frequency distribution. Most scores
respondent and a researcher to gather are found near the middle, and fewer and
information about the respondent. fewer occur towards the extremes. Many
Introversion: One of the dimensions of personality psychological characteristics are distributed
in which interests are directed inwards rather in this manner.
than outwards (extravert). Norms: Standards of test performance that permit
Kernel of truth: The small element of truth that the comparison of one person’s score on the
may be perceived in overgeneralised clusters test to the scores of others who have taken
of beliefs about groups (stereotypes). the same test.

Latency period: In Freud’s theory of psychosexual Obedience: Confirming behaviour in reaction to


stages, the period between the phallic stage the commands of others.
and the mature genital stage (period from age Observational method: A method in which
4 or 5 to about 12) during which interest in researcher observes a phenomenon that
sex is sublimated. occurs naturally without being able to
Libido: Freud introduced this term. In Freud’s manipulate any of the factors.
treatment, libido was quite simply a direct or Obsessive-compulsive disorder: A disorder
indirect sexual expression. characterised by obsessions or compulsions.

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Psychology
Oedipus complex: The Freudian concept in which overcrowding, lack of public amenities,
the young child develops an intense desire to mal- and under-nutrition, and increased
replace the parent of the same sex and enjoy susceptibility to diseases.
that affection of the opposite sex parent.
Poverty alleviation: Measures/programmes taken
Optimism: The tendency to seek out, remember, up to reduce poverty.
and expect pleasurable experiences.
Prejudice: A prejudgment, usually a negative
Outgroup: Any group of which an individual is attitude that is unverified, and is often
not a member. towards a group.
Peace: It is the absence of hostility and an Primacy effect: The stronger role of information
expression of harmony with fellow human that comes first.
beings and the environment.
Primary group: Group in which each member is
Performance test: A test in which the role of personally known to each of the other
language is minimised, the task requiring member, and in which the members, at least
overt motor responses other than verbal. on occasion, meet face-to-face.
Personal identity: Awareness of oneself as a Problem solving behaviour: The activity and
separate, distinct being. mental processes involved in overcoming the
Personal space: The small area around an obstacles, physical or conceptual, which lie
individual considered belonging to her/him between an animal and its goal.
whose invasion is experienced as threatening Pro-environmental behaviour: Willingness and
or unpleasant. activities of human beings to protect the
Persuasibility: The degree to which people can be environment are pro-envir onmental
made to change their attitudes. behaviour.

Phallic stage: Third of Freud’s psychosexual stages Projection: A defence mechanism; the process of
(at about age five) when pleasure is focused unwittingly attributing one’s own traits,
on the genitals and both males and females attitudes, or subjective processes to others.
experience the “Oedipus complex”. Projective techniques: The utilisation of vague,
Phobia: A strong, persistent, and irrational fear of ambiguous, unstructured stimulus objects or
some specific object or situation that presents situations in order to elicit the individual’s
little or no actual danger to a person. characteristic modes of perceiving her/his
world or of behaving in it.
Physical environment: It is the nature that
includes climate, air, water, temperature, flora Pro-social behaviour: Behaviour that does good
and fauna. to another person, is done without any
pressure from outside, and without any
Planning: In Das’s PASS model of intelligence, it expectation of a reward or return.
involves goal setting, strategy selection, and
monitoring of goal-orientation. Prototype: A schema in the form of a category
representing all the possible qualities of an
Positive health: It includes a healthy body, good object or a person.
interpersonal relationships, a sense of
purpose in life, and resilience to stress, Proximity: The principle of Gestalt psychology that
trauma and change. stimuli close together tend to be perceived as
a group.
Post-traumatic stress disorder: Patterns of
symptoms involving anxiety reactions, Psychodynamic approach: Approach that strives
tensions, nightmares, and depression for explanation of behaviour in terms of
following a disaster such as an earthquake motives, or drives.
or a flood. Psychodynamic therapy: First suggested by
Poverty: Poverty is the economic deprivation. It is Freud; therapy based on the premise that the
associated with low income, hunger, low caste primary sources of abnormal behaviour are
and class status, illiteracy, poor housing, unresolved past conflicts and the possibility

