Nurun Nahla I.
Reyes
BIOCHEMISTRY
The Nature of Biochemistry


Biochemistry is the study of compounds,
chemical reactions, and molecular interactions
that are involved in the production,
maintenance and reproduction of living
organisms. Biochemistry will serve as a
central component of all the health sciences,
including microbiology , genetics, physiology,
nutrition, medicine, dentistry and nursing.
 Biochemistry – deals with the study of the
chemistry of living organism. It deals with the
application of the principles and method of
chemistry to the field of biology and
physiology.
 It is the language of biology basic to the
understanding of the different phenomena both
in biological and medical sciences.
 It is concerned with the physico chemical
processes underlying digestion, absorption,
circulation, respiration, metabolism, growth and
reproduction.
 Processes occurring under normal conditions
are physiological hence the term “Physiological
 Biochemistry is applied to medicine, dentistry, and
Chemistry”. Those occurring under abnormal
conditions are “ Pathological “ they fall under
Clinical Biochemistry”
 Growing biochemistry knowledge will set the
place in the search for the prevention and
treatment of heart disease, cancer, genetic
disease, nutritional deficiencies, infectious
diseases, and other health disorders. Present
biochemistry knowledge has come up with
mechanisms on how oncogenes convert
normal cells into tumor cells, how enzymes
 Biochemistry
catalyze chemical reactions, how cholesterol
contributes to heat disease, how aspirin lowers
body temperature, and how AZT inhibits the
growth of the AIDS virus.
 In summer, 2001, Associate Editor Gunjan
Singha of Flash Forward magazine and co-
director of a program in Genomics, Ethics and
Society at Stanford University and who sits on
an advisory committee on human cloning for
the state of California “when will we clone
human”.
Broad/Scope Scientific Discipline
 Biochemistry is the study of the structure,
composition, and chemical reactions of
substances in living systems.
 Biochemistry emerged as a separate
discipline when scientists combined
biology with organic, inorganic, or physical
chemistry and began to study such topics
as how living things obtain energy from
food, the chemical basis of heredity, and
what fundamental changes occur in
disease.
 Biochemistry includes the sciences of
molecular biology;
neurochemistry; and
immunochemistry;
bioinorganic,
bioorganic, and biophysical chemistry.
 Range of Application
veterinary medicine. In food science, biochemists
research ways to develop abundant and
inexpensive sources of nutritious foods, determine
the chemical composition of foods, develop
methods to extract nutrients from waste products,
or invent ways to prolong the shelf life food
products. In agriculture, biochemists study the
interaction of herbicides with plants. They examine
the structure-activity relationships of compounds,
determine their ability to inhibit growth, and
evaluate the toxicological effects on surrounding
life.
spills over into pharmacology,
physiology, microbiology, and clinical chemistry. In
these areas, a biochemist may investigate the
mechanism of a drug action; engage in viral
research; conduct research pertaining to organ
function; or use chemical concepts, procedures,
and techniques to study the diagnosis and therapy
of disease and the assessment of health.
Nurun Nahla I. Reyes
 metabolism is catabolism
Branches of Biochemistry
 Chemical Composition of Living Matter
 The tissues are made up of about 70 % to 90%
and 10% to 30% solids. Of the solids !% is
organic and the rest are organic substances.
 WATER- component is found partly in the free
state, that is capable of passing from one cell
to another, this passage is governed by the
physical laws Osmosis and Diffusion. The
amount of fixed water in the tissues varies with
their function activities. Tissue with greater
physiological activity have greater amount of
water.
 The inorganic substances are up of sodium,
potassium etc.
 The organic substances such as
carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
 Attributes of Life
 Some characteristics of Living Things that
ensure survival are:
 ADAPTATION
- Or the presence of body structure that
make living things fit to live in its habit.
 GROWTH AND REPAIR
- Growth is the ability to add new tissue,
while repair if the ability to replace damage
parts.
 REPRODUCTION
- Or the ability to beget offspring, ensure
propagation and continuance of the
species.
 METABOLISM
- Or the biological and chemical activities or
functions that provide energy. Constructive
metabolism is call anabolism, while destructive

