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Journal of
Adolescence
Journal of Adolescence 30 (2007) 63–79
www.elsevier.com/locate/jado

The psychosocial inventory of ego strengths: Examination of


theory and psychometric properties
Carol A. Markstroma,, Sheila K. Marshallb
a
Child Development and Family Studies, Division of Family and Consumer Sciences, West Virginia University,
Morgantown, WV 25606-6124, USA
b
School of Social Work and Family Studies, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada

Abstract

The psychosocial inventory of ego strengths (PIES) was devised as a measure of Erikson’s eight ego
strengths. The present investigation extended previous research through examination of the validity and
reliability of the PIES among 502 high school students. The study also included an appraisal of Erikson’s
ego strengths as indices of psychosocial well-being. Reliability of the subscales of the PIES was shown
through acceptable Cronbach’s alphas. As expected, higher scores on ego strengths were positively
correlated with psychosocial indictors of identity achievement, self-esteem, locus of control, empathic
concern, perspective-taking, and positive forms of coping. Lower scores on ego strengths were related to
less desirable psychosocial constructs. Biological sex and age differences also are reported. Based on the
findings, the study offers validation of psychosocial theory. As well, the PIES is recommended for use
among high school students.
r 2005 The Association for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights
reserved.

Keywords: Ego strength; Psychosocial theory; Psychosocial adjustment and maturity; Psychosocial measurement
development

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 304 293 3344; fax: +1 304 293 2750.
E-mail address: carol.markstrom@mail.wvu.edu (C.A. Markstrom).

0140-1971/$30.00 r 2005 The Association for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All
rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.11.003
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Introduction

Ego strengths are defined as ‘‘certain qualities which begin to animate man pervasively during
successive stages of his life’’ (Erikson, 1965, p. 3). They are labelled as ‘‘ego virtues’’, ‘‘inherent
strengths’’, ‘‘vital strengths’’, and ‘‘basic strengths’’ in various writings (Erikson, 1964, 1965,
1968a, 1985), and are at the core of Erikson’s conceptions of psychosocial adjustment and
well-being. Further, developmental notions of hierarchy, sequence, and invariance of stages are
evident in the ego strength framework. While there are available measures of certain psychosocial
stage resolutions, such as identity; measurement of the ego strengths has been overlooked
in the literature. In response to this absence, the psychosocial inventory of ego strengths (PIES)
(Markstrom, Sabino, Turner, & Berman, 1997) was developed as a self-report measure of
Erikson’s eight ego strengths (hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care, and wisdom),
and was shown to possess validity and reliability among university students. Each subscale
of the PIES is purported to provide an indicator of resolution of its associated psychosocial
stage outcome. Overall, the PIES is promoted as a measure of psychosocial maturity and
adjustment.
The purposes of the present study were: (a) to demonstrate the theoretical coherence of
Erikson’s ego strengths according to their performance as indices of psychosocial adjustment and
maturity; (b) to assess the validity and reliability of the PIES for use among high school age
adolescents; and (c) to present previously unreported descriptive statistics on the PIES according
to both university and high school samples. To these ends, theoretical literature on Erikson’s
psychosocial conceptions of ego strengths is reviewed. Justification is provided for examination of
the PIES vis-à-vis constructs that should bring further clarification to the underlying theoretical
properties of the PIES and its subscales. Finally, evidence for the reliability and validity of the
PIES is reported and interpreted.

Review of psychosocial theory on ego strengths

There are two assumptions of Erikson’s theory that warrant examination in respect to the ego
strengths, namely the hierarchical component and the epigenetic principle. The former
denotes that earlier positive resolutions of psychosocial crises and the subsequent ascendance
of associated ego strengths should be predictive of later psychosocial successes. Further,
it is specified according to the embryologically linked epigenetic principle that the ego
strengths are all present in some form throughout the life span with each having its time of
ascendance (Erikson, 1964, 1985). As eloquently explained by Erikson (1968a) ‘‘yanything
that grows has a ground plan, and that out of this ground plan the parts arise, each part
having its time of special ascendancy, until all parts have arisen to form a functioning whole’’
(p. 92). With ascendance, any particular ego strength will yield new meaning to previous as well as
subsequent strengths. For instance, hope in infancy contributes to the adolescent’s ability
to hope in those ideals to which fidelity will become attached. Additionally, the presence
of hope facilitates other forms of commitments associated with adult ego strengths of love
and care.
To best encapsulate the meanings of the ego strengths, Markstrom et al. (1997) examined a
variety of Erikson’s writings and delineated two definitional themes for each of the ego strengths.
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Table 1
Psychosocial stages, ego strengths and their antipathies, and proposed conceptualization of themes

