J Relig Health

DOI 10.1007/s10943-014-9992-2

PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLORATION

Understanding Mind/Body Medicine from Muslim

Religious Practices of Salat and Dhikr

Arthur Saniotis

Ó Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015

Abstract There has been an increasing medical interest in Muslim religious practices in
promoting well-being. Central to Muslim religious practices are salat (prayer) and dhikr
(chanting). These two religious forms may be argued as comprising elements of mind/body
medicine due to their positive effect on the psychoneuroimmunological response. The aim
of this article was to further understand the mind/body aspects of Muslim salat and dhikr.

Keywords Al-tibb al-jismani
Al-Tibb al-Ruhani
BDNF
Psycho-physical well-being

Introduction

There has been increasing medical interest in mind/body medicine over the last 30 years.
Such attention has been expedited by improved understandings of the brain/mind and
medical technology such as brain imaging. Furthermore, this interest has been spurred by
many medical anthropological studies which focus on the efficacy of traditional healing
systems due to their ability to include emotional states in their therapy (Helman 2008).
Considerable mind/body research has been conducted on the correlation between mental
states and neuroendocrinological function (Newberg et al. 2002, 2003; Ernst et al. 2007;
Wahbeh et al. 2008, 2009). Various mind/body techniques are currently being investigated
for the treatment and management of various maladies and diseases such as cardiovascular
disease, cancer, psychiatric disorders, and multiple sclerosis (Berntson et al. 2008; Penn
and Bakken 2007; Gordon 2008; Mason and Hargreaves 2001; Mills and Allen 2000).
A key idea of mind/body medicine is that human mental states can inform psycho-
physical well-being. (Wahbeh et al. 2009). In Western medicine, the link between affec-
tivity and predisposition to diseases was known in the early twentieth century, but became
dominated by the mechanistic paradigm of medicine. Furthermore, there has been

A. Saniotis (&)
School of Medical Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
e-mail: arthur.saniotis@adelaide.edu.au

123
 J Relig Health

considerable research conducted in examining the efficacy of religious-/spiritual-based

techniques in enhancing well-being. These studies have included an increase in brain-
derived neurotrophic factor and reduction in cortisol secretion in prolonged Buddhist
meditation, (Pace et al. 2009), improved neuro-plasticity and increase in cerebral blood
flow in the practice of transcendental meditation (Jevning et al. 1996), and enhanced brain
connectivity in long-term meditators (Luders et al. 2011).
Furthermore, recent brain imaging studies have discovered changes in brain anatomy in
long-term meditators (i.e. increase in cortical thickness in brain areas associated with
attention and sensory processing) (Lazar 2011; Jha et al. 2007), and boost in density grey
matter (GM), in the posterior cingulate cortex, the temporo-parietal junction, and the
cerebellum (Hölzel et al. 2011), and the brain stem (Vestergaard-Poulsen et al. 2009). In
one study, it was found that even short term (11 h of Integrative Mind–Body Training
(IBMT) promoted white matter integrity of the corpus callosum and the superior and
anterior corona radiate Tang et al. 2010). Current medical research into religious-derived
mindfulness practices indicates their positive effect on psycho-physical well-being and in
the treatment of chronic stress-related disorders (Kabat-Zinn et al. 1992; Miller et al. 1995;
Goldberg et al. 1998; Grossman et al. 2004).
While Hindu- and Buddhist-based mindfulness meditation has been researched as a
potential clinical intervention (Rani et al. 2012; Streeter et al. 2012; Baer 2003), there have
been few studies conducted on Muslim-based religious practices and their stress reduction
and life-enhancing qualities. (Chishti 1985) was one of the first studies which focussed on
Sufi practices and their therapeutic efficacy. His study discusses both the spiritual and
physical enhancing aspects of Muslim ritual prayer (salat) and meditation (dhikr). A more
recent study recognises salat and dhikr for their therapeutic qualities, but does not discuss
how such techniques can be implemented by modern Muslim clinicians (Al-Rawi and
Fetters 2012). While salat and dhikr may be viewed as incorporating elements of mind/
body medicine, there needs to be more research into this area. Consequently, this article
will examine the mind/body aspects of salat and dhikr in order to further understand their
therapeutic use in clinical practice.

