r-+ C

m~
r---.J
CD
m m
m
r---.J
-=:::JI L :2:
-+-.•
0-
m ~CD
n0::J' =:3
~
~
 PROJEKT OKLADKI
Maryna WisnielVska TABLE OF CONTENTS
REDAKTO~
Renata Wlodek

KOREKTA
Zespol

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 9
FOREWORD 10

CHAPTER I: SOME REMARKS ON CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS U

1.1. Contrastive analysis ..... IJ
1.2. Equivalence and congruence 14
1.3. Types of syntactic contrast 15
Exercises 16

CHAPTER II: WORD-FORMATION AND THE LEXICON IN CONTRAST 17

2. I. Affixation 17
2.2. Compounding 18
2.3. Internal modification 19
2.4. Blending 19
2.5. Acronyms 20
2.6. Clipping 20
2.7. English borrowings in Polish 21
Exercises 22

CHAPTER III: LEXICAL CONTRAST 26

3.1. Lexical transfer 26

G'i-2r/J Exercisfs
3.2. Confusing words: each or every?
27
31
Exercises . 31
3.3. Semantic fields . 37
3.3.1. Human sounds: shout or scream? 37
Na okladce: Peter Blake, Na balkonie Exercises . 37
Tate Gallery, Londyn 3.3.2. Animal sounds: crOIV, cackle or cluck? 38
Exercises . 38
3.3.3. Verbs of movement: trudge or stagger? 39
Exercises 39
Copyright © by 3.3.4. As or like? 41
Wydawnitwo Naukowe PWN Sp. z 0.0. Exercises 42
Warszawa - Krak6w 1997 42
3.3.5. Make or do?
Exercises 42
ISBN 83-01-12405-9

5
 119
43 Exercises
3.3.6. Say or lell? Speak or lalk? 1:22
Exercises 44 4.2.2. Modal
4.2.2.1.
auxiliaries
Epistemic modality
In
3.3.7. Lie or lay? Rise, arise or raise? 46 122
Exercises 47 4.2.2.1.1. Logical necessity in English
12.\
3.3.8. Miscellany 49 4.2.2.1.2. Logical necessity in Polish
12:\
3.4. Right suffixes 52 4.2.2.1.3. Logical impossibility in English
124
Exercises 52 4.2.2.1.4. Logical impossibility in Polish
124
3.5. Adverbs with and without -Iy 57 4.2.2.1.5. Factual possibility in English
125
Exercises 57 4.2.2.1.6. Factual possibility in Polish
125
3.6. Misspelt 59 4.2.2.1.7. Theoretical and habitual possibility in English
words: similar sounds, different meilnings 125
3.7. Comparative expressions 61 4.2.2.1.8. Theoretical and habitual possibility in Polish
125
Exercises 61 4.2.2.2. Root modality in English and Polish
125
3.8. Prepositions 62 4.2.2.2.1. Necessity and obligation in English
126
3.8.1. Expressing in, on or al?
position: 64 4.2.2.2.2. Necessity and obligation in Polish
127
3.8.2. Expressing position. Nod: over or above? Pod: under or below? 64 4.2.2.2.3. Lack of necessity in English
127
3.8.3. Przez: across, over or Ihrough? 65 4.2.2.2.4. Lack of necessity in Polish
128
3.8.4. Expressing direction. Do: ill or inlo? No: Oil or onlo? 65 4.2.2.2.5. Prohibition in English
129
Exercises 66 4.2.2.2.6. Prohibition in Polish
129
4.2.2.2.7. Permission in English
CHAPTER IV: GRAMMATICAL CONTRAST
UO
87 4.2.2.2.8. Permission in Polish
130
4.1. The noun phrase in English and Polish 87 4.2.2.2.9. Ability in English
131
4.1.1. Word order 87 4.2.2.210. Ability in Polish
132
4.1.1.1. Premodification Exercises
87 13f>
4.1.1.2. Postmodification 88 4.2.3. Conditional sentences
142
4.1.2. Determiners 89 Exercises
146
Exercises 91 4.2.4. Complementation in English and Polish 147
4.1.3. Adjective modifiers 96 4.2.4.1. Verb complements: contrasts
147
4.1.4. The Genitive 98 4.2.4.1.1. Intensive complementation
147
Exercises 101 4.2.4.1.2. Monotransitive complcl11cnlation
ISO
4.1.5. Gender in English and Polish 103 4.2.4.1.3. Ditransitive complemcntation
151
4.1.5.1. Gender in English 104 4.2.4.1.4. Complex transitive complemcnta tion
IS2
4.1.5.2. Gender in Polish 105 4.2.4.2. Adjcctivc complcmcnts: contrasts
I~J
Exercises 106 Excrciscs
160
4.1.6. Number in English and Polish 107 4.2.5. The passive
162
4.1.6.1. Countable and uncountable nouns 107 Exercises
163
4.1.6.2. Collective nouns 108 4.3. Subject-verb concord I (l7
4.1.6.3. The Countable/uncountable distinction and the determiners 109 Exercises
170
Exercises 109 4.4. Word order
171
4.2. The verb phrase 114 4.4.1. Subject and object order 171
4.2. I. The tenses 114 4.4.2. Subject-verb order in English 172
4.2.1.1. The present tense 115 4.4.3. Direct and indirect objects
174
4.2.1.2. The past tense 116 4.4.4. Object and ac\verbials 174
4.2.1.3. The future tense 118 4.4.5. Advcrb positions in English 175
4.2.1.4. Stative and dynamic verbs 119 4.4.5.1. Sentencc-initial advcrbs in English

6
 4.4.5.2. Pre-verb adverbs ... II 175
, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
f
i
4.4.5.3. Sentence-final adverbs ,
f
f
191
190
195
I,!
220
177
176
194
188
198
Exercises . Ifl
185
180
185
195

CHAPTER V; REVIEW EXERCISES . We owe a very special debt of gratitude to Or Ewa Jaworska and
APPENDICES . Dr Robert D. Borsley of The University College of North Wales, who
have read and offered comments on most of this manuscript. Their
I. Selected collocations with make and do .
2. Selected collocations with say. tel!, speak and talk detailed criticisms have led to improvements both in content and style.
3. Selected collocations with lie, lay, rise, arise and raise It was also through them that we have had the benefit of criticism on
4. Adjectives and adverbs with and without -ly several sections of this book from Professor Carl J ames as well as
5. Selected set phrases with prepositions
from students of The University College of North Wales, Abigail
6. Verbs lacking the progressive form
Acton, Oavid Polatajko, Deborah Powell, and Joanne Wood, who
LIST OF ABBREVIA nONS have collectively done most exercises included in this book. We are
GRAMMA nCAL TERMS
KEY ... " " truly indebted to them for their efforts towards making this work
BIBLIOGRAPHY better.
We would also like to thank the British Council for their financial
support that enabled us to maintain our contact with the staff of The
University College of North Wales at Bangor.
Last but not least we wish to express our gratitude to Professor
Ruta Nagucka of the Jagiellonian University of Krak6w, who
initiated and coordinated the link between the two universities.
Naturally, the responsibility for any inadequacies or faults of this
book rests entirely with us,

Ewa Willim and Elzbieta M Oliczak- W oh/le/d

The Jagiellonian University ol Kra/u)ll'

FOREWORD
The purpose of this book is to dr3w the student's attention,
in a very practical way, to the similarities and differences be-
tween English and Polish. It is intendeci for students of English
Philology and teacher training colleges, teachers of English, trans-
lators and interpreters. We have chosen those areas of contrast
between English and Polish which cause a certain amount of dif-
ficulty both in learning and in teaching English as a foreign lan-
guage at the advanced level and where Polish users of English
make relatively frequent errors. We hope that this book will help
these Polish speakers of English to develop and clarify their knowl-
edge of the foreign language and to overcome some of these
difficulties.
Although the manual is very practical, a C01Jple of theoretical
points are worth mentioning. First, a comparison of two or more
languages has to be conducted within a single model of language
description. This is to say that, for instance, we cannot describe the
English part using cognitive grammar and the Polish part using
a traditional framework, as each model uses different methodology
and is concerned with different language phenomena. We have chosen
a traditional structural approach, as this framework seems most
adequate for a practical contrastive grammar. Besides, we assume that
users of this handbook are familiar with other literature written in this
framework, including handbooks of English grammar such as Leech
and Svartvik 1977 and Quirk et a!. 1972.
The other theoretical point is connected with the problem of
comparability. Although it is both possible and desirable to compare
languages on all levels of language analysis, due to the limitations of
the size and scope of this work we have omitted the graphemic and the
phonemic levels from our analysis. The reader is addressed to Fisiak et
a!. 1978 for some discussion of the phonological contrast between
English and Polish. As traditional structuralism is used as a point of
reference, the semantic and pragmatic aspects are automatically
excluded from consideration. The areas of contrast that will be
discussed here include:
10
!I
_ morphological, including the differences stemming rrom the
fact that English is an analytic while Polish is a synthetic lan-
I guage,
t _ lexical, including easily confused words, common collocations.
preposi tions,
_ grammatical, including considerations of word order. sub-
ject-verb concord, the tenses.
The manual consists of five chapters. The first four chapters arc
divided into sections. Each section of a chapter contains a number or
exercises preceded by brief descriptive remarks drawing the student's
attention to the more difficult aspects of the phenomenon discussed in
English and Polish. The descriptive remarks are not meant to provide
a coverage of the lexical and grammatical problems of English.
Rather, they aim at providing analytical descriptions of the relation-
ships between associated phenomena in English and Polish. More
complete descriptions of the various aspects of the English grammar
and problems of correct usage in English at the advanced level may be
found in a number of textbooks now available to the Polish learner.
for instance in B. D. Graver's Advanced English Grammar, L. G.
Alexander's Longman English Grammar and Longmal1 Adval/ced
Grammar, and M. Swan's Practical English Usage. The emphasis in
this book is on the comparison of some central points or vocabulary
and grammar in English and Polish and on practising thenl through
exercises. That is, the two parts, theoretical and descriptive arc not
symmetrical, with the theoretical part based on contrastive analysis
and the practical part reflecting our experience or the learners'
problems. We are relying on tne learners' prior knowledge of aspects
of the grammars of English and Polish and our aim is to make explict
their knowledge and intuitions of the two languages. The exercises arc
both instruments of testing and paths to learning. The last chapter
contains only exercises, wrapping up the material discussed in the
previous chapters.
All the examples in the descriptive parts are given both in English
and in Polish. The majority of the exercises are based on translation
(either from English into Polish or vice versa). Some exercises (Irc
restricted to English, but these are constructed in such ,\ way as (0
draw on the contrasts between the two languages. WC 11,\\C ,tlsn
11
included a number of exercises aimed at gIVIng the student more
practice in those areas where they make relatively more mistakes
which are not necessarily related to the contrasts between their mother
and target languages, but which are not given sufficient attention in
other books dealing with the more difficult aspects of English.
Following the most recent trends in foreign language teaching, we
have also suggested exercises with ill-formed sentences meant to be'
corrected by the user of this manual. All these sentences are attested
and have been drawn from various written work of the students of the
first two years of the Institute of English Philology and the Teachers'
Training College of the lagiellonian University of Krak6w. Most
exercises deal at the word, phrase and sentence levels, but some are
based on contemporary texts drawn mainly from English newspapers
or books. There is a key to the exercises at the end of the book. We
also include a list of abbreviations used in the descriptive parts of the
book, a glossary of some important grammatical terms which are not
explained in the commentary, and six appendices, which can be
consulted for reference.
CHAPTER I
SOME REMARKS ON CONTRASTIVE
ANALYSIS
1.1. CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS
Contrastive analysis, which is also called 'contrastive linguistics',
is a sub-type of comparative linguistics. Apart from contrastive
analysis, comparative linguistics comprises comparative diachronic
linguistics, which deals with a change of one or more related
languages in time in order to reconstruct a proto-Ianguage, and
comparative typological linguistics whose aim is to classify languages
into certain groups from the synchronic point of view. Contrastive
analysis is defined as a systematic comparison of the linguistic
systems of two or more languages (The Encyclopedia of Language
and Linguistics 1994: 737).
Since this analysis involves the comparison of at least two
languages, it is often referred to as an interlingual study. Contrastive
linguistics deals with the analysis of languages as they are used
nowadays, that is, it is conducted synchronically and is divided into
two kinds: theoretical and applied. Among other things, theoretical
studies provide a model for analysis, specify which elements are
comparable and how to compare them, attempt to define 'tertium
comparationis', and compare and contrast two or more languages
with the aim of contributing to the development of syntactic theory.
Applied studies deal with two or more languages with the aim of
facilitating the teaching of one to the speakers of the other (ibid.
737-42).
13
 Although prior to its inception teachers of a foreign language had Equivalent constructions are those constructions which are mutually
been aware of the contrasts existing between tht native and the foreign translatable, for example:
language, contrastive linguistics came into being as a science only at (I) Do you like apples?
the turn of the century. The first works were almost purely theoretical. Czy lubisz jabllw?
It is worth emphasizing that among the first few linguists working in
the field was a Polish linguist, J. Baudouin de Courtenay. His work Congruent constructions are not only equivalent but a Iso consist or
was continued by the Prague school of linguistics, particularly by such the same number of words arranged in the same order, fl)r example:
scientists as V. Mathesius, B. Trnka, and J. Vachek. The outbreak of (2) John kissed Mary.
World War n was a milestone in the development of applied Jan pocalOll'al Mari?
contrastive grammar as a need to teach foreign languages arose in the
U.S.A. Due to the findings of the American linguist Charles Fries and
others at about this time, it became obvious that it was necessary to 1.3. TYPES OF SYNTACTIC CONTRAST
have a scientific description of both the foreign language and the
native language in order to design effective, economical methods and At the syntactic level, differences fall into three types: structural.
techniques of teaching. A number of pedagcgically-oriented contrast-
9!~g.<.?!i~)and functional. Structural differences are observed whcn
ive articles and books were thus published in the United States during one language has structures without congruent counterparts in the
and after World War n. Yet contrastive grammar conducted in the other language and when this difference can be attributed to a dif-
U.S.A. was not limited to a practical approach (cf. Fisiak 1978: ference in the rules of phrase structure in both languagcs. For
11-12). On the contrary, some American linguistis, most notably U. instance, Polish has subjectless finite clauses while English does not. as
Weinreich (1953) and E. Haugen (1950), dealt with more theoretical shown in the examples helow:
issues like the problems of bilingualism and language contact.
The 1960's is considered a further step in the development of (1) It is earl)'j* Is early.
contrastive grammar. A number of projects were initiated both in * To jest wczesniejJe,\r \\'cze,\l1ie.

Europe and in the United States - to mention two of them: the When corresponding elements in counterpart sentences in twO lan-
Serbo-Croatian-English Contrastive Project in Zagreb, and the Pol- guages belong to different syntactic categories. for example. Nr. Yr.
ish-English Contrastive Project in Poznarl. However, the main dif- AdjP, PP, the contrast is categorial. For example, one language may
ference between American and European projects lies in the fact that have an adjective where the other has an adverb:
the former are more practically oriented whereas the latter rather
stress the importance of theoretical studies. (2) You look beautifii/j*beautiful1y.
Wyglcl:dasz *piyknajpi?knie.

When counterpart elements of syntactic structures have different

1.2. EQUIVALENCE AND CONGRUENCE syntactic functions in two languages the contrast is functional. In (3)
below, the subject of the English sentence corresponds to the object in
the Polish sentence and viee versa:
Two kinds of relations holding between constructions in different
(3) Mary has lost her purse.
languages are distinguished: equivalence and congruence. Thus we
Marii zgil1f!la portmonerka.
talk of 'equivalent constructions' and 'congruent constructions'.
\5
14
 Exercise I. Decide whether the following sentences are equivalent or congruent: CHAPTER 11

1. a. Yesterday Tom bought oranges.

b. Wczoraj Tomek kupil pomarancze.
2. a. Have you ever been to London?
WORD-FORMATION AND THE LEXICON
b. Czy bylas kiedykolwiek w Londynie?
3. a. John opened the door with a key.
IN CONTRAST
b. Jan otworzyl drzwi kluczem.
4. a. Last year I spent a week in Israel.
b. W zeszlym roku sp~dzilem tydzien w Izraelu.
5. a. When are you going to sign the petition?
b. Kiedy podpiszesz petycj~?

Exercise 2. Indicate which type of cor.trast is involved in each case: New words ar~ created using processes of combining, shortening,
and blending already existing words and/or morphemes both in
1. a. A man was murdered.
English and in Polish. The most common process of making new
b. Zamordowano jakiegos m~zczyzn~. words, combining, subsumes two different morphological processes:
2. a. You didn't answer my question.
_~!.fixation and compounding. In English, compounding is almost as
b. Nie odpowiedziales na moje pytanie. productive as affixation in forming new words. In Polish, by contrast,
3. a. We are sad.
affixation is by far the most productive source of new words. Another
b. Jest nam smutno.
very productive process of making new lexical items in English,
4. a. John cut the bread with a knife.
shifting of the old words, is very restricted in Polish. Shortening and
b. Jan pokroil chleb nozem.
blending, together with acronymization, belong to word-manufac-
5. a. John painted the garage brown. turing rather than word-formation in that they are not rule-governed
b. Jan pomalowal garaz na br'lzowo. like word-formation. In both languages, these processes have relative-
ly much lesser importance as ways of adding new words to the lexicon.

2.1. AFFIXATION

In affixation, a bound morpheme, an affix, is added to a base.

Suffixation is addition of a bound morpheme, a suffix, to the end of
the base and prefixation is addition of a bound morpheme, a prefix, t9-:__
the beginning of the base. In both languages, suffixation is used ,m§f'& .i/;;;
frequently than prefixation in creating new words. /' .. c/" "
(,:,,'",~':. '0
17
 2.2. COMPOUNDING hay fever katar sienny
chocolate bar batonik czekoladowy

The morphological process called compounding occurs both in Another important difference in compounding in the two lan-
English and in Polish. It usually involves putting together two lexical guages lies in the fact that apart from neo-classical compounds in
items. Properties such as orthography, stress and meaning help which -0- is used, in English the elements of a compound are not
distinguish compounds.
joined by a separate interfix whereas in Polish most compounds
Unlike in Polish, English spelling is not decisive in classifying involve an interfix, -0-, -ijy- or -u-, which comes between the two parts
a lexical item as a compound. For example, all three spellings: of the compound, as in samolotjairplane, stuleciejcentury.
boyfriend, boy-friend, boy friend are found. In Polish, on the other
hand, a compound is always spelt as one word. Compare, for
example, the compound Bialystok with the phrase bialy stok/white
slope.
2.3. INTERNAL MODIFICATION
In most cases the first element of the compound receives primary
stress in English while the second element receives secondary stress, The term 'internal modification' is used for a morphological
for example 'black,board. In Polish, by contrast, compounds in the process in which a sound segment is replaced by another sound
nominative have only one stress, for example samolot. segment. Usually one segment undergoes modification. Examples
In both languages it is possible to deduce the meaning of some involve vowel-modification, as is most evident in the past tense forms
compounds from the meanings of their parts, for example, school- of irregular verbs (e.g. find :found) and irregular pI ural nouns (e.g.
boy/uczen and siedmiolatek/seven-year-old. Occasionally, however, it is foot :.feet); consonant-modification, as in verbs ending in a voiced
not possible to determine the meaning of the compound from the consonant which are related to nouns ending in a voiceless consonant
meanings of the constituent elements, as is the case in the English (e.g. proof: prove); and mixed cases, usually involving one vow-
honeymoon/miesiqc miodowy and the Polish bialoglowa/lady. el-change and one consonant-change (e.g. teach: taught). In Polish,
In most English compounds, the element on the right is seen as internal modification is observed in cases such as nos: nochaljnose or
modified by the element on the left. In coffee-pot/dzbanek do kawy, for kluska: kluchajdumpling. Sometimes internal modification is accom-
instance, pot/dzbanek is modified by coffee/do kawy. In Polish, by panied by subtraction of one or more sound segments in Polish, as in
contrast, two-element equivalents of the English compounds tend to lawka: lawa/desk. When all the sound segments are replaced, modifi-
have the modified element on the left, with the modifier on the right, cation is total and is called 'suppletion'; for example the plural form of
as illustrated by the pair coffee-pot: dzbanek do kawy and in (1) below: czlowiek/man in Polish is ludziejpeople.
(1) post card : kartka pocztowa
film star : gwiazda filmowa
sound-wave : fala diwifkowa
2.4. BLENDING
return ticket : bilet powrotny
football : pi/ka nozna The term 'blending' is used to designate the method of coining
bus stop : przystanek autobusowy new words by merging parts of words into one, unanalysablc
headache bol glowy word. In English, blends include smog from smoke and fog, and
birth-control : kontrola urodzen motel from motol and hotel. In Polish, it is possible to classify
18
\9
 as blends ielbeton/reinforced concrete from ielazo/iron and be-
ton/concrete and domofon/door-phone from dom(owy)/home and tele-
fon/telephone.
2.5. ACRONYMS
Acronymization is a way of coining new words from the initial
letters or larger parts of names or combinations of words. Three
patterns of coining acronyms are distinguished: letter-words, which
are coined from the first letters, for example, AIDS from Acquired
Immune Deficiency Syndrome; syllable-words, for example, Benelux
from Belgium, Netherlands and Luxemburg; and, infrequently, com-
binations of both methods, as in radar from radio detecting and
ranging. Syllable-words are pronounced as words, e.g. Fortran and
together with letter-words pronounced as words, e.g. NATO, are
distinguished from letter-words pronounced as sequences of letters,
e.g. VIP, which are called 'alphabetisms'.
2.6. CLIPPING
Clipping consists of the reduction of a word, as in math/matma from
mathematics/matematyka and exam from examination/egzamin.Three
types of clipping are distinguished depending on the part of the word
which is reduced. Back-clipping, the most common way of shortening
words, is characterized by the omission of the final part of the word, as
in ad from advertisement/reklama. Fore-clipping consists in the omis-
sion of the beginning of the word, as in phone from telephone/telefon.
Simultaneous back- and fore-clipping is marked by the omission of
both the beginning and of the final part of the word, as in flu from
injluenza/grypa. In some cases, native speakers of English are not aware
that the lexical items are clipped forms, for example, that brandy has
been clipped from brandy wine, gin/diin from Geneva, and van/cl(~ia-
rowka from caravan. Clipping is far more common in English than in
Polish, where it is restricted to the following cases:
20
_ in compound words of Latin or Greek origin, e.g. porno from
pornografiaf pornography,
_ in borrowings, e.g. kola from the English coco-colu,
_ in special languages, e.g. spoko from spokojniejno .I'11'Cul, 110
problem.
2.7. ENGLISH BORROWINGS IN POLISH
The first few English loanwords entered Polish in the 18th century.
The process of borrowing became more significant in the course of the
19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century. However, most
anglicisms were introduced after World War Il and particularly after
the changes in the political system in Poland in 1989. While in the
years 1950-1980 the number of English words borrowed into Polish
was approximately 700, a thousand more loans entered Polish since
then.
Older loans are weJJ-adapted and are not even felt as borrowings.
Their spelling and pronunciation agree with the rules of Polish; they
are adapted to the grammar of the language and their meanings are
clear. Recent loans, by contrast, behave differently. Their spelling may
vary, for example, the English business woman is written in Polish as
businesswoman. business woman, busineswoman, and bizneswomul7. The
pronunciation of recent loans, as is true of all borrowings, is based on
their spelling, e.g. nylony, or it is close to the phonetics of their models,
e.g. aut, but in a few cases we observe a certain degree of hesitation,
e.g. [htSup] vs [htSap].
Since a majority of anglicisms are nouns (about 1600 of the 1700
anglicisms attested in Polish), they are assigned to an appropriate
gender group, most often, masculine). There are about 45 verbs, 40
adjectives, 10 adverbs and 3 interjections borrowed from English in
contemporary Polish.
Most nouns borrowed from English are marked with appropriate
plural number endings in Polish, for example, yachts/jachty. Invariab-
ly plural English nouns borrowed into Polish lose their -.I' ending, e.g.
shorts: szorty, slips: slipy, or, occasionally retain the English plural
21
ending, e.g. bloomers: bloomers. Some nouns have been borrowed in 9. niezadowalaj,!:cy 13. niewlasciwy
10. niezdrowy 14. nieistotny
their plural form, which is analysed as singular in Polish and the
Polish plural ending is added. This phenomenon is referred to as 11. niezalezny 15. nielogiczny
double plural and may be illustrated with komandos : komando- 12. niemoralny
si/commando (sg) : commandos (pI).
Compounds like jliz-shop/tile shop, mini market, auto zlom/car 10.
7.
b. a.
8.
6.
9. a glass
white
aRedskin
red
field
an redcap
whiteboard
cap board
skin
sports
eye-glass
sports
eye field
Exercise 5. Explain the difference in meaning between the following pairs of expressions:
scrap, have the modifying element preceding the 5. modified
2.
3.
4. a. one,
whitewhich
aab.horserace
a. b. aa race-horse
black
whitecap
greenhouse
greenfly
green bird
cap
house
fly
is characteristic of English and thus may be seen as formed under the 1. a. a blackbird
English influence.
Language areas with relatively many recent borrowings include the
semantic fields of computers, sports, music, and the economy. There
are often some changes in the meaning of the words borrowed into
Polish compared to their meanings in the source language. For
example, the meaning may be narrowed down to one of the several
senses of the word from the source language, as is the case of klub
from club, or some semantic reclassification occurs, as in the case of
dropsy, which is perceived not so much as the plural of drops, but as
rather a cylindrical package of sweets.

Exercise 6. Explain the meaning of the following English compounds:

1. bird brain 6. hunchback

Exercise 3. Form complex words by adding as many affixes as possible to the foIlowing
2. blockhead 7. loudmouth
bases. Note the change of meaning:
3. country fare 8. paleface
4. fathead 9. redbreast
1. tidy 6. understand 10. white horse
2. appear 7. state 5. greenback
3. govern 8. gross
4. prison 9. pardon Exercise 7. In English compounds, the plural suffix is usually at the end of the
5. dress 10. mark compound, but it may also be put on the first element or on both elements.
Decide which of the compounds below forms the plural in which way:

Exercise 4. Find the English equivalents of the foIlowing words in Polish and comment 1. attorney general 7. man-eater
on the range of English affixes corresponding to the prefix nie- in Polish: 2. take-off 8. grown-up
3. gentleman farmer 9. woman-driver
1. niepal,!:cy 5. niedoscigly 10. woman-hater
4. passer-by
2. niemn,!:cy 6. niespokojny 5. close-up 11. spoonful
3. nienormalny 7. nielojalny 6. trouser pocket 12. man-of-war
4. niesymetryczny 8. nieposluszny
23
22
 13. gin-and-tonic 15. man servant
14. sit-in 1. Ieginsy 6. komputer
2. dzinsy 7. piiamajpidzama
3. lobby 8. rum
Exercise 8. Formulate the conditions for the insertion of the appropriate interfix, -0-.
-i(y- and -u- in Polish, using the following data: 4. zoom 9. budzet
5. skwer 10. sponsoring
1. nerwoboI, beczkowoz, kosciotrup, ksi~gozbior, winogrona, rozno-
kolorowy, ubiegloroczny, szesciokq,i, jednorozec, malojadek, szyb- Exercise 12. Explain the differences in meaning between the following anglicisms and
kowar,
their English sources:
2. spiwor, wodzirej, pucybut, moczymorda, zawalidroga,
3. stulecie, dwumasztowiec, dwukropek. 1. handicap la.
9.
8.
6. rower
7. spiker
farmerki
frak
adapter
4.
5. teksasy
2.
3. dres
trampek
smoking
Exercise 9. Identify the process involved in the production of the following words:

1. mysikrolik 11.
13.
12.
14.
10. nalac
9. nozia
15. PKS
mi~cho
spec
zywoplot
dwoja
tar
cho
owca
afir
pieroch
anepid
ografia

Exercise 13. Provide the English counterparts of the following anglicisms:

1. Eskimos 6. Jankes
2. mikst 7. keks
3. parias 8. Torys
4. komiks 9. dzokejka
5. koks 10. slipy

Exercise 10. Explain the ongm of the following acronyms and indicate if they are
letter-words or syllable-words: Exercise 14. Indicate which of the following are pseudo-anglicisms, that is lexical items
composed of English elements whic'h nevertheless do not exist in English
1. DARE 6. maser as entries in the dictionary, and which are calques, that is expressions
2. laser 7. Fortran translated more or less literally:
3. NASA 8. UNESCO
4. sial 1. happy end 11. smoking
9. PEN
5. ANZAC 2. lamistrajk 12. nadwaga
la. UNRRA 3. nastolatek 13. drapacz chmur
4. strategia pokoju 14. parking
5. konferencja na szczycie 15. szczyt
Exercise 11. Indicate if the following anglicisms have been assimilated (a), that is 6. pranie mozgu 16. Iongplay
substituted, or imported (i), that is, transferred, in Polish. Take into
7. czarny rynek 17. numer jeden
consideration the following aspects, pronunciation (P), morphology (M), 18. wilk morski
spelling (S) and semantics (SM). 8. zimna wojna
9. bank krwi 19. burza mozgow
EXAMPLE: bryczesy - P, M, S - a; SM - i, 20. air condition
la. Iataj,!ca trumna
24
25
 CHAPTER III Exercise 15. Choose the word which best suits each of the sentences below and discllss
details of the use and meaning of the remaining word:

1. This ..... produces very good refrigerators.

LEXICAL CONTRAST a. factory b. fabric
2. There is a bloodstain on my woollen .
a. divan b. carpet
3. Some suites by an unknown German ..... have been found here.
a. compositor b. composer
4. My sister collects different ..... of Hamlet.
a. exemplars b. copies
3.1. LEXICAL TRANSFER 5. Tom intends to buy the most ..... car on the market.
a. economic b. economical
6. If he ever gets a divorce from Mary, he'll have to pay her .
Lexical similarities and dissimilarities between the mother and
a. aliment b. alimony (Am E)
the foreign language may influence the acquisition of the foreign 7. A person who gets up and walks while asleep is called a .
language. Words which sound similarly in the two languages and a. sleepwalker b. lunatic
further, have similar meanings may be easier to learn for the 8. Professor Smith always works in his ..... until late in the evening.
learner than dissimilar words, but their transfer into the foreign a. study b. cabinet
language often results ir. errors. A pair of phonetically similar 9. She's got a very nice , dark and healthy.
words may be a cognate pair, as is the case with the English a. carnation b. complexion
collision and its Polish counterpart kolizja, but the pair boot: la. Yesterday's ceremony was the first time I
had ever seen him
but/shoe is not. Problems with so-called false friends involve par- weanng a .
tial semantic identity, as witnessed by the pair club: klub, transfer a. frock b. dinner jacket/tuxedo
of only the meaning, as in the case of *thank you from the 11. I think ..... should be banned. It is too cruel and dangerous to be
mountain used by Polish speakers instead of thank you in advance, a sport.
or transfer violating the grammatical constraints on the use of a. boxing b. box
words in larger structures, as is the case of *Let's meet ourselves
12. Have you ever used a public ..... in the London tube?
tomorrow/Spotkajmy sir: jutro, where a reflexive verb is used in a. closet b. lavatory
English instead of an intransitive verb, possibly as a result of 13. My uncle grows the crispiest ..... in his back garden.
interference from Polish. The exercises that follow draw your at- a. salad b. lettuce
tention to some tricky points of Bnglish vocabulary, which may 14. What did you buy that ..... for? Are you going into the funeral
be caused by transfer from Polish, but you will have to consult service business?
a dictionary of English, for instance Longman Dictionary of Cur- a. caravan b. hearse
rent English for all the details of the use of the vocabulary items 15. All the flats on the ..... are slightly cheaper than the other ones.
pointed out here.
a. parterre b. ground }loor
16. I'll never forget the taste of the delicious. golden ..... my gra nd 111 a
used to make on Sundays.

26 n
 a. bullion b. broth 19. This facet seems to have escaped their attention completely.
17. I once listened in on a ..... at a Magistrate Court. It was quite an 20. Get this gnat off me!!!
expenence.
a. process b. trial
Exercise 17. Decide if the words in italics may be used in the translation of the Polish
18. He made his fortune by .
sentences into English. If not, provide suitable counterparts of the Polish
a. hazard b. gambling words in English:
19. Can I borrow your ..... of Rome? I need it for my trip next Friday.
a. plan b. map 1. Koniecznie zadzwon do Piotra, jdli tylko znajdziesz okazj?:oc-
20. Have you talked about the rise with the ..... yet? casion.
a. chef b. boss 2. Pami~taj 0 tym, zeby zabrae na plazy parasol przeciwslonec::-
ny:parasol.
3. Uwazam swoj pobyt za bardzo udany, chociaz nie zrealizoH'a-
Exercise 16. Translate the following into Polish, paying special attention to the words lam:realize wszystkich planow.
in italics:
4. Ladnie ci w tym nowym dresie:dress.
5. W pawilonie:pavillion obok przystanku autobusowego otwarli
1. The average rent in Poland is rather low. nowy sklep spozywczy.
2. What kind of pasta do you like best? 6. Czy uzywa si~ jeszcze atramentu sympatycznego:sympathetic?
3. I can't find the lorgnette and it is my piece on the stage in 7. Na przyj~ciach u nich zawsze jest sympatyczna:sympathetic atmo-
a minute! sfera.
4. I think Steven Spielberg has been the most successful director in 8. Ciocia Zuzia wyglq.da bardzo mlodo, ale .faktycznie.:factually ma
history. juz pod pi~edziesiq.tky.
5. The easiest place to meet him is the gymnasium. 9. Jestdmy aktualnie:actually bardzo zaj~ci przygotowaniami do
6. Have you received your stipend yet, Father John? konferencji.
7. Where did they find that cask? In the cellar? 10. Nie ma tego nazwiska w ewidencji:evidence ludnosci Krakowa.
8. I don't think my elderly mother will be able to support herself on 11. Polityka zagraniczna panstwa musi bye kOl1sekwentna:consequent.
her pension any more. 12. Obetnij ten knot:knot, dobrze?
9. Her boy is a spoilt brat. 13. Gdyby nie bylo miejsca w hotelu, mog~ si~ elVentualniceven tuallr
10. Whether or not you get a rise is totally at the director's discretion. zatrzymae u znajomych.
11. They talked about her antics all evening yesterday. 14. Zawsz~ biory paragon:paragon, placq.c w kasie.
12. It was difficult to get cod just then. 15. Czy w magazynie:magazine sq. jeszcze jakies osemki?
13. Did you see that .film of dirt on her windows? 16. Jas chce kupie parcel?parcel i zbudowae dom, zanim si~ ozeni.
14. The conductor fainted and the basoonist called for an ambulance. 17. Na parapecie:parapet w kuchni stala doniczka.
15. My son dropped a baton at a sporting event once and cried like 18. Nie jestem specjalnie:specially zainteresowana malarstwem f1a-
a baby. mandzkim.
16. Where's the bat? 19. Nasz klub ma wielkie osi<!gni~cia w rzucie dyskiem:disc.
17. I can remember an old photograph of my grandfather in a trench. 20. Uroczystosc przypomniala mu 0 czasach, gdy sam byl ministran-
18. I've never seen such a grubby exercise book before! tem:ministrant.

28 29
Exercise 18. Choose this one of the English words which may serve as the translational 15. komiczny: comic or comican
equivalent of the Polish word in each of the sentences below:
I love ..... opera, do you?
16. koncerty: concerts or concertos?
I. akcja: action or campaign? How many piano ..... did Beethoven compose?
What do you think about their ..... against drunk driving? 17. magiczny: magic or magical?
2. aktualnie: actually or presently (mostly AmE)? I don't really believe in ..... powers and I think David Copper-
I suppose they are ..... travelling in California. field's shows are a hoax.
3. chipsy: chips or crisps (mostly BrE) 18. okazja: bargain or occasion?
Get a bag of bacon-flavoured ..... for me, please. At £ 14.99 these leather shoes are a real .
4. ekonomia: economics or economy? 19. plaster: bandage or plaster?
Is it true that you are reading ..... this year? Don't be afraid! It's a small cut and all you need is a little
5. emigrowac: emigrate or immigrate? 20. praktyka: experience or practice?
Why are you so determined to ..... to Canada? Are you sure you'll You can't let her work all alone. She has only had three months
have a better life there? ..... as a teller.
6. elektryczny: electric or electrical?
How is ..... energy produced?
7. epoka: age or epoch'! 3.2. CONFUSING WORDS: EACH OR EVERY?
Why is this time called the Iron ..... , daddy?
8. falszywy: false or two-faced?
Another important source of common lexical problems is the
She tells me one thing and she tells you something completely
existence in the foreign language of more than one translational
different! She is ..... and I wouldn't trust her.
counterpart of a single lexical item of the learner's native tongue. For
9. fantazja: imagination or fantasy?
example, przynieSc may be rendered in English by both bring and
This child is much less creative than others in the group, which
fetch. Problems are also caused by the existence of lexical items in the
may be due to his lack of .
foreign language which have more than one lexical counterpart in the
10. historyczny: historic or historical?
native tongue, as in the case of teSciowa and swiekra, which are both
Which contemporary writer puts most life into ..... figures?
11. humor: humour or mood? rendered in English as mother-in-law.

My Dad has been humming along all day today. He must be in

a very good .
Exercise 19. Provide the Polish equivalents of the following English words and
12. intensywny: intense or intensive? comment on how the lexical distinction in Polish correlates with a dif-
Are you sure you really want to take an ..... course in computer ference between the senses of the English words. Consult a dictionary. if
programming? necessary:
13. klasyczny: classic or classical?
The current crisis isa ..... example of a power struggle. I. to break 5.
6.
7. form
8. to hurt
glass
go
14. klienci: clients or customers? 4.
2. examination
3. course
dish
The little grocery on the corner has lost a lot of ..... since the Tesco .\I
supermarket opened just a week ago.

30
 9. jacket 15. right (adj) Exercise 22. Choose the word which best completes each of the sentences below:
10. married 16. to save
11. to miss 17. sister-in-law 1. drugi: second or other?
12. nephew 18. society This bedroom is quite big, but how about the ..... one?
13. niece 19. to spend 2. falszywy: fake or false?
14. paper 20. to wash Someone has been passing ..... 100 dollar bills all over town again.
3. gimnastyka: exercise or gymnastics?
We never had any ..... at school. All we did was run cross-country.
4. kalendarz(yk): calendar or diary?
Exercise 20. Provide the English equivalents of the English words and phrases and
comment on how the lexical distinction in English correlates with the Thursday evening sounds fine, but let me check in my ..... just in
difference between the senses of the Polish words and phrases. Consult case I've forgotten something.
a dictionary, if necessary: 5. karton: cardboard or carton?
Can I borrow a sheet of ..... from you? I have to put up the party
notice.
1. biedny 11. kolega 6. kazdy: each or every?
2. b61 12. ksztalt
That's strange of the tickets costs £6.50, no matter where you
3. choroba 13. ludzki sit.
4. cialo 14. miejsce 7. k'lpac siy: bath or bathe?
5. cien 15. niebo
Do you mean to say that you ..... every day. I wouldn't like to
6. 'CzesC!' 16. palec have your bills to pay.
7. droga 17. pamiyc 8. kominy: chimneys or funnels?
8. 'Dzien dobry!' 18. pestki All the liner's ..... were painted black.
9. dyrektor 19. podr6z 9. kuchnia: cuisine or kitchen?
10. jechac 20. pro sty I'm not that crazy about Indian It's too hot and too fatty for
me.
Exercise 21. Instructions as above: 10. kuchnia: galley or kitchen?
The ship's ..... was a dark, smelly place with piles of dirty dishes
1. powieszony 12.
13.
17.
18.
19.
15.
16. uczen
wielki
20. wynaj'lc
14.
11. zamkn'lc
zly
wybrac
smiertelny
zadowolony
zajyty
wysoki and scraps of food everywhere.
aojny
och6d
ny
esor
praszam!' 11. mozliwosc: opportunity or possiblity?
I have never had the ..... to see Michael Jackson in a live concert.
12. niebezpieczenstwo: danger or risk?
With so many new incidents of flu reported every day you can talk
about an epidemic. In fact, everyone is at ..... now.
13. organiczenie: limit or limitation?
Bill Gates has been so successful in all his endeavours there seems
to be no ..... to what else he can achieve.
14. okladka: cover or sleeve?

~~
 Have you seen the ..... of the latest Rolling Stones' record? 13. zapach: aroma or smelr?
15. opracz: except or except for? What is this strange ..... in the bathroom? We'll have to call in
..... John, everyone seemed pleased. a plumber, I think.
14. zauwaiyc: notice or remark?
Did you ..... how pale she was today? I wonder what was wrong.
Exercise 23. Instructions as above:
15. zepsuty: broken or out of order?
The lift is ..... again!
1. parking: car park or parking?
It is a huge shopping mall and it has a multi-storey .
2. pasowac: fit or suit? Exercise 24. Instructions as above:
These jeans ..... like a glove.
3. podobny: alike or similar? 1. drugi: second or other?
The twins aren't really The girl has fair, curly hair and the It's seven in the morning and you are smoking your ..... cigarette
boy's hair is dark and straight. already!
4. pusty: blank or empty? 2. falszywy: false or fake?
Fill the ..... spaces with only one letter. Do you think celebrities travel under ..... names?
5. rainy: different or various? 3. gimnastyka: exercises or gymnastics?
My sons have ..... tastes in music and girls. After they take the plaster off, you'll have to do some finger .
6. scena: scene or stage? 4. kalendarz(yk): calendar or diary?
All the singers appear on the ..... at the end of the concert. The concert which will be conducted by Penderecki in May will
7. sila: force or strength? definitely be the highlight of our philharmonic .
Your sister is a famous opera singer. What do you think is her 5. karton: cardboard or carton?
grea test ..... ? He put all his belongings in this huge ..... before he went away.
8. sila: power or strength? 6. kaidy: each or every?
She has a strange ..... over her husband. He twitches whenever she ..... child is predisposed to learn a language.
looks at him.
7. k~pac siy: bath or bathe?
9. sztuczny: artificial or fake? He lived by the sea when he was a young man and used to .....
I am really surprised at how many women wear ..... jewellery to every day.
work these days. 8. kominy: chimneys or funnels?
10. uczyc siy: learn or study? All the factory ..... were painted white.
Don't disturb him. He is ..... for tomorrow's chemistry test. 9. kuchnia: cuisine or kitchen?
11. widok: scenery or view? I think I'll buy her a nice set of ..... towels for Mother's Day.
The ..... of the bay from the bedroom window was really 10. kuchnia: galley or kitchen?
spectacular. After they found the body, the camper's ..... was searched
12. wiek: ages or years? thoroughly for fingerprints.
Activities involving combinatorial skills are suitable for children 11. moiliwosc: opportunity or possiblity?
of older .
Is there any ..... that your parents will come earlier?
34 35
 12. niebezpieczenstwo: danger or risk? 11. widok: view or scenery?
The skaters were in real ..... of drowning when the thin ice gave If you enjoy admiring the ..... , North Wales is definitely a place to
way under their weight. visit.
13. ograniczenie: limit or limitation? 12. wiek: ages or years?
Let's hope for a major nuclear weapons ..... before the year 2000. The Victorian Railroad Station at Llanfairpwll offers attractions
14. okladka: cover or sleeve? to visitors of all .
I don't remember what is on the ..... of his latest book. 13. zapach: aroma or smelf?
15. oprocz: except or except for? I adore the ..... of patchouli.
There is little we can do ..... wait for her to call. 14. zauwazyc: notice or remark?
I wonder if he will ..... reproachfully that I am late as usual.
15. zepsuty: broken or out of order?
Exercise 25. Instructions as above:
The ..... computer is over there.

