2nd YEAR ENGLISH MINOR

SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

Course instructor: Roxana-Cristina Petcu, PhD

THE COPULATIVE PREDICATION

Let us start from the analysis of the following sentences:

1. (a)Mary is quiet.
(b) Jack is a doctor.
(c) Susan is of my age.
(d) She will make a good mother.

These sentences contain a copula (be in sentences a,b,c) or a copula-like verb (make in sentence d) which
functions as the link between the subject of the sentence and the constituent which predicates about the subject.
This element is called a predicative. The copula or the copula-like verb and the predicative form a copulative
predicate.

Let’s have a look at the following examples:

2. (a) Granfather is a good man. (DP)

(b) My sister is very pretty. (AP)
(c) The hat is of my size. (PP)
(d) The problem is to do it correctly. (IP)
(e) The idea is that you should never agree to such things. (CP)

As we can see the predicative can be expressed by a wide range of phrases. Only the copula BE allows the full
range of predicatives, the other copula-like verbs allow only a limited number of possibilities.

THE COPULA BE

If we look at the sentences under 1, we shall immediately see that it is the predicative not the copula which
assigns a property to the subject, namely Mary is assigned the property quiet, Jack the property a doctor, aso,
which means that the predication relation hold between the subject and the predicative, and not between the
subject and the copula. We can say that the subject of the sentence is assigned a theta role and so is an argument
of the predicative, not of the copula BE. It can be demonstrated by the semantic relations that the predicative
imposes on the subject.

3. (a) *Bill is a spinster.

(b) *Mrs Brown is Mary’s father.
(c) *His brother is buxom.

The sentences above are ungrammatical as the property assigned by the predicatice to the subject violates the s-
selection. A Spinster and buxom select a [+female] entity, while father selects a [+male] entity.

One conclusion would be that the copula does not assign an external theta role because it does not have
substantive content. This means that the copula does not have an external argument ; it only has an internal
argument, a small clause which account for the predication relation between the subject ant the predicative. The
subject is base-generated in [Spec,SC] position where it is assigned a theta role, and from ther it moves to
[Spec,IP] to be assigned case and also to satisfy the EPP, which says that all senteneces must have a subject. This
means that BE cannot assign case, which is in keeping with the fact that it does not assign a theta role to an
external argument. So the copula BE behaves like an unaccusative verb.

Burzio’s generalization (i) a verb which lacks an external argument fails to assign Accusative case
(ii)a verb which fails to assign Accusative case fails to theta-mark an external
argument

Mary is quiet.

IP

Spec I’

I0 VP

T V’

-s V0 SC/AP

BE NP A’

N’ A0

N0 quiet
Mary

The NP generated in the [Spec, SC] position will move to [Spec,IP] in order to be assigned case. Another possible
position would be [Spec, VP] which is empty because BU does not have an external argument, so no theta role
can be assigned in that position, but it is not a position in which case can be assigned.

The movement of the NP has to meet some requirements.

1. the moved element is an NP

2. movement is obligatory.
3. the landing-site of movement is an empty position
4. the landing site is an A (argument)- position
5. the landing site is an NP position
5. the landing-site of movement is a position to which no theta-role cab be assigned.
6. the landing-site of movement is a position to which case is assigned
7. the site from which the element is moved is an NP position to which no case is assigned
8. movement leaves behind a trace
9. the trace is co-indexed with the entecedent, with which it forms a chain. Because the head of the chain is an A-
position, it is called an A-chain.
10. the chain is assigned a theta-role
11. the theta-role is assigned to the lowest position of the chain, the foot of the chain
12. the chain is case-marked
13.case is assigned to the highest position of the chain, the head of the chain.

Conclusion
 The copula Be is a raising verb taking a small clause as its complement, it lacks an external argument,
fails to assign case to its complement, does not assign a theta role. Therfore it is an unaccusative verb
which selects a small clause, the subject of the sclause being generated in the [Spec, SC] position out of
which it raises to be assigned case.
 The copula BE is semantically light, which has been taken as a possible explanation for the fact that it
shares a number of properties with the auxiliaries.
 It behaves like auxiliary verbs – it undergoes movement to I 0; it moves to C0 in question formation; it is
directly negated by not/n’t, it can be stressed by emphatic affirmations, it occurs in tags and codas
4. (a) Are they students?
(b) They are not/aren’t students.
(c) Oh, but they ARE students.
(d) They are students, aren’t they?
(e) They are students, and so are theor friends.
 Like an auxiliary, the copula BE precedes the adverbs.

5. They are always rude to everyone.

He is never impertiment.

 Unlike auxiliaries, which only allow one type of complement (VP), the copula allows a wide variety of small
clauses as complements (DP, AP, NP, PP, IP, CP).
 The copula can co-occur with other auxiliaries, including auxiliary BE

6. You have always been so nice to me.

He is being clumsy now!