Mind/Body Medicine in Islam: Historical Roots

In order to locate the mind/body elements of salat and dhikr, an overview of the Muslim
psychological model is necessary. Since the early period (eighth–thirteenth centuries),
psychiatric health has been an important element in Islamic medicine. Al-Balkhi (d. 322/
934) emphasised the need for physicians during his time not to ignore psychological
aspects behind physical illnesses, believing that most physical ailments had a psycho-
logical basis (Deuraseh and Talib 2005). Muhammad ibn Zakariyā Rāzı̄ (865–925) and
Abū ‘Alı̄ al-H
usayn ibn ‘Abd Allāh ibn Sina (980–1037) incorporated psychological
methods in their clinical practice. With the completion of his medical canon Al-Mansuri,
Al-Razi wrote a treatise on spiritual medicine (at-Tibb ar-Ruhani), where he explicated his
ideas on psychotherapy (Al-Ghazal 2003). Ibn Sina developed an associative system for
reading pulse and ascribing it to the psychological state of the patient (Syed 2002). Ibn
Sina’s psychology was grounded in physiology, with perception connected to intellection
(aql); this correspondence between the outward and inward senses creating a unified and
seamless consciousness (Avicenna 1952). Psychotherapy was also endorsed by Ali Ibn
Sahl Rabban At-Tabari (838–870); he noticed that sickness was also contributed to
‘‘delusive imagination’’ (Haque 2004). Other noted scholars including Abul Hasan Ali

123
J Relig Health

Abbas Al-Majusi (d. 995), Abu Ali Ahmad B. Muhammad B. Ya’kub Ibn Miskawayh
(941–1030), and Abu Hamid Muhammad Al-Ghazali (1058–1111) wrote treatises on
human nature and disease.
Islam divides medicine according to two types: physical medicine (Al-tibb al-jismani) and
spiritual/psychological medicine (Al-Tibb al-Ruhani). Unlike the bio-medical model, these
two medical categories are symbiotically related since in Islam humankind is composed of
body (jism) and spirit (ruh) (Deuraseh and Talib 2005). In addition, Islam recognises human
mental health as being constituted by psyche (nafs), mind (aql), and heart (qalb). In western
terminology, the nafs is cognate with the ego and is often referred to by Muslims as the ‘‘baser
self’’ which needs vigilant control. Medieval Islamic physicians and philosophers compared
the naı̈fs with ether, which was believed to be ‘‘emitted from the heart’’ and transported via the
blood throughout the body ‘‘giving it life’’ (Phillips 1989:17). Schimmel (1976), cites three
types of nafs found in the Quran, and their mystical meanings. Firstly, there is the nafs which
incites humans to commit sin (an-nafs al-ammãra bi’-su’); ‘‘the soul commanding to evil’’
(Quran 12:53) (1976:112).1 Traditional Sufi thought recommends the use of certain mystical
practices in both taming the nafs and for attaining higher spiritual states, and finally, to a
‘‘passing away’’ or dissolution of a Sufi’s self (fana) into the Divine Reality (Nicholson 1976;
Stoddart 1994; Bakhtiar 1991; Hoffman 1995).
In traditional Islamic thought, the heart is recognised as the seat of compassion and
spiritual discernment. According to Saniotis (2012a), Indian Sufis describe the qalb as a
seat of spiritual power (qudrat-I-qalb; literally, ‘‘heart’s power.’’ qudrat means ‘‘power’’
and qalb translates to ‘‘heart’’). The self same also note that a function of the qalb is in
distributing the ruh via the circulatory system. In this way, nafs and ruh are mutually
connected. On this note, the pre-eminence of the qalb was highlighted by Al-Ghazali
who stated that it regulates human instinctual drives and intellect (Haque 2004).
Al-Balkhi described two kinds of sadness/depression (al-huzn); in the first case, huzn was
triggered by an external event/circumstance and is cognate with exogenous depression. The
second kind of huzn could be triggered by a sudden trauma or distress, causing ahedonia and
fatigue—analogous to endogenous depression. In both kinds of huzn, traditional therapy
included talk therapy providing guidance in order to develop a balanced mental condition
which would reduce the depressed condition while creating mental power for preserving
psycho-physical well-being (Deuraseh and Talib 2005). The physician ‘Ali b. al-‘Abbas al-
Majusi (d. 383/994) highlighted in his treatise, Kamil al-Sina‘ah al-Tibiyyah, that the
physiological and mental changes caused by huzn necessistated immediate medical attention
since they could worsen health problems (Deuraseh and Talib 2005).

