Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Managing Water under
Figures Uncertainty and Risk
to $100 billion per year between 2020 and 2050 stage of implementation. However, progress appears to
(World Bank, 2010). Of this cost, between US$13.7 bil- have slowed in low and medium Human Development
lion (drier scenario) and $19.2 billion (wetter scenario) Index (HDI) countries since the 2008 survey.
will be related to water, predominantly through water
supply and flood management.
• Water is not confined to political borders. An esti-
Chapter 2
mated 148 states have international basins within their
territory (OSU, n.d., 2008 data), and 21 countries lie Water demand: What drives
entirely within them (OSU, n.d, 2002 data). consumption?
• About 2 billion people worldwide depend on
groundwater supplies, which include 273 transbound- Food and agriculture
ary aquifer systems (ISARM, 2009; Puri and Aureli, • Irrigation is only a modest part of agricultural water
2009). consumption but it accounts for more than 40% of the
• Sixty per cent of the world’s 276 international river world’s production on less than 20% of the cultivated
basins lack any type of cooperative management land.
framework (De Stefano et al., 2010). • Concerns about food insecurity are growing across
• There are numerous examples where transbound- the globe and more water will be needed to meet
ary waters have proved to be a source of cooperation increasing demands for food and energy (biofuels).
rather than conflict. Nearly 450 agreements on inter- Withdrawals for agriculture tend to decrease with
national waters were signed between 1820 and 2007 increasing levels of development.
(OSU, n.d., 2007 data). • In many countries, water availability for agriculture
• The need to meet a 60% increase in demand for is already limited and uncertain, and is set to worsen.
energy over the next three decades, combined with Agricultural water withdrawal accounts for 44% of
the imperative to invest in clean energy to mitigate cli- total water withdrawal in OECD countries, but for more
mate change, is already making hydropower and bio- than 60% within the eight OECD countries that rely
fuels critical parts of the development equation (Steer, heavily on irrigated agriculture. In the BRIC countries
2010). (Brazil, Russian Federation, India and China), agricul-
• Only 5% of total hydropower potential has been ture accounts for 74% of water withdrawals (this ranges
exploited in Africa (IEA, 2010a), where many hydro- from 20% in the Russian Federation to 87% in India). In
power sites are situated on transboundary rivers, thus the least developed countries (LDCs), the figure is more
providing significant opportunities for increased coop- than 90% (FAO, 2011b).
eration on benefit sharing among neighbouring states. • Globally, irrigated crop yields are ~2.7 times those of
rainfed farming, hence irrigation will continue to play an
Recognizing water in global policy important role in food production. The area equipped
• The world is on track to meet the Millennium for irrigation increased from 170 million ha in 1970 to
Development Goal (MDG) on ‘access to safe drinking 304 million ha in 2008. There is still potential for expan-
water’, although progress varies across regions and sion, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa and South
sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab region lag behind. By America, in places where sufficient water is available.
contrast, the sanitation target (which is not necessarily • Although there is still potential to increase the
linked to water, although hygiene is) currently appears cropped area, some 5–7 million ha (0.6%) of agricultural
out of reach, as half the population of developing land are lost annually because of accelerating land deg-
regions continue to lack access to basic sanitation. radation and urbanization, which reduces the number
• UN-Water conducted a global survey in 2011 to of farms as more people move to the cities. Increasing
determine progress towards sustainable manage- population means that the amount of cultivated land
ment of water resources using integrated approaches. per person is also declining sharply: from 0.4 ha in 1961
Preliminary findings from the analysis of data from to 0.2 ha in 2005.
more than 125 countries show that there has been • The world population is predicted to grow from
widespread adoption of integrated approaches with 6.9 billion in 2010 to 8.3 billion in 2030 and to 9.1 billion
significant impact on development and water manage- in 2050 (UNDESA, 2009a).
ment practices at the country level: 64% of countries • With expected increases in population, by 2030,
have developed integrated water resources manage- food demand is predicted to increase by 50% (70% by
ment (IWRM) plans, as called for in the Johannesburg 2050) (Bruinsma, 2009), while energy demand from
Plan of Implementation, and 34% report an advanced hydropower and other renewable energy resources will
FACTS AND FIGURES FROM THE WWDR4 3
rise by 60% (WWAP, 2009). These issues are intercon- this is expected to increase globally by 44% between
nected – increasing agricultural output, for example, 2006 and 2030 (IEA, 2009), especially in non-OECD
will substantially increase both water and energy con- countries where wastewater currently receives little
sumption, leading to increased competition for water or no treatment (Corcoran et al., 2010).