Psychosocial stage Ego strength and Theme 1 Theme 2


antipathy

Basic trust vs. basic Hope vs. withdrawal Confidence/optimism (about Renewed hope in the face of
mistrust life/people/oneself/the future, disappointment vs. giving up
etc.) vs. doubt/faithlessness as shown in apathy or
(about life/people/oneself/the despondency
future, etc.)
Autonomy vs. Will vs. compulsion An awareness of one’s own Self-control (includes impulse
shame, doubt will and a determination to control, control over drives,
apply it vs. impotence and self-determination, etc.) vs.
helplessness impulsivity or compulsivity
Initiative vs. guilt Purpose vs. inhibition The ability to formulate Courage to pursue goals vs.
realistic goals vs. aimless fearful/suppressed/hesitant
approach to life approach to goals
Industry vs. Competence vs. inertia Awareness that one has Exercising skills, knowledge,
inferiority certain skills, knowledge, etc. etc. vs. inactivity/idleness
vs. uncertainty or insecurity
about skills, etc.
Identity vs. identity Fidelity vs. role Preoccupation with and Demonstrates commitment
confusion repudiation commitment to being true/ through disciplined devotion/
genuine/honest/faithful with loyalty/service to ideological
oneself and others vs. absence sources vs. role repudiation—
of inner conviction two ways: diffidence or
defiance (negative identity)
Intimacy vs. Love vs. exclusivity Chosen/mutual/reciprocal/ Togetherness with
isolation committed to one another individuality maintained vs.
and to the relationship vs. enmeshment/loss of
lack of chosen, mutual, individual identity
reciprocal commitments.
Generativity vs. Care vs. rejectivity Concern for the needs of Nurturing and teaching
stagnation others vs. lack of concern for others vs. unwillingness to
the needs of others nurture and teach others
Integrity vs. despair Wisdom vs. disdain Acceptance of the past vs. The ability to face an
regret/remorse unknown future with courage
vs. avoiding facing the future

Reproduced from Markstrom, C.A., Sabino, V.M., Turner, B., and Berman, R.C. (1997). The Psychosocial Inventory
of Ego Strengths: Development and assessment of a new Eriksonian measure. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26,
705–732, with permission.

In Table 1, observe each psychosocial stage and the ego strengths along with their themes and
antipathies. The antipathies are understood as dystonic tendencies that reflect disintegration and
the destructive aspect of the dialectic at each psychosocial stage (Erikson, 1985).
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Hope emerges from a trusting relationship with caregivers in infancy. Erikson (1964) argued
that hope is the most indispensable and most enduring ego strength. It signifies belief and
confidence that one’s wishes will be obtained even in the face of failure and changing facts. Hope
of infancy becomes a mature faith of adulthood (Erikson, 1964, 1968b). The association of hope
with the infancy stage is confirmed in Snyder’s (2000) theory of hope in which it is regarded as an
enduring quality throughout life and is defined as ‘‘a type of goal-directed thinking in which the
protagonists perceive themselves as being capable of producing routes to desire goals, along with
the motivations to initiate and sustain usage of these routes’’ (p. 25).
Will, one of the ego strengths of early childhood, is essential to life and to the integrity of the
ego. It is not willfulness, but rather is reflective of the ability to exercise one’s free choice, as well
as demonstrating self-restraint and self-control (Erikson, 1964). More than any other ego
strengths, will is associated with justice in parenting and conceptions of the superego, impulse
control, and self-control.
Purpose follows will in early childhood, and implies a form of courage to pursue goals in spite
of fear and guilt (Erikson, 1964). Play behaviour serves a critical role in the emergence of purpose
because, with input from the family, the child learns to delineate fantasy from reality (Erikson,
1964, 1985). Additionally, purpose enables the ego to invest will in a more resourceful and
profitable manner.
Competence is associated with the school-age years of latency, and is observed in the application
of skills, abilities, and intelligence to the completion of tasks (Erikson, 1964). Erikson (1987)
explained that competence serves as ‘‘the basis for cooperative participation in some segment of
the culture’’ (p. 604). Competence brings somewhat of a finale to the childhood ego strengths that,
together, prepare the older child for assumption of future meaningful adult roles and responsibilities.
Fidelity is the ego strength to ascend in association with a positive resolution of the identity
crisis of adolescence. Fidelity can be observed through pledges and displays of loyalty and
commitment towards ideological institutions. Additionally, it is indicated by an internal
preoccupation with being true to oneself and others. Notions of genuineness, fairness, and duty
all apply to fidelity (Erikson, 1964, 1968b).
Love emerges from intimacy in young adulthood, and is reflected in commitments to others, as
well as for what one loves to do (Erikson, 1987). Interpersonally, love is chosen and mutual with
others who are equally prepared to create and give (Erikson, 1964).
Care, the ego strength associated with generativity of adulthood, is a continuation of love, but
has broadened to incorporate other people, products, and ideas (Erikson, 1964, 1985). It involves
taking care of those persons and things that one has come to care about. Fidelity, love, and care
share a common theme of committing to something outside of oneself. Fidelity is commitment to
ideals and institutions that one has come to value as important. Love is commitment to significant
others, as well as those things that one feels a passion about. Care is a more broadly expressed
commitment relative to what one cares about and cares to do (Erikson, 1987).
The psychosocial outcome of integrity in later adulthood is wisdom, and is reflected in positive
reflection, maturity in judgement, and appreciation of one’s accumulated knowledge and
experiences (Erikson, 1964, 1968b). Faith is the bridge that exquisitely connects the first ego
strength of hope to this final ego strength.
Taken together, the ego strengths are internal qualities indicative of psychosocial maturity and
well-being, as well as the absence of psychopathology. To test these notions, the ego strengths
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were examined in this study relative to indices of identity, self-esteem, locus of control, and coping
skills. Prior research provides some justification for the roles of ego strength in psychosocial
development. Less mature identity statuses were found to be negatively correlated with the ego
strengths, while identity achievement was positively correlated with ego strengths (Markstrom
et al., 1997). Markstrom and Kalmanir (2001) found linkages between psychosocial stages of
identity and intimacy with ego strengths of fidelity and love, respectively, with moderation
according to gender roles and biological sex.
In consideration of self-esteem, Erikson (1980) noted that it is confirmed at the end of each
psychosocial stage. In particular, self-esteem is reinforced through the person’s growing
sense of mastery and the social recognition of achievements valued in the culture. People
with high self-esteem have more internal resources at their disposal to draw on when self-worth
is threatened (Kaplan, 1999). Harter (1990) observed that self-esteem is a buffer against stress
and is associated with productive coping strategies, motivation, and positive emotional states.
These characteristics of high self-esteem are suggestive of its protective role, similar to that of
the ego strengths.
As with self-esteem, internal locus of control is reflective of an internal resource that can serve
as a protective factor against stress and adversity (Hauser & Bowlds, 1990). Seiffge-Krenke (1995)
observed a consistency in findings that adolescents with internal locus of control were better at the
appraisal of situations and active in solving problems. This conclusion is consistent with Erikson’s
(1964) writings that signify an element of efficacy in ego strengths.
Ego strengths should be related to skills that individuals draw upon to cope with life’s
challenges. For instance, Erikson (1964) asserted that activated ego stages lead to integrated
action. Consistent with Folkman and Lazarus (1985), seeking social support was regarded as one
form of coping in this investigation. Social scientists have found coping skills and social support
related to resilience and optimal adjustment (e.g. Garmezy, 1983; Werner & Smith, 1982).
Further, Seiffge-Krenke (1995) devised a model of adolescent adaptation that linked both social
support and coping to positive adjustment. Problem-focused coping and seeking social support
are two related forms of positive coping targeted in the present study. Licitra-Kleckler and Waas
(1993) stated that the presence of social support influenced usage of problem-focused coping that
was ultimately related to resilience. Indeed, Markstrom, Marshall, and Tryon (2000) reported that
problem-focused coping was the strongest predictor of resilience among a sample of low-income,
rural adolescents.
In addition to the consideration of ego strengths as indicative of psychosocial maturity and
adjustment, another aim of this study was examination of the psychometric properties of the
PIES. In prior research conducted on the PIES among university students in Canada and the US,
Cronbach’s alphas were at acceptable to good levels for all of the subscales with the exception of
will. One problematic item was identified (#36) and was subsequently rewritten.1 It was
recommended by Markstrom et al. (1997) that reliability of the will subscale be re-examined in a
future study. To that end, Markstrom (1999) demonstrated that, among a sample of European
American high school students, Cronbach’s alpha of the will subscale was .68 using the corrected
item. While the sample in that study was not large enough to conduct a thorough investigation of