Mind/Body Medicine

Salat

Salat is the second pillar of Islam. As an obligatory requirement of ritual worship salat
combines the essential tenets of Islam—worship of one God, remembrance of Allah,
submission to the Allah’s will, supplication, as well as, a symbol of unity of the Muslim

1
According to Schimmel this ‘‘forms the starting point for the Sufi way of purification’’ (1976). Secondly,
there is the nafs as the ‘‘blaming soul’’—an-nafs al-lawwãma (Quran 75:2), which corresponds to the human
conscience; and thirdly, the nafs after having been purified (mutma’inna) (Quran 89:27). In this state, the
nafs is purged of any incendarianistic qualities, and is ‘‘at peace’’ with Allah.

123
 J Relig Health

community (ummah). Salat is performed at five appointed times during the day and is
preceded by ritual ablution (wudû’). Salat includes various postures (raq’aas) which
involve standing, raising and lowering of arms, bowing, sitting on shins, prostration and
head rotation. The movements of salat are co-ordinated with ?prayer, with the ritual
movements being repeated. In all, the five obligatory salat consist no \17 raq’aas
(Al-Barzinjy et al. 2009). Al-Tharshi (1992), has pointed out that the five daily salat
consist of 280 movements, 72 prostrations and 36 bowings.
Various authors have examined the therapeutic aspects of salat in relation to what
extent it promotes psycho-physical well-being. For example, Reza et al. (2002), and
Al-Barzinjy et al. (2009) focus on the musculoskeletal benefits of salat. According to these
authors, salat uses many joints and muscles. Further reported benefits of salat include:
Providing muscle tone, maintenance of postural equilibrium, improving circulation, and
has a protective role in reducing osteoarthritis (OA) of the weight bearing joints. Addi-
tionally, salat improves cerebral circulation due to its mild to moderate amount of physical
activity (Reza et al. 2002). It could be suggested that an outcome of salat’s physical
activity level (PAL) may also contribute to an increase in brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), which provides neuroprotective, neurotrophic benefits and enhances brain plas-
ticity/neurogenesis (Cotman and Berchtold 2002; Cotman et al. 2007; Alberini 2009;
Noakes and Spedding 2012; Mattson 2012a, b). Additionally, BDNF contributes to the
therapeutic action of antidepressant treatment (Shirayama et al. 2002; Editorial 2012).
Following from Yücel (2010) highlights the correspondence between salat and Indian
yoga, in that both require a unification of body/mind. Anthropological studies note on the
relationship between ritualised body movement in eliciting affective states (Turner 1967,
1969; Lewis 1971; Obeyeskere 1981; Kapferer 1983, 1997; Desjarlias 1994; Dissanayake
1992; Saniotis 2001; Winkelman 2000). Yücel’s quantitative study on Islamic prayer [salat
and dua (supplicative prayer)] amongst sixty adult participants 18–85 found that both
prayer types reduced stress and depression while providing comfort. The study also
indicated that 75 % of study participants indicated that Islam was an important factor in
their lives (Yücel 2010). The mind/body relationship Muslim prayer provides a basis for
overcoming life’s exigencies, decreasing anxiety/depression while relying on Divine
assistance and guidance (Yücel 2010).

