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Solar agricultural water pumping system with auto tracking

ABSTRACT

Providing clean, environmentally safe water for livestock in sufficient quantities


continues to be a major concern for farmers and ranchers. Abundant water in
remote locations in needed to insure that grasslands are grazed evenly. A solar
powered water pumping system designed for remote locations was operated to
determine the performance and reliability of the system and components. The
system began pumping water (0.25 L/min) when the solar radiation intensity
exceeded 300W/m2. Flow increased linearly with radiation intensity and reached a
maximum flow of 4.5L/min at an intensity of 900 W/m2. Maximum flow was
dependent on using the correct controller adjustment as well as the radiation
intensity. Daily water volumes pumped ranged from a high of 1,671 L/day to a
low of 504 L/day and average 1,105 L/day.

Solar water pumping system operate on direct current. The output of solar power
system varies throughout the day and with changes in weather conditions.
Photovoltaic module, the power source for solar pumping, have no moving parts,
requires no maintenance and last for decades. A properly designed solar pumping
system will be efficient, simple and reliable. Solar powered pumping systems are
used principally for three applications town and city water supply, livestock
watering and irrigation.
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INTRODUCTION

A solar powered pumping system methods needs to take account of the fact that demand
for irrigation system water will vary throughout the year. Peak demand during the irrigation
system seasons is often more than twice the average demand. This means that solar pumps
for irrigation are under-utilized for most of the year. Attention should be paid to the system
of irrigation water distribution and application to the crops. The irrigation pump system
should minimize water losses, without imposing significant additional head on the irrigation
pumping system and be of low cost. There are several technology alternatives for supplying
power or lift to groundwater systems including wind turbines, windmills, generators, solar
arrays, and hand powered pumps. The main driving factors for selecting the appropriate
technology are regional feasibility, water demand, system efficiencies, and initial and long-
term costs. Other factors often include the need for power and water reserves in the form of
batteries and storage tanks. Solar-powered systems are often considered for use in developing
countries instead of other forms of alternative energy because they are durable and exhibit
long-term economic benefits.

Solar powered water pumping has been recognized as suitable solution for grid-
isolated rural locations in poor countries where there are high levels of solar radiation.
Solar powered water pumping systems can provide drinking water without the need for
any kind of fuel or the extensive maintenance required by diesel pumps. SPPS is also not
adequate for large-scale irrigation, but can work for small-scale drip irrigation systems. A
large-scale SPPS can be considered one that serves over 240 peoples. Photovoltaic (PV)
solar panels are often used for agricultural operations, especially in remote areas or where
the use of an alternative energy source is desired. In particular, they have been
demonstrated time and time again to reliably produce sufficient electricity directly from
solar radiation to power livestock and irrigation watering systems.

Solar water pumps may be especially useful in small scale or community based
irrigation, as large scale irrigation requires large volumes of water that in turn require a
large solar PV array. As the water may only be required during some parts of the year, a
large PV array would provide excess energy that is not necessarily required, thus making
the system inefficient. Solar PV water pumping systems are used for irrigation and
drinking water India. The majority of the pumps are fitted with a 200 watt - 3,000 watt
motor that receives energy from a 1,800 Wp PV array. The larger systems can deliver
about 140,000 liters of water/day from a total head of 10 meters.
SOLAR WATER PUMPING PRINCIPLES
For any solar pumping system, the capacity to pump water is a function of three main
variables pressure, flow, and power to the pump.

1. Pressure: For purposes of designing a solar pumping system, pressure can be


thought of as the work that the pump must overcome to move a certain amount of water.
This is most often expressed in either feet of head or psi (pounds per square inch). This is
also referred to as pressure loss.

Any elevation difference between the source of water and the final destination will
affect how hard the pump needs to work, or how much pressure needs to be created in
order for water to flow. A pump must create 0.433 psi for every foot of elevation
increase, to be exact. When water flows downhill, the same 0.433 psi per foot of
elevation change is gained. If there is a lot of topography, and water flows up and down
and all around, the elevation difference between the surface of the water at the source and
the level of discharge at the destination is the key figure to use to design a system in
terms of how much pressure the pump needs to produce.

Piping diameter, length, bends and restrictions such as valves also affect how much
pressure is lost and needs to be created by a pump in order for water to flow. Pressure
losses related to piping vary more dramatically with increases in flow as shown in (figure
1, below).

2. Flow: The amount of water that a system can move during a given time period. It is usually
talked about in terms of gallons per minute (GPM) or gallons per hour. If everything else
remains the same, flow will decrease when pressure increases and vice versa. For
example, using the same pump and the same power set-up, if you increase the amount of
work the pump must do by elevating the discharge or using smaller diameter pipe- in
other words increasing the pressure the pump must generate, then the pump will deliver
less flow in gallons per minute (See Figure 2,below).

To determine where a pump will operate, you need to look at both the system curve
(pressure loss due to piping, length and restrictions, e.g., Figure 1) and the pump curve
(GPM of flow the pump will deliver at different pressures, e.g., Figure 2). The operating
point, or the actual amount of work (pressure x flow) the pump will do can be found by
plotting these two curves together on the same scale and axis. See Figure 3, below:
3. Power to the pump: Every solar water pump can produce a range of flows and
pressures. Solar pumps draw a certain amount of power according to the amount of
pressure that needs to be produced to deliver the water. Power is expressed in Watts, and
PV panels are rated in Watts. When sizing a photovoltaic panel array, it makes sense to
supply the amount of power that is needed. Adding more PV than is needed might enable
the pump to turn on earlier and later in the day or under low-light conditions, but having
extra PV power might not increase the flow rate when the sun is shining in full.
MAIN SOLAR WATER SYSTEM COMPONENTS

1. The Source: Water sources can be deep drilled wells, streams, springs, ponds, rivers,
etc. The main variables, in addition to initial cost, that factor into system design are the
recharge rate of the source and the volume of the source reservoir. Ideally, the source
should recharge faster than pump can take water out of it. For example, if the pump will
produce three gallons per minute, the source should be able to recharge at a rate that is
equal to or greater than three gallons per minute. If the pump takes water away faster than
the source can recharge, the reservoir can run dry, the pump will then be run dry, and that
should be avoided to prevent damage to the pump.

2. The pump: This is the heart and soul of the solar water pumping system. Pumps fall
along a spectrum of high-flow/low-head to low-flow/high-head. In other words, for a
given power input, the pump produces a unique combination of flow and pressure. When
selecting a pump you are basically selecting that combination of performance
characteristics. Solar pumps are rated according to the voltage of electricity that should
be supplied. A 12 volt pump is a small one, 24 volt is more the norm, while 48 volts and
upwards will require more power and might pump more water. Smaller wire sizes can be
used in higher voltage systems without sacrificing power output from panels to pump.
Some pumps require certain accessories to function optimally. These include filters, float
valves, switches, etc.