between water-using sectors. • EIA (2010) estimates that global energy con-
• The main challenge facing the agricultural sector is sumption will increase by ~49% from 2007 to 2035
not so much growing 70% more food in 40 years, but (Figure 1). This increase in energy consumption will
making 70% more food available on the plate. Reducing be higher in non-OECD countries (84%) than in OECD
losses in storage and along the value chain may go countries (14%), with the primary driver being the
a long way towards offsetting the need for more expected growth in GDP and the associated increased
production. economic activity.
• Although projections vary considerably based on dif-
ferent scenario assumptions and methodologies, FAO Figure 1 World marketed energy consumption,
estimates an 11% increase in irrigation water consump- 2007–2035
tion from 2008 to 2050. This is expected to increase 800
Non-OECD OECD
world’s agricultural land (IEA, 2006). Biofuels are requirements for energy production could decrease
water intensive and can add to the strains on local by 2.9% until 2050. Unfortunately, the water avail-
hydrological systems and GHG emissions. ability required for energy production is often not
• No increases can be expected in electricity from considered when new energy production facilities are
liquid fossil fuels, and very little from nuclear produc- planned. Similarly, energy needs for water systems
tion (Figure 2). The production of electricity from are often overlooked.
coal, renewable energy and natural gas, however, is • In life-cycle analyses, it has been observed that
expected to increase significantly. Electricity produc- desalination of locally available sources gener-
tion from renewables is expected to more than dou- ally requires significantly more energy than import-
ble until 2035, with hydropower growing in overall ing water sources (Strokes and Horvath, 2009), and
production, but less significantly in percentage than requires generally six times more energy than waste-
wind, solar and PV (EIA, 2010; WWF, 2011). water treatment (WEF, 2011a).
35,000
drawals are used by industry, although this varies
30,000
between regions and countries.
25,000 • The percentage of a country’s industrial sector
20,000 water demands is generally proportional to the aver-
age income level, representing only ~5% of water
15,000
withdrawals in low-income countries, compared to
10,000
over 40% in some high-income countries (Figure 3).
5,000
0
Human settlements
2007 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 • Between 2009 and 2050, the world population
Fossil fuels Coal Natural gas is expected to increase by 2.3 billion, from 6.8 to
Renewables Nuclear
9.1 billion (UNDESA, 2009a). At the same time, urban
Note: for this figure, fossil fuels refers to liquids such as pe- populations are projected to increase by 2.9 billion,
troleum and liquefied gases. Coal and natural gas are consid- from 3.4 billion in 2009 to 6.3 billion total in 2050.
ered separately. Thus, the urban areas of the world are expected to
Source: Data from EIA (2010). absorb all of the population growth over the next
four decades, while also drawing in some of the rural
• Wind and solar photovoltaic (PV) currently population. Furthermore, most of the population
account for 3% of global electricity production. growth expected in urban areas will be concentrated
During operation, these technologies use virtually in the cities and towns of less developed regions
no water with the exception of washing of blades or (UN-Habitat, 2006).
solar cells (WEF, 2009). However, water requirements • Worldwide, 87% of the population gets its drinking
for washing solar panels can be important to remove water from improved sources, and the correspond-
dust when they are operating in or near deserts. Also, ing figure for developing regions is also high at 84%.
in the case of large-scale deployment of concentrat- Access is far greater, however, in urban areas (at
ing solar power, the electricity is generated via the 94%), while only 76% of rural populations have access
same steam cycle as thermal power plants and will to improved sources (WHO/UNICEF, 2010).
therefore have cooling water requirements, which • Urban areas, although better served than rural
can be a challenge in hot and dry regions (Carter and areas, are struggling to keep up with population
Campbell, 2009). growth (WHO/UNICEF, 2010). Projected demographic
• The anticipated water requirements for energy growth in urban areas raises concern: if efforts con-
production will increase by 11.2% by 2050 if cur- tinue at the current rate, improvements in sanitation
rent consumption modes are kept. Under a scenario facility coverage will only increase by 2% – from 80%
that assumes increasing energy efficiency of con- in 2004 to 82% in 2015 (an additional 81 million peo-
sumption modes, WEC (2010) estimates that water ple) (WHO/UNICEF, 2006).