Dhikr: Modern Social Elements

Dhikr, meaning ‘‘remembrance of Allah’’ is a meditative-based practice which can be

performed either individually or collectively. The Qur’an (18:24; 2:152; 33:40) commands
Muslims to remember Allah throughout the day and night. While salat is an integral part of
dhikr, as well as, leading a pious life, the practice of dhikr has tended to be organised
according to a structured practice involving the repeating of one of Allah’s Divine Names/
Attributes (Al-Asma Al-Husna). For many centuries, Sufism, the mystical branch of Islam,
has created many kinds of dhikr techniques which Sufis perform. Traditionally, Sufism has
categorised dhikr according to the verbal dhikr (dhikr jali) and dhikr of the heart (dhikr
kafi) (Geels 1996).
Although dhikr is highly encouraged amongst Muslims in general it is not in the same
category as salat, since it does not incorporate a single, standardised form. Rather, dhikr
comprises many performative features, some of which have been borrowed from older
religious traditions. For example, Goldziher (1917:176–177) argues dhikr practices in Sufi
orders which included ecstasy and kenosis can be traced back to India. The use of the
rosary used during dhikr is a case in point. The rosary becomes widespread amongst

123
J Relig Health

Muslims as an item of religious devotion, spreading through Sufi orders. Furthermore, the
religious pluralism found in India became fertile ground for the adoption on non-Muslim
devotional practices by both Sufis and lay Muslims, influencing Indian Sufi orders such as
the Chistiyyah. The Chistiyyah, particularly, became an ideological bridge between Islam
and Hinduism, providing a point of vehicle for religious syncretism and social integration
(Khizer 1991; Rizvi 1965; Nadwi 1977). The various forms of dhikr found in the Muslim
world testify to the varieties of religious expression of Muslims in general, and how
changing sociological milieu inform religious practices. For example, Werbner (1996)
argues how modern day Sufis in the UK sacralise ‘‘domestic’’ space during collective
rituals, and by doing so, root their identity in these new localities. Furthermore, the
Naqshbandiyya in Rotterdam blend sober and ecstatic dhikr styles from both
Naqshbandiyya and Mawlawiyyah orders (Widiyanto 2006). For the Dutch-based Naqsh-
bandis, dhikr is viewed as a psycho-physical therapeutic practice par excellence, rendering
the adherent in proximity with Divine healing (Widiyanto 2006). This is a poignant
example of how dhikr is becoming accommodated in modern, non-Muslim environments.
While attention on dhikr has mainly focussed on its spiritual merits, recent research points
to dhikr as a marker of changing ‘‘Muslim’’ identity in the West. For example, Saniotis
(2012b) notes that Sufi traditions are strongly placed in fostering inter-religious tolerance
and liberalism in parts of the Islamic world. The fact that western Sufis (i.e. adherents from
the Sufi movement of Inayat Khan, which is a branch of the Chistiyyah brotherhood)
engage in modified forms of dhikr throughout the world is also a case in point in the
globalisation of Muslim mysticism. The implications here include:
1. How dhikr is being modified by adherents as a psycho-therapeutic method in non-
Muslim societies.
2. Increasing globalisation of dhikr has enabled western neuroscientists to investigate its
features from a psychoneuroimmunological viewpoint.
3. Further research into dhikr may further validate its neuro-behavioural benefits.

Dhikr: Symbolic Elements

The idea of the centre is ubiquitous in Muslim societies and is symbolised by the holy
ka’ba located at Mecca, being the most sacred shrine in Islam. For Indo-Muslims, the
ka’ba is considered as the ‘‘omphalos of the world, the navel of the earth’’ the sacral point
of the world’s beginning, and the nexus between heaven and earth (Akkach 1995:93).
Eliade’s notion of the pilgrimage shrine as an archetype of the sacred centre that consti-
tutes a break from the ‘‘profane space surrounding it’’, has exerted a strong influence on the
study of pilgrimage. Eliade discusses the way in which archetypal imagery is linked to
sacred centres. These locations are believed by worshippers as the place where creation
came into existence—at the symbolic centre of the universe, where the divine emanates
itself into the world (Eliade 1957:37). As Eliade points out, ‘‘The centre is first and
foremost, the point of ‘absolute beginning’ where the latent energies of the sacred first
broke through; where the supernatural beings of myth, or the gods or God of religion, first
created man and the world. Ultimately all creation takes place at this point’’ (Eliade
1957:37). Dhikr is important, recommended and practiced; however, it is not in the same
category as is Salat. Hence, the various forms (for example, as mentioned by the authors a
form chilla in the Indian subcontinent), and the different levels of current and potential
practice of it by the followers. This requires some further discussion and implications in
terms of research and practice.

