Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Leonardo Torelli
B.Eng. (Hons)
RMIT University
November 2010
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgement...............................................................................................................6
Declaration ..........................................................................................................................7
Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................8
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................11
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3.2 The CVT Model ..................................................................................................81
3.3 Simulation Settings...............................................................................................84
3.4 Simulation Results................................................................................................86
3.5 CVT Conclusion.................................................................................................100
6 Conclusion..................................................................................................................125
6.1 Research Findings ..............................................................................................125
6.2 Areas for Further Investigation...........................................................................127
7 References ..................................................................................................................129
Appendix A .....................................................................................................................133
10th International Conference on Developments in Power System Protection, March
2010, Manchester, UK -Abstract.....................................................................................133
Appendix B .....................................................................................................................134
Overvoltage Study –PSCAD Data ..................................................................................134
Appendix C .....................................................................................................................135
Overvoltage study – Steady State Voltage Data .............................................................135
Appendix D .....................................................................................................................136
Overvoltage Study- PSCAD Model ................................................................................136
Appendix E......................................................................................................................137
Voltage and Current as function of SIR ..........................................................................137
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Appendix F......................................................................................................................138
CVT Study – PSCAD Data .............................................................................................138
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The Author
My name is Leonardo Torelli. I have been working for fourteen years in power
industry. I have worked in Italy in Utilities and in Australia in consulting firms. I am
currently working at Hydro Tasmania Consulting and involved in Protection and
Power System Analysis projects.
It is not a surprise that the topic of this research goes across these two areas of
electrical engineering. The aim of this study was, indeed, proving how important is
the knowledge of power system analysis for Protection Engineers.
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Acknowledgement
I thank Dr Selva Moorthy for his contribution, support and expert advice during this
study. I have appreciated his sincere interest in my professional development and
support of my personal life. Dr Moorthy’s feedback helped me to stay in line with
my schedule and achieve the completion of this research.
Last, I would like to thank my three beautiful children, my family and friends for
their warm and enthusiastic appreciation of my work.
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Declaration
I certify that except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work is that
of the author alone; the work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in
part, to qualify for any other academic award; the content of the thesis is the result
of work which has been carried out since the official commencement date of the
approved research program; and, any editorial work, paid or unpaid, carried out by
a third party is acknowledged.
………………………………….
Leonardo Torelli
Date
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Abbreviations
MHO relay - Distance relay with circular characteristic which passes through
the origin of the R-X plane
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Executive Summary
This thesis investigates the relationship between transient overvoltages that follow
a fault and the functionality of the digital distance protection. The study is
conducted in a 66kV subtransmission network with a neutral earth resistor as
method to earth the power system.
The results of this study show that fault current limitation and consequent reduction
of the thermal stress and aging of the equipment are successfully supported by
modern digital distance relays.
Finally, this research provides recommendation for the design of the protection
settings of the distance relay. This thesis supports the implementation of digital
distance protection relays on short lines, lines with ineffective grounding system
and weak impedance source as a valuable alternative solution to the differential
protection scheme.
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1 Introduction
Power systems are designed and operated to supply electrical energy to the
customers in a safe, reliable and economical way. Faults represent one of the main
challenges for the power system. Among all the types of faults, phase to ground
faults represent the majority of the events, with records between 80 to 90 % of all
faults. Ground faults are generated from insulation breakdown, atmospheric
conditions and accidental contacts of birds or branches of trees with power lines.
Therefore, these faults are transitory in nature.
During this post fault initial period, the voltage change dramatically from a pre fault
steady state value to a post fault steady state value. In addition, the voltage signal
is disturbed by higher and lower frequency components. Therefore, transient
overvoltages could affect the accuracy of the protection scheme. At the same time,
the protection scheme should be able to operate in a fast manner to reduce the risk
to personnel, equipment damage, and system stability.
It is evident that achieving a short operating time and high accuracy of the
protection scheme represents a major challenge for protection relay manufacturers
and protection engineers. This research investigated the performance of modern
digital distance relay during the transient overvoltages period which follows a
ground fault.
Initially, this study focused on power system analysis to have a clear understanding
of the transient overvoltage phenomena. The overvoltage study was conducted
using PSCAD-EMTC software package. The investigation was performed by using
the experimental method that involves the scientific manipulation of the variables
involved in the process and the systematic study of the behavior of the system.
The study was conducted on a radial system using a neutral earth resistor, NER,
as a method to earth the 66 kV network. However, the theory and the results
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obtained are largely applicable to higher transmission voltages and in power
systems earthed via a neutral earth reactor, NEX.
Elaborate a list of setting advice that could enhance the application of the
distance protection relay in relation to the transient overvoltages
disturbance
This study aimed to validate the existing body of knowledge, highlight new insight
and views and determine new findings.
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In the last part of this study, Section 6, research conclusions and recommendations
for areas of further investigations are also provided.
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2 Neutral Earth Resistor and Transient Overvoltages
2.1 Introduction
This Section investigated the influence of the neutral earth resistor on transient
overvoltages.
Determining whether the neutral earth resistor has particular and/or peculiar
effect on the overvoltage that may be considered in design and planning of
the power system.
The research only focused on the impact of the resistor under ground faults.
Therefore this work did not pursue the study of overvoltages during normal
switching condition and lighting phenomena. The method and the technologies to
control the overvoltage and the impact of the size of the resistor to the overall
insulation coordination were also excluded from this study.
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2.2 Method of Earthing
Solidly earthing
Compensated earthing
Ungrounded
The type and size of the earthing system will affect the following system
parameters [1-4]:
Fault current
Personnel safety
System Protection
System stability
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System availability
Operating procedure
Equipment selection
Cost
While the power system is operating in normal condition, the method of earthing is
not relevant. The method and design of the system earthing becomes critical
during a ground fault. In this condition the fault current magnitude and fault
duration will affect critical elements of the power system.
It is also noted that the value of the impedance is not consistent among utilities.
Moreover, some utilities use a resistor and others use a reactor. For example, In
Australia, SPAusnet, Ergon and Energex use a reactor. Jemena and many
industrial consumers often prefer a resistor.
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Transient overvoltages are produced by sudden changes in the electrical system
as caused by lightning, faults or switching [6]. The method of earthing system does
not have any effect on the system during normal operation [4]. However, during the
transient period the method of earthing has an impact on the system response and
magnitude of the transient overvoltage.
Power demand, power generated and system configuration vary continuously with
time. Therefore the power system always changes from one steady state to
another steady state. In this very short periods current and voltages may reach
dangerous values for the equipment and the insulation of the system.
Overvoltages are often classified according to their duration in two groups [7, 8]:
This type of disturbances are also classified according to the frequency of the two
major overvoltage components [9]:
The sum of the power and natural frequency overvoltage is the voltage recorded in
the field. This voltage is commonly defined as a transient overvoltage.
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The overvoltage component with a power frequency does not theoretically have
any decaying component and it often termed as steady state overvoltage. Instead,
the short duration component usually decays in less than 100 ms. Above all; the
magnitude of the overall overvoltage is of greatest interest for the impact on the
planning, design and financial cost of the power system.
A fault in the power system can be represented and analysed as the closing of a
switch in the electrical system. This change in the power system develops a new
redistribution of stored energy in the system [6]. Phase to ground faults represent
the majority of faults in the power system. These types of faults are produced by
atmospheric condition, mechanical breakdown of the insulation, objects such as
birds or branches or trees in contact with the overhead line and poles or structures.
Recent statistics conducted by protection relay manufacturers found that these
types of faults represent between 80 and 90 % of the faults in a given power
system [3, 4, 10]. A large majority of these faults involving overhead lines also
have transient characteristics and, therefore, self extinguish in a short period of
time.
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in a solidly earthed system. In an ungrounded system the overvoltage reaches the
maximum value of √3=1.732. In this latter case, the phase to ground voltage is
equal to the phase to phase voltage.
Between these two boundaries of the overvoltage measured in the system, the
institution of Electrical and Electronic Engineers established an arbitrary limit of
the overvoltage measured, which is named “effective grounding” [11].
The effective grounding term indicates that, during a ground fault, the voltage on
the healthy phases will not exceed 80 % of the maximum line to line voltage. The
term “effective grounding” is commonly used in the power industry as a point of
reference for the design of the earthing system and sizing of the neutral
impedance. Therefore a power system can be “effectively grounded” or
“ineffectively grounded”. In other words, in a 66kV subtransmission system, the
phase to ground voltage during fault condition will be:
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V Nominal
Vph-ph=66kV
Vph-g = 66kV/√3=38.1 kV
Ungrounded System
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higher voltages in countries where the power system is grounded via an
impedance[4] .
The system must be” grounded through a sufficient low impedance such
that for all system conditions the ratio of zero sequence reactance to
positive sequence reactance is positive and equal or less than ( X0/X1≤3)
and
Instead, to limit the natural frequency overvoltage the system conditions are:
XC 0
R0 .Total zero sequence resistance less than one third total zero
3
sequence reactance. This condition requires that the current flowing
through the neutral earth resistor shall be at least 3 times the charging
current per phase of the system[4] Non compliance with this system
condition could lead to dangerous faults with subsequent restrikes and
overvoltages, usually named as arcing faults
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X0
20 , which is inherently met in resistance grounding and with delta
X1
star power transformers [12], unless the power system is earthed via a
large reactor
From the system conditions stated above, it can be derived that the size of neutral
earth resistor or neutral earth reactor is not critical by itself for the magnitude of the
overvoltage. The relation with other system parameters determines the magnitude
of the overvoltage. The above conditions also highlights that unplanned increase of
the size of the resistor will increase the value of the overvoltage due to the fault
clearing restrike.
Besides, the system conditions show that the reactance of the overall zero
sequence network shall be inductive and not capacitive.
These system conditions aim to limit transient overvoltages and, at the same time,
reduce the phase to ground fault current between 10 and 25 % of the steady state
fault current [9]. The lower level is dictated by the minimum current requirement for
relay operation. Nowadays with modern digital relays, this requirement could be
reconsidered. The 25 % upper level takes into consideration the resistor cost in
comparison to the reactive option.
Existing studies on overvoltage and impact of the neutral earth resistor on the
measured overvoltages are based on field testing, software simulation and
theoretical analysis.
First researches on transient overvoltages during faults were conducted before the
Second World War. Overvoltages were analytically determined and tested using
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miniature models[9] . Maximum peak voltages were recorded mainly between 3
and 4 pu with 20 % above 4 pu. The researchers also considered current chopping
produced by the circuit breakers and restrike phenomena known as transient
recovery voltage, usually abbreviated as TRV. Overvoltage calculations and tests
using miniature system have also been conducted by other researchers[6, 8].
These papers provide a complete explanation of the maximum overvoltage in
relation to system parameters and formed the basis for future IEEE standards.
R 0 2 X 0 circuit is oscillatory
R 0 2 X 0 critical damped
R 0 2 X 0 over damped
Recent studies usually apply the traveling waves theory. In line with this theory,
modern transient software packages also avoid the use of lumped elements [15].
Lumped elements representation is adequate for steady state analysis but give
inaccurate results in transient studies. In the latter studies, where travel time of the
electromagnetic waves and the energy exchange between capacitance and
inductance must be taken into consideration, traveling waves theory is the most
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accurate method for the computation of the overvoltages along the transmission
line.
Fault generated traveling waves propagates not only on the overhead line to line.
but also line to earth with different propagation parameters [16]. A phase to ground
fault can be represented as disturbance that generates current and voltage
traveling waves on a subtransmission line. At each point of discontinuity the
traveling waves will be refracted and reflected according to the surge impedance
characteristic of the line [17].It is possible to represent the large number of forward
and backwards waves and determine the maximum overvoltage generated as a
function of time by using the Bewley Lattice diagram. However, there are also
some other considerations which must be dealt with which include mutual coupling
with other conductors and wave shape distortion experienced along the
transmission line.
It is important to point out that overvoltage studies and traveling wave application
mainly focus on switching and lightning transients [16]. However, overvoltages
produced by switching episode can be used as a reference for this type of study.
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2.4 Design of the Experiment
PSCAD-EMTDC is a state of the art software package developed using the wave
propagation theory first published by DR Hernmann W Dommel in the transaction
of IEEE Power Apparatus and Systems in 1969. based on this paper another two
transient analysis software packages well known in the industry, EMTP and, later,
the ATP software package [21] were developed.
PSCAD is a very powerful and flexible graphical interface that uses the EMTDC
simulation program. The first version of PSCAD was produced by Denis Woodford
to model and simulate the high voltage DC system in Canada. The software is now
developed and maintained by the Manitoba HVDSC Research Centre and is
continually upgraded to incorporate the latest validated research.
The software allows one to model an electrical circuit, run a simulation, analyze the
results and manage the data information in an efficient way. The software package
is provided with an equipment library, but also allows the creation of new models
and building a personal equipment library. It is used by consulting engineers,
equipment manufacturers and laboratories for planning and design of power
systems.
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All PSCAD software editions must be licensed except for the student license. The
student license version, which was used for this research, contains a limitation of
15 electric nodes. However, considering the purpose of this study, PSCAD was still
found suitable. PSCAD-EMTDC was selected for its performance, the graphical
interface and the technical support provided by Application Engineers at Manitoba
HVDC Research Centre.
The model contains a 220 kV source, one 220/66 kV transformer and one
overhead line. Although power systems are more complex and contain more
components, the overhead line and the power transformer represent the backbone
of the system and have the major influence in the transient overvoltage. It also
contains the part of the system that is affected by the fault current.
This system reduction is in line with previous studies [22]. This type of
configuration also allows keeping at minimum the required number of nodes and
the use of PSCAD student license version.
PSCAD software was used to measured the absolute value of the instantaneous
peak of the three phase to ground voltages. Measurement was conducted at the
fault location using the maximum/minimum recorder function offered by PSCAD.
The maximum value of the three phases was selected for the analysis.
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Steady state overvoltage for a given value of the neutral earth resistor was
calculated by applying symmetrical components theory. Factor K2 and K0 were
used to determine fault currents and steady state overvoltages[4].