205
Glossary
that unacceptable unconscious impulses will Roles: An important concept in social psychology
enter consciousness. which refers to the behaviour expected of an
individual in accordance with the position
Psychological test: An objective and standardised
s/he holds in a particular society.
instrument for measuring an individual’s
mental and behavioural traits; used by Scapegoating: Placing the blame on a group for
psychologists to help people make decisions something that has gone wrong, because the
about their lives and understand more about blamed group cannot defend itself.
themselves.
Schema: A mental structure that guides social
Psychoneuroimmunology: Interactions among (and other) cognition.
behavioural, neuroendocrine, and immuno-
Schizophrenia: A group of psychotic reactions
logical processes of adaptation.
characterised by the breakdown of integrated
Psychotherapy: The use of any psychological personality functioning, withdrawal from
technique in the treatment of mental/ reality, emotional blunting and distortion,
psychological disorder or maladjustment. and disturbances in thought and behaviour.
Rational emotive therapy (RET): A therapeutic Self-actualisation: A state of self-fulfilment in
system developed by Albert Ellis. It seeks to which people realise their highest potential
replace irrational, problem-provoking in their own unique way.
outlooks with more realistic ones. Self-awareness: Insight into one’s own motives,
Rationalisation: A defence mechanism that occurs potential and limitations.
when one attempts to explain failure or short- Self-efficacy: Bandura’s term for the individual’s
comings by attributing them to more beliefs about her or his own effectiveness; the
acceptable causes. expectation that one can master a situation
Reaction formation: A defence mechanism in and produce positive outcomes.
which a person denies a disapproved motive Self-esteem: The individual’s personal judgment
through giving strong expression to its of her or his own worth; one’s attitude toward
opposite. oneself along a positive-negative dimension.
Recency effect: The stronger role of information Self-fulfilling prophecy: Behaving in a way that
that comes last. confirms the prediction others make.
Regression: A defence mechanism that involves a Self-regulation: Refers to our ability to organise
return to behaviours characteristic of an and monitor our own behaviour.
earlier stage in life. The term is also used in
statistics, in which with the help of correlation Sensitivity: Tendency to respond to very low levels
prediction is made. of physical stimulation.

Rehabilitation: Restoring an individual to normal, Simplicity or complexity (multiplexity) of


or as satisfactory a state as possible, following attitude: Whether the whole attitude consists
an illness, criminal episode, etc. of a single or very few sub-attitudes (simple),
or contains many sub-attitudes (multiplex).
Relaxation training: A procedure in which clients
are taught to release all the tension in their Simultaneous processing: Cognitive processing
bodies. in the PASS model that involves integrating
elements of the stimulus situation into
Repression: A defence mechanism by which people composite and meaningful patterns.
push unacceptable, anxiety-provoking
thoughts and impulses into the unconscious Situationism: A principle which states that
to avoid confronting them directly. situations and circumstances outside oneself
have the power to influence behaviour.
Resilience: The maintenance of positive
adjustment under challenging life conditions. Social cognition: The processes through which
we notice, interpret, remember, and later use
Resistance: In psychoanalysis, attempts by the social information. It helps in making sense
patient to block treatment. of other people and ourselves.

