Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12 (1999) 33±49

Late Paleozoic to Early Jurassic tectonic development of the high

Andean Principal Cordillera, El Indio Region, Chile (29±308S)
Mark W. Martin*, Jorge Clavero R., Constantino Mpodozis M.
Servicio Nacional de GeologõÂa y MinerõÂa de Chile, Avda. Santa MarõÂa 0104, Santiago, Chile

Abstract

Regional mapping (1:50,000) and U-Pb and K-Ar geochronology in the El Indio region re®nes the knowledge of the
distribution, lithostratigraphy, and age of the sedimentary, volcanic, and intrusive rocks that comprise the regionally extensive
Pastos Blancos Group which is equivalent to the Choiyoi Group of the Argentine Frontal Cordillera. The Pastos Blancos Group
(which we elevate to Group status herein) includes at least two diachronous volcanic±sedimentary sequences: an older felsic
volcanic and volcaniclastic unit, the Guanaco Sonso sequence, that is Permian in age, and a younger bimodal volcanic and
volcaniclastic unit, the Los Tilos sequence that is Middle Triassic to Early Jurassic. Sedimentary rocks of the Los Tilos sequence
are transitional upward into the overlying Early to Middle Jurassic shallow marine limestones of the Lautaro Formation.
Intrusions that make up the regionally extensive Permian to Early Jurassic plutons of the Chollay and Elqui-LimarõÂ batholiths
that were previously mapped as a single plutonic association, the IngaguaÂs Complex, include in the El Indio region at least three
discrete intrusive units. These include: Early Permian (280±270 Ma) biotite granites, Early to Middle Triassic (242±238 Ma)
silica-rich leucocratic granites and rhyolitic porphyries that made up the bulk of the Chollay Batholith, and a younger Late
Triassic±Early Jurassic unit (221±200 Ma) of mainly intrusive rhyolitic porphyries, extrusive domes, and subordinate ma®c
intrusions and both felsic and ma®c dikes, which are coeval with volcanic rocks of the Los Tilos sequence.
Our data show that latest Paleozoic to Early Jurassic intrusive, volcanic, and sedimentary rocks in the El Indio region of the
High Andes of Chile between 29±308S likely formed during extension driven processes after the cessation of Carboniferous±
Early Permian subduction along the western edge of Gondwana. These processes began by Late Permian time, but instead of
recording a single and protracted magmatic event, as has been previously suggested, rocks that belong to the Pastos Blancos
Group and the IngaguaÂs Intrusive Complex record at least three discrete periods of silicic to bimodal magmatism which
occurred during the Middle Permian to Early Jurassic interval. # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Resumen

Nuevos antecedentes geoloÂgicos (mapeo regional a escala 1:50.000) y geocronoloÂgicos (U-Pb y K-Ar) de la zona de El Indio,
en los Andes des centro-norte de Chile, han permitido mejorar el conocimiento de la distribucioÂn, litoestratigrafõÂ a y edad de las
rocas sedimentarias, volcaÂnicas e intrusivas que conforman el Grupo Pastos Blancos, equivalente al Grupo Choiyoi de la
Cordillera Frontal argentina. El Grupo Pastos Blancos, elevado al status de Grupo en este trabajo incluye, al menos, dos
secuencias volcano-sedimentarias diacroÂnicas: una unidad volcaÂnica y volcanoclaÂstica peÂrmica (secuencia Guanaco Sonso), y una
unidad volcaÂnica bimodal y volcanoclaÂstica del TriaÂsico Medio a JuraÂsico Inferior (secuencia Los Tilos), la que pasa
transicionalmente a calizas marinas someras de la sobreyacente FormacioÂn Lautaro del JuraÂsico Inferior a Medio.
Junto con ello, se ha reconocido, al menos, tres distintas unidades intrusivas en plutones del PeÂrmico a JuraÂsico Inferior
de los batolitos Chollay y ElquõÂ -LimarõÂ , previamente incluidos dentro del Complejo IngaguaÂs. EÂstas incluyen: granitos de
biotita del PeÂrmico Inferior (280±270 Ma), granitos leucocraÂticos silõÂ ceos y poÂr®dos riolõÂ ticos del TriaÂsico Inferior a Medio

* Present address and Correspondence: Dept. of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Bldg. 54-
1126, Cambridge, MA 02139.
E-mail address: mwm@mit.edu (M.W. Martin)

0895-9811/99/$ - see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 8 9 5 - 9 8 1 1 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 0 3 - 6
34 M.W. Martin et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12 (1999) 33±49

(242±238 Ma) que forman gran parte del Batolito Chollay, y una unidad maÂs joven del TriaÂsico Superior-JuraÂsico Inferior
(221±200 Ma) constituida por poÂr®dos riolõ ticos, domos riolõ ticos, intrusivos ma®cos subordinados y diques feÂlsicos y ma®cos,
equivalentes subvolcaÂnicos de las rocas extrusivas de la secuencia Los Tilos.
Estos datos demuestran que las rocas intrusivas, volcaÂnicas y sedimentarias del Paleozoico Superior-JuraÂsico Inferior de la
zona de El Indio en los Andes de Chile entre los 29±308S se formaron a raõÂ z de fenoÂmenos de extensioÂn posteriores al cese de la
subduccioÂn a lo largo del borde occidental de Gondwana en el CarbonõÂ fero-PeÂrmico Inferior. EÂstos comenzaron en el PeÂrmico
Superior, pero en lugar de generar un uÂnico y prolongado evento magmaÂtico, como habõÂ a sido sugerido previamente, las rocas
del Grupo Pastos Blancos y del Complejo Intrusivo IngaguaÂs revelan, al menos, tres distintos perõÂ odos de magmatismo silõÂ ceo a
bimodal ocurridos entre el PeÂrmico Medio y el JuraÂsico Inferior. # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction proximately 300 km by 60 km) of Late Paleozoic to

The El Indio region is located along the crest of the
Andes along the border with Argentina between 298S
and 318S above the present day ¯at subducting slab
(Fig. 1). Most of the geological mapping in this region
of north-central Chile has been completed at a scale of
1:250,000 (Mpodozis and Cornejo, 1988; Nasi et al.,
1990) and recently a new mapping project at 1:50,000
scale (Martin et al., 1995) has re®ned the basic geolo-
gic knowledge in this region along the border with
Argentina. This region is commonly known among the
economic geology community as the El Indio Belt
after the gold mine of the same name located near the
center of the study area (Fig. 1; Maksaev et al., 1984).
In parallel with former 1:250,000 scale mapping pro-
jects during the late 1980's several geochemical±geo-
chronologic (K-Ar and Rb-Sr) reconnaissance studies
of the Late Paleozoic to Triassic batholith between
28±318S were completed (e.g., Nasi et al., 1985; Ribba
et al., 1988; Parada, 1990; Parada et al., 1991;
Mpodozis and Kay, 1992); similar types of studies
have also been carried out across the border in
Argentina (LlambõÂ as and Sato, 1990). Based on these
studies, it has been proposed by Mpodozis and Kay
(1992) that Late Paleozoic tectonism along the western
margin of Gondwana was controlled by subduction re-
lated processes followed by a protracted period of
crustal extension in the Late Permian to Early
Jurassic. Here, we introduce new ®eld observations
and K-Ar and U-Pb ages which re®ne the present
understanding of the Late Paleozoic to Early Jurassic
geologic development of this region and better con-
strain the timing of tectonic processes that occurred
along the southwest-facing margin of Gondwana
during this time interval; however, understanding the
precise timing of events and the processes involved will
require more detail studies.
2. Geologic setting and previous geochronological studies
The High Andean Range in Chile between 28±318S
is formed mainly by a north±south trending belt (ap-
Early Mesozoic intrusive complexes [Montosa-El
Potro, Chollay, and Elqui-LimarõÂ batholiths (Nasi et
al., 1985; Mpodozis and Kay, 1990, 1992)]. Host rocks
to the batholith in the Huasco valley (288S) are small
outcrops of orthogneisses (La Pampa gneisses) that
yielded a poorly constrained Late Silurian Rb-Sr iso-
chron of 415214 Ma, and a suite of greenschists, gar-
net-bearing pelitic schists, and marbles (El TraÂnsito
Metamorphic Complex) which yielded Late
Carboniferous±Early Permian Rb-Sr ``errorchrons''
between 335 and 261 Ma that may represent meta-
morphism associated with the emplacement of
Carboniferous±Early Permian granitoids (Ribba et al.,
1988; Pankhurst et al., 1996). Graywacke-shale sedi-
mentary sequences and their possible metamorphic
equivalents [Las Placetas and Hurtado Formations, El
Cepo Metamorphic Complex (Reutter, 1974;
Mpodozis and Cornejo, 1988; Nasi et al., 1990)] occur
as scattered roof pendants along the entire length of
the Elqui-LimarõÂ and Chollay batholiths. The age of
the Hurtado Formation is not known, although it has
been correlated with shallow marine, fossil bearing
Carboniferous±Lower Permian units in the Frontal
Cordillera of the San Juan province, Argentina
(Caminos, 1979; Mpodozis and Cornejo, 1988;
LlambõÂ as and Sato, 1995).
These rocks are overlain unconformably by the vol-
canic and volcaniclastic strata of the Pastos Blancos
Formation, ®rst described by Thiele (1964) to which
he assigned a Late Triassic age. The Pastos Blancos
Formation and its Argentine counterpart, the Choiyoi
Group, are regionally the most extensive volcano±sedi-
mentary map units between 28±328S in the high
Cordillera of their respective countries. The Pastos
Blancos Formation name was maintained, but rede-
®ned by subsequent workers (Mpodozis and Cornejo,
1988; Nasi et al., 1990) who considered this unit to
range in age from Late Paleozoic to Triassic. The
Pastos Blancos unit is intruded by granites of
Permian±Triassic age, and is depositionally overlain by
the fossil-bearing, shallow marine, Early Jurassic
Lautaro Formation (Reutter, 1974; Mpodozis and
Cornejo, 1988; Nasi et al., 1985, 1990). Prior to this
 M.W. Martin et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12 (1999) 33±49 35