K2 Z2/Z1
K0 Z0/Z1
Where:
The factor K2 is assumed to be 1. If the fault occurs close to the generator the
factor K2 may increase to 1.4 [4].
Knowing the steady state overvoltage and the total overvoltage, the transient
component can be calculated with:
The most relevant factors that influence the overvoltage magnitude during phase to
ground faults are as follow:
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Method of earthing
Type of fault
System configuration
Fault impedance
Each variable was analyzed in order to determine the most critical and relevant
factors to be used in this research. In the end, the study was based on the
following five factors:
System configuration
Type of faults
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Location of the fault
T
RL #1 #2 66kV Subtransmission Line
R esis
+
Figure 2.1: Overhead line with no load at the end of the line model
T
RL #1 #2 66kV Subtransmission Line
Resis
30 [MVAR]
+
Figure 2.2: Overhead line with capacitor bank at the end of the line
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T
RL #1 #2 66kV Subtransmission Line
Resis
2.0 [MVAR]
+
Figure 2.3: Overhead line with light inductive load at the end of the line
RL #1 #2 #1 #2
Resis
+
Figure 2.4: 66/22kV transformer connected directly to the secondary side of the 220/66kV
transformer
Type of faults
The sizes of the resistor selected cover the entire spectrum between a solidly
earthed system (no resistor installed) and ungrounded system (infinite resistor
installed). 15 resistor sizes were selected. In particular, the data was selected
between K0=0 to K0=10 as the research focused on low resistance grounding.
System response was assumed to be linear between adjacent samples.
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Faults were simulated at the beginning and at the end of line.
Time of fault
Considering the symmetry of the alternating voltage cycle, the samples were
selected only on one half cycle. As one semi cycle at 50Hz takes 10 ms, 21 sample
spaced 0.5 ms apart were selected.
Line length
These line lengths are based on the minimum, maximum and typical line length in
the Victorian Network. Typical subtransmission lines vary between 10-20 km in the
urban area around Melbourne and increase to 30-40 km in the country area. In
Victoria the maximum line length is about 80 Km. The line length of 100 km reflects
the need to investigate the system in the worst case scenario.
In this study no randomization factor is applied as the chance of biasing the results
in a software simulation is considered negligible. Therefore, simulation studies
were conducted in a logical order to maximize the efficiency of the work.
The simulations were conducted using PSCAD multiple run function. This software
tool allows completion of complex studies in an efficient manner by manipulating
variables sequentially and automatically. PSCAD Multiple Run tool can run and
modulate up to six variables.
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Maximum instantaneous voltage peak was recorded for each run and on each
phase. Only the maximum overvoltage among the three phases was selected for
the maximum overvoltage record.
Duration of the run time was set to 0.6 s with fault start at 0.4 s plus selected time
delay. The end time of the fault was 0.1 s with clearing fault at the first zero
crossing intersection of the fault current.
Sampling rate=20 µs
Source
The source represents the power system which is upstream the 220/66 kV power
transformer in the substation. The voltage source selected from the PSCAD library
enabled to specify the positive, negative and zero-sequence impedance.
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The control system for the output voltage was set using the “Fixed Control” function
offered by PSCAD software package. Through several trial and error experiments
this type of control produced a model behavior very similar to an “infinite bus”. This
setting enhances the robustness of the source model in respect to disturbances on
a lower voltage level. It is assumed that the impact of the overvoltage on the 66 kV
radial line is limited on the higher transmission network.
In summary:
Frequency = 50 Hz
Es = 220 kV
Ph = 0.0 deg
Frequency = 50 Hz
Transformer
The two winding 220/66 kV power transformer connects the transmission system to
the subtransmission system.
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Often substation have more than one transformer operating in parallel with the bus
tie on the 220 kV closed and on the 66 kV bus open or closed according to system
requirement, the fault level in the system and the rating of the equipment. To
simplify the study the model represents only one transformer.
Winding connection of the transformer is delta on the HV side and star on the LV
side. Tap changer operation is disabled
Hysteresis losses in the transformer core are included. Copper losses are disabled
to reduce the number of nodes in the system. Considering that a typical X/R for a
power transformer of 100 MVA and 220/66 kV is above 30, this simplification was
considered acceptable.
TRANSFORMER DATA:
3 Phase
2 Winding Transformer
Freq= 50 Hz,
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Copper Losses=0.0 pu.
Overhead line
Distributed transmission line, which is most suited for transient line response
modeling using a digital computer. This method was used for this study
PSCAD operates applying the traveling wave theory but also implementing mutual
coupling between conductors and wave shape attenuation produced by the
transmission line. Transmission lines under PSCAD transient software packages
are modeled using one of the three traveling wave models:
Bergeron Model
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Frequency Dependent Phase Model
The Frequency Dependent Phase Model was selected for this study as is the most
accurate model. This model is a distributed RLC traveling wave model, which
incorporates the frequency dependence of all parameters in the model. This model
is recommended by the PSCAD User’s Guide for this type of study.
Conductor Data
Capacitor bank
P = S * PF = 52.42 MW
If PF is 0.707
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P=Q = 42.42 MVAR
The selected size for the MVAR is set to correct the power factor above 0.95
The capacitor bank rating is set to 30 MVAR and connected in star to the network.
The star point of the capacitor bank is ungrounded
The rating of the inductive load is 2 MVAR and a resistive load of 0.2 MW. The
load is star connected and is ungrounded.
66/22kV Transformer
The 66/22 kV transformer rating is 30 MVA. For simplicity the internal parameters
of the transformers are set as the 220/66kV transformer.
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TRANSFORMER DATA:
3 Phase
2 Winding Transformer
V ph-ph primary=66 kV
Vph-ph secondary= 22 kV
PSCAD fault logic enables to specify the type of fault, time of fault and fault
duration.
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Phase to ground and phase to phase to ground the fault were simulated. Current
interruption was simulated at 0 current crossing to avoid any overvoltage related to
magnetic field being trapped in the circuit. This type of overvoltage is usually
referred as “ current chopping”[3].
Fault resistance is set to zero to evaluate the impact of the neutral earth resistor by
itself.
In summary:
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2.5 Simulation Results
Simulation results are organized according to the six system configuration and
related simulations.
Each simulation result Section contains two graphs. The first plot summarizes the
main objective of this investigation which is the maximum overvoltage as a function
of the reduced fault current. The fault current was calculated by applying the
symmetrical components theory as illustrated in Appendix B.
The second plot highlights the specific weight of the transitory overvoltage
component in respect to the steady state overvoltage component. Power frequency
overvoltage was subtracted from the measured overvoltage only if the recorded
maximum overvoltage took place during the fault and not at fault clearing. After
fault clearing, the power frequency overvoltage can be considered absent as the
three phases are now connected to a symmetrical voltage source.
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2.5.1 Simulation 1 : Unloaded Line - Fault at the End of the Line
Line Length=10km
0 90.447 1.000 1.0 1.678 1.006 1.678
5 99.668 0.882 1.7 1.850 1.412 1.850
10 100.711 0.705 3.0 1.869 1.647 1.869
15 99.279 0.561 4.3 1.842 1.745 1.842
20 99.031 0.457 5.7 1.838 1.783 0.054
25 96.724 0.383 7.1 1.795 1.797 -0.003
30 96.071 0.328 8.5 1.783 1.802 -0.019
35 95.465 0.286 9.8 1.772 1.802 -0.030
40 95.437 0.253 11.2 1.771 1.800 -0.029
45 95.512 0.227 12.6 1.772 1.797 -0.025
50 95.526 0.206 14.0 1.773 1.794 -0.021
100 94.901 0.105 27.9 1.761 1.771 -0.010
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Max
Measured Iph-g with
V from NER/ Iph-g V Meas / Power Natural
NER PSCAD solidly Nominal Frequency Frequency V
(Ohm) (kV) earthed K0 Voltage V (pu) (pu)
550 101.180 0.019 153.0 1.878 1.740 0.137
1000 107.676 0.011 278.1 1.998 1.736 0.262
1000000 120.050 0.000 278041.7 2.228 1.736 0.491
Line Length=0.2km
0 76.644 1.000 0.9 1.422 1.011 1.422
5 86.617 0.806 2.3 1.607 1.358 1.607
10 92.223 0.564 4.4 1.711 1.455 0.257
15 95.204 0.415 6.5 1.767 1.478 0.288
20 96.245 0.324 8.6 1.786 1.822 -0.036
25 96.587 0.264 10.8 1.792 1.817 -0.025
30 96.206 0.223 12.9 1.785 1.810 -0.025
35 96.501 0.192 15.1 1.791 1.804 -0.013
40 96.337 0.169 17.2 1.788 1.798 -0.010
45 96.163 0.151 19.3 1.784 1.792 -0.008
50 95.991 0.136 21.5 1.781 1.788 -0.007
100 94.486 0.068 42.9 1.753 1.763 -0.010
550 96.337 0.012 236.1 1.788 1.738 0.050
1000 102.533 0.007 429.2 1.903 1.735 0.167
1000000 118.593 0.000 429200.4 2.201 1.736 0.464
3.0
2.5
Overvoltage ( pu)
2.0 L=100km
L = 10km
1.5 L= 0.2km
1.0
0.5
0.0
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
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The maximum overvoltage reaches 2.5 times the value of the normal phase to
earth voltage. Maximum overvoltage below 3.0 pu is in line with existing
literature[6, 20].
The maximum overvoltage was recorded with the longest subtransmission line
which is 100km. This characteristic is common with previous studies[23] and tests
with a miniature circuit. It is also in line with all the other simulations of this study.
The characteristic is due to the larger line capacitance and inductance which are
proportional to the length of the line. As the capacitance increases, the energy
stored in the electric field increases producing more severe transient phenomena
upon a sudden change in the power system.
The simulation results show that the maximum recorded overvoltage plots have a
consistent pattern across the neutral earth resistor spectrum. The increase of the
resistor size slightly increases the measured overvoltage due to the highest
contribution of the power frequency overvoltage.
Please also note that the shift of the peak voltage from the fault clearing time to the
fault period takes place first in the shortest line system configuration, then with line
length of 10km and last to the longest subtransmission line. This behavior can be
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explained using the factor K0=Z0/Z1. The implementation of the resistor will
increase Z0. As the neutral impedance has a bigger impact on the factor K0, in the
shortest line the expected steady state overvoltage has a bigger increase
The results show that the maximum overvoltages recorded in the simulation with a
line length of 10km are similar to the results obtained from the simulation with a
line length of 0.2km. This characteristic is recorded throughout the study. We can
explain this characteristic by referring to the overvoltage plots as function of system
parameters of IEEE standards[18]. The different line length does not have a
particular impact on the Xco/X1. For both line lengths, the ratio is larger than 100 .
Beyond this value the expected overvoltage is considered constant.[6].
Xsource= 0.0087 pu
X Tx= 0.15 pu
X line=0.0088 Ohm/km
C= 9.4 nF/Km
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Xc = 1/(2Ð f C )/0.2 = 1/( 2* Ð 50 * 9.4 10-9 )/ 0.2 = 1693996 Ohm
The Xco/X1 ratio for line length of 100km is also proved to be below 100.
Therefore, the line will produce a higher overvoltage.
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Configuration 1- Fault at the of the line- No load- Transient Overvoltage Contribution
3.0
2.5 L=100km
L = 10km
2.0 L= 0.2km
Overvoltage ( pu)
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
-0.5
Ifault/I ph-g solidly earthed (pu)
Figure 2.6 shows the contribution of the transient overvoltage to the maximum
recorded overvoltage.
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2.5.2 Simulation 2 : Unloaded Line - Fault at the Beginning of the Line
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Max
Measured Iph-g with
V from NER/ Iph-g V Meas / Power Natural
NER PSCAD solidly Nominal Frequency Frequency
(Ohm) (kV) earthed K0 Voltage V (pu) V (pu)
550 108.220 0.012 238.7 2.008 1.738 0.270
1000 112.946 0.007 434.0 2.096 1.735 0.361
1000000 119.533 0.000 433986.8 2.218 1.736 0.482
Line Length=0.2km
0 67.090 1.000 0.9 1.245 1.011 1.245
5 91.473 0.804 2.4 1.697 1.361 1.697
10 97.117 0.561 4.4 1.802 1.456 0.346
15 97.898 0.412 6.6 1.817 1.479 0.338
20 97.681 0.321 8.7 1.813 1.488 0.325
25 97.272 0.262 10.9 1.805 1.817 -0.012
30 96.861 0.220 13.1 1.797 1.810 -0.013
35 96.501 0.190 15.2 1.791 1.803 -0.013
40 96.193 0.167 17.4 1.785 1.797 -0.012
45 95.931 0.149 19.6 1.780 1.792 -0.012
50 95.708 0.134 21.7 1.776 1.788 -0.012
100 94.570 0.068 43.4 1.755 1.763 -0.008
550 108.314 0.012 238.7 2.010 1.738 0.272
1000 112.946 0.007 434.0 2.096 1.735 0.361
1000000 113.404 0.000 433986.8 2.104 1.736 0.368
2.5
2.0
L=100km
Overvoltage ( pu)
L = 10km
1.5
L= 0.2km
1.0
0.5
0.0
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
Ifault/I ph-g solidly earthed (pu)
48/138
Configuration 2- Fault at the bus- No load- Transient Ov erv oltage Contribution
2.5
2.0 L=100km
L = 10km
1.5 L= 0.2km
Overvoltage ( pu)
1.0
0.5
0.0
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
-0.5
Ifault/I ph-g solidly earthed (pu)
This simulation has the same system configuration of the first study except the
location of the fault. The results however show that different transmission line
lengths do not produce any particular effect on the maximum overvoltage except to
a slightly lower level of the recorded overvoltage. Lower results of the maximum
overvoltages are due to different effect produced by the traveling waves that
propagates along the subtransmission lines and different impact of the system
conditions.