123
 J Relig Health

A common dhikr technique performed by Sufis is called wazifa, which involves either
the verbal or silent chanting of one or more of the Divine Names/Attributes. In India, for
example, wazifa may be practiced by Sufis over a period of days or weeks, in which a
Divine Name/Attribute may be repeated hundred and thousands of times. Sufis generally
believe that the practice of wazifa enables the participant to psychologically experience the
unique quality of a Divine Name/Attribute. When performed silently and in coordination
with the breath (fikr), wazifa may lead to psychological equilibrium and produce a state of
calmness (Haas 1943, Chishti 1985).
Laughlin (1996) postulates that intensive concentration on a ritual symbol may produce
a transformative state of consciousness analogous to a mystical state of being. Moreover,
prolonged and repetitive ritual body movements, as characterised by dhikr have the ability
to elicit altered states of consciousness, thereby enabling the participant to intensify their
state of communion with the sacred other (Myerhoff 1974; Winkelman 2000, 2002, 2004).
The production of altered states of consciousness (ASC) through repetitive ritualised
performance has been ascribed by Winkelman (2002) as being caused by the synchronising
of the frontal cortex and the limbic system, in which the latter verges towards parasym-
pathetic dominance. The parasympathetic system coordinates relaxation, with concomitant
reduction in stress hormones (adrenaline, noradrenaline, cortisol) and activation of
endogenous opioids. Additionally, the action of the parasympathetic system stimulates
serotonergic function in order to heighten a sense of calmness and enhancement of immune
response and neurogenesis (Veenstra-VanderWeele et al. 2000; Winkelman 2004;
Mel’nikova et al. 2012).

Conclusion

This article has provided an overview of salat and dhikr as mind/body medicine. These two
ritual practices are embedded in the psychology of many Muslims. While the historical and
religious aspects of salat and dhikr are well documented, there have been few studies
conducted on their therapeutic aspects. In the author’s view, more quantitative and qual-
itative research is needed in further examining the mind/body aspects of salat and dhikr.
Well-rounded research could combine anthropological, psychological, neuroscientific, and
epidemiological approaches to understanding the multi-factorial nature of these two
practices.
Currently, there is need for physicians to incorporate more mind/body techniques due to
the dramatic increase in chronic stress-related disorders throughout the world. This is a
critical issue which needs short-term and long-term addressing. Loeppke (2008) refers to
present levels of chronic illnesses as a modern onslaught. It is reasonable to suggest that
mind/body medicine as offered in the practice of salat and dhikr may assist in the pre-
vention of chronic illness, as well as, as alleviating the symptoms of chronic disease.
Medical research into salat and dhikr should be conducted with sensitivity to Muslim
beliefs and values. Moreover, such research should be conducted with a view of educating
Muslim physicians on salat and dhikr as mind/body medicine. It is because Islam is
concerned with the health and welfare of Muslims, that salat and dhikr can also be
promoted by physicians as fostering psycho-physical well-being. This is not to reduce the
spiritual intent or purpose of these practices, but rather, to also include them as possible
therapies for practicing Muslim physicians. It is evident that for over 1,200 100 years
Muslim physicians have possessed a keen understanding of the mind/body dynamic and its
relationship with disease. Moreover, it is of clinical significance to increase our

123
J Relig Health

understanding into the possible causes of psycho-physical distress, and how these may be
reduced via the performance of salat and dhikr.