1
The measure in its entirety is found in Markstrom et al. (1997). Item 36 included in that article is the corrected item
and was used in the present study.
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the reliability of the PIES, Cronbach’s alphas of all of the PIES subscales were reported and found
to be at acceptable levels for European Americans with the exception of competence (.45). Of
concern was that, for African Americans, Cronbach’s alphas were at unacceptable levels for all
PIES subscales with the exception of care (.72).
Evidence for the face, content, and construct validity of the PIES was reported among
university students in Markstrom et al. (1997). The PIES was positively correlated with measures
of identity achievement, self-esteem, purpose in life, internal locus of control, and empathy.
Negative correlations emerged between the PIES and measures of hopelessness, identity diffusion,
identity moratorium, and personal distress. Females scored significantly higher than males in love
and care, and femininity and androgyny also were associated with love and care. To augment
these findings, it was found that measures of perspective-taking and empathic concern were
related to love and care.

Current investigation

The present investigation offers a replication and a downwards extension in age of the earlier
Markstrom et al. (1997) study that was conducted among university students. Generally, it was
expected that findings on the PIES relative to university students would be replicated among high
school students. Therefore, the study would not only demonstrate that the ego strengths are
indicative of psychosocial adjustment and well-being, but also that the PIES would be shown to
be a valid and reliable measure for use among high school age adolescents. More specifically, it
was predicted that:

1. Identity achievement would be positively related to the ego strengths, and that the less mature
identity statuses of diffusion, foreclosure, and moratorium would be negatively related to the
ego strengths.
2. Internal locus of control and self-esteem would be positively related to the ego strengths.
3. Perspective-taking and empathic concern forms of empathy would be positively associated with
the ego strengths, and the personal distress form of coping would be negatively related to the
ego strengths.
4. The problem-focused and seeking social support forms of coping would be positively related to
the ego strengths, and the wishful-thinking and avoidance forms of coping would be negatively
related to the ego strengths.
5. Females would score higher than males on ego strengths of love and care.
6. University students would score higher on the ego strengths than high school students.