49/138
2.5.3 Simulation 3 : Capacitor Bank. Fault at the End of the Line
50/138
Max
Measured Iph-g with
V from NER/ Iph-g V Meas / Power Natural
NER PSCAD solidly Nominal Frequency Frequency
(Ohm) (kV) earthed K0 Voltage V (pu) V (pu)
550 198.797 0.019 153.0 3.689 1.740 1.949
1000 200.148 0.011 278.1 3.714 1.736 1.978
1000000 182.224 0.000 278041.7 3.381 1.736 1.645
Line Length=0.2km
0 109.095 1.000 0.9 2.024 1.011 1.014
5 135.208 0.806 2.3 2.509 1.358 1.151
10 135.715 0.564 4.4 2.518 1.455 1.064
15 127.208 0.415 6.5 2.361 1.478 0.882
20 148.710 0.324 8.6 2.760 1.822 0.937
25 152.521 0.264 10.8 2.830 1.817 1.013
30 162.300 0.223 12.9 3.012 1.810 1.202
35 166.755 0.192 15.1 3.094 1.804 1.291
40 170.288 0.169 17.2 3.160 1.798 1.362
45 173.169 0.151 19.3 3.213 1.792 1.421
50 175.588 0.136 21.5 3.258 1.788 1.471
100 188.724 0.068 42.9 3.502 1.763 1.739
550 200.208 0.012 236.1 3.715 1.738 1.977
1000 201.435 0.007 429.2 3.738 1.735 2.003
1000000 203.044 0.000 429200.4 3.768 1.736 2.031
Configuration 3- Fault at the end of the line- Cap Bank connected at the end of the line- Measured
Overvoltage
12.0
10.0
L=100km
L = 10km
8.0
Overvoltage ( pu)
L= 0.2km
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
Ifault/I ph-g solidly earthed (pu)
51/138
Configuration 3- Fault at the end of the line- Cap Bank connected at the end of the line-
Transient Overvoltage Contribution
9.0
8.0
L=100km
L = 10km
7.0
L= 0.2km
6.0
Overvoltage ( pu)
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
Ifault/I ph-g solidly e arthe d (pu)
The dangerous effects of capacitor switching are well known in the engineering
field [23]. The results obtained with this simulation show that, following a fault in the
network with no or small loads and a capacitor bank connected to the grid
represent a danger to the insulation of the power system.
The overvoltages measured in this simulation are the highest of the entire study
reported here. The results are in line with previous studies [5, 14] except for
results obtained with line length of 100 km . This is due to the combination of the
following system parameters:
NER size
XC 0
These parameters affect the R0 transient overvoltages condition. If this
3
condition is not met, dangerous fault restrikes are generated [9]. Is it worth noting
that field experience of arcing ground fault above 7 pu are quite rare as the
insulation of the power system usually breaks down between 6 to 7 pu [9]
52/138
Line length impact is shown in Figure 2.9 and 2.10. Instead, to review the impact of
the NER size further simulations were performed. Four snapshots with a NER of
10, 100, 1000 and 1000000 Ohm were taken as shown in Figures 2.11 to 2.14.
Vs
100
80
60
40
Voltage (kV)
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
53/138
Figure 2.14: Configuration 3 Transient overvoltage Snapshot with NER of 1000000 Ohms
The graphs show that the increase of the resistor will increase the transient
overvoltages.
The dangerous transient overvoltages are also due to the conservative approach in
selecting the size of the capacitor bank. A further simulation is conducted to
validate this theory. A smaller capacitor bank of 15 MVA was used for the analysis.
Configuration 3- Line Length 100km- Comparison between 30MVAR and 15MVAR Capacitor Bank
Results- Measured Overvoltage
12.0
10.0
15MVAR
8.0 30MVAR
Overvoltage ( pu)
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
Ifault/I ph-g solidly earthed (pu)
54/138
The system response with a smaller capacitor gives a result which is acceptable
and in line with previous studies [5, 19]. Maximum overvoltage with the insulated
system is 4.1 pu.
55/138
2.5.4 Simulation 4 : Capacitor Bank. Fault at the Beginning of the Line
Max
Measured Iph-g with
V from NER/ Iph-g V Meas / Power Natural
NER PSCAD solidly Nominal Frequency Frequency
(Ohm) (kV) earthed K0 Voltage V (pu) V (pu)
0 73.660 1.000 0.9 1.367 1.011 1.367
5 102.229 0.804 2.4 1.897 1.361 1.897
10 110.677 0.561 4.4 2.054 1.456 2.054
15 120.455 0.412 6.6 2.235 1.479 2.235
20 139.620 0.321 8.7 2.591 1.488 2.591
25 156.662 0.262 10.9 2.907 1.817 2.907
30 171.647 0.220 13.1 3.185 1.810 3.185
35 185.697 0.190 15.2 3.446 1.803 3.446
40 198.103 0.167 17.4 3.676 1.797 3.676
45 209.035 0.149 19.6 3.879 1.792 3.879
50 219.140 0.134 21.7 4.067 1.788 4.067
100 282.383 0.068 43.4 5.240 1.763 5.240
550 373.638 0.012 238.7 6.934 1.738 6.934
1000 431.569 0.007 434.0 8.009 1.735 8.009
1000000 553.568 0.000 433986.8 10.272 1.736 10.272
Line Length=10km
0 73.885 1.000 0.9 1.371 1.011 0.360
5 104.589 0.804 2.4 1.941 1.361 0.580
10 115.953 0.561 4.4 2.152 1.456 0.696
15 126.137 0.412 6.6 2.341 1.479 0.862
20 129.761 0.321 8.7 2.408 1.488 0.920
25 140.232 0.262 10.9 2.602 1.817 0.785
30 143.196 0.220 13.1 2.657 1.810 0.847
35 147.174 0.190 15.2 2.731 1.803 0.928
40 151.560 0.167 17.4 2.812 1.797 1.015
45 155.590 0.149 19.6 2.887 1.792 1.095
50 158.744 0.134 21.7 2.946 1.788 1.158
100 173.853 0.068 43.4 3.226 1.763 1.463
550 185.633 0.012 238.7 3.445 1.738 1.707
56/138
Max
Measured Iph-g with
V from NER/ Iph-g V Meas / Power Natural
NER PSCAD solidly Nominal Frequency Frequency
(Ohm) (kV) earthed K0 Voltage V (pu) V (pu)
1000 187.731 0.007 434.0 3.484 1.735 1.748
1000000 200.403 0.000 433986.8 3.719 1.736 1.982
Line Length=0.2km
0 90.349 1.000 0.9 1.677 1.011 0.666
5 110.113 0.804 2.4 2.043 1.361 0.683
10 125.484 0.561 4.4 2.329 1.456 0.873
15 142.000 0.412 6.6 2.635 1.479 1.156
20 149.540 0.321 8.7 2.775 1.488 1.287
25 152.234 0.262 10.9 2.825 1.817 1.008
30 157.592 0.220 13.1 2.924 1.810 1.114
35 160.073 0.190 15.2 2.970 1.803 1.167
40 161.970 0.167 17.4 3.006 1.797 1.208
45 163.420 0.149 19.6 3.033 1.792 1.240
50 165.426 0.134 21.7 3.070 1.788 1.282
100 173.384 0.068 43.4 3.217 1.763 1.454
550 178.234 0.012 238.7 3.307 1.738 1.569
1000 188.233 0.007 434.0 3.493 1.735 1.758
1000000 200.173 0.000 433986.8 3.715 1.736 1.978
Configuration 4- Fault at the bus- Cap Bank at the end of the line- Measured Overvoltage
12.0
10.0
L=100km
Overvoltage ( pu)
8.0 L = 10km
L= 0.2km
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
Ifault/I ph-g solidly earthed (pu)
57/138
Configuration 4- Fault at the bus- Cap Bank at the end of the line-
Transient Overvoltage Contribution
12.0
L=100km
10.0 L = 10km
L= 0.2km
8.0
Overvoltage ( pu)
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
Ifault/I ph-g solidly e arthe d (pu)
This simulation uses the same system configuration of Simulation 3 except for the
location of the fault. Measured overvoltage shows that these results are similar to
the results obtained from Simulation 3.
Maximum overvoltages are recorded with the transmission line of 100km and after
fault clearing.
58/138
2.5.5 Simulation 5 : Light inductive Load. Fault at the End of the Line.
Line Length=10km
0 89.031 1.000 1.0 1.652 1.006 1.652
5 98.999 0.882 1.7 1.837 1.412 1.837
10 99.542 0.705 3.0 1.847 1.647 1.847
15 98.172 0.561 4.3 1.822 1.745 1.822
20 97.019 0.457 5.7 1.800 1.783 0.017
25 95.755 0.383 7.1 1.777 1.797 -0.021
30 95.531 0.328 8.5 1.773 1.802 -0.029
35 95.024 0.286 9.8 1.763 1.802 -0.038
40 94.367 0.253 11.2 1.751 1.800 -0.049
45 94.358 0.227 12.6 1.751 1.797 -0.046
50 94.180 0.206 14.0 1.748 1.794 -0.046
100 93.855 0.105 27.9 1.742 1.771 -0.029
59/138
550 99.236 0.019 153.0 1.841 1.740 0.101
Max
Measured Iph-g with
V from NER/ Iph-g V Meas / Power Natural
NER PSCAD solidly Nominal Frequency Frequenc
(Ohm) (kV) earthed K0 Voltage V (pu) y V (pu)
1000 109.857 0.011 278.1 2.039 1.736 0.302
1000000 241.638 0.000 278041.7 4.484 1.736 2.748
Line Length=0.2km
0 74.717 1.000 0.9 1.387 1.011 1.387
5 85.939 0.806 2.3 1.595 1.358 1.595
10 91.418 0.564 4.4 1.696 1.455 0.242
15 94.402 0.415 6.5 1.752 1.478 0.273
20 95.404 0.324 8.6 1.770 1.822 -0.052
25 95.743 0.264 10.8 1.777 1.817 -0.040
30 95.531 0.223 12.9 1.773 1.810 -0.037
35 95.640 0.192 15.1 1.775 1.804 -0.029
40 95.477 0.169 17.2 1.772 1.798 -0.026
45 95.301 0.151 19.3 1.768 1.792 -0.024
50 95.131 0.136 21.5 1.765 1.788 -0.022
100 94.017 0.068 42.9 1.745 1.763 -0.019
550 97.021 0.012 236.1 1.800 1.738 0.062
1000 107.684 0.007 429.2 1.998 1.735 0.263
1000000 126.718 0.000 429200.4 2.351 1.736 0.615
Configuration 5- Fault at the of end the line- Inductive Load connected at the end of the
line- Measured Overvoltage
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5 L=100km
Overvoltage ( pu)
3.0 L = 10km
L= 0.2km
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
Ifault/I ph-g solidly earthed (pu)
60/138
Configuration 5- Fault at the end of the line- Inductive Load connected at the end of the line-
Transient Overvoltage Contribution
3.0
L=100km
2.5
L = 10km
L= 0.2km
2.0
Overvoltage ( pu)
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
-0.5
Ifa ult/I ph-g solidly e arthed (pu)
61/138
2.5.6 Simulation 6 : Energized 66/22kV Transformer Fault at the 66kV
Bus.
Max
Measured Iph-g with
V from NER/ Iph-g V Meas / Power Natural
NER PSCAD solidly Nominal Frequency Frequenc
(Ohm) (kV) earthed K0 Voltage V (pu) y V (pu)
0 54.929 1.000 0.9 1.017 1.011 0.006
5 91.224 0.804 2.4 1.692 1.361 0.331
10 96.846 0.561 4.4 1.792 1.456 0.336
15 97.661 0.412 6.6 1.812 1.479 0.333
20 97.464 0.321 8.7 1.806 1.488 0.318
25 97.053 0.262 10.9 1.800 1.817 -0.017
30 96.646 0.220 13.1 1.793 1.810 -0.017
35 96.287 0.190 15.2 1.788 1.804 -0.016
40 95.982 0.167 17.4 1.786 1.798 -0.012
45 95.721 0.149 19.6 1.776 1.792 -0.016
50 95.499 0.134 21.7 1.772 1.788 -0.016
100 94.343 0.068 43.4 1.763 1.763 0.000
550 93.211 0.012 238.7 1.729 1.738 -0.009
1000 93.089 0.007 434.0 1.727 1.735 -0.008
1000000 92.838 0.000 433986.8 1.723 1.732 -0.009
Configuration 6- Fault at the bus- Tx 30 MVA delta/star at the bus- Measured Overvoltage
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
Overvoltage ( pu)
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
Ifault/I ph-g solidly earthed (pu)
62/138
Configuration 6- Fault at the bus- Tx 30 MVA at the bus-
Transient Overvoltage Contribution
0.4
0.4
0.3
Overvoltage( pu)
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
-0.1
Ifault/I ph-g s olidly e ar the d (pu)
Overvoltages recorded in this study are relatively lower than in the other
simulations. Maximum overvoltage reaches a maximum of 1.8pu as phase to
ground fault decreases below 0.6 pu.
Please note that the transient overvoltage component disappears as the phase to
ground fault decreases below 0. 25 pu. Therefore, for high resistor values the
overvoltages are only produced by the power frequency voltage.
No further analysis was conducted using the data from this simulation
This section documents the propagation of the voltage traveling waves along the
transmission line. A series of snapshots are presented to describe the behavior of
the overvoltages using the data from Simulation 1 – No load at the end of the line-
and with the line length of 100 km
63/138
Bus Current,Bus Voltage : Graphs
Is
1.50
1.00
0.50
Current (kA)
0.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
Vs
80
60
40
20
Voltage (kV)
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
Time ... 0.3850 0.3900 0.3950 0.4000 0.4050 0.4100 0.4150 0.4200 0.4250 0.4300 ...
...
...
Figure 2.22: Configuration 1 - Maximum Overvoltage - Phase to Ground Fault – NER 0 Ohm
Snapshots were recorded at fault inception and fault clearing time. The graph also
shows that the transient overvoltage at higher frequency is superimposed on a
lower frequency overvoltage. The overvoltage has a period of 0.7 ms which is
equivalent to a frequency of 1400 Hz. The high frequency component decays in
approximately 10ms.
Traveling waves are triggered at the same time on both healthy phases and travel
on the conductors. The steps pattern of the transient overvoltage is the effect of the
traveling waves that reflect back and forward between the two ends of the line.
