Engg Materials Lab Manual Kle Univeristy

K. L. E.
TECH
K. L. E. Technological University, Hubli.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Laboratory Manual
Course Title: Engineering Materials Lab Course Code: 15EMEP202
Total Contact Hours: 24 hours Duration of SEE: 2 Hrs
SEE Marks: 20 marks CIE Marks: 80 marks
Author: Anand L , Sudhir P. Date: 20-06-2016
Checked By: P.M. Bhovi Date: 23-07-2016
Expt. Brief description about the experiment No. of Lab.

Slots
No.
01 Introduction to the Laboratory-Overview of Destructive and Non Destructive 01

Testing methods. (Awareness about the ASM hand books and ASTM
standards)
02 Non destructive test experiments 01

a. Ultrasonic flaw detection.
b. Magnetic particle inspection.
c. Dye penetration testing,
To study the defects of castings and welded specimens.
03 Evaluation of the tensile strength, Compression strength, Shear strength, 01

Bending/ Torsion strength and Impact strength.
04 01
Ex: Should be able to Describe the differences between the tensile behavior of
the metal sample and that of polymer sample, considering that the student
performs the test on two different materials family.
05 To study wear characteristics of ferrous, non-ferrous and composite materials 01

for different loading.
Computation of wear parameters: wear rate, wear resistance, specific wear rate,
frictional force, coefficient of friction, wear coefficient.
06 To study the microstructure of the ferrous and nonferrous alloy and to 01

perform grain size analysis and volume fraction analysis.
 Familiarization with the procedure for preparation of a material specimen for
microscopic examination.
 Familiarization with compound optical microscopes and metallography.
 Examination of surface characteristics of engineering materials.
 Grain size determination of metals and analysis.
07 To analyze given SEM Micrographs (Microstructure and fracture surface 01
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morphology) and conclude on the structure and mode of fracture.
(Familiarization with the advanced characterization of metals by Scanning electron

microscopy).
08 Computer Modeling of Stress Concentration, Crack Opening and Crack 01

Propagation
 Understand the occurrence of stress concentration at geometrical
discontinuities.
 Determine the stress concentration factor at a geometrical discontinuity.
09 Design an experiment to investigate the spring characteristics of any given 02

spring.
10 Synthesize a novel composite material which is reinforced with a natural fiber 02

in a polymer matrix and perform the mechanical characterization for
investigation of mechanical properties, which is desirable for specified
engineering applications.
Perform a parametric analysis which affects the mechanical properties of prepared
composites using a statistical approach and find the correlation of those parameters
with properties of composites.
2. Introduction to the laboratory:
The macroscopic properties of materials under applied loads or forces are called as mechanical
properties. They are the measure of the strength & lasting characteristics of a material in
service and are of great importance particularly to the design engineer. It is a characteristic
feature of structure sensitive properties & they are much more affected by crystal imperfection
and by other factors such as composition, grain size, heat treatment etc. Mechanical properties
therefore do depend on them in almost all situations.
Since a great number of properties are best evaluated by testing specimens under various
conditions, material testing is carried out to supply useful information to the design engineer.
The study of mechanical behaviour of material therefore requires the knowledge of both
mechanical and various tests performed under the conditions found in engineering practice.
The mechanical properties that are generally used for the design purposes are as following
 Tensile Strength
 Compressive strength
 Impact Strength
 Torsion Strength
 Shear Strength
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The heat treatment process also changes the grain structure of the metals, depending the type of
metal and the study on this grain structure is also conducted. Hence the study of heat treatment
process and their effects on the properties of metals is also studied.
.
3. General instructions:
I. How to use the Equipments:
a) The students should handle following instruments only in presence of lab instructor or
staff member.
i) Universal testing machine.
ii) Compression testing machine.
iii) Impact testing machine.
b) The student may handle the following instruments only after he/she is asked to
Operate the same.
i) Hardness testing machine.
c) While operating Impact testing machine following points should be kept in mind.
i) The swinging pendulum in the form of hammer swings with a very high speed on either
side of instrument.
ii) While fixing the specimen (Charpy and Izode) at the bottom of the instrument , it should
be supported firmly in the grip and one person should also support it while gripping.
iii) While releasing the hammer by pulling the rope it should be noted that nobody should
stand facing the hammer, as it strikes with a large velocity.
II. How to avoid misuse:

i) Care should be taken to handle the equipment properly and operate as per the instructions
given to you by the faculty & staff.
ii) Loading carried out on the UTM must be gradual and steady rate.
iii)After the failure of specimen (UTM, Compression testing machine) valves should be
returned to their original position, before the specimen is removed.
iv) After the completion of experiments all the valves should be checked and make sure that
they are in their proper positions.
III. Safety measures:
i) Before starting the machine contact the shop instructors.

ii) Do not start a machine of which the operation is not known which causes accidents for
the end user & may damage the machine.
iii) Don’t take measurements of the specimen during operation. It causes accidents and
damage to the measuring instruments.
iv) Avoid loose clothing and long unbuttoned sleeves, while working on a machine.
v) Pay attention to specification charts & safety precautions.
vi) Do not perform experiments without wearing Shoes
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IV. Dress code:

Student should wear sky blue pant and apron with shoes during his laboratory session.
V. Standard accessories to be possessed:

Scale, pencil, calculator, Journal papers.
VI. Instruction to the students:

All students are
i) Required to be present in the laboratory in time.
ii) Informed to note down the tabular column, specifications of the machines, calculations,
and observations from lab manual before the commencement of each lab.
iii) Informed to follow the procedure, which is given in the laboratory manual to conduct
respective experiment.
iv) Informed to come with the write- up and results of the previous experiment without fail
for conducting the next experiment.
v) Informed to conduct each experiment in presence of staff member or lab instructor.
vi) Informed to take the accessories/tools/specimen/instruments to conduct each
experiment and must return them on completion of that experiment without fail.
4. List of equipments with specifications.
1. Tensile testing machine / Shear testing machine / Bending testing machine (U.T.M.)
Description UTN / E-100

Measuring system Mechanical (dial type)
Capacity 100 Tons
Min. graduation 200 Kg
Capacity 50 Tons
Capacity 25 Tons
Capacity 10 Tons
ELECTRONIC SYSTEM
Max. Capacity 100 Tons
Range 0- 40 Tons
Range 40-100 Tons
Margin of error  1 % over 1/50 of the maximum capacity
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2. Compressive Testing Machine:
Compressive capacity 200 tons

Oil seal Teflon based disc seal (much
superior to “O” ring seals)
Maximum travel of piston 50 mm
Capacity of reservoir 5 liters
Quality of oil SAE-30
Capacities of load gauges 200-tons, 100-tons
Diameter of dial gauge 200-mm
Isolation valves 50,100-tons gauges
Movement of valves Clockwise (Close),
Anticlockwise (Open)
Pressure withstanding capacity of seamless pipes 10000 psi
3. Impact Testing Machine:

Object Charpy Test Izode Test
Pendulum
Maximum impact energy 300 J 170 J
Angle of drop 140 90
Effective weight of pendulum 21.3 kg 21.3 kg
Minimum scale graduation 2J 2J
Striking velocity 5.308 m / sec 3.994 m / sec
Permissible total Friction loss 0.5 % 0.5 %
Distance from axis of rotation of pendulum to center of 813.5 mm 613.5 mm
specimen for harpy and up to striking edge for Izode
Distance between physical percussion center and striking  8.135 mm -----------
edge for Charpy
Distance between physical percussion center and striking ------------  8.135 mm
edge for Izode
Support for Charpy 40 mm –0.0 -----------
a.) Distance between support +0.5
b) Angle of test piece support 78 to 80 -----------
c) Radius of supports 1 to 1.5 mm ------------
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Charpy striker
-----------
a) Angle of striking edge 30  1
b) Radius of striking edge 2 to 2.5 mm
Support for Izode
10 mm + 0.15
a) Width of specimen clamping groove ---------------
- 0.25
b) Distance between top striking edge ---------------
22 mm 0.5
Izode striker
75  1
a) Angle of striking edge ------------
----------
b) Radius at the edge 0.5 mm to 1
mm
c) Angle between the normal to the specimen ----------
and the underside face of the striker at the 100  1
striking point
4. Hardness Testing Machine:
Make Saroj Engineering Udyog Pvt Ltd Jayasingpur

