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Scientific approach in table tennis

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Scientific approach in table tennis and
tennis in Slovenia
Edited by Miran Kondrič, Aleš Filipčič
Endorsed:
by the International Table Tennis Federation
and
by the International Tennis Federation

First published 2009
by Sport Books Publisher
278 Robert Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 2K8, Canada
MPO Box 2583, Niagara Falls, New York 14302, USA
© 2009. Miran Kondrič and Aleš Filipčič for selectional and editorial
matter; individual chapters, the contributors
Typset in University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Sport, Slovenia

Printed and bound in Slovenia by
Aip Tiskarna. Murska Sobota, Slovenia
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced

or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writting form from the publishers or editors.
ISBN 13: 978-0-920905-99-9

Contents
List of figures VI
List of tables VIII
List of contributors XI
Preface XIII
PART 1: TABLE TENNIS
Miran Kondrič, Gordana Furjan-Mandić, Vedran Hadžić, Edvin

Dervišević, Branka Matković
1 Comparison of injuries between top Slovenian table tennis
players and top Slovenian tennis and badminton players 03
Miran Kondrič, Gordana Furjan-Mandić, Vladmir Medved

2 Myoelectric comparison of table tennis forehand stroke
using different ball sizes 17
Miran Kondrič, Gordana Furjan-Mandić, Radoje Milič

3 Physiological anaerobic characteristics of slovenian elite
table tennis players 29
Miran Kondrič, Vladimir Medved, Mario Kasović, Gordana

Furjan-Mandić, Uroš Slatinšek
4 Differences in grf executing forehand topspin with
different balls 43
Miran Kondrič, Vladimir Medved, Arnold Baca, Mario Kasović,

Gordana Furjan-Mandić, Uroš Slatinšek
5 Kinematic analysis of top spin stroke with balls of two
different sizes 53
Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia ~ III ~

Miran Kondrič, Matej Supej, Bojan Nemec, Radivoj Hudetz,
Jure Koščak
6 Possibilities to reduce speed and spin by changing the
thickness of sponge, upper layer or total thickness of 61
sandwich rubber
Miran Kondrič
7 The expert system for orientation of children into table
tennis in the Republic of Slovenia 73
Miran Kondrič, Bojan Leskošek

8 Computer supported system for the evaluation of fitness of
Slovenian youth table tennis players 83
PART 2: TENNIS
Aleš Filipčič
9 Injuries in tennis from the aspect of training factors 99
Aleš Filipčič
10 Correlation of tennis motor skills and basic anthropometric
characteristics and its influence on the competition
successfulness of young tennis players 111
Aleš Filipčič
11 Regression analysis of tennis-specific motor abilities and the
competition efficiency of young female tennis players 127
Aleš Filipčič, Janez Perš, Ajda Klevišar

12 Comparison of distance covered between young male and
female tennis players 143
~ IV ~ Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia

Aleš Filipčič
13 Comparison of parents’ and coaches’ behaviour towards
male and female tennis players in different ages
149
Aleš Filipčič
14 Reliable and valid tests in tennis 163
Tjaša Filipčič, Aleš Filipčič

15 Time and game analysis at the men’s Grand slam tennis
tournaments finals 179
Tjaša Filipčič, Aleš Filipčič, Janez Perš

16 Comparative analysis of time, playing and movement
factors between two different quality groups of wheelchair
tennis players 195

17 Analysis of time characteristics in wheelchair tennis 201

18 Stroke analysis in wheelchair tennis 215
Aleš Filipčič, Tjaša Filipčič

19 Relation between two aerobic capacity tests and competitive
successfulness of junior tennis players 221
Subject Index 236
Authors Index 242
Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia ~V~

Figures
1.1 Training and competitive status of top athlete 08
1.2 Injury location 09
1.3 Injuries of individual parts 09
2.1 Electrodes placement 22
2.2a EMG signal of m. deltoideus anterior with 38 mm ball 23
2.2b EMG signal of m. deltoideus anterior with 40 mm ball 23
2.3a EMG signal of m. pectoralis major with 38 mm ball 23
2.3b EMG signal of m. pectoralis major with 40 mm ball 23
2.4 Mean values of EMG signals 24
3.1 Anaerobic performance capacity (relative to body mass)
of elite male Israeli athletes in various sport events and
Slovenian table tennis players 39
3.2 Anaerobic performance capacity (relative to body mass)
of elite female Israeli athletes in various sport events and
Slovenian table tennis players 39
4.1 Graphic description median values of maximal GRF peak
in vertical direction two sizes of ball, 38 and 40
millimeters 48
in antero-posterior direction two sizes of ball, 38 and 40
millimeters 48
in transverse direction two sizes of ball, 38 and 40
millimeters 49
5.1 Forehand strike with 38-mm ball 57
5.2 Forehand strike with 40-mm ball 57
5.3 Elbow angles striking 38 and 40 mm ball 57
5.4 Difference in range of motion between two types of ball in
elbow joint 58
5.5 Elbow movement 58
6.1 Difference between different rubbers– angle 1 and angle 2 68
8.1 Data model 88
8.2 Window of the SMMS program with the Test Results form 89
8.3 Form for editing of the ND models 90
8.4 Presentation of the results in form of a chart 91
8.5 Profile report (opened in MS Word) 92
~ VI ~ Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia

8.6 ND Report 93
15.1 Court zones for return and other strokes (forehand,
backhand, volley, smash...) 185
15.2 Court zones for serve 185
17.1a Tennis court 206
17.1b Camera above the tennis court 206
17.1c Recording equipment 206
17.2 Diagram of the winner's and loser's movement in the total
playing time of a selected match 208
17.3 Distribution of active phases into four time classes 209
17.4 Ratio of active and passive part in wheelchair tennis 210
17.5 Time spent in particular field for winners and losers 212
19.1 Correlation between VO2max and CS 226
19.2 Correlation between RT2400 and CS 227
19.3 Correlation between RT2400 and VO2max 227
Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia ~ VII ~

Tables
1.1 Basic data of monitored athletes (source: Epidemiologija
športnih poškodb v RS [Epidemiology of sports injuries];
Dervišević, Hadžić, 2002) 07
1.2 Injury location 08
1.3 Percentage of injuries per individual sport 09
1.4 Injury occurrence in table tennis during preparation and
competition period 10
1.5 Sum of all injuries reported by athletes (table tennis) 10
1.6 Comparison between table tennis players and other players
(tennis and badminton) (One-way ANOVA table) 11
2.1 Basic parameters of EMG signals in mV (descriptive
statistics) 24
2.2 Results of ANOVA 25
3.1 Anaerobic capacities of selected male table tennis players 35
3.2 Anaerobic capacities of selected female table tennis players 35
3.3 One-way ANOVA table 36
3.4 Canonical discriminant function 37
3.5 Anaerobic performance capacity of Slovenian and
Australian table tennis players 39
4.1 Wilcoxon matched pairs test results between variables Fz
max 38 and Fz max 40 47
4.2 Wilcoxon matched pairs test results between variables Fx
max 38 and Fx max 40 48
4.3 Wilcoxon matched pairs test results between variables Fy
max 38 and Fy max 40 49
5.1 Basic data of peaks in range motion of elbow joint 58
5.2 Elbow movement 58
6.1 Differences between different rubbers (Bonferroni -
Multiple Comparisons) – 1.8mm 66
6.4 Significant differences between different rubbers (One-way
ANOVA) 69
7.1 Basic battery of criteria for the evaluation of sports talent
and the tests to measure them 77
~ VIII ~ Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia

7.2 An example of raw and transformed test scores 78
7.3 Criteria tree 79
7.4 An example of a computer printout 79
8.1 Motor results by SPSS 91
9.1 General characteristics of the subject sample 104
9.2 Selected predictor variables 105
9.3 Comparison of the number of injuries in male tennis
players by anatomic location 106
9.4 Connection between the dependent and independent
variables 106
10.1 Predictor variables 116
10.2 Basic statistical parameters of female tennis players 117
10.3 Basic statistical parameters of male tennis players 118
10.4 Correlation between tennis motor and morphological
variables of female tennis players 118
10.5 Correlation between tennis motor and morphological
variables of male tennis players 119
10.6 Regresion analysis for female tennis players 120
10.7 Regression analysis for male tennis players 121
11.2 Predictor variables 135
11.3 Basic statistical parameters of female tennis players 136
11.4 Regression analysis of female tennis players 137
12.1 Results of descriptive statistics for distance covered by boys
and girls 146
12.2 Results of descriptive statistics for distance covered by
losers and winners 146
12.3 Results of T-test for distance covered by boys - girls and
losers - winners 146
13.1 Basic statistical parameters for boys 155
13.2 Basic statistical parameters for girls 156
13.3 Comparison of assessments of fathers’, mothers' and tennis
coaches’ behaviour by gender between all age categories 157
13.4 Comparison of assessments of fathers’, mothers' and tennis
coaches’ behaviour between age categories 157
14.1 Predictor variables - motor tests 165
14.2 Reliability coefficients of the motor tests 168
Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia ~ IX ~

14.3 Reliability coefficient of the coaches' grades 169
14.4 Intercorrelation matrix of the tests and criterion variable 169
14.5 Eigenvalues, Hotelling method 171
14.6 Pattern matrix (parallel projections) 172
14.7 Structure matrix (orthogonal projections) 173
14.8 Inter-correlation matrix 174
14.9 The results of regression with the chosen basic motor and
tennis tests on the criterion 175
15.1 Basic data about individual final matches 184
15.2 Time characteristics of individual matches 188
15.3 Game characteristics and position of hits in individual final
matches 191
17.1 Total playing time, number of active and passive phases,
number of strokes 205
17.2 Time variables in wheelchair tennis matches 207
17.3 Descriptive statistics of time spent in particular field for
winners 211
17.4 Descriptive statistics of time spent in particular field for
losers 211
17.5 Differences between winners and losers in observed
wheelchair tennis matches 213
18.2 A comparison of match data (n=22) of elite and
recreational male wheelchair tennis players 218
18.3 Percentage (%) of winner strokes 218
18.4 Percentage (%) of errors 219
19.2 Descriptive statistics 225
19.3 Correlations between predictor variables and criterion
variable 225
~ X~ Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia

List of contributors
Miran Kondrič 03, 17, 29, 43, 53, 61, 73, 83
Aleš Filipčič 99, 111, 127, 143, 149, 163, 179, 195,
201, 215, 221
Arnold Baca 53
Edvin Dervišević 03
Tjaša Filipčič 179, 195, 201, 215, 221
Gordana Furjan-Mandić 03, 17, 29, 43, 53
Vedran Hadžić 03
Radivoj Hudetz 61
Mario Kasović 43, 53
Ajda Klevišar 141
Jure Koščak 61
Bojan Leskošek 83
Branka Matković 03
Vladmir Medved 17, 43, 53
Radoje Milič 29
Bojan Nemec 61
Janez Perš 141, 193
Uroš Slatinšek 43, 53
Matej Supej 61
Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia ~ XI ~