References

Akkach, S. (1995). In the image of the cosmos order and symbolism in traditional Islamic architecture Part
(1). The Islamic Quarterly, 39(1), 5–17.
Al-Barzinjy, N., Rasool, M. T., & Al-Dabbagh, T. Q. (2009). Islamic praying and osteoarthritis changes of
weight bearing joints. Duhok Medical, 3(1), 33–44.
Alberini, C. M. (2009). Transcription factors in long-term memory and synaptic plasticity. Physiological
Reviews, 89, 121–145.
Al-Ghazal, S. K. (2003). The valuable contributions of Al-Razi (Rhazes) in the history of pharmacy during
the middle ages. JISHIM, 2, 9–11.
Al-Rawi, S., & Fetters, M. D. (2012). Traditional Arabic and Islamic medicine: A conceptual model for
clinicians and researchers. Global Journal of Health Science, 4(3), 164–169.
Al-Tharshi, A. (1992). As-salaat war-riyadhiyya wal-badan (prayer, exercise, and the body). Beirut:
Maktabatul Islami.
Avicenna, (1952). Avicenna’s psychology. In F. Rahman (Ed.), An english translation of Kitāb al-Najāt,
Book II, Chapter VI, with historico-philosophical notes and textual improvements on the Cairo edition.
London: Oxford University Press.
Baer, R. A. (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: A conceptual and empirical review.
Clinical Psychology Science and Practice, 10, 125–143.
Bakhtiar, L. (1991). Sufi: Expressions of the mystic quest. London: Thames and Hudson.
Berntson, G. G., Norman, G. J., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2008). Spirituality and autonomic
cardiac control. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 35, 198–208.
Chishti, A. G. M. (1985). The book of sufi healing. New York: Inner Traditions International, Limited.
Cotman, C. W., & Berchtold, N. C. (2002). Exercise: A behavioural intervention to enhance brain health and
plasticity. Trends in Neurosciences, 25(6), 295–301.
Cotman, C. W., Berchtold, N. C., & Christie, L. A. (2007). Exercise builds brain health: Key roles of growth
factor cascades and inflammation. Trends in Neurosciences, 30, 464–472.
Desjarlais, R. R. (1994). Body and emotion: The aesthetics of illness and healing in the Nepal Himalayas.
Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
Deuraseh, N., & Talib, M. A. (2005). Mental health in Islamic medical tradition. The International Medical
Journal, 4(2), 76–79.
Dissanayake, E. (1992). Homo aestheticus: Where art comes from and why. New York: The Free Press.
Editorial. (2012). New insights into BDNF signaling: Relevance to major depression and antidepressant
action. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 1137–1140.
Eliade, M. (1957). Patterns in comparative religion. Rosemary sheed. Trans. Cleveland: World Publishing
House.
Ernst, E., Pittler, M. H., Wider, B., & Boddy, K. (2007). Mind–body therapies: Are the trial data getting
stronger? Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 13(5), 62–64.
Geels, A. (1996). A note of the psychology of dhikr: The Helveti–Jerrahi order of dervishes in Istanbul. The
International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 6(4), 229–251.
Goldberg, D., Hoffman, A., Furomoto-Dawson, A., & Nelson-Johnson, H. (1998). Mindfulness-based stress
reduction and its effects on well-being. Journal of Investigative Medicine, 46, 278A.
Goldziher, L. (1917). Vorlesungen uber den Islam. Translated by K. C. Steelye. New Haven: Yale University
Press.
Gordon, J. S. (2008). Mind–body medicine and cancer. Hematology/oncology Clinics of North America,
22(4), 683–708.
Grossman, P., Niemann, L., Schmidt, S., et al. (2004). Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health
benefits: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 57, 35–43.
Haas, W. S. (1943). The zikr of the Rahmanija-Order in Algeria: A psycho-physiological analysis. The
Moslem World: A Christian Quarterly Review of Current Events, Literature, and Thought Among
Mohammedans, 33, 16–28.
Haque, A. (2004). Psychology from Islamic perspective: Contributions of early Muslim scholars and
challenges to contemporary Muslim psychologists. Journal of Religion and Health, 43(4), 357–377.
Helman, C. G. (2008). Medical anthropology. Hampshire: Ashgate.