Model R/ RAS / RAB RABI / RASM / RAB 250/ win
Maximum testing height 230 mm 295 mm
Depth of throat 140 mm 150 mm
Maximum depth of screw below base 240 mm 307 mm
Base (approx) 435 X 173 mm 212 X 472 mm
Height 657 mm 845 mm
Net weight 67 kg 125 kg
5. Torsion Testing Machine:
Torque capacity 100 kg-m

Torsion speed 0.5 rpm
Clearance between grips 0-600mm
Torque indication Digital display
Angle indication Digital display
Motor drive 2 HP
Grips for round bar (mm) 10-18,18-26,26-30.
Grips for flat width (mm) 5-15,50
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6. Rotary Fatigue Testing machine:
Maximum bending movement 200 kg – cm

Load (adjustable) 5-40 kg
Range 100 kg-cm
Griping diameter of test specimen 12 mm
Testing diameter of test specimen 8 mm
Length of test specimen 226 mm
Accuracy of applied bending moment + / - 1%
Revolution counter Electronic digits 8
Motor 3phase, 0.5hp, 2800 rpm.
Mains supply 3 phase, 440V, 50 Hz, AC
Overall size (approx) 1000L X 500 W X 600 H
Weight 120kg
7. Metallurgical microscope
Model Olympus BH2-UMA.

Type Reflected light observation
Objective Magnification 5X, 10X, 20X, 50X.
Eye piece Magnification LB eye piece 10X
Halogen Bulb 12V, 50W, HAL-L-Li.
8. Disc polishing machine
Type Double disc variable speed

No. of discs 02
Main supply 220 / 230V, 50 Hz
Disc diameter 220 mm
Speed 1400 rpm max.
7.1.1 Title of the experiment: - Preparation of specimen for metallographic examination of

engineering materials & study of microstructure.
7.1.2 Aim or objectives of the experiment: -
 To study the various parts and functions of metallurgical microscope & disc polishing
machine and preparation of sample for microstructure examination
 To observe the microstructure of a given metal specimen using a metallurgical
microscope.

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7.1.3 Theoretical background of the experiment: -
FIG.1.1 METALLURGICAL MICROSCOPE
Metallurgical microscope (fig.1.1) is a device, which is used in laboratory to study and observe
microstructures of materials. Since a metallography sample is opaque to light, the specimen
must be illustrated by a refracted light. The eyepiece is detachable and can be fixed to the main
body with the help of screw. The specimen is illuminated by a halogen light, which is provided
at the bottom. It is also provided with an aperture, by which the intensity of halogen lamp can
be controlled. It is provided with 3-objective pieces of different magnification. Objective is the
part of microscope that holds all-important parts, which is closer to the object. Two screws
control the vertical movement of the microscope objective. One is coarse adjustment and
another is fine adjustment screw. The platform on which objectives are mounted can be rotated
so that we can use objectives having particular magnification to observe microscope structure.
The magnification depends upon focal length shorter than greater the magnification. The frame
is that part of microscope which holds all the important parts. The frame holds the entire
horizontal platform on which the space is provided for keeping the specimen. The platform is
provided with two screws to control its horizontal movement. With the help of these screws the
platform may be moved in two mutually perpendicular directions.
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FIG.1.2 DISC POLISHING MACHINE
Disc polishing machine (fig.1.2) is a device used to polish the given specimen. It consists of
two rotating discs, an emery paper is placed on one of the disc and on the other velvet cloth.
The speed of rotating discs can be varied with the help of speed control switches. Two water
pipes are provided, so that there is a continuous supply of water. Knobs are provided to control
water supply.
Polishing of given specimen is necessary to study its microstructure. The metallurgical
microscope makes use of principle of reflection of light to illuminate the specimen. Good
results can be obtained only when the specimen is finely polished. A properly polished
specimen does not leave scratches.
Metallurgy is not only the art of extracting materials from their ores, but also it is mixing of
two or more metals to form alloys in shaping the very useful products for different activities. A
metal is an element exhibiting properties like strength, plasticity, electrical and thermal
conductivity etc. These properties are due to how atoms are arranged in the form of crystals
and also type of bonding between atoms.
The mechanical properties of metals can be changed by alloying. Physical and chemical
properties of different alloys are well studied by observing their metal structure. The metals
crystals are formed rapidly and they are generally bounded by confined environment, which
presents the crystallographic flow surfaces. Thus the metal crystals must be identified by x-ray
diffraction or chemical etching.
The following are details of some materials of which the chemical composition and the phases
are explained.
1) Mild steel: - the approximate rate of carbon contained of mild steel is 0.3%. for medium
carbon steel it is 0.3-0.6%. The microstructure of  phase of iron and little quantity of pearlite
with high magnification we can see pearlite consisting of smaller structure, which consist of
alternate bonds of ferrite and cementite.
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2) Gray cast iron: - Fe-C alloys with more than 2% carbon are called (C I) cast iron.
Depending upon the cooling rate and other alloying elements present in cast iron. The carbon
may be present as graphite or cementite. Gray cost iron contains graphite in the form of flakes
in matrix of ferrite. The graphite flakes are short at their strip and act as stress rises. Thus even
though the soft material graphite is present, the gray cost iron is brittle.
3) Copper:-It is a single-phase microstructure showing big grains having well definite grained
boundaries. We can also find twin boundaries in between.
4) White cast iron: - The alloying element present is cementite. The microstructure of white
cast iron consist of cementite and pearlite. Due to this the large fraction of cementite is present,
the cast iron is very hard and brittle appears white when we see fracture surface.
5) Brass:- Brass is an alloy of copper (60%)and Zinc (40%). Microstructure of brass shows
zinc rich phase embedded in copper matrix.
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FIG.1.3 MICROSTRUCTURE SAMPLES
7.1.4 Step by step procedure to carry out the experiment:

1) Sample preparation can be done by grinding wheels or belts; the surface to be observed
under microscope is made perfectly plane by filing.
2) Polishing is then done by emery polish papers. First the specimen surface i.e. surface
to be studied under microscope is rubbed in one direction with an emery paper of grain
size 120. The pressure applied on the specimen during rubbing should be normal to
surface, care should be taken that specimen is moved in one direction only.
3) Turn the specimen by 90o and rub it by emery paper of grain size 320. The surface
should be rubbed until the scratches provided by previous rubbing are completely
removed.
4) Similarly by taking final emery paper 400, rub the specimen by placing 90  to previous
grain direction.
5) Specimen is then polished on disc polishing machine.
6) Due to this the last traces of scratches made by fine polish paper are removed. Then the
specimen for observation under the metallurgical microscope is ready.
7) The appropriate etchant is then put on the surface of the specimen.
8) The polished specimen is placed on the plate of metallurgical microscope above
objectives.
9) A suitable objective is placed under specimen that needs to be observed.
10) Slider mounted on the bar plate is adjusted so that the light passing from the halogen
lamp should fall on specimen.
11) Then coarse and fine adjustments are operated in such a way that clear distinct
microstructure is visible.
12) The observed microstructure is then compared with the standard microstructures that
are available for identification.
7.1.5 Discussion of results and conclusions:
The microstructure of the specimen given is _______________.
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7.2.1 Title of the experiment: -HEAT TREATMENT