Fig. 1. Geologic map of the El Indio belt showing distribution of map units and structures. Geochronologic data are from this study (Fig. 2,
Table 1 and 2) unless outlined by rectangle (Table 2). (z), zircon; (b) biotite; (m) muscovite; (w) whole rock.
36 M.W. Martin et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12 (1999) 33±49

Fig. 1 (continued)
Table 1
U-Pb radiometric ages from the study areaa

Concentration Atomic ratios [error 2-sigma (%)] Age (Ma)

Sample Namea Weight U Pb 206 Pbb 208 Pbb 206 Pbc % errd 207 Pbc % errd 207 Pbc % errd 206 Pbc 207 Pbc 207 Pbc corr.
Fraction (mg) (ppm) (ppm) 204 Pb 206 Pb 238 U 235 U 206 Pbc 238 U 235 U 206 Pbc coef.e

IJ-108.2corÐGuanaco Sonso SequenceÐRhyolite Tu€ (UTM±6756000-399900)

nm(0) f, p 0.453 318.0 15.4 1126.9 0.065 0.04105 0.56 0.29210 0.58 0.05161 0.15 259.3 260.2 268.2 0.97
nm(ÿ1) c, h, p 0.155 130.5 7.1 262.6 0.107 0.03891 0.51 0.27753 0.63 0.05173 0.36 246.1 248.7 273.3 0.82
nm(0) cc, h, p 0.258 111.6 7.5 135.9 0.159 0.04012 0.48 0.28622 0.72 0.05174 0.51 253.6 255.6 274.0 0.71
IJ-108.1corÐColorado ViejoÐQuartz Porphyry (UTM±6756200-400200)
nm(ÿ1) m, p 0.239 274.3 17.0 148.4 0.151 0.03864 0.59 0.27779 1.10 0.05214 0.84 244.4 248.9 291.7 0.62
nm(ÿ1) m, h, p 0.048 252.7 13.3 245.4 0.111 0.03833 0.55 0.26958 0.67 0.05101 0.35 242.5 242.4 241.4 0.85
nm(ÿ2) c, h, p 0.195 226.6 13.5 169.6 0.138 0.03882 0.49 0.27545 0.69 0.05146 0.47 245.5 247.0 261.5 0.74
IM-113.1corÐColorado ViejoÐDacite Porphyry (UTM±6756550-399750)
nm(ÿ1) m, p 0.534 160.2 14.4 90.7 0.222 0.04378 0.48 0.38431 0.81 0.06367 0.61 276.2 330.2 730.5 0.66
nm(ÿ1) m, h, p 0.040 102.4 5.8 259.5 0.108 0.03864 1.00 0.27549 1.20 0.05170 0.52 244.4 247.1 272.3 0.89
nm(ÿ2) c, h, p 0.089 158.1 13.9 72.4 0.253 0.03843 0.51 0.27346 1.20 0.05161 1.10 243.1 245.5 268.3 0.51
IM-92.6ÐLos Tilos SequenceÐRhyolite Flow (UTM±6714650-404300)
nm(0) c, aa(10) 0.270 189.9 8.1 3904.5 0.055 0.03526 0.47 0.24830 0.47 0.05108 0.08 223.4 225.2 244.4 0.99
nm(+1) c, h, p 0.068 224.8 9.5 1840.1 0.059 0.03304 0.55 0.23150 0.60 0.05081 0.22 209.6 211.4 232.3 0.93
nm(0) cc, h, p 0.065 158.2 7.0 1180.8 0.063 0.03462 0.63 0.24345 0.70 0.05099 0.29 219.4 221.2 240.6 0.91
nm(ÿ1) cc, p 0.064 135.7 5.7 909.3 0.067 0.03357 0.69 0.23619 0.75 0.05103 0.28 212.6 215.3 242.1 0.93
IM-83.4ÐColorado Quartz Porphyry (UTM±6671200-403100)
z1 nm(0) c, h, aa(24) 0.017 320.8 13.0 687.6 0.156 0.03103 0.17 0.25740 0.24 0.05128 0.16 230.5 232.6 253.3 0.74
z2 nm(0) c, h, aa(24) 0.013 340.0 13.1 981.2 0.134 0.03629 0.16 0.25654 0.20 0.05127 0.11 229.9 231.9 253.1 0.83
nm(+1) m, aa(10) 0.137 336.4 13.4 853.2 0.189 0.03512 0.48 0.24866 0.51 0.05136 0.15 222.5 225.5 256.9 0.95
nm(0) m, p 0.173 320.5 13.0 553.5 0.191 0.03443 0.50 0.24407 0.62 0.05141 0.36 218.2 221.8 259.2 0.82
nm(0) f, p 0.031 360.8 14.0 751.8 0.190 0.03430 0.61 0.24374 0.70 0.05153 0.34 217.4 221.5 264.8 0.88
z4 nm(0) c, h, aa(24) 0.003 328.8 11.6 1323.2 0.254 0.03137 0.22 0.22185 0.51 0.05129 0.44 199.1 203.4 253.8 0.51
z3 nm(0) c, h, aa(24) 0.015 341.9 12.6 384.7 0.155 0.03103 0.17 0.22021 0.27 0.05147 0.21 197.0 202.1 262.1 0.65
a
nm(])=nonmagnetic on Frantz separator at angle of tilt ] degrees. cc=very coarse size fraction (>150 microns). c=coarse size fraction (>74 and <150 microns). m=medium size fraction
(>50 and <74 microns). f=®ne size fraction (<50 microns). h=hand picked for highest clarity, euhedral zircons. p=2 hour air abrasion . aa (10ÿl/s)=air abraded samples (10 hours-large zir-
cons after air abrasion/small zircon after air abrasion). Zircon dissolution followed the methods of Krogh (1973) and Parrish (1987). Decay constants used were 238 U=0.15513  10ÿ9 yrÿ1 235
U=0.98485  10ÿ9 yrÿ1 (Steiger and JaÈger, 1977). Isotopic analyses were determined on a VG Sector multicollector thermal ionization mass spectrometer. A mass fractionation correction of
M.W. Martin et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12 (1999) 33±49