64/138
Bus Current,Bus Voltage : Graphs
Is
1.50
1.00
0.50
Current (kA)
0.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
Vs
125
100
75
50
Voltage (kV)
25
0
-25
-50
-75
-100
Time ... 0.5050 0.5075 0.5100 0.5125 0.5150 0.5175 0.5200 0.5225 0.5250 0.5275 ...
...
...
Figure 2.23: Configuration 1- Snapshot of after clearing overvoltage- Phase to Ground Fault – NER
0 Ohm
65/138
Bus Current,Bus Voltage : Graphs
Is
1.50
1.00
0.50
Current (kA)
0.00
-0.50
-1.00
-1.50
Vs
150
100
Voltage (kV)
50
-50
-100
Time ... 0.490 0.500 0.510 0.520 0.530 0.540 0.550 ...
...
...
Figure 2.24: Configuration 1- Snapshot of Maximum Overvoltage- Phase to Phase to Ground Fault
– NER 0 Ohm
In the phase to phase ground fault the maximum overvoltage is recorded at the
fault clearing time. Frequency of the superimposed transient overvoltage is 590 Hz
as in the phase to ground faults. The overvoltages on each phase have the same
frequency. This transient overvoltage decays after 30ms.
66/138
Bus Current,Bus Voltage : Graphs
Is
0.80
0.60
0.40
Current (kA)
0.20
0.00
-0.20
-0.40
-0.60
-0.80
Vs
100
75
50
Voltage (kV)
25
0
-25
-50
-75
-100
Time ... 0.3950 0.4000 0.4050 0.4100 0.4150 0.4200 0.4250 0.4300 ...
...
...
Figure 2.25: Configuration 1- Snapshot of Maximum Overvoltage- Phase to Ground Fault – NER 50
Ohm
0.00
-0.20
-0.40
-0.60
Vs
125
100
75
50
Voltage (kV)
25
0
-25
-50
-75
-100
Time ... 0.5025 0.5050 0.5075 0.5100 0.5125 0.5150 0.5175 0.5200 0.5225 ...
...
...
Figure 2.26: Configuration 1- Snapshot of Maximum Overvoltage- Phase to Phase to Ground Fault
– NER 50 Ohm
67/138
As the NER approaches 50 Ohm, the pattern of the plots remains similar to plots
with NER equal to 0 Ohm. Overvoltage frequencies are 590 Hz in all three phases.
0.150
0.100
Current (kA)
0.050
0.000
-0.050
-0.100
Vs
100
75
50
25
Voltage (kV)
0
-25
-50
-75
-100
-125
Time ... 0.4000 0.4050 0.4100 0.4150 0.4200 0.4250 ...
...
...
Figure 2.27: Configuration 1- Snapshot of Maximum Overvoltage- Phase to Ground Fault – NER
1000 Ohm
The large size of the resistor now makes the phase to ground fault as the most
prominent overvoltage. Traveling waves are visible in the current and voltage plots.
This investigation highlights the relation between the time of fault and the
amplitude of the measured overvoltage. Plots are divided into phase to ground fault
and phase to phase to ground fault.
68/138
Simulation 1- Measured Overvoltage
Ph-g fault- All Data Plot
2.5
2
vervoltage
Solidly Earthed
Insulated
System
System
L=100km
1.5 L=10km
L=0.2km
O
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Sample
2
vervoltage
Solidly Earthed
1.5 System
Insulated
L=100km
System
L=10km
L=0.2km
O
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Sample
10
8
vervoltage
Solidly Earthed
Insulated
System
System
L=100km
6 L=10km
L=0.2km
O
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Sample
69/138
Simulation 4- Measured Overvoltage
Ph-g Fault- All Data Plot
12
10
8 Solidly Earthed
Insulated
Overvoltage
System
System
L=100km
L=10km
6
L=0.2km
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Sample
2.5
2
vervoltage(pu)
1.5
Series1
Insulated
System Series2
O
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Simulation
2
e(pu)
1.5
vervoltag
L=100km
Insulated
System L=10km
O
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Sim ulation
70/138
Simulation 3- Measured Overvoltage
Ph-Ph-G Fault- All Data Plot
5
4.5
3.5
u)
3 Insulated
e(p
System
vervoltag
2.5 L=100km
L=10km
O
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Sim ulation
5
vervoltage(pu)
Insulated
System
4
L=100km
L=10km
O
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Simulation
These graphs are produced by using the maximum overvoltage recorded on each
simulation. It is reminded that 11 simulations were performed for each NER size
configuration. Besides, 1 ms additional delay time was applied on each simulation.
Points were plotted sequentially, starting on the simulation with a NER of 0 Ohm to
the maximum value of the NER, which corresponds to the insulated system.
In these eight plots, Figure 2.28 to Figure 2.35, it is possible to recognize the 15
peaks related to the 15 resistor sizes used in the simulations.
71/138
Phase to ground faults for transmission line of 10 and 0.1km showed a smoother
pattern with lower peak values. Only in Simulation 2 there is an irregularity in the
maximum overvoltage. Overall, the maximum overvoltage in the phase to ground
fault is therefore less dependent on the time of fault.
Phase to ground fault maximum overvoltages show a similar pattern across the
three different subtransmission line lengths. Maximum overvoltages appear only for
a brief period of time and at the same time in all the three line lengths.
The 8 plots also show similar results for simulations conducted with
subtransmission line of 10km and 0.1km.
These graphs confirm that time of fault is relevant in determining the maximum
overvoltage during phase to phase to ground faults.
The section investigates the relationship between faults and different overvoltage
responses on each phase.
This study was conducted only for subtransmission line of 100km in the simulation
1, 2, 3 and 4. Graphs are divided in phase to ground faults and phase to phase to
ground faults.
On PSCAD software package phase to ground fault takes place on phase a and
phase to phase to ground fault takes place on phases a and b.
72/138
Simulation 1-Measured Overvoltage
Phase Comparison-Phase to Ground Fault- L=100km
2.5
2
vervoltage(pu)
Insulated Phase a
1.5 System Phase b
Phase c
O
Solidly Earthed
System
1
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Simulation
2.5
Insulated
System
u)
1.5
e(p
Phase a
g
lta
Phase b
o
rv
Phase c
Oe
v
1 Solidly Earthed
System
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Simulation
12
10
Insulated
8
System
vervoltage(pu)
Phase a
6 Phase b
Phase c
O
Solidly Earthed
System
4
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Simulation
73/138
Simulation 4-Measured Overvoltage
Phase Comparison-Phase to Ground Fault- L=100km
12
10
8 Insulated
System
e(pu)
Phase a
ltag
6 Phase b
vervo
Phase c
O
Solidly Earthed
System
2
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Simulation
2.5
2
e(pu)
Phase a
ltag
1.5 Phase b
vervo
Phase c
Insulated
O
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Simulation
2.5
2
u
e(p )
1.5
g
Phase a
lta
Phase b
o
rv
Insulated Phase c
e
v
System
O
1
Solidly Earthed
System
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Simulation
74/138
Simulation 3-Measured Overvoltage
Phase Comparison-Phase to Phase to Ground Fault- L=100km
4.5
3.5
e(pu)
3
Insulated
Phase a
g
System
lta
2.5 Phase b
o
rv
Phase c
Oe
v
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Simulation
6 Insulated
System
5
e(pu)
Phase a
ltag
4 Phase b
vervo
System
3
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Simulation
This investigation shows that maximum overvoltage can be recorded in the healthy
phases as well as in the faulty phases following fault clearing. In this case the
impact of the power frequency overvoltage is null. This characteristic is particularly
defined on phase to phase to ground faults at clearing time and for both types of
faults for Simulation 3 and 4, where the capacitor bank is connected.
In each phase the overvoltage pattern is same for all resistor values. Constant
overvoltages are broken by regular small “bumps” at the time where the voltage on
the related phases have the highest magnitude at fault clearing or fault inception.
75/138
As noted in Section 2.4.9, the plots for the phase to phase to ground faults show
that the time of fault is a key element to determine in which phase the maximum
overvoltage is recorded.
Base frequency was set to 12.5 Hz to detect noise elements lower than power
frequency voltage.
Here below few snapshots of the healthy and faulty phases for a phase to ground
fault following a fault are provided. Snapshots were captured after 10 ms fault
injection.
Referring to the graphs left hand side spectrum refers to 12.5 Hz component and
right hand side spectrum refers to 322.5 HZ noise element. The number in the plot
frame refers to the voltage magnitude in the first frequency band, 12.5 Hz.
Ea
60.0
0.0
[1] 1.79434
76/138
Ea
60.0
0.0
[1] 3.50508
Ea
60.0
0.0
[1] 6.13753
From the graphs we can observe that voltage noise appears at frequencies higher
and lower values in respect of the power frequency voltage The major components
are in the band close to 50 Hz. Components with lower magnitude, less than 3 %
of nominal voltage, are visible on high frequency up to 300 Hz.
The harmonics were recorded on the healthy phase. The graphs show that the
noise is not limited to odd harmonics. Therefore, filtering this natural frequency
component could be problematic and slow down the information process of the
digital relays.
77/138
2.6 Conclusion
1. Results obtained from this study are in line with the existing literature and
previous studies in this field. Maximum overvoltages are below 2.5 pu for a
ground fault in an unloaded subtransmission line and below 4 pu in an
unloaded line with a capacitor bank connected at the end of the line
3. Increasing the size of the neutral earth resistor controls the maximum
overvoltage on unloaded line as the resistor has a positive impact in limiting
the natural frequency overvoltage until the fault current is equal to 10 % of
the fault current with a solidly earthed system
78/138
analysis and related transient studies should be carefully considered for
long subtransmission lines as is usually done for transmission lines
8. There is also a consistent similarity of results for line length of 10km and
0.2km. This characteristic should be taken into consideration to optimize the
work during planning and design activities for short and medium length
subtransmission lines
10. There is not a strong relation between the time of fault and the magnitude of
the maximum overvoltage during phase to ground faults. Relation between
the magnitude of the maximum overvoltage and the time of fault is only
relevant on the phase to phase to ground faults
79/138
3 CVT and Transient Overvoltages
3.1 Overview
Until few years ago the use of the CVT was limited to extra high voltage system. In
recent years the use of the CVT has become more popular even for application
with nominal voltage down to 33kV (as applied by Energex and Ergon in
Queensland) due the lower capital cost compared to the traditional voltage
transformer, VT. CVTs also offer the advantage to couple power line carrier to
inject teleprotection signals between substations.
During a fault, ideally, the low voltage source provided by the CVT should be an
exact copy of the primary voltage. Unfortunately this is not the reality. CVT
contains a large number of stored energy components which must charge and
discharge during voltage changes [24-29]. The transfer of energy between
capacitances and inductances within the CVT requires some time to take place.
Therefore, the CVT introduces some transients that affect the magnitude and
shape of the voltage signal.
CVT creates some problems to the distance relays especially during faults that
severely depress the voltage at the relay location. Faults located at the beginning
of the protected line can bring the voltage down to few percents of the nominal
voltage and this could affect accuracy and operating time of the relay.
This section aims to investigate the CVT transient response during phase to
ground fault and the impact that this disturbance can have on the distance relay.
80/138
3.2 The CVT Model
Introduction
The main component of the CVT are the capacitive voltage divider , a tuning
reactor, a voltage transformer, a ferroresonance suppression circuit and the burden
made by the relay.
The CVT model can be further simplified where the equivalent circuit is referred to
the intermediate voltage: The CVT model has been design according to this
References [24, 25, 27]
The capacitive voltage divider steps down the voltage from 66 to 10-15 kV. A lower
voltage is required to reduce the insulation of the subsequent voltage
transformation and, therefore, to the overall cost of the CVT. The design of the
capacitors is one of the main challenges faced by manufacturers. In fact, the higher
the size of the capacitance, the lower is the magnitude of the transient overvoltage
during sudden changes in the power system [24]. At the same time, CVT with a
high capacitor size are more expensive. CVTs are often classified as normal C,
high C and extra high C according to the value of the stack capacitance [25].
Typically the value of the capacitors is in the range of 100nF [24, 27].
Tuning reactor
81/138
The tuning reactor is required to cancel out the value of the capacitive divider at
the system frequency [24] . Therefore, the reactor prevents the phase shift
between the voltage signal at the transmission line and the voltage fed to the relay.
The size of the reactor is tuned for the system frequency of 50 Hz. In this study the
reactor is 111 H.
Voltage transformer
The voltage transformer reduces the voltage from 10-15 kV to a voltage suitable for
the relay which is usually 100 or 110 V. Copper and iron losses were taken into
consideration by adding in the CVT model a resistance of 2000 Ohm.
The ferroresonance suppression circuit is installed in the low voltage side of the
voltage transformer to prevent dangerous overvoltages due to the saturation of the
iron core of the step down transformer.
82/138
The passive ferroresonance suppression circuit has a resistor, a saturable inductor
and air gap loading resistor. In normal condition the voltage is not high enough to
flash the air gap. During transient conditions, the air gap will flash over through the
resistor and will attenuate the transient energy.
Device Data
R= 77379 Ohms
C=29 nF
L=111 H
CVT Burden
The burden connected at the end of the circuit represents the static or numerical
digital relays. Modern relays have a small burden. Typically the burden is below 5
VA .
83/138
3.3 Simulation Settings
Fault time
System faults can happen at any time. Considering the two voltage magnitude end
range, the fault could take place at 0 voltage or at maximum voltage. Fault at zero
voltage are less common than faults at the maximum voltage. In fact, this type of
fault could only happen during lightning or close of the circuit breaker on fault
condition. Faults at the maximum voltage usually take place when insulation failure
occurs and are statistically more likely to happen.
Simulations were conducted with fault at zero crossing of the primary voltage. At
this time the energy store in the capacitor is at the maximum and this condition will
generate the worst voltage transient conditions. The sudden change in the system
will release the energy stored in the active elements of the CVT creating the worst
transient overvoltage condition. These voltage oscillations are composed of lower
and higher frequency components.