FACTS AND FIGURES FROM THE WWDR4 5
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
World
Central Asia
South Asia
(incl. India)
Northern Africa
Western Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa
South-East Asia
Australia and
New Zealand
East Asia
(incl. China)
Southern America
(incl. Brazil)
Pacific Islands
Central America
and Caribbean
Northern America
Eastern Europe
(incl. Russian Fed.)
Western and
Central Europe
Least Developed
Countries
Agricultural Industrial Municipal
• A comparison of the latest estimates from 2008 of carbon storage, food, raw materials (timber), and
with those of 2000 indicates a deterioration in both recreation and tourism services (TEEB, 2009).
water and sanitation coverage in urban areas. In both
cases, this means an increase of 20% in the number
of individuals living in cities who lack access to basic
Chapter 3
facilities (AquaFed, 2010).
• Urban settlements are the main source of point- The water resource: Variability,
source pollution. Urban wastewater is particularly vulnerability and uncertainty
threatening when combined with untreated industrial
waste. In general, the ratio of untreated to treated The vulnerability of natural long-term
wastewater reaching water bodies is significantly storage: Groundwater
higher in developing regions of the world. • As of 2010 the world’s aggregated groundwater
• Up to 90% of wastewater in developing countries abstraction is estimated at ~1,000 km3 per year, ~67%
flows untreated into rivers, lakes and highly produc- of which is used for irrigation, 22% for domestic pur-
tive coastal zones, threatening health, food secu- poses and 11% for industrial purposes (EUROSTAT,
rity and access to safe drinking and bathing water 2011; FAO 2011b, IGRAC, 2010; Margat, 2008; Siebert
(Corcoran et al., 2010). et al., 2010). The rate has at least tripled over the
past 50 years and continues to increase by 1–2% per
Ecosystems year. The estimates suggest that the abstraction of
• All freshwater ultimately depends on the continued groundwater accounts for ~26% of total global water
healthy functioning of ecosystems, and recognizing withdrawal and equals ~8% of mean global ground-
the water cycle as a biophysical process is essential water recharge (WWAP, 2009).
to achieving sustainable water management. • Groundwater is crucial for the livelihoods and
• The water-related services provided by tropi- food security of 1.2–1.5 billion rural households in the
cal forests include regulation of water flows, waste poorer regions of Africa and Asia (Comprehensive
treatment/water purification and erosion preven- Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture,
tion. These collectively account for a value of up to 2007), but also for domestic supplies of a large part
US$7,236 per ha per year – more than 44% of the of the population elsewhere in the world.
total value of forests, exceeding the combined value • The global volume of stored groundwater is poorly
known; estimates range from 15.3 to 60 million km3,
6 FACTS AND FIGURES FROM THE WWDR4
including 8–10 million km3 of freshwater, while the typically, poorer, nations. For example, 62% of the
remainder – brackish and saline groundwater – is UK’s water footprint is virtual water embedded in
predominant at great depth (Margat, 2008). agricultural commodities and products imported
• Significant groundwater storage depletion is tak- from other countries – 38% originates from domestic
ing place in many areas of intensive groundwater water resources (Chapagain and Orr, 2008).
withdrawal. • There is ample evidence that humans are over-
consuming natural resources overall at an unsus-
Water quality tainable rate. Various estimates indicate that, based
• Over 80% of used water worldwide is not collected on business as usual, ~3.5 planet Earths would be
or treated (Corcoran et al., 2010). needed to sustain a global population achieving the
• The provision of improved sanitation and safe current lifestyle of the average European or North
drinking water could reduce diarrhoeal diseases by American.
nearly 90% (WHO, 2008a).