PREFACE
This academic monograph presents the results of researches done

at the University of Ljubljana, Faculty of sport, Slovenia. The expansion
of sports science together with the commercialization of table tennis and
tennis in recent years have directed attention on improved performance.
This has led to a more detailed study and understanding of all aspects of
the two games. Racket sports, especially table tennis and tennis, have
also posed a unique challenge to scientists and have provided means for
developing scientific methodology.
The main tasks of the researches provided by the Department of
racket sports at the Faculty of sport in Ljubljana are to promote scientific
research and study as well as technical development with the aim of
advancing all four racket sports (tennis, table tennis, badminton and
squash) as well as improving performances of the elite athletes.
At the Department of racket sports the following research areas
have become the ascendant ones: improvement of the elite athletes’
ability of competitive performances, methods of observation and
measurement of players’ physique, sporting instruments and equipment,
prediction, validation and evaluation of factors which have an important
influence on the athlete’s performance and success, analysis of the
influence of training factors on the type and number of injuries, dealing
with players’ psychological pressure caused by parents and coaches.
Also development and use of new technologies such as the tracking
system for description of athlete’s movement and game characteristics
are of major importance respectively. In this regard athletes with
physical impairments (special needs), taking part in sports activities on a
wheelchair, play an important role as well.
The present monograph is based upon the authors’ long practical
and theoretical experience and generalization of the achievements in
projecting long-term training programme in table tennis and tennis. This
book addresses sports scientists, coaches, athletes, pedagogues, students
of physical education and higher education institutions of sport, faculties
of physical education and kinesiology.
We hope that the present monograph will stimulate many of our
colleagues throughout the world to enhance research in the field of table
tennis and tennis
Ljubljana, March 2009

Authors
Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia ~ XIII ~

Table tennis
Photo by: Miran Kondrič

Tennis
Photo by: Aleš Filipčič

Part 1
TABLE TENNIS
Comparison of injuries between top Slovenian table tennis…
Miran Kondrič, Gordana Furjan-Mandić, Vedran Hadžić, Edvin

Dervišević, Branka Matković
Comparison of injuries between top Slovenian

table tennis players and top Slovenian tennis and
badminton players
Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia ~3~

Comparison of injuries between top Slovenian table tennis
players and top Slovenian tennis and badminton players
ABSTRACT
As a result of increasing participation, intensity, demands and
longer training periods, the potential risk of injuries in sport seems to
increase in all levels of athletes. It is necessary to understand what
factors have to be involved in an injury-prevention strategy for table
tennis. On the sample of 83 top Slovenian athletes we have studied the
frequency of injuries among table tennis, tennis and badminton players,
types of injuries and severity of injuries – the latter based on data of
players absences from training and/or competition processes. Although
table tennis is one of the less risky sports, there are some injuries in best
Slovenian table tennis players. The most liable parts to injuries are
shoulder girdle (21,05%), spine (15,79%) and hips (15,79%), while
ankle (13,16%), foot and wrist (10,53%) are slightly less liable to
injuries. According to this data, the majority of injuries occur halfway
through a training session or a competition event, mostly during a
competition season. The injuries primarily pertain to muscle tissues;
these are followed by joint and tendon injuries. There are no differences
between male and female table tennis players. Compared to other racket
sports players, table tennis players suffer from fewer injuries.
Key words: table tennis, tennis, badminton, injuries
INTRODUCTION
Millions of people around the world regularly participate in sports
and physical activities. Sports and physical activities are usually
considered beneficial for an individual as well as for the society as a
whole, as a certain amount of exercise is an important element in health
promotion. Interest in sport activities has grown in recent years because
of the increase in leisure time as well as the belief that general health can
be enhanced by improved physical fitness (Peterson, & Renström, 1986).
Table tennis is not only one of the most popular sports in the
world but also one of the most common sports for people in aged from 7
to 99 not only as recreational sport, but also as sport for rehabilitation.
Table tennis is an ideal sport for young and old because of its extremely
low risk of injury (Kondrič, Furjan-Mandić, Mišigoj-Duraković, &
Karpljuk, 2001). The statistical data on acute and chronic injuries in
sport show that table tennis is way at the end of the list. There are hardly
~4~ Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia

any injuries reported in recreational table tennis (Weber, 1982; Scott,

1992; Hochenbichler, 1992). The sport itself and through this also table
tennis has to be fun and rewarding. It has to capture a large number of
lifetime participants. Table tennis meets all the criteria and that’s why it
is the most played racket sport in the world for young and old.
A number of top athletes in Slovenia is increasing which means
that we are facing a problem of sport injuries. Because these injuries
occur during sport activities (training and competition), the role of
physicians goes beyond a mere diagnosis and injury treatment;
Physicians are required to take part in the rehab process, training
advisory, they help athletes get back to practicing sport and help
decrease the risk of potential injuries. Having this in mind, we must be
aware of the problem complexity. Namely, not only we need to treat an
injured athlete, the treatment must start as soon as possible as most
athletes wish to return to training and competitions in the shortest time
possible. As a result, sport physicians must very well know the strains
athletes are exposed to in a particular sport. In addition they must have
the knowledge of patho-physiology of sport injuries. It can be stated that
a sport physician, who only treats the injured not offering help to get the
athletes back to sport activities, is only doing half of his/her job
(Dervišević, & Hadžić, 2002).
The potential risk of injuries in sport seems to increase for all
levels of athletes with increasing participation, intensity and demands, as
well as longer training periods.
As with any other sport, there are some injuries that are typical of
table tennis. Sport medicine findings, along with medicine and science
findings, inevitably contribute to injury prevention and injury treatment
programs for table tennis players. For effective prevention, it is
important to understand the functional anatomy and patho-physiology of
injuries of different tissues. For injury prevention it is also necessary to
understand the importance of excessive load and how these loads are
distributed, sports-injury mechanisms, and the biochemical response of
body tissues to impact and overuse
(Kondrič, &Furjan-Mandić, 2003).
Sports medical examinations of
table tennis players should not merely be
an additional examination by a primary
care physician. A physician must have,
in addition to expertise in anatomy and
physiology of the human body, also a