Methods

High school sample

The sample consisted of 502 adolescents of ages 15 (57 males and 107 females), 16 (101 males
and 135 females), and 17 (43 males and 59 females) in grades 10 and 11. Participants were from
non-urban counties in West Virginia, and were predominantly of non-Hispanic White racial
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background. Socioeconomic status (SES) was derived from information on parental education
levels. SES figures are based on available data obtained on 475 of the fathers and 498 of the
mothers. Adolescents reported the degree of education each parent received ranging from 1
‘‘completed high school’’ to 9 ‘‘earned professional degree (Ph.D., M.D., etc.)’’. The actual levels
reported ranged from 1 to 9, and the mean for fathers’ and mothers’ education levels were,
respectively, 4.56 and 4.84. These means fell between level 4 ‘‘attended trade/technical school’’
and level 5 ‘‘graduated trade/technical school’’ as indicated on the nine-point education scale. The
medians were 4.0 for fathers and 5.0 for mothers.

University samples

Data from the two university samples described in Markstrom et al. (1997) are included in the
present report in order to present previously unreported means and standard deviations of the
PIES and its subscales, as well as to make age comparisons between the high school and university
samples. The Canadian university sample consisted of 244 undergraduate females, ages 19–23.
Most of the participants were of English–Canadian origin. There were 63 males and 90 females,
ages 18–22, in the US university sample. US participants were of predominantly White origin.

Procedures

For the high school sample, participants were tested in group settings either in high schools or
county Extension service offices. Sites of data collection were dispersed across the state of West
Virginia. A total of 16 high schools and 11 county 4-H Extension clubs participated in the study.
Parents of potential participants were sent letters that described the study and in which parents
were requested to sign enclosed parental consent statements. A stamped, self-addressed envelope
was provided for parents to mail the consent forms back to the investigator. Initially, 3620 letters
were sent to the parents in the homes, and 541 signed parental consent forms were returned to the
investigators. An additional 278 forms were returned to investigators unsigned or stating that the
parent did not want the child to participate.
Trained research assistants or county Extension agents administered questionnaire booklets in
group settings to those students: (a) for whom signed parental consent were on file; (b) who were
present on the day of testing; and (c) who signed assent forms at the time of testing. In total, 538
students signed assent forms and completed questionnaires either in the high schools or county
Extension offices. Of that number, 502 adolescents completed the measures of interest in this
study (424 in high schools and 78 in county Extension offices).
In both university samples, participants were recruitment from undergraduate classes. In the
Canadian sample, measures were completed in small group settings and students were permitted
extra credit for their participation. In the US sample, participants were recruited from large
courses across university departments. Participants were provided with questionnaire packets and
were instructed to complete the measures on their own time and return completed questionnaires
to project personnel through campus mail. More complete descriptions of procedures can be
obtained in Markstrom et al. (1997).
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Measures

Psychosocial inventory of ego strengths


The PIES consists of 64 items devised by Markstrom et al. (1997) to measure the eight ego
strengths (hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care, and wisdom) delineated by Erikson
(1964, 1985). Eight items comprise each subscale and a total ego strength score of 64 items also is
derived. Respondents answered each item on a five-point scale ranging from 1 ‘‘does not describe
me well’’ to 5 ‘‘describes me very well’’. Negatively phrased items were reversed scored and items
summed for each subscale. The PIES has been validated against various psychosocial measures
with university students (see Markstrom et al., 1997). Reliability of the measure for the present
sample was examined with Cronbach’s alpha. Taken together, the internal consistency for
subscales and total scores are acceptable to very good: hope, .81; will, .69; purpose, .71;
competence, .77; fidelity, .62; love, .60; care, .83; wisdom, .72; total ego strength, .94.

Extended objective measure of ego identity status (EOMEIS)


The 64-item EOMEIS was designed to assess identity formation in ideological and
interpersonal identity according to Marcia’s (1966) statuses. In the present study, due to a large
number of constructs being assessed, it was necessary to limit the number of measures and items;
hence, only ideological identity items were included (i.e. occupation, politics, religion, and
philosophical life style). Respondents answered the 32 ideological items according to a six-point
scale ranging from 1 ‘‘strongly agree’’ to 6 ‘‘strongly disagree’’. Items were reverse scored and then
summed to create four subscales of diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement. Identity
achievement signifies that the adolescent has both explored and committed to an identity.
Moratorium represents current active exploration of identity domains, but without commitment.
Foreclosure is premature commitment to identity in the absence of exploration, and diffusion is
signified by lack of exploration and commitment in identity. The EOMEIS has been widely
employed, and evidence for its reliability and validity are reported by Adams, Bennion, and Huh
(1989). In this study, Cronbach’s alphas were .63 for diffusion, .73 for foreclosure, .64 for
moratorium, and .65 for achievement.

Nowicki–Strickland locus of control scale


The short 21-item version of this scale was employed. Respondents indicated ‘‘True’’ or ‘‘False’’
to signify whether an item described themselves. Appropriate answers were reverse coded, and
then items summed. In the case of this study, items were scored in such a way that higher scores
indicated less external and more internal locus of control. The scale has been broadly utilized and
has been shown to be reliable in prior research (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973). Cronbach’s alpha
for the present sample was .75.