To study different processes of heat treatment of steel.
7.2.3 List of equipment required to conduct the experiment with their specifications: -
Equipment:
1) Muffle furnace
2) Water tanks / Quenching oil tanks
Inspection equipment:
1) Metallurgical microscope (220v ac supply, 50Hz,)
2) Hardness Tester (Rockwell, Brinell)
Tools and consumables:
1) Carbon, alloy steel rounds / flat
2) Etchant
3) Quenching oil & water

Heat treatment may be defined as an operation or combination of operations, involving heating
and cooling of metals or alloys in solid state to obtain the desired properties.
Steel heat treatments are made possible by eutectoid reaction of the iron- carbon system. All
the basic heat treatment process for steel involves the transformation of decomposition of
austenite.
Theory of heat treatment is based on the principle that an alloy experiences a change in
structure when heated above a particular temperature and it undergoes again a change in the
structure when cooled to room temperature. Cooling rate is an important factor in developing
different (soft & hard) structures.
Slow cooling from above critical range in steel will produce pearlite (soft) structure while
rapid cooling (independent on the steel composition) will give rise to a martensite (hard)
structure.
FIG. 2.1 ELECTRIC FURNACE
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1) Annealing:- It is a primary process of heating a metal to given temperature in which a

metal structure or distorted structural state will revoke the instability or distortion and then
cooling it slowly so that at the room temperature structure is stable and strain free.
a) Stress relieving: Stress relief annealing relieves stresses produced by casting,
quenching, machining, cold working, welding etc. stress relieving annealing applies
equally well to ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
b) Process annealing is a critical annealing and is applied to remove the effects of
cold work to soften and permit further cold work as in sheet and wire industries.
c) Spheroidise annealing: It involves subjecting steel to a selected temperature cycle
usually within or near to the transformation range in order to produce Spherical or
globular from of carbide in steel.
d) Full annealing: it implies annealing a ferrous alloy by austenitizing and then
Cooling, slowly (in the furnace it self) though the transformation range. The
austenite temperature for hypereutectoid steels is usually between 72c to 910 and
for Hypereutectoid steels it is between 723c to 1130.
2) Normalizing: Normalizing or air quenching consists in heating the steel to about 40 to 45c
above its upper critical temperate and it necessary holding it at he temperature. Normalizing
produces microstructure consisting of ferrite and pearlite for hypereutectoid steels.
3) Hardening: It is a process in heat treatment where the metal is heated initially to a given
temperature and dipped in quenching oil or water depending the type of metal, which increases
the hardness of metal. Tools and machine parts that do transmit power and components
subjected to wear and tear are often hardened. The hardening of steel requires formation of
martensite structure in case of steel.
4) Tempering: The process of tempering consists of heating the steel to a temperature of about
50F below the lower critical temperature. The purpose of tempering is to release the residual
stresses and improve the ductility and toughness of steel after the hardening process. The
increase in ductility and toughness is usually attained at the sacrifice of hardness.

1) Keep all the specimens inside the furnace and switch on the power supply.
2) Heat specimens up to a required temperature based on the process to be done for the
given material.
3) Heat treatment is done on given specimen for the following processes.
a) Annealing
b) Normalizing
c) Hardening
4) The polishing and etching is done on specimens after heat treatment.
5) Microstructure of each specimen is observed with the help of metallurgical microscope
and microstructures are observed and observed microstructure drawings are prepared. (If
the microscope has the photography attachment photos can also be taken)
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7.2.6 Discussion of results and conclusions: -

From the above experiment we conclude that microstructure of the material varies with
different types of heat treatment processes. The following are the observations made after the
above process for the given specimens.
Annealed structure is _____________ & observed hardness is _____________
Normalized structure is ___________ & observed hardness is _____________
Hardened structure is _____________ & observed hardness is_____________
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7.3.1 Title of the experiment: - TENSILE TEST

 To conduct the test on mild steel for its tensile strength & study the characteristics like
its Young’s modulus, stress at limit of proportionality, percentage increases in length
and percentage decrease in cross sectional area of specimen.
Equipment: UTM, Extensometer
Measuring tools: Vernier calipers, Steel rule.
Consumables: Specimen of Mild Steel.
Technical Specifications: (Refer 4.0)
7.3.4 Description of the experimental setup: -

The machine (fig.3.1) consists of two units namely the machine frame unit or the loading unit
and the other controlling unit. The machine frame unit consists of two crossheads and one
lower table. Sensing of the load is by means of precision pressure transducer of strain gauge
type, if electronic measurement is selected and precision pendulum dynamometer assembly in
case of mechanical measurement measures the load. For measurement of ram stroke, a rotary
encoder is fitted in the bottom of the machine. Also adjustable limit switches are provided for
safety for limiting the ram stroke. Hydraulic system consists of motor pump unit with cylinder
and piston. Safety relief valve is provided for additional safety. A UTN/UTE selector knob is
provided of the selection of hydro mechanical measurement or Electronic measurement.
FIG.3.1 UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
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To determine the mechanical properties of the material, it is required to know some important
characteristics like strength, elasticity and ductility.
 Strength is the property of the material by virtue of which it offers resistance against
deformation when it is subjected to loading.
 Elasticity is the property of the material by virtue of which material deforms and
regains its original shape on removal of applied load.
 Ductility is the ability of the material to deform under tension without fracture.
Here in this experiment the material is subjected to tensile load and the behavior of the
material is studied.
7.3.6 Formula required, nature of graph:

a) %Elongation = (Final gauge length- Initial gauge length) /(Initial gauge
length)100
b) %Reduction in area = (Original area – Final area) / (Original area) 100
In the stress- strain diagram shown (fig. 3.2), initially stress is proportional to the strain. This is
given by Hook’s law. We can derive from the nature of graph that there are some limits such as
yield point, maximum stress point etc. All ductile materials exhibit these characteristics.
FIG.3.2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
7.3.7 Step by step procedure to carry out the experiment: -
1) Mark the gauge length and diameter of the original specimen.

2) Grip the specimen vertically and firmly in to the UTM jaws.
3) Attach the extensiometer to the UTM and adjust the reading to zero.
4) Increase the load in uniform steps and note down the increase in length respectively.
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5) Continue the loading on the specimen till the specimen breaks & note down the
maximum load at which the specimen breaks.
6) Remove the fractured pieces from the UTM and check the cracked area.
7) Finally join the broken pieces, note down the gauge length and diameter of the
specimen at the crack.
7.3.8 Table of Observations: -
1) Material tested----Mild steel

2) Initial diameter----a) Diameter of one end = d 1= ---------mm
b) Diameter of other end=d2-----------mm
c) Diameter at center = d3= -------mm
Average Diameter =d0= -----------mm
3) Original length = L0=------- mm
4) Original area = A0 = /4 d02 =-------mm2
5) Gauge length=------mm
6) Final length = lf =-------- mm
7) Final area = Af =--------mm2
8) Final dia = df --------mm
9) Final gauge length=------mm
10) L.C. of the vernier = 0.01mm.
S.L Load in KN (W) Extension in (l) Stress KN/mm2 (W/A0) Strain (l/l)
N0 mm
1
2
3
4
7.3.9 Plotting of graph: -
Plot a graph of Stress Vs Strain for the mild steel specimen tested.
7.3.10 Discussion of results and conclusion: -
1. % Elongation = ____________
2. % Reduction in area = ____________
3. Young’s modulus = _____________ N/mm2
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7.4.1 Title of the experiment: - SHEAR TEST