profound knowledge of various loads, which often reach the limit or
even exceed an athlete’s physiological capabilities.
Generally, sport injuries can be classified as trauma and overuse
injuries. Trauma injuries occur as a consequence of a specific accident or
event. Such injuries are sprains and dislocations. Overuse injuries
develop gradually and they can occur during a training or competition,
or they gradually develop for weeks or months. A typical example of
overuse injury is Achilles tendon injury. The player first feels a slight
pain after a training process. Over the night, the pain is gone but
reappears after each consecutive training. The damage progressively
becomes worse and results in serious problems. Causes of sport injuries
vary, from inadequate warming up, insufficient physical shape,
inappropriate training, short rehabilitation process, biomechanical
equilibrium and anatomic factors, improper sport technique,
inappropriate footwear, inappropriate protective equipment,
inappropriate practicing surface, violating the fairplay, previous injuries
and other.
Common injuries in racket sports are rotator cuff tendinitis (»dead
arm«), »King-Kong« arm (over-development of dominant arm), tennis
elbow, forearm nerve entrapments, low back pain, abdominal wall
sprain, tennis leg and eye injuries (Sherry, & Bokor, 1997).
The aetiology of overuse injury is multifactorial, involving both
intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic factors are related to the athletes
themselves, including anatomical, alignment, growth/age, muscle tendon
imbalance, genetic endowment, general health, nutritional status and
prior injury (Sparrow, 2001; in
Maffullin et al, 2001). Extrinsic
factors include training error,
equipment inadequacy and
environmental factors (Brukner, &
Khan, 1997). The impact of each of
these factors on the clinical
presentation needs to be evaluated in
order to gain an accurate diagnosis
around which the treatment can be
planned.
A good knowledge of these factors and appropriate measures
taken to solve them is a prerequisite to prevent a number of injuries, or
at least to decrease the injury incidence and severity.
The incidence of injury levels needs to be reduced and it can be
achieved by concentrating more on preventative measures.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Within the project Epidemiology of sport injuries in Slovenia, 83
top Slovenian athletes (table tennis 29, tennis 39 and badminton 15)
were questioned. At the time when the questionnaires were distributed,
these athletes had an international or national ranking (as per Slovenian
Olympic Committee criteria).
For the purpose of this study, a questionaire of 15 questions
pertaining to sport injuries among top Slovenian athletes was used.
Data has been processed by the SPSS software for PC at the
computer data processing department of the Institute of kinesiology,
Faculty of Sport. The basic statistical parameters have been calculated
(mean, standard deviation, frequency of answers). To ascertain
differences between individual sports, the analysis of variance ANOVA
has been used.
RESULTS
In this project, 83 questionnaires were mailed to top Slovenian
athletes, among which 29 are table tennis players. The questionnaires
were mailed to those athletes who were listed in the publication by The
Slovenian Olympic Committee »Obvestila – seznam kategoriziranih
športnikov v Republiki Sloveniji« [Announcements – list of categorized
athletes in the Republic of Slovenia], and whose medical records were at
the same time at the clinic of sports medicine CMŠ in Ljubljana.
According to the instructions provided, all 83 athletes returned the
questionnaires – 50 male (60,2%) and 33 (39,8%) female athletes. The
average age of the athletes questioned was 19,5 years.
Table 1.1: Basic data of monitored athletes (source: Epidemiologija

športnih poškodb v RS [Epidemiology of sports injuries]; Dervišević,
Hadžić, 2002)
TABLE TENNIS TENNIS BADMINTON

Std. Std. Std. Std. Std. Std.
N Mean N Mean N Mean
Error Dev. Error Dev. Error Dev.
AGE 29 19,52 ,78 4,21 39 19,23 ,71 4,42 15 21,53 1,10 4,26
HEIGHT 29 177,34 1,19 6,40 39 178,64 1,36 8,47 15 174,67 2,21 8,57
WEIGHT 29 669,31 12,33 66,40 39 685,90 13,17 82,23 15 670,00 20,95 81,15

Figure 1.1: Training and competitive status of top athlete
40
35
30
25
percent
20
15
10
0
one year two years three years four years five and more years missing data
Table 1.2: Injury location
Racket- Racket sports

Table tennis Tennis Badminton
sports Cumulative
Head 0,00% 0,00% 2,78% 0,72% 0,72%
Neck 0,00% 4,62% 0,00% 2,16% 2,88%
Shoulder 21,05% 13,85% 11,11% 15,11% 17,99%
Upper arm 0,00% 0,00% 0,00% 0,00% 17,99%
Forearm 0,00% 1,54% 2,78% 1,44% 19,43%
Wrist 10,53% 13,85% 11,11% 12,23% 31,66%
Fingers 0,00% 0,00% 0,00% 0,00% 31,66%
Trunk 2,63% 3,08% 0,00% 2,16% 33,82%
Spine 15,79% 15,38% 19,44% 16,55% 50,32%
Hip 15,79% 1,54% 2,78% 5,76% 56,08%
Femur 7,89% 12,31% 8,33% 10,07% 66,15%
Knee 2,63% 1,54% 5,56% 2,88% 69,03%
Shank 0,00% 3,08% 13,89% 5,04% 74,07%
Ankle 13,16% 20,00% 11,11% 15,83% 89,93%
Foot 10,53% 9,23% 11,11% 10,07% 100,00%