• Human health risks are without doubt the major Water-related hazard risk
and most widespread concern linked to water quality. • Water-related hazards account for 90% of all
Each year ~3.5 million deaths related to inadequate natural hazards, and their frequency and intensity
water supply, sanitation and hygiene occur, predomi- is generally rising. Some 373 natural disasters killed
nantly in developing countries (WHO, 2008b). more than 296,800 people in 2010, affected nearly
• Diarrhoeal diseases, often related to contaminated 208 million others and cost nearly US$110 billion
drinking water, are estimated to cause the death of (UN, 2011).
more than 1.5 million children under the age of five • According to the UN Global Assessment Report,
per year (Black et al., 2010). since 1900 more than 11 million people have died as
• An important share of the total burden of disease a consequence of drought and more than 2 billion
worldwide, ~10%, could be prevented by improve- have been affected by drought, more than any other
ments related to drinking water, sanitation, hygiene, physical hazard (UNISDR, 2011).
and use of environmental management and health • Between 1970 and 2010 the world’s population
impact assessments. increased by 87% (from 3.7 billion to 6.9 billion)
(UNISDR, 2011). During the same period, the annual
average population exposed to flood increased by
112% (from 33.3 to 70.4 million per year) (UNISDR,
Chapter 4
2011).
Beyond demand: Water’s social • By 2050, rising populations in flood-prone lands,
and environmental benefits climate change, deforestation, loss of wetlands and
rising sea levels are expected to increase the number
Water and human health of people vulnerable to flood disaster to 2 billion
• Every year there are 3–5 million cholera cases (UNU, 2004).
and 100,000–120,000 deaths due to cholera. WHO • With regard to extreme events, a recent study of
estimates that only 5–10% of cases are officially 141 countries found that more women than men die
reported. The overall increase in the number of from natural hazards, and that this disparity is linked
cholera cases for the decade 2000–2010 was 130% most strongly to women’s unequal socio-economic
(WHO, 2010). status (Neumayer and Plümper, 2007).
Cholera is endemic in regions with poor socio-eco-
nomic conditions, rudimentary sanitary systems, ab- Impact of desertification on water resources
sence of wastewater treatment, and where public hy- • Poor and unsustainable land utilization and man-
giene and safe drinking water is lacking (Huq et al., agement practices are leading to desertification
1996). The risk of cholera outbreaks intensifies dur- and land degradation around the world, increasing
ing humanitarian crises, such as conflicts and floods, pressure on water resources and leading to water
and displacement of large populations. scarcity. Estimates indicate that nearly 2 billion ha
of land worldwide – an area twice the size of China
Ecosystem health – are already seriously degraded, some irreversibly
• Rich nations are tending to maintain or increase (FAO, 2008a).
their consumption of natural resources (WWF, 2010), • Land degradation is increasing, with almost one-
but are exporting their footprints to producer, and quarter of the global land area being degraded
FACTS AND FIGURES FROM THE WWDR4 7
• Africa’s rising population is driving demand for of population growth (FAO, 2008b). Groundwater
water and accelerating the degradation of water represents 15% of total renewable resources, but an
resources in many countries. By mid-2011, Africa’s estimated 75% or more of the African population uses
population (excluding the northern-most states) was groundwater as their main source of drinking water
~838 million and its average natural rate of increase (UNEP, 2010b).
was 2.6% per year, compared to the world average of • Significant variations both between and within
1.2%. By one estimate its population will grow to 1,245 subregions account for the low average per capita
million by 2025 and to 2,069 million by 2050 (PRB, water withdrawals of 247 m3 per year. Africa’s annual
2011). total water withdrawal is 215 km3, or barely 5.5% of
• Sub-Saharan Africa is the world’s poorest and the renewable water resources on the continent, and
least-developed region, with half its population liv- less than 6% of water withdrawals worldwide (FAO,
ing on less than a dollar a day. About two-thirds of 2005).
its countries rank among the lowest in the HDI (FAO, • About 66% of Africa is arid or semi-arid and more
2008b). than 300 of the 800 million people in sub-Saharan
• The urban slum population in sub-Saharan African Africa live in a water-scarce environment – meaning
countries is expected to double to ~400 million by that they have less than 1,000 m3 per capita (NEPAD,
2020 if governments do not take immediate and radi- 2006).
cal action (UN-Habitat, 2005). • The coverage of drinking water supply in sub-Saha-
• Population growth is stabilizing: there has been a ran Africa2 is barely 60%; the world average is ~87%.