Self-esteem scale
The Rosenberg self-esteem scale is a popular 10-item assessment (Rosenberg, 1965). Degree of
agreement to each item was provided on a four-point scale ranging from 1 ‘‘strongly agree’’ to 4
‘‘strongly disagree’’. Reliability and validity of the measure has been documented across many
studies (see Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991). In the present study, Cronbach’s alpha was .86.
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Interpersonal reactivity index (IRI)


Three subscales of the IRI—perspective-taking, empathic concern, and personal distress—were
utilized in the present investigation. Each subscale was assessed by seven items that were
responded to on a five-point scale ranging from 1 ‘‘describes me very well’’ to 5 ‘‘does not describe
me well’’. Perspective-taking examines the tendency to take perspectives of others. Feelings of
warmth, compassion, and concern for others are assessed in empathic concern. Personal distress is
an undesirable component of empathy and focuses on fear, apprehension, and discomfort in
response to adverse events experienced by others. The IRI subscales received strong support in
factor analysis, and reliability of the measure was deemed acceptable (Davis, 1980). Cronbach’s
alphas for the present sample were .69 for perspective-taking, .82 for empathic concern, and .71
for personal distress.

Ways of coping
Folkman and Lazarus (1980) originally devised a 66-item checklist, and Folkman, Lazarus,
Dunkel-Schetter, DeLongis, and Gruen (1986) identified eight coping subscales. Four factors of
problem-focused, seeks social support, wishful-thinking, and avoidance were later delineated by
Halstead, Johnson, and Cunningham (1993). In the present study, 35 of the original items with the
highest item-total correlations from the Halstead et al. study were used to measure the four factors.
Respondents were asked to write a paragraph about a recent stressful event, and then answered each
item according to frequency of use of a coping strategy. Items were responded to on a four-point
scale ranging from 1 ‘‘not used’’ to 4 ‘‘used a great deal’’. Halstead et al. found good internal
consistency for the problem-focused, seeks social support, and wishful-thinking subscales, but
found the avoidance subscale less reliable. Cronbach’s alphas in the present study were .83 for
problem-focused, .72 for seeks social support, .79 for wishful-thinking, and .61 for avoidance.

Results

Analytic strategy

Cronbach’s alphas were conducted to determine coefficients of internal consistency for the
subscales and total PIES. Descriptive statistics by sex of the respondent were reported for the high
school sample as well as the university samples described in Markstrom et al. (1997), and sex
differences in ego strengths were assessed using t-tests. A series of t-tests were conducted to
examine age differences in the ego strengths between the US university and high school samples.
Examination of construct validity centred on correlational patterns between the subscales of the
PIES and other psychosocial measures.

Reliability

Internal consistencies according to Cronbach’s alphas are reported in the Measures section for
the PIES subscales and the total score. All alphas were at acceptable levels. Of particular interest
was the reliability of the will subscale which was low due to item 36, as reported in Markstrom
et al. (1997). With the new item 36, there was a higher item-total correlation of this item to will
(.36 from previously .21), and a higher alpha level for the subscale (.69 from previously .52).
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Validity

Construct validity of the PIES for high school students was examined through correlations
between the PIES and other psychosocial measures (see Table 2). Given the large sample size,
many of the correlations were significant at the po:01 level. Hence, as in the Markstrom et al.
(1997) study, only correlations that accounted for 10% or more of the variance (i.e. rX:33 or
p.33) were considered significant.
As predicted, identity achievement was significantly positively correlated with the total ego
strength score, and was positively associated with all of the PIES subscales and to a significant
degree with purpose and fidelity. Additionally, the three less mature identity subscales (i.e.
diffusion, foreclosure, and moratorium) were negatively correlated with the total ego strength
score and to a significant degree with diffusion and moratorium. Indeed, negative correlations
emerged for these three identity subscales with all of the PIES subscales, with significance in
diffusion and competence, diffusion and fidelity, foreclosure and love, and moratorium and
fidelity.
The total PIES score was significantly positively correlated with internal locus of control, and
all PIES subscales were positively and significantly related to internal locus of control with the
exception of love. As well, the total PIES score significantly correlated positively with self-esteem,
as did all of the PIES subscales with the exception of love and care.
Three subscales of the IRI were used to assess different aspects of empathy. The total ego
strength score was significantly positively correlated with perspective-taking and empathic

Table 2
Correlation between ego strengths and age, identity, internal locus of central, self-esteem, empathy, and coping

Ego strengths

Total Hope Will Purpose Competence Fidelity Love Care Wisdom

Identity
Diffusion .37 .25 .30 .32 .36 .37 .20 .32 .21
Foreclosure .31 .20 .18 .24 .26 .28 .33 .25 .22
Moratorium .33 .23 .29 .32 .31 .34 .18 .14 .25
Achievement .37 .28 .31 .42 .29 .33 .21 .22 .26
Internal locus of control .60 .56 .55 .48 .55 .45 .31 .34 .53
Self-esteem .62 .67 .51 .52 .60 .41 .32 .21 .58
Empathy
Perspective-taking .37 .29 .28 .22 .22 .30 .31 .46 .23
Empathic concern .46 .31 .31 .30 .31 .42 .36 .62 .27
Personal distress .38 .32 .33 .34 .31 .30 .19 .16 .37
Coping
Problem-focused .47 .45 .39 .42 .38 .34 .28 .32 .34
Seeks social support .41 .36 .29 .35 .32 .30 .31 .39 .24
Wishful-thinking .23 .28 .26 .19 .19 .17 .08 .04 .28
Avoidance .28 .25 .30 .21 .24 .20 .15 .11 .30