0.10%20.05%/amu. Samples were spiked with a mixed 205 Pb/235 U spike. Errors on 206 Pb/204 Pb were minimized by use of a Daly multiplier and are typically on the order of 1% or less.
Errors for 206 Pb/204 Pb were reduced further on samples spiked with 205 Pb by using a dynamic Daly calibration after the technique of Roddick et al. (1987, p. 115). Common lead corrections
were made using values determined from Stacey and Kramers (1975) for the interpreted crystallization age except where sample name is denoted by (cor) in which case common lead corrections
were made using the measured feldspar lead isotopic values (208:207:206:204) from sample; isotopic compositions have uncertainties of less than 0.1% (2 sigma). IM-113.1 & IM-108.1,
38.516:15.576:18,710; IM-108.2, 38.433:15.601:18.615.
b
Corrected for spike and mass fractionation.
c
Radiogenic component.
d
Numbers in parentheses are analytical errors in percent.
e
Corr. coef. is the correlation coecient between the 206 Pb/238 U and 207 PB/235 U errors. Errors and correlation coecients were computed using technique of Ludwig (1980).
37
38 M.W. Martin et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12 (1999) 33±49
study, no absolute geochronology was available for the
Pastos Blancos Formation.
The Late Paleozoic±Early Mesozoic intrusive com-
plexes themselves were studied and mapped by
Mpodozis and Cornejo (1988), Nasi et al. (1985), and
Mpodozis and Kay (1990, 1992) who, based on ®eld
relations, texture, composition, and K-Ar and Rb-Sr
geochronologic data, grouped the intrusives within two
``Superunits'' or Complexes: Elqui and IngaguaÂs to
which they attributed a Late Carboniferous±Early
Permian and a Middle Permian±Early Jurassic age, re-
spectively.
In the Elqui-LimarõÂ batholith, the Elqui Complex is
composed of a group of foliated coarse grained, meta-
luminous, hornblende-biotite tonalites (Guanta unit),
slightly peraluminous two-mica granodiorites
(CochiguaÂs unit), and coarse-grained peraluminous
granites (El VolcaÂn unit). Published Rb-Sr ages range
between 328 to 256 Ma, while K-Ar ages (biotite, mus-
covite and hornblende) range from 301 to 235 Ma
(Parada et al., 1981; Brook et al., 1986; Ribba at al.,
1988; Mpodozis and Cornejo, 1988; Nasi et al., 1990;
Rex, 1987; Pankhurst et al., 1996); Pankhurst et al.,
(1996) report one U-Pb zircon age of 285 2 1.5 Ma.
Although a de®nitive upper time boundary for the
emplacement of the Elqui Complex has yet to be deter-
mined, Nasi et al. (1990) considered K-Ar and Rb-Sr
ages younger than 266 Ma to re¯ect resetting of both
isotopic systems during the emplacement of the
younger IngaguaÂs Complex. Two examples where
apparent thermal resetting has occurred are: 1) the El
TraÂnsito valley (298S) where tonalites of the Guanta
unit yielded a U-Pb zircon age of 285.5 2 1.7 Ma
(Pankhurst et al., 1996), and a K-Ar biotite age of 252
26 Ma (Nasi et al., 1985; Ribba et al., 1988), and 2)
RõÂ o Turbio (308S) where a tonalitic Guanta pluton
yielded discordant K-Ar hornblende and biotite ages
of 297 2 9 and 258 2 4 Ma, respectively (Nasi et al.,
1985, 1990).
The IngaguaÂs Complex is a suite of epizonal intru-
sives originally considered age equivalent to the Pastos
Blancos Formation and is composed of ®ve units: Los
Carricitos, Chollay, El LeoÂn, El Colorado, and La
Laguna (Nasi et al., 1985,1990; Mpodozis and
Cornejo, 1988; Mpodozis and Kay, 1992). Los
Carricitos unit consists dominantly of biotite 2 horn-
blende-bearing granodiorites. The Chollay unit was
originally de®ned for pink, coarse to very coarse-
grained, biotite-hornblende monzogranites, containing
sienogranite and granodiorite as subordinate phases,
exposed between 288 and 298 (Chollay Batholith, Nasi
et al., 1990). The El LeoÂn unit was de®ned by
Mpodozis and Cornejo (1988) for pink medium-
grained monzogranites and sienogranites exposed
between 298 and 318S. The El Colorado unit was
named for a red to orange granite quartz-feldspar por-
phyry pluton in RõÂ o Turbio near Quebrada El
Colorado, but also includes pink graphic granites, and
is considered the youngest igneous unit of the
IngaguaÂs Complex (Nasi et al., 1985, 1990; Mpodozis
and Kay, 1992). Small outcrops of pyroxene gabbro,
which intrude rhyolites included in the Pastos Blancos
Formation in RõÂ o La Laguna, belong to the ®fth unit
of the IngaguaÂs Complex (La Laguna Gabbros,
Mpodozis and Cornejo, 1988; Mpodozis and Kay,
1992). The few published K-Ar and Rb-Sr ages for the
IngaguaÂs Complex range from 276 to 192 Ma (Brook
et al., 1986; Rex 1987; Mpodozis and Cornejo 1988;
Nasi et al., 1990).
The Elqui Complex (Guanta unit) has been inter-
preted as a relict of Late Carboniferous east-directed
subduction below the Paci®c margin of Gondwana
(Mpodozis and Kay, 1992). This was followed by a
period of crustal thickening and enhanced lower crust
melting recorded in the CochiguaÂs and El VolcaÂn
Units (Mpodozis and Kay, 1992) as a consequence of
the Early Permian San Rafael Orogenic Phase which
has been dated, on stratigraphic grounds between 280
to 260 Ma in the Frontal Cordillera of Argentina
(Rapalini, 1989; LlambõÂ as and Sato, 1990, 1995).
According to Mpodozis and Kay (1990, 1992) the
younger IngaguaÂs Complex intrusives (and the inferred
coeval Pastos Blancos Formation) were considered to
be an association of epizonal, post-orogenic intrusives
which include granitoids derived from deep levels in a
garnet-bearing thickened crust (Los Carricitos) and
hypersiliceous, calkalcaline to transitional A-type
intrusives indicating extensive crustal melting of upper,
garnet-free, crust. Melting was favored by the under-
plating of ma®c magmas against the base of the crust
during a protracted Permian±Triassic period of post
orogenic extension and uplift.
3. Basement geology of the El Indio Belt
The El Indio Belt is well known for its exposures of
Late Oligocene±Miocene volcanic sequences and intru-
sive complexes which host one of the large epithermal
precious metals district of the Central Andes (Maksaev
et al., 1984; Kay et al., l987, 1997; Martin et al., 1995,
and references therein). The basement to these volcanic
units includes a variable suite of Late Paleozoic to
Early Tertiary rock units. Fig. 1 is a geologic map
showing the distribution of pre-middle Jurassic units.
The older rocks exposed in the map area are phyllites
and pelitic schists probably correlative to the El Cepo
Metamorphic Complex. They occur as small outcrops
unconformably covered by the Pastos Blancos volcanic
rocks at Estero Los Tilos and RõÂ o Malo (Fig. 1). The
rocks contain quartz porphyroclasts, feldspar and vari-
able amounts of suboriented muscovite. A pelitic schist
 M.W. Martin et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12 (1999) 33±49 39

(Ma) Error

235.025.0
262.026.0
281.026.0
260.026.0
221.025.0
219.025.0

238.026.0
238.024.0
276.024.0
from this unit collected south of the El Indio mine

(2-sig)
Age
yielded a K-Ar whole rock date of 254.0 2 8.0 Ma
(Table 2, Fig. 1) which we interpret as a minimum age
for this unit. Biotite K-Ar ages of 22425 and 24024
Ma were reported previously for El Cepo schists col-