progressive reduction in the growth rate from ~2.8% Of the 884 million people in the world still using
in 1990–1995 to a projected 2.3% in 2010–2015 (FAO, unimproved drinking water sources, 37% live in this
2005). This trend, coupled with increasing eco- region. Provision of improved water sources in urban
nomic growth, is likely to contribute to increased areas remained at 83% between 1990 and 2008. In
socio-economic development, including better water rural areas, it was only 47% in 2008, although this
management. represented an 11% increase on 1990 figures, or 110
• The economies of most African countries depend million more people gaining access to improved water
largely on rainfed agriculture as the major driver of supplies (WHO/UNICEF, 2010).
economic growth. It represents ~20% of the region’s • In sub-Saharan Africa, only 31% of the population
GDP, 60% of its workforce, 20% of its export goods uses improved sanitation facilities, with large differ-
and 90% of rural incomes. Agriculture is by far the ences between urban coverage, which was ~44% in
largest user of water, accounting for ~87% of total 2008, and rural provision, which was 24%. Although
water withdrawals (FAO, 2008b). Investing in agri- the proportion of the population practising open def-
culture, and especially in irrigated farming, is at ecation in the region is declining, in absolute num-
least four times as effective at raising poor people’s bers, it increased from 188 million in 1990 to 224 mil-
incomes as is investment in other sectors (UNEP, lion in 2008 (AMCOW, 2010).
2010b). • Between the mid-1990s and 2008, undernourish-
• Sub-Saharan Africa has a relatively plentiful supply ment in sub-Saharan Africa increased from 200 mil-
of rainwater, with an estimated total average annual lion people to ~350–400 million people (FAO, 2008b).
precipitation of 815 mm (FAO, 2008b), but it is highly Climate change and climate variability are likely to
seasonal, unevenly distributed across the region, and severely compromise agricultural production and food
there are frequent floods and droughts. The greatest security in many African countries (Boko et al., 2007).
amount of rainfall occurs along the equator, espe- • Since the mid-1960s, agricultural production has
cially in the area from the Niger Delta to the Congo increased by an average of less than 2% annually,
River basin. The Sahara Desert has virtually no rainfall. while the population has grown by ~3% (UNECA,
In western and central Africa, rainfall is exceptionally 2006). Some 97% of the region’s croplands depend
variable and unpredictable. on rainfed agriculture, which produces most of
• At the continental level, renewable water resources Africa’s food (FAO, 2008b). Africa needs to increase
constitute only ~20% of the total rainfall and repre- its agricultural output at a rate of 3.3% a year if it is to
sent less than 9% of global renewable resources (FAO, achieve food security by 2025. Water is a key compo-
2005). Internal renewable water resources per person nent of its ability to feed its population because irri-
in sub-Saharan Africa fell from an average of more gated cropland accounts for only 20% of its irrigation
than 16,500 m3 per inhabitant in 1960 to ~5,500 m3
2 WHO’s definition of northern Africa and sub-Saharan Africa excludes
per inhabitant in 2005. This was largely as a result Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia.
FACTS AND FIGURES FROM THE WWDR4 9
potential. In fact, in all but four countries in the • Between 1976 and 2006 in the EU, both the area
region, less than 5% of the cultivated area is irrigated affected by drought and the number of people whose
– so there is considerable scope for expanding irriga- lives were influenced by it doubled. These impacts
tion to increase food security (UNEP, 2010b). include declines in cereal and hydropower production
• Scenarios suggest that increasing the area under and they can have economic repercussions.
irrigation by a factor of three would represent only • Floods have affected more than 3 million people in
a 5% contribution to the increase in food produc- the UNECE region since the beginning of the century,
tion needed by 2025 (UN-Water/Africa and AMCOW, and the associated costs have increased rapidly.
2004). • The IPCC predicts with high confidence that water
• Only one person in four in Africa has electricity. stress will increase in central and southern Europe,
• Hydropower supplies 32% of Africa’s energy, but and that by the 2070s, the number of people affected
it is underdeveloped. Only 3% of its renewable water will rise from 28 million to 44 million. Summer flows
resources are exploited for hydroelectricity (UNEP, are likely to drop by up to 80% in southern Europe
2010b). and some parts of central and eastern Europe.
• The Africa Infrastructure Country Diagnostic Europe’s hydropower potential is expected to drop
(AICD) (Foster and Briceño-Garmendia, 2010) esti- by an average of 6%, but rise by 20–50% around the
mates that US$22 billion is needed annually by the Mediterranean by 2070 (Alcamo et al., 2007).