1. parking: car park or parking?

3.3. SEMANTIC FIELDS
Let me park somewhere else. There isn't enough ..... here.
2. pasowac: fit or suit?
Words which belong to a common semantic field, for example the
I think hats do ..... you.
vocabulary of feelings, sports, motion, etc., often cause condsidera ble
3. podobny: alike or similar?
difficulty and uncertainty in learners of a foreign language. The
What is ..... between the two shapes?
vocabulary connected with a specific semantic field can be sizeable
4. pusty: blank or empty?
and often the differences in meaning between the many lexical items
The streets are ..... at this hour of the night.
belonging to the common field are subtle and concern the use of the
5. rozny: different or various?
lexical items in context. In this section, you will find exercises on some
Since they retired, they have travelled to ..... countries all over the
world. selected word families in English. Consult an English dictionary or
T. McArthur's Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English when you
6. scena: scene or stage? do them.
She makes a ..... whenever he is late from work.
7. sila: force or strength? 3.3.1. HUMAN SOUNDS: SHOUT OR SCREAfIrf?
The villagers were driven out of their houses by ..... on the night of
the bloodbath. Exerdse 26. Choose the verb which best completes each of the sentences below:
8. sila: power or strength?
The old lady hit the attacker on the head with all her ..... and 1. A person who has difficulties speaking and repea ts sounds, words
managed to knock him down. or their parts .
9. sztuczny: artificial or false? a. stammers b. mumbles
I can't get used to my new ..... teeth. They keep giving me awful 2. When you get really badly hurt, you ..... III pa1l1.
pains in the gums. a. shout b. scream
10. uczyc siy: learn or study? 3. When you want to attract the attention of a person standing quite
At what age do children ..... to write in Poland? far away, you have to ..... at him.

36 ~7
 a. shout b. scream 7. A sparrow ..... sitting on your window-sill.
4. Don't ..... at a child when you are furious. It may do more harm a. twitters b. chatters
than good. 8. Turkeys make loud, ..... sounds when they run in the yard.
a. scream b. cry a. gobbling b. gibbering
5. A nervous person will ..... , which is quite different from chatting. 9. Cats ..... in early spring, when they mate.
a. chatter b. blab a. squawk b. caterwaul
6. Don't tell Lorri things you don't want to be repeated. She is 10. A satisfied tiger ..... after a feast like a cat.
bound to ..... everything she hears from you. a. growls b. purrs
a. chatter b. blab 11. A mouse scurries to safety .
7. My little nephew, who is 18 months old now, ..... all the time. a. squeaking b. screeching
a. babbles b. blabs 12. When a pigeon or a dove makes a soft sound, it
8. A person speaking angrily in a low voice that cannot be easily a. coos b. hoots
heard . 13. A thirsty donkey ..... querulously.
a. mumbles b. mutters a. bellows b. brays
9. A person who mispronounces sounds, saying for example thing 14. Sheep and goats .
instead of sing, . a. quack b. bleat
a. natters b. lisps 15. A bee flying past your ear quickly .
10. A person who speaks so quietly and indistinctly that others have a. buzzes b. drones
problems understanding them 16. Monkeys make ..... sounds at play.
a. stammers b. mumbles a. twittering b. chattering
17. A parrot ..... in its cage.
3.3.2. ANIMAL SOUNDS: CROW, CACKLE OR CLUCK? a. squawks b. twitters
18. A frightened peacock .
Exercise 27. Choose the verb which best completes each of the sentences below: a. screeches b. squawks
19. An owl ..... in the forest at night.
1. A pig ..... when it eats. a. coos b. hoots
a. grunts b. squeals 20. A snake ..... with rage when caught.
2. A wounded stag ..... with rage and pam. a. screeches b. hisses
a. bellows b. brays
3. A cock ..... early in the mornmg.
a. crows b. cackles 3.3.3. VERBS OF MOVEMENT: TRUDGE OR STAGGER?

4. A hen calling her chickens .

a. cackles b. clucks Exercise 28. Complete the sentences with one of the verbs below, putting it in the
correct form:
5. A dog ..... after it is kicked.
a. whimpers b. howls butt trot
\\'il!!Oll'
hop
spring
kick
hover
preen
prance
leap
flit
pounce
gallop t bolt
creep 6. A swarm of bees hovering in the
a. buzzes b. drones Vi

38
 1. When you jump high in the air to get from one tree to another, 8. A wolf running with long low strides
you .
9. Sprinters ..... at lightning speed.
2. A bee, a bird, or a butterfly moving quickly from one place to 10. When you catch an eel, it .
another with short, light P.1ovements . 11. Doves their wings when you enter their cot.
3. When a cat or a lion moves towards its prey with the body close to 12. You on deck a boat during a heavy storm.
the ground, it . 13. When you don't walk properly but you keep the feet to the
4. A bird of prey in the air before attacking its victim. ground and never get them off, you ..... them.
5. A horse moving at its fastest . 14. You can always tell a coalmineI' going home from his shift. He .....
6. A horse moving faster than merely walking . wearily all the way.
7. A horse moving at a springing, dancing step during a circus show ..... 15. A person very good at it, ..... like a fish.
8. A bird jumping on one or both feet .
9. A bird cleaning its feather with the beak .
3.3.4. AS OR LIKE?
10. Animals with horns ..... each other when they fight.
11. When a donkey is loaded with too heavy a burden, it may .....
refusing to walk. Both as and like are used in English to express the general meaning
of similarity or resemblance, with jak being the Polish counterpart of
12. A cat, like a bird jumping suddenly to grab its prey in its claws .....
on it. both as and like. Like is followed by a noun phrase or an adjective in
this usage while as is followed by a clause or an adverbial. In informal
13. When a pig rolls about in the filth of the sty, you say that it .
14. A deer frightened by an unexpected sound A cat does this English, like may also be used with a clause or an adverbial. As may be
attacking its prey. followed by a noun phrase in comparisons and examples:

15. When a horse runs away quickly after getting frightened, you say (1) You look like your mothpr/*as your mother.
that it ..... away. Przypominasz wyglqdem swojq matk?
(2) No one loves the child li!ee/as the mother.
Exercise 29. Instructions as above: Nikt nie kocha tak dziecka jak matka.
(3) Last year, as/like in the previous years, economic grOlFth Ivas 0/1
charge lope scuttle the rise.
stagger trudge
duck prowl shuffle strut waddle W ubieglym roku, tak jak w poprzednich latach, przyro.l't
flutter run slink swim ekonomiczny byl dodatni.
wriggle
1. An angry bull may ..... at you when you come too close. As can also be used with a noun phrase to express the status, role,
2. A peacock ..... before a peahen at mating time. job, etc. with roughly the meaning 'in the capacity/position/role of
3. A frightened rabbit ..... to safety. and has jako as its Polish equivalent. As can also appear in
4. When a dog is kicked, it may ..... away to its kennel with the tail non-defining relative clauses in English, as in:
between the legs.
(4) He failed his last exam, as was on(v to be expected after he had
5. If you put on too much fat, you will ..... like a duck. spent most of the rime parrying.
6. You ..... a person's head if you immerse it in water. Oblal sw6j ostatni egzamin, czego nalezalo si? spodziewac po
7. A wolf and a fox ..... about in search of prey. t.rlll, jak sp{!d~iI ll'il/ks~os(: c~a.l'1I balllj(!c.

40 4\
Exercise 30. Insert as or like in each of the following sentences: provide the English equivalents of those which are not rendered with
either make or do (see App I):
1. He walks just his father.
Rabic:
2. He walks just his father used to do when he was younger. 9. komus operacjy
1. na drutach
3 you may have noticed, there is no obvious explanation for 10. opatrunek
2. ubranie na miary
these phenomena. 11. zastrzyk
4. You can do ..... you please around here. 3. zdjycie
4. cos na lewo 12. przeswietIenie
5. Looks ..... he is back.
13. komus prezenty
6. I've known him ..... a man of great compassion. 5. miny
6. (sobie) wycieczky 14. przygotowania do czegos
7. I look upon my husband ..... a good friend.
7. wdechjwydech 15. dlugi
8. Whatever gave you an idea to use your teeth ..... a bottle-opener!
9. Shouldn't a big town ..... Krak6w have an underground? 8. (sobie) makijaz
10. She's really good at sports, swimming.
11. This whole thing started off a joke. Exercise 33. Instructions as above:

12. You can't walk into his office that and ask him questions, you
know. Rabic:
9. komus na zlosc
1. maj<ltekjpieni<ldze
13. She' s really good at sports, ..... are all her family. 10. komus trudnosci
2. bokami
14. The committee has determined that the facts are ..... the principal 11. 'Takich rzeczy siy nie robi'
3. skok na bank
told them. 12. siy na piykn<l
4. pieklo
15. Wear your hair ..... this and you'll look younger. 13. swojejnie wtrC!:cac siy
5. plotki
6. z czegos uzytek 14. w polujw fabryce
Exercise 31. Translate the following into Polish so as to bring out the difference in 15. komus wstyd
7. z kogos posmiewisko
meaning between as and like:
8. komus nadziejy
a. As doctors, we must not be insensitive to social injustice.
b. Like doctors, we must not be insensitive to social injustice. 3.3.6. SA Y OR TELL? SPEAK OR TALK?
2 a. I want to speak to you now as your teacher.
b. I want to speak to you now like your teacher. Both say and tell may be used in direct and indirect speech. As
3 a. As a friend of yours I think you'd be better off turning their offer a verb of communication, say is used with a that-clause and optionally
down. with a personal object, which can only be expressed by a PP. The PP
b. Like a friend of yours I think you'd be better off turning their precedes the finite clause:
offer down.
(1) The teacher said to Jack (that) he had made a mistake.
Nauczyciel powiedzial Jackowi, ze popelnil pomylkf!.
3.3.5. MAKE OR DO?
Only in set expressions may this complementation pattern be
Exercise 32. The verbs make and do are often rendered in Polish with the verb rabic. In
different (see App 2).
Tell is used with two objects as a verb of communication. The
the list of verbal collocat;.ons with robic below, point out the ones which
may be rendered with make, those which may be rendered with do. and personal, indirect object is expressed by a NP or a pronoun (but not
43
42
by a PP) and it follows the verb immediately. Tell may 10. Powiedz, czego chcesz. Mozesz mowic zupelnie otwarcie.
appear without a personal object only in some set expressions, ..... what you like. You may ..... your mind.
such as tell a story/opowiedziec historif (see App 2). The finite 11. Nie przywital si~ dzis ze mnq. Chyba si~ obrazil.
or infinitival clause object follows the personal object, as does He didn't ..... to me today. He must be angry with me.
a nominal object: 12. Oczywiscie mog~ mowic tylko za siebie.
(2) The teacher told Jack that he had made a mistake. Naturally I can only ..... for myself.
13. Nie odniosl powaznych obrazeri. Par~ siricow, naprawd~ nie ma
Nauczyciel powiedzial Jackowi, ie popelnil pomylkf.
o czym mowic.
When tell is used with an infinitival clause, it has the meaning of He wasn't seriously hurt. A few bruises but nothing to .
'order'. Both speak and talk may be used with (or without) one or two 14. Abraham Lincoln otwarcie wypowiadal si~ przeciw niewolnictwu.
prepositional phrases. Speak may be used more readily in situations Abraham Lincoln openly ..... against slavery.
suggesting one-way verbal communication, for example in speech 15. Pani syn sprawia mnostwo klopotow. Prosz~ z nim porozmawiac.
-making, lectures or formal addresses, while talk may be used more Your son has been causing all sorts of trouble. Please ..... him.
readily to suggest a communicative exchange. 16. Zawsze kiedy spotyka si~ dwoch j~zykoznawcow, mowiq wylqcz-
nie 0 swoim podworku/dzialce.
Whenever two linguists meet, they only .
17. Czy mowisz po walijsku?
Exercise 34. Translate each of the following into English, using an appropriate form of
say, tell, speak and talk, adding any other necessary words or phrases:
Do you ..... Welsh?
18. Piotr dzis mowil do rzeczy.
1. Powiedz, 0 co ci naprawd~ chodzi. No, powiedz mi! He has ..... today.
..... what you really mean. Come on! ..... me. 19. Nie daj si~ nabrac na te jego przechwalki .
2. Pozegnala si~ z nim, mowi::j,c, ze b~dzie pisac regularnie. Don't fall in for his .
She ..... , ..... that she would write regularly. 20. Widzialas cos? Powiedz mi!
3. Tyle razy ci mowilam, zebys tego nie mowil! Have you seen anything? ..... me, please.
I have ..... you so many times not to ..... that!
4. Nie opowiadaj glodnych kawalkow! Exercise 35. Instructions as above:
Don't .
5. Naprawd~ nie odrozniasz masla od margaryny? 1. 'Ona znow jest chyba w ci::j,zy!' 'A nie mowilam ci?'
Can't you really ..... butter from margarine? 'I think she is pregnant again.' 'Didn't I ..... you?'
6. Mozesz mi powiedziec, ktora godzina? 2. 'Chyba zartujesz!'
Can you ..... me what time it is? 'You are ..... me!'
7. A co ty na wyjazd do Zakopanego na weekend? 3. 'Musicie stqd wyjsc'. 'A kto tak powiedzialT
What do you ..... to a weekend in Zakopane? 'You must leave this place'. ' ..... ?'
8. Powiedz mu, zeby to jeszcze raz powiedzial. 4. Przyjechala wczoraj kuzynka z Londynu. Alesmy si~ nagadaly!
..... him to ..... it again. My cousin from London arrived yesterday. We ..... off!
9. Moglabys mowic nieco glosniej? 5. Nie mow, jak masz w buzi jedzenie!
Could you ..... up? Don't ..... with your mouth full.

44 4)
 6. Ta ksi~zka mowi 0 drugiej wojnie swiatowej.
This book ..... about World War n.
7. Prosz~ 0 usmiech!
..... , please!
8. Powiedz dobranoc i do 16Zka!
..... and off to bed with you.
9. Mowi~, ze znowu b~d~ podwyzki.
They ..... there will be price rises again.
10. Zmow szybko pacierz!
..... quickly!
1I. Moze bysmy razem poszly na koncert?
What ..... to a concert together?
12. Znowu si~ spoznilas? Co masz tym razem do powiedzenia?
You are late again. What have you ..... this time?
13. Moglbys do nas wpasc, powiedzmy 0 szostej?
Could you drop by, ..... at six?
14. Czy moze mi Pani powiedziec, jak st~d dojsc do dworca auto-
busowego?
Could you ..... to the bus station?
15. Nigdy nie przewidzisz, co on szykuje.
You can never ..... what he is up to.
16. W sumie bylo tylko osiem osob na wykladzie.
There were only eight people at the lecture, . Ostatnio pojawila sif mozliwosc oglqdnifcia ksiqg.
I 7. Sk~d mam wiedziec, kiedy lepiej si~ do niego nie odzywac.
How can I ..... when it is better not to ..... to him.
18. Dzwoni~, zeby ci przekazac swietn~ nowin~.
I am calling to ..... you the good news.
19. A powiedzze cos! Pomysl~, ze jestd niemow~ .
..... something. They'll thir.k you .
20. Wszystko jest gotowe. Czekamy tylko, zebys dal sygnal.
Everything is ready. We are only waiting for you to .
3.3.7. LIE OR LAY! RISE, ARISE OR RAISE?
Lie is an intransitive verb, that is, it does not appear with an
object. Its basic meaning is 'to be or become situated in the horizontal
position', as in The books are lying on the bed/Ksiqiki leiq na ldZku. It
46
is irregular, with the past tense form in lay and the past participle form
in lain. In Polish, it is rendered with the intransitive lezec or the
reflexive polozyc sif .
Lay, by contrast, is a transitive verb, that is, it must be used with
an object, as in Where did you lay your tools?/Gdzie poloiyle.1'
narzfdzia? Its basic meaning is 'to cause the object to lie', that is, 'to
put or place something horizontally', but it is found in many
collocations with somewhat different meanings (cf. App 3). Its past
tense and past participle forms are laid and laid .
Rise means 'to get up', 'come up', or 'to increase'. It is an
intransitive verb, lacking an object. It is irregular, with tbe past tense
and past participle forms rose and risen. Tbe Polish equivalents of rise
are often reflexive verbs, for example, uniesc sif, wzbic sif. wzniesc si?,
podnieSc si?, as shown in the example below:
(1) Smoke rose from the chimney.
Z komina uniosl sif dym.
Arise is derived from rise and is used to convey the meaning of
'coming into being' or 'resulting from something' (cf. App 3). Its
simple past and past participle forms are arose and arisen. For
example:
(2) An opportunity to see the records has arisen recently.
Raise is a regular verb with the simple past and past participle
forms raised and raised. It is a transitive verb used with an object and
means 'to cause the object to rise', for example, 'to lift' or 'to bring
something up', as in the following:
(3) Are they going to raise the price again?
Czy oni znow zamierzajq podniesc cenf?
Appendix 3 contains a list of some common collocations with
raise, where the meaning can be different.
Exercise 36. Translate the following into English, using an appropriate form of lie, lay.
rise, arise and raise, possibly in construction with a noun when forming
a set phrase:
47
 1. Prze]ezalem wczoraj w 16Zku caly dzien. robotnikow i natychmiast poczul si~ pobity rysujqcq sir;; przed nim
2. lie jaj znoszq, twoje kury? perspektywq,. Kto mialby go sluchae? Najwyzej wywola tylko smiech.
3. Chlopi muszq, otrzymywac dotacj~ na hodow]~ swm. Nagle podjq,l decyzj~, wstal z krzesla i wrzucil notatki do pieca
4. Znowu wynikla awantura z powodu loka]izacji parkingu. kuchennego. Poczul, ze wzbiera w nim duch. Na zewnq,trz jasno
5. Jes]i dasz dose proszku do pieczenia, ciasto wyrosnie dobrze. swiecilo slonce i zapowiadal si~ pi~kny dzien.
6. Jest zdrowo wstawae wczesnie.
(Based on English for Proficiency by Margaret Archer and Enid Nolan-Woods)
7. Natychmiast poloz ten noz!
8. Znowu podniesiono cen~ benzyny.
3.3.8. MISCELLANY
9. Skoncz ]ekcje i po16z si~ na chwi]~ odpocz,!c.
10. Obiad b~dzie gotowy za chwil~. Musz~ jeszcze ty]ko nakrye do Exercise 38. Choose the words or phrase which best completes each of the sentences
stolu.
below:
11. Prosz~ mow glosniej. Nie slysz~ ci~.
12. On zawsze unosi kapelusza na moj widok. 1. The streets around the historical market square are ..... to traffic.
13. Nie waz si~ podniese na niego r~ki. a. closed b. shut c. closed up d. shut down
]4. Gdybym byla tobq" nie pokladalabym w nim nadziei. 2. We are behind schedule right now but let's hope that we'll ..... the
15. Polozyl narz~dzia na stole i wyszedl. report by Saturday.
a. conclude b. finalize c. bring to an end d. complete
3. She has skipped nine out of fifteen classes this term. I wonder
Exercise 37. Translate the following passage into English. The words in italics are to be
what the professor will do when he realizes that she has missed
translated with an appropriate form of lie, lay, rise, arise and raise,
class .....
possibly in construction with a noun when forming a set phrase:
a. as often as not b. more often than not c. every so often d. as often
as
Leial nie spiq,c prawie calq, noc, rozmyslajq,c 0 grozq,cym strajku.
Byla juz szosta rano. Wstal, zalozyl szlafro!< leiqcy na 16Zku i podszedl 4. The opposite of 'nocturnal' in 'nocturnal bird' is
do okna. Odsunq,l zaslony i zobaczyl, ze slonce juz wstalo. Podniosl do a. diurnal b. daily c. day d. daylight
gory okno i wyglq,dnq,l. Mgla nadaI leiala nad trawq, i krzewami jak 5. Swimming is an aquatic and hang gliding is a(n) ..... sport.
a. air b. aeronautic c. aerial d. aviation
calun. Nie uplynie dlugo, a podniesie sig, a potem wyparuje w ciep]e
slonca. Ubieral si~ powo]i, wkladajq,c ubranie, ktore poloiyl przygoto- 6. The chess piece shaped like a horse's head is the .
wane poprzedniego wieczoru. Zawsze wstawal wczesnie, ale dzis byl na a. rook b. stallion c. knight d. horse
nogach wczdniej niz zwykIe. Potem zszedl na dol do kuchni, by zjese 7. We didn't get home until well after midnight because the play was
sniadanie. Pijq,c kaw~, nie byl w stanie pozbyc si~ trosk, ktore leialy long and there were two fifteen-minute-Iong .
mu na sercu. To nie jego wina, ze znow podniesiono kwesti~ zwo]nien. a. periods b. time-outs c. intermissions d. pauses
Odpowiedzia]nose leiala calkowicie po stronie Rady Nadzorczej. By]i 8. Is it customary in Great Britain to offer condolences to the .....
zbyt uparci, zeby przyznac, ze to ich niegospodarnosc doprowadzila do family at the funeral?
ogo]nego niezadowo]enia. Pomyslal 0 nowoc.;zesnym sprz~cie leiqcym a. wailing b. grieving c. plaintive d. mourning
bez pozytku i na mysI 0 tym calym marnotrawstwie wezbral w nim 9. The wound is so small that it will ..... completely without even
gniew. Skonczyl jese jajka na bekonie i starannie odloiyl na ta]erz noz a trace of a scar.
i wide]ec. Wyciq,gnq,l z aktowki swoje notatki do przemowienia do a. heal b. cure c. set d. recover

48
49
 10. If you are under stress and have problems falling asleep, take 2. The stick golf is played with is called a
a/an/some . a. mallet b. cue c. club d. bat
a. sedative b. analgesic c. laxative d. smelling salts 3. To clean a wound you need some .
11. The imposing ..... on which they put the wreaths was made out of a. anesthetic b. detergent c. sterilizer d. antiseptic
expensive black marble. 4. Make sure that you have ..... the shop well for the night before
a. grave b. vault c. mortuary d. tomb you leave.
12. Now that Princess Di has been divorced, she will no doubt have a. shut out b. shut down c. shut up d. shut away
many ..... to her hand. 5. No wonder he is so fat. He drinks beer .
a. suitors b. challengers c. candidates d. competitors a. infinitely b. perpetually c. unendingly d. no end
13. Take a ..... for your sore throat, it should help. 6. Tell me what you think the ..... purpose of life is.
a. pill b. capsule c. tablet d. lozenge a. prime b. first c. final d. utmost
14. Her estranged husband didn't want to quarrel so they reached 7. I'm not really well-informed about ..... French art.
a(n) agreement. a. present b. contemporary c. contemporaneous d. recent
a. affable b. amiable c. amicable d. friendly 8. His health has improved greatly since the last operation and now
15. My husband is ..... and keeps all his feelings hidden. he only goes into hospital for a(n) ..... checkup, in spring and in
a. aloof b. inimical c. reserved d. unsociable autumn.
16. The kitchen furniture was bought complete with all the a. biennial b. biannual c. annual d. monthly
a. appliances b. devices c. contraptions d. facilities 9. Robert was bitten by a poisonous snake during our holidays in
17. The hole in the ground where a small animal like a rabbit lives is India and had to get a(n) ..... injection.
called a .
a. analgesic b. toxine c. intoxicant d. antivenom
a. nest b. burrow c. lair d. den 10. Every time I come home from a short trip, a pile of ..... mail is
18. The article on language acquisition I have written on is divided waiting for me on the floor.
into five .
a. trash b. litter c. scrap d. junk
a. pieces b. chapters c. segments d. sections 11. It was a beautiful day and they decided to spend it on the river,
19. Would you say that freedom of speech is the ..... of the democratic following its ..... in their dinghy.
way of life? a. current b. flow c. course d. torrent
a. gist b. bulk c. essence d. core 12. The meeting was very well organized and everything went
20. In geometry, the solid figure all points of which are equally distant according to Not a minute of their time was wasted.
from the centre is called a . a. scheme b. schedule c. timetable d. agenda
a. globe b. ball c. bowl d. sphere 13. I will be away on a conference from 27 March to 29 March .
a. through b. inclusive c. including d. onwards
14. She fell on an icy pavement, fracturing her right arm and is now
Exercise 39. Instructions as above: wearing a ..... on it to keep it straight.
a. splint b. lint c. dressing d. sling
1. The eyewitnesses are sure that they had heard the plane's engines 15. Have the police found out who the ..... man was?
..... before the crash.
a. deceased b. departed c. bereaved d. late
a. halt b. stall c. shut d. shut away 16. Stinginess is his main .

50 51
 a. fault b. blame c. guilt d. wrong 5. Both reports on the breakthrough in the origin and treatment of
17. In the corner she could see very clearly the silver ..... of a spider's cystic fibrosis were published in the same year and they are in fact .....
web. a. contemporary b. contemporaneous
a. Jibers b. filaments c. strings d. stitches 6. The way you treat your wife is highly
18. He spent the whole life ..... antique jewellery and gold and yet he a. contemptible b. contemptuous
died penniless. 7. There are so many open questions about this affair that only the
a. massing b. amassing c. assembling d. mustering ..... will believe the Prime Minister's statement.
19. Have you seen the knife? I want to ..... the turkey. a. credible b. credulous
a. grate b. carve c. trim d. cut 8. If you touch a live wire, you will get an ..... shock.
20. The movement, since its ..... , has promoted abstinence. a. electric b. electrical
a. start b. opening c. inception d. commencement 9. It was an ..... day and we all went to bed early.
a. exhausting b. exhaustive
10. An ..... hush greeted the appearance of the pianist on the
bandstand.
3.4. RIGHT SUFFIXES
a. expectant b. expecting
11. His last speech made a ..... impression on everyone.
Lexical items derived with different affixes from the same mor- a. forceful b. forcible
phological root either have different meanings or, if the meanings are 12. To err is only .
similar, are used differently. This area poses considerable uncertainty a. human b. humane
and diffuculty especially at the more advanced levels of learning 13. I found the students' proficiency in the language They all had
English and the exercises that follow aim at illustrating and practising near-native language competence.
some common problems. a. incredible b. incredulous
14. All my pupils but John are ..... and smart.
a. industrial b. industrious
Exercise 4G. Choose the word which best completes each sentence: 15. He gave her an ..... look when she asked him how he had made his
fortune.
1. The blood keeps coming up. Why don't you put on a more ..... a. ingenious b. ingenuous
dressing?
a. absorbent b. absorbing Exercise 41. Instructions as above:
2. After she received a huge package of food from her Canadian
relatives, she wrote a very ..... letter. 1. Rice must be boiled to be
a. appreciable b. appreciative a. digestible b. digestive
3. The only place of entertainment in this town is the ..... centre. 2. There is no ..... medicine against AIDS yet.
a. civic b. civil a. effective b. efficient
4. Here is a ..... reading list for the winter semester. Make sure you 3. Have you ever eaten ..... mashed potatoes? They taste like
have read every item from this list before the term is over. cardboard.
a. comprehensible b. comprehensive a. instant b. instantaneous

52 ~.~
 4. She is the bossiest person I know and life with her is, quite a. appreciable b. appreciatl ve
frankly, . 3. If you do not want to resort to violence to get the town council to
a. intolerable b. intolerant ban the atomic plant, you'll have to resort to ..... disobedience.
5. A children's programme must be Otherwise they lose interest a. civic b. civil
immediately. 4. Professor Jones begins to stammer when he gets excited about the
a. live b. lively subject and his lectures are not always .
6. She often wears a ..... shirt and tie. a. comprehensible b. comprehensive
a. manly b. mannish 5. I am afraid he doesn't think much of ..... Polish poets.
7. The past decade has seen many ..... changes in all the countries in a. contemporary b. contemporaneous
Eastern Europe. 6. She gave him a ..... look when he proposed to her.
a. momentary b. momentous a. contemptible b. contemptuous
8. The doctor was found ..... of his duties. 7. With all the scandals, no politician seems quite ..... these days.
a. negligent b. negligible a. credible b. credulous
9. To grant you a permanent visa, we need an ..... statement about 8. John is studying ..... engineering at Newcastle University.
your income, job, and residence in the country. a. electric b. electrical
a. official b. officious 9. Remember that all your answers must be .
10. Her parents are very ..... and she doesn't have to tell them where a. exhausting b. exhaustive
she is going all the time. 10. Mary is ..... again. It'll be her fifth child.
a. permissible b. permissive a. expectant b. expecting
11. Do you know the biblical parable about the ... son? 11. The UN finally issued a statement condemning the ..... ethnic
a. prodigal b. prodigious cleansing practices carried out in former Yugoslavia.
12. Unfortunately, not all the problems of the world are a. forceful b. forcible
a. solvable b. solvent 12. The students have started a movement for a more ..... treatment of
13. The meal we had at Mary's the other day was really animals used in medical experiments.
a. tasteful b. tasty a. human b. humane
14. I've got a splitting headache and I feel ..... today. 13. When she said she believed that the world was flat, everyone gave
a. terrible b. terrific her an ..... look.
15. She has very well-disciplined children. Their conduct is on the a. incredible b. incredulous
whole . 14. The delegation is to visit the new ..... estate tomorrow.
a. unexceptionable b. unexceptional a. industrial b. industrious
15. 10hn's advice was really I didn't think he was so smart.
Exercise 42. Instructions as above: a. ingenious b. ingenuous

1. The story was so ..... that they were surprised when the bell rang. Exercise 43. Instructions as above:
a. absorbent b. absorbing
2. I must say that your son has made ..... progress since the 1. I have ..... problems if I eat something SPICY·
beginning of the term. a. digestible b. digestive
54 55
2. His new secretary is very ..... and reliable. She's got twenty years' 3.5. ADVERBS WITH OR WITHOUT -LY
experience in her job.
a. effective b. efficient
Most adverbs in English are marked with the derivational suffix -Iy
3. Her ..... recollection of the man's name surprised her. She was
usually quite bad with names. (for example, proudly, briefly, probably). Some adjectives also end in
a. instant b. instantaneous -ly, e.g. unlikely (see App. 4). Adverbs which are identical in form with
4. My boss is the most conservative type, ..... of any change at all. a corresponding adjective, for example, a fast (adj) train, drive fast
a. intorelable b. intolerant (adv) are sometimes referred to as flat adverbs. Adverbs like Fist have
5. In a ..... programme, much depends on the host. only one form, without the suffix -ly, but quite a few adverbs have two
a. live b. lively forms, one identical with the form of the adjective, e.g. guess wrong
6. Did you notice that actors in TV commercials often have deep, ..... (adv), and the other in -Iy, e.g. be wrongly (adv) informed. The two
voices? forms of such adverbs may have the same meaning and usage, for
a. manly b. mannish example shine clear/clearly. Most often, however, the two forms differ
7. There is nothing to worry about. The President's illness is only in meaning or are used in different ways, sometimes according to
idiom (see App 4.3.).
a. momentary b. momentous
8. Despite common concern, the decrease in the production figures
had ..... effect on the firm's ratings. Exercise 44. Choose the form which best completes each sentence:
a. negligent b. negligible
9. She wrote her friend, the principal, to recommend Mary for the 1. The robbers got ..... away.
job, but got a surprisingly ..... letter back. a. clean b. cleanly
a. official b. officious 2. She married ..... in life.
10. Taped conversations are not ..... pieces of evidence in the court of a. late b. lately
justice in most countries. 3. Hold your head
a. permissible b. permissive a. high b. highly
11. Any child who plays and composes music at the age of five is . 4. The jury have ..... finished hearing the case.
a. prodigal b. prodigious a. just b. justly
12. They should curb their investments a little if they want to stay . 5. He was ..... affected by the financial crisis.
a. solvable b. solvent a. hard b. hardly
13. The furniture in her living-room is very simple but 6. He was hit ..... by the financial crisis.
a. tasteful b. tasty a. hard b. hardly
14. I really like your new hairdo. You look ..... now. 7. She always spoke ..... of her father.
a. terrible b. terrific a. high b. highly
15. To everyone's disappointment, Versace's spring collection was 8. It is ..... known that the world is not flat.
quite . a. wide b. widely
a. unexceptionable b. unexceptional 9. Spread the map out ..... on the floor.
a. flat b .. flatly

56 "7
10. Executives in this company travel ..... on special tickets. 11. They called ..... for help when the thin ice gave in under their
a. free b. freely weight.
11. See you ..... ! a. loud b. loudly
a. short b. shortly 12. Don't throw the ball so ..... in the air. It is taking her forever to
12. He won the race . catch it.
a. easy b. easily a. high b. highly
13. The teacher was surprised when John had answered . 13. I have to speak ..... to him.
a. right b. rightly a. firm b. firmly
14. What pleased me ..... was that he had acknowledged his guilt. 14. You must fight .
a. most b. mostly a. fair b. fairly
15. The workers decided to go ..... after the talks had broken down. 15. You'll feel ..... with him, you'll see.
a. slow b. slowly a. safe b. safely

Exercise 45. Instructions as above: 3.6. MISSPELT WORDS:

SIMILAR SOUNDS, DIFFERENT MEANINGS
1. I'll send the goods ..... we reCleve your InVOIce.
a. direct b. directly
2. If she stood you up this one time, it only serves you . Exercise 46. Choose the word which best completes each sentence:
a. right b. rightly
3. Watch ..... what I am doing. 1. My sister is getting married to a tall, ..... Swede next week.
a. close b. closely a. blond b. blonde
4. I want to talk ..... to the manager. 2. Can't the Government see that the new tariff will hit all sea- .....
a. direct b. directly trade?
5. 'Stand ..... !' shouted the sergeant. a. born b. borne
a. easy b. easily 3. If you really must buy me a ..... , get a pictorial one, please.
6. Open your mouth ..... , please. a. calendar b. calender
a. wide b. widely 4. The man was wearing a blue shirt and old ..... trousers.
7. Now that we do not need any visas we can really travel ..... to all a. canvas b. canvass
parts of Europe. 5. Being a Fenchman, he takes a glass of wine to be a natural to
a. free b. freely a proper meal.
8. The two objects are ..... nearly the same. a. complement b. compliment
a. pretty b. prettily 6. They are taking their petition against the location of the new
9. Don't go anywhere. Stay ..... to me all the time. dump to their local .
a. close b. closely a. councillor b. counsellor
10. You acted ..... turning him down so don't worry. 7. His wife bears with his infidelities with a ..... and dignified silence.
a. right b. rightly a. discreet b. discrete
58 ~q
 8. The redness and swelling were caused by a ..... plant disease. a. discreet b. discrete
a. fungous b. fungus 8. Are you quite sure it's an edible ..... ?
9. The car drove off with ..... speed. a. fungous b. fungus
a. lightning b. lightening 9. They painted the kitchen white, ..... it a bit.
10. He is very well-off, but has always been ..... to help his aging a. lightning b. lightening
parents. What a Scrooge! 10. I really ..... that new boyfriend of hers! He is so boring.
a. loath b. loathe a. loath b. loathe
11. Do you want to put these photographs on the , too? 11. I love waking up on the first day of snow to see the thick ..... of
a. mantel b. mantle bright, fluffy snow on the trees.
12. I don't think you have had enough ..... to be able to play this a. mantel b. mantle
pIece. 12. Are you going to practise the violin at all today, Stefan?
a. practice b. practise a. practice b. practise
13. They listened to the celebrated pianist's concert in ..... silence. 13. There is a letter to a ..... Dr Shaun Jenkins in our letter-box.
a. reverend b. reverent a. Reverend b. Reverent
14. The police report said he had driven into a ..... truck. 14. You must never write personal letters on the company's .
a. stationary b. stationery a. stationary b. stationery
15. Do people put Christmas ..... on their doors? 15. This plant ..... itself around the support to climb as it grows.
a. wreathes b. wreaths a. wreathes b. wreaths

Exercise 47. Instructions as above:

3.7. COMPARATIVE EXPRESSIONS
1. His second wife was a short, plump ..... , just like his first one.
a. blond b. blonde
2. I dislike Susan and all the well- ..... friends she is surrounded by. To say that two persons or things are similar or in some sense
a. born b. borne equal, as and like are used in English. Polish uses jak. Many
3. The ..... we saw during the tour of the old paper mill was huge. comparative expressions are traditional and have foreign origin. Quite
a. calendar b. calender a few English comparative structures have direct analogues in Polish,
4. Have you even taken part in a house-to-house ..... ? It can be a lot but there are also many differences.
of fun.
a. canvas b. canvass
Exercise 48. Provide the English counterparts of the following Polish comparative
5. 'Your applause is truly a ..... ,' said the young pianist. expressions. Comment on the similarities and differences between the two
a. complement b. compliment languages:
6. After retirement, my aunt worked as as a cancer ..... at the local
hospital. 1. bialy jak snieg 5. dumny jak paw
a. councillor b. counsellor 2. biedny jak mysz koscielna 6. lekki jak piorko
7. In his theory, the language faculty is composed of a set of ..... 3. chytry jak lis 7. lagodny jak baranek
modules, interconnected with each other in quite complex ways. '" 4. ci~zki jak olew 8. odwazny jak lew
60 c; 1
 9. ostry jak zyletka 13. szybki jak bIyskawica home for fear of punishment/ Uciekl z domu z l?ku przed karq; the
10. punktualnie jak w zegarku 14. wolny jak ptak meaning of purpose, as in You can use this knife for cutting
11. radosny jak skowronek 15. zimny jak glaz meat/ M ozna uzyc tego noza do krojenia mi?sa; the meaning of support
12. sliski jak piskorz
in The commitee voted for the plan/ Komisja glosowala za przy}?ciem
planu, as well as the meaning of duration, as in I have known him for
two years/Znam go od dwoch lat, and several other distinct meanings.
Exercise 49. Complete the following traditional comparative expressions in English
and provide their Polish counterparts: Furthermore, one single idea may be expressed by several distinct
prepositions. For example, the idea of stimulus may be expressed both
1. as bald as ... 13.
11.
9. as
14.
12.
15.
10. safe
red asas
as hard
old
sound
ugly
hungry ...
as as ...
... ...
'"as by with, at and in, as in enraged with/rozwscieczony czyms (instr),
'"... embarrased at/zaklopotany czyms (instr), and disappointed in/zQlvie-
dziony czyms (instr). When more than one preposition may be llsed to
express a given meaning, the choice is a matter of free variation, as
seems to be the case in live across the road and live over the
road/mieszkac po drugiej stronie uhcy, or the prepositon is chosen
depending on how the object of reference is conceptualized. For
example, a field may be regarded as an enclosed area and the
preposition in is then appropriate, e.g. the cattle in the field/bydlo na
pastwisku. But a field may be thought of as a surface, in which case on
Exercise 50. Provide the English counterparts of the following Polish comparative
expressions. Comment on the similarities and differences:
is appropriate, e.g. the cattle on the field/bydlo na pastwisku. Some
prepositional uses are metaphorical, conventionalized or idiomatic.
1. jak pIachta na byka 9. pic jak szewc For example, the prepositions expressing the general idea of 'by
2. jak slon w skIadzie porcelany 10. pIywac jak ryba means of' are by, as in come by bus/przyjechac autobusem (instr), and
3. drzec jak lisc/osika 11. lac jak z cebra with, as in open the door with a key/otworzyc drzwi kiuczem (instr).
4. harowac jak wol 12. spac jak kIoda/zabity With the noun phrase the radio, it is the preposition on that expresses
5. jesc jak kon 13. traktowac jak psa this meaning, e.g. hear the news on the radio/uslyszec wiadomosc
6. jesc jak swinia w radiu.
14. zmykac jak zaj,!:c
7. kl,!:c jak szewc 15. zyc jak pies z kotem Problems are compounded for foreign learnes because a given
8. p~dzic jak strzaIa preposition in one language may have several distinct counterparts
in another language (see exercises 53-57) and the function taken
by a preposition in one language need not be taken by a prepo-
3.8. PREPOSITIONS sition in the other language. In Polish, a dependent case often has
a function corresponding to a prepositional function in English.
For example, the PPin the evening is rendered in Polish as an
Prepositional meanings and uses are one of the most difficult areas instrumental NP, wieczorem (instr) and for John, as in look for
of English for Polish learners. Problems arise because a given John, is rendered as a genitive KP, szukac Jana (gen).
preposition may in general have more than one meaning and use. For This section addresses some recurring problems connected with the
example, for expresses the meaning of cause, as in He ran away from use of prepositions at a more advanced level.
62
63
3.8.1. EXPRESSING POSITION: IN, ON OR AT?
In relation to position, in refers to location within enclosed space
or area. The object so located is contained within, or is inside the
space or area denoted by the locative noun. For example, in the phrase
the chair in the room/krzeslo w pokoju, the chair is located within the
room's interior, it is internal to the space enclosed by the walls, the
ceiling and the floor of the room. In the phrase to sit in the sun/siedziec
na slm1cu, sunlight surrounds the sitting entity and again, there is
a sense of containment in some space.
On locates an object on the surface of another object and is
strongly associated with an idea of contiguity of surfaces. In the
phrase the picture on the wall/obrazek na scianie, the picture's back
touches the surface of the wall. In Polish na may be used both if an
object is located within the space enclosed by another object and when
an object is located on the surface of the other object. Thus, both the
English What can you see in this picture? and What can you see on this
picture? are rendered in Polish by Co widzisz na tym obrazku?
The idea of one object supporting another is sometimes associated
with on. In the ball on a string/pi/ka na sznurku, the ball hangs from
the string. On expresses closeness in space in uses like the town on the
river/miasto nad rzekq and the man on my right/m(liczyzna po mojej
prawej r(lce.
At locates object near other objects perceived as points in space
rather than spaces or surfaces. For example, the house at the end of the
street/dom na kmicu ulicy, the shcp at 15 Beechcroft Avenue/sklep pod
numerem pirtnastym na Beechcroft Avenue.
3.8.2. EXPRESSING POSITION.
NAD: OVER OR ABOVE? POD: UNDER OR BELOW?
Both over and above are used to locate one object higher than
another. Over suggests a position superior in relation to some other
position. If one object is over another, a vertical line may be drawn
between them and if the object in the higher position were to fall, it
would fall directly on the lower object. Above does not express relative
64
superiority of position and if one object located above another were to
fall, it might fall to the side of the lower object rather than on it. Under
is the converse of over and below is the converse of above. Thus, for
example, you can say the village above the valley/wieS nad do!inq in
English, but not *the village over the valley, as in a picture illustrating
a village higher than a valley, you cannot draw a straight vertical line
between the two. Polish uses nad as the counterpart both of over and
of above, and pod as the countel'part both of under and of below.
3.8.3. PRZEZ: ACROSS, OVER OR THROUGH?
Across locates an object on the opposite side, that is, on the distal
boundary of the other object. For example, in the room across the
hall/pokoj po drugiej stronie holu, the room is on the far side of the hall
from the speaker. In a bridge across the river/most na rzece, one object,
the bridge, is contiguous with both the proximal and distal boundaries
of the other object, the river. This function may also be expressed by
over, for example, a bridge over the river/most na rzece, jump over the
ditch/skoczyc przez row.
Through is used for passage through traversed space, when one
object moves inside the space enclosed by the other object, as in
a journey through the tunne!/podr6i przez tune!.
3.8.4. EXPRESSING DIRECTION.
DO: IN OR INTO? NA: ON OR ONTO?
The general idea of destination is expressed by into, when
movement is from outside a space or area to within it, and onto, when
movement locates an object on a surface or line, for example, walk
into the room/wejsc do pokoju, jump onto the horse/wskoczyc na konia.
After verbs like put, jump, throw, push, drop both in and into or on and
onto may be used to express movement with respect to intended
location. For example, put it in/into your pocket/wloiyc to do kieszeni,
drop it on/onto the floor/upuscic to na podlog(l. Destination is expressed
in Polish by do, as different from the stative w. Na is used both with
a stative meaning, in which case it is followed by the noun in the
6:')
 locative case-form (e.g., leiqc na podlodze (loc)/lying on the floor), and of Ionic columns which forms its impressive frontage doesn't bend .....
to express destination, but then it is followed by a noun in the (28) the sheer weight of people.
accusative (e.g., palM to na podlogg (acc)/put it on the floor) or in the London's other 'traditional' attraction, ..... (29) shopping, is
locative (e.g., pol6i to na podlodze (loc)/put it on the floor). theatre-going. This is ..... (30) its best (31) Christmas and the New
Year when the pantomime season is (32) full swing. The range of
shows covers everything ..... (33) top musicals ..... (34) Shakespearian
Exercise SI. Fill each of the blanks with an appropriate preposition or adverbial dramas (35) tickets to West End shows, try the half-price booth
particle:
..... (36) Leicester Square. It opens ..... (37) noon and sells tickets .....
LONDON IN WINTER (38) that evening's performances. Alternatively, the tourist 1nfor-
mation Centers ..... (39) Victoria, Liverpool Street Station and
There's nothing nicer ..... (1) a fine winter's afternoon than to put Heathrow all sell theatre tickets, although they charge full price .
..... (2) a stout pair of shoes and take a brisk country walk. Two or (Adapted from 20:20, December 1995)
three miles should do nicely: the barren trees arching ..... (3) your
head, the grass and fallen leaves crisp ..... (4) your feet, and a lake
Exercise 52. Instructions as above:
sparkling ..... (5) the distance. A walk fit ..... (6) kings and queens.
London's favourite 'country' walk takes you ..... (7) the former
WELCOME TO THE CITY OF BANGOR
royal hunting grounds of Kensington Gardens, Hyde Park, Green
Park and St James' Park, more or less (8) a straight line ..... (9) Bangor is bounded ..... (1) all sides ..... (2) natural barriers which
Queensway tube station almost down (10) the banks of the River have confined the main social, civic and shopping centre of the town
Thames in Westminster. The vast open spaces dotted ..... (11) ..... (3) a small area. Bangor is internationally renowned as a centre .....
gleaming lakes sprawl ..... (12) central London like a great green (4) climbers. A network of well maintained footpaths criss-crosses the
carpet. hilly area enclosing Bangor, and offers vantage points ..... (5) which
The nation's capital doesn't close (13) just because it is winter. there are spectacular views ..... (6) the city and the Menai Straits.
After all, it has got a reputation to live (14) ..... (15): that of being These footpaths represent a lifeline ..... (7) the various communities
one of the most exciting cities ..... (16) the world . ..... (8) the City and provide recreation ..... (9) all.
It's a reputation that is easily fulfilled ..... (17) December, when the The four main routes are shown ..... (10) the map. The first, called
Christmas lights turn Oxford Street and Regent Street ..... (18) the 'Maes' path leaves the High Street ..... (11) St. John's Methodist
a glittering fairyland; carol singers gath~r ..... (19) the giant tree Church and climbs gently upwards. There are picnic areas (12) the
erected ..... (20) Trafalgar Square; and the big stores compete ..... (21) path, which divides ..... (13) the summit. The longest route (14) the
one another to see which of them can produce the most magical Maes path and returning via Lon Pobty is ..... (15) 1 and three
window display. Suburban streets and shops put ..... (22) similar quarters of a mile.
shows - so there is excitement ..... (23) the air. The second walk leaves the High Street via New Ebenezer Place
The sales have become an institution - and a massive tourist and leads ..... (16) Caellepa, where the real mountain walk begins.
attraction. Harrods alone sees its average daily total of 35,000 A choice of route is available ..... (17) the return ..... (18) High Street.
customers boosted ..... (24) a breathtaking 300,000 ..... (25) the first The third, the Bishop Mill Path, begins as an offshot of Lon Pobty.
day of its January sale (26) Selfridges, which stands (27) the A left turn leads ..... (19) the boundary of the golf course and the ret urn
apex of John Poppleton's golden rectangle, it is a wonder that the line ..... (20) the Town Centre may be made ..... (21) the golf course.

66
()7
 The fourth walk investigates the University and the Roman Camp. Fry them quickly .
The walk begins ..... (22) the Memorial Arch, leads ..... (23) the 14. Muszlll poiyczyc pieni,!:dze na rower.
University park and proceeds ..... (24) the entrance of the Roman I must borrow money .
camp, which is located ..... (25) the junction of College Road, Love 15. Chcialabym miec to na pismie.
Lane and Upper Garth Road. The Ancient Camp gives superb views I'd like to have it .
..... (26) the Menai Straits and Port Penrhyn, and, ..... (27) the
distance, Puffin Island and the Great Orme.
(Adapted from Bangor by The Wales Tourist Board) Exercise 54. Instructions as above:

Exercise 53. Complete the translation of each of the sentences from Polish into English 1. Bob wyszedl wlasnie na obiad.
with a suitable prepositional phrase: Bob has just gone out .
2. Bob wyszedl wlasnie na piwo.
1. Nie rozmawia silllna lekcji. Bob has just gone out .
One doesn't talk . 3. Rzuc to na dach.
2. Na niebie nie ma ani jednej chmurki. Throw this .
There is not a cloud . 4. W przyszlym tygodniu pajdziemy na koncert.
3. Zobaczymy silllznowu na Swilllta Bozego Narodzenia. We'll go ..... next week.
We'll see again . 5. W przyszlym tygodniu pojedziemy na piknik.
4. Poznalismy silllna konferencji w Pradze. We'll go ..... next week.
We first met ..... in Prague. 6. Spotkamy si~ na przystanku autobusowym albo na dworcu
5. Nie idlll wcale na spacer, ale na zebranie. kolejowym.
Actually, I'm not going ....., but We'll meet or .
6. Nie siedi zbyt dlugo na sloncn. 7. Spotkamy si~ na parkingu.
Don't sit ..... too long. We'll meet .
7. Dzieci byly dzis caly dzien na powietrzu. 8. Bllldzie tu bardzo ladnie na wiosny.
Children have spent the whole day This place will look really lovely .
8. Czy dlugo stoisz na deszczu? 9. Musisz siy nauczyc tej roli na pamilllc na jutro.
Have you been standing ..... long? You must learn this part .
9. Na Wielkanoc spadl snieg. 10. Otwarla ksi,!:zky na stronie 8.
There was a snowfall . She opened the book .
10. Ugotuj to na duzym ogniu. 11. Jej zdjycie bylo na stronie 8.
Cook this . Her picture was .
11. Rozgrzej oliwlll z oliwek na patelni z grubym dnem. 12. Co widzisz na tym drzewie?
Heat some olive oil . What can you see ..... ?
12. Polaz kawalki milllsa na patelni. 13. Na drzewie jest jeszcze kilka jablek. Trzeba je zerwac.
Put the pieces of meat . There are still several apples They must be picked.
13. Usmaz je szybko na rozgrzanej oliwie. 14. Llanfairpwll Station znajduje siy na Anglesey.
68 69
 Llanfairpwll Station is to be found . 15. Mieszkam tuz za roglem.
15. Na moim zegarku jest dokladnie trzecia. I live just
It is 3 o'clock sharp . 16. On za ni'l szaleje.
He is crazy .
17. Za nic nie otwieraj drzwi.
Exercise 55. Instructions as above;
Don't open the door .
18. Wszystko da siy zrobie za pomoq narzydzi.
1. Schowaj siy za drzewem. Everything can be done .
Hide . 19. la juz muszy pydzic. Pozegnaj go ode mnie.
2. Wyjezdzamy za 10 dni. I must dash off. Say 'goodbye' to him .
We're leaving . 20. Zaplacisz mi za wszystko!
3. Kupilem ten dom za £ 95,000. You will pay .
I bought this house .
4. Kupilem ten obraz za grosze.
I bought this painting . Exercise 56. Instructions as above:

5. W Izraelu nic nie kupisz za marki czy dolary. Musisz miec waluty
izraelsk'l. 1. Stan z prawej strony.
You can't buy anything ..... in Israel. You must have Israeli Stand ..... , please.
currency. 2. Wiem to z wlasnego doswiadczenia.
6. Uwazam ciy za przyjaciela. I know this .
I regard you . 3. Dostalam piykny bukiet z roz.
7. Czy warto umierae za rewolucjy? I have received a beautiful bouquet
Is it worth dying ..... ? 4. On zawsze spiewa z pamiyci.
8. lestem za zniesieniem kary smierci. He always sings .
I am . 5. Dzieci krzyczaly z calej sily.
9. Zamknij drzwi za sob'l. The children screamed .
Close the door . 6. Ta restauracja slynie ze wspanialej kuchni.
10. Planowali, ze wroc'l za dnia. This restaurant is famous .
They had planned to come back 7. Niestety, rodzice wyjechali wlasnie z wizyt'l.
11. Potrzymaj mnie za ryky. Unfortunately, parents have just gone away
Hold me . 8. Do diabla z takim zyciem!
12. Wypijmy za nasze zdrowie . ..... a life like this!
Let's drink .
9. Zjesz trochy chleba z maslem?
13. Na urodzinach wszyscy byli przebrani za clownow. Will you have some ..... ?
Everybody was dressed up . 10. Bydziemy musieli na nich poczekae z godziny.
14. Posadi ich za stolem. We'll have to wait for them
Have them/ask them to sit down 11. Przestan siy z nim bie!
70 71

i
 Stop fighting . 13. Przyjechalem samochodem s(!siada.
12. Chc~ zerwac z przeszlosci<! raz na zawsze. I have come
I want to break ..... once and for all. 14. Przyjechalem autobusem 0 7.10.
13. Latwiej jest plyn(!c z wiatrem niz pod wiatr. I came .
It is easier to sail than . 15. Czy to jest poci<j,gdo Holyhead?
14. Pisalismy wczoraj klas6wk~ z chemii. Is this the train .....?
We had a c1asswork ..... yesterday. 16. Kiedy wreszcie wskoczysz do basenu?
15. Pisalismy wczoraj klas6wk~ z czasownik6w nieregularnych. When are you going to jump .....?
We wrote a c1asswork ..... yesterday. 17. Prosz~, w16z to do lod6wki.
Please put this .
18. Dorzuc jeszcze kawalek drewna do ogma.
Exercise 57. Instructions as above:
Throw another log .
19. Robisz to w zly spos6b.
1. Przyjechali do Londynu w 1945 roku. You are doing this .
They came . 20. Mam r~ce sine od mrozu, tak zmarzlam.
2. Jutro wyjeZdzam do Bangor. I got so cold that my hands are blue .
I'm leaving ..... tomorrow.
3. Pospiesz si~. Juz czas do szkoly. Exercise 58. Provide the English equivalents of the following Polish set prepositional
Hurry up. It's time . phrases (see App 5):
4. St<j,daz do tego wzg6rza wszystko nalezy do jego rodziny.
His family owns all the land 1. na antenie 15.
19.
20.na
16.
18.
17.
11.
13.
12.
14. od
w
pod razu
nazadnym
na zasadzie
zawsze
wskros
wznak
wynos
pr6zno
przek6r
ryk<! razie
5. Chodimy na spacer do lasu! 5.
2.
8.
10.
4.
3. w
7. na
9.
6. duchu
b6lu
pierwszy rzut oka
poczekaniu
got6wce
polowy
przez nieuwagy
dobrej
dobrym wierze
humorze
Let's go .
6. Bylem raz w Londynie.
I have been ..... once.
7. Bylem wtedy w Londynie.
I was ..... then.
8. Chcemy sp~dzic wakacje nad morzem.
We would like to spend the holidays .
9. Chcemy sp~dzic wakacje na wybrzezu.
We would like to spend the holidays
10. M6j brat jest teraz w szkole.
My brother is ..... now. Exercis~ 59. For each of the set phrases below, provide a set phrase with opposite
meamng:
11. M6j brat ma dopiero 11 lat i jeszcze chodzi 0 szkoly.
My brother is only 11 and he i" still 1. of one's own accord 4. by degrees
12. Przyjechalem samochodem. 2. under age 5. under suspicion
I have come . 3. in debt 6. in trouble
72 73
 7. in general 14.
15. in
13.
12. in trim
on
behinduse schedule
the mark (see App 5). Make all the adjustments necessary for the sentences to be
rd
scenes well-fanned:

1. What is the commotion for? AID

Exercise 60. In each of the sentences below, replace the italicized word or phrase with
a suitable set prepositional phrase using the noun in capital letters. Make
all the adjustments necessary for the sentences to be well-formed:
2. Our decision agrees with all the rules and regulations. COMPLIANCE
3. A relationship with a married woman would disagree with his
moral standards. CONFLICT
4. They bought the house for £90,000. COST
5. Will all Shakespeare's plays be discussed during these lectures?
COURSE

1. He was speeding along Main Street when he realized he had a flat 6. She had a church wedding merely out of respect for her parents.
tyre. SPEED DEFERENCE

2. She wants to talk to you about how the meeting went in as much 7. She decided to marry a man of her own choice, which was against
detail as possible. LENGTH the accepted tradition of prearranged marriage in her country,
3. My grandmother had bad flu all last month and is not feeling well and her family rejected her. DEFIANCE
yet. MARK 8. What do you expect in return for this piece of information?
EXCHANGE
4. If the notice said 7.20, the meeting will begin at exactly 7.20.
MINUTE 9. He was fined for driving while drunk. INFLUENCE
5. Why must he always have his stereo at the loudest volume? BLAST 10. They have been restless since they found out about grandfather's
6. I am angry with him for not letting me know anything. After all, forgotten bonds. PEACE
he was well informed about the problem. KNOW 11. The monument was founded to honour the memory of those who
7. The politicians will meet in private after the press conference. died defending the town during the war. REMEMBRANCE
DOORS 12. The market is unstable at the moment and you might lose money if
8. The book is yours for ever if you want it. KEEPS you sold your shares now. RISK
9. I wish I had lived it up when I was young. FULL 13. The police are just about to find out who planted the bombs.
VERGE
10. I wouldn't ask him for advice. He is retired and doesn't know the
market any more. TOUCH 14. The corporation had tremendous gains last year as a result of the
11. The police are completely corrupt there. CORE investments in Asia. VIRTUE
12. This gun was bought illegaly. COUNTER 15. Government repressions followed as a result of terrorists' attacks.
WAKE
13. I exercise for two hours daily without a break. STRETCH
14. Ever since her daughter got married and moved out, Sue has not
been herself. SORTS
Exercise 62. Fill each blank with the word or phrase which best completes each
15. If you had followed my instructions closely, you would have sentence:
found the house. LETTER

1. I can't tell you anything certain yet, because our plans are still
Exercise 61. In each of the sentences below, replace the italicised word or phrase very much .
with a suitable compound preposition, using the noun in capital letters a. on the air b. in the air
74 75
 Exercise 63. Instructions as above:
2. Two new pupils came to my class ..... of the term.
a. in the beginning b. at the beginning
3. Children! Why aren't you ..... ? It's already 8.30! 1. Get ready, Judy. We'll be ..... in 30 seconds and you are beginning
a. in bed b. on the bed with the update on the rescue operation.
4. He spotted the missing part ..... of the room. a. on the air b. in the air
a. at the corner b. in the corner 2. They built this cabin all by themselves they slept in a tent and
5. My uncle could talk about his war experiences for hours . wild animals used to come and eat all their food.
a. on end b. at an end a. in the beginning b. at the beginning
6. The clerk's inefficiency upset me ..... and I placed a complaint 3. As long as you run your business ..... , you have nothing to worry
with the manager. about.
a. no end b. on end a. by the book b. on the book
7. They have laid off quite lot of people at my husband's firm and we 4. Don't put your back pack ..... , please!
have been living .... of his dismissal lately. a. in bed b. on the bed
a. in fear b. for fear 5. He spotted the man again ..... of High Street.
8. The place is a complete mess. We'll have to take matters ..... now a. at the corner b. in the corner
or else we'll never have any order here. 6. Ladies and gentlemen! Our show is now Thank you for
a. in hand b. on hand commg.
9. My friends live in Hove and work in Brighton, but there is a train a. at the end b. at an end
from Hove to Brighton every hour 7. Have you ever tried to stand an egg .... ?
a. on the hour b. at the hour a. at an end b. on its end
10. Has he published the book ..... his own name? 8. He wouldn't ask his father for a loan ..... of being turned down.
a. by b. under a. in fear b. for fear
11. Could you wait a moment, please? Mr Brown is ..... to his wife 9. Mike, why are you calling me .... ? It's four in the morning.
right now. a. at this hour b. on this hour
a. on the phone b. by phone la. This change is ..... only.
12. Please be brief and speak . a. by name b. in name
a. to the point b. on the point 11. Can you buy goods ..... in Poland now?
13. She was open about her marriage ..... of indiscretion in yesterday's a. by phone b. on the phone
television interview. 12. John was right, but only ..... , as he did not know all the facts.
a. at the point b. to the point of a. to the point b. up to a point
14. The exercise seemed very easy ..... , but it took us almost three 13. I'm afraid of walking alone at night when there is no one .
hours to do. a. at sight b. in sight
a. at first sight b. on first sight 14. Their train was due half an hour ago, so you may expect them .....
15. After their father's sudden death, they lived . now.
a. in want b. for want a. at all times b. any time
15. He has been hard ..... on his maths problem all afternoon.
a. on work b. at work

76
77
Exercise 64. Instructions as above: 15. I know him In fact, I see him on the way to work every day
but I have never been introduced to him.
1. She wanted £600 for her old car, but ..... sold it for £450. a. from sight b. by sight
a. in the end b. at the end 16. When the curfew was announced, the police were ordered to
2. If you think you can climb this mountain in canvas sandals, you shoot .
must be . a. at sight b. on sight
a. above your head b. off your head 17 the last guests arrived, all the food had already been eaten.
3. She said she would love me ..... of time. a. At the time b. By the time
a. to the end b. till an end 18. John, you aren't concentrating today! Do you have to begin
4. It was a very difficult delivery and a nurse had to be ..... all night everything later than everybody else and always be We'll
long. never be ready for the concert if you don't play in rhythm like you
a. in hand b. on hand should.
5. Have you by any chance heard of a stamp collector ..... of a. behind time b. out of time
Michaels? 19. No need to hurry. The buses are never ..... here.
a. by the name b. under the name a. in time b. on time
6. Just as they were ..... of setting out, it started to ram. 20. Poor child. I'm sure he stole the money .... of food.
a. in point b. on the point a. in want b. for want
7. The speaker didn't really answer the question. What he said
was . Exercise 65. Complete the translation of the Polish sentences into English with an
a. beyond the point b. beside the point appropriate prepositional phrase:
8. Have you ever heard the Queen ..... ?
a. by radio b. on the radio 1. Zacznl( dzisiejszy wyklad od zartu.
9 my husband drives me crazy with his laziness. I'll begin today's lecture .
a. At a time b. At times 2. Zacznl( dzisiejszy wyklad od opowiedzenia zartu.
10. I am at a loss when you all speak to me at the same time. I would I'll begin today's lecture .
like to hear one person . 3. Zgadzam sil( z tobc:t calkowicie.
a. at ,times b. at a time I entirely agree .
11. I agree he should have apologized to you, but ..... I see no reason 4. Zgadzamy sil( w kwestiach polityki.
not to speak to him. We agree .
a. at the same time b. at any time 5. Zgadzam sil( na propozycjl( Jana.
12 was the result in doubt. I agree .
a. at one time b. at no time 6. Nasze plany zakonczyly sil( klapc:t.
13. Confiding in a female friend who has acquaintances in the Our plans ended .
Russian Embassy is, ..... , political suicide for American politician. 7. Zebranie znow zakonczylo sil( awanturc:t.
a. in short b. for short The meeting ended ..... again.
14. What is Theodore ..... ? Ted? 8. Byla tak pil(kna, ze porownywano jc:t nawet do Wenus.
a. in short b. for short She was so beautiful that she was even compared
79
78
 9. Bezcelowo jest por6wnywac ten system z poprzednim. I am sorry if you are ..... me, but there really was nothing I could
There is no point in comparing . do about the whole thing.
10. Bylam zaskoczona moim synkiem. Nagle okazal si~ silny i nie- 4. anxious about or anxious for?
ustraszony. Holidays in Montenegro? No, thank you. I'd be too ..... my life.
I was surprised All of a sudden, he was strong and fearless. 5. blind in or blind to?
11. Bylam zaskoczona zachowaniem mojego synka. She loved him dearly all her life and was ..... his many infidelities.
I was surprised . 6. concerned about or concerned for?
12. Ten pierscionek jest zrobiony ze srebra. They grew ..... her life when she didn't come back from the lake
This ring is made . for dinner.
13. Ten substytut prawdziwej kawy jest zrobiony z suszonych korzeni 7. consist in or consist oJ?
mniszka lekarskiego. The examination ..... four parts of equal length.
This coffee substitute is made . 8. eager for or eager to?
14. Pokr6j papryk~ na dlugie, cienkie paseczki. Our company is ..... gain new markets.
Cut the pepper . 9. died of or died from?
15. Przekr6j cebul~ na p61. Many soldiers ..... wounds before aid reached the battlefield.
Cut the onion . 10. d(ffer in or differ on?
16. Nie jestem do bra w matematyce. They ..... family background and education too much for their
I am not good . relationship to last.
17. A moja siostra jest w niej beznadziejna. 11. impatient for or impatient with?
And my sister is hopeless We are very ..... the Queen's visit to our city.
18. Wszyscy si~ z niej smiali. 12. liable for or liable to?
Everybody laughed . My son is already of age and I am no longer ..... his gambling
19. Dopiero teraz, po wielu latach, mogla si~ smiac z wlasnej naiwnosci. debts.
It was only now, after so many years that she was able to laugh 13. settled for or settled on?
I'd like to buy the car tomorrow but my wife hasn't ..... the colour yet.
20. Wlasciwie to on rzucil pilk,! w ni'!, a nie do niej. 14. succeed in or succeed to?
Actually, he threw the ball rather than . Who do you think will ..... the throne when the Queen dies or
abdicates?
Exercise 66. Choose the expression which best completes each of the sentences below: 15. susceptible of or susceptible to?
I don't really think men are less ..... flattery than women are said
1. admit of or admit to? to be.
When will you ..... having a problem with alcohol? Who are you
fooling?
Exercise 67. Fill each of the blanks with to or for. Indicate where both to and for arc
2. agree on or agree with? possible:
Dairy products do not ..... him and he breaks out in an ugly rash
after eating anything that has milk in it. 1. Who is accountable ..... the company's losses?
3. angry at or angry with? 2. Are many of your fellow students addicted ..... drugs?

80 81
 3. I daresay your reaction was not appropriate ..... the circumstan- 3. According to this theory, every child is endowed ..... a language
ces. faculty at birth.
4. The poor child is averse .... travelling by any means of locomo- 4. Potassium is essential ..... the functioning of every single cell.
tion. 5. What you have just said is inconsistent ..... what we know about
5. Bananas are highly beneficial ..... the digestive tract. this whole deal.
6. The DEA apprehended the shipment bound ..... Canada last week. 6. Their regional office was innundated ..... offers of help after the
7. We have managed to see all the sights that the city is celebrat- story was first published several years ago.
ed . 7. Shouldn't the well-off be mindful ..... the needs of the unfortunate
8. Apparently, musical education is very conducive ..... acquiring ones?
mathematical skills. 8. After the patient's death the doctor was found negligent ..... his
9. Only applicants knowing three foreign languages are eligible ..... duties and lost his license.
this position. 9. Her analysis lacks depth and I would say she is not very observant
10. I'd say that if you can't handle children, you are hardly fit ..... the ..... the political scene.
teaching profession. 10. The winter was exceptionally mild and the summer rather rainy
11. He has always been partial ..... tall, slim women. and as a result the fields were overrun ..... vermin in the autumn.
12. The police have been innundated with anonymous calls, none of 11. Bananas are packed ..... nourishment.
which has proved pertinent ..... the case. 12. My little son is quite quick ..... numbers.
13. Many people find the return to the old political system preferable 13. The winner was noticeably radiant ..... joy and satisfaction.
..... large-scale changes and reforms. 14. High blood pressure and arteriosclerosis are directly related .....
14. With over six infections a year, you may say you are prone ..... diet.
illnesses. 15. Her letter was replete ..... love and affection.
15. They will give a verdict after they have seen all the evidence 16. A group of childern were playing in the yard and the rooms were
relative ..... the murder. resonant ..... their happy cries and laughter.
16. Already weeks after the signing of the Day ton agreement its terms 17. The young actress was seized ..... the desire to become a star and
were subject ..... changes introduced by all the sides. would stop ..... nothing.
17. The borders were sealed subsequent ..... the reports of new 18. The buckle was studded ..... tiny sapphires and diamonds.
incidents of the Ebola virus-related deaths. 19. Selenium is vital ..... the defence mechanisms of individual cells.
18. How old is the belief that one race may be superior ..... another? 20. The world has become weary ..... all ethnic conflicts, but they
19. Are the public at large still sympathetic ..... Princess Diana's cannot be stopped.
resolution to defend herself against the royal family?
20. A politician can't be always true ..... his beliefs. Exercise 69. Instructions as above:

1. Over the years, I had unfettered access ..... the Prince's volumi-
Exercise 68. Fill each blank with the best preposition which completes the sentence: nous diaries and vast correspondence.
2. Dandelion's action ..... the liver is remarkable.
1. Wales is abundant ..... tourist attractions. 3. A GP interested in clinical ecology will be able to give sensible
2. The right diet is crucial ..... regaining full and lasting health. advice ..... managing your diet.

82 l'.'
" ,
 4. Allergy or sensitivity ..... specific foods is often misdiagnosed.
5. The magistrate showed no sympathy ..... the young robber and
made no allowances ..... his young age.
6. The Pope is the ultimate authority ..... the Catholic doctrine.
7. An apple a day is a bonus ..... your heart.
8. There is a growing medical concern ..... the relationship between
too much salt and high blood pressure.
9. There is no known cure ..... this disease.
10. The classic symptom of deficiency ..... zinc is loss of appetite.
11. Chicory has a beneficial effect ..... the kidneys.
12. There seems to be little scientific evidence ..... support of this
claim.
13. There is a limit ... physical and emotional endurance.
14. Onions are an impressive country remedy ..... a huge range of
ailments.
15. The relationship of diet ..... heart disease generates a lot of debate .
16. Strawberries have a confirmed reputation ..... combating high
blood pressure.
17. There has been intense medical research ..... heart disease.
18. We have also included suggestions ..... simple dishes in this book.
19. In the struggle ..... invading organisms, the body's defences are
mobilized.
20. Convalescence is a time ..... regenerating the body's healing
powers.
Exercise 70. Instructions as above:
1. The department is capable of accommodating three students
a year ..... full financial support.
2. The high vitamin A content in carrots accounts ..... their efficacy
in respiratory infections.
3. Artichokes are sold complete ..... stem and leaves for those who
wish to avail themselves ..... this excellent natural medicine.
4. Their lack of attention borders ..... negligence.
5. There is no point in trying to bully an anorexic ..... eating.
6. The rush and bustle of the present times has condemend convales-
cence ..... oblivion.
84
7. Our appliances must conform ..... American standards if we want
to export them to the US.
8. The malic and tartaric acids in apples help you cope ..... excess
protein.
9. Psychologically, any convalescent patient will derive enormous
benefits ..... feeling cossetted.
10. In antiquity, athletes were fed almost exclusively ..... figs.
11. They stayed friendly after the divorce and she even congratulated
John ..... his second marriage.
12. Her mother left Marsha and her two sisters to fend ..... themselves
in a Kingston slum.
13. Medical research is focusing increasingly ..... common fruits and
vegetables.
14. He was ousted ..... power after fourteen years of Socialist rule.
15. The objective is to provide maximum nutrient-rich consumption
..... minimum digestive effort.
16. It may not be as healthy to rely ..... soya as many people suggest.
17. Underweight can result ..... over active thyroid.
18. This lack of control will result ..... a disaster for their clients.
19. The invalid's resistance is already low, and he or she may succumb
..... attacks seriously impairing their health.
20. We have learnt again and again what grave consequences tam-
pering ..... nature may have.
Exercise 71. Instructions as above:
1. The Prince qualified as a jet pilot before following ..... traditional
royal footsteps by joining the navy.
2. Are they going to lay a trap ..... the murderer?
3. If you talked to her, it might set her mind ..... rest.
4. She is a mean woman. I wouldn't be surprised if it turned out that
she really can put a curse ..... people.
5. Please take pity ..... me and don't make me visit your senile aunt
again!
6. Remember that you have given evidence ..... oath.
7. After what happened to us in Libya that year we are never going to
fall ..... the temptation of spending our holidays in an exotic place.
~:"
 8. Don't ever try to play any tricks ..... me again! CHAPTER IV
9. Now is the time to air our grievances ..... the new management,
who have no regard ..... our needs whatsoever.
10. The general paid tribute ..... the soldiers' bravery at the funeral GRAMMATICAL CONTRAST
ceremony.
11. He is standing trial ..... the charge of arson.
12. My father always took gre:}t pride ..... his stamp collection.
13. You can't expect everybody to take an interest your affairs.
14. The witness made the worst possible impression the jury.
15. His devotion ..... his job is praiseworthy.
16. The problem with you two is that you take offence ..... everything 4.1. THE NOUN PHRASE IN ENGLISH AND POLISH
he says.
17. He is her new favourite now, but he too, will eventually fall .....
disgrace. 4.1.1. WORD ORDER
18. all.
I've been trodden on enough. Now I will take my revenge ..... you
In English NPs, the head noun can be preceded and followed by
19. His engagement ..... Liz shocked everybody. several distinct categories of expressions which are all ordered with
20. You should never go skiing without taking precautions ..... respect to one another. Polish modifiers have more freedom of
frostbite.
position within the noun phrase, but word order is by no means
completely free in Polish NPs.

4.1.1.1. PREMODIFICA TION

In English, if there is a determiner, it comes before a quan-

tifier or a numeral expression, if any, which in turn precedes an
adjective modifier, of which there may be more than one in an
ordered sequence before the head noun, e.g. the three new
films/te trzy nowe filmy. Instead of the determiner, the noun
phrase may contain the -'s marked genitive phrase, the so-called
possessive. In other words, the determiner is mutually exclusive
with the premodifying possessive phrase in English so that it is
impossible to say *this John's car or *the my book. Some exam-
ples of well-formed English noun phrases include John's several
books/kilka ksiqzek Jana, which six boys/ktorych sZeSciu chlopcow.
his delightful cottagejjego zachwycajqcy domek, these many new
theories/wiele tych nowych teorii. Any reordering of the constitu-
ents in these NPs results in ungrammaticality.

87
 In Polish, by contrast, demonstratives, especially ten/ta/to/this and
ci/these may follow instead of preceding the head noun, as determined
by context. Compare the ungrammatical *book this with the gram-
matical ksiqika ta. Furthermore, the typical position of the possessive
phrase is after the noun unless the possessive is pronominal, in which
case it precedes the head noun, just like a pronominal possessive
precedes the head noun in English. Compare the ungrammatical
*book John's with the grammatical ksiqika Jana and my sister with
moja siostra. While a prenominal possessive phra5e cannot co-occur
with a determiner in English, in Polish, where the possessive is
typically found after the noun, the two can co-occur. Compare *this
my father's friend with its Polish equivalent ten znajomy mojego ojca.
4.1.1.2. POSTMODIFICATION
In English, the head noun can be followed by a PP, e.g. reliance on
one's friends/poleganie na przyjaciolach, a clause, e.g. the attempt to
leave/usilowanie wyjscia, two PPs, e.g. the struggle for peace in
Bosnia/walka 0 pok~j w Bosni, or a PP and a clause, e.g. the request to
Bill that he should let us go/prosba do Billa, ieby nam pozwolil isc.
Adverbs of place and time can also follow the head noun, as in the
return home/powrot do domu. The PP more closely integrated with the
lexical meaning of the noun is placed right after it and the PP whose
interpretation is more peripheral to the noun, as is the case with
expressions of place, manner, or means, is placed farther away from
the noun. Compare, for example, the picture of John in a gold
frame/zdjgcie Jana w zlotej ramce with *the picture in a gold frame of
John. A similar tendency is observed in Polish. Compare, for example,
portret ksigcia z 1961 roku/the portrait of the prince from 1861 with
*portret z 1861 roku ksiycia/*the portrait from 1861 of the prince .
Furhermore, a noun may be complemented by a genitve cas~
-marked NP in Polish. In English, on the other hand, an NP cannot
complement the head noun in an NP. Rather, the head noun can be
complemented by a PP, typically an of-phrase, in English. The genitive
case-marked complement follows the noun, with prepositional or
clausal postmodifiers coming after it, as in produkcja rur ze stali na
eksport/the production of pipes of steel for export.
88
4.1.2. DETERMINERS
An NP in English may contain up to three determiners, which are
distinguished on the basis of the position they occupy in the NP
relative to one another. The order in which determiners appear in NP
is fixed. The initial position is filled by such determiners as both/obaj,
all/wszystkie, such/taki and expressions of measure like half/pal, etc,
e.g. both her sisters/obie jej siostry, all students/wszyscy studenci, such
a nice person/taka mila osoba. Next come the definite or indefinite
articles or demonstratives, of which there may be only one in an NP,
e.g. the book/ (ta) ksiqika, some sugar/trochf2 cukru, that man/ten
mgiczyzna, another problem/kolejny problem, a few films/kilka filmoH'.
a little patience/odrobina cierpliwosci, or the interrogative and relative
which and what, e.g. which girl/ktora dziewczyna. These determiners
are mutually exclusive with possessive phrases, both possessive pro-
nouns and possessive NPs in the genitive (cf. 4.1.1.), e.g. *John's the
book, *my another problem. Possessives may be followed by quan-
tifiers such as each/kaidy, enough/dosyc, much/duio, more/wif2cej,
most/wigkszosc, less/mniej, as well as numerals, e.g. Spielberg's every
movie/kaidy film Spielberga, all his many contributions/wszystkie jego
liczne przyczynki, their two cars/ich dwa samochody.
In English, quantifiers are divided between these combining with
countable nouns, such as many/wiele, a few/kilka, a little/trochf2,
several/parg, both/obaj, a couple of/parg, a hundred of/st~, a number
ofltrochg, a majority of/wigkszosc, each/kaidy and every/kaidy, those
combining with uncountable nouns, such as much/duio, a little/trochf2,
little/malo, less/mniej, an amount of/trochf2, a bit ofltrochf2, a great deal
of/sporo, and these combining with both countable and uncountable
nouns, such as some/trochg, any/trochf2, a lot oflduio, all/wszyscy/caly,
enough/dosyc, more/wigcej, most/wigkszosc, no/iaden, plenty oflmnostwo.
In Polish, by contrast, only kilka/several and parg/a couple of as
well as pseudopartitives like tuzin/ a dozen o.l are restricted to corn bine
with countable nouns. All other determiners may appear both with
countable and uncountable nouns. Compare the following examples:
(1) too many eggs/too much time
zbyt duio jajek/zbyt duio czasu
89
(2) few eggs/little time Furthermore, definiteness or indefiniteness signalled by the articles in
malo jajek/malo czasu English may be conveyed by appropriate word order in Polish. In (5)
below, the sentence··final NP is interpreted as indefinite and its English
In English, two kinds of articles are distinguished, the indefi- counterpart is marked with the indefinite article. In (6), the sen-
nite articles a/an and some and the definite article the. Polish tence-initial NP is interpreted as definite and it is marked with the definite
lacks lexical items corresponding to the English articles, with the article in the English counterpart:
exception of jakis corresponding to the English some. In English,
(5) Wczoraj widzialam chlopca.
the use of articles is governed by strict rules. For example, the Yesterday I
saw a boy.
indefinite article must be used before a singular countable indefi-
nite noun, as shown by the acceptability of I bought a book/ Kupi- (6) Chlopiec niosl w siatce pomarw1c:::e.
lem ksiqzkf compared with the unacceptability of *1 bought book. It The boy was carrying oranges in a bag.
is also used with a singular countable noun when the noun is used
generically, that is, represents all the individuals belonging to the Exercise 72. Fill the blanks with an appropriate article (a, an or the) where necessary:
class of entities denoted by the noun, as in A whale is an endangered
species/ Wieloryb jest gatunkiem zagrozonym wymarciem, as well as 1. My father is very conservative and just doesn't move with ..... times.
in expressions of price, for example, £ 1,99 (a pound and nine- 2. Are you sure you really want to be dressed in ..... black for your son's
ty-nine)/(jeden) funt dziewifcdziesiqt dziewifc pensow, or speed, for wedding?
example, 55 miles an hour/pifcdziesiqt pifC mil na godzing. The 3. She felt on ..... top of ..... world after she had won the contest.
definite article is placed before a noun qualified by a phrase or 4 management is now ready to accept your demands, within .
clause, that is, when definite reference is made, as in the fact that reason.
you are lateffakt, ze sig spoznild or the man who found your book 5. When will they break ..... news of accident to ..... press?
yesterday/ (ten) mgzczyzna, ktory znalazl wczoraj twojq ksiqzkf, be- 6. According to eyewitness reports, plane caught ..... fire
fore nouns denoting entities of which there is only one, such as moment after take-off.
the sun/sIOlice, etc. The indefinite article is not used, among oth- 7. Don't forget that ..... marriage is for better and for worse.
ers, before plural countable nouns and the definite article is not 8. My brother's company is sending him to ..... Hebrides for two
used with proper names, for example, names of meals, seasons, years. I hope he will make ..... good use of his stay there.
months, etc. Compare the grammatical Let's have lunch/Zjedzmy 9. It's cheaper to send books by ..... sea than by ..... air.
lunch with the ungrammatical *Let's have a/the lunch. 10. I can't find my wallet anywhere. I must have lost it on bus.
The occurrence of articles ill English is occasionally signalled in Polish 11. It was ..... lovely spring morning and they decided to skip school
by the use of indefinite or demonstrative pronouns. Consider the and spend ..... day fishing.
following examples: 12. She is ..... friendliest person I know. In ..... fact, she keeps ..... open
house for all her friends.
(3) Buy me a book. 13. Did you take out mortgage to buy this house?
Kup mi jakqs ksiqzk(}. 14. I have always had crush on my best friend's girlfriend.
15. I think that most slips of ..... tongue are completely accidental.
(4) Buy me the book.
Kup mi tg ksiqzkg.