123
 J Relig Health

Hoffman, V. J. (1995). Sufism, mystics, and saints in modern Egypt. South Carolina: University of South
Carolina Press.
Hölzel, B. K., Lazar, S. W., Gard, T., Schuman-Olivier, Z., Vago, D. R., & Ott, U. (2011). How does
mindfulness meditation work? Proposing mechanisms of action from a conceptual and neural per-
spective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 6537–6559.
Jevning, R., Anand, R., Biedebach, M., & Fernando, G. (1996). Effects on regional blood flow of Tran-
scendental meditation. Physiology and Behavior, 59(3), 399–402.
Jha, A. P., Krompinger, J., & Baime, M. (2007). Mindfulness training modifies subsystems of attention.
Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience, 7, 109–119.
Kabat-Zinn, J., Massion, A. O., Kristeller, J., Peterson, L. G., Fletcher, K. E., Pbert, L., et al. (1992).
Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress reduction program in the treatment of anxiety disorders.
American Journal of Psychiatry, 149(7), 936–943.
Kapferer, B. (1983). A celebration of demons. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Kapferer, B. (1997). The feast of the sorcerer. Chicago: Universtiy of Chicago Press.
Khizer, M. M. (1991). Sufism and social Integration. In A. Asghar (Ed.), Sufism and Carnival Harmony (pp.
102–123). Printwell: Jaipur.
Laughlin, C. D. (1996). The mystical brain: Biogenetic structural studies in the anthropology of religion.
http://www.biogeneticstructuralism.com/articles.htm
Lazar, S. W. (2011). Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density. Psy-
chiatry Research Neuroimaging, 191, 36–42.
Lewis, I. M. (1971). Ecstatic religion: An anthropological study of spirit possession and shamanism.
Baltimore: Penguin.
Loeppke, R. (2008). The value of health and the power of prevention. International Journal of Workplace
Health Management, 1(2), 95–108.
Luders, E., Clark, K., Narr, K. L., & Toga, A. W. (2011). Enhanced brain connectivity in long-term
meditation practitioners. Neuroimage, 57(4), 1308–1316.
Mason, O., & Hargreaves, I. (2001). A qualitative study of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for
depression. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 74, 197–212.
Mattson, M. P. (2012a). Evolutionary aspects of human exercise—born to run purposefully. Ageing
Research Reviews, 11, 347–352.
Mattson, M. P. (2012b). Energy intake and exercise as determinants of brain health and vulnerability to
injury and disease. Cell Metabolism, 16, 706–722.
Mel’nikova, V. I., Isvol’skaya, M. S., Voronova, S. N., & Zakharova, L. A. (2012). The role of serotonin in
the immune system development and functioning during ontogenesis. Biology Bulletin, 39(3),
237–243.
Miller, J. J., Fletcher, K. E., & Kabat-Zinn, J. (1995). Three-year follow-up and clinical implications of a
mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction intervention in the treatment of anxiety disorders.
General Hospital Psychiatry, 17, 192–200.
Mills, N., & Allen, J. (2000). Mindfulness of movement as a coping strategy in multiple sclerosis. A pilot
study. General Hospital Psychiatry, 22, 425–431.
Myerhoff, B. G. (1974). Peyote hunt: The sacred Journey of the Huichol Indians. Ithaca, New York: Cornell
University Press.
Nadwi, A. H. A. (1977). Saviours of the Islamic spirit (Vol. 2). Lucknow: Academy of Islamic Research and
Publications.
Newberg, A., d’Aquilli, E., & Rause, V. (2002). Why wont god go away: Brain science and the biology of
belief. New York: Ballantine Books.
Newberg, A., Pourdelnad, M., Alavi, A., & d’Aquilli, E. E. (2003). Cerebral blood flow during meditative
prayer: Preliminary findings and methodological issues. Percept Motor Skills, 97, 625–630.
Nicholson, R. A. (1976). The idea of personality in sufism. Delhi: Idarrah-I-adabiyat-I Delhi.
Noakes, T., & Spedding, M. (2012). Run for your life. Nature, 487, 295–296.
Obeyeskere, G. (1981). Medusa’s hair: An essay on personal symbols and religious experience. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Pace, T. W., Negi, L. T., & Adame, D. D. (2009). Effect of compassion meditation on neuroendocrine,
innate immune and behavioural responses to psychosocial stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34,
87–98.
Penn, M. S., & Bakken, E. E. (2007). Heart–brain medicine: Where we go from here and why. Cleveland
Clinic Journal Medicine, 74(Suppl 1), S4–S6.
Phillips, A. A. B. (1989). Ibn Taymeeyah’s essay on The jinn (demons). Abridged, annotated and translated
by Abu Ameenah Bilal Phillips. Riyadh: Tawheed.