84/138
The source impedance was set to determine a starting SIR of 1 and 10 without the
implementation of the NER. Then, the neutral earth resistor was increased to
obtain the desired SIR.
85/138
3.4 Simulation Results
Simulations results are provided in Appendix D and summarised in the graphs here
below:
50.00
45.00
40.00 SIR 1
Overvoltage( pu)
35.00 SIR 5
30.00
SIR 10
25.00
SIR 20
20.00
15.00 SIR 30
10.00 SIR 60
5.00
0.00
10 30 50 70
Time (ms)
Figure 3.1: Peak overvoltage after fault- Initial SIR 1- Line length 10 km
50.00
45.00
40.00
Overvoltage ( pu)
35.00
SIR 10
30.00
SIR 20
25.00
SIR 30
20.00
15.00 SIR 60
10.00
5.00
0.00
10 30 50 70
Time (ms)
Figure 3.2: Peak overvoltage after fault- Initial SIR 10- Line length 10 km
86/138
Transient Overvoltage- 2km line- Initial SIR 1
50.00
45.00
40.00 SIR 1
Overvoltage( pu)
35.00
SIR 5
30.00
SIR 10
25.00
SIR 20
20.00
15.00 SIR 30
10.00 SIR 60
5.00
0.00
10 30 50 70
Time (ms)
Figure 3.3: Peak overvoltage after fault- Initial SIR 1- Line length 2 km
50.00
45.00
40.00
Overvoltage( pu)
35.00 SIR 10
30.00
SIR 20
25.00
SIR 30
20.00
15.00 SIR 60
10.00
5.00
0.00
10 30 50 70
Time (ms)
Figure 3.4: Peak overvoltage after fault – Initial SIR 10 - Line length 2 km
Some snapshots of the Voltage are shown in Figure 3.5 to 3.8. Er is the voltage at
the CVT output. Ea is the voltage at the CVT input. These snapshots were
captured during the simulation with line length of 10 km and increasing SIR from 1
to 60. Please note the transient time constant and phase shift.
87/138
Figure 3.5: Peak overvoltage - Line length 10 km –SIR 1
88/138
Er Ea
12.5
10.0
7.5
5.0
Voltage (kV)
2.5
0.0
-2.5
-5.0
-7.5
-10.0
1. The application of the resistor increases the SIR ratio. The increase of the
SIR ratio decreases the voltage at the relay point during a fault and
increases the magnitude and phase shift of the transient overvoltage in
respect to the steady state overvoltage
2. Transient overvoltage decay between 2 and 4 cycles after the fault event.
The overvoltage decays with a longer time with high SIR ratio. This
phenomena is a consequence of the voltage gap between the pre fault and
post fault steady state. Transient components are also highlighted from the
overvoltage snapshots
3. The results are consistent throughout the 4 simulations. The results are
also in line with previous studies [24, 25, 27].
4. The four simulations produce similar results at the same SIR ratio as shown
in Figure 3.9 to 3.12. These results confirm that grounding the system via
the resistor do not have a peculiar impact on the CVT performance. The
critical element for the transient results is the SIR. It influences more than
the length of the transmission line or the source impedance. A high SIR will
generate a significant voltage depression at the CVT location.
89/138
Overvoltage Comparison- SIR 10
10
Overvoltage (pu)
8
Simulation 1
6 Simulation 2
4 ime Simulation 3
Simulation 4
2
0
10 30 50 70
Time (ms)
20
Overvoltage (pu)
15 Simulation 1
Simulation 2
10
Simulation 3
5 Simulation 4
0
10 30 50 70
Time (ms)
90/138
Overvoltage Comparison- SIR 30
25
Overvoltage (pu)
20
Simulation 1
15 Simulation 2
10 Simulation 3
Simulation 4
5
0
10 30 50 70
Time (ms)
50
Overvoltage (pu)
40
Simulation 1
30 Simulation 2
20 Simulation 3
Simulation 4
10
0
10 30 50 70
Time (ms)
91/138
Figure 3.13: Overvoltage comparison - Line length 10 km –SIR 10-Capacitance of 100 nF
92/138
Figure 3.16: Overvoltage comparison - Line length 10 km –SIR 10-Capacitance of 1000 nF
The graphs show that the fist peak decreases from 8.12 kV, with a
capacitance of 100 nF to 4.64 kV with a capacitance value of 1000 nF.
Decay time is also reduced. These results confirm that CVT manufacturers
need to consider the size of the capacitance which needs to be traded off
with the higher cost of large capacitors.
6. To verify the CVT transient performance in relation to the power factor of the
relay burden, three different simulation with SIR ratio of 10 and burden
power factor of 1, 0.7 and 0.1 were performed.
Er Ea
10.0
8.0
6.0
Voltage (kV)
4.0
2.0
0.0
-2.0
-4.0
-6.0
93/138
Er Ea
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
Voltage (kV)
2.0
0.0
-2.0
-4.0
-6.0
-8.0
94/138
Er Ea
15.0
10.0
5.0
Voltage (kV)
0.0
-5.0
-10.0
-15.0
Figure 3.21: Overvoltage comparison – Additional simulation- Line length 10 km –SIR 10-
Burden 100000
8. The post fault voltage is the result of the superpositions of several frequency
components. To simplify the analysis we can assume that four main
frequency components are the major elements:
95/138
DC component.
A specific analysis was done on the 10 km model with SIR ratio of 10, 30
and 60 using the Fast Fourier Transformation tool available in PSCAD.
Snapshots were taken at the first peak, 45 ms and 105 ms after fault
injection. Base frequency was set to 12.5 Hz with 31 harmonics setting.
These settings allow monitoring of the noise with a frequency lower than the
power frequency components and up to 350 Hz. DC decay components
graphs are also provided.
f MAG
1 5 .0
-1 5 .0
kV [13] 0.142098
f MAG
1 5.0
-1 5.0
kV [6] 0.735262
96/138
f MAG
15.0
-15.0
kV [6] 0.822083
f MAG
15.0
-15.0
kV [6] 8.43448
f MAG
1 5 .0
-1 5 .0
kV [6] 7.99076
97/138
f MAG
1 5 .0
-1 5 .0
kV [6] 2.11216
f MAG
1 5 .0
-1 5 .0
kV [6] 8.92664
f MAG
1 5 .0
-1 5 .0
kV [6] 8.15062
98/138
f MAG
15.0
-15.0
kV [6] 2.15804
The DC component contained in the signal is shown on Figure 3.34 and 35.
As expected, the sudden changes produced by the fault produces a decay
a-periodic component damped approximately after 60ms
DC
2.0
-2.0
kV [1] -0.802959
DC
2.0
-2.0
kV [1] -0.0367069
99/138
3.5 CVT Conclusion
This study did not find any relevant issues on the CVT performance when a
resistor is used in the grounding of the voltage source.
The difference of magnitudes between the steady state voltage pre fault and after
fault, which is well represented by the System Impedance Ratio, SIR, is the key
element in determine the transient response of the CVT and the impact on the
distance protection scheme.
This study confirms that the transient overvoltages generated by the overall power
systems is made worse by the CVT transient performance.
100/138
4 Distance Protection Scheme
4.1 Introduction
101/138
impedance data, the distance protection scheme is immune from malfunction or
incorrect measurement.
In reality the distance protection is not just Z= V/I [4].The operation and the
technical performance of the relay can be affected by a large variety of elements
such as system configuration, load current, system data, power swing, transients,
location of the fault and fault resistance. Therefore, the accuracy of the distance
protection relay varies according to the specific application.
The operating time, which is the time between the fault and the tripping of the relay
output contact, is another key element of the distance protection. In the old
electromechanical relays the magnitude of the voltage and current measured by
the protection relay had a relevant impact on the performance of the protection
schemes. Current and voltage would determine the operating torque of the relay.
The latest digital relays have more consistent performance independent of the
magnitude of the measured quantities.
SIR= Zs/Zl
Where:
Zs =Source impedance
Zl = Line impedance
SIR ratio is a term commonly used in the industry. Relay manufacturers use the
SIR as reference to specify the performance of their protective devices. The
vendors specifies the accuracy of the impedance calculation with ± 3 % error with a
SIR lower than 30 [26-29] The same manufacturer also guarantee relay operation
102/138
within two cycles with SIR below 30. In fact, this relays are often named “ two cycle
relays”.
New digital relay techniques are expanding the SIR limit to 60 [27, 30].At the same
time relay manufacturers are now producing relays with excellent accuracy and
operating time within one cycle. These relays are often called “one cycle relay”
The relevance of the SIR has been successfully captured by IEEE Standard
C37.113-1999.”IEEE Guide for protective Relay Application For Transmission
Lines”[31]. Preferred protection schemes for transmission lines are classified by
the SIR. Three types of lines are defined in the IEEE Standard:
2. Medium line with SIR smaller than 4 and larger than 0.5
Implementation of the neutral earth resistor increases the source impedance and,
therefore, the source impedance ratio. Strong source with a high fault current
usually have a low SIR and vice versa. Weak infeed source have high SIR value.
From a transmission line point of view, we can also state that, short line have a
lower line impedance and, therefore, a higher SIR. As result, it is more appropriate
referring to the SIR instead than weighting Zs and Zl magnitude on isolation.
Vr=1/ ( 1+ SIR)
103/138
For a phase to ground fault, more precise computation of the voltage at the relay
point can be performed by using this formula: [32]:
SIR= Zs/ Zl
Where
And
p= Zso/Z s1
q= Zlo/Z l1
In the event of a fault at the zone reach, it is possible to determine the voltage at
the relay by using the following formulas [32]
1
Vr Vl n
2p
(Zs/Zl) * ( ) 1
2q
The impedances in the above formulas refer to the setting reach. This means that if
the fault is closer to the relay, SIR will increase and the voltage will decrease.
Using PSCAD software and modeling a simple radial system made by the source,
a 220/66kV delta/star transformer, and a transmission line. In Figure 4.1 to Figure
4.4, the relation between the SIR, voltage and fault current at the relay point is
highlighted. The study was done with a line length of 2, 5 and 10 km. The curve
104/138
points were determined by increasing from 0 Ohm, the value of the NER in steps of
2 Ohms to 30 Ohms. Results are shown in Figure 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4.
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
4 3 .2 .1 .0 .9 .8 .7 .6 .5 .4 .3
4. 8. 12 16 20 23 27 31 35 39 43 47
SIR
Figure 4.1: Voltage and Current at the relay point as a function of SIR- Line length 2 km
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
8 3 9 4 0 6 .1 .7 .2 .8 .3 .9
1. 3. 4. 6. 8. 9. 11 12 14 15 17 18
SIR
Figure 4.2: Voltage and Current at the relay point as a function of SIR –Line length 5 km
105/138
Line 10 km
V at the Relay
Fault Current
1.200
1.000
Vr and If in pu
0.800
0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
9 7 4 2 0 8 6 3 1 9 7 5
0. 1. 2. 3. 4. 4. 5. 6. 7. 7. 8. 9.
SIR
Figure 4.3: Voltage and Current at the relay point as a function of SIR- Line lenght 10km
The increase of the resistor will decrease the voltage at the relay location.
Moreover, the increase of the line length will decrease the value of the SIR. It is
anticipated by the existing literature [24, 25, 27, 31, 39] that the reduced voltage
supplied to the distance relay is in fact a major challenge to the functionality of the
distance relay.
106/138
4.2 MHO Characteristics Theory
Distance relays measure the impedance in the impedance plane to determine if the
measurement is within the reach boundary. To accomplish this result the relay
compares the magnitude or phase of two different quantities. In the early stage,
since 1920s’, relay manufacturers, for instance Siemens in Germany, employed a
line replica impedance to determine if the fault was in the protected zone [33]. To
the contrary, English and American manufacturers mainly used an induction
cylinder comparator which, according to the torque produced by the current [34] ,
will operate the tripping mechanism.
In both cases, phase comparison was the preferred method to implement the
distance protection scheme. The Mho characteristics was a natural outcome of this
technology [35]. Therefore, the Mho impedance relays had the majority of attention
from the researchers and quadrilateral characteristics appeared on the market only
in the late 70’ with the first static relays.
As anticipated, in the Mho relay, the basic of the distance protection is achieved by
comparing the angle between two voltages which are commonly named the
operating signal and the polarising signal.
The operating signal is the vectorial subtraction of the voltage produced by the
zone reach impedance times the fault current and the voltage measured during
fault.
S1= I Z – V
The polarising signal Voltage IZ is instead the voltage measured during fault V
S2= V
107/138
The angle between these two vectors will determine if the fault is inside or outside
the zone reach.
It is useful reviewing how this is achieved [32-34, 36, 37]. The voltage across the
fault impedance, IZ, represents the diameter of the Mho characteristics in the event
that the measured impedance Z is equal to the zone reach. In this condition, the
angle opposite to IZ is always 90 degrees once intercepts the circumference.
108/138
Figure 4.5: MHO self polarised- Fault within the zone reach
Consequently, if the angle between the operating signal and the polarising signal is
less than 90 degrees the impedance is within the zone reach. As shown in Figure
4.5, the angle will move towards 0 degrees as the fault moves towards the relay
point [36].
109/138
Figure 4.6: MHO self polarised- Fault outside the zone reach
If the impedance Z is outside the zone reach this angle will be above 90 degrees.
110/138
5 Transient Overvoltages and Distance Protection:
Solutions
5.1 Introduction
In Section 2 and 3 this research has illustrated that, after fault inception, the power
frequency voltage fed to distance protection relay is superimposed by transients
generated by the power systems and from the CVT. In Section 4 this study has
also highlighted that correct calculation of the zone reach relies on the correctness
of the voltage magnitude and angle implemented in the distance algorithm.
Besides, using the resistor for grounding will increase the SIR with consequent
reduction of the available voltage at the relay location.
As the impedance settings are defined at the power frequency, it is required that
the protection relay shall be able to keep the fundamental frequency and reject the
other frequency components before data processing is initiated. If a distorted signal
is fed to the relay, the relay will perform an incorrect computation of the impedance
leading to overreach or underreach measurements. In other words, the relay could
see a fault outside the zone reach as if it is inside the protected zone (Underreach
problem) and execute the trip command to the circuit breaker. Vice versa, voltage
over estimation could determine that a fault inside the zone reach could be seen as
that outside the zone reach (Overreach phenomena). The same type of errors
could be determined if the voltage noise produces a significant phase angle error.