To determine the shear strength of the Mild steel specimen.
7.4.3 List of equipment required to conduct the experiment with their specifications:-
Equipment: UTM and fabricated shackle.
Measuring tools: vernier calipers and scale.
Consumables: specimens.
Technical Specifications (Refer 4.0)

Same as 7.3.4

A force that makes or tends to make two adjacent parts of the member to slide relative to one
another along their surface contact is called as shear force. The shear force divided by area of
the surface contact is termed as shear stress. The maximum shear stress the material can
withstand is called shear strength of the material. Shear test involves determination of shear
strength of material. In this case the material is subjected to single or double shear under tensile
or compressive load. The load which causes the shear failure is noted down.
7.4.6Formulae required, nature of graph if any:

If ‘p’ is shear force of failure and ‘d ’ is initial diameter of the specimen. Shear stress is given
by
a) For single shear
P
Max = ---------- ----------N/mm2
( /4) d2
b) For double shear

P/2
Max = ------- --------N/mm2
(/4) d2
7.4.7Step by step procedure to carry out the experiment:

1) Shear test specimen is sheared off under tensile load or under compressive load.
A suitable fabricated shackle is taken and specimen is inserted. Fork plates of the
shackle are firmly held together to eliminate any bending in the specimen under light
load. The nuts are used to position the specimen rigidly. After measuring the
dimensions of specimen with adequate accuracy, it is inserted in the fabricated shackle
and properly griped. The nuts are positioned and tightened.
2) The tensile or compressive load is applied.The load at which the failure occurs is
recorded.
3) From the known failure load and initial diameter of the specimen, the shear stress of
given material is found.
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4) The same procedure is repeated for double shear experiment. Here two grip rings are
inserted where as in single shear only one grip ring is inserted.
7.4.8Table of observation: -
1) Diameter of mild steel round bar =d1=---------mm.
a) When the material is subjected to single shear

i) The ultimate load for M.S bar = -------KN
a) For single shear

Max = P//4 d2=----------N/mm2
b) When the material is subjected to double shear
i) The ultimate load for M.S bar = -------KN
a) For double shear

Max = P/2 / /4 d2=----------N/mm2
7.4.9Discussion of results and conclusions: -
Mild steel:
a. Shear strength subjected to single shear= ------------N/mm2
b. Shear strength subjected to double shear= -----------N/mm2
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7.5.1 Title of the experiment: - COMPRESSION TEST

To determine the maximum compressive strength and find their ultimate stress for mild steel
specimen, bricks & concrete cube.
Equipment: Compression testing Machine.
Measuring tools: Scale.
Consumables: Specimens.
Specification of compressive testing machine: (Refer 4.0)
FIG.5.1 COMPRESSION TESTING MACHINE FIG.5.2. NORMAL FRACTURE OF CONCRETE

TEST CYLINDER IN COMPRESSION
The unit consists of a loading unit and a separate hydraulic motorized control console. The
main loading frame is of four-pillar type, with a square base, on which the four pillars are
fitted. An upper crosshead connects the four columns on a top. An acme threaded lead screw
passes through the top cross head operated by a large hand wheel. To the lower end of the lead
screw a platen is attached with a swivel action. A hydraulic jack is seated on top of the base,
tightened from under, by a long bolt. A dust cover is fitted over the jack. A bottom platen rests
on the spacer, centered by a locating pin. The spacers can be removed and bottom platen can be
located on the ram directly when necessary.
The motorized pumping unit is accommodated in an elegant console. The double plunger
vertical pump with a large plunger diameter provides high pumping rates even at high loads.
Both the plungers are precisely ground and lapped after hardening. A hand pump is provided to
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operate the machine, during power failure. Both the motorized and hand pumps discharge the
oil into a common manifold, where from the oil further travels to the jack and gauges.
So to quicken the initial pumping, the motorized pump can be on and the hand pump as well
can be operated. The oil reservoir is kept on the top and feeds independently the two motorized
pumps.
A pressure release valve on the vertical front panel is to start loading and for release on
pressure as well. By tightening in the clockwise direction the loading operation starts, and by
rotating it in the anticlockwise direction the pressure in the system is released. A flow-
regulating valve on the front vertical panel is for regulating oil flow. The clockwise moment
gives an increased rate of loading and the anticlockwise rotation decreases the loading rate.
The extreme anticlockwise position gives no loading at all even though the motor runs and the
piston work.
When a material is subjected to compressive load, the material slightly deforms immediately
and resists the load consequently while deformation continues with the load. The resistance
offered by the material to deformation is known as stress. The final resistance to the load at
which it fails is known as ultimate stress.
7.5.6Formulae required, nature of graph if any:
Ultimate stress, P= Ultimate load (at failure)/ Bearing area (Original Cross Sectional area)
= W/A N/mm2

1) Measure the dimensions of the specimen and record the data
2) Start the pump and open the released valve in order to bring the bottom plate to lower
position.
3) Place the specimen so as to apply the uniform pressure on the specimen.
4) Lower the top face by using the hand wheel at the top in order to clamp the specimen
tightly.
5) Apply the load gradually till the specimen fails.
6) Note down the fracture load.
7.5.8 Table of observation: -
Load ULTIMATE
ULTIMATE
Sl application BEARING AREA STRESS
MATERIAL LOAD
.No (sketch) “A”mm2 P=W/A
‘W’KN
KN/mm2
7.5.Discussion of results and conclusions: -

1.Ultimate stress when (for brick)
a. Laid along the face = ------ N/mm2
b. Laid along the edge = ------ N/mm2
2.Concrete cube:
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K. L. E. TECH
a. Ultimate stress = ------- N/mm2

3. Mild steel
a. Ultimate stress = ------- N/mm2
7.6.1 Title of the experiment: -TORSION TEST

To determine the torsional yield strength & modulus of rigidity in torsion of the given
M.S specimen.
Equipment: Torsion testing machine.
Measuring tools: Stopwatch, vernier calipers.
Consumable: Specimen.
Specification of Torsion testing machine: (Refer 4.0)
7.6.4Theoretical background the experiment: -

The torsion test is conducted to find out modulus of rigidity, Torsional yield strength &
modulus of rigidity in torsion of the specimen. The modulus of rigidity can be calculated from
the relation C=TL/J.
FIG.6.1 TORSION TESTING MACHINE
The machine (fig.6.1) used for carry out the torsional test holds the specimen at one
end, a twist at the other end.
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7.6.5 Formulae required, Nature of graph: -

a) Torsional yield strength = fsy = 16 Ty/d3=------- N/mm2
b)
Shear stress at ultimate torque = 16 Tu/d3= ------N/mm2
c)
Modulus of rigidity = C = (T/) graph  (L/J)= ------N/mm2

1) The diameter & length of the specimen are measured. The diameter is measured at
various sections and average diameter is found.
2) The specimen is fixed between the grips of the machine.
3) The torque is applied initially by hand up to an angle of twist of 10 0. Machine is
operated electrically and torque is recorded at an interval of 50 to 100 .
4) Continue this process until the specimen fails. The machine is stopped after the
specimen is broken. From the experimental value of torque& the angle of twist, plot the
graph of T v/s .

1. Average diameter of the specimen = d = ------mm (d1+d2+d3/3)
2.Gauge length of the specimen = L = --------mm.
SL. TIME “t” Gear under “”In “”In

Torque in lb-inch
NO. seconds operation degrees Radians
01
02
03
7.6.8 Plotting of the graph: -

Plot the graph of torque versus angle of twist, ie, T v/s 
a) Torsional yield strength = fsy= ___________N/mm2
b) Shear stress at ultimate torque = __________N/mm2
c) Modulus of rigidity = C = ___________N/mm2
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7.7.1 Title of the experiment: - DEFLECTION TEST OR BENDING TEST

To conduct the deflection test on mild steel beam to determine,
i) Stress at limit of proportionality.
ii) Bending stress at ultimate load of ultimate stress.
ii) Modulus of elasticity.
Equipment: UTM.
Measuring tool: Scale.
Technical Specifications: (Refer 4.0)
7.7.4 Description of the experimental setup:-
Refer 7.3.4.