Figure 1.2: Injury location
Foot
Ankle
Shank
Knee
Femur
Hip
Spine
Trunk
Fingers
Wrist
Forearm
Upper arm
Shoulder
Neck
Head
0,00% 5,00% 10,00% 15,00% 20,00% 25,00%
Table Tennis Badminton Tennis Racquetsports
Figure 1.3: Injuries of individual parts

60,00%
50,00%
40,00%
30,00%
20,00%
10,00%
0,00%
Skin Muscles Tendon Bones Joint
Badminton Table tennis Tennis Racquetsports
Table 1.3: Percentage of injuries per individual sport

Skin Muscles Tendon Bones Joint
Table tennis 0,00% 52,63% 13,16% 13,16% 21,05%

Tennis 0,00% 49,23% 10,77% 4,62% 35,38%
Badminton 2,78% 50,00% 27,78% 5,56% 13,89%
Racket sports 0,72% 50,36% 15,83% 7,19% 25,90%

Table 1.4: Injury occurrence in table tennis during preparation and
competition period
During practice During competition
Together1 In the In the
In the middle At the end In the middle At the end
beginning beginning
In
preparation 14 4 28,57% 4 28,57% 4 28,57% 1 7,14% 0 0,00% 1 7,14%
period
In
competition 25 4 16,00% 5 20,00% 4 16,00% 2 8,00% 6 24,00% 4 16,00%
period
TOGETHER 2 8 9 8 3 6 5
Legend for table 1 (Together 1 – total number of injuries in preparation

or competition periods Together 2 number of injuries during a training
session or a competition event – at the beginning, in the middle, at the
end)
Table 1.5: Sum of all injuries reported by athletes (table tennis)

Bones/ Joint/sprain-
Skin Muscles Tendon % Of all
fracture dislocation
Head 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00%
Neck 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00%
Shoulder 0 6 1 1 0 8 21,05%
Upper arm 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00%
Forearm 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00%
Wrist and
0 1 1 2 0 4 10,53%
palm
Fingers 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00%
Trunk 0 1 0 0 0 1 2,63%
Spine 0 4 0 1 1 6 15,79%
Hip 0 3 1 0 2 6 15,79%
Femur 0 3 0 0 0 3 7,89%
Knee 0 0 1 0 0 1 2,63%
Shank 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,00%
Ankle 0 1 0 0 4 5 13,16%
Foot 0 1 1 1 1 4 10,53%
0 20 5 5 8 38
% Of all 0,00% 52,63% 13,16% 13,16% 21,05%
~ 10 ~ Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia

Table 1.6: Comparison between table tennis players and other players
(tennis and badminton) (One-way ANOVA table)
Sum of df Mean F Sig
Squares Square
NUMBINJ Between Groups 10,378 1 10,378 5,262 ,025
Within Groups 142,000 72 1,972
Total 152,378 73
TREATM2 Between Groups ,269 1 ,269 4,919 ,029
Within Groups 4,430 81 ,055
Total 4,699 82
PAYMEN1 Between Groups 1,287 1 1,287 5,424 ,022
Total 20,506 82
MEDTREAT Between Groups ,098 1 ,098 4,134 ,450
Total 1,950 79
DISCUSSION
Participation in competitive sports places the athlete in a situation
in which injuries are possible at any given time.
The aims of this study were to establish:
frequency of sport injuries among top Slovenian athletes,
types of injuries,
severity of injuries based on data of players absences from
training and/or competition processes. These would serve as
a base for further in-depth studies.
Based on the results of the study, it can be presumed which
prevailing risk factors are causing an injury to occur, and plan the injury
prevention measures accordingly.
Traditionally, table tennis has been associated with a low injury
rate. However, the number, distribution and nature of injuries within
table tennis have not been well defined due to poor injury definition
reporting.
Overuse disorders can be considered injuries to normal tissue as a
result of cumulative, repetitive sub maximal micro trauma due to
inadequate time for recovery between stress episodes (Krivickas, 1997).
The highest in number of injuries (21,05%), as expected, are
shoulder girdle injuries. However, interesting is the constellation that the
number of these injuries is far lower in tennis and badminton. According
to extreme loads of the shoulder girdle in all three racket sports it can be
concluded that a higher number of injuries in table tennis is a result of
short, abrupt and extremely rapid movements, particularly in forehand
Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia ~ 11 ~