111/138
While few static distance protection relays are still in use, the study will focus only
on the latest generation of numerical protection relays as implemented worldwide
in the last 10 years.
Operating time
Cost
Although the latest digital filtering techniques have made significant improvements,
relay manufactures do not guarantee that the voltage used for the impedance
computation will be noise free [35, 37, 38, 44, 45]. Therefore, further engineering
techniques are required to enhance the performance of the protection relay.
112/138
5.2 Polarisation Techniques
The Mho characteristic relay performs the impedance calculation by comparing two
voltage signals, commonly known as operating signal, S1, and polarising signal,
S2.
This technique, commonly named Mho self polarised technique, uses the voltage
measured during the fault without any signal modification as polarising signal.
As the fault gets closer to the relay location, the voltage signal fed to the protection
relay will decrease to the point to be so small that it will not allow a reliable
computation of the phase comparison algorithm. In particular, the voltage
measured could not be sufficient to determine if the fault is on the line side or on
the bus side of the voltage transformer placing at risk the inherent directionality of
the Mho characteristics [25, 30, 31, 39, 41]. For the old electromagnetic relays the
minimum requirement to operate correctly was about 1 V [33]. For the modern
digital relays the lower limit is approximately 0.1 V[33].
The end result of all these engineering methods is expanding the Mho circle to
protect the impedance area around the X-R origin without affecting the inherent
113/138
directionality of the Mho characteristic. Besides, the Mho circle is also expanded in
the R axis direction which provides a better fault resistance coverage. In other
words, the circle is lowered and expanded in the impedance plane to fully cover the
area of the origin of the axis.
Zs= 1 Ohm
Z setting= 1 Ohm
Vr=1/ ( 1+ SIR)
114/138
Figure 5.1: MHO characteristics- Reach expansion with polarising techniques
Polarising techniques achieve this result by boosting the polarising voltage. There
is a wide literature about the available polarising techniques which also take into
consideration critical factors such as fault resistance, load flow and single pole
auto-reclose function [25, 30, 40, 41]. Given below is a summary of these
techniques:
115/138
3. Lagging and leading polarisation. When a phase to ground fault takes
place, another technique is adding a percentage of the lagging or leading
healthy phase voltage to the faulty phase voltage. Lagging phase will be
added by rotating the vector of 120 degrees. Contrary, leading phase
voltage will be added by adding to the vector 120 degrees [35]. The two
polarising techniques are similar with the end result of “boosting” the
polarizing signal.
116/138
functions automatically in order to make them more attuned to prevailing
power system conditions”.
Siemens 7SA522 offers to the User the ability to determine the percentage of self
and memorized voltage for the polarising signal. The memory polarisation is only
used if the available phase to neutral voltage is above 40% of the nominal phase to
ground voltage. The threshold is set to 70 % for the phase to phase voltage. Below
these thresholds the algorithm uses the cross polarisation voltage. Default setting
for both polarisation is 15% with a maximum of 100%. Therefore, the self
Polarisation is kept at 85% but could vary from 0 to 100 %. The relay offers
independent settings for the phase to ground and phase to phase measuring loops.
Even Areva P543 uses a combination of memorizing and self polarised voltage.
The User shall determine the best composition of the memory and cross polarised
voltage prior to relay configuration. The memorizing voltage can vary between16 %
to 83 % of the overall polarising signal. The memorizing voltage is taken from two
cycles before fault and is used for 16 cycles after the loss of the voltage supply.
After this period, cross polarised voltage is used.
Schweitzer SEL 311 relay fully implements the memorised positive sequence
voltage as polarising signal.
117/138
ABB-REL 670 employs a memorizing voltage. The memorized voltage is used for 5
cycles and refers to 2 cycles before fault detection. After 100 ms few conditions are
checked to determine if a genuine fault is taking place. More details are provided in
the Reference [39]
General Electric Multilin D30 uses the memory voltage if the actual voltage is
below 80% of the nominal voltage. After the memory timer elapsed the voltage is
checked. If the voltage is above 10%, the actual voltage is used. Otherwise, the
memorised voltage is still used.
This brief reviews of five modern distance relays shows that there is a clear choice
to use the entire or a percentage of the voltage memory as polarising signal. The
use of this voltage will also prevent the feeding of a voltage signal which contains
the transient disturbance on the healthy and faulty phases to the relay. The voltage
sample used refers to 2 cycles before the fault inceptions. This time gap is
considered satisfactory as compromise between two different requirements:
Using a voltage sample as close as possible to the fault inception. This will
prevent that a frequency change in the network could cause a phase error in
the calculation
Use a voltage sample recorded well before fault inception to fully prevent a
post fault noise being memorised in the relay
It is noted that some relays allow the users to determine the composition of the
polarising signal [8, 13]. The author suggests that in the future this capability could
be implemented by all the relay manufacturers in the next series of distance digital
relays.
118/138
5.4 CVT Techniques
Modern distance digital relays employ a wide variety of techniques to reduce the
negative impact created by CVT transients. Precise details of the algorithms are
not published by the Manufacturers who need to protect their intellectual
properties. Besides, modern relays use parallel and different computation
techniques to validate the measured fault impedance during high SIR condition. All
these algorithms obviously are not published in relay manuals.
However, relay manuals and existing literature provide some useful information on
the algorithms and CVT compensation techniques implemented in modern relays.
Areva P543 allows the User to select the type of ferroresonance suppression used
in the CVT. At fault inception, the relay will determine the SIR and apply a delay of
5 ms if the SIR is above 2 for active filters. The same delay is applied with the
passive filters when the SIR is above a selectable value varying from 5 to 60.
SEL 311 relay delays the operating time of Zone 1 reach of 30 ms either if SIR
above 5 is detected or the CVT has an active ferroresonance-suppression circuit.
There is no doubt that digital relays are now able to detect CVT transient
conditions and, at the same time, calculate the SIR[24]. These CVT transient
detection logics determine the required time delay between 20 and 60 ms before
issuing the trip command. The time delay will allow the transient to decay and
lower the likelihood to have some errors in the impedance measurements at the
119/138
start. The CVT algorithms are also able to recognize if it is a close in fault. In this
event the CVT logic will be bypassed to provide a fast protection trip.
Another technique includes applying a time delay to CB trip in the zone before the
Z1 setting reach. This zone is the most critical area for relay accuracy. An error on
the computation of the fault impedance could lead to maloperation as the relay
could “overreach” or underreach[25].”
There are also researches on new digital filtering methods to include Finite Impulse
Response filter with a longer window length in the pre-filtering area of the relay and
full cycle Fourier algorithms and least square methods for the phasor estimation
[41]. FIR filter performances are dependant on the window length. Longer window
allows increasing the error on the measured value. To the contrary, decreasing the
window length will improve the operating time but, inevitably, will increase the error
on the measured voltage.
120/138
5.5 Setting Advice
Modern filtering techniques, CVT adaptive algorithms and the use of memorised
voltage as a polarising signal have dramatically improved the performance of the
distance protection relays. Nevertheless, protection engineers are still required to “
tune” the distance protection during the preparation of the relay setting for each
specific project. In relation to the protection settings, the following items should be
considered:
1. Liaise with the planning engineer to determine the size of the neutral earth
resistor and consequent SIR. For instance, designing a SIR below 25 at
Zone 1 reach will usually ensure adequate relay performance. Please note
that SIR is calculated at the end of the line
3. Estimate the expected post fault transient overvoltages (magnitude and time
to decay), based on system earthing, power system characteristics, SIR,
CVT characteristics including ferroresonance suppression filter and relay
performance. Although a precise figure can’t be determined unless a power
system study is performed, the above data and the existing literature as
listed in the Reference should be sufficient to complete the exercise
4. Select the polarising technique according to the estimation above and the
SIR at the end of zone 1 reach. The design shall consider the SIR excursion
under minimum and maximum fault levels. For the minimum fault level, the
121/138
worst case scenario of a single ( N-1) or double contingencies (N-2) should
be adopted according to the project/client requirements
6. Apply a constant time delay to zone 1 longer than the CVT transient. This
solution is not dynamic and penalizes fast fault clearing time for close in
faults or low SIR condition
7. Reduce the distance reach of Zone 1(instantaneous trip) to less than the
traditional 80-85 %
11. Test the protection settings using different SIR to verify and ensure that the
performance of the relay is not affected by the reduced input voltage.
122/138
12. Verify the type of polarisation used in the relay to determine the Mho
dynamic expansion and additional resistance coverage provided.
Implementation of the neutral earth resistor decreases the fault current and ,
therefore, increase the arc resistance as calculated using the Warrington’s
formula.
Nominal Time(milliseconds)
voltage kV
Primary End of Back
Prot line up Prot
Prot
400 kV and 80 100 175
above
At least 250kV 100 120 250
but less than
400 kV
More than 100 120 220 430
kV but less
than 250 kV
Less than or As necessary to prevent plant damage and
equal 100 kV meet stability requirements
123/138
On the 66 kV network the application of a time delay between 60 and 85 %
of Z1 reach will not affect system stability and the overall performance of the
overall protection scheme. For instance, in the Melbourne metropolitan area,
system stability could be affected only if a fault is not cleared within 600 ms.
The critical fault clearing time exceeds 1000 ms in the Victorian regional
area. In a 220 kV network, a small time delay could also be applied. For
instance, applying a 20 ms time delay with a modern CB and protection
relay, the total CB operating time would be still within the 120 ms limit
124/138
6 Conclusion
Modern distance relays are capable to operate correctly during the transient
period that follows a phase to ground fault. Modern distance relays are
provided with digital filters, adaptive algorithm, polarising techniques to
overcome the issues created by the transient overvoltages. In the event of a
fault with a high source impedance ratio, SIR, the available voltage to the
distance relay could be so small to impact the functionality of the relay. In
particular, accurate computation of the fault direction and fault loop
impedance could be affected. The use of memorising voltage overcomes
these issues as well as prevents feeding the relay with a distorted voltage
signal caused by the power system itself and, in particular, the CVT
transient behavior. To conclude, the results of this research show that fault
current limitation and consequent reduction of the thermal stress and aging
of the equipment are successfully supported by modern distance relays
125/138
overvoltage conditions. Modern digital relays provide accurate and fast
operation with SIR below 30. Applying a typical engineering safety margin,
sizing of the NER which produces a SIR above 25 should be evaluated in
the early stage of a project
126/138
6.2 Areas for Further Investigation
Considering the overvoltage data available, together with the analysis performed
on overvoltage and distance protection, this Thesis could be used as starting point
to perform further investigations.
In the power system analysis field, the author advocates similar studies using a
neutral earth reactor in the grounding of power system. This study will facilitate the
comparison of the transient response between the resistor and the reactor. The
results will be beneficial for the planning activity of Utilities and large industrial
plants.
It is also advisable to expand this study by modeling in details the substation and
the surrounding grid and reperform the same analysis. Results obtained could be
used to generate guidelines for power system modeling and allowable model
simplifications in relation to transient overvoltage studies.
127/138
a simply heavy load current, it is believed that further researches could be
performed.
This study could be also used to review the traditional guideline used by protection
engineers for the zone one reach setting. Zone one is typically set to 80 or 85
percent of the protected line. Consideration of modern CVT and relay
performances, together with expected fault current and SIR, could be used to
provide newest insight on the matter.
128/138
7 References
[6] H. A. Peterson, Transients in Power Systems. New York: John Wiley &
Sons,Inc. New York -Chapman & Hall,LTD.London, 1951.
[9] IEEE, "IEEE guide for the application of neutral grounding in electrical utility
systems, part V - transmission systems and subtransmission systems
" IEEE Std C62.92.5-1992, 1993.
129/138
[10] A. Switchgear, Protection application Handbook. Vastera,Sweden: ABB
Switchgear, 1999.
[14] A. Greenwood, Electrical transients in power systems 2nd ed. ed. New York:
New York : Wiley Interscience, 1991.
[18] IEEE, "IEEE guide for the application of neutral grounding in electrical utility
systems, part V - transmission systems and subtransmission systems
IEEE guide for the application of neutral grounding in electrical utility systems, part
V - transmission systems and subtransmission systems," IEEE Std C62.92.5-1992,
1993.
130/138
[20] IEEE, "IEEE guide for the application of neutral grounding in electrical utility
systems, part IV - distribution
IEEE guide for the application of neutral grounding in electrical utility systems, part
IV - distribution," IEEE Std C62.92.4-1991, 1992.
131/138
[31] IEEE, "IEEE guide for protective relay applications to transmission lines,"
IEEE Std C37.113-1999, 2000.
[35] Cigre, "Modern Distance Protection Functions and Applications," Cigre, Ed.,
2007.
[37] J. Roberts and A. Guzman, "Z=V/I Does Not Make A Distance Relay," in
20th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Washinghton, 1993.
132/138
Appendix A
10th International Conference on Developments in Power System
Protection, March 2010, Manchester, UK -Abstract
133/138
Abstract
The results of this study show that fault current limitation and consequent
reduction of the thermal stress and aging of the equipment are
successfully supported by modern distance relays.