When material is subjected to loading (especially along transverse axis), it undergoes certain
deformation i.e., displacement of longitudinal axis in the direction of load and is called
deflection.
This test is carried out to know the maximum load carrying capacity of beam in transverse
direction and corresponding maximum deflection under the load.
From simple bending theory

M / I = fb /y = E / R
M= Maximum bending moment.
I = Moment of inertia of the section of beam
fb = Bending stress.
y = Distance of extreme fiber from neutral axis.
E = Modulus of elasticity.
R = Radius of curvature of deflection.
The deflection for a span of longitudinal beam when subjected to concentrated load at the
center is given by
 = (wl3) / 48EI
By knowing load and corresponding deflection the modulus of elasticity can be calculated.
7.7.6 Formulae required, Nature of graph:-
Bending stress at limit of proportionality = by =3/2  wyl / bd2
Bending stress at ultimate load = 3/2  wul / bd2
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Modulus of elasticity = (w/)  (l3/48 I)

1.To begin with, the dimensions of the specimen are measured.
2.Place the specimen on the bending dogs of the UTM. The bending dogs should be equally
spaced with respect to center and effective span of the beam is noted.
3.The load is applied gradually at the center by ram and corresponding deflection is noted on
the straining unit of the UTM.
4.A graph of load ‘W’ v / s ‘’ is then plotted & bending stress at limit of proportionality and
ultimate load are calculated.
7.7.8 Table of observation:-
1) Length of the specimen = ------mm.

2) Effective length = ------mm.
Tabular column:
Sl. No Load ‘W’ in KN Deflection 
1
2
3
7.7.9 Plotting of the graph: -

Plot the graph of W v/s 
7.7.10 Discussion of results and conclusions:-
1) Stress at limit of proportionality = by = ________ N / mm2
2) Ultimate bending stress = bu = _______ N /mm2
3) Modulus of elasticity = E = _________N /mm2
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7.8.1 Title of the experiment: - IMPACT TEST

To conduct impact test (Izode & Charpy) on a given mild steel specimen (MS)
7.8.3 List of equipment required to conduct the experiment with their specifications:-
Equipment: Impact testing machine.
Measuring tool: scale.
Consumables: specimen.
Specification: (Refer 4.0)
The pendulum impact-testing machine mainly consists of the base, stand and the pendulum
mounted in bearings. The stand is bolted to the base. The bearing housing is bolted on the
stand at the top. The pendulum shaft is mounted in the two bearing brackets with antifriction
bearing. The pendulum is fixed to the pendulum shaft. The pendulum consists of pendulum
pipe and the hammer plates. The suitable striker (charpy or Izode) is to be fixed to the
pendulum as per the test to be conducted. The guard is provided to protect from the pendulum
swing partially.
The release mechanism for charpy as well as Izode is common. The latching tube along with
release mechanism is mounted on bearing housing in their respective locating pins either for
charpy test or Izod test. A handle mounted on the tube itself operates the latch at the end of
latch tube.
The indicating mechanism consists of a dial fixed on the front side of stand and the indicating
pointer, which moves over the dial. The pointer carrier is mounted on the center shaft and
moves along with the pendulum. The indicating pointer indicates energy (in Joules) absorbed
by the break specimen after rupture.
The braking arrangement for stopping the pendulum swing after rupture consists of the braking
strip having leather lining at the top. The brake is to be operated by the brake lever.
7.8.5 Theoretical background of the experiment/ validation the experiment: -

This test determines the behavior of the material when it is subjected to high rate of sudden
loading. The objective of the experiment is to find the energy required for the plastic
deformation and breaking of specimen by single blow or impact.
Impact testing machine consist of hammer, which is fixed, and this is raised to certain height,
thereby it absorbs potential energy. When it is released, the potential energy is converted in to
kinetic energy. As it strikes the specimen, it absorbs some energy and fails, so that the hammer
looses energy.
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Charpy Impact Test:
1.Fix up the charpy Izode block and the charpy striker in their respective position.
2.Place the charpy test specimen on the supports & align the center of specimen notch w.r.t.
center of support by means of charpy setting guage. Touch the striker to the test specimen and
adjust the indicating pointer to 300 J.
3.Adjust the pointer in such away that it just touches the indicating pointer. Lift the pendulum
by hand till it gets latched in position.
4.Release the pendulum. Allow the pendulum swing freely and break the specimen. After
rupture, brake the pendulum slowly by operating brake lever.
5.Read the absorbed energy directly on the dial as indicated by the indicating pointer. Before
proceeding for next test remove the broken pieces of the test piece and bring the indicating
pointer back to 300 J.
Izode impact test: -
1.Fix up the Izode striker & mount the latching tube of Izode test on the bearing housing.
2.Loosen the clamping screw of the support and insert the test specimen. Align the centerline
of the notch by using the setting gauge and clamp the specimen by clamping screw.
3.Touch the striker to the test specimen and adjust the indicating pointer to the 170 J. Adjust
the pointer carrier in such a way that it just touches the indicating pointer.
4.Lift the pendulum by hand till it gets latched in position. For releasing the pendulum operate
release lever. The further steps may be followed so as to obtain the energy absorbed by the test
specimen. For removing the broken specimen, hold the specimen by hand and remove the
same after loosening the clamping screw.

Charpy test:
1) Length of the specimen=--------mm
2) Angle of notch= ------------deg.
3) Depth of notch=------------------mm
Sl .NO Breaking load Difference Average Impact

Initial Final In energy energy
(Joules) (Joules)
1
2
3
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Izode Test:
1) Length of the specimen=--------mm
2) Angle of notch= ------- deg.
3) Depth of notch=------------------mm
Sl .NO Breaking load Difference Average Impact

Initial Final In energy energy
(Joules) (Joules)
1
2
3
1) Impact energy required to break the given specimen in Charpy test= ______Joules
2) Impact energy required to break the given specimen in Izode test= ________ Joules
*Charpy specimen has more resistance to fracture when sudden load applied compared to
Izode specimen.
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7.9.1 Title of the experiment: - Experiment on Wear study.
7.9.2. Aim or objectives of the experiment: -

 To determine the wear coefficient for the given material.
7.9.3. List of equipment required to conduct the experiment with their specifications: -
Equipment: Wear testing machine.

The experimental setup consists of a pin on disc type of wear apparatus. It consists of a disc
mounted vertically and the pin is held horizontally against rotating disc. The speed of the disc
can be varied from 0 to 1500 rpm. Load can be varied in steps of 1 Kg. Speed of the disc is
measured form optical tachometer. Energy consumed can also be noted down from the energy
meter.

Wear is an undesirable and progressive loss of material from the operating surface of the body
occurring as a result of relative motion between surfaces.
Wear is an important mechanical property of material. The loss of material due to wear is
steady and continuous. Wear is directly related to hardness of the material. Wear coefficient
has to be decided for any two surfaces of materials rubbing with each other for example
bearings, gears etc.
Wear reduces the life of the component and weakens the component in the point of wear
surface. If proper materials are selected according to their wear properties, which come in
contact with their rubbing surfaces, the life of the components can be effectively managed.
Example brake liners, piston rings, valve seats, gunmetal bushes, tires etc.
Wear rate can be improved by improving the surface hardness of the material. Wear behavior
is complicated phenomenon and its classification is based on many parameters. Wear is
classified as abrasive wear, adhesive wear, cohesion wear and fatigue wear.