COMPLEXITY AND ORGANIZATION
- Complexity refers to elaborate structures
needed to carry out laborious functions like
metabolism. Organization is putting the different
body structure into order, so that the organism can
function effectively and efficiently.
 REGULATION
- Or the ability to keep the functions under
control through the use of substances like
hormones and enzymes.
 ALL LIVING ORGANISMS POSSESS A
CHARACTERISTIC SIZE AND SHAPE
- An ant can never become as big as
elephant.
 RESPONSIVENESS TO STIMULI OR
SENSITIVITY
- Which is the ability to respond favorably or
unfavorably to its environment.
 LOCOMOTION
- The ability to move on its initiative, under its
control.
 VARIATION AND CHANGE
- Which explain why no two organisms are
exactly alike(variation) and no organism
remains unchanged forever. Adaptation and
evolution are mechanism of change.
 STEREOSPECIFIC
- The ability of certain molecules present in an
organism to interact with nature in a left-or-
right-handed manner.
 The Chemicals of Life
 All living organisms are predominantly
constructed from carbon, oxygen, and
hydrogen , together with some organic
elements like nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
 Nurun Nahla I. Reyes

 WATER  General Properties

- all life forms, from the simplest bacteria to A. Water has a unique properties
the most complex multicellular plants and animals -has a boiling point
c contain water. Human cells are composed of - freezing point
about 70% to 90% water that makes it an ideal -heat of vaporization
medium for sustaining life. -specific heat
- heat of fusion

 Water and its ionization products H+ and OH-

are important in determining the structure and
biological properties of macromolecules,
proteins, carbohydrates, lipds,nucleic acid,
enzymes and other cell components.
- water tension( the forces of attraction
between
molecules in liquid water is relatively
high)
b. Water has exception solvent properties

 WATER -the polarity and hydrogen bonding

properties of water molecule makes it a potent

- Is more essential to life than is food. solvent for many ionic compounds and neutral
molecules.

- even
A person can live for several days or months,
without food but dies with in 5 to 10
c. Water properties altered by solutes
-4 properties of water (colligative properties)
days without water. (Dehydration). Water loss a. freezing point
will kill for quicker than starvation. Loss of b. boiling point
body water to an extent of 20% results to c. vapor pressure
death. d. osmotic pressure

- 60%-70% of the total body weight.

 Water Component

• Within the cells - Intracellular water

 Functions
• Outside the cell – Extracellular water

• It is a universal medium in which the various

chemical changes of the body take place.
• Within the blood vessels –
Intravascular water

• As a carrier it aids in digestion, absorption,

• Between vascular spaces and the cell –
Interstitial water
circulation and excretion.

• It helps in the maintenance of the body

• Smaller amounts are in CSF, Synovial fluid,
aqueous and vitreous humors.
temperature

• Acts as a transporting medium for nutrients

and all body substances.  Homeostasis

• It plays an important part in mechanical

functions, such as lubrication of joints and the - Balance water input an output
movement of the viscera in the abdominal
cavity. - Unbalance of water content will result to

• It aids I elimination of waste products.

edema or dehydration.

- Thirst is being control by HYPOTHALAMUS

Nurun Nahla I. Reyes
•
- THRIST – is a distinct physical sensation and
a conscious demand of water caused by •
Potassium (K+)
Calcium (Ca+)
extracellular dehydration. • Magnesium (Mg+)

- It is nature’s signal that liquid intake must

increase.
• NEGATIVE IONS ( ANIONS)
- Water output is being controlled by the • Chloride (Cl-)
hormone VASOPRESSIN- Pituitary Gland • Bicarbonate (HCO3 -)

- Release of this hormones decreases, water

• Phosphate (PO4-)
excretions by the kidney by increasing the • Sulfate (SO4 -)
rate of water reabsorption from the tubules. • Ions of inorganic salts such as
lactate pyruvate


• Water Intake - 150 mEq/L – average sum of concentration of
all the cations in serum. This is balanced by
• Fluids and beverages – 1,200 ml- 1,500 ml 150 milliequivalents of anions.

• Daily water intake - 2,100 ml – 2,800 ml

 Organic Compounds
• Daily output - 1,850 ml – 2,600 ml  1. Nucleic acid (DNA and RNA)

 2. proteins

• Organs  3. carbohydrates

• KIDNEY - one liter, 15 ml of water is required

 4. fats and lipids
to dissolved 1 gm of solute.  Inorganic Elements

• SKIN – 350 ml of water is lost daily through  1. Bulk elements (N,Na,Mg,P,S,Cl,K, and Ca)
the skin by diffusion. 450 ml – 700 ml of water required in relatively large amounts.
is lost through skin.

• LUNGS – lung water goes out of the body as

 2. Trace elements (Fe,Zn,I)
tiny droplets in the expired air ( 350 ml)  The Cellular Basis of Life

• FECES – 150 ml , small amount of water is

usually lost daily through intestinal
Human body develops from union of
SPERM + OVUM=FIRST CELL OF HUMAN BODY

elimination. Group of cells

 Electrolytes
Tissues
-Acid, base and salt under current process is
known as electrolytes in the process of ionization. Organs
• POSITIVE IONS ( CATIONS)
• Sodium (Na+) Systems
Nurun Nahla I. Reyes

 Structure of Cell • Cytoplasm

• Cell is a structural & functional unit of human
body, capable of carrying out functions of life - Is the material enclosed by the plasma
independently. membrane, excluding the nucleus.