3. Photovoltaic (PV) panels: The photovoltaic panels make up most (up to 80%) of the
systems cost. The size of the PV-system is directly dependent on the size of the pump, the
amount of water that is required (m³/d) and the solar irradiance available. A panel is rated
in watts of power it can produce. The SPV water pumping system should be operated
with a PV array capacity in the range of 200 Watts peak to 5000 Watts peak, measured
under Standard Test Conditions (STC). Sufficient number of modules in series and
parallel could be used to obtain the required PV array power output. The power output of
individual PV modules used in the PV array, under STC, should be a minimum of 74
Watts peak, with adequate provision for measurement tolerances. Use of PV modules
with higher power output is preferred. Indigenously produced PV module(s) containing
mono/ multi crystalline silicon solar cells

4. Motor pump-set:
Following types of motor pump sets could be used in the SPV water pumping systems
o Surface mounted DC motor pump-set
o Submersible DC motor pump set
o Submersible AC motor pump set
o Floating DC motor pump set

5. Mounting structures and tracking system: To enhance the performance of SPV water
pumping systems, it is desirable to use a tracking system. Manual, passive and auto tracking
are permitted. The PV modules will be mounted on metallic structures of adequate strength
and appropriate design, which can withstand load of modules and high wind velocities up to
150 km per hour. The support structure used in the pumping system will be hot dip

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galvanized iron (G.I). The G.I. structures for mounting the Solar panels could be so
designed, that these can be manually/ auto adjusted for optimal tilt throughout the year.

6. Controller: The purpose of the controller is twofold. Firstly, it matches the output
power that the pump receives with the input power available from the solar panels.
Secondly, a controller usually provides a low voltage protection, whereby the system is
switched off, if the voltage is too low or too high for the operating voltage range of the
pump. This increases the lifetime of the pump thus reducing the need for maintenance.

7. Inverter: It changes the direct current from the solar panels into alternating current for
the pump. The supported power range of inverters extends from 0.15 to 55 kW and can
be used for larger irrigation systems. However, the panel and inverters must be sized
accordingly to accommodate the inrush characteristic of an AC motor.

8. The water distribution system: In many countries of the world, trenches are dug to gravity
feed water through an intricate network of irrigated plots or holding tanks. Here farmers tend
to use black polyethylene piping. Whatever the system is to get water from A to B, there
important thing to consider is the smaller the diameter piping and the longer the piping run,
the harder a pump has to work and the more pressure the pump must create.

SOLAR POWERED WATER PUMPING SYSTEM WORKING

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A solar powered water pumping system is composed of several PV (photovoltaic)
panels. Solar cells are the building block for solar panels. Each solar cell has two or more
specially prepared layers of semiconducting material (generally silicon) that produce
direct current (DC) electricity when exposed to sunlight. The DC current is collected by
the wiring in the panel. This DC current is converted to AC current by using an inverter
and this AC current is used to run an AC pump which pumps water whenever the sun
shines and the excess water could be stored in an overhead water tank for the later usage.

BENEFITS OF SOLAR WATER PUMPS



  pumps are used for irrigation of crops, water livestock and provide portable drinking
Solar water
water.

  array output which frequently coincides with high water demand
Solar water pump uses peak solar
during long, dry summer days.

  of cloudy weather solar water pump systems often use storage tanks to store excess
In the event
water.
  Solar water pumps do not require fuel or constant maintenance.


 Solar water pumps can also be designed for portability to be moved based on water demand or
change of season requires.
  Their operating cost is less compared to diesel pumps.


 and generally intensive maintenance schedules however can make
Recent fuel price increases
diesel pumps expensive.
HOW SOLAR POWERED PUMPS SCORE OVER DIESEL PUMPS

 
Simple to install
  
Solar pumps are good for bore holes as they pump over the whole day

 Weakboreholes can be used effectively with a low volume pump due to pumping 8 to10 hours a
day
  Require minimal attention since they are self-starting

  
To increase daily water pumping rates, tracking arrays can be used
  
Environment friendly
 
Solar pumps offer clean solutions with no danger of borehole contamination

TYPE OF PUMPSET
1. Submerged multistage centrifugal motor irrigation pumpset: This type is probably
the most common type of solar pump used for town and city water supply. The
advantages of this configuration are that it is easy to install, often with lay-flat
flexible pipework and the motor irrigation pumpset is submerged away from potential
damage. Either ac or dc motors can be incorporated into the irrigation pumpset
although an inverter would be needed for ac systems. If a brushed dc motor is used
then the equipment will need to be pulled up from the well (approximately every 2
years) to replace brushes. Brushless dc pump motors would require

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electronic commutation. The most commonly
employed system consists of an AC irrigation pump
and inverter with a solar PV panel photovoltaic array.

2 Submerged irrigation pump with surface mounted


motor: This configuration was widely installed with
turbine pumps. It gives easy access to the pump motor
for brush changing and other maintenance. The low efficiency from power losses
in the shaft bearings and the high cost of installation has been disadvantages. In
general this configuration is largely being replaced by the submersible motor and
irrigation pumpset.

3 Reciprocating positive displacement irrigation pump:


The reciprocating positive displacement pump (often
known as the jack or nodding donkey) is very suitable
for high head, low flow applications. The output is
proportional to the speed of the irrigation pump. At
high heads the frictional forces are low compared to the
hydrostatic forces often making positive
displacement pumps more efficient than centrifugal pumps for this situation.
Reciprocating positive displacement pumps create a cyclic load on the motor
which, for efficient operation, needs to be balanced. Thus, the above ground
components of the solar pump are often heavy and robust, and power controllers
for impedance matching often used.

4 Floating motor irrigation pump sets: The versatility of the floating unit set, makes
it ideal for irrigation pumping for canals and open wells. The pumpset is easily
portable and there is a negligible chance of the irrigation pump running dry. Most
of these types use a single stage submersed centrifugal irrigation pump. The most
common type utilizes a brushless (electronically commutated) dc motor. Often the
solar PV panel array support incorporates a handle or 'wheel barrow' type trolley
to enable transportation.

5 Surface suction irrigation pumpsets: This type of irrigation pumpset is not


recommended except where an operator will always be in attendance. Although
the use of primary chambers and non-return valves can prevent loss of prime, in
practice self-start and priming problems are experienced. It is impractical to have
suction heads of more than 8 meters.

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SOLAR POWERED PUMPING SYSTEM DESIGN SETPS

1. Determine needed flow,


2. Determine needed pressure
3. Select a pump that will provide the needed flow and pressure
4. Supply enough PV capacity to power the pump to provide the needed flow and
pressure.

Step one: Determine needed flow

Flow is the amount of water you need, and how much water you need to irrigate or
supply to your animals in one minute or one hour. Think of your needed flow in terms of
gallons per hour or gallons per minute

Step two: Determine needed pressure

Determine this as total pressure in psi (pounds per square inch) or feet of head. Total
pressure needed is a combination of:

A) Psi to overcome elevation difference (equivalent to 0.433 times the elevation


difference in feet between the water level of the source and the discharge at destination).
B) Psi needed to force water through any filters, special valves, or irrigation fittings.
C) Psi needed to overcome friction loss in piping.

Consult the filter, valve or fitting manufacturers for estimates of psi needed to force
water through these components at the desired flow rate. Friction loss through piping
depends on how much water flows through the pipe, what type of piping, the length of
pipe, number of bends or restrictions and what diameter of piping is used.