strokes. With the introduction of a bigger ball, these strokes have
become even more abrupt. (Kondrič, Furjan-Mandić, & Medved, 2003).
The integrated functions of the rotator cuff muscles and the
scapular stabilizers, coupled with the large multiplanar movements
inherent in table tennis skills, make the shoulder complex vulnerable to
injury. Successful rehabilitation programs for injury to the shoulder
complex must be tailored to the individual, based on accurate diagnosis
of the tissue damage and pathomechanics, clinical signs, stage of growth
and specific table tennis skills demands. As many table tennis players
experience pain only during specific skill execution, normal physical
testing of the shoulder is often not sufficient to reproduce the table tennis
player’s pain. Therefore, functional testing must be used in order to
identify the pain-provoking position with estimation of the force,
direction and magnitude of muscle activity.
There are more injuries that occur during a competition period
(Table 1.4). The result is expected as the number of risk factors increases
– such as considering the opponent, violation of fairplay, increased
motivation – and consequently athletes are overdoing (enthusiasm), and
considering all other factors putting players at risk outside the
competitions. The majority of injuries occur in the middle of a training
process or a competition event. This is particularly interesting because it
possibly indicates inadequate warming up, lack of stretching exercises
prior to practicing and similar. Unfortunately, even at major events such
as World or European championships, it is evident that some top athletes
are either not familiar or are not well informed about proper warm-up
and stretching.
Although there are few studies focused on the medical aspects of
table tennis, Shida et al (1994) reported 25.1% injuries of waist
(lumbago), 15,7% of shoulder and 14.1% of knee joint. Many of
reported disorders were referable to the specific nature of the practice.
After treatment, more than 95% of players had no hindrance in resuming
the game.
The most frequent injuries in table tennis pertain to muscle tissues
(Table 1.5), followed by joint and tendon injuries. These records more or
less correspond to the epidemiology of sport injuries records in the
world literature. Percentage wise, the shoulder joint injuries are ranked
highest, which again corresponds to the world epidemiology records.
Shoulder is the most flexible body part and therefore most vulnerable.
However, the sum of all leg injuries (34%) is higher than the sum of all
arm injuries (31,58%). As for thigh muscles being the knee stabilizers,
thigh muscle injuries (all of which are muscle injuries) and knee joint

injuries (tendon injuries as passive knee stabilizers, and joint injuries)

could be considered as a functional unit – meaning it is the most liable
part to injuries (more than the shoulder joint).
In table tennis, the trunk is significantly involved in all strokes
players perform. Any factor that reduces the range of motion or impairs
the muscle control of the trunk inhibits the efficient transference of
force, leading to compensation and potential injury. Accurate figures for
the incidence and nature of low back pain and injury in table tennis
players are difficult to establish due to the limited prospective sport-
specific research. There are various sites around the hip that are weak as
a consequence of open physeal plates. Quite large pieces can be pulled
off, particularly with sudden unexpected loads. The anterior-inferior iliac
spine tends to go in table tennis when the front leg is suddenly blocked.
Because of these abrupt blocking movements, the percentage of hip
injuries is as high as 15,79%. Spine injuries (15,79%) more or less
pertain to lower back pain or overuse injuries. Overuse injury to the pars
interarticularis is quite common in the young athlete (Pizzutillo, 1985).
To perform an efficient initial stroke (serve), the player must have
a very flexible wrist. This is also true for some other types of strokes,
performed from the wrist, or performed by the penholder players. The
wrist is a complex functional unit. Percentage of wrist injuries is in table
tennis players lower (10,53%) than by the tennis players (13,85%) but
still very high. While acute injuries can, and do, occur, the greatest
presentation is for non-specific wrist pain often associated with chronic
stress-related reaction implicating the growth plates. Grip strength
testing can be used as a useful screening and evaluating tool in managing
chronic wrist pain.
The complex structure and function of the foot and ankle are
essential for effective footwork of table tennis players. Like the wrist,
the ankle has little local muscle support, relying for its function on
mechanical efficiency of its capsular and ligamentous structures; and
unlike the knee, the ankle joint has no major surrounding stabilizing
muscles. The lateral collateral ligaments and the medial collateral
ligament, or deltoid ligament, establish the ligamentous integrity of the
ankle joint, and these structures limit and stabilize the range of motion at
the ankle joint. Because of fast lateral movements in table tennis, the
integrity of the foot is essential, as shoe support and orthotic devices
cannot be used to modify poor foot biomechanics. A high percentage of
injuries of ankle and foot joints (23.69% in total), indicates that table
tennis players should pay more attention to choosing appropriate
footwear to avoid those injuries. All muscles acting to move the foot at

the ankle joint arise in the leg, and so the ankle joint is susceptible to
injury in the frontal plane (i.e. inversion/eversion).
It is surprising that the percentage of bone injuries or fractions is
this high (Table 1.3; 13,16%), which is likely not to reflect injuries
occurring during training or competition. Namely, the questions did not
ask for the place the injuries occurred at. The fact is also that we do not
normally test bone density or exercise bone tissue consciously, bone is a
dynamic tissue that responds to exercise. On the other hand Geusens and
Dequeker (1994) conclude that exercise for at least 14 weeks, which
loads bone positively, influences bone density in both males and
females.
There are some differences among table tennis players and other
racket players. Table tennis players have fewer injuries and they prefer
separate medical treatment for each sports discipline. Injuries of table
tennis players namely differ from injuries of other sports athletes.
CONCLUSION
The poor recognition, localization and reporting of pain by young
table tennis players can often delay access to appropriate and timely
intervention to prevent injury chronicity. The first requirement for
effective management of table tennis injuries is therefore prevention,
based on an understanding of the factors involved in overuse injuries
generally, and table tennis injuries specifically.
The high repetition of activity necessary to develop and perfect
table tennis skills produces the potential for chronic overuse injury. The
epiphyses and apophyses of the growing skeleton are specifically at risk.
Poor technique, coupled with the anomalies of growth and improper
equipment, produce skill errors, which may result in an increased stress
on the muscoloskeletal tissues and produces pain in response to micro
trauma or overload. To minimize the pain response, the body adopts
compensatory mechanisms, which ultimately add to the skill errors, and
the never-ending circle of overload is established.
One major responsibility of the table tennis trainer is to make the
training and competitive environment as safe as possible to reduce the
risk of injury. If an injury could have been prevented initially, then there
would have been no need for first aid and subsequent rehabilitation. The
table tennis trainer, in cooperation with the team physician and doctor,
should obtain a medical history and conduct physical examinations of
the athletes before participation as a means of screening for existing or
potential problems. If the trainer knows at the beginning of the season
that an athlete has a physical problem that may predispose that athlete to