WSS sector to close the infrastructure gap, meet the • Some 120 million people in Europe do not have
MDGs and achieve national targets in Africa within access to safe drinking water. Even more lack access
ten years. to sanitation, resulting in the spread of water-related
• The AICD also assessed the potential investment diseases.
needed for small-scale irrigation systems in Africa to
be ~US$18 billion and $2.7 billion for large-scale sys- Asia-Pacific
tems over a 50 year investment horizon. • The Asia-Pacific is home to 60% of the world’s
• Africa has about one-third of the world’s major population but it has only 36% of its water resources
international water basins – basins larger than (APWF, 2009). Nevertheless, this represents the
100,000 km2. Virtually all sub-Saharan African coun- world’s largest share of renewable freshwater
tries, and Egypt, share at least one international resources, with an annual average of 21,135 billion m3.
water basin. Depending on how they are counted, Given its large population and economic growth, its
there are between 63 (UNEP, 2010b) and 80 (UNECA, water withdrawal rate is also high, averaging ~11% of
2000) transboundary river and lake basins on the its total renewable water resources, which is on par
African continent. with European rates, and ranks it second in the world
• Over 90 international water agreements were after the water-scarce Middle East (ESCAP, 2010).
drawn up to help manage shared water basins on the Per capita availability here is the lowest in the world
African continent (UNEP, 2010b). (ESCAP, ADB and UNDP 2010).
• Progress has generally been slow in provid-
Europe and North America ing improved sanitation, except in North-East and
• North Americans, the highest per capita water South-East Asia. About 480 million people still lacked
users in the world, consume 2.5 times what access to improved water resources in 2008, while
Europeans use. One reason for this is that water is rel- 1.9 billion still lacked access to improved sanitation.
atively inexpensive compared to other industrialized • Water availability, allocation and quality remain
countries (CEC, 2008). major issues. Irrigated agriculture is the biggest water
• European and North American populations con- user. Agriculture consumes an average of ~80% of the
sume a considerable amount of virtual water embed- region’s renewable water resources (APWF, 2009).
ded in imported food and products. Each person in • Food security is an important issue as about
North America and Europe (excluding former Soviet two-thirds of the world’s hungry people live in Asia
Union countries) consumes at least 3 m3 per day of (APWF, 2009): 65% of the world’s undernourished
virtual water in imported food, compared to 1.4 m3 people are concentrated in seven countries, five
per day in Asia and 1.1 m3 per day in Africa (Zimmer of which are in the region: India, Pakistan, China,
and Renault, n.d.). Bangladesh and Indonesia (APWF, 2009).
• The per capita water used for food production in • Internal migration and urbanization are driving the
Western Europe and North America has decreased rise in the number of megacities (ESCAP, 2011). The
substantially in past decades (Renault, 2002). region has some of the world’s fastest-growing cities
10 FACTS AND FIGURES FROM THE WWDR4
and between 2010 and 2025 a predicted 700 million • Population growth, expanded industrial activ-
people were added to the growing numbers requiring ity, especially mining in Andean countries, and high
municipal water services (ESCAP, 2010). irrigation demand have led to a ten-fold increase in
• In 2010, approximately one-fifth of Pakistan was total water extraction in the LAC region during the
inundated, affecting more than 20 million people in twentieth century. Between 1990 and 2004, extrac-
the flooded areas along the length of the Indus River. tion grew by 76% (UNEP, 2010a). By the mid-2000s
Flooding also destroyed more than 1.6 million acres of it amounted to some 263 km3 per year, with Mexico
crops (Guha-Sapir et al., 2011). and Brazil together accounting for just over half that
• Domestic sewage is a particular concern because amount (UNEP, 2007).
it affects ecosystems near densely populated areas. • Water use for energy can be expected to rise
Approximately 150–250 million m3 per day of throughout the region in line with economic growth.
untreated wastewater from urban areas is discharged Hydropower produces 53% of the region’s electric-
into open water bodies or leached into the subsoil. ity; installed capacity grew by 7% between 2005 and
This has consequences ranging from poor human 2008. Hydropower is expected to provide a signifi-
health and increased infant mortality to widespread cant proportion of the new energy demand (UNEP,
environmental degradation. 2010a).