• Basic unit of life.

– Nucleus
–
–
Cytoplasm
Cell Membrane
• Ribosomes

Functions of Cell - Synthesize protein accordingly. It also read

Production of Bio-Energy the code in mRNA.
- Storage

•
- Multiplication
- Specific function according to location Nucleolus

- It is a structure within the nucleus where the

 Functions of the Organelles

-
ribosomal subunits are produced.

This structure appears darker than the

• Plasma Membrane
nucleus.

- All cells are surrounded by plasma

membrane.

- It separates the contents of the cells and its

environment and regulates the passage of
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

molecules into and out of the cell. - This is a membranous network that extends
throughout the cell.

• Cell Wall
- It produce lipid compounds such as
phospholipids, steroids and fatty acids.
- The cell wall functions to support and protect

-
the cell.

Plants have cell walls composed of cellulose;

• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

fungi have walls composed of chitin. - The rough appearance is due to the presence
of ribosomes on the membrane.

- This serves as the transport channel or

network of molecules such as protein and
hormones from the inside to outside of the

• Nucleus
cell.

- The nucleus contains DNA; it is the control

center of the cell because DNA contains
instructions needed to produce proteins that
• Golgi Complex/Golgi Body/Golgi Apparatus
control metabolism and other cell functions.
- It is a stack of 3 to 20 flattened, slightly
curved saccules which appear like a stack of
pancakes.
Nurun Nahla I. Reyes

-
•
The structure responsible for the movement of
cilia and flagella.
Lysosomes

- These are membrane-bound vesicles

- They also move the chromosomes during cell
division.
containing hydrolytic digestive enzymes
produced by the Golgi Complex.

- They fused with other vesicles formed around

the material the has entered the cell, allowing
• Cilia and Flagella

the digestion of the vesicle contents. - These are hair-like structures projecting from
the cell for cell movement.

• Peroxisomes
• Centrioles and Centrosome
- These are vesicles that contain enzymes
which oxidize (remove hydrogen) from a - They are involved in the formation of
variety of different compounds and pass the microtubules.
hydrogen to oxygen.

• Vacuoles
• Actin Filaments (Microfilaments)

- Actin filaments are important for muscle

- It is a membranous sac similar to but larger contraction.
than vesicles.

-

This structure stores water and dissolved
substances.
Tissues
Tissue is a cellular organizational level

• Chloroplasts
- It is the site of photosynthesis in the plants.
intermediate between cells and a complete
organism. A tissue is an ensemble of cells,
not necessarily identical, but from the same
origin, that together carry out a specific
function. Organs are then formed by the

•
functional grouping together of multiple
tissues. The study of tissue is known as
Mitochondria
histology or, in connection with disease,
- It is the powerhouse of the cell where ATP,
histipathology.
the energy currency of the cell is produced.
 Classification of Tissues

• Cytoskeleton
- It is a network of protein molecules that provides


Connective Tissue
Muscular Tissue
the  Nervous Tissue

•
Epithelial Tissue
Microtubules
Nurun Nahla I. Reyes

Systems
• Muscular System
•
Skeletal System
• Digestive System
• Respiratory System
• Circulatory System
•
Excretory System
• Reproductive System (Male & Female)
• Nervous System
• Endocrine System
 Physical Chemistry
 Biochemistry dealing as it does with the
chemistry of living matter, requires the
knowledge of physical chemistry and possibly
all other branches of chemistry for he proper
understanding of the biochemical processes.
The important physicochemical phenomena is
essential and necessary.
 COLLOIDAL STATE OF MATTER
The old method of grouping substances into
colloids and crystalloids was base upon the ability
of the substances to pass through parchment
membrane. Those that diffuse readily through such
membrane were called CRYSTALLOIDS, while
those which do not were termed COLLOIDS.
 General Properties

Filtrability
-The particles of colloids solution can pass
through ordinary filter paper but not through
parchment membrane.
2. Negligible osmotic pressure
- colloidal solution have negligible osmotic
pressure. They possess the same vapor pressure,
boiling and freezing points as those of pure
solvents. The particle in a colloidal solution is
comparatively small.
3. Tyndall phenomenon
-colloidal solution manifest the tyndall effect.
That is , the path of a powerful beam of light
through a colloidal solutions appears strongly
luminous when viewed at right angle.
4. Brownian movement
- the suspended particles of colloidal
solutions are observed to be continuous, rapid
vibratory motion. This is attribute to the incessant
bombardment of the particles of the solute by the
movement of solvent.
5. Electrical charges
- colloidal particles especially suspensoids
are electrically charged, the charge being
distributed over the surface of the entire particle.
The migration of particles either to positive and
negative poles of an electrical-field is called
ELECTROPHORESIS.
6. Surface tension
-the total surface area presented by
colloidal particles is enormous compared to those
of suspension.
 Classification