an injury during the course of that season, then corrective measures that
may significantly reduce the possibility of additional injury may be
implemented immediately.
In addition, the database records obtained in such studies
contribute to health care planning and organization for top Slovenian
athletes, who inevitably require a better and qualitative medical
supervision primary care physicians could offer.
From that point of view it is therefore very important that a table
tennis trainer works closely with and under supervision of the team
physician and team doctor.
Playing table tennis does, however, have many benefits. It is an
effective and fun way to maintain cardiovascular exercise and provide
the benefits for the player. Table tennis is also a means of maintaining
weight-bearing activities to resist bone loss and to provide coordination
training to maintain balance and function.
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Myoelectric comparison of table tennis forehand stroke…
Miran Kondrič, Gordana Furjan-Mandić, Vladmir Medved
Myoelectric comparison of table tennis forehand

stroke using different ball sizes.

Table Tennis
Myoelectric comparison of table tennis forehand stroke using

different ball sizes.
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to examine the differences between
forehand top spin strokes with 38 mm and 40 mm ball in table tennis.
The measurements were conducted during forehand spin strokes
performed with the balls of two sizes: 38 mm and 40 mm. The
participant was filmed as he executed the strokes. To ensure the same
condition for all the performances (the same approaching ball
trajectory), a table tennis machine was used. Electrodes were placed on
the right side of the player's body due to his right-handedness. Absolute
muscle involvement was estimated on the basis of averaged EMG signals
(mV) measured in all muscles (m. biceps brachii, m. deltoideus, m.
pectoralis major). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for
calculating differences between overall mean values of averaged EMG
signals among all muscles. The peak EMG amplitude of the m.
deltoideus anterior reached a value of 2.5 mV, for the 38mm ball stroke.
The comparable contraction values in strokes with the balls of both sizes
were obtained with the m. deltoideus medialis: the peak values ranged
between 2.3 and 2.8 mV with 38 mm ball and between 2.2 and 3.0 mV
with 40 mm ball. For the m. biceps brachii the peak EMG amplitude
ranged from 1 to 2.2 mV and from 1.3 to 2.4 mV for the 38 mm and 40
mm ball strokes, respectively. A similar result was obtained for the m.
pectoralis major contractions. Rather uneven intensities of contractions
were obtained for the 38 mm ball strokes, ranging from 1.5 mV to 2.6
mV. More balanced values were obtained for the 40 mm ball strokes
ranging from 1.6 to 2.2 mV. These findings showed us that in three
observed muscles (m. deltoideus anterior, m. biceps brachii, m.
pectoralis major) differences in the intensity of EMG signals are
significant, so we can conclude that the player uses more muscle
activities in a stroke with the larger ball, and also we conclude that the
contraction of m. pectoralis major is more powerful when the player hits
the larger ball.
Key words: table tennis, forehand stroke, EMG, muscle activity

INTRODUCTION
The ultimate concern in high-performance sport is the final
performance, whether it is at the training or on the competition. The final
output that is observed is dependent on a complexity of factors. Each of
them may contribute a variable amount to the performance. In modern
table tennis we have changed some rules and some materials due to slow
down the game. But, nevertheless, the majority of top-level players
prefer to concentrate on attacking or counter-attacking. Most
international competitors favour the forehand spin stroke to produce
high velocity and high rotation. However, a stroke angle has been
changed since the circumference of the ball has been enlarged. The
shoulder girdle muscles are today exposed to different loads than before
because shoulder abduction should be performed more quickly and
vertically now.
Physical conditioning and strength training, as well as modern
physical fitness diagnostic procedures are becoming ever more important
in the contemporary sports training process, including table tennis. In the
course of table tennis history, systematic programmed training has
become more important after attack strokes have been introduced.
Numerous injuries to the shoulder girdle muscles compel us to
investigate strains to which individual muscles are prone in the
execution of certain table tennis strokes. (Priest, & Nagel, 1976;
Dervišević, & Hadžić, 2002). Some specific tests allow the measurement
of specific fundamental factors that are assumed to be important in the
performance.
The first functional classification of
individual muscles according to certain table tennis
techniques was presented by Ogimura (1973). A
multiple world champion with markedly attacking
style assigned a great influence primarily to: m.
biceps brachii, m. deltoideus, m. pectoralis major
and stomach muscles. M. biceps brachii is
especially important in his opinion because it is
responsible for flexion of the arm in performance of
quick forehand spin strokes. Performance of basic
returns is based, according to him, on good functioning of m. triceps
brachii and back muscles. Ogimura's classification is, probably, based
on his personal observations and self-observations and considerations,
since no data are available on the systematic influence that particular
muscles or muscle groups have on performance of strokes.