Appendix B
Overvoltage Study –PSCAD Data
134/138
Simulation 1
Variables Results
Variables Results
Variables Results
Variables Results
135/138
NER
per 1
Ohm (
Line Length 10 km Zbase 484 Ohm Line Impedance per km (pu) pu)
S base 100 MVA 0.001676 0.0088 0.023
Ohm R X R X R X R X R X R X Magnitude angle ( rad) Magnitude angle ( rad) Ohm R X R X R X R X Magnitude angle polar rectangular polar
0 0.000869 0.00869 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 0 0 0.017629 0.24707 0.01763 0.24707 0.2476981 1.4995648 0.2476981 1.4995648 0 0.000 0 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 0.01676 0.23838 0.238968 1.5006 1 0 1 0 0.96476 0.00104
5 0.000869 0.00869 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 0 0 0.017629 0.24707 0.01763 0.24707 0.2476981 1.4995648 0.2476981 1.4995648 5 0.344 0 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 0.36111 0.23838 0.432697 0.5835 1 0 1 0 1.74687 -0.9161
10 0.000869 0.00869 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 0 0 0.017629 0.24707 0.01763 0.24707 0.2476981 1.4995648 0.2476981 1.4995648 10 0.689 0 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 0.70546 0.23838 0.744651 0.3259 1 0 1 0 3.00628 -1.1737
15 0.000869 0.00869 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 0 0 0.017629 0.24707 0.01763 0.24707 0.2476981 1.4995648 0.2476981 1.4995648 15 1.033 0 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 1.04982 0.23838 1.07654 0.2233 1 0 1 0 4.34618 -1.2763
20 0.000869 0.00869 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 0 0 0.017629 0.24707 0.01763 0.24707 0.2476981 1.4995648 0.2476981 1.4995648 20 1.377 0 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 1.39417 0.23838 1.414401 0.1693 1 0 1 0 5.71018 -1.3302
25 0.000869 0.00869 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 0 0 0.017629 0.24707 0.01763 0.24707 0.2476981 1.4995648 0.2476981 1.4995648 25 1.722 0 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 1.73852 0.23838 1.754787 0.1363 1 0 1 0 7.08438 -1.3633
30 0.000869 0.00869 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 0 0 0.017629 0.24707 0.01763 0.24707 0.2476981 1.4995648 0.2476981 1.4995648 30 2.066 0 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 2.08287 0.23838 2.096469 0.114 1 0 1 0 8.4638 -1.3856
35 0.000869 0.00869 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 0 0 0.017629 0.24707 0.01763 0.24707 0.2476981 1.4995648 0.2476981 1.4995648 35 2.410 0 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 2.42722 0.23838 2.438902 0.0979 1 0 1 0 9.84627 -1.4017
40 0.000869 0.00869 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 0 0 0.017629 0.24707 0.01763 0.24707 0.2476981 1.4995648 0.2476981 1.4995648 40 2.755 0 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 2.77158 0.23838 2.781809 0.0858 1 0 1 0 11.2306 -1.4138
45 0.000869 0.00869 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 0 0 0.017629 0.24707 0.01763 0.24707 0.2476981 1.4995648 0.2476981 1.4995648 45 3.099 0 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 3.11593 0.23838 3.125033 0.0764 1 0 1 0 12.6163 -1.4232
50 0.000869 0.00869 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 0 0 0.017629 0.24707 0.01763 0.24707 0.2476981 1.4995648 0.2476981 1.4995648 50 3.444 0 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 3.46028 0.23838 3.468481 0.0688 1 0 1 0 14.0029 -1.4308
100 0.000869 0.00869 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 0 0 0.017629 0.24707 0.01763 0.24707 0.2476981 1.4995648 0.2476981 1.4995648 100 6.887 0 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 6.9038 0.23838 6.907914 0.0345 1 0 1 0 27.8884 -1.465
550 0.000869 0.00869 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 0 0 0.017629 0.24707 0.01763 0.24707 0.2476981 1.4995648 0.2476981 1.4995648 550 37.879 0 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 37.8955 0.23838 37.89623 0.0063 1 0 1 0 152.994 -1.4933
1000 0.000869 0.00869 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 0 0 0.017629 0.24707 0.01763 0.24707 0.2476981 1.4995648 0.2476981 1.4995648 1000 68.870 0 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 68.8872 0.23838 68.88757 0.0035 1 0 1 0 278.111 -1.4961
1E+06 0.000869 0.00869 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 0 0 0.017629 0.24707 0.01763 0.24707 0.2476981 1.4995648 0.2476981 1.4995648 1000000 68870.400 0 0 0.15 0.01676 0.08838 68870.4 0.23838 68870.42 3E-06 1 0 1 0 278042 -1.4996
I Base at 66kv 876
Calculation of a2+aK2+K0
Calculation of a+a2K2+K0 Voltage Phase b to ground Voltage Phase C to Ground Results Check using V Residual
2
K2 K0 Total NER ratio a2+aK2+K0/1+K2+K0 Vb= Eb- a2+aK2+K0/1+K2+K0 Vb NER ratio a+a2K2+K0/1+K2+K0 Vc= Eb- a+a2K2+K0/1+K2+K0 Vc V residual= (-3Ko/ ( 1 + K2 +K0 )) * E a
angle angle
rectangular rectangular rectangular polar Ohm polar rectangular rectangular polar (degree) V Ohm polar rectangular rectangular polar (degree) V polar rectangular
-0.49966 -0.86622 0.96476 0.001 -0.0349 0.00081 0.03491 -0.02319 0 0.0119 -0.0288 0.0119 -0.0003 -0.5195 -0.8613 1.0058 58.9030 38326 0 0.0118 -0.0235 0.0118 -0.0003 -0.5114 0.8665 1.0062 -59.4498 38340 0.9762 -3.1403 -0.9762
-0.49966 -0.86622 1.0637 -1.38568 0.06404 -1.38587 1.38735 -1.52462 5 0.4125 -1.1001 0.1871 -0.3677 -0.6947 -0.4939 0.8524 35.4132 32480 5 0.4126 -1.0999 0.1872 -0.3677 -0.6869 1.2339 1.4122 -60.8973 53812 1.5586 -3.6323 -1.3746
-0.49966 -0.86622 1.16264 -2.77236 0.16298 -2.77256 2.77734 -1.51208 10 0.6603 -0.7925 0.4636 -0.4702 -0.9712 -0.3914 1.0471 21.9495 39900 10 0.6604 -0.7923 0.4637 -0.4702 -0.9634 1.3364 1.6474 -54.2139 62776 2.1444 -3.5950 -1.9278
-0.49966 -0.86622 1.26159 -4.15905 0.26193 -4.15924 4.16748 -1.5079 15 0.7884 -0.6022 0.6497 -0.4466 -1.1573 -0.4150 1.2295 19.7251 46849 15 0.7885 -0.6021 0.6498 -0.4466 -1.1495 1.3128 1.7449 -48.7959 66491 2.4669 -3.5115 -2.3000
-0.49966 -0.86622 1.36053 -5.54573 0.36087 -5.54592 5.55765 -1.50582 20 0.8570 -0.4799 0.7602 -0.3957 -1.2678 -0.4659 1.3507 20.1784 51470 20 0.8571 -0.4798 0.7603 -0.3956 -1.2599 1.2619 1.7832 -45.0435 67949 2.6418 -3.4452 -2.5209
-0.49966 -0.86622 1.45947 -6.93241 0.45981 -6.9326 6.94784 -1.50457 25 0.8967 -0.3967 0.8271 -0.3465 -1.3347 -0.5151 1.4307 21.1042 54515 25 0.8968 -0.3966 0.8271 -0.3464 -1.3268 1.2127 1.7975 -42.4265 68493 2.7432 -3.3964 -2.6546
-0.49966 -0.86622 1.55841 -8.31909 0.55876 -8.31929 8.33803 -1.50373 30 0.9215 -0.3372 0.8696 -0.3048 -1.3772 -0.5568 1.4855 22.0118 56604 30 0.9215 -0.3371 0.8696 -0.3048 -1.3693 1.1710 1.8018 -40.5374 68656 2.8062 -3.3600 -2.7396
-0.49966 -0.86622 1.65736 -9.70578 0.6577 -9.70597 9.72823 -1.50314 35 0.9379 -0.2927 0.8980 -0.2707 -1.4056 -0.5909 1.5248 22.8026 58102 35 0.9379 -0.2927 0.8980 -0.2706 -1.3977 1.1369 1.8017 -39.1243 68653 2.8479 -3.3322 -2.7963
-0.49966 -0.86622 1.7563 -11.0925 0.75664 -11.0927 11.1184 -1.50269 40 0.9494 -0.2584 0.9178 -0.2426 -1.4254 -0.6190 1.5540 23.4720 59216 40 0.9494 -0.2584 0.9179 -0.2426 -1.4175 1.1088 1.7997 -38.0337 68577 2.8769 -3.3105 -2.8360
-0.49966 -0.86622 1.85524 -12.4791 0.85558 -12.4793 12.5086 -1.50234 45 0.9577 -0.2312 0.9322 -0.2195 -1.4398 -0.6421 1.5765 24.0366 60073 45 0.9577 -0.2312 0.9322 -0.2194 -1.4319 1.0857 1.7969 -37.1695 68472 2.8978 -3.2930 -2.8647
-0.49966 -0.86622 1.95419 -13.8658 0.95453 -13.866 13.8988 -1.50207 50 0.9639 -0.2091 0.9429 -0.2001 -1.4505 -0.6615 1.5943 24.5152 60749 50 0.9640 -0.2091 0.9430 -0.2001 -1.4426 1.0663 1.7939 -36.4695 68357 2.9135 -3.2788 -2.8861
-0.49966 -0.86622 2.94362 -27.7327 1.94396 -27.7328 27.8009 -1.50081 100 0.9869 -0.1064 0.9813 -0.1048 -1.4889 -0.7568 1.6702 26.9425 63642 100 0.9869 -0.1064 0.9813 -0.1048 -1.4810 0.9711 1.7709 -33.2523 67482 2.9700 -3.2117 -2.9627
-0.49966 -0.86622 11.8485 -152.534 10.8488 -152.534 152.92 -1.49979 550 0.9984 -0.0195 0.9982 -0.0195 -1.5058 -0.8421 1.7253 29.2149 65742 550 0.9984 -0.0195 0.9982 -0.0195 -1.4979 0.8857 1.7402 -30.5966 66309 2.9967 -3.1540 -2.9965
-0.49966 -0.86622 20.7533 -277.336 19.7537 -277.336 278.038 -1.49969 1000 0.9992 -0.0108 0.9991 -0.0107 -1.5067 -0.8509 1.7304 29.4538 65935 1000 0.9992 -0.0108 0.9991 -0.0107 -1.4988 0.8770 1.7365 -30.3328 66169 2.9983 -3.1482 -2.9982
-0.49966 -0.86622 19789.6 -277337 19788.6 -277337 278042 -1.49956 1000000 1.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 -1.5076 -0.8616 1.7364 29.7479 66167 1000000 1.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 -1.4997 0.8662 1.7319 -30.0116 65993 3.0000 -3.1410 -3.0000
Ea 1 1.5708 3.3E-07 1
Eb 1 -0.5236 0.86603 -0.5
Results Check using V Residual Calculation of Overvoltage Va during Phase b to Phase c to Ground Fault Voltage Factor
Max ph g
Overvoltage Maximum Overvoltage Maximum
Check:V Residual -VB- ( between Vb also considering ph- Peak
idual= (-3Ko/ ( 1 + K2 +K0 )) * E a VC= 0 K2 K0 K2K0 Va=3 K2 K0/ (K2 + K0 + K2 K0) and Vc) ph-g fault Overvoltage NER
Ratio Overvoltage/Nominal
rectangular rectangular rectangular rectangular polar rectangular polar V V V V Voltage Ohm
-0.0013 0.0547 -0.0065 1.0000 0.0000 0.9648 0.0010 0.9648 0.0010 0.9648 0.0007 0.9880 90.0203 37646.7024 38340 38340 54221 1.006 0
0.7345 0.0069 -0.0055 1.0000 0.0000 1.0637 -1.3857 1.7469 -0.9161 1.0637 -0.7251 1.2541 79.0571 47789.2963 53812 53812 76102 1.412 5
0.9393 0.0068 -0.0057 1.0000 0.0000 1.1626 -2.7724 3.0063 -1.1737 1.1626 -1.0306 1.3949 81.7997 53154.2978 62776 62776 88778 1.647 10
0.8919 0.0068 -0.0060 1.0000 0.0000 1.2616 -4.1590 4.3462 -1.2763 1.2616 -1.1702 1.4434 83.9190 54999.4013 66491 66491 94032 1.745 15
0.7898 0.0068 -0.0061 1.0000 0.0000 1.3605 -5.5457 5.7102 -1.3302 1.3605 -1.2471 1.4643 85.2381 55796.3006 67949 67949 96094 1.783 20
0.6914 0.0069 -0.0062 1.0000 0.0000 1.4595 -6.9324 7.0844 -1.3633 1.4595 -1.2953 1.4751 86.1056 56208.4320 68493 68493 96864 1.797 25
0.6081 0.0069 -0.0062 1.0000 0.0000 1.5584 -8.3191 8.4638 -1.3856 1.5584 -1.3282 1.4814 86.7125 56449.5970 68656 68656 97094 1.802 30
0.5397 0.0070 -0.0063 1.0000 0.0000 1.6574 -9.7058 9.8463 -1.4017 1.6574 -1.3521 1.4855 87.1586 56603.5841 68653 68653 97090 1.802 35
0.4836 0.0070 -0.0063 1.0000 0.0000 1.7563 -11.0925 11.2306 -1.4138 1.7563 -1.3701 1.4882 87.4995 56708.4272 68577 68577 96983 1.800 40
0.4372 0.0070 -0.0063 1.0000 0.0000 1.8552 -12.4791 12.6163 -1.4232 1.8552 -1.3843 1.4902 87.7681 56783.3931 68472 68472 96834 1.797 45
0.3985 0.0070 -0.0063 1.0000 0.0000 1.9542 -13.8658 14.0029 -1.4308 1.9542 -1.3956 1.4916 87.9850 56839.0980 68357 68357 96672 1.794 50
0.2079 0.0071 -0.0064 1.0000 0.0000 2.9436 -27.7327 27.8884 -1.4650 2.9436 -1.4473 1.4969 88.9805 57040.6880 67482 67482 95434 1.771 100
0.0372 0.0072 -0.0064 1.0000 0.0000 11.8485 -152.5341 152.9936 -1.4933 11.8485 -1.4900 1.4996 89.8133 57142.9107 66309 66309 93775 1.740 550
0.0197 0.0072 -0.0064 1.0000 0.0000 20.7533 -277.3356 278.1110 -1.4961 20.7533 -1.4943 1.4998 89.8973 57149.9176 66169 66169 93577 1.736 1000
-0.0018 0.0073 -0.0064 1.0000 0.0000 19789.5528 -277336.5716 ########## -1.4996 19789.5528 -1.4996 1.5000 89.9999 57157.6693 66167 66167 93574 1.736 1000000
Appendix D
Overvoltage Study- PSCAD Model
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PSCAD Software- System Model-Leonardo Torelli- RMIT University
Analysis and Protection of Subtransmission Systems Using Neutral Earth Resistor
Va
|X|
Vs
C
Vb Vmax
|X| Max
D Is
Vc
E
|X|
mrunout.out
P+jQ
T
RL #1 #2 FLAT230 A
V
Resis
+
FaultType
0.25
0.00
-0.25
-0.50
-0.75
-1.00
Vs
200
150
100
A ENAB
Voltage (kV)
50 TIME 1
0
FltTime B Compar-
-50 ator
-100
Vs Meas-Enab
-150 .