Note: Significant correlations are in bold (X.33 or p.33 or shared variance at or above 10%).
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concern, and significantly negatively correlated with the personal distress subscale. Relative to the
PIES subscales, correlations were in the expected directions, i.e. positive correlations with
perspective-taking and empathic concern and negative correlations with personal distress.
Significant positive correlations occurred for perspective-taking and care, empathic concern and
fidelity, empathic concern and love, and empathic concern and care. Personal distress was
significantly negatively correlated with PIES subscales of will, purpose, and wisdom.
The final correlational patterns were between the ego strengths and the four subscales of
coping. The total ego strength score was significantly positively correlated with problem-focused
coping and seeks social support. However, while in the expected negative direction, total ego
strength was not significantly correlated with wishful-thinking and avoidance forms of coping.
For the PIES subscales, the direction of the correlations were all in the expected directions,
and were at or above .33 for problem-focused coping with hope, will, purpose, competence,
fidelity, and wisdom. Seeks social support was significantly positively associated with hope,
purpose, and care. Correlational patterns between the PIES subscales and wishful-thinking and
avoidance forms of coping were predominantly in the expected negative direction, but none were
below .33.

Sex and age differences

The hypothesis that females would score higher than males on love and care was examined with
t-tests. Means and standard deviations for the total PIES and its subscales, according to the sex of
the respondent, are shown in Table 3 for the current sample and the university samples from
Markstrom et al. (1997). Sex differences were examined for high school students according to two-
tailed t-tests (sex comparisons for the US university sample are reported in Markstrom et al.).
F-tests for equality of variances were non-significant in all cases with the exception of care. Hence,

Table 3
Means and standard deviations for ego strengths by sex for university and high school students and t-test results for
high school students

University University (US) High school (US) t-Value


(Canadian)
F (N ¼ 244) F (n ¼ 98) M (n ¼ 55) F (n ¼ 301) M (n ¼ 201)

Total score M (S.D.) 258.91 (25.62) 253.36 (28.72) 246.05 (30.98) 250.92 (31.87) 236.54 (32.42) 4.92
Hope M (S.D.) 31.73 (5.24) 30.95 (5.26 30.42 (6.29) 30.22 (6.37) 29.45 (5.64) 1.39
Will M (S.D.) 31.47 (4.17) 30.37 (3.99) 30.29 (3.82) 30.31 (5.29) 29.51 (4.67) 1.74
Purpose M (S.D.) 30.65 (3.42) 30.91 (4.90 30.93 (5.32) 30.59 (5.13) 29.12 (5.19) 3.14
Competence M (S.D.) 31.57 (4.67) 30.76 (5.01) 31.31 (3.93) 30.55 (5.43) 30.06 (5.30) .99
Fidelity M (S.D.) 31.93 (4.20) 32.07 (4.72) 31.18 (4.84) 31.46 (4.36) 28.92 (4.57) 6.26
Love M (S.D.) 34.46 (3.90) 33.59 (4.07) 31.45 (4.68) 32.77 (4.27) 30.20 (4.44) 6.50
Care M (S.D.) 35.51 (3.88) 34.66 (4.42) 29.42 (5.73) 34.74 (4.69) 29.80 (5.49) 10.47
Wisdom M (S.D.) 31.84 (5.19) 30.04 (5.50) 31.05 (5.50) 30.28 (5.38) 29.48 (5.67) 1.63

Note: t-test findings for the US university sample are found in Markstrom et al. (1997) with significance reported for
love and care.
 po:05 (one tailed).
 po:01 (one tailed).
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Table 4
Comparisons of US university and high school students on ego strengths according to t-tests

University (N ¼ 153) High school (N ¼ 502) t-Value

Total score M (S.D.) 250.73 (29.67) 245.16 (32.83) 1.88


Hope M (S.D.) 30.75 (5.64) 29.91 (6.09) 1.52
Will M (S.D.) 30.34 (3.92) 29.99 (5.06) .90
Purpose M (S.D.) 30.92 (5.04) 30.00 (5.20) 1.92
Competence M (S.D.) 30.96 (4.64) 30.36 (5.37) 1.36
Fidelity M (S.D.) 31.75 (4.77) 30.44 (4.61) 3.06
Love M (S.D.) 32.82 (4.40) 31.74 (4.51) 2.61
Care M (S.D.) 32.77 (5.53) 32.76 (5.58) .04
Wisdom M (S.D.) 30.40 (5.33) 29.96 (5.46) .88
 po:01.

pooled t-tests were used for all analyses with the exception of care. As predicted, sex differences
were statistically significant for love {t ¼ 6:50ð500Þ, po:000} and care {t ¼ 10:47ð381Þ,
po:000} with females scoring higher. In addition, there were sex differences for total ego strength
score {t ¼ 4:92ð500Þ, po:000}, purpose {t ¼ 3:14ð500Þ, po:01}, and fidelity {t ¼ 6:26ð500Þ,
po:000}. In all cases, female respondents scored higher than males.
Fisher’s z-tests were applied to the correlations between the ego strengths and other
psychosocial measures as additional assessments of sex differences. A total of 117 z-test
comparisons were conducted for the high school sample, and only seven emerged as significant.
Since this number is consistent with what would be expected by chance, it can be concluded that
correlational patterns between males and females were similar.
The prediction that the US university students would score higher on ego strengths than high
school students was assessed using t-tests (see Table 4). Pooled t-tests were analysed for all ego
strengths with the exception of will and competence, in which cases the F-tests for equality of
variances were significant. Significant differences in age groups were found for fidelity
{t ¼ 3:06ð653Þ, po:01} and love {t ¼ 2:61ð663Þ, po:01}. For these significant comparisons,
the university sample scored higher than the high school sample.
As with the sex comparisons, Fisher’s z-tests were employed to assess if there were age
differences in the strength of the correlations between ego strengths and psychosocial variables. A
total of 63 z-tests were conducted according to total ego strength and eight ego strengths with
seven variables that were measured among both the high school and US university sample
(identity subscales of diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement and empathy subscales
of perspective-taking, empathic concern, and personal distress). Only five comparisons were
significant, which is what would be expected by chance. Hence, the two age groups were similar in
their correlational patterns.