(Atm.)
%Ar
lected in the IngaguaÂs valley by Mpodozis and

16.0

16.0
5.0
4.0
2.0
4.0

5.0

5.6

5.0
Cornejo (1988) who considered these dates to represent
thermal resetting by the IngaguaÂs Complex intrusives.

%Ar-rad
Small and isolated outcrops of granitic gneisses and

(nl/g)

76.357
74.972
72.572
79.962
50.234

29.036
77.802
migmatites rest as enclaves in the Permian±Triassic

73.97

61.87
Chollay±El LeoÂn granites near the IngaguaÂs Valley in
the southwest part of the area (Fig. 1). These foliated
igneous rocks are similar texturally and composition-

7.592
6.972
6.338
6.669
8.759
5.555

6.251
2.943
%K

6.71
ally to rocks that were included in the Guanta unit by
Mpodozis and Cornejo (1988), and are widely exposed
west and south of the study area in the main body of

Muscovite
Material
the Elqui-LimarõÂ batholith (Nasi et al. 1985; Mpodozis

Biotite
Biotite
Biotite
Biotite

Biotite

Biotite
Biotite
Biotite
and Cornejo, 1988).
The most voluminous basement units in the El Indio
Belt are the Pastos Blancos Formation and intrusives
of the IngaguaÂs Complex (see description below). In

Method

K/Ar
K/Ar
K/Ar
K/Ar
K/Ar
K/Ar

K/Ar
K/Ar
K/Ar
some places, such as the western slopes of Cordillera
de DonÄa Ana, the Pastos Blancos Formation is over-
lain depositionally by the Early±Middle Jurassic

``Peraluminous'' unit
Guanaco Sonso Seq.
Guanaco Sonso Seq.
Guanaco Sonso Seq.
(Sinemurian to Bajocian) marine sediments of the
Formation/Unit

Lautaro Formation. Elsewhere in the region the

El Colorado unit
Lautaro Formation rests directly upon granitoids of Los Tilos Seq.

El LeoÂn unit
El LeoÂn unit
Chollay unit
the Elqui and IngaguaÂs complexes and older parts of
the Pastos Blancos Formation (von Hillebrandt, 1973;
Reutter, 1974; Nasi et al., 1990; Martin et al., 1995)
Late Jurassic to Eocene sedimentary and volcanic
rocks unconformably rest on the Lautaro Formation
Two-mica Granite

in the northwestern part of the map area. Though still

Lithology

poorly studied, this concordant sequence of continental

Dacite tu€
Dacite tu€
Dacite tu€
Dacite tu€

conglomerates and sandstones intercalated with inter-

Granite

Granite
Granite
Granite

mediate lavas and domes was previously included in

the Late Jurassic Algarrobal Formation (Nasi et al.,
1990). However, our mapping and geochronological
studies indicate that Cretaceous, Paleocene, and Lower
La Laguna

RõÂ o CochiguaÂs
RõÂ o La GlorõÂ a
Colorado
Colorado

IngaguaÂs

RõÂ o Estrecho

Eocene rocks are present within the sequence (Martin

Locality

et al., 1995). In the northern part of the area, several

Seco
Seco

Late Eocene to Early Oligocene intermediate compo-

RõÂ o
RõÂ o
RõÂ o
RõÂ o
RõÂ o
RõÂ o

sition shallow-level intrusions and porphyries intrude

older units (Martin et al., 1995). Ma®c to felsic com-
K-Ar radiometric ages from the study area

position volcanic rocks and shallow intrusions and

6681650-407500
6684250-407400
6662900-412750
6662800-412900
6679700-395200
6672000-389700

6772600-388550
6445000-381500
6445000-403125
Coordinates

porphyries are associated with extensive Late

(UTM)

Oligocene to Late Miocene magmatic activity along

the border with Argentina (Maksaev et al., 1984; Kay
et al., 1987; Ramos et al. 1989; Martin et al., 1995).
Deformation in the region is dominated by N-strik-
ing, high-angle reverse faults and associated folds that
Nasi et al.Ð1985
Nasi et al.Ð1985
Nasi et al.Ð1985

include both E- and W-vergent structures (Fig. 1;

Published Ages:

Moscoso and Mpodozis, 1988; Martin et al., 1995,

This Study:

IM-77.13
IM-131.3
IM-131.4

IM-136.4

1997a) that place large basement block over relatively

IM-77.6

IM-53.2
Table 2

Sample

thin strips of the Mesozoic and Tertiary cover, now

preserved in the footwalls of these faults. Most of the
40 M.W. Martin et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12 (1999) 33±49