1. Measure the initial weight of the specimen.
2. Fix the specimen on to chuck rigidly.
3. Apply counter weight to make the pin touch the surface of the disc.
4. Switch on the mains.
5. Add required amount of weight to load cell pan to act on the pin.
6.Set the speed of the motor in rpm and counts as required.
7. Start the motor.
8. Note down the time in seconds for 10 revolutions of energy meter disc.
9. Switch off the motor when required number of counts is completed.
10. Remove the specimen and measure the final weight of the specimen.
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7.9.7 Formulae required: -

K= V X H / F X S
K = Wear Coefficient
V= Volume of material removed
H= BHN X 9.81
F= Load on pin in newtons.
S= Rubbing distance= 2. Π . r.n.60 = ________ meters.
Input Power: n x 60 x 60 / K x t
K= 750 rev/ Kwh &
t = time in seconds for 10 rotations of energy meter disc.
1. BHN for Al – 50, BHN for Brass- 140

2. Density for Al-2.7 gm/cc, Density for Brass- 6.9 gm/cc.
Tabular column:
Initial weight Time for 10

Final weight of
Density Load in of specimen rotations of
Material BHN specimen W2
gm/cc Kg. W1 energy meter
in gms
in gms disc‘t’ in Sec.
Difference Distance
% loss Volume of Speed Wear Energy
in weight in of pin
in material in rpm Counts coefficient consumed
gms from
weight removed ‘n’ ‘K’ in KW.
(W1- W2) center ‘r’
The wear coefficient of the tested material is _____________
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7.10.1 Title of the experiment: - HARDNESS TEST

 To determine the hardness of Mild steel, Aluminium & Cast iron specimens.
Equipment: Rockwell Hardness / Brinell hardness testing machines.
Measuring tool: Microscope.
Specifications: (Refer 4.0)

The hardness tester is of cast- iron body. The enclosed design protects the internal operating
parts from detrimental dust and extraneous elements. The main screw is also protected by a
rubber bellow. The weight under hydraulic dash- pot time control are applied on free end of
lever, which transmits the pressure on plunger and thereby on the work- piece for
determination of hardness value. A clamping device enables the tight clamping of work- piece
during the test, which at times cannot be checked under normal conditions.
FIG.10.1. BRINELL HARDNESS TESTER
FIG.10.2.ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTER
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Hardness of a material may be defined as the resistance offered for plastic deformation or is
the resistance of the material against abrasion, scratching or indentation.
Rockwell hardness test is an indentation hardness test using a verified machine to force a
diamond spheroconical indentor or hard steel ball indentor under specified conditions, into the
surface of the material under test in two operations, and to measure the difference in depth of
the indentation under the specified conditions of preliminary and total test force.

There are three methods to find out the hardness of the material.
1) Rockwell hardness test.
2) Brinell hardness test.
3) Vickers hardness test.
1.Rockwell hardness test: -
In this type of hardness test an indentor is allowed to penetrate through the specimen. The
hardness number is read directly from the dial gauge. The steps involved are as follows.
a. Test piece is placed upon the machine. The machine dial is showing any reading.
b. Hand wheel is turned, thereby raising the test piece up against the steel ball indentor till the
needle on the dial reads zero.
c. Major load is applied by pressing the crank provided on the right hand side of the machine.
d. Crank is turned in the reverse direction thereby withdrawing major load but leaving minor
load applied.
e. Hand wheel is rotated and the test piece is lowered.
At this stage the hardness of the test piece material can be directly read from the dial scale.
There are two scales on a Rockwell testing machine. i.e. “B” scale & “C” scale.
‘B’ scale uses a steel ball and diamond cone penetrator is employed for measuring the hardness
on ‘C’ scale.
‘B’ scale is used for testing materials of medium hardness such as low & medium carbon steels
and ‘C’ scale is used for testing the hardness of alloy cast irons.
In Rockwell testing the minor load for all cases is 10 Kg & major loads for scales ‘C’ & ‘B’
are 150 and 100 Kg respectively.
2.Brinell hardness test: --
In this test a hard steel ball of specific diameter under a specific load indents metal surface.
Measuring the average diameter of the indentor by a microscope fitted with a scale called
Brinell microscope. The Brinell hardness number of the metal is determined as
______
BHN = 2 P / [  D (D-  (D2- d2))]
Where P= load on indentor.
D=Diameter of the steel ball.
d = Average diameter of the indentor.
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1. Load applied on the metal = P = _________kg
2. Diameter of the steel ball = D = _________mm
3. Average diameter of the indentor, d = ________mm
SL.NO. MATERIAL USED HRC DIA.OF LOAD BHN

INDENTATION “d”
1. Mild steel
2. Aluminium
3. Cast iron
( BHN – Brinell Hardness Number, HRA – Hardness on Rockwell scale “A” )

Brinell hardness number for
1) Mild steel = ___________
2) Aluminium = ___________
3) Cast iron = ___________
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7.12.1 Title of the experiment: - NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTS.

 To study the Nondestructive testing of materials.
Equipments: Ultrasonic flaw detector, MPI setup & Dye Penetrant test setup.

Mechanical properties of materials are essential for designing engineering components.
Engineers are well used to assigning the properties of a material by means of traditional tests
on prepared test pieces (specimens). There are many standards available for this. Much
valuable information is obtained form these tests including data on the tensile, compressive,
shear and impact properties of the material. It should be remembered that all these tests are
destructive in nature. In addition to this the material properties as determined in the tensile
destructive standard test do not necessarily give a clear guide to the performance characteristics
of a complex shaped component, which forms the part of some large engineering applications.
Many a times, it is of great importance that both individual components and complete
engineering assemblies and structures are free from possible defects and other causes of
premature failure.
These defects are of many types and sizes. They may be introduced to material or a component
during manufacture. The exact nature and size of the defect will influence the subsequent
performance of the components. Other defects such as fatigue cracks or corrosion cracks may
be therefore necessary to have reliable means for detecting the presence of defects at the
manufacturing stage and also for detecting & also monitoring rate of growth of defects during
the service life of a component or assembly.
Non-destructive testing and evaluation methods exactly satisfy these requirements.
Non –destructive testing (NDT) and Non-destructive evaluation (NDE) are the two terms used
extensively. NDT basically refers to the testing procedure whereas NDE includes evaluation
with the help of test results. NDE is normally done with the help of designer or the user.
 The detailed explanation of the NDT is given following in the sequence mentioned
below.
1. Ultrasonic flaw detector.
2. Magnetic particle inspection.
3. Dye penetrant testing.
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1. ULTRASONIC INSPECTION:
Ultrasonic inspection is a non-destructive method in which beams of high energy sound