90 1 91
Exercise 73. Instructions as above: 5 invesitigation showed beyond any shadow of doubt that .
ship was off ..... course when it collided with oil ring.
1. You must be completely irresponsible to buy on credit. 6. It is rumoured that he came into his fortune by ..... chance.
2. Have they finally found out who has set ..... fire to houses in ..... 7. Why are you letting Peggy lead you by ..... nose?
Docklands? 8 new law will do more harm than good in long run.
3. Who will lecture on ..... Thursday in ..... place of ..... Professor 9. Will you really have ..... heart to tell him that you are moving to .....
Jenkins? Transvaal?
4. How long have ..... Tories been in ..... power in ..... United 10 little shop round corner has been running at loss and .
Kingdom? owner is thinking of selling it.
5. This is too ..... serious ..... mistake to be overlooked. 11. One must weigh up ..... facts before reaching ..... decision.
6. All ..... dolls in this collection are made by ..... hand. 12. Do you like buying things at ..... sales?
7. He has been caught driving under ..... influence of alcohol several 13. You must be running ..... temperature. You are hot!
times but has always got off with just ..... ticket. 14. We would be much happier without you here. You are always
8. If you don't have any money on you, you will have to reverse ..... stirring up ..... trouble.
charges when you make ..... phone call. 15. Don't be upset with me for saying this, but your jealousy verges on
9. Mary was in ..... seventh heaven when they finally moved ..... ..... msane.
house.
10. How can you expect me to have everything ready at such ..... short Exercise 75. Instructions as above:
notice?
11. If we left at ..... crack of ..... dawn, we may reach ..... Champs Elysees 1. Let me give you ..... little advice.
before ..... dark. 2. You can't ask for a rise just on ..... strength of working efficiently.
12. "Silence of ..... lambs" was one film which really gave me 3 petrol is little over pound gallon now.
creeps. 4. How long have they been on ..... run?
13. I don't think hats have ever really been out of ..... fashion. 5. Please turn off all ..... lights before you go to ..... bed.
14. A lot of miners will be on dol~ after ..... mine closes. 6. What ..... pity you are busy today. It is ..... lovely day for ..... swim.
15. Did you get this story at first hand or did your read it 7 gold is sold by ounce.
somewhere? 8. I
I nearly forgot the car was in ..... reverse when started ..... engine
this morning. I could have driven straight into ..... lampost.
9. How much does this car do to ..... gallon?
Exercise 74. Instructions as above:
10. If you will excuse me, I must see to ..... dinner.
11. Do you think ..... freedom of ..... speech is ..... indispensable
1. Sheila is so sensitive! She takes everything you say about her to ..... human right?
heart. 12 disaster was so unexpected that captain did not have .
2. We may as well have another round drinks are on house time to order passengers and crew to abandon ..... ship.
tonight. 13. To arrive on time is to arrive at ..... scheduled time.
3. Shall we go into ..... church and see ..... altar now? 14 new chef is rather scrooge.
4. Has he been arrested on ..... suspicion of ..... tax evasion? 15. Don't cry. It isn't ..... end of ..... world.

92 93
Exercise 76. Instructions as above: here and there she saw ..... (39) maps and ..... (40) pictures hung upon
..... (41) pegs. She took down ..... (42) jar from one of ..... (43) shelves
"DOWN ..... (I) RABBIT-HOLE" as she passed: it was labelled "orange marmalade," but to her great
Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on ..... disappointment it was empty: she did not like to drop ..... (44) jar for
(2) bank, and of having nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped ..... (45) fear of killing somebody, so managed to put it into one of .....
into ..... (3) book her sister was reading, but it had no pictures or ..... (46) cupboards as she fell past it.
"Well!" thought Alice to herself. "After such ..... (47) fall as this,
(4) conversations in it, "and what is ..... (5) use of ..... (6) book,"
I shall think nothing of tumbling down ..... (48) stairs! How brave
thought Alice, "without ..... (7) pictures or ..... (8) conversations?"
So she was considering in her own mind (as well as she could, for they'll all think me at home! Why, I wouldn't say anything about it,
even if I fell off ..... (49) top of ..... (50) house!" (Which was very likely
..... (9) hot day made her feel very sleepy and stupid) whether ..... (10)
pleasure of making ..... (11) daisy-chain would be worth trouble of true).
(From L. Carroll, Alice in Wonderland)
getting up and picking ... (13) daisies, when suddenly (14) White
Rabbit with ..... (IS) pink eyes ran close by her.
There was nothing so very remarkable in that; nor did Alice think
it so very much out of ..... (16) ordinary to hear ..... (17) Rabbit say to
itself, "Oh, dear! Oh, dear! I shall be too late!" (when she thought it Exercise 77. Choose the expression which best completes each of the sentences below:
over afterwards, it occurred to her that she ought to have wondered at
this, but at ..... (18) time it seemed quite natural); but when ..... (19) 1. caly: all the or the whole
Rabbit actually took ..... (20) watch out of its waistcoat-pocket, and The children have drunk ..... juice.
looked at it, and then hurried on, Alice started to her feet, for it 2. duzo: a lot of or much?
flashed across her mind that she had never before seen ..... (21) rabbit You'll need ..... time to finish these exerCIses.
with either ..... (22) waistcoat-pocket, or ..... (23) watch to take out of 3. duzo: a lot or much?
it, and burning with curiosity, she ran across ..... (24) field after it, and 'How much did you pay for it?' 'Rather '
fortunately was just in ..... (25) time to see it pop down ..... (26) large 4. duzo: a great deal or a great number?
rabbit-hole under ..... (27) hedge. ..... of complaints have already been dealt with.
In another moment down went Alice after it, never once con- 5. kazdy: each or every?
sidering how in ..... (28) world she was to get out again. Not ..... worker will get a Christmas bonus this year.
..... (29) rabbit-hole went straight on like ..... (30) tunnel for some 6. mniej: fewer or less?
way, and then dipped suddenly down, so suddenly that Alice had not The repair will take ..... than two weeks.
..... (31) moment to think about stopping herself before she found 7. par~: a few or some?
herself falling down ..... (32) very deep well. 'Any more biscuits?' 'Yes, please.' 'Here, take
Either ..... (33) well was very deep, or she fell very slowly, for she 8. troch~: a little or some?
had plenty of ..... (34) time as she went down to look about her, and to Let's have ..... soup, shall we?
wonder what was going to happen next. First, she tried to look down 9. wszyscy: everyone or everyone?
and make out what she was coming to, but it was too dark to see ..... likes getting presents.
anything; then she looked at ..... (35) sides of ..... (36) well, and noticed 10. wszystko: all or everything?
that they were filled with ..... (37) cupboards and ..... (38) bookshelves: The winner takes it .

9S
94
•• w._· ••., _ •••.•• ---.-._ ••••• __ •• _._ •••• ~
.••....•..•••.. ~ ..•..•.•••. ~. _.•4 ••••.•..••.•.•• _ .•..•••.~~_._ ••••.••.•.••. _ .••.•. ~ ~~••.•.•. ,.

Exercise 78. Instructions as abov~:

adjective modifier can be freely complemented or postmodified, e.g.
1. caly: all the or the whole? dumny z syna m?zczyzna/a man proud of his son (lit *a proud of his
The children have eaten ..... box of biscuits. son man). Interestingly, discontinuous modification is a restricted
2. duio: a lot or much? phenomenon also in Polish. Compare for example przykuty do IMka
I'm afraid I don't have ..... time right now. pacjent (lit * a confined to his/the bed patient), pacjent przykuty do
3. kaidy: each or every? IMka (lit a patient confined to his bed) and the discontinuous
The little princess was wearing a diamond bracelet on ..... wrist. * przykuty pacjent do 16ika (lit *a confined patient to his bed).
4. kaidy: each or every? In English, most simple adjective modifiers, regardless of thei r
I enjoyed ..... minute of the show. semantic status and the type of relation to the noun, precede the noun
5. mniej: fewer or less? they modify and further, they come in the noun phrase in a strict
sequence when there is more than one of them. The modifier next
..... and ..... people smoke cigarettes these days.
6. troch~: a little or some? before the head noun is a denominal adjective often with the meaning
'How much soup do you want?' 'Just ..... , please'. of 'consisting of, 'involving' or 'relating to'. For example, all ethnic
7. troch~: a few or some? problem/problem etniczny. Next left comes the adjective of style or
Let's buy ..... flowers for Mary, shall we? provenance, for example, the London musical lile/zycie muzyczne
8. wszyscy: everyone or everyone? Londynu. Next come participial modifiers, for example, embroidered
They gave a present to ..... of us. Dutch tablecloth/haftowany holenderski obrus. Preceding the participle
9. wszystko: all or everything? is the adjective of colour, as in a black carved Venetian wooden
..... I want is a just a little quiet. box/czarne drewniane rzeibione weneckie pudelko. The adjective of
10. wszystko: all or everything? colour is preceded by the adjectives of age, size or shape. For example,
They lost ..... in the flood. long fair hair/dlugie jasne wlosy, a big black chair/duie czarne krzeslo.
Farthest from the noun are "general" adjectives expressing subjective
qualities, as in good old times/stare dobre czasy or a terrible sinking
4.1.3. ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS
feeling/wstr?tne uczucie mdlosci. In Polish, a simple adjective modifier
usually precedes the head noun if it expresses a non-inherent property,
In English, the adjective premodifier on the whole must not be as in biala suknia/a white dress and usually follows the noun if it
complemented or postmodified. Compare the grammatical a proud expresses a defining, inherent property, as in energia sloneczna/solar
man/dumny m~iczyzna, which includes a simple adjective modifier energy. Furthermore, adjective modifiers have far more freedom of
with the ungrammatical *a proud of his son man/dumny ze swego syna position in Polish. Compare *a fat big fish with tlusta. duia ryba and
m#czyzna, which includes a complex adjective modifier. A complex * a brown leather long belt with brqzowy skorzany, dlugi pasek.
adjective modifier is placed after the noun in English, as in facilities Most adjectives can be used attributively, that is, before the noun
comparable to ours/udogodnienia porownywalne do naszych, or, in they modify. There are adjectives which cannot be used attributively.
rather infrequent cases, it may be discontinuous, as in comparable They may be used predicatively, after a verb like be. These include
facilities to ours/*por6wnywalne udogodnienia do naszych, where the adjectives of health such as faint/slaby, ill/chory, poorly/niezdrolv.
adjective modifying the noun, i.e. comparable precedes it but the well/zdrowy and unwell/niezdrow. When ill and faint are found before
adjectival postmodifier to ours does not follow the adjective but rather nouns, they do not relate to health, as in an ill omen/zly omen. That is,
is shifted to after the noun. In Polish, by contrast, a premodifying when ill relates to health, it cannot be put before a noun, e.g. *ill
96
()7
 1
peoplejchorzy ludzie, but it can be used after a verb like be, e.g., these
people are illjci ludzie sq chorzy. Also adjectives in a- do not have
attributive uses, for example, afraidjbac sif!, alightjzapalony, alo-
nejsam, ablazejplonqcy, awakejprzebudzony. Hence you cannot say *an
awake childjzbudzone dziecko in English although you may say the
child is awakejdziecko sif! zbu...4.zilo.Similarly for adjectives relating to
emotional states such as gladjzadowolony, contentjzadowolony, plea-
sedjzadowolony, sorryjwyrazajqcy zal, upsetjzdenerwowany, farjdaleki
and nearjbliski except in fixed phrases like the Far EastjDaleki
Wschod. Conversely for adjectives with the meaning of 'complete', for
example, sheerjzupelny, utterjcalkowity, merejzwyczajny, and certain
adjectives restricting the reference of the noun such as certainjpewien,
chiefjglowny, mainjglowny, and onlyjjedyny, which can only be used
predicatively. Compare for example utter nonsensejkompletna bzdura
with *the nonsense is utterj*bzdura jest kompletna and the only
complaintjjedyna skarga with *this complaint is onlyj*ta skarga jest
jedyna.
There is a limited class of adjectives, mostly ending in -ible or -able
which may either precede or follow the noun, usually with no
difference in meaning. For example, you can say both in the material
availablejw materiale dostf!pnym and in the available materialjw mate-
riale dostf!pnym. A few adjectives change in meaning depending on
whether they come before or after the noun, for example, in the
present addressjobecny adres, present refers to time and in the students
presentjstudenci obecni (gdzies), present refers to location.
4.1.4. THE GENITIVE
The genitive has two forms in English, the so-called inflected NP-'s
genitive and the so-called periphrastic of + NP genitive. NPs in the
genitive have several distinct meanings associated with them. They
express the relation of possession, for example, my son's wife/zona
mojego syna, the engine of the carjsilnik samochodu; the subjective
relation, for example, the boy's applicationjpodanie chlopca, the rise of
the sunjwschod slmica; the objective relation, for example, the crimi-
nal's arrestjaresztowanie przestf!pcy, the destruction of the cityjznisz-
98
czenie miasta; the source or origin of the relation, for example, the
girl's storyjopowieSc dziewczyny, the wines of France/wina francuslcie;
physical features or characteristics, for example, a summer '.I' day/let I/i
dzien, a man of many talents/czlowiek wielkich umiejf!tnosci, and
measurements, for example, a ten days' absence/dziesif!ciodnio\l'Cl
nieobecnosc, the height of the towerjwysokosc wiezy.
The inflected genitive tends to be preferred with animate nouns
(personal names, personal nouns, higher animals) while the periphras-
tic genitive, with inanimate nouns and nouns denoting lower animals.
Compare, for example, my brother's name: *the name of my broth-
erjimi~ mojego brata with the enjoyment of the jllm: *the film's
enjoymentjprzyjemnosc z (oglqdnif!cia) filmu. The inflected genitive is
also preferred with geographical names and names of organisations
and other groups of individuals, for example, Poland's .f~ilure/pr;::y-
szlosc Polski, and with temporal nouns, for example, today's bud-
get/obecny budzet, a moment's thought/chwila namyslu. The periphras-
tic genitive is preferred with head nouns denoting a spacial axis,
boundaries enclosing a location and the area contained within such
boundaries such as bottomjdol, spod, topjgora, side/bole, front/przod,
back/tyl, beginning/poczqtek, middlejsrodele, centre/srodele, end/koniec,
part/czf!SC, interior/wnf!trze, inside/wewnqtrz, outside/na zewn(Wz, edgl'
/brzeg, surface/powierzchnia, length/dlugosc, worth/wartosc, as in the
back of the housejtyl domujza domem vs *the house's back and with
nouns denoting parts or units of larger entities or else collection of
entities and containers, for example, a cup of co.flee: *a coffee's
cup/filiianka kawy, a cake of soap: *a soap's cake/kostlea mydla.
There are quite a few idiomatic expressions, especially involving
the inflected genitive, which do not conform to the general tendency,
for example, a wasps' nestjgniazdo os, the water's edge/brzeg wody,
arm's length/na wyciqgnif!cie rf!ki. Furthermore, instead of the inflected
noun phrase, an uninflected noun may appear with a head noun,
forming a compound noun. The bare noun is chosen as modifier
especially in classifying or defining expressions where it points to
a permanent characteristic, for example, leather shoes/sk6rzane butv.
fountain pen/wieczne pioro, soap opera/opera mydlana.
The genitive in Polish is inflected and it is the noun rather than the
noun phrase as in English that appears marked for it. In Polish. the
t)q
genitive is realized as an inflectional ending while in English -s is e.g. a friend ofminelmoj przyjaciel, a book of John'slksiqika Jana has
a clitic attached to the whole noun phrase, as shown in the old man t,he periphrastic genitive of mine, of John's which itself contains
I met yesterday's dog and its Polish equivalent pies starego (gen) a genitive phrase expressing possession, that is, mine, John's, hence,
czlowieka (gen), ktorego (gen) spotkalem wczoraj. In the English there are two genitives in such nominals.
example -s is attached to the last element of the possessive NP while in
Polish the genitive is marked on the head noun of the possessive NP
czlowieka (gen)/man and under inflectional concord, on all premodi-
fiers of the noun. The range of meanings of the genitive in English is Exercise 79. Translate the following noun phrases into English and comment on the
the same in Polish, but Polish favours NP including only one noun in ordering differences:
the genitive in contrast to English, where the inflected genitive can
co-occur with the periphrastic genitive. For example, the committee's 1. duzy kwadratowy st61 dybowy
approval of the plan is rendered in Polish as akceptacja planu przez 2. ladny nowoczesny jacht francuski
komisjg/the approval of the plan by the committee, with the Polish 3. wielki czerwony dywan perski
equivalent of the English by-phrase rather than as * komisji (gen) 4. nowa czysta biala koszula
akceptacja planu (gen) or *akceptacja planu (gen) komisji (gen), both 5. mlody prokurator generalny
of which involve two genitive NPs. However, two genitive phrases are 6. inteligentniejszy od swego nauczyciela student
not impossible in Polish especially if one of them denotes the possessor 7. mala mila miejscowosc g6rska
or indicates the origin of the relation, as in teatr tmica (gen) 8. swieze mleko krowie
Grotowskiego (gen)/Grotowski's dance theatre, zbior znaczkow (gen) 9. Stany Zjednoczone Ameryki P61nocnej
mojego mgia (gen)/my husband's collection of stamps. 10. smaczna francuska zupa cebulowa
There are four special uses of the genitive in English. The 11. szalenie latwy w prowadzeniu samoch6d
independent (or elliptical) genitive is a construction in which the noun 12. wlasciwy wyklad
expected after the genitive is omitted, as in my memory is like an 13. cos piyknego
elephant's. The local genitive is a construction referring to premises, 14. niejeden czlowiek
establishments, churches, houses, etc., as in I was married at St. 15. wiykszy od twojego dom
Anne's/bralem slub u Sw. Anny. In present-day English the -'s is often
omitted; for example I'm going to the dentist today/Wybieram sig dziS Exercise 80. Provide the adjectives which may be used attributively in place of each of
do dentysty. In the group genitive, the clitic -'s is added to a NP which the adjectives in italics in the following noun phrases:
consists of a noun, e.g. somebody/ktos followed by a postmodifier, e.g. a.....
the
the .....
the ..... witness
man
.....
..... hours 7. ill:
content:10.
8. awake:
teacher
things 9. loath:
6.the ..... man
alike:
problems
parent
else/inny, as in somebody else's coat/plaszcz kogos innego, or which is 1. afraid: the ..... child
a coordinated structure, as in2. 3. sure:
4.Beaumont
alive:
glad: 5. asleep:
and the plays/sztuki
Fletcher's ..... women
Beaumonta i Fletchera. This construction poses special problems to
Polish learners as in Polish the genitive is marked on the noun rather
than on the NP and thus it is marked on each of the coordinated
nouns separately. Hence, in zabawki Janka i Hani the toys are owned
jointly or separately, which in Eng~ish corresponds either to John and Exercise 81. Decide if the italicised adjectives are placed before or after the noun in each
Hannah's toys or to John's and Hannah's toys. The double genitive, of the sentences below:

100 ]()1
 I. concerned
Exercise 83. Explain the differences in meaning between the following phrases:
The police were caIled by a neighbour .
2. responsible
1. a. the news of the president's
3.
4. a. b.
5. a.
2. ain
a woman
the ashipshape
in the
church doctor
women's ofofdoctor
shape
building
shipwreck
the news
wreck of
building
of
the apresident
the
a ship ship
church
Right after that accident
3. involved they fired the ..... girl

Instead
4. proper of a clear answer, we heard a(n) ..... explanation

It was not a ..... thing ..... to ask him how much he earned.
5. present

The ..... students ..... all voted for the motion.

6. involved

It was unwise of you to go out with the ..... officer

7. concerned

After the visit,

..... were which was a tremendous
thanked. success, all the ..... people Exercise 84. Correct the following ungrammatical sentences:
8. responsible
lanet is such a ..... girl I. *If that coat isn't yours, whose else's is it?
9. present
2. *It was your the biggest mistake.
3. *This is an example of a typical for Polish subjectless construc-
All ..... employees ..... have been on a free day-trip paid for by the
company. tion.
10. proper
4. *There are much more tenses in English.
He began the ..... lecture ..... after telling the audience about his 5. *She arrived by an overcrowded bus.
expeditions to the Himalayas. 6. *It is an old beautiful house.
7. *We have always wanted to see Nile, pyramids and Sphinx.
Exercise 82. Translate the following phrases into English using the inflected or the
8. *The picture shows man and woman who could be mother and
periphrastic genitive, or an appropriate nominal compound: son.
1. samochod mojego zi~cia 9. *Common English verbs like get, give, and take are of the
12. zwyci~stwo Wilhelma
2. poltoragodzinna jazda Scandinavian origin.
Zdobywcy
3. firma ciotki Alicji 10. *Do you believe in the power of written word?
I 3. gl~bokosc rowu
4. u Marksa i Spencera
14. syn ksi~cia Walii
5. zeznanie przechodnia
15. na Iitosc bosk,! 4.1.5. GENDER IN ENGLISH AND POLISH
6. pewien znajomy moich rodzicow
7. drzwi sypialni 16. koszt naprawy
17. wolnosc Francuzow
8. kawalek papieru Gender is a primary category of nouns manifesting itself in the
18. koniec ksi,!zki
9. calodzienna wycieczka noun's determining a particular morphological form of its adjectival
10. za miesi,!c lub dwa 19. idiblo trawy
20. noga od stolu modifier or determiner, the form of the personal pronoun(s) sub-
11. zabawki bliiniaczek Zuzi i Natalki stituting for the noun, etc. Gender is natural when sex distinctions
102
I()~
 between the referents of animate nouns determine gender distinctions, The recommended pronoun is he, but in popular usage the plural
for example in the case when the referent is female and the noun pronoun they is favoured:
is feminine. Gender is arbitrary when gender distinctions depend
(3) Everyone was allowed to watch television as long as they
on purely morphological considerations such as the ending of the
wanted.
noun. In Polish, for example, the ending -0 is characteristic of neuter
gender.
When all the antecedents are unambiguously female, the pronoun she
is used.
4.1.5.1. GENDER IN ENGLISH
4.1.5.2. GENDER IN POLISH
In English, gender is natural. Typically, a noun with a male
referent is masculine, a noun with a female referent is feminine and all In Polish, every noun is uniquely classified for gender and is either
other nouns are neuter. Unlike in Polish and other richly inflected masculine, feminine, or neuter in the singular. In the plural, two
languages, gender is generally not reflected in the inflectional mor- genders are distinguished, masculine personal and non-masculine
phology of English. Third person singular personal pronouns are personal. For example, the noun samochodjcar is masculine in the
distinguished by gender in English and so are reflexive pronouns. singular and non-masuline personal in the plural.
English has personal masculine and personal feminine nouns like The grammatical gender of animate nouns in general corresponds
brother (masc)/brat and daughter (fem)/corka. Many nouns overtly to natural sex distinctions. Exceptions include nouns denoting the
reflect the natural sex of their referents through their derivational young of the species, e.g. szczenifljpuPPy as well as diminutives, e.g.
affixes. For example, feminine nouns are derived with the suffix -ess, chlopifl/young boy, lad, and augmented forms, e.g. babsko/virago,
as witnessed by waitress/kelnerka, he- marks nouns with a male which are all of neuter gender. Also male personal nouns like
referent, as in he-goat/koziol, while she- marks nouns with a female poetajpoet decline like feminine nouns, which typically end in -a.
referent, as in she-wolf/wilczyca. Some personal nouns are of dual Nouns like sfldzia/judge, whose referents may be both female and
gender and can be referred to both by the pronouns she/ona and he/on, male, also decline like feminine nouns. The gender of inanimate nouns
as is the case with student/student(ka) and parent/rodzic. Nouns like is strictly grammatical and depends on the ending of the. noun.
baby/dziecko, which may be referred to by who/kto and what/co, he/on, Furthermore, Polish has a productive derivational suffix marking
she/ona, or it/ono are of so-called common gender. Some common feminine nouns, -ka, as in aktorka/actress and some minor suffixes, for
nouns which are referred to by it/ono in the singular and they/oni, one example, -yni, as in dozorczyni/doorkeeper, or -ica, as in siostrzeni-
in the plural, may occasionally be personalized. For example, a noun ca/niece. There is also a masculine marking suffix, -or, as in gq-
denoting a country is typically substituted by the pronoun it, but it sior/gander. There are two subclasses of nouns with both male and
may be used to refer to the nation and is then substituted by the female referents. Nouns like kaleka/cripple, beksa/crybaby, siero-
pronoun she. Also ships and other larger machines may be referred to ta/orphan, decline like feminine nouns. Nouns like fachowiecjprofes-
by she. Third person personal pronouns used anaphorically agree for sional, inzynierjengineer, dyrektorjdirector are inherently masculine.
gender with the noun they refer to: The natural gender distinction is revealed in the form of the
(l) M ary likes herself. determiner which is in concord with the noun, e.g. ta (fem) gadula/the
chatterbox, ten (masc) gadulajthe chatterbox, or else the noun does not
(2) John brought his sister along.
decline at all, e.g. pani dyrektor, which is used in addressing a female
Difficulties arise with antecedents which are unspecified for gender. director.
104
105
 Exercise 8S. Classify the following English nouns for gender:
Exercise 88. Comment on the gender of the following nouns in Polish, discuss the range
1. car
9. comrade of determiners found with each of the nouns and find out whether they
2. Poland have male or female rererents:
10. librarian
3. dog 11. fool
4. boyfriend 1. dziadzio 13.
12.
11.
14.
10. tluscioch
brudas
9. album
15. Fredro
chlopczyna
przyjaciel
opus
12. usher
5. heroine 13. moon
5.
2.8.
7.
4.
6. PAN
muzeum
czern
3. gapa
nozyce
matczysko
k~dziel
6. accountant
14. spouse
7. monk
8. sun 15. H.M.S "Queen Mary"

Exercise 86. gender:

For each of the following nouns provide the counterpart of opposite
1. tutor
9. peer
2. kinsman
10. Emperor
3. Sir John Smith 11. heir 4.1.6. NUMBER IN ENGLISH AND POLISH
4. fiancee 12. abbot
5. maid
13. Infant of Spain 4.1.6.1. COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
6. Lord Mayor 14. friar
7. master
15. prior In both English and Polish all common nouns are subdivided into
8. Marchioness two classes: countable and uncoun~able nouns. Only countable nouns
normally have both the singular and the plural forms. In both
Exercise 87. Match the words from I. to I O. with the appropriate gender marker from a. languages, plural number is marked by an inflectional ending,
to n. to indicate the male-female sex distinction: although in English there is a class of irregular nouns which do not
hen
cock
a. she
man
doe form the plural with an ending, as witnessed by pairs like man:men,
10.
9. 1. sparrow
3.
7. servant
model
bear
wrestler
5.
turkey
6. elephant
2.
4. frog
I.
m. n.
bullcow 8. monkey foot :feet, etc. In Polish, the ending encoding plural number simul-
106 taneously serves to encode case and gender. In English, on the other
hand, the plural morpheme marks just the inflectional category of
plural number. Uncountable nouns are not inflected for plural number
and appear with the verb in the singular or are inherently pluraL
whether overtly, as in bellowsjmiech in English and ciarkijcreeps in
Polish, or not, as in aristocracyjarystokracja in English.
Whether a noun is countable or uncountable is typically deter-
mined on the basis of whether its referent can be counted, but the idea
of counting is not always applied consistently in one language (e.g. in
English suggestionjpropozycja is countable but advicejrada is not) and
does not always carry over from one language to the other (e.g.
information is uncountable in English while informacja is countable in
Polish). Furthermore, mass nouns, which are singular in the basic

107

sense, can be used in the plural with accompanying semantic reclas-
sification, that is, a change in meaning. The semantic reclassification
may involve a change in meaning from the nouns's denoting substance
to its denoting the product made of the substance (e.g. bronze/brqz is
uncountable when it denotes a chemical alloy while bronzes is
countable when it is used to refer to works of art made of the alloy
denoted by the uncountable bronze and, similarly, srebro/silver is
a mass noun in Polish while the plural srebra denotes objects made of
silver, typically, silver tableware). The plural of a standardly mass
noun denoting an abstract concept is correlated with the concrete
counterpart of the abstract concept ( e.g. time is an abstract concept
and times is used to denote specific periods of time; pieniqdz/money is
an abstract economic term while pieniqdze/moneys denotes banknotes
and coins). The plural of a mass noun may correlate with the concept
of "kinds" or "portions" of the substance denoted by the uncountable
noun (e.g. light oils/oleje lekkie denotes kinds of oil which are of the
light variety and, similarly, paliwa plynne/ liquid oils denotes those
kinds of fuel which are liquid; two cofJees and its Polish equivalent
dwie kawy is used referring to two servings (cups) of the substance.
Furthermore, the plural form of an uncountable noun may be used in
a restricted sense, often in a fixed phrase, or may have more than one
meaning, e.g. ashes/popioly, prochy may be used in the same way as
ash or it may refer to the burnt remains of the human body.
Barwy/colours found in the fixed phrase barwy narodowe, klubo-
we/national, club colours denotes the colours of a flag or club. Some-
times the noun in the plural has an altogether different meaning from
the noun in the singular (e.g. damage/szkoda and damages/odszkodo-
wanie; znajomosc/knowledge and znajomosci/injluential acquaintances).
4.1.6.2. COLLECTIVE NOUNS
Collective nouns are singular nouns denoting groups of individ-
uals. In English, when a collective noun is used to refer to a united
body, the verb is singular and the 9ronoun it is used for substitution:
(1) Rick's family is huge. It consists of two boys and six girls.
Rodzina Ricka jest ogromna. Sklada sir; dwoch chlopcow
2.'
i sZeSciu dziewczqt.
108
When the noun is used to refer to separate individuals making up the
body, the verb is plural and the pronouns they and their are used in
reference to the noun:
Rick's family have gone on their holiday.
(2)
Rodzina Ricka wyjechala na wakacje.
Some collective nouns, for example, police/policja, vermin/robact'rt'o,
gentry/szlachta, take the verb in the plural. Personal adjectives with
the definite article such as the poor/biedni also take the verb in the
plural in English.
In Polish, collective nouns are singular and take the verb in the
singular. Singular third person pronouns are used referring to a collec-
tive noun in Polish (see chapter 4.3):
(3) Rada MiniStrow wydala wczoraj oswiadczenie potr;piajqce ataki
prasy na jej ostatnie decyzje w sprawie podwyiek.
The Cabinet issued a statement yesterday condemning press
attacks on its latest decisions regarding price rises.
Personal adjectives like wypr;dzeni! the expelled and biedrzi! the poor take
the verb in the plural in Polish.
4.1.6.3. THE COUNTABLE/UNCOUNTABLE DISTINCTION AND THE OETER-
MINERS
In English, a countable noun can be used with the article a in the
singular. An uncountable noun cannot be used with the indefinite
article a except when it denotes 'sort of', for example, I want a metallic
paint/ChC(l (kupic) farb? do metalu. Countable nouns are used with
the quantifiers many, (a) few, several, etc. and uncountable nouns are
used with much, (a) little, etc. (see chapter 4.1.2).
Exercise 89. Look up all the words below in a dictionary and classify them as countable
(C) or uncountable (U), either invariably singular (sg) or invariably plural
(pI):
109
 I.advice
11. gOSSIp 13. a. making b. sands
reinforcements
shorts
b. makings
respects
spectacles
troops
spirits
2. applause 12. information
16.
17. a.
14.
19.
18.
20.
15. sand
short
a. reinforcement
spirit
spectacle
troop
respect
3. cattle
13. jewellery
4. chess
14. laughter
5. clergy 15. nonsense
6. crockery 16. spaghetti
7. cutlery
17. scaffolding
8. footwear 18. swine
9. furniture 19. underwear
10. garbage 20. wealth
Exercise 92. Decide which of the following types of semantic reclassification is involved
in the pluralization of the noun, a) abstract - concrete, b) mass/substance
Exercise 90. Instructions as above: - product, c) substance - portion, d) substance - kind, e) change in
meaning:
I. bydlo 9. pomYJe
2. drzwi 1. bol bole
10. precjoza
3. fusy 2. dobro dobra (doczesne)
11. profesorostwo
4. grabie 3. humor humory
12. sanie
5. lornetka 4. kawa (trzy) kawy
13. skrzypce
6. odzieZ 5. oszczl(dnosc oszczl(dnosci
14. urodziny
7. otoczenie 15. usta 6. piase~ piaski (ruchome)
8. peryferie 7. przyjemnosc przyjemnosci
8. slodycz slodycze
9. sok soki (owocowe)
Exercise 91. Find the Polish equivalents for each of the nouns so as to bring out the
10. sol sole (trzeZwi(!ce)
difference in meaning between the singular and the plural forms:
11. welna welny (angielskie)
I. a. aIr b. aIrS 12. wysokosc wysokosci (tr6jk(!ta)
2. a. asset b. assets 13. wzgl(!d wzgll(dy (polityczne)
3. a. attention b. attentions 14. zloto zlota (koscielne)
4. a. brace b. braces 15. zlosliwosc zlosliwosci
5. a. clipper b. clippers
6. a. colour b. colours Exercise 93. Decide if the following nouns may be followed by the verb in the singular
7. a. damage b. damages (sg), in the plural (pi), or both in the singular and in the plural (sg, pi).
8. a. effect b. effects Comment on the differences in meaning correlated with the use of the noun
9. a. force b. forces with the verb in the singular and in the plural:
10. a. glass b. glasses
1 I. a. iron 1. acoustics 4.
5. alms
6. barracks
biceps
b. irons
3.
2. aircraft
addenda
12. a. lead [led] b. leads
111

lIO
 7. 1l.
12.
billiards
10.
13.
14.
7.
8.
9.
15. 28.
38.
24.
35.
26.
25.
27.
29.
33.
40.
39.
32.
31.
34.
36.
37.
30.I
1I1II means
11 moose
staff public
kud03
series
links
mews
news
reindeer
summons
statistics
opera
the
regalia
species
sphinx
offspring Swinka jest zakain'1, chorob,! wieku dzieciycego.
Mumps ..... an infectious children's disease.
Policja jest instrumentem wladzy.
The police ..... an instrument of power.
Najszybszym srodkiem transportu jest samolot.
The fastest ..... of transport ..... the aeroplane.
Duchowieristwo kotolickie jest przeciwne rozwodom.
The Catholic clergy ..... against divorce.
Wiadomosci telewizyjne s'1, bardzo tendencyjne.
Television news ..... very tendentious.
Moja nowa pizama jest nie"tety za mala.
My new ..... too small, unfortunately.
Popatrz! Dzikie kaczki leq kluczem.
Look, the ..... flying in V formation.
Opinia publiczna jest oburzona ostatnimi rewelacjami prasowymi.
(DO NOT USE opinion).
The public ..... disgusted with the latest newspapers' revelations.
Zadalas sobie wiele trudu, zeby nam uprzyjemnic ty po-
droz.
Exercise 94. Insert a noun, an appropriate form of the verb be. or both in the spaces
provided to complete the English translations of the Polish sentences: You have gone to great ..... to make this trip enjoyable for us.

1. PolM: na stole wszystkie jednopensowki.

Put all the ..... on the table. Exercise 95. Instructions as above:
2. Masz jajko na koszuli. Znowu nie uwazales, jak jesz!
You have ..... on your shirt. You weren't paying attention while 1. Czy dac ci do tego jajko?
you were eating again! Would you like ..... with this?
3. Ich dzieci wychodz,! na dwor niezaleznie od pogody. (DO NOT 2. Chyba nie zjesz calej ryby na obiad?
USE kinds/sorts). You don't want to eat ..... for dinner, do you?
Their children go out in all . 3. Popatrz, jakie piykne dwa lososie zlowilem!
4. Wszystkie statki zostaly zatopione. (DO NOT USE ships/vessels). Look, I have caught two beautiful ..... !
All the ..... sunk. 4. Odszkodowanie przyznane jej przez s'1,d w pelni wyrownuje ]e]
5. Nag1e zobaczyl przed sob,! trzy bawoly. szkody.
Suddenly, he saw three ..... in front of him. The ..... granted to her by the court fully ..... her
6. Jestesmy naprawdy dumni z naszej nowej sali koncertowej. Jej 5. Gdzie tu jest spis tresci? (DO NOT USE list).
akustyka jest swietna. Where ..... the ..... here?
We are really proud of our new concert hall. Its acoustics ..... 6. Po praniu jedna nogawka spodni zrobila sit( krotsza.
excellent. After the wash, one ..... leg has become shorter.

112 \1 ~
 7. Pokaz,! nam film z archiwum wojskowego.
We'll be shown a film from the military .
8. Zalegam z czynszem za dwa ostatnie miesi,!ce.
I am in ..... with the last two months' rent.
9. Owies jest tu uprawiany tradycyjnie.
..... traditionally grown here.
10. Otoczenie tego domu jest nieciekawe.
The ..... of the house ..... drab.
11. Czy oni odbyli juz szkolenie z taktyki?
Have they been trained in ..... yet?
12. Czy zalozyles juz ksi,!zeczk~ oszcz~dnosciow,!?
Have you opened a ..... yet?
13. Najlepszy do noszenia w tropiku jest len .
..... the best fabric to wear in the . (1)
14. Wszyscy jego potomkowie maj,! brodawk~ na lewym policzku.
(DO NOT USE children/descendants).
All his ..... a wart on their left cheeks.
15. Wedlug niepotwierdzonych wiadomosci wojsko odci~lo rebelian-
tow na polnocy kraju.
According to unconfirmed ..... , the army ..... cut off the rebels in
the north of the country.
4.2. THE VERB PHRASE
4.2.1. THE TENSES
The grammatical category of tense is the linguistic counterpart
of the semantic concept of time. The choice of the tense of the
sentence depends on the temporal relations between the state or
activity expressed by a given verb and the time of the utterance.
English distinguishes two tense forms of the verb: present and
past, whereas in Polish, three tense forms are found: present, past
and future. The relation be~ween tense and time is not one-to-one,
as a sentence in the present tense can refer to the present as well
as to the future, etc.
114
4.2.1.1. THE PRESENT TENSE
There are three basic ways of viewing the present time, the
so-called timeless or habitual present, limited present and instan-
taneous present. Timeless and habitual present concerns permanent
truths and habitual actions and characteristics. Sentences expressing
timeless and habitual present do not refer to any particular points or
periods of present time. In fact, timeless and habitual present tense is
used to express permanent habits, eternal truths and permanent
characteristics and strictly speaking does not refer to time at all. In
English, timeless and habitual present is expressed with the simple
present tense forms of the verbs, for example:
Oxygen expands when heated.
Tlen rozszerza si? po ogrzaniu.
(2) My boys play tennis well.
Moi chlopcy grajq w tenisa dobrze.
In limited present, actions happen within a limited period of the
present time, including the moment of the utterance of the sentence.
Hence, they are temporary. In English, limited present is expressed
with the progressive present tense forms of the verbs, for example:
(3) The boys are playing tennis at the moment.
Chlopcy grajq w tenisa w tej chwili.
In instantaneous present, observations and commentary are ex-
pressed about the events taking place at the moment of speaking. In
English, the simple present tense forms are used for rapid actions
completed at the moment of speaking and the progressive present
tense forms are used for actions taking longer periods of time:
(4) Gascoigne attacks the opponent.
Gascoigne atakuje przeciwnika.
(5) The crowd is cheering.
Tlum wiwatuje.
Polish does not ditinguish habitual from limited present actions
with different verb forms and the same form serves for the expression
liS
 of aIJ concepts of the present time in sentences, as shown in (6) and (7)
I (1) The burglars escaped abroad.
below:
Wlamywacze uciekli za granic?
(6) Maria gotuje wlasnie obiad. (2) Last year Tom went swimming regularly.
Mary is cooking dinner right now. W ubieglym roku Tomek regularnie chodzil na plywalnir.

(7) Maria gotuje obiady codziennie. In Polish, completed actions are expressed by perfective verbs in
the past tense, as shown in (1) above, whereas habitual actions are
Mary cooks dinncr every day.
expressed either by imperfective verbs in the past tense, as shown in (2)
In indirect speech, the present tense is substituted with the past above, or by verbs in the iterative aspect, as in (3) below:
tense verb forms only in English, as shown in (8) below. The (3) lohn read "Newsweek" every Sunday.
substitution is a general phenomenon in English and is found in lan czytywal "Newsweek" w kaid,! niedziely.
sentences in aIJ tenses which complement verbs in the past tense in
An action or state incomplete in the past time is marked differently
English, where each tense is substituted by an appropriate tense. No
such substitution is ever found in Polish. in the two languages. In English, the past continuous tense is used
while in Polish, imperfective verbs are used:
(8) He asked if I was at home.
(4) He was waiting for the doctor.
Zapytal, czy jestem w domu. Czekal na lekarza.