Step three: Select a pump that will provide the needed flow and pressure

Pumps are rated to produce a certain flow at a certain pressure when supplied a certain
amount of power. When referencing the pump specs, first make sure that the pump will
provide the amount of pressure you determined is needed. Then move along the table or
pump curve graph to determine whether or not the pump will produce the required flow at
the needed pressure. If flow is not sufficient at the particular pressure you need the pump to
produce, then you will need to use a different model or different type of pump.

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CASE STUDIES

CASE STUDY 1

1.1 OBJECTIVE

Photovoltaic water pumping for livestock watering in the southern plains

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Traditionally man has supplied water for his domesticated livestock by using springs,
flowing streams and hand dug wells. One of the early uses of solar power in the form of wind
power was to water from shallow wells using bucket pumps. In the late 1800’sthe American
multi bladed windmill as developed to pump water from deep wells. These systems provided
a year round water supply and allowed settlement of the area known as the Great Plains. With
the deployment of electrical utility systems into rural America, many of these mechanical
wind mill have disappeared. Many windmills have been in use for over 50 years and are
simply worn out. Farmers and ranchers are seeking replacements for these windmills for
remote water pumping. Additions of remote water pumps to the electrical grid are
discouraged by electric utilities because of the cost of maintenance of rural electric lines. A
high connect fee often exceeds the cost of other fuel alternatives. An adequate year round
water supply is still a major stumbing block in livestock grazing in many regions. Ranchers
have found that if sufficient watering places are not provided, livestock do not move to areas
of the pasture here grass may be abundant. Cattle will graze about one kilometre from a water
supply therefore, several water supplies are needed in most large pastures. Many ranchers
continue to haul water for livestock in remote areas.
Livestock animals require various amount of water depending on their size and weight.
Chickens and turkeys require the least amount of water with cattle and horses requiring
the most. Table 1 contains a range of water use data for various livestock with smaller
amounts applying to smaller animals or cool weather use and the larger amount applying
to larger animals or hot weather use. The amount listed for dairy cattle includes the water
used for cleaning the milking barn. For most remote areas, water storage for 3-5 days is
usually provided. If water is stored in an open tank, then the amount of water lost to
evaporation must be considered in determining the volume of water required to meet
demands of the livestock.
Many farmers and ranchers depend on surface waters that are polluted and harmful to the
health of their animals. Water cannot be pumped because often times energy and labour for
servicing Engine driven pumps is unavailable or too costly. The availability and cost

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for new electrical grid service are often prohibitive. New developments with solar
photovoltaic water pumping systems have provided a new potential for pumping water in
remote areas. A solar photovoltaic water pumping system for remote areas has been
evaluated by the USDA, Agricultural research Service, Bush land, TX. The objective of
the evaluation were
1. To measure the system performance of a photovoltaic system
2. To the determine daily water pumping volumes at various pumping depths
3. To evaluate the reliability of photovoltaic water pumping systems
4. To evaluate the effectiveness of passive tracking systems.

1.3 DESCRIPTION

The system consisted of a photovoltaic panel(PV )array, mounting apparatus, controller,


pump and electric motor. A schematic of a pumping system are shown in Fig 1. PV arrays are
comprised of multiple panels containing 30 to 40 individual solar cells, rated

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approximately 50 W and usually wired in 12 or 24 V configurations. For this study, two 53
W panels were wired in series to produce a nomianal output of 24 V. The panels were
mounted on a tilting frame that allowed the surface to be rotated back and forth to keep the
panel surface perpendicular to the sun. Two liquid filled cylinders were used to move the
tracker by heating the fluid and causing the hot liquid-gas mixture to move from the hot side
to cooler side. The manufacturer claims 55% more energy is collected with the tracker.

The submersible motor was a DC electric motor rated for 24 V and had a peak current
draw of 3.1 A and was mounted directly to the pump. The pump was a diaphragm type
pump constructed of marine bronze and stainless steel. The pump-motor combination
weighed 6.4 kg and outside diameter 96 mm. The pump-motor combination was 273 mm
long. The pump fit easily inside of 102 mm diameter pipe which is often used for small
well casing. Fig 2 shows the head-flow and head-current relationships for the pump.
Curves representing the manufacture’s data and curves from data measured by USDA are
given. The measured flow was slightly higher than the flow presented by
manufacturer,but the two currents were identical.

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A controller was used to boost the current to match the load requirements in low
sunlight, boost the voltage for maximum pump output when the sunlight was good, and
provide voltage regulation of the PV array around its maximum power point. The
controller increased the voltage in low sunlight to above 16 V so the pump would
operate, thus providing small amount of water. In excellent sunlight, the controller
limited the voltage at 24 V and increased the current to increase the flow.
The pumping system was operated for several months at the USDA conservation and
production research laboratory, Bushland,TX. The laboratory is located at a latitude of
35011’ north and a longitude of 10205’ west, with an elevation of 1164 m (3819ft). The
pump was operated at simulated pumping depths of 20,30,and 40 m. pumping depths
were simulated using a back pressure regulating valve and pressure tank to maitain the
desired pressure. Water pressure was measured with a pressure transducer and flow was
measured with a turbine meter equipped with an electronic output. All data were sampled
every 2 sec and the averageing interval was 1 min. Data were recorded on a personal
computer systems using a data acquisition board. The 1 min averages were stored for
further processing and real time data were displayed on the monitor. All equipment used
was commercially available.

1.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Incoming solar radiation was measured with a pyranometer mounted directly on the
tracking rack. The pyranometer was always at the same sun angle as the PV panels to insure
that a correct measurement of incoming radiation was recorded. A 3 day average incoming
radiation intensity for August, September, October, and November is shown in Fig 3. The

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intensity level for August was lower because the moisture content in the atmosphere was
higher in August resulting in more radiation being reflected. The intensity level was
about the same during the other months. The effect of shorter days is clearly seen in these
data. Data were recorded from 7:45 am to 5:45 pm to reduce the volume of data stored.
This time period accounted for over 98% of the pumping volume.

The average flow rate during the same four months described above is shown in Fig 4.
The flow for August reflects the lower radiation intensity, but shows the effect of longer
days. Some of this reduced flow may be attributable to the lower efficiency of PV panels
with increases in temperature. With an increase in temperature from 25 0c to 750c, the output
voltage of PV panel drops by 4 volts. This reduced voltage could easily account for the lower
pumping rates for August. The low pumping rate for September was probably caused by a
miss adjustment of the controller. Several attempts were made to adjust the controller per
manufacturer’s instructions during this period. The controller was correctly adjusted in early
October and these data verify the criticalness of a correct controller adjustment.

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CONCLUSION

A photovoltaic water pumping system was operated for over a year at Bushland. TX to
determine the performance of the system and each of the components. The system began
pumping water when the solar radiation intensity exceeded 300 W/m 2. At this intensity, the
flow was usually between 0.25 and 0.50 L/min. Flow increased linearly with radiation
intensity and reached its maximum flow of 4.0 to 4.5 L/min at an intensity of 900 W/m 2.
Maximum flow dependent on using the correct controller adjustment as well as the radiation
intensity. Daily water volumes pumped ranged from a high of 1671 L/day in June to a low of
504 L/day in December and averaged 1105 L/day. This average water volume

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compares to 8600 L/day for a mechanical windmill, however the mechanical windmill
cost about twice as much as this solar pumping system.
CASE STUDY 2

2.1 OBJECTIVE

Usage of photovoltaics in an automated irrigation system

2.2 INTRODUCTION

The water needs of Saudi Arabia are met by desalination water plants, which are located in
the coastal regions of the Kingdom. The cost of potable water is very high due to the costs of
production and transportation. In major cities the water is transported through water
pipelines. This water cannot be used for irrigation purposes due to the high costs. There are
many fields in the eastern, central and northwestern parts of the Kingdom where farming is
being encouraged by the administrations. The fields are developed and the water is either
pumped from the ground or through scarcely available natural water streams.