waves are introduced into materials for the detection of sub-surface and internal flaws in the
material.
Characteristics of Ultrasonic waves:
Ultrasonic waves are mechanical waves caused by oscillations or vibrations of atomic
or molecular particles about their mean equilibrium position. They are characterized by a
frequency of about 20,000 Hz. In many respects, a beam of ultrasound is similar to a beam of
light in that both are waves and obey general wave equations. They travel with a characteristic
velocity in a given homogeneous medium [the velocity being characteristic of medium and not
the wave] and get reflected, refracted whenever there is a change in the medium.
Wave propagation:
Ultrasonic waves can propagate in an elastic medium, which can be solid, liquid or gas,
but not in vacuum. They propagate by displacement of particles is very small. The amplitude,
vibration mode and velocity differ in solids, liquids and gases, because of large difference in
the inter particle distances and inter particle forces. The velocity of the waves is related to the
frequency and wavelength by the relation,
V=f.λ
Where, V=Velocity in m/s
f= frequency in Hz (cycles/s)
λ=wave length in m/cycle.
Based on the mode of particle displacement, the ultrasonic waves are classified in to
longitudinal waves, transverse waves, surface waves and Lamb waves.
Methods of Inspection:
There are two basic methods of ultrasonic inspection. They are
(i) Transmission method and
(ii) Pulse-echo method.
The primary difference between the two methods is that, transmission method involves
measurement of signal attenuation where as the pulse-echo method is most widely used. It
involves the detection of echoes produced when an ultrasonic pulse is reflected by a
discontinuity or an interface. This method is useful both for detection of flaws and for
thickness measurements. Both position of the flaw and size of the flaw can be detected by this
technique.
The transmission method involves only the measurement of signal attenuation.
Basic Equipment:
Most ultrasonic inspection systems include the following basic equipment.
 An electronic signal generator that produces bursts of alternating voltages when triggered.
 A transducer (probe or search unit) that converts the bursts of alternating voltages in to
ultrasonic waves.
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K. L. E. TECH
 A couplant to transfer energy in the beam of ultrasonic wave into the test piece.
 A transducer to convert ultrasonic waves from the test piece in to bursts of alternating
voltage.
 An electronic device to amplify the from the transducer.
 A display unit (CRT) to record the output from the test piece.
 A timer (electronic clock) to control and co ordinate the operations of various components.
FIG. 12.1 ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTOR
Step by step procedure to carry out the experiment:

1.The surface of casting to be inspected by ultrasonics is made fairly smooth either by
machining or otherwise so that ultrasonic waves can be efficiently transmitted from the probe
into the casting and even small defects can be detected properly. Ultrasonic inspection employs
separate probes (or such unites), one for transmitting the waves and other to receive them after
passage through the castings alternatively, since the ultrasonic waves are transmitted as a series
of intermittent pulses, the same crystal may be employed both as the transmitter and receiver.
2.Before transmitting ultrasonic waves, an oil film is provided between the probe and the
casting surface; this ensures proper contact between them and better transmission of waves
from the probe into the surface of the object to be tested.
3.For operation, ultrasonic wave is introduced into the metal and the time interval between
transmission of the outgoing and reception of the incoming signals are measured with a
cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO).
The time base of CRO is no adjusted that the full width of the trace represents the section being
examined.
4.To start with, as the wave is sent from the transmitter probe, it strikes the upper surface of the
casting and makes a sharp (peak) or pip (echo) at the left hand side of the CRO screen .If the
casting is sound, this wave will strike the bottom surface of the casting get reflected and
indicated by a pip towards the right-hand end of CRO screen.
In case a defect exists in between the top and bottom casting surfaces, most of the beam
striking this defect will get reflected from the defect, reach the receiver probe and indicate a
pip (echo) on the CRO screen before the pip given by the waves striking the far end of the
casting and returning.
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The distance of the defect from the surface where transmitter probe is applied, can be
determined with the help of a time distance scale in the form of a square wave constantly
shown on the oscilloscope. The distance scale may be changed as per convenience and one
cycle of square wane may be changed as per convenience and one cycle of square wave may
indicate 1 cm or 25 cms, etc.
The interpretation of defect (echo) signal may be assisted by post-mortem sectioning of the
casting containing serious flaws.
2.MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION:

Inhomogeneities such as blowholes, cracks, and inclusions in a magnetic material produce a
distortion in an induced magnetic field. The path of the magnetic flux is distorted because the
inhomogeneities have different magnetic properties than the surrounding material. All
magnetic methods of nondestructive testing employ some means by which this distortion, often
called leakage flux, can be measured or detected.
Magnetization: A magnetic field can be set up in a magnet in either of three ways: by passing
electric current directly through all or a portion of the specimen, by passing electric current
through a conductor surrounding or in contact with the specimen, and by magnets. A conductor
carrying an electric current is surrounded by a magnetic field, which forms closed circles in a
plane at right angles to the direction of current flow.
When a specimen of magnetizable material is placed across the poles of permanent or
electromagnet having a U-shape core, the specimen completes the magnetic path. This permits
the flux to travel by a return path through the specimen instead of through the air. In general
the current values used for magnetizing currents are not critical. If too weak a current is used,
resultant field will not be strong enough to from a pattern. If too strong a current is used, dense
accumulations of particles may result, which makes the pattern difficult to interpret or may
even obscure it. The magnetizing current used for inspecting welds varies from 600 to 2000
amp, depending on plate thickness and prod spacing. In many cases the magnetizing current
requirements are determined by specifications, standards or purchase orders.
The direct current used for magnetization may be steady direct current obtained from batteries,
generators, or full-wave rectified alternating current, Pulsating direct current may be obtained
by half-wave rectification of single-phase alternating current.
FIG. 12.2 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION SETUP
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FIG. 12.3 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION IN PROGRESS
Magnetic particle inspection is a relativity easy and simple technique. It is almost completely
free from any restriction as to size, shape, composition, and heat-treatment of a ferromagnetic
specimen.
Step 1: Magnetization of the material and

Step2: Application of magnetic particles.
1.The surface must be clean, dry and free of slag or rust. Wire brushing or sandblasting will
usually clean the surface sufficiently. In the case of an excessively rough surface, grinding or
machining is advisable.
2. The finely divided magnetic particles or powder can be either dry or suspended in liquid. If
the flaw is a surface flaw or lies sufficiently close to the surface, there will be set up a pair of
magnetic poles which act like small magnets.
3.The magnetic powder is attracted and held by the leakage flux, thus forming a visible
indication of the location and extent of the defect. The surface condition of the object being
inspected may affect the sensitivity of the method especially for locating subsurface flaws.
Surface defects usually produce powder patterns, which are sharp and tightly held with a heavy
build-up of powder. Surface defects usually give less sharply defined powder patterns since the
powder is less tightly held. However, experienced inspectors can evaluate the severity of a flaw
by the nature of the powder pattern.
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3.DYE PENETRANT TESTING:
Penetrant inspection utilizes the natural accumulation of a fluid around a discontinuity to create
a recognizable indication of a crack or other surface opening. Capillary action attracts the fluid
to the discontinuity as compared to its surroundings. In order to locate the area of excess fluid
(defect region), The background area must be of sufficient contrast thus leading to distinct of
the defect on the surface.
Physical Principles:
Penetrant inspection depends mainly on the ability of liquid to wet the surface of a solid work
piece or specimen and flow over that surface to from a continuous and reasonably uniform
coating, thus penetrating into cavities that are open to the surface. The ability of a given liquid
to flow over a surface and enter surface cavities mainly depends on the surface tension and
capillary action. The cohesive force between the molecules of liquid causes surface tension.
Capillary action is the phenomenon of rise or depression of liquid in narrow cavities.
Viscosity, another factor, although has negligible effect on penetrating ability of liquid, affects
the flowability of penetrant.
Visible light or ultraviolet light is required for inspection of penetrant indications.
Initially, the only detection method used was the unaided observation by the eye of the
inspector under visible light. The characteristics of human eye strongly affect the perception of
brightness of an indication. The nature of the light source strongly affects the proper lighting at
the inspection area.
Fluorescence describes the release of light energy by some substances when they are
excited by external radiation such as ultraviolet light. In penetrant inspection, when the
incident ultraviolet light strikes the panicles in fluid, they are excited to a higher energy level.
After being excited, each particle then, returns to the original unexcited level with the emission
of light having a wavelength longer then the original source. Thus the emitted light is in the
visible spectrum. Because, the human eye does not normally see the UV light, It is also called
black light. The advantages of this in penetrant appear very bright. When the Inspection is
performed in very subdued light, the regions clear of penetrant material will appear black. Due
to this effect, the visibility of small indications is greatly enhanced.
FIG. 12.4 DYE PENETRANT TEST (APPLICATION OF DEVELOPER)
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FIG. 12.5 DYE PENETRANT TEST (INSPECTION & EVALUATION)
Penetrant inspection is accomplished with the following sequence of operations.