In both languages, the present tense is also used to indicate past
time, for example in the so-called 'historic present', which describes
the past as if it were happening now:
(9) The king is elected and the war immediately starts.
Krol zostaje wybrany i natychmiast zaczyna si? wojna.
Occasionally, the present tense is used to express future time. In
such cases time adverbials are obligatorily used in both languages. In
Polish, imperfective verb forms are found, for example:
(I 0) I am going to London next week.
lad? do Londynu w przyszlym tygodniu.
4.2.1.2. THE PAST TENSE
The most common use of the past tense in both languages is to
refer an action or state to a definite time in the past. In English, the
past tense is used to express both completed and habitual, recurring
actions or states, for example:
116
For actions beginning in the past and extending to the present,
English uses the present perfect tense. This tense is also used for
actions happening at an unspecified time in the past which have some
connection to the present. In Polish, a verb in the present or in the
past tense is used in such situations:
(5) I have lived here for three years.
Mieszkam tu od trzech lat.
(6) Have you typed my letter yet?
Czy przepisale.s jui moj list?
When an action is seen as happening before another action or a point
in past time, the past perfect tense is used in English. Modern Polish uses
past tense forms; past perfect forms occur very infrequently:
(7) He had left when I arrived at his hotel.
lui wyszedl, kiedy zjawilem si? w jego hotelu.
Additionally, past tense is used in both languages for present time
in so-called 'attitudinal past', where the speaker is more polite or some
degree of tentativenss is implied. For example:
117
(8) Did you want a cup of coffee?
Czy chciales si? napic kawy?
In English, but not in Polish, the past tense is used to indicate
present time in expressions of hypothetical meaning, that is, in
statements contrary to the speaker's belief, as in:
(9) If you tried again, you would succeed.
Gdybys spr6bowal raz jeszcze, udaloby ci si?
and also in indirect speech, as in:
(10) He said he had no time.
Powiedzial, ie nie ma czasu.
4.2.1.3. THE FUTURE TENSE
There are several possibilities of expressing future time in English,
although the use of the various constructions is restricted. The most
frequent and neutral form is will/shall + infinitive. Be going +
infinitive is a common usage suggesting an action intended by the
speaker for the near future. The present progressive emphasizes
a definite future arrangement. Definiteness is also implied in the use of
the present simple, which is used especially for itineraries. Be to, be
about + infinitive indicate near future. The use of the modals shall
and will reflects the speaker's attitude and expresses a range of modal
meanings, including intention, determination, prediction, etr.. For an
action incomplete at some point of reference in futu;-e, the future
progressive is used. The future perfect tense is used for actions
completed by some point of time in the future.
In Polish, the auxiliary bye is used with an imperfective verb for
actions extending over a period of time in the future or for actions
incomplete at a given time in future:
(I) Dzieci b?dq spiewa1y/spiewae.
The children will be singing.
For a completed action in the future a perfective verb in the future
tense form is used in Polish, for example:
118
(2) Dzieci zaspiewajq.
The children will sing.
4.2.1.4. STATIVE AND DYNAMIC VERBS
Some verbs are generally not used in the progressive form and
are not used in imperatives in English. They are sometimes called
stative verbs, as they typically refer to states, for example, in-
voluntary experience, inert perception, cognition, etc. By contrast,
verbs which can be used in the progressive form and in imperative
sentences are referred to as dynamic, as they usually denote ac-
tions in which it is possible to point to the beginning and/or end
and which are voluntary.
Stative verbs include verbs of inert perception and cognition, for
example, know/znae, hear/slyszec, verbs of feelings, for example,
adore/uwielbiae, hate/nienawidzic, and relational verbs, for example,
depend on/zaleiec, possess/posiadac (see App 6).
Dynamic verbs include verbs expressing actions, for example,
throw/rzucic, call/zawolac, process verbs, for example, grow/rosnclc,
slow down! zwolnic, verbs of bodily sensation, for exam pie, ache! bolec,
feel!czuc, and transitional event verbs, for example, land!lqdowac,
Jall/spadac (see App 6).
Exercise 96. There is a mistake related to the wrong use of a grammatical tense in each
of the sentences below. Comment on the inappropriate use of thc tcnses
and suggest ways of correcting the sentences:
1. * I think they do not talk for at least a month.
2. * She cooks for us since she has quarrelled with her sister.
3. * It's really hard to know when he comes. Maybe tomorrow.
4. * It's the first time I'm on board a yacht.
5. * If he has been eating for an hour, he'll finish everything up.
6. * Supposing he turned nasty, what will you do?
7. * 1 were to have gone to the shop, but I had no time.
8. * 1 would go to the show but I had no time.
119
 * Ifnow
9. ill the .snake bite had been poisonous, they would have felt very passenger's goings on for about ten minutes when one of our friends
..... (14.rush) into the saloon to break the news. At first he was too
10. * In such a desperate situation he has found himself that he excited to speak, but in the end he ..... (IS.manage) to. "There
decided to shoot his way out.
..... (16.be) a German submarine quite close to us!" he ..... (17.gasp)
breathlessly.
There ..... (t8.be) a moment of awe-stricken silence: and im-
mediately, a wild rush to the deck. The cooler ones ..... ( 19.risc) to their
Exercise 97. Instructions as above:
feet more slowly. They ..... (20.go) to their cabins, ..... (21.wrap)
themselves up well in mufflers, ..... (22.put on) their life-belts and
I. * Wouldn't you mind if I will open the window?
..... (23.f01Iow) their less serene companions on deck.
2. * I don't like the way you dress these days. There I ..... (24.join) a long line of passengers who already
3. * They had tea when we came and empty cups were on the table in ..... (2S.Iean) over the rails. Sure enough, about a couple of hundred
front of them.
yards away, we could ..... (26.see) a light on the water, gleaming
4. * She has begun to work as secretary as early as 1964. through the darkness. In the confusion that ..... (27.reign), it ..... (28.be)
5. * When I was young, I always got up very early in the morning impossible to get a true explanation of what ..... (29.happen). Once
and was doing my gymnastics.
a boat ..... (30.be lowered), the crew ..... (31.begin) to row, as fast as the
6. * He claimed he has met me before.
rough sea ..... (32.allow) towards the light - presumably to come to
7. * You can't drive if you have drunk.
terms with the enemy. So far, it never ..... (33.enter) anybody's head to
8. * She has never been to China before she went in 1933. inquire why the other boats ..... (34.not be lowered) immediately or
9. * These problems were known to us since Malthus has introduced why the stern-chaser ..... (35.not be brought) into action at once.
them.
When, after ten minutes or so, our boat at last ..... (36.reach) the light,
10. * When I arrived at the station, I found that the train left. the latter ..... (37.disappear). Soon our searchlight ..... (38.show) the
boat returning slowly to the ship. Then, at last, the truth ..... (39.come
out). Four of the Chinese workers ..... (40.play) cards earlier in the
Exercise 98. Put the verbs in brackets in their correct form: evening. One of them ..... (41.suspect) a companion of cheating. He
immediately ..... (42.jump) to his feet and ..... (43.stab) the supposed
I often ..... (I.cross) the Atlantic and so far, whenever I ..... (2.do) deliquent. Then he ..... (44.jump) overboard and somebody at once
so, some striking incident always ..... (3.occur) to make me remember ..... (45.throw) him one of those life-buoys with a lighting arrangement
the trip. The one time I am going to record ..... (4.take place) in attached.
October 1918. We ..... (5.be) somewhere in mid-ocean, on our way to Immediately we ..... (46.know) the truth, everybody ..... (47.go) to
New York. The route we ..... (6.follow) ..... (7.be) a round-about one, look for the man who originally ..... (48.start) the scare. Those who
so as to avoid any German submarines that might ..... (8.lie) in wait ..... (49.put on) life-belts ..... (50.feel) fools, and those who (Sl.show)
for us. We ..... (9.not run) into any yet and ..... (lO.feeI) thankful for panic ..... (S2.feel) bigger fools still. And now everybody (53.want)
small mercies.
to take it out on him. He soon ..... (54.have) the time of it. He probably
It was about nine o'clock one night and we still ..... (l I.sit) over our ..... (S5.remember) that quarter of an hour to this day!
dinners. As a matter of fact, we (l2.be) then, at my table,
discussing the latest scandal. We (l3.comment) on a certain (Adapted from B. Kelly, An Advanced English Course for Fo/'e(~1l SWdelll.l')
120
121
4.2.2. MODAL AUXILIARIES (3) It must have been after midnight when we .finally got hO/l1e.
Musialo bye ju? po polnocy, kiedy wreszcie dotarlismy do domu.
Modal auxiliaries are used to express the speaker's attitude
In questions, certainty is expressed by can and must is generally
towards his/her utterances. The speaker may regard the situation
unavailable in this function, except for question tags and rhetorical
(s)he communicates as a fact, that is as certain (e.g. I'm leaving
negated questions:
for Paris tonight and I won't be here tomorrow/Wyjeidiam dzis
do Paryia i nie bgdzie mnie tu jutro), as a theoretical possibility, (4) She must have been a darling when she was little, mustn't she?
that is, as possible or probable (e.g. We may be late today/Moiemy Musiala bye slodka, kiedy byla mala, nieprawdai?
sig dzis spOinie), or as a hypothesis, that is as impossible (e.g.
If I knew a foreign language, I would have a better job/Gdybym 4.2.2.1.2. LOGICAL NECESSITY IN POLISH
znal jakis j?zyk obey, mialbym lepszq pracg). Degrees of certainty, ought to
ranging from logical necessity to logical possibility, are strictly The inflected form of musiee/must and powinien/should,
correlated with the speaker's knowledge or belief of the world. express the speaker's deduction in Polish:
The modality connected with degrees of r.ertainty is known as
epistemic. Modality may also concern the situations the speaker (5) Musi bye po polnocy (cf (1».
communicates, that is the actions, events or states themselves. The Powinni ju? tu bye.
(6)
speaker may use modal verbs to make a request, ask permission, They ought to be here by now.
prohibit a state of affairs, demand that something should happen,
etc. This kind of modality is referred to as root. To express the speaker's assumption or prediction, Polish uses the
future tense auxiliary bye, which would correspond to the use of
4.2.2.1. EPISTEMIC MODALITY will/would in English, only in some restricted situations. For example:

(7) 'A kto to jest ten pan stojqcy za Tadeuszem?'

4.2.2.1.1. LOGICAL NECESSITY IN ENGLISH
'To pewnie bgdzie wujek Henryk'.
Must, should/ought to and will/would are used when the speaker is 'Who is the man standing behind Tadeusz?'
confident or certain about the situation. Must is used to express the 'It will be uncle Henry'.
speaker's most confident conclusion, or deduction, based on all
available information and will/would to express an assumption or The speaker's assumption or prediction is generally conveyed through
prediction: a modal adverbial:

(1) It must be after midnight. (8) Na pewno/zapewne/z pewnosciq ju? 0 tym slyszale.~ (cl'. (2)).
Musi bye po polnocy. It is certain that you have already heard about it.

(2) I suppose you will have heard about this by now.

4.2.2.1.3. LOGICAL IMPOSSIBILITY IN ENGLISH
Spodziewam sig, ie do tego czasu jui 0 tym slyszalas.
In reference to the past, the modal auxiliaries must, should/ought to, Can't and couldn't are used when the speaker is confident that it is
and will/would are used with the so-called perfective infinitive, that is not the case that the event or action (s)he is referring to in his/her
with have and the past participle form of the verb: sentence holds. Can't and couldn't are used with a perfective infinitive
12)
122
 4.2.2.1.6. FACTUAL POSSIBILITY IN POLISH
to talk about past actions. In (9) below, the speaker is certain that
John has not met this woman before the time of the utterance of (9): The modal verb mac and modal expressions like 1110zliwclpossible
are used to express possibility. Probability may be expressed by the
(9) John can't have met this woman before. verb powinienl should:
Jan nie magi (byl) wcz~snie} spotkae te} kobiety.
(14) Oni mogq bye teraz w domu (cf. (12)).
4.2.2.1.4. LOGICAL IMPOSSIBILITY IN POLISH
(15) Porozum sif jakos z Janem. Powinien bye teraz w banku.
Get in touch with John. He should be at the bank 110\\'.
The modal mac is negated to express the speaker's certainty that
the situation described in the sentence is not the case: 4.2.2.1.7. THEORETICAL AND HABITUAL POSSIBILITY IN ENGLISH
(also analysable as root modality)
(10) Jan nie magi spotkae te} kobiety wczeSnie} (cf. (9)).
Can or may expresses possibility based on a general characteristic
Often a construction with the adjective niemoiliwejimpossible com- quality or a fact:
plemented by a clause is used to express logical impossibility in
Polish: (16) Everyone can make mistakes.
Kaidy moie sif pomylie.
(11) Jest rzeczq niemoiliwq/}est niemoiliwe, ieby Jan spotkal tg The weather can be rotten in London in November.
(17)
kobietf wczesniej. . pogoda potrafi bye ohydna w listopadzie w Londynie.
It is impossible that John should have met this woman before.
4.2.2.1.8. THEORETICAL AND HABITUAL POSSIBILITY IN POLISH
4.2.2.1.5. FACTUAL POSSIBILITY IN ENGLISH

Moc communicates theoretical possibility in Polish:

May, might, could and can are used when the speaker thinks the
situation is possible. Probability is communicated by should/ought to: (18) Kaidy moie sif pomylie (cf. (16)).

(12) They mayjmight/could/should be home now. 4.2.2.2. ROOT MODALITY IN ENGLISH AND POLISH
Oni mogqjmoglibyjpowinni bye teraz w domu.
4.2.2.2.1. NECESSITY AND OBLIGATION IN ENGLISH
To express factual possibility in the past, may, might, could, can,
should and ought to are used with perfect infinitives: Must is used to express necessity, that is, strong obligation,
compulsion or responsibility. Must carries the authority of the
(13) John might have met this woman before.
speaker, which means that it is the speaker who is laying the
Jan magi (byl) spotkae tf kobietg wczeSniej.
obligation or commanding the state of affairs. For example:
May is used when the situation is possible, but uncertain, and can is
(19) You must come on time.
often interchangeable with may, especially in sentences with present Musisz bye punktualny.
time reference. Might is said to be more tentative, that is, less certain
than may. Could is a common alternative to might. Should/ought to are When it is not the speaker who is the source of authority, but rather
used to express a doubtful possibility. the obligation or compulsion comes from an external authority or
\25
124
external circumstances, have to is used in English. The speaker may (27) Bilet musi bye zwrocony po uplywie waino.~ci (er. (22).
naturally exercise authority over himself/herself, as in: (28) Musisz mnie odwiedzie w przyszlym tygodniu (cf. (24)).
(20) I must get up early tomorrow.
Weaker obligations or suggestions are expressed in Polish by pOll'i-
Musz? jutro wcze.snie wstae.
nien/should, lepiej ieby/had better, naleiy/should, trzeba/should, etc.
However, with habitual or iterative actions, have to is used: With reference to the past, powinien, naleiy, etc. are accompanied by
(21) I have to get up early every day. an appropriate form of the auxiliary bye and express contrafactual
Musz? codziennie wstawae wcze.snie. statements, that is, unreal past. In (29) below, Mary was not
apologized to:
Must is found mainly in public notices and invitations, as m:
(29) Trzeba bylo Marysi? przeprosie.
(22) This ticket must be given up on expiry.
Ten bilet musi bye zwrocony po uplywie terminu wainosci.
4.2.2.2.3. LACK OF NECESSITY IN ENGLISH
and in expressions of strong advice or insistence, as in:
Need not and do not need/have to negate must and have to,
(23) You must give up smoking.
respectively to communicate the absence of necessity, that is, the
Musisz rzucie palenie.
absence of obligation to do something. For example:
(24) You must come and visit me next week.
(30) As her husband is a rich fellow, she doesn't have to lVork.
Musisz mnie odwiedzie w przyszlym tygodniu.
Ona nie musi pracowac, bo jej mqi jest boguty.
To talk about necessity in the past and in the future, an appropriate
In reference to the past, needn't is used with a perfective infinitive to
form of have to is used. Must is not used to talk about past and future
refer to so-called ureal past, that is, in contrary-to-fact statements. For
necessity:
example, (31) says that John in fact bought the wine although it was
(25) We'll have to visit aunt Thelma again soon. unnecessary for him to do so:
B?dziemy musieli odwiedzie wkrotce ciotk? Thelm?
(31) 'You needen't have bought the wine, John'.
When the obligation is weak, should, ought to, might and had better are 'Nie musiale.s kupowac tego wina, Janku'.
used in English. To reproach a person for failing to do what they
Did not need/have to express so-called real past, that is, a sentence like
should, might or could is used:
(32) implies that no wine was bought as John was not under any
(26) You could/might have called to say you'd be late. I was obligation to do so:
worried stiff about you. It's already two o'clock!
Mogle.s (byl) zadzwonie i uprzedzie, ie si? spoinisz. Strasznie (32) John didn't have to buy any wzne.
si? 0 ciebie martwilam. Jui druga. Jan nie musial kupowac wina.

4.2.2.2.2. NECESSITY AND OBLIGATION IN POLISH 4.2.2.2.4. LACK OF NECESSITY IN POLISH

Musiee is used in Polish to express compulsion regardless of Negated forms of musiee/must and potrzebovvac/l1eed are used to
whether it is laid down by the speaker or results from external express the lack of obligation in Polish. Negated potrzebowac tends to
circumstances: be speaker-oriented:

126 127
 4.2.2.2.6. PROHIBITION IN POLISH
(33) Nie potrzebujf si? dzis spieszyc.
I don't have fo hurry today.
Nie mac, nie moina/may not, can't are used in Polish to forbid an
(34) Nie musz? dzis isc do szkoly. action alongside nie wolno/must not, nie naleiy/should not, and nie
I don't have to go to school today. powinien/should not but the latter three carry the speaker's authority:
In Polish, the contrast evidenced by (31) and (32) is not revealled (41) Nie moina tu palic (cf. (37)).
through the choice of the modal construction as both these examples
(42) Nie wolno tu palic (cf. (38)).
can be rendered in Polish as (35):
(35) lan nie musial kupowac wina. All these modal forms may be used in reference to present, future, as
well as past events.
4.2.2.2.5. PROHIBITION IN ENGLISH
4.2.2.2.7. PERMISSION IN ENGLISH

Mustn't, may not, can't, shouldn't/oughtn't to are used in English to Can, may and might are used to grant permission. In questions, C(in
express the obligation, responsibility or compulsion not to carry out may introduce an offer:
the action described in the sentence or for this action not to take place.
(43) You can leave now, children.
For example:
Dzieci! M oiecie juz isc.
(36) You mustn't/can't tell lies.
Nie mozesz klamac. (44) Can I buy you a drink?
Czy mogf ci postQl.vic drinka?
M ay not is used to refuse permission for the action and is more formal
In formal contexts, may is used instead of can:
than can't. Must not used to forbid actions is felt to be stronger than
~ither may not or can't. Advice not to carry out the action is given (45) May I speak to you, Mrs lones?
through shouldn't/oughtn't to and alternative forms like had better not: Pani lanes, czy mogf zamienic z Paniq slowo?
(37) You may not smoke here. May often implies the speaker's personal permission:
Nie mOii1a tu palic.
(46) You may see my birth certificate if you insist.
(38) You must not smoke here. Mozesz oglqdnqc moje swiadectwo urodzenia, jdli ci tak no
Nie wolno tu palic. tym zaleiy.
(39) You shouldn't smoke here. To communicate that an action is allowed, can is possible while may
Nie powinno sif tu palic. and could are not:

Musn't, may not, can't, shouldn't/oughtn't to are used in reference to
present and future events and none can express prohibition in the past.
To talk about the past, an appropriate form of be allowed/be permitted
to is used. Couldn't can express the prohibition to carry out an action:
(40) We couldn't watch TV yesterday.
Nie mogliSmy wczoraj oglqdac telewizji.
(47) In my son's school, pupils can listen to music and dance during
the break.s.
W szk.ole u mojego syna uczniowie mogq sluchac muzyki
i tanczyc podczas przenv.
In reference to the past, an appropriate form of be allowed or be
permitted to is used. Could can be used talking about permission in the

128 129
 but only in general contexts, that IS, without reference to contrafactual conditional clauses. Couldn't, in contrast, can be used to
talk about the past regardless of the nature of ability:
pa~~ecifiC actio~ at a specific time. In the latter case, be allow-
~d/ permitted to ]S used: (53) They couldn't open the drawer yesterday.
I could use my father's car when I was 16. Nie mogli wczoraj otworzye szuflady.
(48) M oglem jeidzic samochodem ojca, gdy mialem szesnascie lat. (54) They were able to/managed to/*could open the drawer
I was allowed to use my father's car yesterday. yesterday.
(49) Dostalem pozwolenie, ieby skorzystac wczoraj z samochodu Udalo im si(! otworzyc szuflad(! wczoraj.
ojca.
Can and could are frequently used with verbs of involuntary percep-
tion like see/widziee and verbs of mental states like under-
If the action w~s p~r~itted but did not ta~e .place, c~uld is used with
stand/rozumiee. Such verbs do not have progressive forms and
the perfective mfimt]ve. To request permIssIOn, can t, couldn't, may
can/could is used with them aspectually, that is, to talk about the
I no t , might I not? are used: perception at a particular point of time:
Couldn't we go now?
(50) (55) I can see a little girl right now.
Czy nie moglibysmy jui isc?
Widzg malq dziewczynkg w tej chwili.

(56) I see this girl every day when I go to work.

2 8 PERMISSION
4.2.2 ... IN POLISH
Widzg tg dziewczyng codziennie, gdy idg do pracy
To ask for and to grant permission, mac/can, may and wolno/con,
Lack of ability is expressed by can't:
y are used in Polish. They are used to talk about the past regardless
mfa
o whether reference
. is made to permission granted in general or on (57) I can't swim.
a specific occaSIOn: Nie umiem plywae.
Tutaj wolno palic.
(51 ) 4.2.2.2.10. ABILITY IN POLISH
You may smoke here.

Mogiem wczoraj oglqdac telewizk do poina w nocy.

(52) Physical ability or capacity to carry out the action is expressed
I was allowed to watch TV until late yesterday.
with moc/can while natural ability or skill to accomplish the action is
rendered through the non-modal umiec/know how or potrafic/knoH'
4.2.2.2.9. ABILITY IN ENGLISH how. The verbs can be used to talk about future, present and past time:

The ability to perform the action described in the sentence is (58) Bgdg magi sobie kupie nowy samochod w przyszlym roku.
ommunicated through can in English, which by and large can only be I'll be able to buy a new car next year.
~sed in sentences with the present tense form of the verb. To talk (59) Nie potrajcg kiamae.
about the f'..lture and the past, an appropriate form of be able to is I can't tell lies.
used. Could can communicate ability in the past but only when ability
or capacity in general is talked about. Could cannot be used to talk (60) Starali si(!, jak mogli.
about the ability in reference to a specific event in clauses other than They did what they could.

130 131
Mac, unlike can, is not used with verbs of involuntary perception in 2. They can't play footbalI here.
Polish, but it can be used with perfective verbs of mental states, which 3. Must you leave so early?
have a dynamic meaning in this usage: 4. I can have a party next week if I want to.
5. You should be more responsible.
(61) Mozemy uwierzyc, ze widziale.§ ducha. 6. I can't understand the Government's policy on unemployment.
We can believe that you have seen a ghost. 7. I'm sure he would help you with the homework if he could.
(62) Ona moze sobie przypomniec, co sir wtedy zdarzylo. 8. You must not waste any time.
She can remember what happened then 9. It needn't be too late.
10. We might not hear about them again.
Lack of ability is communicated by nie mac/can't, nie potrafic/not
11. You could use my car if you wanted.
know how, etc.
12. You could say when you'lI be back before you leave, you know.
13. The children can watch the film today.
Exercise 99. Point out which modality (or modalities) is expressed in each of the 14. He ought to be punished.
sentences below: LN = logical necessity, r = impossibility, FP = factual 15. You should be nice to her.
possibility, THP= theoretical and hypothetical possibility, NO= neces-
sity and obligation, LNO = lack Qf necessity and obligation, PROH =
prohibition, P= permission, A= ability: Exercise 101. Choose the expression which best completes each of the sentences below:

1. We may go to Greece for the summer this year. 1. They ... be rich, but they don't even have a car.
2. Her name is Mikulski, so she must be Polish. a. can b. may
3. You must not drive on the right in Great Britain. 2. Although they were standing next to me, ] ..... hear what they
4. We ought not to jump to conclusions. were talking about.
5. Need he realIy do that? a. wasn't able to b. couldn't
6. Flying may be pleasant. 3. If John came, he ..... dance with her.
7. A good car can cost a real fortune. a. might b. may
8. He is awfulIy quiet but he needn't really be reading. 4. My husband forgot to come and pick me up and I was so furious
9. I could smelI something burning the moment I opened the door. with him that I ..... have killed him.
10. This may not be true. a. could b. might
11. This cannot be true. 5 you vote in England if you are over 18?
12. Do you have to go to church every Sunday? a. can b. may
13. How much luggage can we take on the plane? 6. In her new school, she ..... teach classes of 40 and more children.
14. You wouldn't be so bored if you could read. a. must b. has to
15. You needn't wait for a table if you make a reservation ahead of time. 7. He ..... talk about politics all the time, which drives me crazy.
a. is able to b. can
8 they have been out when the police arrived?
Exercise 100. Change the following sentences so that they can be used to talk about the
past: a. might b. could
9. This exercise ..... be hard to do. Let me give it a try.
1. It must be John's book. a. can't b. couldn't

133
132
10 I propose a toast to the bride and the bridegroom? a. couldn't b. can't
a. can b. may 10. 'Have you seen the keys?' 'They ..... be in the kitchen'.
11. She must be a very strict teacher, ..... she? a. could b. can
a. mustn't b. can't 11. 'Barbara thinks he'll lose the job again'. 'I'm afraid she ..... well be
12. 'Could I use your car this evening?' 'Of course, you right' .
a. could b. can a. may b. can
13. If he was in Germany then, he ..... be your biological father. 12. I wonder if Polish women ..... work.
a. could b. is able to a. must b. have to
14. I ..... Russian when I was at school. 13. The questions were so difficult that even the teacher ..... not
a. must have learnt b. had to learn answer them all.
15. There ..... be another bloody war in Northern Ireland soon. a. might b. could
a. can b. may 14. You ..... do as you are told as long as you live here.
a. must b. have to
15. She ..... talk to him after the concert yesterday and even got his
Exercise 102. Instructions as above: autograph.
a. could b. managed to
1. He got drunk and they ..... early. What a disgrace!
a. had to leave b. must have left Exercise 103. Paraphrase each of the sentences using an appropriate expression with
2. Don't call them, it's too late. They ..... already be sleeping. a modal auxiliary:
a. will b. should
3. It is so easy a child ..... do it. 1. I hope that it is hardly necessary for me to remind you of your
a. could b. might duties.
4. The carpet caught fire after the candlestick fell off the table but we I hope I ..... remind you of your duties.
..... put it out by ourselves. 2. There is a possiblity of her being kidnapped .
a. were able to b. could She ..... kidnapped.
5. You ..... get a visa when you go to the UK nowadays. 3. Would you like another piece of this delicious cake?
a. needn't b. don't have to Have another piece of this delicious cake, ..... you?
6. She ..... have solved this problem by herself. Even I had problems 4. It is possible that they were waiting for us.
with it. They ..... for us.
a. couldn't b. may not 5. It is not possible that he is at home.
7. You are late again! you ..... call to say you'll be late when you get He ..... at home.
stuck. 6. It is possible that he is not at home.
a. could b. should He ..... at home.
8. Why ..... shout at me like that? 7. You make too much noise when you eat.
a. must you always b. do you always have to You ..... less noise when you eat.
9. 'Where are the keys?' 'They ..... be in the kitchen. I've just been 8. As he had been there before, it was not necessary for him to ask
there'. the way to the hotel.
134 t~5
 Exercise 104. Translate the following into English using an appropriate modal auxilia-
As he had been there before, he ..... ask the way to the hotel.
ry:
9. They are the best-informed agency in town so I expect they most
probably have found out about this already.
They are the best-informed agency in town so I expect they ..... 1. Trzeba bye idiot<t, zeby siy dae tak nabrae!
found out about it already. You ..... be an idiot to be taken in like that!
10. But fer John's offer to give her a lift, it would have been necessary 2. Czyz to nie mu si bye straszne stracie majqtek w jeden dzieri?
for Mary to take a taxi. ..... awful to lose all one's money in one day?
But for John's offer to give her a lift, Mary ..... to take a lift. 3. Wprost nie wierzy wlasnym uszom!
11. When their house was burgled for the second time they found it I ..... believe my own ears!
necessary to buy a dog . 4. Czy te usta mogC! klamae?
When their house was burgled for the second time they ..... a dog. ..... these lips be telling lies?
12. If they caught the early train it is likely that they will arrive here 5. Wakacje nad polskim morzem mog,! bye drozsze niz wycieczka
by noon. zagramczna.
If they caught the early train, they ..... here by noon. Holidays at the Polish seaside ..... more expensive than a trip
13. Candidates are not allowed to fill in the question sheets in pencil. abroad.
Question sheets ..... in pencil. 6. W tej sytuacji najlepiej bydzie trochy poczekae.
14. If you lived in Hollywood you would perhaps see famous people In these circumstances it ..... best to wait a little.
in the street every day. 7. Bye moze bydziemy musieli odwolae koncert w ostatniej chwili.
If you lived in Hollywood you ..... see famous people in the street We ..... call off the concert at the last moment.
every day. 8. To nie moze bye jego siostra. Jest stanowczo za stara.
15. It is obvious that he cheats on his taxes. She ..... his sister. She is far too old.
He ..... on his taxes. 9. Nie ma sensu dzwonie. Dopiero co wyszli i nie mogli jeszcze
16. I am quite c~rtain that he is cheating his wife. dojechae do domu.
He ..... his wife. There is no point in calling them. They left a while ago and they
17. We had the time of our life in Spain last year. The food and the ..... home yet.
weather were perfect. 10. Praca pilota wojskowego musi bye bardzo odpowiedzialna, l1le-
We had the time of our life in Spain last year. The food and the prawdaz?
wea ther ..... better. An army pilot's job ..... very responsible, ..... it?
18. My boss was capable of raising hell when he was angry with 11. Jest juz si6dma! Co siy moglo z niC! stae?
someone. It's already seven! What ..... to her?
My boss ..... when he was angry with someone. 12. Wykluczone, zeby juz wiedzieli.
19. His wife has left him and he has no choice but to raise his children They ..... yet.
by himself. 13. Jas potrafi bye czasem bardzo niegrzeczny.
His wife has left him and he ..... raise his children by himself. Johnnie ..... very naughty at times.
20. Perhaps he didn't hear you. 14. Na razie nie ma powodu do niepokoju. Bye moze nie otrzymala
He ..... heard you. twojej wiadomosci.
There is no reason to worry yet. She ..... your message.

137
136
 15. Cos ty narobil! Miales te ziemniaki utrzec, a nie ugotowac. (3) fr you move/*will move to Chicago, you'll have to get used to
What have you done! You ..... these potatoes instead of boiling cold winters.
them. Jesli si? przeprowadzisz do Chicago, b?dziesz si? musial przy-
16. Bardzo dzi~kuj~ za pi~kne kwiaty, ale naprawd~ nie trzeba bylo zwyczaic do ostrych zim.
sobie rabic takiego klopotu.
Thank you so much for these beautiful flowers but you really ..... The difference in Polish is that the Future Tense is freely used in
into all this trouble. jeSli/if-clauses with future time reference, where English disallows the
17. Musz~ z nim rozmawiac po rosyjsku, bo on nie zna iadnego Future Tense and uses the Simple Present Tense.
obcego j~zyka.
I ..... in Russian as he ..... any foreign language. (4) JeSli on znal odpowiedi, dlaczego ci nie powiedzial? (cf (1)).
18. Czy to prawda, ie bezrobotni musz'! VI Polsce placic podatki? (5) JeSli znasz angielski, na pewno rozumiesz, co tu jest napisane
Is is really true that unemployed persons ..... pay taxes in Poland? (cf. (2)).
19. Moiesz mi nie mowic, co si~ naprawdy stalo, jesli nie chcesz.
You ..... me what has really happened if you don't want to. (6) Jesli przeprowadzisz si? do Chicago, b?dziesz si? musial przy-
20. 'Marysia musi jui bye w domu'. 'Wcale nie. Na pewno jest jeszcze zwyczaic do ostrych zim (cf. (3)).
w pracy'.
The situation described in the if-clause in open conditions is con-
'Mary be at home already.' 'Oh no, she She be still at
work'. sidered probable by the speaker. Apart from the Simple Present Tense,
the Present Perfect Tense may be found in the conditional clause. The
main clause may be imperative. If should is used in the ifclause, the
condition is judged much less probable than in the variant without
4.2.3. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
should:

Conditional sentences, built out of a main clause and a subor- (7) If you should see Mary today, tell her to call me.
dinate if-clause, express theoretical and hypothetical meanings in both JeSli zobaczysz przypadkiem Marysi?, powiedz jej, zeby do
English and Polish. If the condition is real, that is, the speaker does mnie zadzwonila.
not know if the situation in the if-clause happened, is happening or Will is used in the if-clause only in polite requests:
will happen, the Simple Past Tense is used in the ![-clause when
reference is to the past, as in (1), and the Simple Present Tense is used (8) If you will hold this for me, I'll take the key out of my pocket.
when reference is both to the present, as in (2), and to the future, as in JeSli zechcesz mi to potrzymac, wyjm? klucz z kieszeni.
(3), in English: Also in time-clauses introduced by the moment that/jak tylko,
(1) If he knew the answer, why didn't he tell you? when/gdy, until/dopoki, etc., which refer to future time, the Future
JeSli znal odpowiedi, dlaczego ci nie powiedzial? Tense cannot be used. Instead the Present Simple or the Present
Perfect Tense is used in English. In Polish, on the other hand, the
(2) If you know English, I'm sure you understand what is written
Future Tense is used in the subordinate temporal clause:
here.
JeSli znasz angielski, z pewnosciq rozumiesz, co tu jest napisa- (9) I'll wait hde until they come back.
ne. (10) Zaczekam tu, az oni wrocq (cf. (9)).

138 D9

\
 When the speaker makes a hypothesis, the condition is unreal. It
may be possible but it is very improbable, and thus it is no more than
a hypothesis about the future, as in (11), or the condition is contrary
to the present situation or is impossible, as in (12):
(11) rr you worked hard, you would be rich.
Gdybys pracowal cif2iko, bylbys bogaty.
(12) If I had a million dollars, I'd buy you anything you asked for.
Gdybym mial milion dolarow, kupilbym d wszystko, 0 C9 bys
poprosil.
from unreal conditions about the present by the use in the former of
the conditional mood marked by by and the past tense form of the
auxiliary bye, which used to mark the now obsolete Past Perfect Tense
in Polish. (16) below refers to the past while (17) below refers to the
present:
(16) Gdybym byl to wiedzial, nie poszedlbym tam.
If I had known it, I wouldn't have gone there.
(17) Gdybym to wiedzial, nie poszedlbym tam.
rr I knew it, I wouldn't go there.

The subjunctive Simple Past Tense is used in the !/-clause (with were as To express improbability, in the main clause in English were to
the form of the verb be in all persons) and the conditional mood have been can be used:
marked with should/would is used in the main clause in English. In (18) If you were to have asked me politely, I would have gladly
Polish, the conditional mood marked with by is used in both clauses. offered my help.
For example, Gdybys mnie (byl) poprosil uprzejmie, z clugciq bylbym zoafe-
rowal mojq pomoc.
(13) Gdybys pracowal cif2iko, bylbys bogaty (cf. (11».
The main clause may refer to the present and the ~rclause to the
(14) Gdybym mial milion dolarow, kupilbym ci wszystko, 0 co bys
past, as in (19) or the main clause may refer to the past and the
poprosil (cf. (12».
{{-clause to the present, as in (20):
To suggest extreme improbability, were to is used in the conditional
clause in English: (19) I wouldn't be asking you for money now if the bank had
corrected its error.
(15) If I were to catch my daughter lying to me, I'd give her Nie prosilbym cif2 teraz 0 pieniqdze, gdyby bank poprawil swojq
a wallop. pomylk~.
Jakby mi sif2zdarzylo zlapac mojq corkf2 na klamstwie, to bym (20) You would have bought me that diamond necklace yesterday if
jq sprala. you really loved me.
Kupilbys mi ten naszyjnik brylantowy, gdybys mnie naprawd~
A hypothesis which is contrary to the situation in the past, that is,
kochal.
refers to what might have happened in the past but which, in fact, did
not happen is expressed by a conditional sentence consisting of the Besides if, the condition may be introduced by providing/pod warun-
main clause with the verb in the conditional mood marked with kiem, provided that/zakladajqc ie, on condition that/pod warunkiem, unless/
should/would have and the conditional clause with the verb in the Past chyba ie, supposing/zakladajqc, etc. in English. In Polish, ifis rendered as
Perfect Tense in English. In Polish, the conditional mood marked with jak andjeSli in open conditions and gdyby in unreal conditions. Also jak
by may be used in both clauses of the conditional sentence and tylko, pod warunkiem, and zakladajqc, ie may be used.
consequently there may be no formal difference between unreal In English, if may be omitted in a past conditional sentence or in
hypotheses about the present and the past in Polish, unlike in English. a conditional with should and were to or were to have been, but in this
Occasionally unreal conditions referring to the past are distinguished case the conditional clause must involve inversion of the subject:

141
140
(21) Had she seen the motorist, she might have done something to 1\ 8. They have a very good library. That's why they managed to find
avoid being hit. so much information in such a short period of time.
Gdyby zauwaiyla tego kierowc?, bye moie moglaby cos zrobie, If they ..... a very good library, they ..... to find so much
ieby uniknqc kolizji. information in such a short period of time.
9. Why do people crowd to get on a bus or tram in Poland?
After I wish and if only, the subjunctive Simple Past Tense is used
I wish people ..... to get on a bus or tram in Poland.
to express a wish referring to unreal present and the Past Perfect Tense
10. If he is willing to accept my apologies, I will write-him a letter to
is used to express a regret connected with unreal past. The conditional
explain the misunderstanding.
would is used to express irritation or complaint, or in reference to
future time: If he ..... my apologies, I ..... him a letter to explain the
misunderstanding.
(22) If only you liked my family! 11. I missed my bus. That's why I'm waiting at the bus-stop.
Gdybys tylko lubi! mojq rodzin?! If I ..... my bus, I ..... at the bus-stop.
12. There was a leak and that's why the police found out the truth.
(23) I wish you wouldn't lose your temper with the children so easily. If it ..... a leak, the police ..... the truth.
Szkoda, ie tak latwo denerwujesz si? na dzieci.
13. It's a pity I didn't take your advice.
I wish r .....your advice.
14. I'm in such a terrible hurry because you interrupted me with those
silly questions.
Exercise 105. Finish each of the following sentences in such a way that it is as similar
as possible in meaning to the sentence before it: If you ..... me with those silly questions, I ..... in such a terrible
hurry.
1. You didn't insure the car in PZU and that's why we have all these 15. It was her carelessness which led to the accident.
problems. But her carelessness, the accident .
If you ..... the car in PZU, we ..... all these problems.
2. Why don't you do it yourself instead of criticising me? Exercise 106. Translate the italicised phrases into English to complete the sentences in
I wish you ..... it yourself instead of criticising me. the text:
3. The only thing that led the police onto the right track was the
glove found at the scene of the murder. If you (1.zdarzyloby ci sit() to meet a seer who (2.potrafil-
Had it ..... the glove found at the scene of the murder, the police by spojrzec) into the future as well as into the past, you .
..... on the right track. (3.moglabys dac mi znac). If I (4.kiedykolwiek spotkala) such
4. I regret having told you the truth. a person, I (5.poprosilabym go) to drop in and have a chat, long
If only I ..... you the truth. ago. For there are so many interesting questions that I (6.010-
5. Please take the tray into the dining room and I shall serve tea. glabym zadac) him. For it seems to me that many of the events which
I ..... tea if you ..... the tray into the dining room. have so influenced modern life (7.mogly sit( nie zdarzyc) and that
6. Couldn't you have let me know you wouldn't be coming earlier? many of the advantages we now enjoy (8.mogly nigdy nie bye)
I wish you ..... me know you ..... earlier. ours (9.gdyby pewni ludzie nie zyli) in certain countries at certain
7. Will you talk to him again, please? Then I will talk to him, too. dates. For instance, unless there (10.S'1:) financial or personal
I ..... talk to him again only if you ..... , too. reasons to stop me, I (11.mogt( pojechac) to America if I

142 143
(12.bydy chciala). Do I owe this to Columbus and Isabelle of Castile, 6. Wolalbym jechae pierwszq, klasq" bo pociq,g byl bardzo za-
or (13.czyz moglabym pojechae) even if these people . tloczony.
(14.nigdy nie oglq,dali swiatla)? Again it (IS.byloby interesujq,ce) I'd rather ..... first class as the train was very crowded.
to know what (16.staloby siy) to Asia Minor and North Africa if 7. Czy nie s,!dzisz, ze powinienes byl mu pomoc, jesli ciy 0 to prosiL
Mahomed (17.nigdy by siy nie narodzil) and whether the Greek Don't you think you ..... him if he ..... you to.
Empire (18.podniosloby siy) from the decline that had set in or 8. Bardzo ciy przepraszam, jesli ciy czyms urazilam.
whether some other power (19. pognalaby go) to its ruin and I am very sorry if I ..... you with something.
destruction. 9. Gdybys byla piykna i bogata, moze bym siy z tobq, ozeniL Znajdz
If Luther (20.byl) a Dominican instead of an Augustinian, sobie kogos innego.
what a difference it (21.moglo to miee)! The flower of the If you ..... rich and beautiful I ..... you. Find someone else.
Renaissance (22.nie musial byl usychac) so soon in Northern 10. Gdyby wziyli taksowky, bye moze zdq,zyliby na pociq,g.
Europe. Kant's philosophy (23.mogla byla przyjq,e) a different It they ..... a taxi they ..... the train.
direction. Henry VIII (24. bye moze nie odrzucilby) his first wife 11. Czemuz mi nie powiedzialas!
and English thought (2S.byc moze bylaby) a little more logical. If only you ..... me.
But in that case we (26.nie mielibysmy) the charming destruc- 12. Jesli chcesz spydzic u nas weekend, musisz dae nam znae kilka dni
tiveness of Bernard Shaw. naprzod.
...... (27.Czy mialbym) a vote today if Rousseau ..... (28.nie napisal) If you ..... the weekend with us, you ..... a few days in advance .
his "Social Contract?" Who knows? There are so many "if's" in life! 13. Najwyzszy czas, zebyscie juz poszli.
It's high time you .
(Adapted from B. Kelly, An Ad"anced English Course for Foreign Students)
14. Gdybym to ja miala otrzymae takq, wiadomosc, to bym siy czula
zupelnie oszolomiona, a ty nawet nie mrugnq,les okiem.
Exercise 107. Complete the blanks with appropriate Polish translations:
If I ..... such news, I ..... dumbfounded but you did not even blink
1. tIe wspominam swoj pobyt w Indiach. Moze gdybym potrafila siy your eyes.
tam z kims zaprzyjaznic, te nie musialabym tam glodowac. 15. Bydy ci zobowiq,zana, gdybys mogl przedstawic ty sprawy dyrek-
I have bad memories of my stay in India. Perhaps if I ..... friends torowi.
there, I ..... there. I ..... grateful to you if you ..... this matter to the director.
2. JeSli chcesz zdac ten egzamin, nie wolno ci marnowac czasu. 16. Nie z3stanawialbys siy teraz, co robic, gdybys posluchal mojej
If you ..... this exam, you ..... time. rady.
3. Gdybysmy mogli przewidziec nastypnq, zmiany kursu walut, You ..... what to do now if you ..... to my advice.
moglibysmy siy niezle wzbogacie. 17. Gdyby nie pomoc rodzicow, nigdy bym nie kupil tak duzego
If we ..... the next change of currency exchange rates, we ... quite domu.
a lot of money. But ..... , I ..... such a big house.
4. Gdyby nie byli takimi skq,pcami, zaprosiliby wiycej os6b na 18. Gdybys jednak stwierdzil, ze to zadanie jest dla ciebie zbyt trudne,
prZY]YCle. popros Piotra, zeby ci pomogl.
If they ..... such tightwads, they ..... more people to that party. If you ..... that this problem is too difficult for you, ..... Peter to
S. Zajmij siy swoimi sprawami, dobrze? help you.
I wish you ..... your own business. 19. Jaka szkoda, ze nie moglas wtedy przyjsc!