Fig. 2. U-Pb concordia diagram for samples (a) IJ-108.2, (b) IJ-108.1, (c) IM-113.1, (d) IM-92.6, and (d) IM-83.4.
 M.W. Martin et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12 (1999) 33±49
structures in the study area are demonstrably younger
than Paleocene (Martin et al., 1995, 1997b).
3.1. Pastos Blancos Group
The extensive exposure of volcanic and volcaniclas-
tic sequences assigned to the Pastos Blancos
Formation within the El Indio Belt (Fig. 1) previously
were considered either ``Permian±Triassic'' (Mpodozis
and Cornejo, 1988) or ``Late Paleozoic±Lower
Triassic'' age (Nasi et al., 1990). In the absence of geo-
chronological data, these interpretations were based
mainly on inconclusive ®eld constraints and regional
correlations. However, our ®eld studies and new geo-
chronology indicate that as named, the Pastos Blancos
Formation contains volcanic and sedimentary rocks
that yield K-Ar and U-Pb ages that range from Early
Permian to Early Jurassic. Our mapping shows that
the Pastos Blancos is not a continuous succession of
strata spanning this 070 my. interval, but that these
strata can be grouped in several self-consistent time
stratigraphic units. These ®ndings show that it is not
appropriate for these rocks to be contained within a
single formation. Therefore, we suggest that the Pastos
Blancos name be maintained, but that it be promoted
from Formation to Group status. As such, the Pastos
Blancos contains, at least, two distinct stratigraphic
units. An older, Early Permian unit (Guanaco Sonso
sequence) and a younger Upper Triassic to Lower
Jurassic unit (Los Tilos sequence). However, we do
not infer that all of the Pastos Blancos should be
attributed to one of these newly de®ned units. In large
areas of the El Indio Belt we have been unable to
assign the local Pastos Blancos outcrops to either the
Los Tilos or Guanaco Sonso sequences
(``Undi€erentiated Pastos Blancos'', Fig. 1). In ad-
dition, within the map area, at least two separate
intrusive units that belong to the IngaguaÂs Complex,
the Chollay±El LeoÂn plutonic complex and the El
Colorado plutonic complex, span the same time frame
as sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Pastos
Blancos Group.
In the following section we introduce the lithostrati-
graphy of the Pastos Blancos Group and geochronolo-
gic data which support this nomenclature change and
which re®ne our understanding of the tectonic develop-
ment during this interval of time along the southwest
facing Gondwana margin.
3.2. Guanaco Sonso sequence (Permian)
This unit is named for a thick exposure composed
dominantly of rhyolitic welded ash¯ow tu€s located in
the upper part of RõÂ o Potrerillo, west of Paso
Guanaco Sonso (Fig. 1). The Guanaco Sonso sequence
is intruded by Chollay±El LeoÂn granitoids or covered,
41
unconformably, by the younger Los Tilos sequence.
The base is not exposed in the map area. Regionally, it
consists of dark brown to red welded ash¯ow tu€s and
lava ¯ows that are rhyolitic to dacitic in composition.
The volcanic rocks are generally interbedded with vol-
caniclastic rocks that range from sandstones to con-
glomerates and fanglomerates. Rocks belonging to the
Guanaco Sonso sequence are typically strongly altered
and silici®ed especially near younger intrusions. It
should be noted that, fresh or altered, the ash¯ow tu€s
of this unit are easily confused for tu€s of the Late
Oligocene Tilito Formation also found in the study
area (Martin et al., 1995). Although the total thickness
of this unit could not be determined because its base is
not exposed in the map area, its minimum thickness
varies from 750 to 1000 m.
We report several new ages from rhyolitic to dacitic
welded tu€s from this unit (Tables 1 and 2). Samples
IM-131.3 and IM-131.4, a rhyolite and dacite tu€
from the Paso Aguas Negras area yielded K-Ar biotite
ages of 281.026.0 and 260.026.0, respectively; sample
IM-77.13, a dacite tu€ from the upper reaches of Rõ o
Seco yielded a K-Ar biotite age of 262.026.0 Ma (Fig.
1). In addition, zircons were analyzed by the U-Pb
method from sample IJ-108.2, an altered and silici®ed
rhyolite tu€ collected from the Pascua Mine area in
the northern part of the map area (Fig. 1). The age of
this sample is interpreted to be 265.825.6 Ma (Figs. 1
and 2; Appendix A).
3.3. Los Tilos sequence (Middle±Late Triassic±Early
Jurassic)
This rock unit is named for exposures of volcanic
and sedimentary rocks in the Estero de los Tilos area
west of Cerro DonÄa Ana (Fig. 1). Between RõÂ o del
Medio and RõÂ o Apolinario the sequence rests uncon-
formably on Guanaco Sonso sequence (Fig. 3). In RõÂ o
Apolinario, basaltic-andesite ¯ows that belong to the
Los Tilos sequence rest depositionally on the Chollay±
El LeoÂn granites and are overlain unconformably by
Late Jurassic±Early Tertiary volcanic and sedimentary
strata (Cuartitos sequence). Southward, these lava
¯ows rest unconformably on silici®ed welded, rhyolite
ash¯ow tu€s and volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks of
the Guanaco Sonso sequence which are intruded by
the Chollay granitoids. In the upper reaches of Estero
de los Tilos, southwest of Cerro DonÄa Ana, the Los
Tilos sequence rests discordantly on schists of the El
Cepo Metamorphic Complex.
The contact with the overlying Lautaro Formation
is reasonably well exposed in several locations, includ-
ing the lower reaches of RõÂ o Potrerillo and RõÂ o
Primero and in Estero de los Tilos west of Cerro DonÄa
Ana (Fig. 1). In the RõÂ o Potrerillo drainage, fossilifer-
ous limestones of the Lautaro Formation rest deposi-
42 M.W. Martin et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12 (1999) 33±49
Fig. 3. Contact between Chollay granite, Los Tilos and Cuartitos
Sequences. Paleotopography on the Chollay granite ®lled in with
basaltic andesite lava ¯ows and volcanic breccias belonging to the
Los Tilos sequence (dark units dipping moderately to right [south-
west]) overlain unconformably by sandstones and conglomerates of
the Cuartitos sequence (horizontal unitÐupper half of photo). Photo
taken looking southeast across RõÂ o Apolinario showing 200±300
meters of topographic relief.
tionally on coarse igneous and volcanic angular-clast
conglomerates and near vent basaltic-andesite lavas of
the Los Tilos sequence. Bedding in the conglomerate is
massive and uncertain, however, bedding in ®ner-
grained sediments and lava ¯ows beneath the conglom-
erates is subparallel to the overlying Lautaro lime-
stones. To the south, limestones of the Lautaro
Formation are folded into an overturned syncline in
the footwall of the Cuartitos reverse fault (Fig. 1). On
the south side of RõÂ o Primero, limestones of the
Lautaro Formation rest in slight discordance on rhyo-
lite ¯ows that belong to the Los Tilos sequence (not
shown in Fig. 1 due to scale).
Eight to nine kilometers to the south, calcareous
sandstones and limestones rest depositionally on rhyo-
lite ¯ows similar to the previous location. However, in
this area the rhyolites are ¯ow-folded, and therefore it
is dicult to determine the degree of depositional con-
cordancy across this contact. Still farther south (05±
8 km; Fig. 1), ®ne- to medium-grained sandstones
intercalated with rhyolite ¯ows of the Los Tilos
sequence rest concordantly beneath calcareous sand-
stones, and marly limestones of the Lautaro
Formation (Fig. 4). This contact is gradational
upwards from red sandstones to calcareous sandstone
into marly limestone over an interval of 25±50 m. We
have placed the contact between these two units where
the sandstones become calcareous. The sandstones
below the contact contain plant fossils typical of
Triassic ¯ora found in Chile and Argentina.
The Los Tilos sequence comprises volcanic and sedi-
mentary rocks, including bimodal basaltic to rhyolitic
lava ¯ows and hypabyssal intrusives, domes, near vent
epiclastic rocks, rhyodacitic welded ash¯ow tu€s, and
Fig. 4. Concordant depositional contact between Los Tilos sequence
and the Lautaro Formation in Estero Los Tilos southwest of Cerro
DonÄa Ana (photo taken looking north). Contact runs up quebrada
and separates plant bearing sandstones belonging to the Los Tilos
sequence (dark east-dipping beds) west of the quebrada from dark
(massive) and light colored calcareous clastic rocks and fossiliferous
limestones of the Sinemurian±Bajocian Lautaro Formation east of
the quebrada. Massive resistant unit immediately east of quebrada is
approximately 50 m high.
®ne- to coarse-grained sandstones, conglomerates, and
fanglomerates. In the RõÂ o Seco area (Fig. 1) a distinct
facies association of megabreccias, sandy limestones,
and gypsum deposits occur intercalated with volcanic
and volcaniclastic rocks (Fig. 5), which rest on silici-
®ed ash-¯ows tu€s of the Guanaco Sonso sequence
across a contact that is not exposed. In the RõÂ o Seco
area, rocks that we include in the Los Tilos sequence
were previously mapped as Estratos de RõÂ o Seco and
Estratos de Quebrada Tapado, by Maksaev et al.
(1984); Mpodozis and Cornejo, (1988) and Nasi et al.
(1990) who attributed these rocks to the Late Triassic±
Lower Jurassic interval.
Several possible Los Tilos volcanic vents have been
Fig. 5. Gypsiferous volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks (white rocks)
interbedded with calcareous volcaniclastic sandstones and felsic tu€s
(foreground) that belong to the Los Tilos sequence exposed in the
upper reaches of RõÂ o Seco. White region along range crest in back-
ground is zone of Miocene alteration. Photo taken looking south-
east.
 M.W. Martin et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12 (1999) 33±49
identi®ed within the study area (Fig. 1). These are
characterized by exposures of rhyolitic and basaltic
lava ¯ows interbedded with coarse volcanic breccias
that are typically intruded (possibly fed) by mutually
cross-cutting rhyolitic and basaltic dikes which suggest
to us a near vent environment. Shallow-level intrusive
bodies of the El Colorado unit (discussed below) are
spatially associated with these vent (?) areas.
We report two new dates from this unit (Tables 1
and 2). A dacitic tu€ (sample IM-77.6) interbedded
with calcareous volcaniclastic sandstones and gypsifer-
ous sediments in the RõÂ o Seco area, yielded a K-Ar
biotite age of 235.0 2 5.0 Ma. We have also analyzed
zircons by the U-Pb method from a rhyolite ¯ow col-
lected in RõÂ o Primero (Fig. 1) from a bimodal volcanic
and intrusive complex in the Los Tilos sequence that
rests stratigraphically below Lower Jurassic limestones
of the Lautaro Formation. The U-Pb data are ambigu-
ous (Appendix A, Table 1, Fig. 2), however, the scatter
of the data near concordia between 210±225 Ma is
consistent with ®eld relations that imply a Middle
Triassic to Early Jurassic age for the Los Tilos
sequence.
In addition, plant fossils (Pseudoctenis? sp.,
Dicroidium zuberi var. feistmantelii, Dicroidium a€. lan-
cifolium, and Dicroidium sp.) that are indicative of
Triassic ¯ora found in Chile and Argentina were col-
lected from medium- to ®ne-grained sandstones in the
Estero de los Tilos area, west of Cerro DonÄa Ana
(identi®ed by V. Covacevich). South of RõÂ o Seco, uni-
denti®able shelly fossil debris and a reptile (?) bone
were collected from calcareous volcaniclastic sandstone
and limestone, but due to poor preservation neither
could be classi®ed.
3.4. Intrusive Units of the El Indio Belt
3.4.1. Chollay±El LeoÂn unit (Permian±Triassic)
The Guanaco Sonso sequence is intruded by exten-
sive outcrops of coarse- to medium-grained granites
that form the Chollay unit of the Chollay batholith
(Nasi et al., 1990) in the northern part of the map
area, and the El LeoÂn unit of the eastern border of the
Elqui-LimarõÂ batholith (Mpodozis and Cornejo, 1988)
in the southern part of the region (Fig. 1). In the map
area, our detailed mapping of these intrusive units in-
dicate that the range of compositional and textural
variations in the Chollay unit are, in general, indistin-
guishable from those of the El LeoÂn unit and, there-
fore, it is dicult to clearly distinguish the two units
as separate map units and we consider them one unit,
the Chollay±El LeoÂn intrusive unit (Fig. 1). These
granites consist dominantly of medium- to coarse-
grained biotite monzogranites, but dacitic porphyry,
quartz porphyry, and diorite phases are also present.
Contacts between the di€erent phases of this unit are
43
gradational. In RõÂ o del Toro, in the northwestern part
of the area, and north of RõÂ o Potrerillo, for example,
numerous intrusive phases are present that contain
mutually cross-cutting relations and textures indicative
of commingled magmas (Fig. 6).
Three published ages exist for the Chollay and El
LeoÂn units. The Chollay unit has one reported K-Ar
(biotite) age of 238.026.0 Ma from the northern part
of the map area, and the El LeoÂn has two K-Ar (bio-
tite) ages of 276 2 4.0 and 2382 4.0 Ma both outside
the map area to the south (Fig. 1, Table 2; Nasi et al.,
1985). Here, we report two new U-Pb zircon ages from
the Pascua Mine in the northern part of the map area.
Sample IJ-108.1 makes up part of the host rock for
the Pascua Mine and is an altered quartz porphyry
that intrudes the Guanaco Sonso sequence in the area
(i.e., sample IJ-108.2). Previous workers in the region
included the intrusive phases near this zone of altera-
tion in both the Chollay and El Colorado Units of the
IngaguaÂs Intrusive Complex (Nasi et al., 1990).
However, our mapping of the intrusive phases in this
region indicate that all the intrusive phases in this area
have commingled textural relations with the Chollay
unit. Sample IJ-108.2 yielded a U-Pb zircon age of
242.521.5 Ma (Appendix A, Table 1, and Figs. 1 and
2). Sample IM-113.1, an altered rhyolitic porphyry,
which has a gradational contact with sample IJ-108.1
and also comprises the host rock for the Pascua Mine,
yielded an identical U-Pb zircon age of 242.021.5 Ma
(Appendix A, Table 1, Figs. 1 and 2). In the southern
part of the map area, in RõÂ o Tapado (Fig. 1) we col-
lected a orange quartz porphyry stock, previously
included in the El Colorado unit (Mpodozis and
Cornejo, 1988) which yielded a U-Pb age of 249.723.2
Ma (Fig. 2; Appendix A). These zircon ages are im-
Fig. 6. Mixed magma textures in the Chollay unit common in ex-
posures north of Rõ o Potrerillo. In this photo at least three di€erent
phases are present (mechanical pencil [14 cm] for scale, upper left
corner). The contact between the two felsic phases is gradational.
The contact between the more ma®c phase and the felsic phases is
irregular and not chilled, indicating that all phases existed together
in melt form.
44 M.W. Martin et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12 (1999) 33±49