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One such natural source of water is being used in Al-Hassa for irrigating the farming
fields. At present these fields are irrigated through a network of canals, which are
operated manually to provide water to farmers according to their needs. Sometimes these
fields are over irrigated and sometimes under irrigated. In this way, a lot of water, which
is precious commodity for the Kingdom, is lost. Hence there is a need to optimize this
source of water through the usage of affordable technology.
This study presents the design, implementation, and testing of an automatic irrigation
system, which can optimize the usage of water and at the same time provide cost
effective and efficient operation. This system utilizes photovoltaic cells to generate the
electricity directly from the sun’s rays to run the whole control system. The Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia has a continuous source of abundant solar energy reaching the ground
throughout the year. The daily average bright sunshine duration, as mentioned by
Rehman and Halawani [1], is 8.89 h and the average daily value of global solar radiation
on a horizontal surface is 5591 Whm-2.
Automation has become essential to provide optimal and efficient usage of the devices and
systems, and to conserve resources. Masheleni and Carelse [2] used a microcontroller-based
charge controller for stand-alone photovoltaic systems to improve the efficiency of the
system and to protect the storage batteries with special reference to automotive batteries.
Koner [3] presented a design for a switching device for reconfiguration of photovoltaic
modules used for the optimization of the photovoltaic modules. Recently Hammad [4]
presented a study related to the usage of photovoltaic generated electricity for pumping water
from 13 wells spread across the east and south east desert which is far from the national grid,
as well as in the southern parts of the Jordan which has a complicated topographical situation.
These pumps are capable of pumping 40–100 m3 of water per day individually to meet the
daily demands of individuals living in those areas. Hamerski et al. [5] presented the usage of
solar energy through a photo catalytic process for the purification of contaminated soil. Other
applications of photo catalytic processes are detoxification [6], water purify cation [7–12],
decomposition of crude oil [13] etc. One of the most important applications of photovoltaic
driven electricity is refrigeration for meeting health requirements [14] in developing
countries.

2.3 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

The experimental setup developed and used in this study consists of four major parts,
viz.: solar power supply, controller, input devices, and output devices.

 Solar power supply 


The solar power supply used consists of two photovoltaic (PV) solar panels and two back up
batteries. Each PV solar panel consists of 36 solar cells. The specifications of the solar

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panels are shown in Table 1. In Table 1, Vpp is the voltage at peak power, Ipp is the
current at peak power, Vcc is open circuit voltage, Isc is short circuit current, and L, W, T,
are the length, width, and thickness of the PV panel, respectively. Each solar panel
generates a maximum of 17.5 V DC. A regulator is used to adjust the cell output to 12 V
DC. Two PV panels were connected in series to
Generate a total of 24 V DC that is required to supply the 24 V DC controller’s power
supply. The two 12 V batteries, which are used as backup supply in the absence of sunlight
due to overcast skies or rain, are rechargeable, sealed, and lead–acid type. The batteries are
charged from the PV cells. A blocking diode is used to safeguard the system from excessive
voltage. Fig. 1 shows the basic block diagram of the solar power supply system that was used
in the study. The load in the figure refers to the controller and the input/output devices.

 Controller 

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The controller which is used in this study, is the new universal logic module from
Siemens (also known as logo). It provides control functions, operating and display unit,
power supply, 6 inputs and 4 outputs and interface capability with a personal computer
(PC). The control functions that are utilized in this project are On/Off delay, real-time
clock, counters, latching relays, and series/parallel functions. The most important
function is the real-time clock, which is programmed to energize and de-energize any
output at any time of the day or any day of the week based on the input from the field.
The logo system is capable of accepting both the DC and AC supply. In this project,
module 24RC is used. This module operates on 24 V DC. It has 6 digital inputs and 4
digital outputs, consumes 3 W of power, and switches up to 10 A load at 24 V DC rate.

 Input and output devices 


Table 2 shows the input/output assignments used in running the experimental setup. Fig.
2 shows the system hardware layout and connections used in the prototype built in the
laboratory. The logo has provision for six inputs and four outputs and they have been
utilized as follows (Table 2):

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Three input operation switches are 
used to operate the system in three different modes,
 viz. manual, auto and sensor mode.

  is used to feed the logo with the water level of Field-1 and operate
One digital level senor
as a digital sensor.

One analog moisture sensor  is used to feed the logo with the soil moisture of Field-2 and
 operate as an analog sensor.

  One digital level sensor is used to feed the logo with water level in the reservoir tank. 
  Output number 1 is connected to the valve that irrigates Field-1

 
 Output number 2 is connected to the valve that irrigates Field-2

Output number 3 is connected to the alarm lamp to indicate when the  water level in the
 reservoir water tank becomes less than the pre-specified water level.

2.4 DISCUSSION AND WORKING OF THE PROTOTYPE

The system is designed and prototyped to irrigate two fields (Field-1 and Field-2). Field-1
is to be irrigated by opening valve-1 via the logo output No. 1 and the water level in the field
is sensed by a digital level sensor that is connected to the logo input No. 1. Field-2 is to be
irrigated by opening valve-2 via the logo output No. 2 and the water humidity in the field is
sensed by the analog moisture sensor that is connected to the logo input No. 2. The

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analog moisture sensor is connected via a comparator circuit that can be adjusted
manually for the required moisture level
depending on the season by the farmer or user. The third output is used to indicate the water
level in the reservoir tank, which flashes the light on/off when the water level in the tank goes
below a predefined level. A feedback from the tank is sent via a digital level sensor to the
logo input. The system has four modes of operations i.e. manual, auto, sensor and emergency
modes. A brief description of operation in each mode is given below.

 Manual mode 

In this mode, the farmer or the user can irrigate both fields (Field-1 and Field-2) by
switching on this input. The water valves of both fields will be activated as long as this
switch is on. Turning this switch off manually will shut off both valves.

 Auto mode 

In this mode, the real-time clock of the logo, which is programmed to turn the water
valves on/off at specific times and days, operates automatically with the real time clock.
It can also be programmed to turn any of the valves independent of each other. The built-
in real-time clock is capable of working at any time of the day and any day of the week
and for any desired period. For testing purposes, the system was programmed to irrigate
Field-1 three times a week (Monday, Wednesday, and Friday) between 10:00 a.m. and
11:00 a.m. and Field-2 two times a week (Sunday and Thursday) between 3:30 p.m. and
5:00 p.m. The farmer or the user can change the time, period and day/s of the week using
the built-in key-pad and display system. A short list of 1–2–3 steps can be supplied to the
user as an operation manual to program the system.
 Sensor mode 

This mode has two feedback signals coming from the fields (Field-1 and Field-2).
Field-1 is designed to operate based on the water level in the water storage tank and
Field-2 is designed to operate using an analog sensor that measures the soil humidity. The
water will flow to any field based on a signal from the corresponding sensor and stay on
until the digital level sensor trips or the moisture sensor gets wet enough.