144 14)
 If only you ..... then.
guages and equivalent sentences often do not have the same syntactic
20. Jan by pewnie wolal, zebys mu nic nie mowila na tym przyjyciu. structure (cL chapter I). Some main differences are pointed out below.
John would rather you ..... him anything at that party.
4.2.4.1. VERB COMPLEMENTS: CONTRASTS
4.2.4. COMPLEMENTATION IN ENGLISH AND POLISH
4.2.4.1.1. INTENSIVE COMPLEMENTATION
Complements are these constituents of sentence structure which
are necessary to complete the meaning of individual lexical items, In English, the copula may be followed by a predicative adjective,
most often verbs and adjectives. English and Polish share a con- a predicative noun, a PP or, infrequently, by an AdvP. In Polish,
siderable number of basic verb phrase patterns. The four basic types a predicative AdvP is more common:
of verb complementation distinguished in English (cf. Quirk et al
(6) It is cold (adj).
1972), that is, intensive, monotransitive, ditransitive and complex
Jest zimno (adv)/*zimne (adj).
transitive complementation are also found in Polish. Intensive comp-
lementation, which holds if the verb is followed by a subjective (7) You look wonderful (adj).
complement, typically a predicative nominal or adjective, is exemp- Wyglqdasz cudownie (adv)/* cudowna (adj).
lified in (1) Monotransitive complementation, when the verb is
The copula verbs followed by an adverb in Polish include wy-
followed by one object, is shown in (2) and ditransitive complemen-
glqdae/look, pachniee/smell, smakowae/taste. The copula verbs fol-
tation, when the verb takes two objects, is shown in (3). (4) shows
lowed by an adjective in Polish include bye/be, wydawae si?/appear,
complex transitive complementation, when the verh takes an object
czue si<;/feel, pozostae/remain.
and an objective complement:
(1) John is a good pupil. 4.2.4.1.2. MONOTRANSITIVE COMPLEMENTATION
Jan jest dobrym uczniem.
In mono transitive complementation, the verb is followed only by
(2) They saw a good film yesterday.
a nominal, prepositional or a clausal object, as shown in (8)-( 10):
Oni oglqdn?li wczoraj dobry film.
(8) The children are reading a book.
(3) Don't buy him another sweater.
Dzieci czytajq ksiqik?
Nie kupuj mu nowego swetra.
(4) I regard him as a very good friend. (9) I am counting on you.
Uwaiam go za bardzo dobrego przyjaciela. Licz? na ciebie.

Both languages also have intransitive verbs which do not have (10) I decided to leave on Thursday.
complements, as shown in (5). Zdecydowalem si? wyjechac: w czwartek.

(5) John has returned. There are significant differences between the range of monotransitive
Jan wrocil. verbs appearing with a particular type of complement between the two
languages. A monotransitive verb with a nominal complement in
N.evertheless, there are substantial structural, categorial and func-
English may correspond to a mono transitive verb with a prepositional
tional contrasts related to complementation between the two lan-
complement in Polish, as shown in (11), a verb with a prepositional
146 147
 complement in English may have a counterpart in a verb with (17) I imagined the man climb in through my window.
a nominal complement in a dependent case, that is, tile genitive, Wyobrazilem sobie tego alowieka, jak wchodzi przez moje okno.
instrumental, etc. in Polish, as shown in (12), a verb with an infinitival
clause complement in English may be rendered as a verb with a finite The verbs find/znaleic, hear/slyszeC, report/przekazac and
clause complement in Polish, as shown in (I3), etc. see/widziec and the verbs get/kazac, have/kazac, leave/zostawic, want
(AmE)/chciec and watch/oglqdac take a past participle clause with
(11) Telephone George as soon as you get home, please. a subject in English. Again, there are no strict equivalents in Polish,
Zadzw01i do Jurka, jak tylko dojedziesz do domu. where the verbs occur with nominal, prepositional, or clausal (finite or
(12) Are you looking for your keys again? infinitival) complements:
Czy znowu szukasz kluczy? (18) I had the car washed.
Zawiozlem auto do umycia.
(13) I persuaded them to come to tomorrow's meeting.
Przekonalem ich, ieby przyszli jutro na przyj?cie. (19) They heard the window broken.
Slyszeli, jak wybijano okno.
In English, infinitival complements lack a subject of their own, as in
(13), or contain one, whether it is a bare NP in a dependent case-form, A monotransitive verb used to describe a symmetric relation like
as in (14), or there is a complementizer-like preposition for, as in (15): meet/spotkac, kiss/pocalowac, know/poznac, may be used without the
(14) I want her to love me. reciprocal pronouns each other and one another in English. The Polish
ChCf, ieby ona mnie kochala. counterparts are reflexive verbs and the reflexive element cannot be
dropped:
(15) I hope for her to love me.
Mam nadziejf, ie ona mnie pokocha. (20) We have known (each other) for twenty years.
Znamy si? od dwudziestu lat.
In Polish, on the other hand, the infinitival clause is a strictly
A class of verbs peculiar to English are so-called phrasal, or
subjectless construction and thus there are no congruent counterparts
of (14) and (15) in Polish, as shown by their respective translational separable verbs. Those are verbs usually built of two elements,
counterparts above. a verbal and an adverbial root, for example, put off/odloiyc na poiniej.
Phrasal verbs are discrete lexical items with independent lexical
Also structures including verbs of perception like hear/slyszec,
meaning and they often have substitutes in non-phrasal verbs. For
see/widziec, watch/oglqdac and the verbs help/pomagac, make/kazac,
have/kazac and let/pozwolic, which take the so-called bare infinitive example, the meaning of put off is also expressed by postpone. The
adverbial element of the phrasal verb is usually stressed and it is
with a subject, have no congruent counterparts in Polish. In English,
separable from the verbal root if the verb is transitive. When the
the above-mentioned verbs of perception can also be followed by the
present participle. Their Polish equivalents take finite clause com- object is pronominal, the particle must be separated from the verbal
plements. The Polish equivalents of help, make, have and let take root and placed after the object:
subjectless infinitival complements: (21) They put off the meeting/They put the meeting off
Przeloiyli zebranie na poiniejszy termin.
(16) The general saw all his soldiers dying one after another.
General widzial, jak jeden po drugim umierali wszyscy jego (22) They put it off/*They put off it.
zolnierze.
Przeloiyli je na p6iniejszy termin.
148
14q
 Phrasal verbs are distinguished from prepositonal verbs, that is (26) I have ordered a cup of coffee for youj*I have ordered for you
monotransitive verbs taking a prepositional object, like relyjpolegac. a cup of coffee.
Prepositions following.prepositional verbs are usually unstressed and it Zamowilem filiiank? kawy dla ciebiejZamowilem dla ciehie
is not possible to place the nominal object of the prepositional .filiiank~ kawy.
complement before the preposition, even when the object is pronominal. Ditransitive prepositional verbs take a nominal object followed by
(23) He relies on his assistantj*He relies his assistant on. a prepositional object, as in (27) below:
On polega na swym asystencie. (27) I reminded the club's president of the agreement.
Przypomnialem prezesowi klubu 0 umowie.
(24) He relies on themj*He relies them on.
On polega na nich. A ditransitive prepositional verb may also appeal' with two
nominal objects but some verbs are always followed by the nominal
So-called phrasal-prepositional verbs like put up withjznosic, stand and the prepositional objects and two nominal objects are impossible
up againstjoprzec si?, wytrzymac, look forward tojoczekiwac are with them:
phrasal verbs which take prepositional rather than nominal objects,
(28) I I
told the press the newsj told the news to the press.
for example, the phrasal verb put up selects for the preposition with. ObwieScilem prasie wiadomosc.
There is often lack of correspondence bet'Neen the preposition
selected by the equivalent prepositional verbs in English and Polish. (29) I explained the problem to themj*I explained them the
Compare, for example, consent to a proposal with zgodzic si? na problem.
propozycjr;!, live on a small salary with utrzymywac si? ze skromnej Wytlumaczylem im problem
pensji, cure sb of a disease with wyleczyc kogos z choroby. Ditransitive prepositional verbs exemplified by explain in (29) include
in English the verbs announcejoglosic, communicatejzakomunikowac,
4.2.4.1.3. DITRANSITIVE COMPLEMENT ATION
say jpowiedziec, translatej przetlumaczyc, suggestj proponowac, describe
jopisac, proposejproponowac, speakjmowic. Their Polish equivalents
A ditransitive verb is followed by two objects, most often by the
are ditransitive verbs taking nominal objects, unordered gramma tical-
indirect and direct nominal objects:
ly with respect to each other:
(25) I gavethe children some toys.
(30) I described the intruder to the inspectorj*l described the
Dalem dzieciom kilka zabawek.
inspector the intruderj*I described to the inspector the
Most ditransitive verbs followed by the indirect and direct nominal intruder.
objects allow 10 to be expressed as a PP. In this case, the verb Opisalem intruza inspektorowijOpisalem inspektorowi intruza.
is followed immediately be the direct object and the prepositional
object follows the direct one in English. In Polish, the indirect 4.2.4.1.4. COMPLEX TRANSITIVE COMPLEMENTATION
nominal object may precede the direct object or follow it. Often
it is possible to express the indirect object of a ditransitive verb A complex transitive verb is followed by an object and an objective
by a prepositional phrase in Polish. Unlike in English, the pre- complement, a kind of intensive complementation analogous to the
positional object may precede the nominal object in Polish. For one between the subject and subjective complement discussed in
example: 4.2.4.1.1. This type of complementation is found in both languages
ISI
150
but there are frequent categorial contrasts and furthermore, there are ny, etc. In Polish, the verb of the finite clause can be either in the
many more verbs in English allowing this type of complementation: indicative mood or in the conditional mood when the complementizer
(31) We painted the house white. is zeby, but Polish lacks the lexical equivalent of the putative should:
PomalowaliSmy dom na bialo. (34) I am certain that he will be late.
Jestem pewna, ie on sig spaini.
(32) We considered him to be a fool.
Uwazalismy go za glupca. (3'5) It is essential that he come on time.
Jest konieczne, ieby on przychodzil punktualnie.
(33) I guess him to be at least sixty.
Zgadujg, ze on ma przynajmniej szeSCdziesiqtkg. (36) It is odd that he should be late.
Dziwne, ie on sig spainia.
In Quirk et al. 1972, sentences involving a complex transitive verb
with an infinitival complement, as in (32) and (33) above are analyzed Infinitival complementation shown in (37) below hardly has
as containing a verb followed by an infinitive clause with a subject. congruent counterparts in Polish. Constructions equivalent to English
For example, in (33) above, the verb guess is complemented by the sentences with hardjtrudny, easyjlatwy, convenientjdogodny, diffi-
infinitival complement him to be at least sixty. In Polish, verbs do not cultjtrudny, possiblejmoiliwy, impossiblejniemoiliwy, etc. usually in-
take the infinitive with a subject as complement. The clausal comp- volve an adverhial complemented by an infinitival clause:
lement of the Polish counterpart of a complex transitive verb in
(37) John is easy to please.
English is a finite indicative clause, as in (33), or it is in the conditional
Jest latwo zadowolic lana.
mood with zeby.
It is important to note that there are adjectives which must appear
4.2.4.2. ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS: CONTRASTS with a following constituent. In English, they include fond of! lubic,
contingent onjzaleiny od, bent onjzawzigty, keen onjlubic, based on
In English, the head adjective may be followed by a PP or a clause. joparty 0, loath tojniechgtny.
With the exception of worth, which is followed by a bare NP (as well
as a gerund), adjectives cannot be followed by bare NPs. In Polish, the
head adjective may be followed by a bare NP in a dependent
Exercise 108. The verb be enters into set phrases and collocations by combining with
case-form as well as by a PP and a clause. For example, pelen slO1ica a PP, NP, or AdvP. Find which of the italicised expressions with be are
(gen)jfull of sunshine, glodny wiedzy(gen)jhungry for knowledge. rendered in Polish with its equivalent bye and which are rendered with
Adjectives may be complemented by finite clauses, which may be a different Polish lexical verb in the following sentences:
in the indicative or subjunctive mood or else contain the putative
should in English. Adjectives taking an indicative finite clause as 1. The police have been after the escaped prisoners for two days.
complement include certainjpewny, likelyjprawdopodobny, possiblejmo- 2. What are you at now, children?
zliwy, truejprawdziwy. Adjectives taking subjunctive clauses as com- 3. The professor has been at pains to examine all the students in one
plements include crucialjdecydujqcy, essentialjkonieczny, importantjwaz- day.
ny, necessaryjniezbgdny, desirablejpozqdany. Adjectives taking a clause 4. I hope we are not in for an unpleasant surprise.
with the putative should include curiouosjdziwny, admirablejgodny 5. I can't stand your being down on your sister all the time.
podziwu, commendablejgodny polecenia, peculiarjszczegalny, oddjdziw- 6. He wants us to think that he is in with the management.

152 1)~
 7. So, finally we are off to France. 7. She always acts out regard ..... John's father's good manners.
8. Unfortunately he is on the wrong side of fifty and he can't find 8. I am happy to back my friends.
a job. 9. The police often act information from paid informants.
9. Are you on this committee, too? 10. The police broke the burglars when they were dividing
10. My brother's second book came out a month ago only and is their loot.
already out of print. 11. There was a sudden gun shot and the horse dashed .
11. He has been out of sorts recently. 12. One should defer ..... the opinion of the wise.
12. Our further involvement in this scheme is out of question. 13. I am certain they will not comply ..... the Governor's demands.
13. By the time we pass this exam, we'll be over the hill. 14. When VAT was introduced, the public cried it.
14. I don't think he will get the chair. He is up against some real 15. Luckily, our holiday pictures came ..... very well.
names in the field.
15. I never thought he was so cheap until I saw him shop for food.
Exercise 111. Instructions as above:

Exercise 109. Translate the following collocations with have into Polish to find out
which are rendered with its counterpart mid and which rendered with 1. Sad news disposes him ..... melancholy.
other lexical verbs: 2. Who has egged you ..... to participate in this game.
3. Poland trades China ..... tea, rice and cotton.
1. an appointment 14.
11.
15.
12.
10.
13.
9. goodshock
meal
asecond
talk
rest luck
look thoughts 4. Whatever is put by Tom is never struck
r 5. My son flung his bag and left.
6. She was kind enough to hold ..... her hand.
7. I'm looking your visit next month.
8. Luckily, the rain has passed .
9. I'll have to draw ..... a gallon of beer from your cask.
10. Can the United States keep Japan in the production of
cars?
11. It is clear that she cannot make the meaning of this poem.
12. American troops have been sent to Haiti.
Exercise 110. Fill the blanks with appropriate prepositions or adverbial particles: 13. It goes ..... my wishes to spend five days in this dump.
14. We must drive ..... racism.
1. No wonder he will cast an opportunity to take revenge . 15. He gave ..... that he was taking the en trance exam to the
you. Jagiellonian University .
. 2. He has decided to abstain ..... voting.
3. About fifty miners were still in the mine when it blew
4. The newly elected President was able to bear ..... his oppositon, Exercise 112. Instructions as above:
who were reluctant to admit defeat for a long time.
5. Men are called military service here but women aren't. 1. Any student absenting himself ..... classes will be crossed out.
6. The proposal he brought ..... seemed very sensible. 2. I think you should apprise Mary ..... his ulterior motives.

154 1."i.'\
 Exercise 114. Instructions as above.
3. They have no relatives and I suppose they will have to bequeath
their possessions ..... charity.
4. The governement is trying to clamp the free press. 1. John is quick ..... working out sums.
5. I concur ..... you on this particular matter. 2. Mr. Smith is always informed ..... the most recent news.
6. The food price hikes will soon impinge ..... our eating habits. 3. He became imbued ..... superstitions.
7. The angry protesters jeered ..... the jury. 4. Some people are never apprehensive ..... the future.
5. Tom is laid influenza.
8. As a result of the scandal, the minister was ousted his position.
9. At no point did the convicted murderer repent what he had 6. He was reticent what really happened at that meeting.
done. 7. The boss was seized fury when he found out you had forgotten
10. May I request a favour ..... yeu? to mail the letters.
8. John is slow ..... numbers and finds it difficult to draw level .....
11. It's one o'clock in the morning. Let's retire ..... bed, shall we?
the other kids in his new class.
12. Her comments always spark ..... angry replies.
9. It is incumbent ..... the participants to obey the rules.
13. The child was practically paralysed ..... fear but finally managed
to stammer his name. 10. She was livid ..... anger when she found out what had happened.
14. Anything we do to tamper ..... nature will have long-term 11. As a teacher, she is very attentive ..... her pupils' needs.
consequences. 12. The climate of Zakopane is hardly congenial ..... his health. He
15. The lies he told his wife after his return from the war have has serious heart problems and hypertension.
weighed heavily ..... his conscience all his life. 13. It's good you are always heedful ..... your parents' advice.
]4. Mary is endowed ..... many talents.
15. The murder was committed in the room adjacent ..... ours.
Exercise 113. Instructions as above:

1. We were all alarmed ..... the news of the crash. Exercise 115. Translate the following sentences into English, using the word or phrase
2. He is independent ..... all help from his family now. in block letters, which cannot be altered in any way:
3. My boss is never kind ..... us.
4. A man lame ..... one leg arrived here first yesterday. 1. Nie zapomnij im opowiedziee wszystkiego. OMIT
5. There is no doubt that he is well versed ..... physics. 2. S,! dumni ze swojej c6rki, slawnej pianistki. TAKE
6 point of health, the country is not comparable the city. 3. Jan nie prowadzil od dnia, kiedy rozbil samoch6d na drzewie.
7. The gardes of caste in India are cornpara bIe ..... the layers of strata. CRASHED
8. Is money essential ..... your life? 4. Trzeba bye glupcem, zeby jej wierzye. HER
9. Tom and Mary are troublesome their parents. 5. Nagle zdalem sobie spraw(:, ze si(: ze mnie nabijano. FUN
10. I found Ms. Brown sympathetic my problems. 6. Szef nie posiadal si(: ze zlosci, kiedy uslyszal wiadomosci. BESIDE
11. He was so intent ..... his computer game that he did not hear my call. 7. Wcale nie doradzalem, zeby on tarn poszedl. ADVISED
12. My little brother is often ill ..... fever. 8. Nie pr6buj ponownie zdawae tego egzaminu tak szybko. AT-
13. My secretary is proficient ..... English. TEMPT
14. You can rely ..... him as he is always loyal ..... his friends. 9. Policjanci slyszeli, ze nadchodzi, i obserwowali go, jak wchodzil
15. She is lost ..... all sense of humour. do budynku. HEARD
156 157
10. Nie mogy zniesc, ze on siy tak do ciebie odzywa. BEAR 6. Nie cierpiy, gdy film jest za dlugi. HATE
11. Ich k16tnia to najlepszy przyklad nieporozumienia. EXAMPLE 7. Nie mogy pozwolie, zebys tak ciyzko pracowala. HA VE
12. Czy macie zamiar zawrzec porozumienie ze zwi£!zkami? ENTER 8. To jest powazna sprawa przypuszczae, ze on byl szpiegiem. HIM
13. Cieszy nas wzrost produkcji w ostatnim roku. INCREASE 9. Nie ma 0 co robie halasu. NOTHING
14. Chyba nie kupiy tego naszyjnika. Nie jest delikatny. LACKS 10. Szalenstwem by bylo wyjezdzae gdziekolwiek samochodem w ty
15. Pacjenci S£!,operowani we wtorki i czwartki. OPERATED wczorajsz<! sniezycy. MADNESS
11. Przydaloby siy, zebys obci<!l wlosy. NEEDS
Exercise 116. Instructions as above: 12. Jest nie do pomyslenia, zeby premier zlozyl dymisjy wlasnie teraz.
UNTHINKABLE
1. Nie jest jeszcze znana przyczyna wypadku. REASON 13. Policja reaguje szybko. PROMPT
2. Nie mogy zniesc mysli, ze jutro wracam do pracy. HATE 14. Nie chcialabym, zeby znow byla wojna. TO BE
3. Motyw krzyza jest typowy dla sztuki celtyckiej. TYPICAL 15. Skradziono jej torebky. HAD
4. Chcialbym porozmawiae z wami 0 tej nowej propozycji. DISCUSS
5. Kiedy wychodzisz za m£!z za Roberta? MARRY
Exercise 118. Instructions as above:
6. Odwiedzaj£!cym nie wolno wchodzie do sali operacyjnej. ENTER
7. Poci£!g zbliza siy do Russell Square. Proszy odsun£!e si(( od drzwi.
APPROACHING 1. Ten dom jest do wynajycia. LET
8. Nie S£!bliiniaczkami, a wiyc nie mog<! bye w tym samym wieku. 2. Jest jakis pan do ciebie. THERE
AGE 3. Te pola ci<!gn<!przez setki kilometrow. STRETCH
9. Gdzie mam wyslae te kwiaty? TO 4. Nie bylo sensu udawae, ze ich nie widzimy. USE
10. Nie spodziewalam siy, ze wyjedziecie. TO LEA VE 5. Czekamy, zeby przyjechal Janek. FOR
11. Kaz im bye cicho. HAVE 6. Marysia zbladla, gdy uslyszala wiadomosci. PALE
12. Czy ona chciala, zebysmy wiedzieli? INTEND 7. Dzieci nie maj<! pojycia 0 wartosci pieni<!dza. IDEA
13. Wolalbym, zeby nie bylo zadnych publicznych rozm6w 0 moich 8. Chyba siy nie boisz ise sama? AFRAID
sprawach. TO BE 9. Dzieci nie mogly siy doczekac, kiedy autobus znowu ruszy.
14. Wiem, ze ten czlowiek okradal banki. HAVE IMPATIENT

15. Czy uwazasz za dziwne, ze on mieszka sam w tym ogromnym
domu? ODD
Exercise 117. Instructions as above:
1. Muszy poprosie ciy, zebys st<!d natychmiast wyszedl. REQUEST
2. Przeciek spowodowal, ze statek zaton<!l. CAUSED
3. Nagle poczulam, ze przypala siy obiad. SMELT
4. Jesli zawieziesz dzisiaj samoch6d do warsztatu, to kiedy bydziesz
go miala naprawiony? REPAIRED
5. Lubiy, jak siy mnie prosi. LIKE
10. Trudno jest zadowolie moich nauczycieli. ARE
11. Maria bydzie sekretark<! nowego doktora. DOCTOR
12. Mam straszn<! ochoty na lody. CRA VING
13. Nie masz powodu siy martwie. OCCASION
14. Czekam, zeby moj dorosly syn wyrazil ch ye zarabiania na swoje
utrzymanie. WISH
15. Jego zona ma upodobanie do Iuksusowych rzeczy. DELIGHTS
Exercise 119. Correct the following ungrammatical sentences:
1. *His uncle recommended a group of English tourists a good hotel.

158 1 ~l)
 2. *Please describe to me his behaviour. The ungrammaticality of the Polish counterpart of (3) compared with the
3. *They elected her as a chairperson. grammaticality of the Polish counterpart of (2) indicates that the passive
4. *Jack found. voice is more restricted in Polish than in English. In Polish, only the DO
5. *Professor Smith teaches. of the active verb may become the subject of the passive sentence.
6. *We consider a hero him. A typical verb that can occur in the passive in Polish is a transitive verb
7. *He knows well mathematics. taking an accusative object. Verbs taking a dative object, e.g. pomoc/help
8. *Whenever he goes to a party, he enJoys. do not occur in the passive and only a few verbs with a genitive or an
9. *She never cooks for him dinner. instrumental object have passive forms. For example, the genitive verb
10. *They painted their house in white and in dark blue. szukae/look for occurs in the passive, but the genitive verbs potrzeho-
wae/need and pragnqe/desire do not have passive forms.
Transitive verbs which do not occur in the passive in English
4.2.5. THE PASSIVE
include have/miee. lack/brakowae, fit/pasowae, resemble/przypominac,
equal/rownae sig, smell/czue (but smell/wqchae has the passive form).
Both in English and in Polish a passive sentence is formed in the
In many cases, their Polish equivalents do not occur in the passive
same way, that is, the verb is put in the passive form and the object of
even if they take an acussative object in the active, as is the case with
the active verb becomes the subject of the passive sentence while the
miee/have and czue/smell.
subject of the active voice is optionally put at the end of the passive
In English, prepositional verbs can often occur in the passive. In
sentence in the prepositional phrase with by/przez. In English, the
Polish, by contrast, no prepositional verb is allowed in the passive.
passive voice is formed with the passive auxiliary be and less
For example,
frequently, get and the past partidple form of the verb. In Polish, the
passive verb consists of the passive auxiliaries bye/be or zostae/to (4) The students talked about the results -~ The results were talked
become and the past participle of the verb. For example: about.

(1) The boy is copying letters -t Letters are being copied (by the Studenci rozmawiali 0 wynikach -t *Wyniki byly rozmawia-
ne o.
boy).
Chlopiec przepisuje listy -t Listy sq przepisywane (przez chlop- Another difference between English and Polish is the unavailability
ca). in Polish of passive constructions related to verbs taking so-called
In English, both the DO and the 10 of the active verb may become infinitves with a subject as complement (cf. 4.2.4.1.4), such as
the subject of the passive sentence: say/mowie, expect/oczekiwae, believe/wierzye, rumour/mowie, plotko-
wae, report/donosie, informowae in which the subject of the infinitive
(2) They bought some sweets (DO) for the children -t Some sweets becomes the subject of the passive sentence, as shown in (5) below:
were bought for the children.
Oni kupili slodycze dla dzieci -t Slodycze zostaly kupione dla (5) They expect John (S) to win the tournament -t John is e.\pected
dzieci. to win the tournament.
Oni oczekujq , ie Jan wygra turniej -t *Jan jest oczekiwany
(3) John gave Mary (10) a diamond necklace -t Mary was given wygrac turniej.
a diamond necklace.
Jan dal MarU naszyjnik z brylantow --l- *Maria zostala dana It should also be pointed out that in English, passive sentences are
naszyjnik z brylantow. used far more frequently than in Polish, which is due to the fact that

160 I()I
Polish has other syntactic means of drawing attention away from the Exercise 121. Translate the following sentences into Polish, using the passive voice
agent of the action than by making a sentence passive. For example, where possible:
an object can be put at the beginning of an active sentence, as Polish is
a flexible word-order language. Hence, the passive English sentence
1. John is said to be a good poet.
(6) has a counterpart in an active sentence in Polish:
2. The car was seen to be stolen.
(6) Mary was given some flowers by John. 3. This matter will have to be dealt with immediately.
Marii Jan dal kwiaty (lit. *To Mary John gave some flowers). 4. His explanations got a bit confused at the end.
5. The packages were received yesterday.
Furthermore, Polish has the so-called impersonal construction, lack-
6. When he lost again, he was finally taught the lesson.
ing a subject:
7. When will you get dressed?
(7) Uzbierano pienifdzy. 8. She is reported to be getting married for the ninth time.
Some money has been collected. 9. The inspector had his car stolen yesterday.
10. The crowds were waved at from the steps of the airplane.
(8) Uwaia sif, ie onajest najbardziej uzdolnionq pianistkq swojego
11. Dr Johnson is wanted in the operating theatre immediately.
pokolenia.
12. They are expected to arrive in the morning.
It is believed that she is the most gift~d pianist of her
13. John was said not to have taken any notice of her warning.
generation.
14. The child was looked after by a baby-sitter.
15. They were thought to have lost the way because of the thick fog.

Exercise 120. Translate the following sentences into English, using the passive voice:
4.3. SUBJECT-VERB CONCORD IN ENGLISH AND
1. Sniadanie jest podawane w twoim pokoju. POLISH
2. Nieoczekiwanie dostalam hinduski szal.
3. Zrobiono wyj<!:tek.
4. Jestem pewien, ze to si~ zrobi w przyszlym tygodniu. Concord is a relationship between grammatical elements whereby
5. Twoja goscinnosc nigdy nie b~dzie zapomniana. the subordinate element must assume a form which agrees in
6. Moje mieszkanie sprzq,ta si~ codziennie. a particular feature or features, for example, number and person, with
7. Dlaczego sklep zamkni~to 0 godz. 18.00? the superior word. Concord is best exemplified by the morphological
8. Zakazuje si~ palenia papierosow. dependence of the form of the verb on the subject in a tensed clause,
9. W naszym mieszkaniu b~dzie slychac muzyk~. which is found in many languages.
10. Mowiono mi, ze byleS w Maroku dwa lata temu. In English, concord is both grammatical and notional. Gram-
11. Uwaza si~, ze jablka Sq, zdrowsze niz pomararicze. matical subject-verb concord is restricted to agreement in person and
12. Mozna latwo naprawic ten but. number. For example, a singular noun of the subject phrase must be
13. Nowe komputery zostanq, pokazane studentkom w czwartek. matched by a singular verb. In cases of notional, or logical concord,
14. Moj ojciec zostal generalem. morphological dependence is determined by the idea of number of the
15. Zadano mu bardzo trudne pytanie. subject rather than its morphological form. Some collective nouns as
well as other grammatically singular and notionally plural nouns have
162
1«1
the ability of invoking notional concord. For example, (1) involves (9) What I do in my spare time is (sg) none of your business.
grammatical concord while (2) involves notional concord: To, co robif w wolnym czasie, nie powinno (sg) cif obchodzic.

(1) The Phillipines were (pI) settled by the Spanish (cf. (19)). A subject consisting of two singular nouns joined by and usually
(2) The Phillipines is (sg) a predominantly Catholic country (cf. takes a plural verb in English:
(20)). (10) Jack and Jill are (pI) very clever.
Jack i Jill sq (pI) bardzo bystrzy.
Conversely, a grammatically plural but notionally singular subject is
followed by a singular verb: When a coordinated subject has a single referent, it is followed by
a singular verb:
(3) Two hundred pounds for a pair of shoes is (sg) rather a lot of
money. (11) His only son and heir died (sg) in a diving accident yesterday.
Dwidcie funtow za parf butow to jest (sg) jednak sporo Jego jedyny syn i dziedzic poniosl (sg) smierc w wypadku przy
pienifdzy. nurkowaniu wczoraj.
(4) Even ten miles is (sg) not a long way to walk when you are fit. (12) Bacon and eggs is (sg) staple for breakfast in England.
Nawet dziesifc mil to nie jest (sg) daleko, jeSli sif jest w dobrej Jajka na bekonie sq (pI) typowym przykladem angielskiego
formie. sniadania.
Notional concord is also found with plural nouns used as names, A subject consisting of two singular nouns joined by or as well as
titles, etc., which are viewed as single entities. For example: either ... or ... requires a singular verb. For example:
(5) "The Brothers Karamazov" is (sg) a masterpiece. (13) Either Peter or Paul knows (sg) who has done it.
"Bracia Karamazow" s(! (pI) arcydzielem. Albo Piotr, albo Pawel wie (sg), kto to zrobil.
Anaphoric pronouns associated with the subject also must match the When the conjunct adjacent to the verb is plural or both conjuncts are
subject in number. In (6) below, the pronoun is singular because the plural, the verb is plural, too:
subject is understood as a body of persons. In (7), the pronoun is
plural because the subject is understood as the members of the (14) Either the professor or the students are (pI) right.
Cabinet. Albo profesor, albo studenci majq (pI) racj?

(6) The Cabinet has (sg) reached its decision just now. Two singular nouns joined by neither ... nor ... can be followed by
Rada Ministrow wlasnie podjfla (sg) decyzjf. either a singular or a plural verb. In formal English, a singular verb is
(7) The Cabinet are (pI) going on their holiday next week. recommended, but a plural verb is found in everyday speech. In
Rada Ministrow udaje sif (sg) na urlop w przyszlym tygo- general, the verb is often made to agree with the subject that is nearer
dniu. to it:

Adverbial and clausal subjects invoke singular agreement with the (15) Neither the pupils nor the school is (sg) to blame.
verb. For example: Ani uczniowie, ani szkola nie ponoszq (pl)/ponosi (sg) winy.

(8) Now is (sg) the time to settle our differences. (16) Neither the school nor the pupils are (pI) to blame.
Teraz jest (sg) czas, zeby wyjasnic nieporozumienia. Ani szkola, ani uczniowie nie ponoszq (pI) winy.

164 \65
The principle of proximity also explains verbal number in sentences
with a subject quantified by plenty of/mnostwo, a lot/lots oflduio,
a great deal, number, amount of/sporo, duio etc., and with partitive
noun phrases as subject. A quantified noun in the singular requires
a singular verb while a plural noun requires a plural verb:
(17) A great deal of tact is (sg) required in a situation
that.
Duio taktu jest (sg) konieczne w takiej sytuacji.
(18) A lot of students enrol! (pI) in his classes every year.
Duio studentow zapisuje si? (sg) na jego zaj?cia corocznie.
As discussed later on (cf. (25)-(27)), concord is determined by
a different principle in Polish counterparts of such clauses, which
seems to cause a considerable number of errors in Polish learners of
English.
In Polish, concord is determined grammatically. It is the form
rather tha~ the idea of number which is the basis of concord in Polish.
The verb is plural in both of the examples below:
The principle of proximity whereby the element closest to the verb
determines verbal agreement may well be at work when a singular
verb is chosen in (23) and also in:
(24) W plomieniach ginie (sg) Julian T. i Anna Cz.
Julian T. and Anna Cz. die (pI) in the fire.
like (Buttler, Kurkowska i Satkiewicz 1986: 334)
In Polish, the elements preceding the noun in the noun phrase agree
morphologically with the features of the noun, for example, ta (3sg fern
nom.) ksiqika (3sg fern nom)/this book but te (3pl nom) ksiqiki
(3plnom)/these books. However, there is a class of premodifiers in
Polish which, unlike all other premodifiers, do not exhibit concord with
the noun in the feature of case. Rather, the noun is in the genitive case
with such determiners and takes a verb in third person singular neuter,
e.g. duio czasu (gen)/a lot of time. Theses premodifiers include numerals
starting with dwa/two if the counted noun is masculine, otherwise
starting with pi?c/five, seminumerals like kilka/several, quantifiers like
malo/little, few, mnostwo/plenty of For example:

(19) Filipiny byly (pI) kolonizowane przez Hiszpanow (cf. (1)). (25) Trzech m?iczyzn (pI gen) pobilo (sg) Jana.
(20) Filipiny sq (pI) w przewaiajqcej mierze krajem katolickim (cf. Three men (pI) have (pI) beaten up John.
(2)).
(26) Wielu ludzi (pI gen) sNdza (sg) wakacje za granicq.
Instances of notional concord are attested with a special kind of M any people (pI) spend (pI) their holidays abroad.
subject, 'for example a grammatically singular collective noun, as in: Partitives like kawalek/piece of, grupa/group of, tlum/crowd of: wifk-
(21) Profesorostwo (sg) jui przyszli (pI). szosc/majority of also combine with the quantified noun in the
Professor X and his wife have (pI) already arrived. genitive, but the verb agrees with the features of the partitive itself:

or a subject consisting of two singular nouns joined by i/and, as (27) Wi?kszosc (fern sg) ludzi (pI gen) lubi (fern sg) dzieci.
witnessed by: Most people (pI) like (pI) children.

(22) Jas i Malgosia zablqdzili (pI) w lesie.

Henzel and Gretchen have (pI) got lost in the forest.
Only when the conjoined nouns are abstract and are of the same Exercise 122. Translate the following into English. Do not change anything in the
gender is a singular verb possible: fragments already translated:

(23) Niech?c i obawa kierujq (pl)/kieruje (sg) jego uczynkami. 1. Jeden z trzech studentow ma klopoty finansowe.
Fear and reluctance rule (pI) his behaviouor. One student in three ..... financial problems.
166 1(,7

l
 2. Synowie i kochankowie S<j,jedn<j, z najbardziej popularnych powie- 3. Tlum rzuca kamieniami w gmach s<j,du.
sci Lawrenca. The crowd ..... throwing stones at the court building.
Sons and Lovers ..... one of Lawrence's most popular novels. 4. Stany Zjednoczone Ameryki Polnocnej S<j,federacj'l:.
3. Wszyscy oprocz nich chq zmian. The United States of North America ..... a federation.
Everyone except them ..... change. 5. Spora ilosc jego prac zostala ofiarowana Muzeum Narodowemu
4. Trzysta dolarow z pewnosci<j, wystarczy. w Warszawie.
Three ..... going to be enough. A rather large number of his works ..... donated to the National
5. Bylo ich okolo tuzin. M useum in W arsa w.
There ..... about a dozen of them. 6. Wiykszosc stlldentow w mojej grupie paIi papierosy.
6. Ani ty, ani ja nie mielismy racji. The majority of students in my group ..... cigarettes.
Neither you nor I ..... right. 7. Nowa seria skandali poIitycznych wstrz<j,snyla spoleczenstwem.
7. James, a takZe Bill S<j,studentami. The new series of political scandals ..... the public.
James as well as Bill . 8. Ta para spodni jest na mnie za ciasna.
8. W tym pokoju nie bylo ani stolu, ani krzeseL This pair of trousers ..... too tight for me.
There ..... neither a table nor any chairs in that room. 9. Banda rabusiow liczyla wlasnie pieni<j,dze, gdy nadjechala policja.
9. To ja jestem zmyczona. The gang of robbers ..... just counting the money when the police
It's I who ..... tired. arrived.
10. Nie ma nic do zrobienia. 10. Kazdy z politykow, ktory zostal wybrany, byl zadowolony.
There ..... nothing to do. Each of the politicians who ..... elected ..... pleased.
11. Ani on, ani jego siostra nie byli na prZYJYClU. 11. Zadano tylko pary pytan 0 przyszloroczny budiet.
Neither he nor his sister ..... at the party. Only a handful of questions ..... asked about the new year's budget.
12. To wlasnie ja mam twoje notatki. 12. Wypito tuzin butelek szampana.
It's I who ..... your notes. A dozen bottles of champagne ..... drunk.
13. Sledztwo wykazalo, ie zaden z zarzutow nie byl prawdziwy. 13. Ty i ja jestesmy bardzo podobne.
The investigation has revealed that none of the charges ..... true. You and I ..... very much alike.
14. Policja zajmuje siy juz t<j,spraw<j,. 14. Daj<j, tarn pyszn<j, ryby z frytkami.
The police ..... already looking into that matter. Their fish and chips ..... excellent.
15. W Japonii pracownicy wstaj<j" kiedy do pokoju wchodzi dyrektor. 15. Nie ma dzis wiadomosci w telewizji.
In Japan, the staff ..... feet when the manager enter the room. There ..... no news on television today.

Exercise 124. Instructions as above:

Exercise 123. Instructions as above:

1. Jego fonetyka jest znakomita. CZysto jest brany za cudzoziemca.

1. Lawa przysiyglych nie uzgodnila jeszcze werdyktu. His phonetics ..... excellent. He is often taken for a foreigner.
The jury ..... not come to a decision. 2. Coraz wiyksza liczba lekarzy poleca leki homeopatyczne.
2. Publicznosc klaszcze juz od dziesiyciu minut. A growing number of doctors ..... recommending homeopathic
The audience ..... hands for ten minutes already. medicines.

168 169
 3. Polowa koca byla spalona. a sentence determined by grammatical rules. In Polish, there is
Half of the blanket ..... burnt. considerable flexibility in constituent order and there are few gram-
4. Polowa studentow byla nieprzygotowana. matical rules determining word order (for example, prepositions,
Half the students ..... unprepared. conjunctions and complementizers all obligatorily precede the con-
5. Wielu ludzi w Polsce je zbyt duio tlustych potraw. stituents which they combine with in Polish). Despite relative freedom
A lot of people in Poland ..... too much fat in their food. of the ordering of main clause constituents, it is usually agreed that the
6. W piwnicy jest pelno robactwa. basic, or usual, order of constituents in Polish is, like in English, SVO.
There ..... lots of vermin in the cellar.
7. Polowa tych jablek jest zgnita. 4.4.1. SUBJECT AND OBJECT ORDER
Half (of) these apples ..... rotten.
8. Dwa tygodnie deszczowej pogody nad morzem wystarczy, ieby si~ In English, the basic word order is S V (nominal 10) (DO)
zanudzic. (AdvP(s)). AdvP(s) may also be found before the subject or just before
Two weeks of rainy weather at the seaside ..... enough to feel the verb (see 4. 4. 5. below). In Polish, there are hardly any grammatical
bored to death. restrictions on the placement of S, V, and 0 with respect to one
9. Wszystko, co zostalo, to tylko ksiq.iki. another. All six combinations of S, V, and 0 are found in Polish. There
All that ..... left ..... only books. is a preference for postverbal objects (i.e., the order VO) and for the
10. Naszq. specjalnosciq. sq. bajki dla dzieci. order SV over the order VS. Constituent order is often analysed with
Our speciality ..... children's tales. respect to the structuring of information in sentences, where the
11. To ptaki interesujq. go najbardziej. constituents expressing known information strongly tend to precede the
Birds ..... what ..... him most. constituents expressing new infoffimtion in sentences. The order SVO is
12. Nie jest prawdq., ie wojskowym placi si~ za malo. said to be the most infol111ationally neutral linearization pattern.
It is not true that the military ..... underpaid.
13. Najbardziej im brak tych starych mebli. 4.4.2. SUBJECT-VERB ORDER IN ENGLISH
What they miss most ..... that old furniture.
14. Teraz najbardziej potrzebujemy mnostwa kupujq.cych, ieby stan(!c The subject and verb are inverted in affirmative sentences ID
na nog!. English:
What we need most now ..... lots of buyers to help us get up on a) if the sentence begins with the adverb here. there, now, or then, the
our feet. subject is not a pronoun and the verb is one of the intransitive verbs of
15. Wygl(!d to nie wszystko! movement, for example:
Looks ..... not everything! (I) There comes Johnny.
Nadchodzi Johnny.
4.4. WORD ORDER When the subject is pronominal, there IS no IDverSlOn:
(2) a. Down came the rain.
English is a relatively fixed word order language whereas Polish is Spadl deszcz
a relatively free word order language. Although some variation is j b. Down it came.
possible in constituent order in English, there is a basic word order in I c. *Down came it.