portant in corroborating our ®eld observations that

several compositionally and texturally di€erent intru-
sive phases coexist with the Chollay±El LeoÂn unit in
the northern part of the map area, and that porphyry
intrusions, previously considered to be a younger
intrusive unit (El Colorado), locally are age equivalent
with the Chollay±El LeoÂn unit.

3.4.2. Middle±Late Triassic to±Early Jurassic Intrusive

Units
Smaller bodies of the El Colorado unit are exposed
as a north±south string of plutons, intruding the
Guanaco Sonso and Los Tilos sequences, ``undi€eren-
tiated'' Pastos Blancos, and Chollay±El LeoÂn granites Fig. 8. North-striking ma®c dikes intruding Chollay granitoids.
(Fig. 1). Within the studied region, the El Colorado Photo taken looking east showing 1200 m of relief.
unit is represented by subvolcanic, brick red, high
silica, porphyritic leucogranites and rhyolitic porphy-
ries. Phases include biotite-muscovite monzogranites, compositionally to the El Colorado porphyries, have
red to orange, ®ne- to coarse-grained biotite and horn- mutually cross-cutting relations with the north-striking
blende granites, quartz-feldspar rhyolitic porphyries, ma®c dikes (Fig. 8) that are ubiquitous within the
and numerous quartz-feldspar porphyry dikes that are Elqui-LimarõÂ batholith. In addition, some of the
granitic in composition (Fig. 1). In the southwestern quartz-feldspar porphyry granitic dikes have margins
part of the study area a medium-grained muscovite- that are andesitic in composition (Figs. 9 and 10). The
biotite bearing granitic body intrudes the Chollay±El lack of chilled margins between the two phases suggest
LeoÂn granites and older foliated granites of the that the granitic phase was emplaced shortly after the
Guanta unit.
Felsic phases of the El Colorado unit, locally, have
gradational contacts and mutually cross-cutting re-
lations with ma®c intrusive phases, dikes, hypabyssal
bodies and medium to coarse-grained gabbro to dior-
ite, part of which were previously mapped as part of
the La Laguna Gabbro unit of Mpodozis and Cornejo
(1988). Locally, well developed mixed magma textures
such as interdigitated cuspate-lobate texture exist
between granitic and ma®c phases (Fig. 7) that at the
outcrop scale have mutually cross-cutting relation-
ships. Locally, brick-red porphyry felsic dikes, hosted
by the Chollay±El LeoÂn unit, similar texturally and