 When the small clause contains two NPs, any of the two can raise ti [Spec,IP]

7. That unimportant incident was the cause of the war.

The cause of the war was that unimportant incident.

 To conclude, we can say that the copula BE is an unaccusative verb that has a number of specific
properties which distinguish it from regular unaccusatives and from auxiliaries as well.

The role of the copula

Small clauses are reduced clauses which lack the functional categories, mainlt Tense but which denote predication
relations, namely states of affairs which must receive temporal anchoring. This is done by the verb the small
clause is a complement of. The copula carries the markers for Tense, Aspect, Agreement, Mood .
8. (a) Michael is careful. (Tense)
(b) Michael is being so awkward today! (Tense, Aspect)
(c ) He has always been so nice. (Tense,Aspect)
(d) If only he were more attentive. (Tense, Mood)

COPULA-LIKE VERBS

 Fall, stand, make, sit, loom, remain, hold, run, get, lie, grow, go, turn, pass, seem, come, etc

9. MAKE - If you work hard, you will make a good lawyer.(DP)

She will make a wonderful actress.(DP)
FALL – The scheme fell flat.(AP)
He fell victim to her cruel remarks.(NP)
She fell an easy prey to him.(DP)
The house fell into ruins.(PP)
LIE – The book lay open on the table.(AP)
The snow lay thick on the ground.(AP)
HOLD – The argument holds true.(AP)
She always holds aloof from company.(AP)
STAND – Tom stands alone amomg his mates.(AP)
We will stand firm.(AP)
Lady Jane stood godmother to her sister’s child.(NP)
Those poor people stand in need of help.(PP)
SIT – He sat tight on the saddle.(AP)
LOOM – The castle loomed menacing in the distance. (AP)
REMAIN – He remained a widower at the age of 30.(DP)
GET – The sink got rusty.(AP)
GROW – He has grown old.(AP)
TURN – He finally turned a traitor. (DP)
They obliged the prisoners to turn Muslim. (AP)
PASS – They pass for rich.(PP)
He passed for a doctor.(PP)
SEEM – The students seem interested in linguistics. (AP)
COME – The knot has come undone.(AP)

Copula-like verbs behave like the copula. They lack an external argument, their internal complement is a small
clause, so they are raising verbs like the copula.

The scheme fell flat.

IP

Spec I’

I0 VP

T V’
-ed V0 SC/AP
Fall
DP A’
 The scheme A0

Flat

Nevertheless, there are a number of differences between the copula and the copula-like verbs.
 They preserve part of their lexical meaning (durative – stay, remain, inchoative –become, get)
 They impose certain selectional restrictions on the small clause (see the examples above)
 They do not combine with the full range of small clauses as BE
 They do not raise, do not invert in question formation, need do-support, are not negated by not/n’t, need
do-support, do not appear in tags and codas.

10. They turned Muslim.

*Turned they Muslim? (Did they turn Muslim?)
*They turned not Muslim. (They didn’t turn Muslim)
*They turned Muslim, turnedn’t they?

 They do not precede the adverbs (like lexical verbs)

11. *The river runs always dry in summer.

The river always runs dry in summer.

 Unlike the copula BE, when the small clause contains two NPs, only the NP subject, that is the one
generated in [Spec, SC] position can raise to [Spec, IP].

12. My uncle remained a doctor all his life.

*A doctor remained my uncle all his life.

THE PREDICATIVE

THE ADJECTIVAL TYPE

 Adjectives are heads that project structure according to X-bar, can be modified by an adverb in the Spec
position, can select a complement (PP , CP or IP), can also contain adjuncts

13. (a)rather envious of Mary’s success

(b) glad that we were there
(c) very unvilling to come here
(d) rather discontent with me for my behaviour

 They may have an exclusively attributive or a exclusively predicative use or both

14. Mary is beautiful.
I saw a beautiful woman.

ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES

 They appear only in pre-nominal positions in English, unlike Romanian

15. an envious person / * a person envious

 When used attributively, adjectives do not allow complements

16. * a very unwilling to come here person

* a rather discontent with me father

 Nevertheles, there are a number of adjectives which appear post-nominally even when used attributively
- general, public, martial. laureate

17. secretary general, attorney general, notary public, court martial, poet laureate

 There are adjectives which, under specific conditions, appear post-nominally even when used
attributively

18. The ships damaged by the strom were recovered yesterday.

 Attributive adjectives have degrees of comparison, but only those which denote gradable properties. They
can be modified by degree words (quite, rather). Adjectives that denote ungradable properties do not
allow comparison or degree words.

19. (a) the most beautiful woman

(b) It isn’t very hot.
(c ) *He is very alive.