170 171
J

I
b) after certain adverbial phrases in written, literary language when (l0) I gave the attendant the ticket.
the intransitive verb expresses location, either position or movement in Podalem bileterowi bilet/ Podalem bilet bileterowi.
space, and it is in the simple form:
(11) I gave the ticket to the attendant.
(3) In front of me lay the whole valley, like an untouched pamdise Podalem bilet bileterowi.
on earth.
Przede mnq lezala cala dolina, jak nietkni~ty raj na ziemi. When both objects are pronominal, 10 is usually in a pp and follows
DO:
c) in reported speech, when the subject is non-pronominal:
(12) Give it to her.
(4) 'I love you,' said the little boy to the yellow puppy.
Daj to je}.
'Kocham ci~', powiedzial chlopczyk do z6ltego szczeniaka.
The subject and the au{(iliary are inverted in English in direct (13) *Give to her it.
Daj je} to.
interrogative sentences. There is no inversion in indirect interrogative
sentences, for example: With the verbs give and show, 10 may precede DO when both are
(5) Where do you come from? pronouns in colloquial British English, or it may follow DO:
Skqd pochodzisz?
(14) Show me it.
(6) She wants to know where you come from. Pokaz mi to.
Ona chce wiedziee, skqd pochodzisz.
(15) Show it me.
In declarative sentences, the subject and the auxiliary are inverted: Pokaz to mi.
a) after certain introductory expressions, mostly negative in meaning,
which derive special emphasis from their sentence-initial position. For A prepositional complement strictly follows a nominal one in English
example: unless the nominal object is complex, for example, when it involves
a relative clause:
(7) On no account may you return afier midnight.
W zadnym wypadku nie wo/no ci w•.acae po p6lnocy. (16) I gave the ticket to Mary.
Dalem bilet Marii.
(8) So intense was her anger that she started hitting him.
Tak silny byl jej gniew, ze zaczgla go bie. (17) I gave to M ary every item of clothing I had kept stored for
b) in elliptical structures with so and nor/neither, for example: over twenty years.
Dalem Marii kaidq sztukg odziezy, ktorq przechowywalem
(9) She likes jazz and so do I. przez ponad dwadzidcia lat.
Ona lubi jazz i
ja tei.
In Polish, DO and a nominal 10 may appear in either order:

4.4.3. DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECTS (18) Jan dal Marii kwiaty.
John gave Mary some flowers.
In English, if a verb takes two objects, 10 precedes DO when 10 is (19) Jan dal kwiaty Marii.
a NP. 10 with a preposition follows DO: John gave some flowers to Mary.

17.1
172
 j

'I
A PP, whether a complement or an adverbial may come before or sentence-finally. It is important to remember that an adverb cannot
after a nominal object in Polish: come between the verb and its object in English and that not every
adverb can be placed in all four adverb positions indicated above. In
(20) Jan uzaleinia swojq decyzjf2 od twojego poparcia. contrast, adverbs have even greater freedom of position in Polish. For
John is making his decision dependent on your support.
example, an adverb may come between the verb and its object in Polish.
(21) Jan uzaleinia od twojego poparcia swojq decyz.k (cf. (20)).
(22) Jan podal ksiqikf2 przez rodzicow. 4.4.5.1. SENTENCE-INITIAL ADVERBS IN ENGLISH
John has sent the book through his parents.
The adverbs most often placed in this position are adverbs of
(23) Jan podal przez rodzicow ksiqikf2 (cf. (22)). attitude, for example:
(29) Personally, I am in favour of this motion.
4.4.4. OBJECTS AND ADVERBIALS Je!sli chodzi 0 mnie, popieram wniosek.

An adverbial expression must not be put between the verb and its (30) Rightly or wrongly, he has a high opinion of himself
object in English: Zasluienie, czy nie, ale on ma 0 sobie wysokie mniemanie.

(24) I like pudding very much. Adverbs of time and place are also common in this position although
Bardzo lubif2 puding. they are usually found at the end of the sentence:

(25) I very much like pudding (cf. (24)). (31) On Christmas Day my family always has turkey for dinner.
W Boie Narodzenie moja rodzina zawsze je na obiad indyka.
(26) *1 like very much pudding (cf. (24)).
Adverbs of manner are not placed at the beginning of the sentence
Only when the object is complex (for example, when it contains
except for adverbs like quietly/cicho, suddenly/nagle, slowly/wolno,
a relative dause) may an adverbial phrase be put before the object:
gently/lagodnie, etc. For example:
(27) We see as well Gino's kinship with his Sicilian forefathers,
who once dreamt of making the voyage to a magical America. (32) Suddenly, the corridors were full of noise and commotion.
Widzimy tei zwiqzek Gina ze swoimi sycylijskimi przodkami,
Nagle korytarze wypelnily sif2 halasem i
zgielkiem.
ktorzy marzyli kiedys 0 magicznej podrOiy do Ameryki. (33) *Carefully, he read her letter.
In Polish, an adverbial expression may separate the verb from its *Uwaznie on przeczytal jej list.
object: Adverbs of frequency are placed at the beginning only for emphasis:
(28) Kupilem rowniei/wczoraj ciekawq ksiqikf2. (34) Sometimes I wish I were on a desert island.
(Lit.)*I bought also/yesterday an interesting book. Czasem ialujf2, ie nie jestem na bezludnej wyspie.

4.4.5. ADVERB POSITIONS IN ENGLISH 4.4.5.2. PRE-VERB ADVERBS

The adverbs most often found in this posltlon are adverbs of

In English, adverbs may appear sentence-initially, after the auxilia-
ry verb, in pre-verb position, or after the verb and its object, that is, frequency and adverbs of degree. If the auxiliary verb is present, these

175
174
adverbs come between the auxiliary verb and the main verb. If there In Polish, by contrast, adverbs of manner, place and time may appear
are two auxiliary verbs, the adverb usually comes after the first one. in any order in a sentence. For example, the adverb of time may
For example: precede the adverb of place, which may, in turn, precede the adverb of
manner:
(35) I shall nearly have finished by 5 o'clock.
(44) Szef przeczytal to pismo wczoraj w biurze bardzo uwainie.
(36) I can never find my car keys.
(Lit.) *The boss read the letter yesterday in the office very
Most adverbs of manner can be placed in this positlOn: carefully.
(37) I deeply regret what I said to you the other day. In English, if more than one adverbial of place or time appears in the
Szczerze ialu)? tego, co ci powiedzialem kiedys. sentence, the more exact one precedes the more general one:
(38) We were anxiously waiting for the children to come back. (45) My son was born in Krakow at two o'clock in the morning on
Z niepckojem oczekiwaliSmy powrotu dzieci do domu. Saturday, 20th August 1988.
Mo) syn urodzil si? 0 drugiej nad ranem, w sobot? dwudzies-
When the adverb of manner essentially contributes to the inter- tego sierpnia 1988r.
pretation of the verb phrase it cannot be shifted away from the verb to
pre-verb position. Such adverbs include satisfactorily/zadowalajqco, With verbs of movement like arrive/przyjechac, enter/wejsc, ap-
safely /bezpiecznie, separately / osobno, well/ dobrze, uneasily /niespokoj- proach/zbliiac si?, the expression of place is put next to the verb and
nie, badly/ile, happily/szcz?Sliwie, fluently/plynnie, as in: all other adverbs follow:

(39) John talks very slowly/* John very slowly talks. (46) Julie comes to school on foot every day.
Jan mowi bardzo wolnojJan bardzo wolno mowi. Julia chodzi do szkoly pieszo co dzien.

(40) My mother dresses elegantly/*My mother elegantly dresses. (47) The doctor strode into the room energetically.
M oja mama ubiera si? elegancko/ M oja mama elegancko si? Lekarz wszedl do pokoju energicznie.
ubiera.

Adverbs of place are never put between the subject and the verb or the
auxiliary and the main verb in English. In Polish, an adverb of place Exercise 125. Translate the following sentences into English and comment on any
may appear between the subject and the verb: differences in the ordering of particular constituents in the two lan-
guages:
(41) *My neighbours in their garden grow wild strawberries.
(42) Moi sqsiedzi w swoim ogrodzie hodu)q poziomki (cf. (41)).
1. Tomek nie b~dzie na szcz~scie spiewal dzis swoich piosenek.
4.4.5.3. SENTENCE-FINAL ADVERBS 2. Marek wyjezdza wkrotce do Rzymu.
3. Musisz szybko otworzyc te drzwi.
These include adverbs of manner, place and time, which come in 4. On myli si~ rzadko.
this relative order. For example: 5. ani mi nie wybacz,! nigdy.
(43) We want to arrive at the station first thing in the morning. 6. Spotkalam tarn dzis Ani~.
Chcemy przy)echac na stac)? z samego rana. 7. Stefan tarn cos wczoraj zauwazyl.

177
176

(
 8. Trocht;: nas to rozdraznilo. 5. *They are very busy and they can't devote their children enough
9. Pokaz mi to! time.
10. Wydawca japonski proponuje nam zupelnie mne rOZWl'!zame. 6. *1 was yesterday at home.
11. Oni wiedz,! juz 0 tym. 7. *She never cooks for him dinner.
12. Rozmawialem w hallu z nim wczoraj. 8. *He knows well mathematics.
13. W zadnym wypadku nie powinicnes teraz rezygnowac. 9. *We considered a hero him.
14. Wytlumacz mi, dlaczego zawsze sit;: sp6iniasz. 10. *1 can't imagine how could she solve it.
15. Zapytal, kiedy wraca Ewa.

Exercise 126. Put the adverbs in brackets in the position or positions in which they may
be found in the following sentences:

1. I feel I ought to go (rightly or wrongly).

2. He had asked about her health (anxiously).
3. Bulgaria made peace (independently).
4. Few childern can sit (still, for any length of time).
5. I shall have finished by 6 o'clock (nearly).
6. Peter called John a liar (practically).
7. I am satisfied with my car (entirely).
8. Peter is the bravest m8.n I know (by far) .
.9. The boss demanded to see you (angrily).
10. I am arriving (in the afternoon, at London Airport, at 3 o'clock).
11. It is impolite to arrive (late, at the meeting).
12. He knew her (obviously).
13. I walked (over a bridge, to the theatre, yesterday evening).
14. He worded the letter (carefully).
15. The children behaved (well).

Exercise 127. The following are attested ungrammatical sentences of English used by
Polish learners. Identify the nature of each error and rephrase the
sentences so as to avoid ungrammaticality:

1. * It didn't take into account semantics.

2. * I want to explain you this.
3. * I translated him the document as I read it.
4. * On the table are some books.

178

~ At. _~ ~L4 L. ..JT ~,.-w j i., _ - --

 CHAPTER V 1 Exercise 129. Instructions as above:

1. She said that her father was a businessman and earned much
money.
REVIEW EXERCISES 2. Yesterday we went to the Czartoryski Museum, which collections
are among the best in Europe.
3. He intimated in his letter that he had left the university and had
started a small business.
4. The writer stood up and watched the pictures on the wall.
5. The councillors decided to spend the taxpayers' money only on
things, which are really important.
6. He saw a boat bobbing on waves.
Exercise 128. All of thp-sentences have been drawn from the written work of students of 7. Since you have to spend some days here, you must really decide
English Philology. Each sentence may contain at least one mistake what to visit.
connected with grammar, vocabulary, style, spelling, punctuation or 8. The newest Japanese game seems to be another craze.
idiom. Find the mistakes and rewrite the ungrammatical sentences so that 9. The only striking and not suiting object is a huge fortress-like
they are fully grammatical:
building in the middle of the plateau.
10. I tried to lead him out of his mistake.
1. One can get used to violence with time.
2. He did not describe me the beautiful landscape. 11. The monkey made another trick on me.
3. Lest further escapes follow, a prison sentry in the watch-tower 12. I hid myself in the doorway.
13. A lot of things has happened since I wrote last.
was ordered to raise the alarm immediately he saw anything
14. Near, a little child was sleeping in his mother's arms.
SUSpICIOUS.
15. I think that money should be rather spent on the most important
4. The freedom of speech should be established everywhere.
5. The former group contains those, who discovered they had no things.
talent.
6. He was ordered to do it on the pain of death. Exercise 130. Instructions as above:
7. It is connected mainly with the economical changes our country
undergoes. 1. That is the reason why people often choose rather to emigrate
8. The author presents man as the best God's creation. than to live unhappily in their own countries.
9. There he stood on the top of the hill. 2. I usually wash myself twice a day.
10. The mad rush has begun to private lessons in English, which 3. The point is not so much in the culture than in the modern
reached exorbitant prices. attitude.
11. The internal combustion engine has revolutionised the transport. 4. Which follows is the best description of the efforts we made.
12. She knew she would lose her face if she agreed. 5. I never started to follow advices.
13. She did not care of being caught red-handed. 6. This kind of joy is familiar with those who have raised children.
14. I thought I heard paces in the hall. 7. Man learns best on his own mistakes.
15. According to me, the show was great. 8. He does not remind of the ecstatic poet.

180 181
 9. Narrative poems were quite popular a kind in those days. permIssIOn of residence along with himself. One evening. on
10. For a moment it was her who seemed a victor. a party, a young English lady friend asked him to let her to look
at it for a few minutes, as she liked to investigate such things. He
11. He disobeys the classical three unities.
12. Some of those objects have form of a bird's head. could hardly avoid to comply with her request, so he left it with
13. Children in such moments are helpless. her and forgot to ask about it back. In the end of the evening,
14. This device can prevent serious and permanent damages. however, she handed him it again. He did not trouble examining
15. Then I learned why they were doing so much noise. it, but just put it back into his pocket. He did not have oppor-
tunity of looking at it for some· months, when he presented it in
a police station to register the change in address. The sergeant
Exercise 131. Instructions as above: took it and looked at it and as he did it, Pepito noticed how his
brow darkened. 'What is the meaning of this?' the sergeant grow-
1. The first step consists in finding a gene, what is being done at the led. Pepito felt how the atmosphere grew tense. 'The meaning of
rate of more than one a day. what?' he asked, puzzled. 'Can I look at my permission?' The
2. As usually, the broken-hearted don't show understanding. sergeant handed it back. Then Pepito remembered to give the
3. Thanks to mass-media, advertisements are everywhere.
permission to his girl friend to look at. He saw that she and her
4. It is stimulating for none of the two sides of the conflict.
company covered the empty pages headed Remarks and Endorse-
5. Others are made to practice it. ments with amorous and humorous verses. They didn't even for-
6. This undoubtedly proves religion's significance in our life.
get signing their names. 'Do you realize' the sergeant said, 'that it
7. I spent most of the time on observing my sister. is a public document which you have allowed to mutilate? We can
8. Is there anything more funny than a person who makes himself
not permit you to treat public documents in such way. I have to
a fool.
show this to the inspector. 'Here, Jones' - this to a constable on
9. Since that time I haven't trusted in government's promises.
duty - 'don't allow this fellow to move until I'll come back. If
10. It is often considered strange, that people accumulate things. he attempts to escape, you know what to do.' And the sergeant
11. One of the things we take for granted are colours. stalked from the room.
12. The man heard a hum of an engine and raised his head. " 'Am I arrested?' Pepito asked timidly."
13. It is no longer as creative process as it used to be. " 'Well, just try moving, that's all,' was the grim response of Jones.
14. There is a large group of words easily replaceable by Polish
and Pepito subsided. As he waited, he thought he heard how
equivalents. somebody laughed in the next room. He felt like anything but laugh
15. There, for several minutes overwhelmed with admiration, he himself. When a few moments passed, the sergeant came back with the
watched the performers. inspector. Pepito looked at the inspector anxiously. 'It seems,' the
inspector said, 'that you have taken to use public documents as
Exercise 132. Each sentence in the following text may contain at least one mistake souvenir albums and that you have rendered yourself liable for
connected with grammar, vocabulary, style, spelling, punctuation, or a heavy fine or six months' of imprisonment. But I will let off you this
idiom. Find the errors and correct them so that the sentences are fully once, influenced by the fact of your making yourself so popular with
grammatical:
the female young population of London.'
"Pepito saw the inspector's eyes twinkling as he said, and the
"And then", John continued, "There was my South American
whole police station staff, who preserved their seriousness up to then.
young friend, Pepito. Pepito, as all foreigners, had to carry his

182
I~.'

-- -------------.-.-+ ~
began grinning openly. Pepito began realizing that the English are not APPENDICES
quite as solemn as he thought.

(Adapted from B. KeIly, An Advanced English Course for Foreign Students)

1

! APPENDIX 1. MAKE OR DO?

1.1. SELECTED COLLOCATIONS WITH DO

as one is told badly in sth

battle one's best
one's bit business
a calculation a/the cleaning
a composition sb credit
the cooking a course
a crossword damage
a dance sth/sb to death
a degree the dishes (AmE)
one's duty evil
an exam an exercise
sb a favour the flowers
the food sth for a living
the garden/gardening sb good
a good job sb a good turn
one's hair harm
homework the honour
the honours the house
housework an injury
injustice the ironing
a job the job
a journey (in some time) sb/sth justice
a kindness the kitchen
the laundry (AmE) the lessons
military service miracles
one's nails penance
a place (e.g. Paris, Scotland) repairs
research right
the right thing a/the room
a sentence the sewing

iS5
 11
~ a habit of sth
the shopping the sights/sightseeing a guess
a subject (at school)
one's teeth
a translation
a sum
time
the trick
Ii haste
an impact
improvements
history
an ImpressIon
an mqUlry
it somewhere
the washing (BrE) the wash (AmE) an inspection
well in sth a journey
the washing up (BrE) a joke
a list
wonders (some) work a law
love
wrong a living
lunch
a loss
a meal
one's mark
a mistake
1.2, SELECTED COLLOCATIONS WITH MAKE a mess
the most of sth
money
an accusation
an advance
an acquitance
sb advances
!1
a movie (Am E)
a movement
a move
much of sth
(a) noise
name for oneself
an agreement allowances for a nuisance of oneself
~ a note/notes
amends an apology a party
~, an offer
an application an appointment peace
a pass at sb
an arrangement (oneself) at home one's point
a (phone) call
an attempt an c1ttempt at one's life one's presence felt
the bed preparations
a bargain progress
a profit
the best of sth a booking a proposal
a promIse
breakfast a contribution a reference
a record
a career "
a change/changes a report
a remark
a choice a claim a reservation
a request
sth/oneself clear (a) coffee rules
room for sth/sb
a comment a complaint a scene
sacrifices
concessIOns contact a secret of sth
a score
a contribution (a) conversation sense of sth
sense
a comparison a copy small talk a speech
a criticism a date a statement
a start
a deal a decision a suggestion
a success of sth
a deduction a demand tea
sure
a difference dinner time
terms
sth dirty a discovery a translation a trip
a distinction a disturbance use of sth
trouble
a drink a dress way for sb/sth
war
an effort an enemy of sb a will
one's way somewhere
an escape an estimate
a wish
an example of sth/sb cm excuse
an exhibition of oneself an exception
a face a film
a fire a fool of sb/oneself
a fortune friends with sb
fun of sb/sth a fuss

186
i
,
APPENDIX 2. SA Y, TELL, SPEAK OR TALK? 3.2. SELECTED COLLOCATIONS WITH LA Y

a bomb bricks
the blame on sb/sth
2.1. SELECTED COLLOCATIONS WITH SA Y a charge against sb a claim to sth
a carpet
a curse on sb eggs emphasis on sth
the foundations for sth oneself open to criticism
'goodbye' 'goodnight' a good word for sh eyes on sth/sb
'hallo' one's hand on sb one's hopes on sb
no/nothing one's piece one's finger on sb
a tax a trail
'please' one's prayers 'sorry' the table
sth silly/clever what one likes the word : a trap for the enemies
1
~
2.2. SELECTED COLLOCATIONS WITH TELL 1 3.3. SELECTED COLLOCATIONS WITH RISE

be on the rise from the dead

,I against sb/sth
the difference sb's future joke to a challenge
from a lower to a higher in one's profession

I
a lie the news tales to the occasion
rank to prominence
the time the truth a secret
to fame
the way

2.3. SELECTED COLLOCATIONS WITH SPEAK

I, What rises: the sun
planes
mist or fog
rivers after rainfall, the wind, smoke, rivers rise somewhere, e.g. the Rhine
clearly
for oneself
one's mind
highly/well of sth/sb
freely /openly /wisely
the truth
ill/badly of sth/sb
a language
up for sb/sth
I rises in Switzerland
the pound against the dollar
bread and cake (dough)
when one is spoken to one's spirits, anger, hope
~
emotions
laughter, noise, sound
2.4. SELECTED COLLOCATIONS WITH TALK
Ii
big business down to sb j 3.4. SELECTED COLLOCATIONS WITH A RISE
one's head off nineteen to the dozen sense/nonsense
t What arises: arguments
shop
war
politics turkey i
J difficulties
~ doubts
~ matters
the need

il
4
APPENDIX 3. LIE OR LA Y? RISE, ARISE OR RAISE! opportunities
problems
questions
3.1. SELECTED COLLOCATIONS WITH LlE
I
about/around at sb's door behind 3.5. SELECTED COLLOCATIONS WITH RAISE
heavily on one's conscience
in ambush
in hospital
in state
idle
in wait
i an army a ban on sth a cheer
1 doubts a family
low children
'1

\ IW)
188
sb's hopes horses interest rates ~ slow: a slow train, slow motion, be slow/go slow
loan level sound: a sound mind/sound asleep
a laugh ~
tight: a tight shoe/fit tight, sit tight, hold tight
money for some purpose one's eyebrows one's hat ~
one's voice wide: a wide smile/wide open, wide apart
a point question
wrong: the wrong way/answer wrong, spell wrong, go wrong
a restriction a smile speed
standards a subject support for sb/sth 1
l
'I
4.3. SELECTED ADVERBS WITH TWO FORMS
DIFFERENT IN MEANING AND/OR USAGE
APPENDIX 4: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS IN -LY
clean/cleanly: come clean, clean forgot/split cleanly
clear/clearly: jump clear of the train/clearly a mistake
4.4. SOME ADJECTIVES ENDING IN -L Y close/closely: close to the park/guard the prisoners closely
dead/deadly: dead on target/deadly pale
costly cowardly deadly dear/dearly: cost sb dear/pay dearly for sth, love sb dearly
friendly goodly kindly direct/directly: go direct to the station/directly after dinner, directly involved
likely lively lonely fair/fairly: play fair/fairly big
firm/firmly: stand firm/firmly deny
lovely silly unfriendly
fine/finely: do fine, suit sb fine/finely chopped
ugly unlikely
flat/flatly: sing flat, lie flat/flatly refuse
free/freely: travel free of cost/choose freely, speak freely
4.2. SELECTED ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS WITH THE SAME FORM full/fully: full in the mouth/fully agree
hard/hardly: work hard/hardly any time left
big: a big (adj) mouth/think big (ad v) high/highly: aim high/highly irritated
cheap: a cheap restaurant/buy cheap just/justly: just now/punish justly
clean: last/lastly: arrive last/and lasJy, I wish to thank everyone
clean shoes, clean forget/get clean away
clear: late/lately: arrive late/1 have not seen her lately
a clear sky/see clear (to the mountains), hear or speak loud and clear
close: most/mostly: most interesting/interested mostly in music
a close race, the weather is close/come close
cold: near/nearly: come near/nearly a year, nearly broke
cold weather/stop cold
dead: a dead animal, dead centre/dead certain, dead drunk, dead quiet pretty /prettily: pretty cold, sit pretty/sing prettily, dress prettily
deep: a deep lake, skin deep/hide deep, dig deep right/rightly: quess right, serve sb right/rightly or wrongly
direct: sharp/sharply: at noon sharp, turn sharp left/answer sharply
a direct answer/go direct to sb
easy: an easy book, easy money/take things easy, stand easy, go easy short/shortly: stop short, cut short/come back shortly
fast: fast colours, fast food/fast asleep, hold fast strong/strongly: go strong/believe strongly
fair: a fair sentence, fair deal/play fair (and square), fight fair wide/widely open wide/widely known
free: a free meal/travel free, run free
hard: hard work, hard problem/work hard, listen hard, rain hard
high: high society, high on drugs/rise high, aim high APPENDIX 5: SELECTED SET PHRASES WITH
kindly: a kindly smile/speak kindly PREPOSITIONS
loud: a loud voice, a loud colour/speak loud
pretty: a pretty face/pretty cold
quick: a quick look, a quick buck/come quick
5.1. SELECTED SET PHRASES WITH IN
right: a right decision/turn right, guess right, right in the middle
addition advance any case/event
sharp: a sharp knife, a sharp taste/at 3 o'clock sharp, turn sharp right brier
the open alr arrears
short: a short visit/stop short

19l
190

I
•
case of this/that case cash 5.3. SELECTED SET PHRASES WITH AT
the(se) circumstances code comfort
companson conclusion confidence all times
an advantage/disadvantage the age of
control court danger
any rate auction best/worst
debt demand depth
one's best/worst dawn daybreak
detail difficulties disguise a discount a distance one's own expense
disorder the end emergency ,) face value fault first
existence fact a flash 1 first sight full speed a glance
flames focus full first hand
,~ a guess hand
full swing fun general last
Issue large
half hand hiding ~ liberty
leisure length
a hurry the know limbo most
loss the moment
the lead moderation
memory of ~ odds with once pams
mourning need no time
peace play present
the nude a nutshell one's opinion random
a price a profit
the open orbit pam sea
rest one's own risk
pairs particular person a sitting
short notice sight
pieces place practice table the time
a stretch
progress public return war will
times
ruins secret session
work
short sight store
good/bad taste tears theory
trouble turn view of
vogue want of a way 5.4. SELECTED COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS
one's way other words

on account of m addition to in agreement with

5.2. SELECTED SET PHRASES WITH ON in aid of in answer to on behalf of
for the benefit of in common with in compensation for
account of the air in compliance with in conflict with in contrast to/with
approval at a cost of
in connection with in contrast with
average bail balance
in defense of in deference to in defiance of
behalf of business condition
call to the detriment of at the expense of with the exception of
the contrary credit
in exchange for in favour of for the good of
demand a diet display
under the guise of in the habit of in the hope of
duty an empty stomach fire
foot in honour of under the influence of by meaYlS of
guard hand
the hour the house at odds with in opposition to on the part of
holiday
at peace with out of pity for in praise of
impulse the job a journey
in proportion to at the rate of at the risk of
loan the loose the mend 1
the move offer order i
.~
•
for reason of in recognition of
out of respect for
with reference to
in return for
the outskirts one's own a par with regard to
the radio for the sake of on the score of on the strength of
purpose the run J
sale side in support of on the verge of by virtue of
sight t
strike in the wake of
~
1
\
192 193
 ~
j
~
APPENDIX 6. VERBS LACKING THE PROGRESSIVE FORM 1 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
~
adore recall
~
forget j * a deviant sentence
agree forgive recognise ~ a d'J adjective
appear (= to seem) hate refused
AdjP Adjective Phrase
apply have (= to possess) regard adverb
adv
appreciate (mental state) he,:r (involuntary) remain
astonish hold (= to contain) remember , . AdvP Adverb Phrase
American English
believe 1mpress require 1 AmE,
Appendix
belong include resemble
British English
care (emotive) intend satisfy
comprehend involve see (involuntary)
, c countable
cr. compare
compnse know seem 1,1 ~~:
colloquial
conceive (mental state) lack smell (involuntary) J coli
" DO direct object
concern like sound (involuntary)
.e.g. for example
consider love stand for (= to mean) fern feminine
consist matter suffice
contain gen genitive case
mean suit
10 indirect object
cost mind suppose instr instrumental case
dare need surpnse
lit. literally
depend on notice taste (involuntary) loc locative case
deserve owe tend
masc masculine
desire own think (= to have an nom nominative case
dislike perceive opinion) NP Noun Phrase
doubt pertain underestimate
NPs Noun Phrases
equal please understand
o object
feel (= to have an possess value
pI plural
opinion) prefer want
P Predicative
find (mental state) presuppose weigh pp Prepositional Phrase
fit realise (mental state) wish
sb somebody
sg singular
sI slang
sth something
S subject
U uncountable
v, V verb
vs. versus
VP Verb Phrase

'i
t
1

~ 195
~j
~

-,- --:--'-S-'-V~-~"~~
j
••
 GRAMMATICAL TERMS head the obligatory element of a phrase around which other
constituents cluster, e.g. the noun in NP.
lexical connected with the words of a language.
adjective
a word describing persons and things, e.g. a heautiful main clause a clause which is not part of a larger sentence and
day, a hig town.
adverb which may stand by itself, e.g. We are home.
a word describing how, when, where, etc. an action modal connected with meanings such as ability, permission,
happens, e.g. He read the letter carefully. prohibition. For example, modal auxiliaries such as
adverbial
an element of a clause, typically ::In AdvP, pp or may, can, must.
a c1uase describing how, when, where, etc. an action noun a word prototypically naming an object, e.g. hook,
happens, e.g. He wants to stay for a week, 1 called her gM.
to im';te hel' to the cinema.
auxiliary object the NP complementing a transitive verb, e.g. I bought
a verb which appears before the subject in a question, a hook that day.
e.g. Can you dance?, and which precedes not in objective complement usually an NP, AdjP or pp complementing a complex
negative sentences, e.g. John does not work there any transitive verb and following its DO, e.g. They painted
more.
clause the room yellow.
a group of words containing a subject and a verb, e.g. phrase a word or a group of words which function as
John called yesterday.
a constituent of a larger expression, e.g. He wil! eat it,
complement
an obligatory element appearing with a head and He will eat it, He will eat it, etc.
completing its meaning, e.g. She is very fond of music, postmodification all the elements which appear after the head, e.g. in an
and/or an element lexically selected by the head, e.g. NP. For example, the book in hard covers, something
the head noun reliance takes a pp with the preposition beautiful.
on as its complement.
predicate the constituent which combines with a subject to form
complementizer
a word introducing a subordinate clause, e.g. He a clause, e.g. She seems sad today.
promised that he would be back by Thurdsay. premodification all the elements appearing before the head, e.g. in an
conjunction
a word joining two or more phrases or clauses, e.g. NP. For example, these three special days.
and, or, but.
progressive the tense of the verb which indicates that an action is
constituent
the element or elements building an expression. For or was in progress, e.g. He was reading a book when
example, the constituents building a clause are the 1 cal!ed.
subject and the verb.
quantifier a word or phrase used to answer the question .how
discontinuous constituent much?' or 'how many?', e.g. a lot of books.
a constituent whose element are not put one after
another, but are separated by an element or elements subordinate clause a clause which does not stand on its own, but
of another constituent, e.g. an easy problem to solve. complements a head, typically a main verb, e.g.
infinitive 1 wonder where he lives.
the basic form of the verb, with or without to, e.g. do,
to do.
inversion
a change in the word Older where the subject follows I
~
subject the NP which precedes the predicate in a clause, e.g.
They are leaving soon. The hooks must be returned
within two weeks.
the auxiliary, e.g. Did he come yesterday?
finite clause
a clause whose verb is marked for tense and agrees in subjective complement usually an NP or AdjP complementing a copula verb
person and number with the subject, e.g. It is sunny like be, seem, e.g. John is a teacher.
today.
grammatical
a grammatical sentence is formed in accordance with
the rules of the grammar of the language.

196

-- - - - -.. - -.----.--------
 KEY 1 Exercise 6
I. a stupid or flighty person 2. a stupid person 3. simple dishes traditionally eaten in the

I
$
country 4. a stupid person 5. the US dollar/any of various green-backed
a humpback 7. (col!) a loud-mouthed
animals 6.
person 8. the name supposedly used by N.
American Indians for a white person 9. (col!) a robin 10. a wave at sea with a white top.
1
~
, Exercise 7
]. attorney generals 2. take-offs 3. gentlemen farmers 4. passers-by 5. close-ups 6.
trouser pockets 7. man-eaters 8. grown-ups 9. women-drivers 10. woman-haters 11.
Exercise 1 spoonfuls/spoonsful ]2. men-of-war 13. gin-and-tonics 14. sit-ins 15. men servants.

]. congruent 2.-5. equivalent. Exercise 8

-0- is used after nouns, adjectives and some numerals, -i/y- is used after verbs, and -11- is
Exercise 2 used after some numerals.

J. structural and functional contrast 2. structural and categoria] contrast 3. structural, 1i~
Exercise 9
functional and categorial contrast 4. categorial contrast 5. eategorial contrast.
I. compounding 2. internal modification 3. clipping 4. suflixation 5. compounding 6.
Exercise 3 acronymy 7. internal modification 8. clipping 9. internal modification 10. internal
modification] I. prefixation 12. clippping 13. acronymy ]4. compounding 15. internal
I. tidiness, tidily, untidy, untidiness 2. appearance, disappear, disappearance 3. modification.
governable, governability, governance, governess, governessy, government, government-
a], governmentally. misgovern, misgovernment 4. prisoner, imprison, imprisonment 5.
dressing, dressage, dresser, redress, redressable, redressal, redresser/redressor 6. under- Exercise 10

stand, understandable, understandability, understandably, undrestander, misunders- (L) = letter-word; (S) = syllable-word
tand, misunderstanding 7. statement, statable, statehood, stateless, statelet, stater, 1. (L) Dictionary of America! Regional English 2. CL) light amplification by stimulated
stately, stateliness, understate, understatement 8. grossness, grossly, engross, engrossing, emission of radiation 3. (L) National Aeronautics and Space Administration 4. (S)
engrossment 9. pardonable, pardonably, pardoner, unpardonable, unpardonably, silicon and aluminium 5. (L) Australian New-Zealand Army Corps 6. (L) molecular
unpardonableness 10. marker, markdown, remark, remarkable, remakrableness, remark- amplification by stimulated emission of radiation 7. (S) Formula Translation 8. (L)
ably. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 9. (L) International
Association of Poets, Playwrights, Editors, Essayists and Novelists ]0. (L) United
Exercise 4 Nations Repatriation and Rehabilitation Administration.

I. non-smoker 2. non-iron 3. abnormal 4. asymmetric 5. matchless 6. restless 7. disloyal

8. disobedient 9. unsatisfactory 10. unhealthy ] I. independent ]2. immoral ]3.
improper/incorrect 14. irrelevant ]5. illogical.
Exercise 5
la. a common thrush Ib. any bird that is black 2a. a sport in which horses run 2b.
a horse used for races 3a. a structure made of glass and wood for rearing delicate plants
and Oowers 3b. any house that is green 4a. green aphid 4b. any fly that is green 5a.
a wave at sea with a white top 5b. any cap that is white 6a. a monocle 6b. an artificial
eye 7a. (s]) a member of the military police/CAmE) a railway porter 7b. a cap that is red
8a. an American Indian 8b. skin red in colour 9a. a field for playing games 9b. outdoor
sports lOa. a board with a white surface, used esp. in classroom presentations with the
use of felt-pens lab. a board that is white.
Exercise 11
I. P, S, M-a; SM-i 2. P, S, M-a; SM-i 3. P-a; S, M, SM-i 4. S, M, SM-i; P-a 5. P, S-a; M,
SM-i 6. P, S-a; M, SM-i 7. P, S, M-a; SM-i 8. S, M, SM-i; P-a 9. P, S-a; M, SM-i 10. P-a;
S, M, SM-i.
Exercise 12
]. (P) advantage: (E) disadvantage 2. a ceremonial attire: a jacket forme]y worn by men
while smoking 3. a kind of jeans: Texas = one of American states 4. a two-piece sports
garment: a one-piece women's garment 5. shoes: Iramp = a journey on foot 6. an
.,
'announcer : speaker = a person who speaks, especially in publie or speaks a given
language 7. a kind of trousers: farmer = a person running or cultivating a farm 8.
a record-player: a d~vice for making electric or electronic equipment compatible 9.

198 199
a bicycle: rover = a wanderer 10. a ceremonial jackec: .frock = a smock, a frock coat, ratowae 17. bratowa, szwagierka 18. spoleczenstwo, towarzystwo 19. wydawae, spydzae
a monk's or priest's long gown. 20. mye, prae, zmywae.

Exercise 13 Exercise 20
I. Eskimo 2. mixed doubles 3. pariah 4. comic 5. coke 6. Yankee 7. cake 8. Tory 9. I. miserable, poor 2. ache, pain 3. disease, illness 4. body, flesh 5. shade. shadow 6.
jockey-cap 10. bathing slips. 'Hallo/Hi!', 'Bye!' 7. road, way 8. 'Good morning!', 'Good afternoon!' 9. dircctor,
manager, principal, headmaster, headmistress 10. drive, ride, go 11. colleague, friend 12.
Exercise 14 figure, shape 13. human, humane 14. place, room, space 15. heaven, sky 16. finger, toe
P = pseudoanglicism; e = calque 17. memory, remembrance 18. pips, stones] 9. journey, travel, trip, voyage 20. straight,
I. P : happy ending 2. e : strike-breaker 3. e : teenager 4. e : peace strategy 5. upright, simple/easy.
e : summit conference 6. e : brainwashing 7. e : black market 8. e : cold war 9. Exercise 21
e : blood bank 10. e : flying coffin 11. P : smoking jacket 12. e : overweight 13. I. hanged, hung 2. job, work 3. professor, teacher 4. 'Excuse me", 'Sorry/Pardon!' 5.
e skyscraper] 4. P : parking site ] 5. e : summit 16. P : longplaying record 17. equal, even 6. car, truck, van 7. leather, skin, hide 8. dressing, gravy, sauce 9. calm,
e : number one 18. e : sea wolf] 9. e : brainstorming 20. P : air conditioning. peaceful, quiet 10. stable, steady, constant 11. fatal, mortal, deadly 12. pupil, student.
apprentice 13. big, great 14. choose, select, elect 15. let, hire, rent, lease 16. high, tall 17.
Exercise 15
close, shut, lock 18. happy, content, pleased 19. busy, engaged 20. angry, bad, evil,
I. a 2. b 3. b 4. b 5. b 6. b 7. a 8. a 9. b la. b 11. a 12. b 13. b 14. b 15. b 16. b 17. b 18.
wrong.
b 19. b 20. b.