Discussion

The purposes of this study were three-fold: (a) to demonstrate the theoretical coherence of
Erikson’s ego strengths according to their performance as indices of psychosocial adjustment and
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maturity; (b) to assess the validity and reliability of the PIES for use among high school age
adolescents; and (c) to present previously unreported descriptive statistics on the PIES for both
university and high school samples.
Reliability of the PIES was shown through acceptable to very good Cronbach’s alphas for the
PIES and its subscales. It also was apparent that the will subscale was improved from the
Markstrom et al. (1997) study by the removal of the problematic Item 36 and introduction of its
replacement. In this study, Cronbach’s alpha for will was .69, which confirmed the .68 alpha
reported by Markstrom (1999) relative to a smaller sample of European American high school
students.
Relative to the first two of the above-stated purposes, correlational tests were performed
between the total PIES and its subscales and several additional measures. The findings offered
support for previously stated hypotheses. The first hypothesis centred on the relations between the
identity subscales and the ego strengths. As predicted, identity diffusion, foreclosure, and
moratorium all were negatively correlated with the ego strengths, and achievement positively
correlated with all ego strengths. However, not all of the correlations were significant according to
the stricter criteria applied in this study, but most approached significance and all were in the
expected directions. These findings confirmed that achievement is the most advanced and
psychosocially mature identity status. While moratorium is considered more mature than
diffusion and foreclosure, it lacks the quality of commitment that is present in achievement.
Hence, the combination of exploration and commitment in achievement distinguishes this status
apart from the others. Ego strengths are indicative of positive psychosocial stage resolutions;
therefore, it is theoretically consistent that only identity achievement would show positive
relations with the ego strengths.
Self-esteem and internal locus of control are frequently used as indicators of psychosocial
maturity and adjustment. The significant positive correlations between these variables and the ego
strengths supported Hypothesis 2. As well, the findings provided further validity for the PIES as a
measure of psychosocial maturity and confirmed assertions in psychosocial theory that the ego
strengths represent positive psychosocial states of well-being and adjustment. Self-esteem was not
significantly related to love and care, which was partially consistent with the Markstrom et al.
(1997) study in which self-esteem and care were not significantly correlated. Internal locus of
control was significantly positively correlated with all of the ego strengths with the exception of
love (which approached significance). In the Markstrom et al. study, care was not associated with
internal locus of control. Taking findings from both studies into account, there is some indication
that ego strengths of love and care are not as highly related to self-esteem and internal locus of
control as other ego strengths. The interpersonal focus on and commitment to others associated
with love and care may represent aspects of psychosocial adjustment other than high self-esteem
and internal locus of control. Indeed, the discussion in the next paragraph offers some insight on
this point relative to empathy.
The correlations between the subscales of the IRI—perspective-taking, empathic concern, and
personal distress—and the PIES provided some support for Hypothesis 3. Perspective-taking was
significantly positively correlated with total ego strength and care, and significance was
approached with several other PIES subscales. Indeed, perspective-taking and care were
significantly positively correlated in Markstrom et al. (1997). Care is a commitment to others
in a more expansive manner than love. It would seem that the type of care that Erikson defines in
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psychosocial theory, i.e. the nurturance of others and what one has come to care about, would
require greater perspective-taking ability.
Empathic concern was significantly positively associated with total ego strength, fidelity, love,
and care. What is it about these particular subscales that reflect empathic concern? Perhaps it is
the common trait of commitment. Fidelity requires commitment to ideological causes and
interests; whereas commitment to significant other(s) is inherent in love and commitment to others
and society in a broader sense is characteristic of care. Empathy may be a component of the kinds
of commitments associated with each of these ego strengths. Indeed, fidelity, love, and care
represent extension of interests to entities outside of one’s self, and empathic concern may be an
ability that is necessary to make such commitments. Care, especially, should be considered for its
relation with empathic concern because it bore the highest correlation coefficient (.62) with
empathic concern. Further, in the Markstrom et al. (1997) study, care was the only ego strength
significantly correlated (.56) with empathic concern.
Personal distress was negatively correlated with all of the PIES subscales and, to a signifi-
cant degree, with total ego strength, will, purpose, and wisdom. An adverse reaction to the
negative affect of others characterizes personal distress, and indicates an undesirable aspect of
empathy. Clearly, this negative indicator of empathy is also counterproductive in respect to ego
strengths. These findings were similar to the US university students in the Markstrom et al.
(1997) study.
All previous measures had been examined in the earlier report with university students, but the
Ways of Coping was unique to the present study. It was predicted in Hypothesis 4 that those with
higher ego strength would cope more effectively, as well as the converse. All correlations between
the ego strengths and the positive coping skills of problem-focused and seeks social support were
positive. Problem-focused coping bore significant relations with all of the ego strengths but love
and care. As with internal locus of control and self-esteem, love and care did not emerge as strong
correlates of problem-focused coping. Ego strengths other than love and care possess suggestions
of self-confidence, a goal-directed orientation, and personal resources that might be implicit to a
problem-focused approach and is consistent with Erikson’s notions on psychosocial health. In
contrast to problem-focused coping, seeks social support was significantly positively correlated
with care. Perhaps the social components of seeking support are consistent with the other-
directedness of care. Seeks social support was also significantly correlated with total ego strength,
hope, and purpose.
All of the correlations between the ego strengths and the less desirable coping strategies of
wishful-thinking and avoidance were negative, but none were significant. Hence, low scores on
ego strengths are not necessarily indicative of the usage of less healthy coping mechanisms, as was
previously hypothesized.
It was hypothesized that high school females would score higher than their male counterparts
on ego strengths of love and care, as was reported in Markstrom et al. (1997) relative to university
students. It was found in the present study that high school females scored significantly higher
than males in total ego strength, purpose, fidelity, love, and care. The congruence between the
present study and the earlier study, relative to the association of females with love and care,
strengthens the argument that these two ego strengths are linked to the feminine sex role as
culturally defined. However, it is not clear why the high school females also scored higher than
their male counterparts on purpose and fidelity.
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The findings on sex are somewhat consistent with those in the identity literature. In this respect,
Archer (1994) concluded that although males and females are similar in identity processes and
timing, females have been found to be more advanced than males in stereotypically feminine
domains of identity (sexuality, friendship, and marriage) as well as career prioritizing. In the
present study, as well, sex differences in purpose and fidelity occurred with females scoring higher
than males. Girls may be more readily engaging in commitments to ideals and goals within the
domains of friendship, marriage, and career prioritizing.
It was predicted in the final hypothesis of the study that the US university sample would
score higher than the high school sample. The findings offer interesting confirmation of
psychosocial theory according to expected developmental tasks of adolescence and young
adulthood. Specifically, when the high school sample was compared against the university sample,
age was significant for fidelity and love with the university students scoring higher. It could be
argued that it is inaccurate to make comparisons between these two samples. While both samples
were drawn from the same state, the university sample would have been different from the
high school sample because they would have been more carefully delineated in academic
achievement as opposed to the high school sample, which included both those who were and
were not university-bound. Further, the university sample included students whose permanent
homes were in other states. Nonetheless, the developmental significance of fidelity and love to the
ages of the samples appears meaningful. That is, it was not surprising that the older, university
sample was advanced in fidelity and love. In contrast, the high school sample would have been
currently embroiled in identity issues and approaching intimacy; hence, it would have been
premature for the associated ego strengths of fidelity and love to ascend in the high school
sample. In essence, these particular findings are consistent with psychosocial theoretical
expectations relative to developmental tasks and associated ego strengths of adolescence and
young adulthood.
There also is a certain logic to the similarity of scores between the university and high school
samples in the ego strengths previous to fidelity, because students from both samples would have
passed through the earlier psychosocial stages and have incorporated hope, will, purpose, and
competence into the ego. A similar argument can be used for the absence of significant age
differences in care and wisdom. Specifically, both samples were too young for the generativity and
integrity psychosocial stages; therefore, the potential for ascendance of care and wisdom was a
mute point.