Fig. 7. Mixed magma textures between granitic and dioritic phases in Fig. 9. North-striking feldspar-quartz porphyry dike belonging to El
El Colorado intrusive unit. Note well developed dentritic, cusbate- Colorado intrusive unit intruding Chollay granitoids in Quebrada
lobate texture at contacts between two phases. Mechanical pencil Piuquenes. Note dark margins of dike (see photo 8). Photo taken
[14 cm] for scale). looking southwest showing man on mule in middle ground for scale.
 M.W. Martin et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12 (1999) 33±49
Fig. 10. Ma®c margin of El Colorado feldspar-quartz porphyry dike
(see photo 7). Ma®c phase has 56% SiO and felsic phase has 77%
SiO. Contact between two phases is di€use and not chilled indicating
that both phases existed as melts simultaneously. Mechanical pencil
for scale.
ma®c phase along the same conduit, while both mag-
mas were still hot. These relationships are consistent
with the interpretation that the El Colorado unit is
bimodal in nature, consistent with the bimodal nature
of the volcanic rocks of the Los Tilos sequence.
We report two new radiometric ages for this unit
(Appendix A, Fig. 1, Table 2). Sample IM-53.2, col-
lected from an El Colorado granitoid from RõÂ o La
Laguna, yielded a K-Ar muscovite age of 221.025.0.
A two-mica granite (sample IM-136.4) that intrudes
the Chollay±El LeoÂn unit, yields a K-Ar biotite age of
219.025.0 Ma. Based on these data we infer that these
intrusions of the El Colorado unit are Middle Triassic
to Early Jurassic in age.
4. Discussion
Within the El Indio belt, the ®eld relations and
available geochronology indicate that the Pastos
Blancos Group includes at least two separate time-
stratigraphic units: the Permian±Early Triassic,
Guanaco Sonso sequence and the Middle Triassic±
Early Jurassic, Los Tilos sequence. This information
45
warrants the Group status we propose for the Pastos
Blancos unit, even though in large areas of the El
Indio Belt mapping two separate sequences is dicult
because of lithologic similarities and restricted strati-
graphic context.
Although an older absolute age constraint for the
Guanaco Sonso sequence has not been determined,
available radiometric ages indicate that it may overlap
with plutonic rocks that belong to the Carboniferous±
Early Permian Elqui Complex (Nasi et al., 1985), the
core of which is exposed directly west of the map area.
On the basis of geochemical data, the Elqui Complex
is interpreted to represent the roots of a magmatic-arc
that developed above a subduction zone along the
southwestern margin of Gondwana at this time
(Mpodozis and Kay, 1992). Given the available geo-
chronologic constraints, at least part of the Guanaco
Sonso sequence may represent the extrusive and epi-
clastic equivalents that were deposited within and im-
mediately east of the Elqui magmatic-arc axis.
Alternatively, these age constraints permit the in-
terpretation that the Guanaco Sonso sequence is
younger and unrelated to the intrusions of the Elqui
Complex. Future geochemical and geochronologic stu-
dies from the Guanaco Sonso volcanic rocks could
help resolve this correlation question.
During Middle Triassic to Early Jurassic time (220±
200 Ma) bimodal volcanism and subvolcanic magmatic
activity and sedimentary basin formation appears to
have been an important aspect of the geology of the El
Indio belt. Bimodal volcanic rocks, equivalent subvol-
canic intrusions and north-striking subvertical ma®c
dikes that intrude and are inter®ngered with coarse
sedimentary volcaniclastic rocks and lacustrine to mar-
ine sedimentary rock are typical lithologic assemblages
associated with extensional basin development
(SengoÈr, 1995). Existing studies suggest that isolated
en-echelon rift basins formed during Middle Triassic
to Early Jurassic time along the entire length of
Argentina and Chile (Charrier, 1979; Uliana et al.,
1989; Ramos and Kay, 1991; Mpodozis and Cornejo,
1988). In the case of El Indio Belt, we have been
unable to identify structures associated with this pre-
sumed extensional orogen. However, subvolcanic El
Colorado porphyries and coeval more ma®c phases
and Los Tilos volcanic centers are observed intruding
and resting on middle to shallow crustal Chollay plu-
tons, suggesting that moderate amounts of denudation
occurred subsequent to bimodal volcanism, possibly
aided by unroo®ng associated with normal faults. It is
possible that some of the Tertiary reverse faults in the
region may have reactivated older normal faults,
although no direct evidence in favor of this has been
documented.
The caveats associated with the existing nomencla-
ture for the di€erent intrusive map units in the Elqui-
46 M.W. Martin et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12 (1999) 33±49
LimarõÂ , Chollay, and Montosa-El Potro batholiths
(Nasi et al., 1985, Mpodozis and Kay, 1990) which
was built mainly on textural and petrographic attri-
butes and not age, are demonstrated in this study.
Intrusive phases included in any one-map unit based
on texture and/or composition are not necessarily age
equivalent. For example, two-mica granites previously
associated with the CochiguaÂs unit of the Elqui
Complex (Nasi et al., 1985) likely are present as
younger intrusive units in the IngaguaÂs Complex; gran-
ites of the El LeoÂn unit of the IngaguaÂs Complex may
be present in the older Elqui Complex; and similar
granite porphyries associated with the El Colorado
unit also exist within and have the same age as gran-
ites of the Chollay unit. In light of this, several intru-
sive events can be identi®ed in the El Indio belt that
span the time frame represented by the sedimentary
and volcanic rocks of the Pastos Blancos Group.
In the El Indio Belt three intrusive events repeat
similar ``petrographic-textural'' units. The oldest corre-
sponds to the Early Permian ``El LeoÂn'' granitoids in
the La Laguna valley immediately southwest of the
map area (minimum age 276 Ma, K-Ar[biotite],
Mpodozis and Cornejo, 1988). This age overlaps ages
reported for the Carboniferous±Early Permian Elqui
Complex (Fig. 10, Mpodozis and Cornejo, 1988), even
though in the existing nomenclature it is the ``oldest''
unit of the IngaguaÂs Complex. Early±Middle Triassic
(242±238 Ma) granitoids of the ``Chollay±El LeoÂn''
map unit that comprise the bulk of the batholith in
the map area intrude the Guanaco Sonso sequence.
The youngest intrusive event includes Late Triassic to
Early Jurassic (221±200 Ma) high silica porphyritic
leucogranites and dikes, and biotite (+/-hornblende)
and hornblende granites of the El Colorado unit that
have mutual cross-cutting relations with ma®c dike
swarms and gabbro stocks (La Laguna unit) support-
ing that they were emplaced during a period of bimo-
dal magmatism. These youngest intrusive phases are
spatially and temporally linked with the sedimentary
and volcanic rocks of the Los Tilos sequence.
4.1. Regional correlations
Age-equivalent units, that compare to the Guanaco
Sonso sequence and the ``oldest'' IngaguaÂs intrusives,
have been described immediately to the east of El
Indio Belt, in the ColanguÈil and San Guillermo
Ranges (298±318S) in the Argentine Frontal Cordillera
by LlambõÂ as and Sato (1990, 1995). The oldest pluto-
nic unit there is a granodiorite stock (Tabaquito
Granodiorite, 329±326 Ma, 298S) dated by Rb-Sr.
Farther south, the Choiyoi Group, unconformably
deposited over Late Carboniferous sediments (Cerro
Agua Negra Formation) includes a ``lower'' section of
up to 500 m of andesites which yield a poorly de®ned,
Lower Permian Rb-Sr error-chron (289 2 19 Ma).
Andesites are interbedded with continental sediments
and covered by an ``upper'' thick pile of rhyolitic
ignimbrites, ¯ows and subvolcanic domes. The
Carboniferous sediments are intruded by a Lower
Permian granodiorite pluton with Rb-Sr ages of 272 to
260 Ma (Las Piedritas Granodiorite), compositionally
similar to the lower andesites. Farther to the east, a
string of highly di€erentiated biotite, muscovite and
cordierite bearing granite stocks hosted in the
Carboniferous sediments along the eastern edge of the
Frontal Cordillera in the same region have been dated
by Rb-Sr between 257 to 247 Ma (Late Permian±Early
Triassic).
LlambõÂ as and Sato (1995) compare the
Carboniferous Tabaquito granodiorite, which is a
metaluminous, calcalkaline, I-type intrusive, with the
subduction related (Guanta) tonalites of the Elqui
Complex. Younger extrusive-intrusive units are
thought to be post tectonic to the regionally important
(280±270 Ma?) San Rafael phase/tectonic event. The
Lower Permian Choiyoi andesites and Las Piedritas
granodiorite which may be equivalent to the Guanaco
Sonso sequence and the oldest IngaguaÂs intrusives in
Chile are considered to represent calc-alkaline melts
produced during the waning stages of Gondwana arc
activity. Finally, LlambõÂ as and Sato (1995) interpret
the younger, Late Permian±Early Triassic granites,
which include stocks with both S-type and A-type a-
nities as post-orogenic intrusives produced by crustal