Exercise 22
Exercise 16 1. other 2. fake 3. gymnastics 4. diary 5. cardboard 6. Each 7. bath 8. funnels 9. cuisinc
1. czynsz 2. potrawa z makaronu 3. lorgnon 4. rezyser 5. sala gimnastyczna 6. pobory 7. la. galley 11. opportunity 12. risk 13. limit 14. sleeve IS. Except for.
beczulka 8. emerytura/renta 9. bachor 10. kierownik/dyrektor 11. wyglupy 12. dorsz 13.
warstewka 14. dyrygent ]5. paleczka 16. nietoperz/kij ] 7. okopy 18. niechlujny 19. Exercise 23
aspekt 20. komar. 1. car park 2. fit 3. alike 4. blank 5. different 6. stage 7. strength 8. power 9. artificial ID.
studying 11. view 12. years 13. smell 14. notice 15. out of order.
Exercise 17
Exercise 24
]. opportunity 2. parasol 3. carry out/realize 4. jogging/track suit 5. shopping centre 6. 1. second 2. false 3. exercises 4. calendar 5. carton 6. every 7. bathe 8. chimneys 9.
invisible 7. nice/pleasant/friendly/convivial 8. in fact/actually 9. at present/the moment kitchen 10. kitchen 11. possibility 12. danger] 3. limitation 14. cover 15. except.
la. city records 11. consistent 12. wick 13. perhaps/pcssibly ]4. receipt 15. store room
16. some land/a building lot 17. window-sill] 8. especially/particularly 19. discus 20. Exercise 25
altar boy.
1. parking 2. suit 3. similar 4. empty 5. various 6. scene 7. force 8. strength 9. false 10.
learn 11. scenery 12. ages 13. aroma 14. remark 15. broken.
Exercise 18
1. campaign 2. presently 3. crisps 4. economics 5. emigrate 6. electrical 7. Age 8. Exercise 26
r~
two-faced 9. imagination 10. historical 11. mond 12. intensive 13. classic 14. customers ~ 1. a 2. b 3. a 4. a 5. a 6. b 7. a 8. b 9. b. 10 b.
15. comic 16. concertos 17. magical 18. bargain ]9. plaster 20. experience.
Exercise 27
Exercise ]9 1. a 2. a 3. a 4. b 5. a 6. b 7. a 8. a 9. b 10. b 11. a 12. a 13. b 14. b 15. a 16. b 17. a 18.
I. zlamae, stluc, zepsue 2. kurs, danie, tor 3. potrawa, naczynie 4. egzamin, badanie b 19. b 20. b.
(lekarskie), przesluchanie 5. forma/ksztalt, formularz 6. szklo, kieliszek/szklanka
jechae, ise 8. zranie, bolee 9. marynarka, zakiet, obwoluta 10. zonaty, m~zatka 11.
t~sknie, spoznie si~, opuscie, spudlowae ] 2. bratanek, siostrzeniec 13. bratanica,
7.
! Exercise 28
I. leap 3. flits 3. creeps 4. hovers 5. gallops 6. trots 7. prances 8. hops 9. preens 10. butt
siostrzenica 14. papier, gazeta, artykul naukowy 15. prawy, sluszny 16. oszcz~dzae, 11. kick 12. pounces 13. wallows 14. springs 15. bolts.
1
200
i
j

8
201

~
~
{~
· .. ~ .. ~ .. - ....
Exercise 29
J. charge 2. struts 3. scuttles 4. slink 5. waddle 6. duck 7. prowl 8. lopes 9. run la.
wriggles I!. nutter 12. stagger 13. shume 14. trudgcs 15. swims.
Exercise 30
I. like 2. as/like 3. as 4. as 5. like 6. as 7. as 8. as 9. like 10. like 11. as 12. like 13. as 14.
as 15. like.
Exercise 31
la. Jako ]ekarzom, nie wolno nam bye nieczulym na niesprawiedliwose spoleczn'l lb.
Tak jak lekarzom i nam nie wolno bye nieczulym na niesprawiedliwose spoleczn'l 2a.
Chcy z tob!! teraz porozmawiae jako tw6j nauczycie] 2b. Chcy z tob!! teraz porozmawiac
tak, jak (robi to) twoj nauczyciel 3a. Jako tw6j kolega uwa:lam, :le bydzie dla ciebie
lepiej, jesli odrzucisz ich oferty 3b. Tak jak (i) tw6j kolega uwa:lam, :le bydzie dla ciebie
lepiej, jesli odrzucisz ich oferty.
Exercise 32
1. knit 2. have a suit made (to measure) 3. take a picture/photograph 4. do sth on the
side/under the table 5. make/pull faces 6. go on a trip/have a trip/make a trip 7. take
a breath in/inhale 8. put on make-up 9. operate on sb 10. put a dressing 11. give an
injection 12. have an X-ray taken/take an X-ray of so 13. give sb presents 14. make
preparations ] 5. run up debts.
Exercise 33
J. make a fortune/money 2. be on one's last legs 3. do/rob a bank 4. raise hell/make
a scene 5. spread gossip/gossip 6. make use ofsth 7. make a laughing stock ofsb 8. raise
one's hopes/expectations 9. do sth out of spite/behave spitefully/be nasty to sb 10. give
sb trouble/cause or make problems for sb 11. 'It isn't done!/You don't do such things'
12. do oneself up 13. mind one's own business ]4. work on the land/in a factory 15.
bring shame on sb.
Exercise 34
]. say, tell 2. said 'goodbye' to him, saying 3. told, say 4. tell lies 5. tell 6. tell 7. say 8.
Tell, say 9. speak 10. say, speak I!. say 'hallo' 12. speak 13. speak of/talk about 14.
spoke out 15. speak to 16. talk shop 17. speak/talk 18. talked sense] 9. big talk 20. telL
Exercise 35
I. tell 2. telling 3. Says who?/Who says so? 4. talked our heads 5. talk 6. speaks 7. Say
'cheese' 8. Say 'goodnight' 9. say 10. Say your prayer 11. would you say to going 12. to
say for yourself ]3. say 14. tell me the way 15. tell 16. all told 17. tell, speak 18. tell 19.
say, can't speak 20. say the word.
202
Exercise 36
1. I lay in bed all day yesterday.
2. How wany eggs do your hens lay?
3. Farmers must be paid a subsidy to raise pigs.
4. Another dispute arose over the location of the car park.
5. If you put enough baking powder, the cake will rise welL
6. It is good for your health to rise early.
7. Lay this knife (down) immediately.
8. The price of petrol has risen/has been raised again.
9. Finish your lessons and lie down for a short rest.
10. The dinner will be ready in a minute. I only have to lay the table.
11. Please raise your voice. I can't hear you.
]2. He always raises his hat when he sees me.
13. Don't you dare lay a finger on him.
14. If I were you, I wouldn't lay my hopes on him.
15. He laid down the tools on the table and left.
Exercise 37
He had lain in bed awake most of the night thinking about the impending strike. It
was already 6 a. m. He rose, put on his dressing gown lying on the bed and went over to
the window. He pulled the curtains back and saw that the sun had already risen. He
raised the window and looked out. The mist still lay over the grass and bushes. Before
long it would have risen and evaporated in the warmth of the sun. He dressed slowly,
pulling on the clothes he had laid ready the night before. He always rose early but today
he was up earlier than usuaL Drinking coffee'he couldn't dismiss the worries lying on his
mind. It wasn't his fault that the question of redundancy had been raised again. The
responsibility lay entirely with the Board of Directors. They were too pig-headed to
admit that it was their own mismanagement that had given rise to the general
dissatisfaction. He thought about the modern equipment lying idle and his anger rose at
the thought of all this waste. He finished his eggs and bacon and neatly laid his fork and
knife on his plate. He pulled out the notes to his speech to the workers from his
briefcase and felt defeated by the prospect that lay immediately before him. Who was
going to listen to him anyway? At best he would raise a laugh. Coming to a sudden
decision, he rose from the chair and thrust the notes into the kitchen stove. He felt his
spirits rise. The sun was shining and it was going to be a beautiful day.
Exercise 38
l. a 2. d 3. b 4. a 5. c 6. c 7. c (AmE) 8. b 9. a la. a 11. d 12. a 13. d 14. c 15. c 16. a 17.
b 18. d 19. c 20. ,d.
Exercise 39
1. b 2. c 3. d 4. c 5. c 6. a 7. b 8. b 9. d la. d I!. c 12. b 13. b 14. a 15. a 16. a 17. b 18.
b 19. b 20. c.
203
 Exercise 40 Exercise 51
I. a 2. b 3. a 4. b 5. b 6. a 7. b 8. a 9. a la. a 11. b 12. a 13. a 14. b 15. b. 1. on 2. on 3. above/over 4. below/beneath/under 5. in 6. for 7. across/through/
beyond/past 8. in 9. from la. to 11. with 12. across/over 13. down 14. up 15. to 16. in 17.
Exercise 41
in/during 18. into 19. around/under/by 20. in 21. with 22. on 23. in 24. to/by 25. on 26.
I. a 2. a 3. a 4. a 5. b 6. b 7. b 8. a 9. a la. b 11. a 12. a 13. b 14. a !5. a. At/In 27. at/by 28. under/beneath 29. besides 30. at 31. at/over/during 32. in 33. from
34. to 35. For 36. in/at 37. at/from 38. for/to 39. at.
Exercise 42
1. b 2. a 3. b 4. a 5. a 6. b 7. a 8. b 9. b la. b 11. a 12. b 13. b 14. a 15. a. Exercise 52
I. on 2. by 3. to/within 4. for 5. from 6. over/of 7. for 8. in 9. for la. on 11. at/by 12.
Exercise 43
along/by/on 13. at/by 14. up/along/by 15. about/around 16. to/up 17. for 18. to 19.
I. b 2. b 3. b 4. b 5. a 6. a 7. a 8. b 9. b 10. a 11. b 12. b 13. a 14. b 15. b. to/along 20. to 21. across/by/along/from 22. at 23. through/to/up 24. to/along/towards
25. at/by 26. over/of/to 27. in.
Exercise 44
I. a 2. a 3. a 4. a 5. b 6. a 7. b 8. b 9. a 10. a i 1. b ]2. b 13. a 14. a 15. a. Exercise 53
1. in class 2. in the sky 3. at Christmas 4. at a conference 5. for a walk. to a conference 6.
Exercise 45 in the sun 7. out/in the open air 8. in the rain 9. at Easter 10. over a high heat 11. in
I. b 2. a 3. b 4. a 5. a 6. a 7. b 8. a 9. a 10. a 11. b 12. a 13. b 14. a 15. a. a heavy-bottomed pan 12. on/in the pan 13. in the hot oil 14. for a bicycle 15. in writing.

Exercise 46 Exercise 54
1. a 2. b 3. a 4. a 5. a 6. a 7. a 8. a 9. a la. a 11. a 12. a 13. b 14. a 15. b. I. to lunch 2. for a beer 3. on/onto the roof 4. to a concert 5. for a picnic 6. at the
bus-stop, at the railway station 7. in the car park 8. in the spring 9. by heart, by/for
Exercise 47 tomorrow 10. at page 8 11. on page 8 12. in the tree 13. on the tree 14. in Anglesey 15.
I. b 2. a 3. b 4. b 5. b 6. b 7. b 8. b 9. b 10. b 11. b 12. b 13. a 14. b 15. a. by my watch.

Exercise 48
I. white as snow 2. poor as a church mouse 3. cunning as a fox 4. heavy as lead 5. proud
as a peacock 6. light as a feather 7. gentle as a lamb 8. brave as a lion 9. sharp as a razor
10. regular as clockwork 11. happy/cheerful as a lark 12. slippery as an eel 13. quick as
a lightning 14. free as a bird 15. cold as a stone.
Exercise 49
I. a coat: Iysy jak kolano 2. a bat: slepy jak kret 3. a new pin/gold: czysty jak Iza/jasny
jak slonce 4. dirt: tani jak barszcz 5. a lord/newt: pijany jak szewc 6. a bone: suchy jak
pieprz 7. a fiddle: zdrowy jak rydz/ryba 8. a pig: lapczywy jak pies 9. nails: twardy jak
skala la. a horse: glodny jak wilk 11. the hills: stary jak swiat 12. a lobster: czerwony jak
burak 13. houses: bezpieczny jak u mamusi 14. a bell: mor.ny jak dzwon 15. sin: brzydki
jak noc.
Exercise 50
I. like a red rag to a bull 2. like a bull in a china shop 3. shake/tremble like a leaf 4.
work like a Trojan 5. eat like a horse 6. eat like a pig 7. swear like a trooper 8. go like
the wind/a bomb 9. drink like a fish 10. swim like a fish I I. rain cats and dogs 12. sleep
like a log 13. treat sb like dirt 14. run like a hare/deer 15. fight like cat and dog.
Exercise 55
I. behind the tree 2. in 10 days 3. at/for £ 95,000 4. for nothing 5. with/for marks or
dollars 6. as a friend 7. for the revolution 8. for/in favour of abolishing capital
punishment 9. after/behind you 10. by day I!. by the hand 12. to our health 13. as
a clown at the birthday party 14. at the table 15. round the corner 16. about her 17.
under any circumstances 18. with (the help of) tools 19. for me 20. for all you have done.
Exercise 56
1. on the right 2. from my own experience 3. of roses 4. from memory 5. with all their
might 6. for its excellent food 7. on a visit 8. To hell with 9. bread and butter 10. aboul
an hour I!. with him 12. with the past 13. with the wind, against it 14. in chemistry 15.
on irregular verbs.
Exercise 57
1. to London in 19452. for Bangor 3. for school 4. from here (up) to/until that hill 5. for
a walk in/into the woods 6. to London 7. in London 8. at the seaside 9. on the coast 10.
in/at school 11. at school 12. by car 13. in my neighbour's car 14. on the 7. 10 bus 15. for
Holyhead 16. in/into the pool 17. in/into the refrigerator 18. on/onto the fire 19. (in) the
wrong way 20. with cold.

204 205
Exercise 58
1. on the air 2. in pain 3. in good faith 4. in a good mood 5. in spirit 6. in cash 7. by
oversight 8. at first sight 9. offhand/on sight 10. in half 11. in vain 12. in spite 13. on no
account/in no case 14. at hand 15. at once 16. to the bone/at heart 17. to take away 18.
on one's back 19. in principle 20. for ever.
Exercise 59
I. under duress 2. over age 3. in credit/in the black/in the red 4. at once/by leaps and
bounds 5. in the clear 6. out of the wood(s) 7. in particular 8. in a word/in brief/in short
9. below par 10. off the record I!. in the open/up front 12. on time/ahead of schedule
13. off the mark 14. out of condition IS. out of use.
Exercise 60
1. driving at full speed 2. at length 3. up to the mark 4. at 7. 20 to the minute 5. at full
blast 6. in the know 7. behind closed doors 8. for keeps 9. lived life to the full 10. is out
of touch with it 11. corrupt to the core 12. under the counter 13. at a stretch 14. has
been out of sorts 15. to the letter.
Exercise 67
1. for 2. to:'l. to/for 4. to 5. to/for 6. for 7. for 8. to 9. for 10. for 11. to 12. to 13. to 14.
to IS. to 16. to 17. to 18. (0 19. to 20. to.
Exercise 68
1. in/with 2. to/for 3. with 4. for 5. with 6. with 7. of 8. of/in 9. of 10. with/by \ I. with
12. at/with 13. with 14. to 15. with 16. with 17. with/by, at 18. with 19. for 20. of.
Exercise 69
1. to 2. on 3. about/on 4. to 5. for, for 6. on/of? for/to 8. about 9. for 10. of 11. on 12.
in 13. to 14. for 15. to 16. for 17. into 18. for/abollt 19. against 20. for.
Exercise 70
1. with 2. for 3. with, of 4. on 5. into 6. 1O 7. to/with 8. with 9. from 10. on/with 11. on
12. for 13. on 14. from 15. with/at 16. on 17. from 18. in 19. to 20. with.

Exercise 61 Exercise 71
1. in aid of 2. is in compliance with 3. be in conflict with 4. at a cost of 5. in the course of 1. in 2. for 3. at 4. on 5. on 6. on/under 7. into/for 8. on 9. against, for 10. to 11.
6. in deference to 7. in defiance of 8. in exchange for 9. under the influence of alcohol10. on/under 12. in 13. in 14. on 15. to 16. at 17. into 18. on 19. to 20. against.
have not been at peace with themselves 11. in remembrace of 12. at a risk of losing 13.
on the verge of finding 14. by virtue of 15. in the wake of. Exercise 72
1. the 2. 0 3. 0, the 4. The, 0 5. the, the, the 6.0, the, 0, a, 0 7. 08. the, 09.0,010. the 11.
Exercise 62
a, 0, the 12. the, 0, an/O 13. a 14. a 15. the.
I. b 2. b 3. a 4. b 5. a 6. a 7. a 8. a 9. ala. b 11. a 12. a 13. b 14. a 15. a.

Exercise 63
1. a 2. a 3. a 4. b 5. a 6. b 7. b 8. b 9. ala. b 11. a 12. b 13. b 14. b 15. b.
Exercise 64
1. a 2. b 3. a 4. b 5. a 6. b 7. b 8. b 9. b 10. b I!. a 12. b 13. a 14. b 15. b 16. b 17. b 18.
b 19. b 20. b.
Exercise 65
1. with a joke 2. by telling a joke 3. with you 4. on/about politics 5. to 10hn's proposal 6.
ended in a failure 7. with a row 8. to Venus 9. this system with the previous one 10. with
my little son 11. at my little son's behaviour 12. made of silver 13. made from dried
dandelion's roots 14. into long, thin slices 15. in half 16. good at mathematics 17. at it
18. at her 19. about her own naivety 20. at her, to her.
Exercise 66
I. admit to 2. agree with 3. angry with 4. anxious for 5. blind to 6. concerned for 7.
constists of 8. eager to 9. died from 10. differ in I!. impatient for: 2. liable for 13. settled
on 14. succeed to IS. susceptible to.
Exercise 73
1. 0 2. 0, the, 0 3. 0, 0, 0 4. the,·O, the 5. 0, a 6. the, 0 7. the, a 8. the, a 9. 0,010.011. the,
0, the, 0 12. the, the 13. 0 14. the, the 15. O.
Exercise 74
I. 0 2. 0, the 3. the, the 4.0,05. The, 0, the, 0, the 6. 0 7. the 8. The, the 9. the, the 10.
The, the, a, the 11. the, the/a 12. the 13. a 14. 0 IS. the.
Exercise 75
I. a 2. the 3. 0, a, a, a 4. the 5. the, 0 6. a, a, a 7. 0, the 8. 0, the, a/the 9. the 10. the 11. 0,
0, an 12. The, the, the, the, 0, O/the 13. 0, the 14. The, a 15. the, the.
Exercise 76
1. the 2. the 3. the 4. 0 5. the 6. a 7.08.09. the 10. the 11. a 12. the 13.014. the 15.016.
the 17. the 18. the 19. the 20. a 21. a 22. a 23. a 24. the 25. 0 26. a/the 27. a/the 28. the
29. the 30. a 31. a 32. a 33. the 34. 0 35. the 36. the 37. 0 38. 0 39.040.041. 042. a 43.
the 44. the 45. 0 46. the 47. a 48. the 49. the 50a.

206 207
.. -Exercise "
77 -_ .. , . . -.,
- ,
n
Exercise 84 . -------
1. all the 2. a lot of 3. a lot 4. a great number 5. every 6. less 7. a few 8. some 9. everyone
10. all . I
•
]. who else's 2. your biggest mistake 3. a subjectless construction typical of Polish/a
typical Polish subjectless construction 4. many more 5. on an overcrowded
6. a beautiful old house 7. the Nile, (the) pyramids and the Sphinx 8. a man and
bus
~
~
Exercise 78 a woman who could be mother and son 9. of Scandinavian origin 10. of the written
1. the whole 2. much 3. each 4. every 5. Fewer, fewer 6. a little 7. some 8. everyone 9. ,~ word.
All 10. everything.
'1
Exercise 85
Exercise 79
I. a big square oak tree 2. a nice modern French yacht 3. a large red Persian carpet
I I. common (she/it) 2. common (she/it) 3. common (he/she/it) 4. masc 5. fern 6. dual
(he/she) 7. masc 8. masc 9. dual(he/she) 10. dual (he/she) 11. dual(he/shc) 12. masc 13.
4. a clean new white shirt 5. a young attorney general 6. a student more intelligent than
his teacher 7. a nice small mountain place 8. fresh cow's milk 9. the United States of
North America 10. a tasty French onion soup 11. an extremely easy car to drive 12. the
I
~
fern 14. dual(he/she) 15. common(she/it).

Exercise 86
lecture proper 13. something beautiful 14. many a man 15. a house bigger than yours/a I. governess 2. kinswoman 3. Lady Mary Smith 4. fiance 5. youth/lad 6. Lord Mayoress
bigger house than yours. 7. mistress 8. Marquis 9. peeress 10. Empress 11. heiress 12. abbess 13. Infanta of Spain

Exercise 80 I 14. nun IS. prioress.

I. frightened/fearful 2. contented/happy 3. confident 4. living/live 5. sleeping 6. similar Exercise 87

7. sick 8. waking 9. satisfied/happy 10. unwilling I. man servant, woman servant 2. male frog, female frog (also, bull frog) 3. model, male
model 4. he-monkey, she-monkey 5. cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow 6. bull-elephant.
Exercise 31 I. concerned neighbour 2. girl responsible 3. an involved explanation 4. cow-elephant 7. he-bear, she-bear 8. he-monkey, she-monkey 9. turkey-cock, turkey-hen
proper thing 5. students present 6. officer involved 7. people concerned 8. responsible 10. wrestler, woman wrestler.
girl 9. present employees 10. lecture proper.
Exercise 88
Exercise 82 1. neuter, male 2. fern, male and female 3. neuter, female 4. fern 5. neuter or fern 6. no
I. my son-in-Iaw's car 2. an hour and a haWs drive 3. aunt Alice's firm 4. at Marks and gender 7. fern 8. neuter 9. masc 10. neuter 11. fern, male 12. masc, male and female 13.
Spencer's 5. the passer-by's testimony 6. a friend of my parents' 7. the door of the masc, male and female 14. masc, male and female ]5. masc.
bedroom 8. a piece of paper 9. a day's trip 10. in a month or two's time 11. the twins
Susannah and Natalie's toys 12. William the Conqueror's victory 13. the depth of the Exercise 89
ditch 14. the Prince of Wales's son IS. for heaven's sake 16. the cost of the repair 17. the I. U,sg 2. U,sg 3. U,pI4. U,sg 5. U,pl (sg when the noun is used in its institutional sense)
liberty of the French 18. the end of the book 19. the blade of grass 20. a table leg/the leg 6. U,sg 7. U,sg 8. U,sg 9. U,sg 10. U,sg 11. U,sg ]2. U,sg ]3. U,sg ]4. V,sg ]5. V,sg 16.
of a table. U,sg ]7. U,sg 18. C,sg, pi 19. U,sg 20. V,sg.
~
Exercise 83 I Exercise 90
I!. U,pl
I. a.
b.
2. a.
the news was brought/announced
the news about the president
by the president

the ship destroyed in a storm, etc. or the disaster which wrecks ships
I I. U,sg 2. V,pI3. V,pI4. V,pI5. C,sg,pI6.
]2. V,p] ]3. U,pl 14. U,pl ]5. V,pl.
U,sg 7. U,sg 8. U,pl 9. U,pl 10. V,pl

b. the remains of a ship destroyed in a storm, etc. 1 Exercise 91

3. a. a female doctor I. a. powietrze; wygl(!d, mina
b.
4. a.
a doctor specializing in women's diseases
the object in the usual shape of a church I
'{
b.
2. a.
fochy, humory
atut, zaleta
b. the action of building the church :1 b. aktywa (spadkowe)
5. a. in perfect order, neat and tidy ~
b. made to look like a ship. ij 3. a.
b.
uwaga, opieka
atencja, ceremonia]na grzecznosc, uprzejmosc

208 2(10
r ~ ~ ~ - ~ A" ~u •••• - -

4. a. klamra, zwora Exercise 94

b. szelki; para psow I. pennies 2. (some) egg 3. weathers 4. craft were 5. buffalo 6. are 7. are/is 8. is 9. means,
5. a. maszynka do strzyienia wlosow; r~czy kon; szybki statek is 10. are ] 1. is 12. pyjamas are 13. wild-duck are 14. are 15. pains.
b. noiyce, c~iki
6. a. barwa, kolor
Exercise 95
b. barwy (sportowe, klubowe)
7. a. szkoda, uszkodzenie I. an egg 2. a whole fish 3. salmon 4. damages, compensate, loss/damage 5. are/is,
b. odszkodowanie contents 6. trouser 7. archives 8. arrears 9. Oats have been 10. surroundings, arc I 1.
8. a. skutek, efekt, rezultat tactics ]2. savings account ]3. Linen is, tropics 14. offspring have 15. information, has.
b. dobytek, ruchomosci
9. a. sila, moc, potyga
Exercise 96
b. sily zbrojne
I. They haven't spoken for at least a month. 2. She has been cooking/has cooked for us
10. a. szklo; szklanka; kieliszek; socze'Nka
since she quarrelled with her sister. 3. It's really hard to know when he will come. 4. It's
b. okulary; szkla; szklanki; kieliszki
the first time I have been on board a yacht. 5 ,he will have finished everything
11. a. ielazo; ielazko
up. 6 , what would you do? 7. I was to have gone to the shop. 8. I would have
b. kajdany; pogrzebacz i szczypce do wygla
gone to the show 9 , they would feel very ill now. 10. He (had) found himsclf in
12. a. olow; grafit do olowka
such a desparate situation that .
b. dachowki z blachy olowianej
13. a. tworzenie; powstawanie
b. zysk, zarobek; wymagane cechy, zalety, kwalifikacje Exercise 97
14. a. wzmocnienie I. Would you mind if! open the window? 2. I don't like the way you are dressing these
b. posilki days. 3. They had had tea when we came/arrived and there were empty cups 4.
15. a. wzgl~d; szacunek; zwi~zek She began to work :5 and did my exercises/gymnastics. 6. He claimed he
b. wyrazy szacunku, pozdrowienia had met me before. 7 if you have been drinking. 8. She had never been to
16. a. piasek China 9. These problems have been known to us since Malthus introduced them.
b. piaski; plaia 10 I found that the train had left.
17. a. skrot; manko
b. szorty
18. a. widowisko Exercise 98
b. okulary I. have often crossed/cross 2. have done 3. has always occurred 4. took place 5. were 6.
19. a. duch; intelekt; wroika were following/followed 7. was 8. be lying/have been lying 9. had not run 10. felt I J.
b. alkohol were still sitting/still sat 12. were 13. had been commenting/had commented 14. rushed
20. a. grupa, gromada; szwadron 15. managed 16. is 17. gasped 18. was ]9. rose 20. went 21. wrapped 22. put on 23.
b. oddzialy wojskowe. followed 24. joined 25. were already leaning 26. see 27. rcigned 28. was 29. was
happening/had happened 30. was lowered/had been lowered 31. began 32. would
Exercise 92 allow/allowed 33. had never entered 34. had not been lowered/were not lowered 35. had
not been brought 36. had reached 37. disappeared 38. showed 39. came out 40. had been
I. a 2. a, e 3. e 4. c 5. a, e 6. d 7. e 8. a 9. c, d 10. d 11. d 12. a 13. e 14. b 15. a, e.
playing 41. (had) suspected 42. (had) jumped 43. (had) stabbed 44. (had) jumped 45. had
thrown/threw 46. knew 47. went 48. (had) started 49. had put on 50. felt 51. had shown
Exercise 93
52. felt 53. wanted 54. was soon having/soon had 55. remembers.
I. sg,pl 2. sg 3. sg,pl 4. pi 5. sg,pl 6. sg,pl 7. sg 8. sg, pi 9. sg,pl 10 sg,pl 11. sg
12. sg,pl 13. sg,pl 14. sg,pl ]5. pi ]6. sg,pl 17pl 18. sg,pl ]9. sg, pi 20. sg,pl 21.
sg,pl 22. sg,pl 23. sg,pl 24. sg 25. sg,pl 26. sg,pl 27. sg,pl 28. sg,pl 29. sg 30. sg,pl Exercise 99
31. sg,pl (operas) or pi (of opus) 32. sg,pl 33. sg,pl 34. pi 35. sg,pl 36. sg,pl 37. I. FP 2. LN 3. PROH 4. PROH 5. LN 6. FP 7. THP 8. LN 9. A 10. FP 11. I 12. NO 13.
sg 38. sg,pl 39. sg,pl 40. sg,pl. P ]4. A 15. LNO

210 211
 Exercise 100
I. It must have been 10hn's book. 2. They couldn't/weren't able to play football there. 3.
Did you have to leave so early? 4. 1 was allowed to have a party the next week if
1 wanted to. 5. You should have been more responsible. 6. 1 couldn't understand the
Government's policy on unemployment. 7. 1 \Vas sure he would have helped you if he
had been able to. 8. You couldn't waste any time. 9. It didn't have to be too late. 10. We
might not have heard about them again. 11. You would have been allowed/could have
used my car if you had wanted. 12. You could have said when you'd be back, you know.
13. The children were allowed to watch the film that day. 14. He ought to have been
punished. 15. You should have been nice to her.
Exercise 101
1. b 2. b 3. a 4. a 5. a 6. b 7. b 8. b 9. aID. b 11. a 12. b 13. a 14. b 15. b.
had never been born 18. would/might have recovered 19. would have hurried 20. had
been 2]. might have made 22. needn't have withered 23. might have taken 24. mighlnol
have rejected 25. might have been 26. wouldn't have had 27. would I have (had) 28. had
not written.
Exercise 107
1. could have made, needn't have starved 2. want to pass, mustn't/can't waste 3. could
anticipate, would/could make 4. weren't, would/might have invited 5. would mind 6.
have travelled 7. should have/ought to have helped, had asked 8. have offended 9. were.
might marry 10. had taken, might have caught 11. would have told 12. want to spend,
must let me know] 3. were going 14. were to have received, would have been IS. would
be, could introduce 16. wouldn't be wondering. had listened 17. for my parents' help.
would never have bought 18. should decide, ask 19. could have come 20. hadn't told.

Exercise 102 Exercise 108

I. a 2. a 3. a 4. a 5. b 6. a 7. a 8. a 9. biD. a 11. a 12. b 13. b 14. a J5. b. I. poszukujil/szukajil 2. robicie/jestdcie zajyci 3. staral siy/wysilal siy 4. czeka nas 5.
gardzisz 6. jest w przyjaini/dobrych stosunkach 7. jedziemy 8. jest jui po piycdziesi,!tcc
9. jestd w tej komisji 10. naklad siy wyczerpal I I. nie czuje sir; najlepiej 12. jest
Exercise 103
wykluczony 13. bydziemy mieli z gorki 14. ma przeciw sobie 15. jest taki sk'lPY.
1. need hardly 2. may have been 3. will 4. may have been waiting 5. can't be 6.
may not be 7. might/could make 8. didn't have to 9. will havc ID. would have had Exercise 109
to 11. had to 12. should/ought to be 13. musn't be lilled 14. might/could IS. must
1. byc umowionym/miec spotkanie 2. wyk'lpac siy/wzi,!c sobie k<lpiel/wziqc prysznic 3.
cheat 16. must be cheating 17. couldn't have been 18. could raise hell 19. has to
20. may not have. kaszlee/miee kaszel 4. mice randky 5. miec/wziile wolne/wolny dziel1 6. wypic/napic sil;
drinka 7. mice wplyw/wplywae 8. miee grypy 9. miee szczyscie 10. spojrzec/rozejrzec sir;
Exercise 104 11. zjese posilek 12. odpocz<!e 13. prz<~myslee raz jeszcze ]4. doznac szoku 15.
porozmawiae.
I. must 2. musn't it be 3. can hardly/can't 4. might/could/can 5. can be 6. might be 7.
may have to 8. can't be 9. can't have come 10. must be, mustn't 11. could have
Exercise 110
happened 12. can't have found out 13. can be 14. may not have got 15. should/ought to
1. about for, on 2. from 3. up 4. down 5. up for 6. forward 7. of, for 8. up 9. on 10. in
have grated 16. needn't have gone 17. have to, can't speak 18. have to 19. needn't/don't
need to tell 20. must, mustn't, must. upon ] 1. off/out/in/over/across 12. to 13. with ]4. out against 15. out.

Exercise 105 Exercise 111

I. to 2. on 3. with, in 4. down, off 5. down/off 6. out/up/off 7. forward to 8.
I. had insured, wouldn't have 2. would do 3. not been for, wouldn't have been put 4.
off/through/over 9. O/off 10. up with] 1. out/up 12. off/out/in ]3. against 14. out 15.
hadn't told 5. shall/will serve, will/would take 6. had let, wouldn't be coming 7. shall/will, out.
will 8. didn't have, wouldn't have managed 9. wouldn't crowd 10. will accept, will/shall
write I!. hadn't missed, wouldn't be waiting 12. hadn't been for, wouldn't have found out
Exercise 112
]3. had taken ]4. hadn't interrupted, wouldn't be 15. But for, wouldn't have happened.
I. from 2. of/to 3. to 4. down on 5. with 6. on 7. at 8. from 9. (of) 10. of 11. to 12. up 13.
Exercise 106 with 14. with 15. on.
I. should happen 2. could look 3. could/might let me know 4. had ever met 5. would
have asked 6. could have asked 7. might not have happened 8. could never have been 9. Exercise 113
hadn't certain people lived ID. are 11. can go 12. want to 13. would 1 have been able to I. at/by 2. of3. to 4. in 5. in 6. in, with 7. to 8. to 9. to ]0. towards/to 11. on 12. with I~.
go 14. had never seen the light 15. would be interesting 16. would have happened 17. in 14. on, to 15. to.

212 213
~ '"'" • g ~ ~ ~ .•••. '" __ "-, .•• b ..I .•••.••. _ ~ ••.•.••..
Exercise 114
1. at 2. on. with 4. of 5. up with 6. about 7. with 8. at/with, with 9. upon 10. with 11. to
12. to 13. of 14. with IS. to.
Exercise liS
I. Don't omit to. tell them everything. 2. They take pride in their daughter,
a famous pianist. 3. John hasn't been driving since he crashed into a tree. 4.
You must be a fool/idiot to trust her. 5. Suddenly, I realized that I was being
made fun of. 6. The boss was beside himself with rage when he heard the news.
7. I have not advised his going there. 8. Don't attempt taking/to take the exam
so soon. 9. The policemen heard him approaching and observed him going into
the building. 10. I can't bear his/him talking to you like that. 11. Their quarrel
is the best example of a misunderstanding. 12. Are you going to enter into
an agreement with the Unions? 13. We are happy about the increase in production
in the last year. 14. I don't think I'll buy this necklace. It lacks in delicacy.
IS. Patients are operated on every Tuesday and Thursday.
Exercise 116
I. The reason for the accident/crash is not known yet. 2. I hate the thought of going
back to work tomorrow. 3. The motif of the cross is typical of Celtic art. 4. I would like
to discuss the new proposal with you. 5. When are you going to marry Robert? 6.
Visitors musn't enter the operating theatre. 7. The train is approaching Russell Square.
Stand clear of the door. 8. They are not twins so they can't be the same age. 9. Where
shall I send the flowers to? 10. I didn't expect you to leave. 11. Have them be quiet. 12.
Did she intend us to know? 13. I would prefer there to be no public discussion of my
affairs. 14. I know this man to have robbed banks. IS. Do you think it odd that he
should live alone in this huge house?
Exercise 117
1. I must request you to leave immediately. 2. The leak caused the ship to sink. 3.
Suddenly, I smelt the dinner burning. 4. If you take the car to the garage today, when
will you have it repaired? 5. I like being asked. 6. I hate it when the film is too long/I
hate the film to be too long. 7. I can't have you work so late. 8. It's a serious matter to
suppose him to have been a spy. 9. There is nothing to make a fuss about. 10. To have
gone anywhere by car in yesterday's blizzard would have been madness. 11. Your hair
needs cutting/to be cut. 12. It is unthinkable that the Prime Minister should resign just
now. 13. The police are prompt to react. 14. I wouldn't want there to be another war.
IS. She had her bag stolen.
Exercise 118
1. This house is to let. 2. There is a man to see you. 3. These fields stretch (for) hundreds
of kilometres. 4. It wasn't any use pretending we didn't see them. 5. We are waiting for
John to come. 6. Mary went pale at the news. 7. Children have no idea of the value of
214
__ ..•.••• ••••••.••
,.
money. 8. You are not afraid to go alone, are you? 9. The children were impatient for
the bus to start again. 10. My teachers are hard to please. 11. Mary will be (a) secretary
to the n.::w doctor. 12. I have a craving for ice-cream. 13. You have no occasion to
worry. 14. I am waiting for my grown-up son to express a wish to earn his living. IS. His
wife delights in luxurious things.
Exercise 119
1. His uncle recommended a good hotel to a group of English tourists. 2. Please describe
his behaviour to me. 3. They elected her chairperson. 4. Jack was found. 5. Professor
Smith teaches history/English/maths .... 6. We consider him a hero. 7. He knows
mathematics well. 8. He enjoys every party he goes to. 9. She never cooks him
dinner/dinner for him 10. They painted their house white and dark blue.
Exercise 120
1. Breakfast is served in your room. 2. Unexpectedly, I have been/was given an Indian
shawl. 3. An exception has been/was made. 4. I'm sure it will be done/made next week/It
is sure to be done/made next week. 5. Your hospitality will never be forgotten. 6. My
flat is cleaned every day. 7. Why was the shop closed at 6 p. m. ? 8. Smoking is
forbidden. 9. Music will be heard in our flat. 10. I was told you had been to Morocco
two years ago. 11. It is believed that apples are healthier than oranges/ Apples are
believed to be healthier than oranges. 12. This shoe can be easily mended/can easilly be
mended. 13. The new computers will be shown to the students on Thursday. 14. My
father has been/was made general. IS. He has been/was asked a very difficult question.
Exercise 121
1. M6wi si~, ze Jan jest dobrym poetq. 2. Widziano, jak samoch6d byl kradzio-
ny/Widziano samoch6d, jak byl kradziony. 3. Ta sprawa b~dzie musiala bye zalatwiona
natychmiast. 4. Tlumaczenie stalo si~ troch~ niezrozumiale pod koniec. 5. Paczki
otrzymano wczoraj. 6. Dostal nauczk~, kiedy przegral kolejny raz. 7. Kiedy si~
ubierzesz? 8. Pisze si~, ze ona wychodzi za mqz po raz dziewiqty. 9. Inspektorowi
skradziono wczoraj samoch6d. 10. Machano do tlum6w za stopni samochodu. 11. Dr
Johnson jest pilnie potrzebny na sali operacyjnej. 12. Oczekuje si~, ze przyjadq rano. 13.
M6wiono, ze Jan nic sobie nie robil z jej ostrzezenia. 14. Dzieckiem opiekowala si~
baby-sitterka. IS. Przypuszczano, ze zgubili si~ z powodu g~stej mgly.
Exercise 122
1. has 2. is 3. wants 4. hundred dollars is 5. were 6. were/was 7. is a student 8. was/were
9. are/am 10. is 11. was/were 12. have 13. were/was 14. are IS. get to their.
Exercise 123
1. have/has 2. have been clapping their 3. have been 4. is 5. have been 6. smoke 7.
have/has rocked 8. is 9. were/was 10. were/was, was 11. were 12. were 13. are 14. are 15. is.
215
.., ~ '- •••. ~ ~ ".' ~ ,~ .-. ••..• .<L ••• ., , M .••• ~ •• "~~ > £ ~ ~ ~ ~M:''''-''- _" • _ M • _ ~
.1

Exercise 124
established everywhere. 5. The former group contains those who discovered they had no
1. are 2. are 3. was 4. were 5. have/eat 6. are 7. are 8. is/are 9. is, are 10. is 11. are, talent. 6. He was ordered to do it on pain of death. 7. It is connected mainly with the
interests 12. is/are 13. is 14. are 15. are. econmic changes our country is undergoing/has been undergoing/has undergone. 8. The
author presents man as God's best creation. 9. G 10. The mad rush has begun to private
Exercise 125 lessons in English, which have reached exorbitant prices. 11. The internal combustion
1. Fortunately, Tom won't sing his songs today/Tom fortunately won't sing his engine has revolutionised transport/the transport system. 12. She knew she would lose
songs today/Tom won't sing his songs today, fortunately. 2. Mark is leaving for face if she agreed. 13. She did not care about being caught red-handed. 14. I thought
Rome soon/Mark is soon leaving for Rome/Soon, Mark is leaving for Rome. 3. I heard footsteps in the hall. 15. In my opinion, the show was great.
You must open this door quickly/You must quickly open this door. 4. He is
seldom wrong. 5. They will never forgive me. 6. I saw Ann there today. 7. Exercise 129
Stephen noticed something there yesterday/Yesterday, Stephen noticed something 1. She said that her father was a businessman and earned a lot of money. 2. Yesterday
there. 8. It has irritated us a little. 9. Show it to me/Show me it. 10. The Japanese we went to the Czartoryski M useum, whose collection is among the best in Europe. 3.
publisher is proposing an entirely different solution to us. 11. They already know G 4. The writer stood up and looked at the pictures on the wall. 5. The councillors
this/They know this already. 12. I talked to him in the corridor yesterday/Yester- decided to spend the taxpayers' money only on things which are really important. 6. He
day, I talked to him in the corridor. 13. On no condition should YOl1 give it up saw a boat bobbing on the waves. 7. Since you have to spend some days here, you really
just now. 14. Explain to me why you are always late 15. He ask('d when Eva was must decide what to visit. 8. The latest Japanese game seems to be a new/another craze.
coming back. 9. The only striking object which seems out of place is a huge fortress-like building in
the middle of the plateau. 10. ] tried to tell him he was mistaken/to put him right/to
Exercise 126 correct his mistake. I]. The monkey played another trick on me. 12. I hid in the
1. Rightly or wrongly, 2. Hc had anxiously inc;uircd /He had doorway. 13. A lot of things have happened since I wrote last. 14. Nearby, a little child
inquired about her health anxiously. 3. Bulgaria made peace independently. 4. was sleeping in his mother's arms. 15. 1 think that money should rather be spent on the
Few children can sit still for any length of time. 5. I shall nearly have . most important things.
/1 nearly shall have /1 shall have nearly finished 6. Peter practically
called John a liar. 7. I am entirely satisfied with my car. 8. Peter is by far Exercise 130
the bravest man I know. 9. The boss angrily dcmanded to see you/The boss 1. why people often choose to emigrate rather than to live unhappily in their
demanded to see you angrily. 10. I am arriving at London Airport at 3 o'clock own countries. 2. G, but it is better withqut myself 3. The point is not so much in (the)
in the afternoon. 11. It is impolite to arrive late at the meeting. 12. He cbviously culture as in the modern attitude. 4. What follows is the best description of the efforts
knew her/Obviously, he knew her. 13. I walked to the theatre' over a bridge we made. 5. ] have never learnt to follow advice. 6. This kind of joy is familiar to thosc
yesterday evening. 14. He worded the letter carefully. 15. The children behav('d who have raised children. 7. People learn/man learns best from their/his own mistakes.
well. 8. He does not resemble/remind me of the ecstatic poet. 9. Narrative poems were quite
a popular kind (of writing) in those days. 10. For a moment it was she who seemed (to
Exercise 127 be) the victor. 11. He disobeys the three classical unities. 12. Some of these objects have
the form/are in the form of a bird's head. 13. Children are helpless at such moments. 14.
1. It didn't take semantics into account. 2. I want to explain this to you. 3. I translated
This device can prevent serious and permanent damage. 15. Then I learned why they
the document to him as 1 read it. 4. There are some books on the table. 5. They are very
were making so much noise.
busy and cannot devote cnough time to their childrcn. 6. I was at home yesterday. 7.
She never cooks dinner for him. 8. He knows mathematics well. 9. We considered him
Exercise 131
a hero. 10. I can't imagine how she could solve it.
1. The first step consists of finding a gene, which is being done 2. As usual, the
broken-hearted 3. Thanks to the mass-media 4. It is stimulating for
Exercise 128
neither side of the argument/conflict. 5. Others are made to practise it. 6. This
G = grammatical undoubtedly proves the significance of religion in our lives. 7. I spent most of the time
I. G 2. He did not describe the beautiful landscape to/for me. 3. Lest further escapes observing my sister. 8 than a person who makes a fool or himself. 9. Sinee that
should follow, a prison sentry in the watch-tuwer has been ordered to raise the alarm time] haven't trusted the government's promises. 10. It is often considered strangc that
immediately he should see anything suspicious. 4. Freedom of speech should be people collect/accumulate things. 11. G 12. G. the h/llll oj'lIn engine also possible 13. It is

216
:217
no longer as creative a process as it used to be. 14 replaceable with Polish
equivalents. 15. There, overwhelmed with admiration, he watched the perfomers for
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Exercise 132
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......... to ask for it back At the end of the evening she handed it to him
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Fisiak, l. (ed.) 1981. Contrastive Linguistics and the Language Teacher. Oxford:
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Wydanie I. Ark. druk. 14.

Druk ukonczollo w pazdzierniku 1997 r.

SKL"D: DRUKARNIA UNIWERSYTETU JAGIELLONSKII'GO

KRAK6w. UL CZAPSKICH 4
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L6DZ. UL ZWIRKI c