123
J Relig Health

Rani, R., Tiwari, S. C., & Srivastava, N. (2012). Yoga Nidra as a complementary treatment of anxiety and
depressive symptoms in patients with menstrual disorder. International Journal of Yoga, 5(1), 52–56.
Reza, M. F., Urakami, Y., & Mano, Y. (2002). Evaluation of a new physical exercise taken from salat
(prayer) as a short-duration and frequent physical activity in the rehabilitation of geriatric and disabled
patients. Annals of Saudi Medicine, 22(3–4), 177–180.
Rizvi, A. A. (1965). Muslim revivalist movements in Northern India in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. Agra: Agra University Press.
Saniotis, A. (2001). Speaking with the saints: Hukm as a creative source of Faqirs’ mystical expression. The
Australian Journal of Anthropology, 12(3), 355–366.
Saniotis, A. (2012a). Attaining the mystical body: Indian sufi ascetic practices. Australian Journal of
Anthropology, 23(1), 65–83.
Saniotis, A. (2012b). Mystical strategies: Sufism in the 21st century. Prajna Vihara. The Journal of Phi-
losophy and Religion, 12(1), 45–50.
Schimmel, A. (1976). Mystical dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: The University of Carolina Press.
Shirayama, Y., Chen, A. C. H., Nakagawa, S., Russell, D. S., & Duman, R. S. (2002). Brain-derived
neurotrophic factor produces antidepressant effects in behavioral models of depression. The Journal of
Neuroscience, 22(8), 3251–3261.
Stoddart, W. (1994). Sufism: The mystical doctrines and methods of Islam. New Delhi: Taj Company.
Streeter, C., Gerbarg, P., & Saper, R. (2012). Yoga therapy associated with increased brain GABA levels
and decreased depressive symptoms in subjects with major depressive disorder: A pilot study. BMC
Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 12(Suppl 1), P31.
Syed, I. B. (2002). Islamic medicine: 1000 years ahead of it times. JISHIM, 2, 1–9.
Tang, Y.-Y., Lu, Q., Geng, X., Stein, E. A., Yang, Y., & Posner, M. I. (2010). Short-term meditation induces
white matter changes in the anterior cingulate. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
107(35), 15649–15652. doi:10.1073/pnas.1011043107.
Turner, V. (1967). The forest of symbols: Aspects of Ndembu ritual. Ithaca: Cornell.
Turner, V. (1969). The ritual process: Structure and anti-structure. Chicago: Aldine.
Veenstra-VanderWeele, J., Anderson, G. M., & Cook, E. H. (2000). Pharmacogenetics and the serotonin
system: Initial studies and future directions. European Journal of Pharmacology, 410(2–3), 165–181.
Vestergaard-Poulsen, P., van Beek, M., Skewes, J., Bjarkam, C. R., Stubberup, M., Bertelsen, J., & Roe-
pstorff, A. (2009). Long-term meditation is associated with increased gray matter density in the brain
stem. NeuroReport, 20, 170–174.
Wahbeh, H., Elsas, S. M., & Oken, B. S. (2008). Mind–body interventions: Applications in neurology.
Neurology, 70(24), 2321–2328.
Wahbeh, H., Haywood, A., Kaufman, K., Harling, N., & Zwickey, H. (2009). Mind–body medicine and
immune system outcomes: A systematic review. The Open Complementary Medicine Journal, 1,
25–34.
Werbner, P. (1996). Stamping the earth with the name of Allah: Zikr and the sacralising of space among
British Muslims. Cultural Anthropology, 11(3), 309–338.
Widiyanto, W. (2006). Spiritualiuty amidst the uproar of modernity: The ritual of Dhikr and its meanings
among members of Naqshbandy Sufi Order in Western Europe. Al-Ja[mi‘ah, 44, 252–274.
Winkelman, M. (2000). Shamanism: The neural ecology of consciousness and healing. Westport: Bergin
and Garvey.
Winkelman, M. (2002). Shamanism as neutheology and evolutionary psychology. American Behavioral
Scientist, 45(12), 1873–1885.
Winkelman, M. (2004). Shamanism as the original neurotheology. Zygon, 39(1), 193–217.
Yücel, S. (2010). Prayer and healing: With addendum of 25 remedies for the sick by Said Nursi. New Jersey:
Tughra Books.

123