1 Ch. 1 . V1 FDelay
-200
Va
Tim... 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 ... .
2 Ch. 2 V2 FaultType
...
... Vb
3 Ch. 3 Multiple V3
Vc Run FaultDuration
Ch. 4 V4
Vmax Resis
Control
FaultDuration
Faul... Fault Moni...
Fault Type Initial Faul... Resis
FStart FltTime 0.4
+ 0.1 0.1
D +
s
FDelay #NaN
F 0 12 0 1e+006
0
#NaN 0.4 #NaN
Appendix E
Voltage and Current as function of SIR
137/138
Vb 66000.000
Vb 220000.000
Sb 100000000.000
Zb 43.560
Zb 484.000
I 886.054
Z1 Z0
Source Tx Line Length Zs Total Zl Total NER Tx Line Zs Total Zl Total Ifault 3Phase I fault I1/I3 Vrelay SIR
Ohm pu pu R pu X pu km pu pu Ohm pu pu Ohm pu pu pu pu pu pu pu
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 0.000 0.000 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.150 0.071 6.300 6.417 1.019 0.185 4.4
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 2.000 0.046 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.288 0.071 6.300 4.957 0.787 0.149 5.7
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 4.000 0.092 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.425 0.071 6.300 4.038 0.641 0.125 7.0
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 6.000 0.138 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.563 0.071 6.300 3.406 0.541 0.107 8.3
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 8.000 0.184 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.701 0.071 6.300 2.946 0.468 0.094 9.6
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 10.000 0.230 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.839 0.071 6.300 2.595 0.412 0.084 10.9
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 12.000 0.275 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.976 0.071 6.300 2.319 0.368 0.076 12.2
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 14.000 0.321 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.114 0.071 6.300 2.095 0.333 0.069 13.5
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 16.000 0.367 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.252 0.071 6.300 1.912 0.303 0.063 14.8
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 18.000 0.413 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.390 0.071 6.300 1.757 0.279 0.058 16.1
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 20.000 0.459 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.527 0.071 6.300 1.626 0.258 0.054 17.4
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 22.000 0.505 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.665 0.071 6.300 1.513 0.240 0.051 18.7
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 24.000 0.551 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.803 0.071 6.300 1.415 0.225 0.048 20.0
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 26.000 0.597 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.941 0.071 6.300 1.329 0.211 0.045 21.3
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 28.000 0.643 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.078 0.071 6.300 1.252 0.199 0.042 22.6
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 30.000 0.689 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.216 0.071 6.300 1.184 0.188 0.040 23.9
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 32.000 0.735 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.354 0.071 6.300 1.123 0.178 0.038 25.2
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 34.000 0.781 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.492 0.071 6.300 1.068 0.170 0.036 26.5
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 36.000 0.826 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.629 0.071 6.300 1.018 0.162 0.035 27.8
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 38.000 0.872 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.767 0.071 6.300 0.973 0.154 0.033 29.1
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 40.000 0.918 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.905 0.071 6.300 0.931 0.148 0.032 30.4
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 42.000 0.964 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.043 0.071 6.300 0.893 0.142 0.031 31.7
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 44.000 1.010 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.180 0.071 6.300 0.858 0.136 0.029 33.0
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 46.000 1.056 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.318 0.071 6.300 0.825 0.131 0.028 34.3
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 48.000 1.102 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.456 0.071 6.300 0.795 0.126 0.027 35.6
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 50.000 1.148 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.594 0.071 6.300 0.767 0.122 0.026 36.9
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 52.000 1.194 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.731 0.071 6.300 0.741 0.118 0.026 38.2
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 54.000 1.240 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.869 0.071 6.300 0.717 0.114 0.025 39.5
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 56.000 1.286 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.007 0.071 6.300 0.694 0.110 0.024 40.8
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 58.000 1.331 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.144 0.071 6.300 0.672 0.107 0.023 42.1
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 60.000 1.377 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.282 0.071 6.300 0.652 0.104 0.023 43.4
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 62.000 1.423 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.420 0.071 6.300 0.633 0.101 0.022 44.7
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 64.000 1.469 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.558 0.071 6.300 0.615 0.098 0.021 46.0
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 66.000 1.515 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.695 0.071 6.300 0.598 0.095 0.021 47.3
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 2.000 0.159 0.018 68.000 1.561 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.833 0.071 6.300 0.582 0.092 0.020 48.6
Z1 Z0
Source Tx Line Length Zs Total Zl Total NER Tx Line Zs Total Zl Total Ifault 3Phase I fault I1/I3 Vrelay SIR
Ohm pu pu R pu X pu km pu pu Ohm pu pu Ohm pu pu pu pu pu pu pu
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 0.000 0.000 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.150 0.177 6.300 6.417 1.019 0.362 1.8
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 2.000 0.046 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.288 0.177 6.300 4.957 0.787 0.305 2.3
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 4.000 0.092 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.425 0.177 6.300 4.038 0.641 0.263 2.8
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 6.000 0.138 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.563 0.177 6.300 3.406 0.541 0.231 3.3
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 8.000 0.184 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.701 0.177 6.300 2.946 0.468 0.207 3.8
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 10.000 0.230 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.839 0.177 6.300 2.595 0.412 0.187 4.4
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 12.000 0.275 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.976 0.177 6.300 2.319 0.368 0.170 4.9
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 14.000 0.321 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.114 0.177 6.300 2.095 0.333 0.156 5.4
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 16.000 0.367 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.252 0.177 6.300 1.912 0.303 0.145 5.9
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 18.000 0.413 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.390 0.177 6.300 1.757 0.279 0.134 6.4
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 20.000 0.459 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.527 0.177 6.300 1.626 0.258 0.126 7.0
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 22.000 0.505 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.665 0.177 6.300 1.513 0.240 0.118 7.5
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 24.000 0.551 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.803 0.177 6.300 1.415 0.225 0.111 8.0
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 26.000 0.597 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.941 0.177 6.300 1.329 0.211 0.105 8.5
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 28.000 0.643 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.078 0.177 6.300 1.252 0.199 0.100 9.0
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 30.000 0.689 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.216 0.177 6.300 1.184 0.188 0.095 9.6
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 32.000 0.735 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.354 0.177 6.300 1.123 0.178 0.090 10.1
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 34.000 0.781 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.492 0.177 6.300 1.068 0.170 0.086 10.6
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 36.000 0.826 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.629 0.177 6.300 1.018 0.162 0.083 11.1
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 38.000 0.872 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.767 0.177 6.300 0.973 0.154 0.079 11.6
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 40.000 0.918 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.905 0.177 6.300 0.931 0.148 0.076 12.2
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 42.000 0.964 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.043 0.177 6.300 0.893 0.142 0.073 12.7
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 44.000 1.010 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.180 0.177 6.300 0.858 0.136 0.070 13.2
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 46.000 1.056 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.318 0.177 6.300 0.825 0.131 0.068 13.7
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 48.000 1.102 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.456 0.177 6.300 0.795 0.126 0.066 14.2
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 50.000 1.148 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.594 0.177 6.300 0.767 0.122 0.063 14.8
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 52.000 1.194 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.731 0.177 6.300 0.741 0.118 0.061 15.3
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 54.000 1.240 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.869 0.177 6.300 0.717 0.114 0.060 15.8
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 56.000 1.286 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.007 0.177 6.300 0.694 0.110 0.058 16.3
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 58.000 1.331 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.144 0.177 6.300 0.672 0.107 0.056 16.8
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 60.000 1.377 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.282 0.177 6.300 0.652 0.104 0.055 17.3
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 62.000 1.423 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.420 0.177 6.300 0.633 0.101 0.053 17.9
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 64.000 1.469 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.558 0.177 6.300 0.615 0.098 0.052 18.4
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 66.000 1.515 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.695 0.177 6.300 0.598 0.095 0.050 18.9
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 5.000 0.159 0.044 68.000 1.561 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.833 0.177 6.300 0.582 0.092 0.049 19.4
Z1 Z0
Source Tx Line Length Zs Total Zl Total NER Tx Line Zs Total Zl Total Ifault 3Phase I fault I1/I3 Vrelay SIR
Ohm pu pu R pu X pu km pu pu Ohm pu pu Ohm pu pu pu pu pu pu pu
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 0.000 0.000 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.150 0.354 6.300 6.417 1.019 0.531 0.9
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 2.000 0.046 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.288 0.354 6.300 4.957 0.787 0.467 1.1
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 4.000 0.092 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.425 0.354 6.300 4.038 0.641 0.416 1.4
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 6.000 0.138 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.563 0.354 6.300 3.406 0.541 0.376 1.7
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 8.000 0.184 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.701 0.354 6.300 2.946 0.468 0.342 1.9
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 10.000 0.230 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.839 0.354 6.300 2.595 0.412 0.314 2.2
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 12.000 0.275 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 0.976 0.354 6.300 2.319 0.368 0.291 2.4
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 14.000 0.321 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.114 0.354 6.300 2.095 0.333 0.270 2.7
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 16.000 0.367 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.252 0.354 6.300 1.912 0.303 0.253 3.0
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 18.000 0.413 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.390 0.354 6.300 1.757 0.279 0.237 3.2
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 20.000 0.459 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.527 0.354 6.300 1.626 0.258 0.223 3.5
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 22.000 0.505 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.665 0.354 6.300 1.513 0.240 0.211 3.7
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 24.000 0.551 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.803 0.354 6.300 1.415 0.225 0.200 4.0
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 26.000 0.597 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 1.941 0.354 6.300 1.329 0.211 0.190 4.3
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 28.000 0.643 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.078 0.354 6.300 1.252 0.199 0.181 4.5
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 30.000 0.689 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.216 0.354 6.300 1.184 0.188 0.173 4.8
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 32.000 0.735 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.354 0.354 6.300 1.123 0.178 0.166 5.0
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 34.000 0.781 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.492 0.354 6.300 1.068 0.170 0.159 5.3
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 36.000 0.826 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.629 0.354 6.300 1.018 0.162 0.153 5.6
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 38.000 0.872 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.767 0.354 6.300 0.973 0.154 0.147 5.8
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 40.000 0.918 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 2.905 0.354 6.300 0.931 0.148 0.141 6.1
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 42.000 0.964 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.043 0.354 6.300 0.893 0.142 0.136 6.3
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 44.000 1.010 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.180 0.354 6.300 0.858 0.136 0.132 6.6
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 46.000 1.056 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.318 0.354 6.300 0.825 0.131 0.127 6.9
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 48.000 1.102 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.456 0.354 6.300 0.795 0.126 0.123 7.1
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 50.000 1.148 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.594 0.354 6.300 0.767 0.122 0.119 7.4
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 52.000 1.194 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.731 0.354 6.300 0.741 0.118 0.116 7.6
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 54.000 1.240 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 3.869 0.354 6.300 0.717 0.114 0.112 7.9
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 56.000 1.286 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.007 0.354 6.300 0.694 0.110 0.109 8.2
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 58.000 1.331 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.144 0.354 6.300 0.672 0.107 0.106 8.4
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 60.000 1.377 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.282 0.354 6.300 0.652 0.104 0.103 8.7
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 62.000 1.423 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.420 0.354 6.300 0.633 0.101 0.101 8.9
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 64.000 1.469 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.558 0.354 6.300 0.615 0.098 0.098 9.2
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 66.000 1.515 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.695 0.354 6.300 0.598 0.095 0.096 9.5
4.230 0.009 0.150 0.00168 0.00884 10.000 0.159 0.088 68.000 1.561 0.150 0.00670 0.03535 4.833 0.354 6.300 0.582 0.092 0.093 9.7
Appendix F
CVT Study – PSCAD Data
138/138
10 km line length and initial SIR of 1
SIR Ifault 1st V Peak 2nd V Peak 3rd V Peak 4th V Peak
kA pu pu pu pu
1 19.40 1.29 1.46 1.08 1
5 5.60 4.49 1.40 1.20 1
10 2.26 8.62 1.95 1.26 1
20 1.41 17.86 3.71 1.12 1
30 1.04 22.00 4.44 1.06 1
60 0.41 43.59 8.35 1.53 1
SIR Ifault 1st V Peak 2nd V Peak 3rd V Peak 4th V Peak
kA pu pu pu pu
10 3.71 7.50 2.16 1.09 1
20 1.71 14.30 3.89 1.36 1
30 1.10 22.61 5.33 1.39 1
60 0.44 46.44 9.13 1.81 1
SIR Ifault 1st V Peak 2nd V Peak 3rd V Peak 4th V Peak
kA pu pu pu pu
1 95.20 1.47 1.09 1.01 1
5 25.80 4.80 1.48 0.99 1
10 14.30 8.04 2.03 1.01 1
20 7.30 17.44 3.51 1.19 1
30 4.70 22.67 4.58 1.12 1
60 2.32 43.59 8.53 1.76 1
SIR Ifault 1st V Peak 2nd V Peak 3rd V Peak 4th V Peak
kA pu pu pu pu
10 17.50 8.04 2.03 1.01 1
20 7.39 17.44 3.51 1.19 1
30 4.24 22.67 4.58 1.12 1
60 2.40 43.59 8.53 1.76 1