23
 Emergency mode 
The emergency mode operates based on the water level in the reservoir tank. If the
water level falls below the predefined level, the lamp will start to flash on–off and turn on
the irrigation system for automation mode, but for 15 min only, rather than the predefined
time which was programmed in the normal auto mode. Table 3 shows the operation
modes summary. It is worth mentioning that the above system hardware and software
scenarios have been implemented in such a configuration for testing proposes that the
system can be extended and modified to handle more inputs and outputs using different
logo modules, sensors, and valves, as well as operation modes. Fig. 3 shows the system
algorithm flowchart. The ladder diagram of the software program developed and used in
this prototype is shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 5 shows the actual prototype that was built in the
laboratory.

24
25
26
CONCLUSION

A fully automated irrigation system is designed, built and tested using solar PV cells
and a digital controller. The system is economical, reliable, portable, and compact.
Savings in electricity bills and water bills can justify the initial cost, which may be a bit
more than the conventional system, over a period of time. It causes less damage to the
environment and releases the public utility from an extra load. It can be used in small or
big farms, gardens, parks and lawns. Also, it can be used as a universal solar-based-
controller to control building doors, water heaters, and air-conditioning control systems.

CASE STUDY 3

3.1 OBJECTIVE

Solar-powered groundwater pumping systems for domestic use in developing countries

3.2 INTRODUCTION

27
Solar-powered pumping systems have been in use long enough that a preliminary
assessment can be conducted related to their efficiency and cost compared to other
alternative powered pumping systems. This preliminary assessment should be completed
before deciding if solar power is the best source of alternative power for a village water
supply system. Generally, alternative power is only considered when the cost of tapping
into the closest public power grid far outweighs the costs of using alternative power.
There are several technology alternatives for supplying power or lift to groundwater
systems including: wind turbines, windmills, generators, solar arrays, and hand powered
pumps. The main driving factors for selecting the appropriate technology are regional
feasibility, water demand, system efficiencies, and initial and long-term costs. Other
factors often include the need for power and water reserves in the form of batteries and
storage tanks. Solar-powered systems are often considered for use in developing
countries instead of other forms of alternative energy because they are durable and
exhibit long-term economic benefits.

This paper briefly covers the selection process needed before choosing solar power as
the appropriate alternative power source for a groundwater pumping system. Preference
is given to the drinking water supply of a small village. The paper also covers the design
process and the components of a SPPS when used with a well and submersible pump. A
significant amount of detail is directed towards selecting a pump when solar power is
selected as the appropriate technology.

3.3 FEASIBILITY

The selection of SPPS should only follow a thorough look at the feasibility and future
prospect of the technology. There are several important steps in this process. Not all of
them are covered here, but the key considerations are mentioned below.

 Water Source 

Selecting a water source involves making a detailed site map which shows changing
elevations, layout of the land, available water resources running through the site or near
the site, and present structures. If the selected water source is gravity-driven, like an
upper river or spring, the power supply can be avoided by the proper layout of a
distribution system. However, if the source is a well or surface water at a lower elevation
than the site, a powered pump or possibly even a ram pump will be needed.

Once the water source has been narrowed down to a well and alternative power is needed,
the village water demand needs to be determined. The average rate of consumption for
villagers used to traveling to get their water and carrying it home is 10 gallons per day

28
per capita. It is general practice to add at least three days of storage to a SPPS for cloudy
days, nights, and emergencies.

 Power Source 
The next step is to rule out other sources of power or pumping devices. If the public
power grid is reliable and in proximity to the site, preferably less than 1/3 mile, then solar
power would most likely be a poor choice. The cost of implementing a SPPS could be
significantly more than the cost to hook up to the local power grid and purchase an AC
pump. A 1/3 to 1/2-mile power line extension in the U.S. alone can cost $5,000 or more.
With the exception of the storage tank, the most expensive element of a solar-powered
system is usually the photovoltaic modules or panels. Table 1 lists the pros and cons
associated with different sources of alternative energy for water pumps and gives a good
comparison for SPPS.

A preliminary guidance for the feasibility of using a SPPS versus a generator powered
system or hand pump can be found in Table 2 by Green Empowerment. This table is based on
water demand and required pumping head. Note that this table does not appear to account for
all of the recent advances in SPPS technology and may be very conservative.

29
Table 1

Pros and Cons of Alternative Forms of Energy for Pumps

30
Table 2

General Feasibility of SPPS Compared to a Hand Pump and Diesel Generator

33
 Realistic Expectations and Costs for a SPPS

A solar-powered pumping system is not recommended for community indoor plumbing needs.
Most economical SPPS will not provide enough water and pressure for the required demand of
community indoor plumbing, but can meet the demands of a single building similar to a small
community center or medical center. SPPS is also not adequate for large-scale irrigation, but can
work for small-scale drip irrigation systems. A large-scale SPPS can be considered one that serves
over 240 peoples or serves a water demand of over 2,400 gpd. The cost of a system that serves 500
people or more can easily reach $34,300. If the village is over 500 people it may be more practical to
use a generator and AC pump. As the size of the village population approaches 500 people, the costs
of the required storage starts to rise sharply due to the recommended backup storage volume for three
days of demand and the limited daylight hours of water pumping.

For a basic comparison of running a pump on a diesel generator compared to solar power refer
to the study conducted in the United States and Bangladesh where a 1 kW, 50 meter pump head
SPPS is compared to a 2 kW, 50 meter pump head conventional diesel generator pumping
system. The main assumptions in the cost comparison are as follows:

1. The projected costs were for a 25 year project lifetime of each system.
2. Net profit is calculated as the difference between the variable costs of a diesel-powered
pumping system and variable costs of a SPPS.
3. All costs are given in US dollars, where US $1.00 = 69.49 Bangladesh Taka.
4. Local materials and local skills are used wherever possible.
5. Cost of PV modules are approximated at US $4.5/Watt power.
6. Manual labor costs are significantly less in Bangladesh than the USA.
7. Diesel fuel costs and original equipment costs (excluding local accessories) are the same
in both countries.
8. Diesel fuel prices increase 10% every year.
9. Transportation costs are significantly less in Bangladesh and expected to increase by only
1% per year.
10. Operation and maintenance costs per year are considered constant for the systems.
11. Diesel generator system is maintained every day for turning off/on and refueling.
12. SPPS system is checked once per week.
13. Costs of replacement items such as pumps and generators are considered constant
through the projected lifetime of the systems.
14. The SPPS pump and controller are replaced every 10 years.
15. The diesel generator is replaced every 5 years.
16. The excess water storage recommended for a SPPS is not accounted for in the cost
comparison.

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The report indicates that although the initial costs of the generator powered system were much less
than the SPPS, based on total costs of operation, after 10 years of operations the SPPS system cost
less to operate annually than the generator system (see Figure 1). This cost difference is mostly
attributed to the long-term fuel costs associated with operating a diesel-powered system.