Emulsoids
 Suspensoids
 Emulsoids
 Are lyophillic, having affinity for the solvent.
 Forming gel and swell when contact with large
amount of water. (imbibition) plays an
important role in the normal state of the
protoplasm. Increased imbibition leads to
increased retention of fluid in the tissues
producing edema. One gram of plasma
albumin can hold 18 cc of water. When plasma
proteins are lost as in hemorrhage.
 Influence by he temperature and hydrogen
concentration
Nurun Nahla I. Reyes
 Gels are made up of fibrillar structures
surrounded by dispersion medium. The larger
aggregates of colloidal particles formed in the
process of gel formation are called
“MISCELLES”. Gels are freely permeable to
non-colloidal ions and molecules.
 Peptization- dispersal of a solid into colloidal
state. (peptizing agent- water).
 The gel however subsequently retracts giving
off the imbibe water, a process termed,
SYNERESIS. The retraction of blood coagulum
with the liberation of a straw colored fluid
(serum) is a good example.
 Thixotropy- transformation of gel when
allowed to stand, after vigorously shaking
transformed to a sol.
 amino acids. The synthetic resin used is either
Suspensoids
 Are lyophobic ( no affinity for the solvent).
 Exhibit Imbibition and Syneresis.
 The colloidal state of suspensoids is rendered
more stable by the addition of emulsoids. The
latter produces a coating upon the surface of
the lyophobic particles preventing them from
coming contact with the electrolytes.

Comparison of True Solutions, Colloidal
Solutions and Suspension
 Surface Tension
- the force by which the surface molecules
are held is called Surface tension.
- the stronger the attraction between
molecules, the greater is the surface tension.
- surface tension may be measured by the
use of a stalagmometer. This is a pipette of a
special design with a capillary tube ending ,
permitting a measured amount of liquid to flow out
drop by drop.
b. Adsorption
-accumulation of substances of the surface
of solid or liquid.
- the greater the surface of the adsorbing
agent the greater is the adsorption. It is increased
by a rise of pressure and diminished by a rise in
temperature.
-the process of adsorption brings
substances nearer each other, thus promoting
chemical reactions.
 Chromatography
Is a technique used to separate and identify the
components of a mixture of substances.
Methods:
 Adsorption chromatography
- this depends upon the use of solid
adsorbents which have specific affinities for the
adsorbed substances.
2. Ion exchange chromatography
- this is widely used for the separation of
anionic or cationic.
3. Countercurrent distribution method
- this is done by repeated distribution of a
solute between two miscible solution.
4. Partition Chromatography
-this method makes use of the principle of
countercurrent distibution.
5. Paper Chromatography
- one of the most ingenious methods of
utilizing partition chromatography is the
employment of paper as supporting medium.
6. Thin Layer Chromatography
7. Gel Filtration Chromatography
8. Gas Liquid Chrmatography
 Emulsions
A dispersion of small drops of one liquid in
another liquid.
Types :
1.Emulsions in which oil is dispersed in water
known as the oil water type.
2. Emulsion in which water is dispersed in oil
known as the water oil type.
 Viscosity
Liquid tends to flow due to its fluidity. The
resistance which a liquid offers to flowing is
viscosity. This varies greatly with different liquids.
Nurun Nahla I. Reyes
The rate flow of a protein solution through capillary
tube by gravity or under pressure is measured and
compared with that of the solvent alone.
Factors:

 Temperature

 Chemical nature

 Colloids

4. Suspended particles cause and increase in its

viscosity.
Clinical correlations:
The viscosity of the blood is due to proteins,
emulsoids and corpuscles suspended in the
plasma.

 Osmosis

 Whenever two solutions of unequal

concentration are separated by a semi-
permeable membrane, the fluid tends to flow
from the side of low osmotic pressure to that a
higher osmotic pressure until an osmotic
equilibrium is reached.

 Diffusion

 Is the interpenetration of molecules between

two substances.t this occurs whenever the
solutes distributes itself in uniformly into the
solvent.

 Dialysis

 When two different solution are separated by a

membrane which allows the passage of the
crystalloids but not colloids, dialysis occurs. If a
mixture of crystalloids and colloids is placed in
a dializing bag and immersed in distilled water
the cyrtalloids pass out while the colloids are
left behind. This is utilized in the purification of
colloids from crytalloids impurities and vice
versa.