1.Clean the surface of the component free of dust and dirt with a piece of cloth & brush the
surface of the component to remove scale, rust, paint etc., by a soft wire brush. Spray the
cleaner to remove oil, grease, etc.
2.Apply the dye penetrant (by spraying) adequately to cover the area to be tested. Allow 3 to 5
minutes or more for dye to penetrate into the cracks.
3.Wipe of the excess penetrant on the surface with a rag. Again spray the surface with the
cleaner to remove the remainants of the red dye.
4. Spray the developer evenly. This layer absorbs the penetrant from the cracks and red spots
or lines appear on the surface to giver a visible indication of the flaws.
5.The crack if any will be indicated with the red dye absorbed by the white absorbent.
1. Cleaning
One of the most important steps in the penetrant inspection procedure is the initial cleaning of
the surface area to be inspected. The defect that is being sought must be open to the surface for
the penetrant to enter. Scale, flakes, paint, dirt, grease and other chemicals that are not cleaned
from the surface will tend to accumulate the penetrant. This leads to either masking of real
indications or creation of defect indications where none exist. A satisfactory combination of
solvents, brushes, rags, etchants, etc., must be chosen for a particular inspection problem. It is
essential that the cleaned surface be adequately dried before the application of the penetrant
since presence of any excess cleaning fluid would dilute the penetrant and diminish the
brilliance of the indication.
2. Penetrant Application
The second step in the inspection process is the application of penetrant fluid to the cleaned
surface. The fluid should spread freely and evenly over the surface and move into the crack.
The dwell time, which is the amount of time required to move into the crack will very
depending on the crack size and shape characteristics and also the environmental conditions
such as temperature and surface inclination. Application of penetrant may be achieved by
dipping the component in a bath of penetrant liquid or by spraying or brushing. A minimum
40
K. L. E. TECH
dwell time of about 20 to 30 min. may be allowed after penetrant application. Larger periods
may be necessary in certain circumstances.
3. Removal of Excess Penetrant

This is the most important step the entire process. The desired result is that the surface is
completely clear of penetrant. Yet, the crack/defect retains all of the penetrant that entered into
it. Excess cleaning may remove the penetrant from the upper region of the defect with the
result that the developer does not reach the penetrant and no defect is indicated, On the other
hand, insufficient cleaning will leave a background of penetrant on the surface. Due to this the
defect will appear only slightly different from the background area. This difference in contrast
may not be so that neither insufficient cleaning nor over cleaning is done.
4. Application of Developer
After removing the excess penetrant, a thin coating of developer is applied over the surface to
draw the penetrant out of the crack and increase its visibility. Another important function of the
developer is that it covers the surface with a colour that provides good visual contrast to the
penetrant. This increases the visibility of the defect.
5. Inspection and evaluation
The last step in the process is the scanning of the surface for indications. The scanning may be
carried out under visible light conditions or with ultraviolet or laser incident light and the
defect recognition may be made with the human eye or with automated optical scanners. Each
indication that is appearing should be evaluated.
41
K. L. E. TECH
8. APPENDIX:
a. Course details:
i. Subject Code : 15EMEP202

ii. Title of the Laboratory : Engineering Materials Laboratory
iii. Teaching Scheme : 02 Hours per week
iv. Total Hours : 26 Hrs.
v. CIE Marks : 80
vi. Scheme of Examination:

Duration: 02 Hours
Questions Pattern:
 One question from part – A : 05 Marks
 One question from part- B : 10 Marks
 Viva-Voce : 05 Marks
b. Reference Books:
1. All Necessary Standards as per ASTM/ BIS.

2. Smith -“Foundations of Materials Science Engineering” 3rd Edition, McGrawHill,
1997.
3. V.Raghavan- “Materials Science and Engineering” Prentice Hall of India, 2002.
4.William D.Callister –“ Materials Science and Engineering” John Wiley & Sons Inc., 5th
Edition, 2001.
5.S.K.Hajra Choudhary- “ Materials Science and processes” India Book Distribution
Company, NewDelhi, 2003.
6. O.P.Khanna-“ Text Book Of materials science & Metallurgy” Dhanpat Rai, New Delhi.
42

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K. L. E.

Expt. Brief description about the experiment No. of Lab.

01 Introduction to the Laboratory-Overview of Destructive and Non Destructive 01

02 Non destructive test experiments 01

03 Evaluation of the tensile strength, Compression strength, Shear strength, 01

05 To study wear characteristics of ferrous, non-ferrous and composite materials 01

06 To study the microstructure of the ferrous and nonferrous alloy and to 01

07 To analyze given SEM Micrographs (Microstructure and fracture surface 01

morphology) and conclude on the structure and mode of fracture.

(Familiarization with the advanced characterization of metals by Scanning electron

08 Computer Modeling of Stress Concentration, Crack Opening and Crack 01

 Determine the stress concentration factor at a geometrical discontinuity.

09 Design an experiment to investigate the spring characteristics of any given 02

10 Synthesize a novel composite material which is reinforced with a natural fiber 02

2. Introduction to the laboratory:

II. How to avoid misuse:

III. Safety measures:

i) Before starting the machine contact the shop instructors.

IV. Dress code:

V. Standard accessories to be possessed:

VI. Instruction to the students:

4. List of equipments with specifications.

Description UTN / E-100

2. Compressive Testing Machine:

Compressive capacity 200 tons

3. Impact Testing Machine:

4. Hardness Testing Machine:

Make Saroj Engineering Udyog Pvt Ltd Jayasingpur

5. Torsion Testing Machine:

Torque capacity 100 kg-m

6. Rotary Fatigue Testing machine:

Maximum bending movement 200 kg – cm

Model Olympus BH2-UMA.

8. Disc polishing machine

Type Double disc variable speed

7.1.1 Title of the experiment: - Preparation of specimen for metallographic examination of

7.1.3 Theoretical background of the experiment: -

FIG.1.1 METALLURGICAL MICROSCOPE

FIG.1.2 DISC POLISHING MACHINE

FIG.1.3 MICROSTRUCTURE SAMPLES

7.1.4 Step by step procedure to carry out the experiment:

7.1.5 Discussion of results and conclusions:

The microstructure of the specimen given is _______________.

7.2.1 Title of the experiment: -HEAT TREATMENT

7.2.2 Aim or objectives of the experiment: -

7.2.4 Theoretical background of the experiment: -

FIG. 2.1 ELECTRIC FURNACE

1) Annealing:- It is a primary process of heating a metal to given temperature in which a

7.2.5 Step by step procedure to carry out the experiment:

7.2.6 Discussion of results and conclusions: -

Annealed structure is _____________ & observed hardness is _____________

Normalized structure is ___________ & observed hardness is _____________

Hardened structure is _____________ & observed hardness is_____________

7.3.1 Title of the experiment: - TENSILE TEST

7.3.4 Description of the experimental setup: -

FIG.3.1 UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

7.3.5 Theoretical background of the experiment: -

7.3.6 Formula required, nature of graph:

FIG.3.2 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

7.3.7 Step by step procedure to carry out the experiment: -

1) Mark the gauge length and diameter of the original specimen.

7.3.8 Table of Observations: -

1) Material tested----Mild steel

7.3.9 Plotting of graph: -

Annealed structure is _ & observed hardness is _

Normalized structure is _ & observed hardness is ___

Hardened structure is _ & observed hardness is_