Figure 1: Year by Year Total Cost Comparison for SPPS versus a Diesel Generator System

 Site Location 
The site location plays a major part in the feasibility of a SPPS. Peak sunlight hours (PSH) differ
widely across the globe. The PSH is based on the number of equivalent daily hours that provide solar
irradiance equal to 1 kW/m2. If a graphical plot of sun radiation versus hours of the day is created
and the area under the curve is integrated and divided by 1,000 W/m 2, the resulting value would be
PSH. It is difficult to find in the literature a recommended cut-off value for PSH at which point a
SPPS is not practical. The general guidance is that the less PSH available, the more expensive the
required photovoltaic (PV) array and pump. System costs also increase when more storage is needed
to compensate for the very limited exposure of the PV array to peak sunlight hours. The majority of
the successful SPPS systems installed in developing countries appear to be located in areas where the
PSH is at least 4. The maps accessible from this website give yearly low peak sunlight hours.
Another factor is the climate of the region. Solar-powered systems are not typically designed for
extremely cold weather (temperature less than -200C).

35
However, the systems can be well insulated to handle fairly cold winters. For example, with the
proper insulation they have proven effective in the northern United States in places like New
York State.

 Community Involvement & Ownership 


Local acceptance is an important factor to consider. A survey and assessment should be
conducted among the village leaders and some of the households to determine if the villagers
will be willing to embrace the technology and use it wisely. The assessment should consider
local skills, materials, and labor in order to estimate how the community could be involved in the
installation, operation, and maintenance of the system. It is also generally a good idea to contact
the local government officials in the country and make sure that they are accepting of the solar
system and aware of what it is being used for.

Solar-powered-pumping systems are gaining ground in developing countries, but rarely are
they installed without the funds and supervision of non-government organizations (NGOs).
There are significant upfront costs and community training required for the successful
implementation of a SPPS. NGOs will usually be involved in the initial phases of the project
including design, installation, and training needed to operate and maintain the systems.

Community ownership is key to the longevity of the SPPS. The community should take pride
in their water system and gain a sense of ownership from the service it provides. Most NGOs
recommend a fee based system for the water users, even if it is only equivalent to 2 to 3 $U.S.
per family per month. The fees are used to pay a water system manager in the village and to
maintain and upgrade the system as needed. NGOs like AsoFenix, based out of Nicaragua, will
also help with the training of villagers to install the system and to understand its basic operation.
Other NGOs may require a water committee or water management system to be in place before
they will complete installation tasks or do additional work on the SPPS.

Other concerns often overlooked are the community socio-economic needs. If having water
delivered to them more conveniently significantly takes away from their socio-economic
structure, the village may begin to resent the system, making it more prone to vandalism or
unintended uses. There are several good guides for considering socio-economic factures
published by USAID and NGOs like Life Water International.

 Sustainability of System 
The long-term costs and ability of the SPPS to be adaptable to changing demands should be
implemented into the feasibility of the system. This process is also significantly related to the
ability of the village to adapt to changing demands. Photovoltaic modules should last 20 – 25
years. This is dependent on being maintained (kept clean and securely mounted) and protected
from strong winds, lightning and hail storms, and falling objects such as tree branches. The solar
pumps should be expected to last about 10 years. The other electronics and controls should be
designed to last at least 10 years with little electrical maintenance. The overall lifetime of the

36
complete system should be designed and maintained to last 25 years taking into account future
growth projections of the community. The system should be inspected at least once per week
checking the pumping rate, operation of controller, condition of PV modules, tanks, wires, and
pipes (for leaks/corrosion). More information can also be found in the Life Water International
technical notes. Table 3 shows a list of some of the NGOs that provide support for water
resource projects in developing countries.

Table 3
Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) Involved in Supporting
Water Resource Projects in Developing Countries

NGOs Base Type of Aid Web Site


Country
Green Empowerment U.S. financial, build, design http://www.greenempowerment.org
Asofenix Nicaragua design (no website)
New Earth Foundation U.S. financial http://www.newearthfoundation.org
EnerGreen Foundation U.S. financial http://www.energreen.org
UNICEF U.S. financial http://www.unicef.org
Fundacion Natura Ecuador design http://www.fnatura.org/index.htm
Greenstar U.S. design http://www.greenstar.org
Sustainable Village U.S. design, research http://www.sustainablevillage.com
EWB U.S. design, build http://www.ewb-usa.org
Enersol U.S. owns & maintains system http://www.enersol.com
villagers pay back over time

 System Security

Another important aspect to consider is security. Can the PV array be secured properly or will
it be stolen or vandalized? It is obvious that without a functioning PV array, a SPPS is worthless.
The PV array is one of the most expensive components of the system (~50-75%) and should be
protected from theft, vandalism, and livestock. For instance, due to the realized value of the
modules in South Africa, there have been several reported cases of modules being stolen in the
region. It is strongly recommended that provisions be made to put a fence with a lockable gate
around the array. The fence needs to have enough set-back that it does not cast a shadow on the
array.

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2.4 SPPS COMPONENTS
A solar-powered pumping system for a village should consist of the following minimum
components:

1. water well
2. PV array
3. array mounting bracket and rack
4. pump controller
5. electrical ground for controller
6. DC pump with safety ropes, mount, and well seal
7. wiring
8. discharge tubing or piping
9. storage tank
10. tank floatation switch
11. water taps or access points
12. security

The flotation switch is used in the tank to turn off the pump when the tank is full. The pump
should be specifically designed for solar power. It is strongly recommended to have the pump
controller purchased from the same manufacturer as the pump. To use another manufacturer
could cause several unforeseen problems and even invalidate the pump’s warranty. If the pump
does not contain a built-in check valve, one should be installed in the system to keep the water
from flowing back into the well. Very few pumps can handle reverse flow without reducing the
life expectancy of the pump. The pumps that are designed to drain during non-operation are
meant for extremely cold conditions to keep water from freezing in the lines. The pump should
be no deeper than 2 feet above the bottom of the well to help prevent heavy silt and sand from
entering the pumps intake and causing it to seize. The storage tank should be sized to hold at
least three days’ worth of water demand to account for evenings and cloudy days. A security
fence should be placed around the PV modules and controller. If the controller is not attached to
the array mounting bracket it can be placed in a secure shed or pump house, preferably water
tight and dust free. See the following figure for a schematic diagram of a typical system.

38
Figure 2: Schematic Diagram of a Typical SPPS

 Well 
The entire solar system design depends on the yield of the well and the water demand of the
village. Therefore, all precautions should be taken to place the well into a clean, high yield,
groundwater aquifer. It is also recommended to avoid extremely shallow water tables. The
diameter of the well should be at least 6 inches. This allows enough tolerance for the addition of
a sand shroud on a 4 inch pump. In developing countries, threaded 40-schedule PVC casing and
screen are usually used. The screen slots are sized appropriately for the filter pack and native
material. The well should be sealed at the surface to prevent surface water intrusion. This guide
does not go into the details about installing a well, but appropriate guidelines should be followed
to ensure the best possible installation, development, and pump test the project budget can
afford. Having a bad well is equivalent to having an unreliable power source. If at all possible, it
is recommended to use standard practice procedures used in developed countries to install the
well, like ASTM standard (ASTM DRILL99-99). These standards are not specifically intended
for supply wells, but do cover the essential aspects of installing a well and conducting a
groundwater investigation.