Final considerations

There are two major points of discussion to emphasize in this paper. One concerns the
psychometric properties of the PIES and the other deals with the theoretical coherence of
psychosocial conceptions of ego strengths. In terms of the former, based on the findings of
this study, the PIES is recommended for use with high school age adolescents. Additional research
is needed to determine the reliability and validity of the measure for even younger adolescents.
It also is recommended for future research to examine the ego strengths in relation to other
psychosocial stage resolutions, such as intimacy among those in emerging adulthood or
generativity among adults. A limitation of this study was the predominantly White sample
on which it was based. There were reliability problems with the PIES in the African American
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sample reported in Markstrom (1999). Hence, additional research studies are needed to examine
the utility of the PIES for use among adolescents and young adults from various ethnic/racial
groups.
According to Erikson’s writings, the ego strengths are expressions of positive psychosocial stage
resolutions and provide evidence psychosocial maturity and well-being, as well as the absence of
psychopathology. These assertions were supported in the present study. It was clearly shown that
higher scores in ego strengths are reflected in identity achievement, self-esteem, internal locus of
control, empathy, and positive coping. In future studies, longitudinal research should be
conducted to carefully assess positive psychosocial stage resolutions and subsequent ascendance
of ego strengths. For instance, high school age adolescents could be followed into college to track
advances in identity formation with the ascendance of identity. This kind of study would provide
even greater support of psychosocial theory and its contributions towards understanding maturity
and well-being during adolescence.

Acknowledgements

This article published with the approval of the Director of the West Virginia Agricultural and
Forestry Experiment Station as Scientific Article # 2934. Research was supported with funds
appropriated under the Hatch Act (Project #WVA 398).

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