• The proportion of the region’s population that • The region’s glaciers are receding because of cli-
has access to an improved drinking water source mate change. Glacier retreat affects the water sup-
increased from 73 to 88% between 1990 and 2008 ply of an estimated 30 million people in the region
– an increase of 1.2 billion people (ESCAP, 2010a). (UNEP, 2010a).
China and India together account for a 47% share of • Droughts already occur regularly, and between
the 1.8 billion people globally who gained access to 2000 and 2005 they caused serious economic losses
improved drinking water sources over this period. and affected 1.23 million people (UNEP, 2010a).
Since 1990, 510 million people in East Asia, 137 mil-
lion in South Asia and 115 million in South-East Asia Arab and Western Asia region
gained access to piped water connections on their • At least 12 countries in the Arab and Western Asia
premises (WHO/UNICEF, 2010). region suffer absolute water scarcity, meaning they
• Of the 2.6 billion people who do not use improved have less than 500 m3 of renewable water resources
sanitation facilities, 72% live in Asia (WHO/UNICEF, available per capita per year.
2010). Rapid progress in improved sanitation • Nearly all Arab countries suffer from water scarcity,
occurred in North-East Asia, with a 12% increase in with water consumption significantly exceeding total
access between 1990 and 2008, and in South-East renewable water supplies.
Asia, with a 22% increase. In contrast, the situa- • An estimated 66% of the Arab region’s available
tion in South Asia and South-West Asia is a concern. surface freshwater originates outside the region.
Although the number of people with access to sani- • Cyclical conflict has characterized the Arab region
tation doubled since 1990, the 2008 average cov- for decades, generating large numbers of internally
erage was still only 38%, with the number without displaced persons – the ESCWA region contains 36%
access actually higher than in 2005. Some 64% of the of the world’s displaced persons (ESCWA, 2009).
world’s population that defecate in the open live in Conflict has also caused increased regional migra-
South Asia. This is despite the fact that the practice tion and has strained water resources and services in
decreased most in this area, down from 66% in 1990 areas receiving the displaced populations.
to 44% in 2008 (WHO/UNICEF, 2010). In India alone, • Agriculture is a primary source of water stress in
638 million people still defecate in the open. the Arab region. It accounts for more than 70% of
the total water demand in most ESCWA countries.
Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) In Iraq, Oman, the Syrian Arab Republic and Yemen,
• More than 8% of the world’s population lives in LAC agriculture accounts for more than 90% of water use.
– some 581 million people – with half of them living in Nevertheless, the region is unable to produce suffi-
Brazil and Mexico (UNEP, 2007). cient food to feed its population, with ESCWA mem-
• Although average poverty rates have fallen steadily bers importing 40–50% of their total cereal consump-
over the past 20 years, an estimated 30% of the pop- tion. The situation seems likely to worsen – climate
ulation, or some 177 million people, still live in pov- change is predicted to cause a decline of as much as
erty, and 12% are considered extremely poor (ECLAC, 25% in agricultural productivity in most countries in
2011). the region by 2080 (Cline, 2007).
FACTS AND FIGURES FROM THE WWDR4 11
estimated that water pollution in South Africa costs sanitation, by 2015, would outweigh the investment
the country 1% of its annual national income (Pegram cost by a ratio of 8:1 (Prüss-Üstün and Corvalán, 2006).
and Schreiner, 2010). The principal benefits of waste- • Total aid for all aspects of water fell from 8% to
water treatment are avoidance of the costs of pollution 5% between 1997 and 2008 (WHO/UN-Water, 2010).
and the use of contaminated water by downstream Domestic and foreign aid are not necessarily well tar-
users, such as other municipalities, industries, farmers geted to where need is greatest. Less than half of the
and the tourist industry. In serious cases, the pollu- funding from external support agencies for water and
tion of water bodies has caused industries to be closed sanitation goes to low income countries, and a small
down and relocated at great cost. proportion of these funds is allocated to the provi-
sion of basic services, where it would have the greatest
impact on achieving the MDG target (WHO/UN-Water,
2010).
Chapter 11
• More than 70% of the 1.1 billion poor people surviv-
Transforming water management ing on less than US$1 per day live in rural areas, where
institutions to deal with change they are directly dependent on ecosystem services
(Sachs and Reid, 2006).