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Psychology
Social facilitation: The tendency for people’s Superego: According to Freud, the final personality
performance to improve in the presence of structure to develop; it represents society’s
others, or an audience. standards of right and wrong as handed down
by person’s parents, teachers, and other
Social identity: A person’s definition of who she
important figures.
or he is; includes personal attributes (self-
concept) along with membership in various Surface traits: R.B. Cattell’s term for clusters of
groups. observable trait elements (responses) that
seem to go together. Factor analysis of the
Social influence: The process by which the actions
correlations reveals source traits.
of an individual or group affect the behaviour
of others. Syndrome: Group or pattern of symptoms that
occur together in a disorder and represent
Social inhibition: Social restraint on conduct.
the typical picture of the disorder.
Social loafing: In a group, each additional
individual puts in less effort, thinking that Systematic desensitisation: A for m of
others will be putting in their effort. behavioural therapy in which phobic client
learns to induce a relaxed state and then
Social support: Information from other people that exposed to stimuli that elicit fear or phobia.
one is loved and cared for, esteemed and
valued, and part of a network of Therapeutic alliance: The special relationship
communication and mutual obligation. between the client and the therapist;
contractual nature of the relationship and
Somatoform disorders: Conditions involving limited duration of the therapy are its two
physical complaints or disabilities occurring major components.
in the absence of any identifiable organic
cause. Token economy: Forms of behaviour therapy
based on operant conditioning in which
Spiritual perspective: The perspective that hospitalised patients earn tokens they can
specifies to do activities what are desirable exchange for valued rewards, when they
in accordance with the scriptures. It pleads behave in ways the hospital staff consider to
for a harmony between man and nature. be desirable.
Status: Social rank within a group. Trait: A relatively persistent and consistent
Stereotype: An overgeneralised and unverified behaviour pattern manifested in a wide range
prototype about a particular group. of circumstances.

Stress: Our response to events that disrupt or Trait approach: An approach to personality that
threaten to disrupt our physical and seeks to identify the basic traits necessary to
psychological functioning. describe personality.

Stressors: Events or situations in our environment Transactional approach: It includes interactions


that cause stress. between people and environment. Human
beings affect the environment and in turn are
Structure: The enduring form and composition of affected by the environment.
a complex system or phenomenon. Contrast
with function, which is a process of a Transference: Strong positive or negative feelings
relatively brief duration, arising out of toward the therapist on the part of individual
structure. undergoing psychoanalysis.

Substance abuse: The use of any drug or chemical Typology: Ways of categorising individuals into
to modify mood or behaviour that results in discrete categories or types, e.g. Type-A
impairment. personality.

Successive processing: Cognitive processing in Unconditional positive regard: An attitude of


the PASS model where elements of the acceptance and respect on the part of an
stimulus situation are responded to observer, no matter what the other person
sequentially. says or does.

207
Glossary
Unconscious: In psychoanalytic theory, Values: Enduring beliefs about ideal modes of
characterising any activity or behaviour or end-state of existence; attitudes
that have a strong evaluative and ‘ought’
mental structure which a person is not
aspect.
aware of.
Verbal test: Test in which a subject’s ability to
Valence of attitude: Whether an attitude is understand and use words and concepts is
positive or negative. important in making the required responses.

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Psychology
SUGGESTED READINGS

For developing further understanding on the topics, you may like


to read the following books
• Baron, R.A. 2001/Indian reprint 2002. Psychology (5th ed.). Allyn &
Bacon.

• Bellack, A.S., & Hersen, M. 1998. Comprehensive Clinical Psychology.


Elsevier. London.

• Carson, R.C., Butcher, J.N., & Mineka, S. 2004. Abnormal Psychology


and Modern Life. Pearson Education. Delhi.

• Davis, S.F., & Palladino, J.H. 1997. Psychology. Prentice-Hall, Inc.


• Davison, G.C. 1998. Abnormal Psychology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Gerow, J.R. 1997. Psychology : An Introduction. Addison Wesley
Longman, Inc.
• Gleitman, H. 1996. Basic Psychology. W.W. Norton & Company.

• Sadock, B.J., & Sadock, V.A. (Eds.) 2004. Kaplan & Sadock’s
Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (8th ed., Vol. II). Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins.

• Lahey, B.B. 1998. Psychology : An Introduction. Tata McGraw-Hill.


• Malim, T., & Birch, A. 1998. Introductory Psychology. Macmillan
Press Ltd.
• McMahon, J.W., McMahon, F.B., & Romano, T. 1995. Psychology
and You. West Publishing Company.
• Weiten, W. 2001. Psychology : Themes and Variations. Thomson
Learning, Inc. Wadsworth.
• Zimbardo, P.G., & Weber, A.L. 1997. Psychology. Longman. New York.

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