 When the occur in a string preceding the noun they are arranged on a very strict order

a) adjectives modifying object-denoting nominals

possessives>cardinal>quality>size>shape>color>nation

20. a beautiful red Persian carpet / * a Persian beautiful red carpet

b) adjectives modifying event nominals

possessives>cardinal>ordinal>speaker-oriented>subject-oriented>manner>thematic
21. his previous disgusting angry reaction to your demand
Their future possible friendly cooperation

 Adjectives may denote temporary or permanent properties, and depending on that they may appear in pre
or post-modifying positions

22. the only navigable river (permanent property) / the responsible man (trustworthy)
 The only river navigable (transient property) / the man responsible (to blame)

Exclusively modifying adjectives

1) denominal adjectives derived from nound denoting substances

Eg. Wooden, leaden, golden

23. a wooden bracelet / *The bracelet is wooden. (made of wood)
A leaden coffin. / *The coffin is leaden. (made of lead)
A golden ring / *The ring is golden. (made of gold)

If used in a figurative meaning, these adjectives may also be used predicatively

24. Her movements were wooden. (like wood)

The sky was leaden. (the colour of lead)
Her hair was golden. (the colour of gold)

2) adjectives which may have been derived from adverbs

Eg. Main, eventual, principal, utter, actual, favourite, former, mere, sole

25. The main purpose of his action has never been known. / *The purpose is main.
What we witnessed was an utter failure. /*The failure is utter.
Don’t overestimate the actual importance of the act./ *The importance of the act is actual.

3) past participles which never occur in passive sentences (deprated, escaped)

26. The departed guests. /*The guests are departed.

The escaped prisoner /*The prisoner is escaped

4) modal adjectives – alleged, potential, possibel

27. an alleged genius / *the genius was alleged

5)temporal adjectives – future, former, late, occasional, present, daily, monthly

28. the future wedding / *the wedding is future

6) manner adjectives (related to adverbs) – compulsive, big, frequent,

29. a compulsive eater / *the eater is compulsive

PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVES

 They select internal arguments (like verbs) to which they assign theta roles. They generally subcategorize
for PP, but the preposition is idiosyncratic, that is it cannot be predicted from the properties of the
adjective. Some adjectives subcategorize for IP (infinitives) or CPs.
30. capable of decision; conversant with the subject; lacking in intelligence; dependent on his family;
answearable to the Prime Minister

31. They were eager to succeed.

He is ready to leave.
She was happy that they had arrived.
I am afraid that they will not manage.

 They behave like verbs in a number of ways, but do not inflect for Tense and Agreement. They take a
subjected hosted by [Spec,AP] and a complement to which they assign theta roles.This type of phrase is
assumed to be a small clause

32. He became very angry with his sisters for their attitude.

IP

Spec I’

I0 VP

T V’

-ed V0 SC/AP

Become DP AP

He AvP A’
PP
Very A’ For their
Attitude
A0 PP

Angry with his

Sisters

Exclusively predicative adjectives

1)Adverb-like adjectives beginning with a-

Eg. Ablaze, afire, agog, aghast, afraid, asleep, akin, ajar, akimbo, alive, alike, alone, afloat, aware, awash, astir,
askew, averse, ashamed

33. The whole building was ablaze. / *the ablaze building

He was asleep. /*the asleep man
The door was ajar. /*the ajar door

If the adjective is quantified it can be used as a modifying adjective.

34. a half-asleep student; a somewhat afraid student; a fully aware teacher

2) prepositional adjectives which can never appear as pre-nominal modifiers, which nevertheless appear in a post-
modifying position

35. Young people are fond of pop music.

Is your child subject to colds?
This woman is prone to superstition.
A child subject to so many colds should be carefully looked after.

Adjectives which appear in both positions

1) with distinct meanings

Eg. Heavy, hard, slow, frequent, traditionalist, occasional, possible, apparent

36. The march is slow. / A slow child

The luggage is heavy. / A heavy smoker

2) both predicative and modifying in one meaning and only modifying in the other meaning

Eg. Civil, criminal, dramatic, atomic, chemical

37. She gave me a very civil answer. /Her answer was civil.
He specializes in civil engineering / *The engineering is civil.

3) adjectives such as old, new, wrong – when characterizing the refernt directly they are used
In both positions

Eg. True, complete, perfect,sure,clean,firm,sheer,total

38. old/new furniture / The furniture is old/new

A wrong answer / The answer is wrong

- when not characterizing the referent directly they are used

attributively

39. an old/new acquaintance

The wrong person (wrongly identified)

ATTRIBUTIVE AND EQUATIVE (IDENTIFYING) COPULATIVE PREDICATION

a) Attributive – A is B
40. Mary is smart.
Bobby is a fresher.
The district is in a state of chaos.
The problem is that he sould leave.

b) Equative – A=B
41. The girl is John’s friend.
He is Secretary of State.
This girls is the most attractive of all.

The Nominal Predicative

a) Attributive – a shame, a pity, no wonder, no doubt

It’s a pity that he should have left.

- NPs without a determiner

He is master of the situation.

The woman was poor class. (of the poor class)

- very rarely definite NPs

White hats are the thing today.