• The inability to meet water supply demands and • Improved weather and flood forecasting is crucial
protect people and property against floods and to flood risk management and especially in reducing
droughts is a significant threat to all countries, but the impact of floods. In Kenya, losses from flooding
is felt most notably by developing states unable to from El Niño in 1997–1998 and drought from La Niña in
build the infrastructure needed to reduce the adverse 1998–2000 ranged from 10 to 16% of GDP during those
impacts of such events. The reality is that water years. Investment in weather forecasting and hydrom-
management systems are not designed to satisfy all eteorological services can be highly cost-beneficial.
demands, given the full range of possible expected • Estimates of measures to cope with climate sce-
extreme events under what is understood to be con- narios imply an annual increase in adaptation costs of
temporary hydrological variability. They are designed US$13–17 billion for developing countries as a whole.
to minimize the combination of risks and costs of a This represents 3% of their GDP.
wide range of hazards to society. • Projections are that the annual cost of climate
change adaptation in developing countries in the
industrial and municipal raw water supply sector would
be between US$9.9–10.9 billion (net) and US$18.5–
Chapter 12
19.3 billion (gross). Costs for riverine flood protection
Investment and financing in water are projected between US$3.5–5.9 billion (net) and
for a more sustainable future US$5.2–7.0 billion (gross).3
• The Private Participation in Infrastructure (PPI)
• Improving access to safe water and basic sanitation database, maintained by the World Bank and the
could have huge economic returns. World Bank studies Public-Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility, reported
in five South-East Asian countries estimate that ~2% of that in 2009 the number of water projects reaching
their combined GDP is lost because of poor sanitation, financial or contractual closure had declined by 46%
and in the worst case (Cambodia) this figure rises to compared with 2008, and that annual investment com-
over 7% (World Bank, 2008a). Economic benefits due mitments had fallen by 31% over the same period.
to improvements in health include lower health system • In Africa, under-collection of water bills is valued at
costs, fewer days lost at work or at school through ill- US$0.5 billion annually. Improving the collection rate is
ness or caring for an ill relative, and convenience time an obvious way of increasing water revenues without
savings (Hutton et al., 2007). The prevention of sanita- raising tariffs. Although the better performing water
tion- and water-related diseases could save ~US$7 bil- utilities in Africa normally manage collection rates of
lion per year in health system costs, and the value of 80% or more (Mehta et al., 2009), persistent non-pay-
deaths averted, based on discounted future earnings, ment, especially by public departments and agencies,
would add a further US$3.6 billion per year (Hutton et
al., 2007). 3 Gross costs include all costs incurred by adaptation to climate
change. Net costs allow for (i.e. deduct from gross) any negative
• The WHO estimates that the overall economic costs (i.e. cost savings) that may arise from climate change. The
benefits of halving the proportion of people without method used in this study nets out positive and negative cost items
for each country, but not across countries within a region (World
sustainable access to improved drinking water and Bank, 2010c).
FACTS AND FIGURES FROM THE WWDR4 13
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FACTS AND FIGURES FROM THE WWDR4 15
The United Nations World Water Assessment Programme The WWDR4 is a milestone within the WWDR series,
(WWAP) is hosted by UNESCO and brings together the work reporting directly on regions and highlighting hotspots,
of 28 UN-Water members and partners in the triennial World and it has been mainstreamed for gender equality. It
Water Development Report (WWDR). introduces a thematic approach – ‘Managing Water under
Uncertainty and Risk’ – in the context of a world which is
This flagship report is a comprehensive review that gives changing faster than ever in often unforeseeable ways, with
an overall picture of the world’s freshwater resources. It increasing uncertainties and risks. It highlights that historical
analyses pressures from decisions that drive demand for experience will no longer be sufficient to approximate the
water and affect its availability. It offers tools and response relationship between the quantities of available water and
options to help leaders in government, the private sector shifting future demands.
and civil society address current and future challenges. It
suggests ways in which institutions can be reformed and The WWDR4 also seeks to show that water has a central
their behaviour modified, and explores possible sources of role in all aspects of economic development and social
financing for the urgently needed investment in water. welfare, and that concerted action via a collective approach
of the water-using sectors is needed to ensure water’s many
benefits are maximized and shared equitably and that water-
related development goals are achieved.
© UNESCO-WWAP 2012