 Pump 
Pumps designed specifically for solar power utilize direct current (DC) and tend to be very
energy efficient, but they usually cost more than their otherwise equivalent alternating current

39
(AC) pump. Surface mounted pumps can be used for a SPPS, but are discouraged because of
their suction limitations when used in deep wells compared to the achievable lift of a
submersible pump. Based on the specifications from several manufactures such as Shurflow,
Gaiam, and Dankoff, the typical suction abilities for surface pumps designed for solar power are
between 10 and 20 feet. Surface pumps also have greater exposure to the climate making them
more vulnerable to freezing and harsh weather. Submersible pumps are more protected from the
climate and use the groundwater as a natural priming fluid.

The reliability and efficiency of submersible pumps designed for solar power have increased
tremendously over the last 10 years. Solar powered pumps are designed to have a low starting
torque requirement. Modern solar powered pumps have an average daily solar energy to
hydraulic efficiency of more than 4%. Energy efficiency in its most basic definition is
output/input. In regards to pumps, it is more appropriately considered the product of the motor
and lift mechanism efficiency. For example, if the motor is 80% efficient and the lift mechanism
is 50% efficient, than the overall pump efficiency is 40%. Most submersible pumps designed
specifically for solar power have an overall efficiency of 40 to 70%.

Currently, there are four main types of lifting mechanisms used in submersible solar-powered
pumps: diaphragm, reciprocating piston, centrifugal, and helical rotor (screw- type device).
Some of them are more efficient and easier to maintenance than others, like the helical rotor, but
sacrifice other abilities like flow rate. The four main types of lift mechanisms are listed below:


Centrifugal pumps elevate the water through a series of spinning impellers (commonly
  it up the pump. Centrifugal pumps are
called stages) that suck the water in and force
usually used with high lift and flow demands.

 type approach to trapping the
Helical rotor pumps rely on one moving part that acts as a screw
 water in the suction side of the pump and moving it upwards.
 
 A diaphragm pump uses sealed diaphragms and often consists of 3 chambers to move water.

A piston pump relies on a piston  to draw water into a chamber using an inlet valve and forces it to
the outlet using the outlet valve.

The centrifugal and helical rotor pump are less susceptible to high ambient pressures created
at submersion depths greater than 164 feet compared to the piston and diaphragm pumps. Most
piston and diaphragm pumps display observable pumping efficiency losses and escalating
starting torque requirements in submersion at depths of 33 feet or more.

There are also different motor devices in the pumps. However, most of the solar-powered
pumps either rely on a brush or brushless permanent magnet (PM) and most centrifugal pumps
also have a variable speed motor. The brushless PM motors are designed to reduce the frictional
wear forces created in other conventional pumps and seem to be the most durable and energy

40
efficient. Several of the more common submersible solar-powered pump manufacturers are listed
in Table 4. This table also indicates general operating parameters for selecting a pump. If using
this table, particular attention needs to be given to the footnotes. Following are pictures of a
Grundfos SQFlex centrifugal and helical rotor pump.

Figure 3: Grundfos SQFlex Centrifugal Pump

The size of the pump will depend on several factors including: available water supply,
available power, available storage, total dynamic head (TDH), diameter of well, and village
demand (including 25 year growth projection). Assume that the pump will only be operating
during peak sunlight hours. Try to install the most efficient and simplest system that meets the
project demands. Before the village starts using the system, the storage tank should be filled.
This allows the rest of the distribution system to be designed with a semi-constant pressure head.
It also reduces the demand on the pump by allowing it to cycle, starting again when the volume
in the tank is approximately ½ depleted.

It is important to determine the total dynamic head. For a SPPS, total dynamic head can be
referred to as the head pressure required to overcome the sum of the static lift of the water, the
static height of the storage tank, and the frictional losses in the pipe network. Following are some
preliminary calculations for determining TDH and the flow rate of the pump needed:

TDH = (depth from static water table to top of well + drawdown at sustainable or desired

Pumping rate + elevation difference from top of well to top of storage tank) x 1.1

o Accounts for other head losses and frictional losses in system. For a more accurate
measurement of frictional losses, Hazen-William’s equation should be used along
with tables that show the frictional loss per foot of pipe length. Minor and local
losses in fittings should also be accounted for.
o The desired pumping rate should not be greater than the sustained well yield.

41
An estimate of the required flow rate of the pump can be determined by the following equation :

demand in gpd hr
Flow Rate (gpm)  x
PSH per day 60 min

The next step is to take the well diameter, TDH, and desired flow rate and refer to Table 4 or
other manufacturers not listed to determine what type of pump will fulfill the system needs. The
final selection of the pump should be based on a system parameter match with the
manufacturer’s pump curve.

 PV Array & Photovoltaic Cells

Solar power comes from photovoltaic (PV) cells that convert the sun’s energy into usable DC
electricity. A module consists of PV cells and an array consists of several modules. PV cells are
primarily made from silicon and come in three different types: monocrystalline, polycrystalline
(multicrystalline), and amorphous. The following figure shows the three types of cell modules.

Figure 5: Types of PV Modules

The efficiency of the PV module relates to the area of active cell area exposed to the sunlight.
Monocrystalline are the most efficient, converting approximately 15% of the sun’s energy to
electricity, but they are also the most expensive of the three. Photovoltaic modules have typical

42
warranties of 20 – 25 years, with life expectancies approaching 30 years. The following table
relates the differences between the three main types of PV cells:

Table 5

Types of PV Cells and their Efficiency

Type of cell Efficiency range Comments


Monocrystalline 14 to 16% Highest price, affected by temperature
Polycrystalline 12 to 14% Medium price, affected by temperature
Amorphous Silicon 8 to 9% Medium to low price, not affected by
temperature

Modern research is developing PV cells that have cell efficiencies approaching 30%, but
modules containing these cells still are not easily available in the global market. The design of
the PV array is fairly straightforward and depends on PSH, energy losses, and the desired power
supply to the pump. A factor of 1.25 times the pump wattage requirements is often used to
determine the preliminary size of the required array. This accounts for the energy losses in the
modules and controller. If batteries and a regulator are added into the system, the PV array
demand will be higher. The addition of an inverter to run an AC pump would also increase the
demand on the PV array. Some of the pump manufacturers listed in Table 4 also sell
compactable PV arrays and should be consulted for the final size of the needed array. How the
PV modules are connected, series versus parallel will depend on the required output voltage and
current. If they are all connected in parallel, it will increase the available current. If they are all
connected in series, it will increase the available voltage. It is best to get the recommended
layout of the modules from the distributor of the pump and controller.

43
The PV array needs to be mounted securely to a tilted rack that is fixed to the ground. A tracking
system can be used, but as mentioned earlier, a tracking system mount is not always recommended.
The selection of the mount should include all factors of maintenance, latitude of region, wind, and
the project budget. If the modules are fixed, the orientation of the tilt is to the south and should be
equal to the site latitude. If they are on an adjustable mount, the tilt should be the latitude minus 10 to
15 degrees in the summer and the latitude plus 10 to 15 degrees in the winter.