melting during a period of regional extension, rifting
and uplift, following a line of reasoning that, in gen-
eral, ®ts with the models presented by Nasi et al.
(1985) and Mpodozis and Kay (1992) for the evolution
of the Elqui-LimarõÂ Batholith. Given the caveats with
interpreting the signi®cance of Rb-Sr and K-Ar geo-
chronologic data in long-lived igneous provinces and
the paucity of the data set available, it is dicult at
present to understand what, if any, temporal and/or
spatial distribution exists for ``post San Rafael'' mag-
matism.
The Middle Triassic±Early Jurassic(?) Los Tilos
sequence is probably correlative with several Late
Triassic±Early Jurassic units that have been described
along the Chilean coastal ranges between 308 and
338S. These include the Pichidangui Formation, a com-
plex of submarine rhyolitic domes and pyroclastic
rocks related to basaltic dikes and ¯ows (Vicente,
1976; Rivano and SepuÂlveda, 1991, Vergara et al.,
1991), and the bimodal intrusive suite of gabbros to
leucogranites (Tranquilla±Millahue and Puerto Oscuro
units) described by Gana (1991) and Parada et al.
(1991). Equivalents of the Los Tilos sequence also
occur in the Argentine Frontal Cordillera at 328S
 M.W. Martin et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12 (1999) 33±49
(Rancho La Lata Formation, Cristallini et al., 1994).
In addition, correlative age rocks also appear in north-
ern Chile and include: a complex suite of basaltic lavas
and acid pyroclastic rocks interbedded with ¯uvial-
lacustrine sediments of La Ternera Formation in the
Copiapo region (268S; Segerstrom, 1968; Iriarte, 1997);
and the Quebrada del Salitre Formation, between
Sierra DonÄa IneÂs Chica and Sierra Vaquillas Altas
(25±268S), contains a late Triassic to Early Jurassic
rift-related, marine to continental, bimodal, volcano-
sedimentary association that includes submarine rhyo-
litic domes and hyaloclastic breccias associated with
large volumes of basaltic lava which inter®nger with
fossil-bearing, quartz-rich sandstones and conglomer-
ates (Naranjo and Puig, 1984; Mpodozis and Cornejo,
1997).
Deposition of the Early to Middle Jurassic marine
sequences appears to transitionally follow the depo-
sition of the synrift deposits in northern Chile
(Mpodozis and Cornejo, 1997) as also occurs in the
Copiapo region (Blanco, 1997) and the El Indio Belt.
By Early to Middle Jurassic time the onset of subduc-
tion had begun farther to the west, as indicated by the
plutonic rocks of this age presently exposed all along
the coastal Range of north-central Chile (Rivano et
al., 1985; Gana and Tosdal, 1996).
4.2. Implications for existing regional geochemical
studies
Without question more exciting and detailed work
remains to be done within the Late Paleozoic to
Middle Jurassic intrusive and volcanic rocks of the
pre-Andean Cordillera of central Chile and western
Argentina (28±358S). In such long-lived arc environ-
ments, these studies will be more fruitful and insightful
with absolute age control o€ered by robust geochron-
ometers such as U-Pb and/or 40Ar±39Ar. Previous geo-
chemical studies from the Chilean Cordilleran
batholiths (i.e., Mpodozis and Kay, 1992) relied heav-
ily on existing lithologic nomenclature based on tex-
tural and compositional similarities and Rb-Sr and K-
Ar geochronology (minimum ages). The U-Pb geo-
chronology presented here highlights the potential pro-
blems with the relative age assignment of the existing
nomenclature and raises the possibility that existing
tectonic interpretations that address the apparent tran-
sition from subduction-related processes in the
Carboniferous±early Permian to extensional processes
in the Triassic along the southwestern margin of
Gondwana have ample latitude for re®nement with
more precise geochronology and detailed ®eld studies
in the future.
47
5. Conclusions: implications for regional tectonics
Previous geochemical studies of Permian to Early
Jurassic intrusive and volcanic rocks from central
Chile and western Argentina (28±358S) suggest in gen-
eral that these rocks were emplaced during post-sub-
duction, crustal relaxation leading to possible large-
scale crustal melting and extension, along the west-
facing Gondwana margin at this time (Nasi et al.,
1985; Kay et al., 1989; LlambõÂ as and Sato, 1990;
Parada et al., 1991; Vergara et al., 1991; Mpodozis
and Kay, 1992). These rocks include those that com-
prise the Pastos Blancos Group and the IngaguaÂs
Complex. Field constraints, along with new and exist-
ing geochronology presented here suggest that intru-
sive phases that comprise the IngaguaÂs Complex and
volcano±sedimentary rocks of the Pastos Blancos
Group are diachronous. They should be considered the
product of a series of time discrete magmatic pulses
rather than the result of continuous and widespread
magmatism during protracted extensional tectonism
that appears to have dominated the Permian to
Lower-Jurassic evolution of southwestern Gondwana.
Further ®eld, geochronologic and isotopic studies are
clearly warranted to test existing hypotheses.
Acknowledgements
This work was part of a larger project between
SERNAGEOMIN and Compania Minera San JoseÂ
Ltda. (CMSJ) to map the El Indio gold district. This
project was funded completely by CMSJ. We thank
CMSJ sta€ for their logistical help and insights into
the geology of the district. In addition, we thank JoseÂ
Soto for his excellent driving skills and the Flores
brothers (Roberto, Gabriel, and Alberto) for their as-
sistance and skills as guides in getting us into the
back-country. We also thank the directors of the
Isotope Geochemistry laboratory Doug Walker and
Randy Van Schmus at the University of Kansas for
allowing the senior author use of their U-Pb and
mass-spectrometer facilities and Lucia CutinÄo, Juan
Vargas and the sta€ of SERNAGEOMIN's geochem-
istry laboratory for their assistance in this project.
Helpful comments by R. Charrier and one anonymous
reviewer are greatly appreciated. This is a contribution
to IGCP Project No. 345, `Andean Lithospheric
Evolution'.
Appendix A
U-Pb zircon geochronology
Sample IJ-108.2: Three di€erent zircon fractions
48 M.W. Martin et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12 (1999) 33±49
were analyzed from this sample (Table 1, Fig. 2a).
The behavior of these fractions suggest that these zir-
cons have experienced simple Pb-loss. A linear re-
gression through these data yield an upper intercept
age of 265.825.6 Ma, which is interpreted as the age
of tu€.
Sample IJ-108.1: Three zircon fractions were ana-
lyzed from this sample (Table 1, Fig. 2c). One fraction
is concordant at 242.5 Ma, the other two fractions
contain a small amount of inherited Pb as indicated by
their slightly older Pb±Pb ages (Table 1). Based on
these data, we interpret the age of this sample to be
242.521.5 Ma.
Sample IM-113.1: has a gradational contact with
sample IJ-108.1 and is an altered rhyolitic porphyry
and also part of the host rock for the Pascua Mine.
Three di€erent zircon fractions from this sample were
analyzed (Table 1, Fig. 2c). Two fractions (a & b) plot
near concordia at about 243±244 Ma, the third frac-
tion (c) contains a signi®cant component of inherited
Pb compared with fractions (a) and (b). Fraction (a)
consists of 20 clear euhedral zircons selected from the
bulk fraction (c). Based on this behavior, and assum-
ing that these fractions have not experienced Pb-loss,
the lower intercept age of 242.021.5 Ma is interpreted
as the age of this sample. This age is identical to
sample IJ-108.1 corroborating our ®eld interpretations
that multiple phases of this age are exposed in this
region.
Sample IM-92.6: Four di€erent zircon fractions were
analyzed from this sample (Table 1, Fig. 2 d). The
fractions fall roughly equi-distant from the lower and
upper intercepts de®ned by the linear regression
through the data. These data are ambiguous, and their
systematics parallel and near concordia suggest that
zircons from this sample su€er from both Pb-loss and
inheritance. The ®eld relations discussed previously in-
dicate that neither the upper nor lower intercept age
has geologic signi®cance (269.0224.0 Ma and 125.02
45.0 Ma). However, the scatter of the data near con-
cordia between 210±225 Ma is consistent with ®eld re-
lations that suggest a Middle Triassic to Early Jurassic
age for the Los Tilos sequence.
Sample IM-83.4: (Fig. 1). Eight zircon fractions were
analyzed from this sample (Table 1, Fig. 2e). Except
for one fraction, these analyses lie on a linear array
(MSWD=0.77) that yields an upper intercept age of
249.7 2 3.2 Ma. The lower intercept through 0 Ma
suggests that the zircons in this sample have experi-
enced present-day Pb-loss. The one fraction that falls
o€ the linear array has a signi®cantly older Pb±Pb age
than the other fractions analyzed, consistent with it
being the largest sample analyzed (Table 1). We inter-
pret this fraction to have an older inherited component
(xenocrystic zircon and/or older core material). We in-
terpret the age of this sample to be 249.723.2 Ma.
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