 Pump Controller 

The pump controller is a highly specialized item and can vary significantly between pump
manufacturers. A technical term for a pump controller is a linear current booster. The purpose of the
pump controller is to regulate and match the flow of DC electricity to the needs of the pump. The
pump controller also contains the recognition components for the storage tank floatation switch and
the low-well switch. The controller should be expected to last approximately 10 years.

 Storage Tank 

The storage tank should have enough volume to hold at least three days’ worth of average
demand. This is not only to account for peak demands, but primarily to compensate for nights
and cloudy days, especially when other backup systems are not used. The general cost for water
storage is estimated to be between 1 and 2 $U.S. per gallon. All pressure analyzes and standard
distribution calculations should be accounted for, including water hammer effects. Make sure the
internal velocities and pressures are appropriate for the pipe material and desired flow rates.

3.5 ADDITIONAL COMPONENTS


There can be several additional components to a SPPS that can enhance the performance of the
system or add backup energy reserves:

1. Batteries: Deep-cycle batteries are often used as a power backup. They are recharged
during the day through the PV array and drained at night or during cloudy days. The
batteries should be lead-acid so they can be trickle charged indefinitely once they reach
full charge. The pump controller is usually installed after the batteries. The addition of
batteries requires a charge regulator between the batteries and the PV array. The charge
regulator needs to monitor the battery voltage to prevent over-charging because the DC
solar energy fluctuates throughout the day. It is also recommended to install blocking
diodes before the charge regulator. A diode in the system should prevent the PV array
from draining the batteries in low light conditions. A diode is usually just a two-element

44
electron tube or a semi-conductor through which current can pass freely in only one
direction.

2. Wind Turbine: Wind turbines can be a very cost effective backup to solar power in areas
with average wind speeds above 7 mph. Usually wind turbines are low maintenance and
tend to perform best during the winter and spring.

3. Generator: If sufficient water storage is not available, some systems may need a backup
generator to run the pump during low sunlight periods. If a generator is used with a DC
pump, an inverter is usually required. However, generators are directly compatible with
some pumps like the Grundfos SQ Flex pumps. Grundfos does recommend an interface
controller when using a generator to automatically switch back to solar power when it is
available (see Table 4). The life expectancy of a generator is typically 5 years.

4. AC Pump: An AC pump can also be used instead of a DC pump but this will require an
inverter when used with solar power.

5. Solar Tracking System: A solar tracking device can be added to the PV array to increase
the power yield. Tracking systems are often sold by the manufacturers of PV modules.
Trackers are attached to the mounting bracket and control the degree to which the array is
tilted towards the sun. They can either be controlled passively (sun’s heat exposure) or
electronically through part of the converted energy from the PV array. Passive trackers
contain liquid (often Freon) that when heated from the sun moves from one cylinder to
another causing the rack to tilt more into the sun. Tracking devices have been reported to
increase the daily energy yield up to 40% at certain latitudes in New York State.
However, they are not recommended for areas near the equator or which are susceptible
to high winds. They can also add approximately 25% of additional maintenance costs.

6. Weather Insulation: Weather proofing and insulation should be added for extremely harsh
environments, especially in areas where temperatures reach minus 200C, which is the
minimum temperature rating of several pumps.

7. Low Well Switch: In low yield wells, where the drawdown of the well exceeds the pumping
capacity, the addition of a shutoff switch is needed in the well to keep the pump from running
dry. Some pumps advertise they can run dry without damage to the pump, but allowing any
pump to continually run dry is a bad idea. Ideally, the pump should shut off

45
when the water level gets within 2 feet of the pumps intake to reduce air intake and
turbulence. Some pumps come pre-installed with a safety shut-off switch.

8. Sand Shroud: A sand shroud may be needed around the intake zone of the pump. Sand
shrouds are recommended for use in wells that have high sediment loads or that were not
properly installed. They are particularly recommended in open boreholes which are not
screened through the saturated zone of the well. This type of drilled well is often installed
in places like Uganda where the water is coming in through rocky areas. The pump
manufacturer can usually provide a compatible sand shroud.

9. Hand Pump: If the water table is fairly shallow and only low yields are needed, a simple
hand pump could be installed in the same well as the solar-powered pump to act as an
additional backup. This would only be practical if space allows, such as in a large
diameter well or hand-dug well. It would also require a solid concrete slab over the well
and a drainage system.

Both inverters and batteries significantly reduce the efficiency of an SPPS and should be
avoided if at all possible. Batteries along with the charge regulator can produce a power loss of
up to 25% of the total array output. If plenty of water storage is available, the batteries may not
be necessary. The initial cost of an efficient DC pump (designed for PV power) is usually greater
than an equivalent AC pump. However, compared to running and maintaining an AC pump off a
generator, the cost should be regained in 5 to 10 years of operation.

CONCLUSION
Solar-powered pumping systems are making headway in becoming leading and appropriate
technology for small-scale water systems in developing countries. This is partly due to the many
NGOs funding and supporting the effort. However, other important reasons for the global use of
the technology are cost reductions in the equipment, greater output efficiencies, low maintenance
requirements, and durability of the systems. Not including the recommended three days of
demand water storage, the PV modules are usually the most expensive element of the system, but
the average 25 year life span of well-constructed PV modules may be the most attractive aspect
of a SPPS. The technology has also been around for over 20 years, so many of the once common
and costly installation mistakes can be avoided through a thorough feasibility study, research,
and appropriate training.

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CONCLUSION

Solar powered irrigation is a highly beneficial alternative method, especially in high


sunlight receiving areas and which are at remote points. In India this system is not grown wide
because of high initial installation costs and scarcity of able technology and technicians. In
future, while the prices of fossil fuels rise it is expected that the cost of the photovoltaic cell will
decrease and this system will become more cost competitive and more common. Today, an
efficient solar pump system has an average daily solar energy power to hydraulic efficiency of
more than 4%. Solar PV panel photovoltaic modules of the monocrystalline type now have
efficiencies in excess of 12% and more efficient motor and irrigation pumpsets are available.

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REFERENCE

1. Rehman, S. and Halawani, T.O. 1988. Development and utilization of solar energy in
Saudi Arabia Review. Arabian J. Sci Eng. 23: 33–46.
2. Koner, P.K. 1995. Optimization techniques for a photovoltaic water pumping system.
Renewable Energy. 6: 53–62.
3. Meah K. et al. Solar photovoltaic water pumping–opportunities and
challenges. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2007:1-14.
4. Ratterman W., Cohen J., Garwood A. Solar Pumping Systems (SPS) – Introductory and
Feasibility Guide. Green Empowerment, no date indicated: 1-64.
5. [Anonymous]. 2013. Wikipedia [on line]. Solar powered Pump. Available:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar-powered pump
6. [Anonymous].2013. Renewable Energies UK[ on line].www.reuk.co.uk/Solar-Powered-
Irrigation.htm
7. Clark, R.N. and K. E. Mulh. 1992. Water pumping for livestock. Proc windpower ’92.
AWEA, October 19-23, 1992. 284-290
8. NYSERDA: Guide to Solar-Powered Water Pumping Systems in New York State

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