Hiruta et all. (1992) found that the level of muscle strength and
muscle power for elite table tennis players was similar to that of the
average person. One of the reasons why the back strength and the
vertical jump were performed so badly seems to be connected to the lack
of muscle strength training.
Yet Takeuchi et al. (2002) pointed out that due to the larger
diameter and mass of the 40mm ball, physiological effects may be
present and technical adjustments may be required. About 63% of the
respondents reported more physical fatigue after the games using the
40mm ball (compared with 38mm ball). Therefore, a high level of
physical fitness, especially speed endurance should be enhanced in
order to overcome the physical challenges resulting from the larger mass
of ball and the longer rellies.
At the beginning of year 2000 the International Table Tennis
Federation announced the replacement of the 38 mm ball with the 40
mm ball. It became evident that, due to the decreased ball speed and
rotation, players would have to devote more time to physical preparation
if they wanted to perform as well as before. The performance differences
between the players in better physical condition and those less prepared
became apparent at the World Championship in Osaka 2001. At the first
world championship played with the larger ball, the number of strokes
per rally increased, meaning that matches lasted longer and became
more demanding. Taking into account rigours of a two-week
competition, it turned out that physical preparation, and additional
strengthening of the shoulder area in particular, would become a crucial
factor of sport success.
As with most of the acyclic movements, a three-part movement
pattern can be observed in table tennis strokes. The preparation phase,
followed by the main phase, during which a motoric problem is being
solved (i.e. the ball hitting the racket), and the closing phase.
The function of the preparation phase is to optimally prepare for
an efficient and economical performance in the main phase. In table
tennis, the preparation phase is represented by an arm swing. The
principal characteristic of this phase is that its performance is done in the
opposite direction to the main phase. Swing of the arm with the racket
gives the musculature an optimal way and a favourable angle of the
joints involved in this movemement (shoulder, elbow and wrist). The
main phase represents the activation of all muscle groups involved in the
so called kinetic chain. The closing phase solely represents an inertness
of the main phase which must be immediately interrupted in order to
prepare for a new stroke.

From the viewpoint of which individual muscles are involved in a

stroke performance, appropriate physical condition of a table tennis
player is questionable. A larger ball requires a better physical condition,
which is determined by the different biomechanical characteristics of a
forehand spin stroke. A review of the literature indicates that
investigations attempting to examine body action in table tennis have
been few and limited in scope.
The aim of our research was to find out if there are differences
between forehand top spin strokes with 38 mm and 40 mm ball
regarding shoulder and upper body muscles. The gathered data should
facilitate planning of the training process of table tennis players.
METHODS
Design
To design an optimal physical preparation for table tennis players,
it is essential first to establish exactly which muscles of the shoulder area
work harder due to the large ball (40 mm). We measured the magnitude
of the difference in myoelectric signals between the forehand strokes
performed with the 38 mm and the 40 mm balls. The greater turn (in the
40 mm-ball strike) should ensure the greater angular velocity of the
shoulders, which should also assist in generating higher linear velocities
of the arm, forearm and hand segments. We analysed the muscles that
are primarily involved in the forehand attack: m. deltoideus, m. biceps
brachii and m. pectoralis major.
Participants
The intensity, as well as duration of contraction of the above
mentioned muscles was measured on a professional male table tennis
player, a member of the national team. The data were collected and
analysed both visually and quantitatively.
Materials
The EMG signal measurement technique is a standardized one and
corresponds to the classical procedure of detection, amplification and
registration of bioelectrical activity changes in the skeletal musculature
(Mereletti,1999). It uses a differential mode of detection, with two
electrodes, positioned at the midpoint of the measured muscle at a
standardized distance of 3 cm (centre to centre) along the muscular
fibres. The differential detection successfully suppresses noise (Medved,
2001). The "Elite 2002" (BTS Bioengineering, Milan, Italy)
biomechanical system was used for data collection and analysis.

Procedure
The measurements were conducted during forehand top spin
strokes performed with the balls of two sizes: 38 mm and 40 mm.
The participant was filmed as he executed the strokes. To ensure
the same conditions for all the performances (the same
approaching ball trajectory), a table tennis machine was used.
Electrodes were placed on the right side of the player's body due to
his right-handedness. The intensity and duration of contractions of
the following muscles were measured (Figure 2.1):
1.Channel - m.deltoideus anterior 3. Channel - m. biceps brachii

2.Channel- m. deltoideus medialis 4. Chnanel - m. pectoralis major
In this study we have used

also a method of kinematic
analysis, which enables the
precise registration and
evaluation of the most
significant parameters of
forehand top spin strikes.
Figure 2.1. Electrodes placement
Methods for measured signal processing

Averaged EMG signals were translated into numerical ASCI
format and stored into the computer. SPSS statistical package was used
for statistical signal process.
Absolute muscle involvement was estimated on the basis of
averaged EMG signals (mV) measured in all muscles (Medved, 2001).
The mean value of averaged EMG
signals was calculated for each analyzed
muscle, and for both balls. Descriptive
statistical parameters (min, max, mean,
SD) were calculated for these data.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was
used for calculating differences between
overall mean values of averaged EMG
signals among all muscles.

RESULTS
At first it looks as if there are no differences in the intensity of
contraction of the observed muscles when striking the 38 mm ball. A
more thorough analysis of the signal amplitudes of the observed, loaded
muscles, though, reveals certain differences in the features of contraction
in favour of the larger ball strokes, as expected.
Figure 2.2a. EMG signal of m. deltoideus anterior with 38 mm ball
Figure 2.2b. EMG signal of m. deltoideus anterior with 40 mm ball
Figure 2.3a. EMG signal of m. pectoralis major with 38 mm ball
Figure 2.3b. EMG signal of m. pectoralis major with 40 mm ball
The peak EMG amplitude of the m. deltoideus anterior (Figure

2.2a) reached a value of 2.5 mV, for the 38mm ball stroke, but only for
one out of the four registered strokes, whereas for the rest of the three
registered strokes the value approximated 2 mV. With the 40 mm ball
(Figure 2.2b), nine strokes were registered, and in seven of them the
peak EMG amplitude was higher than 2 mV, and in two it exceeded a
value of 2.6 mV.

The comparable contraction values in strokes with the balls of
both sizes were obtained with the m. deltoideus medialis: the peak values
ranged between 2.3 and 2.8 mV with 38 mm ball and between 2.2 and
3.0 mV with 40 mm ball. Due to the results, obviously, m. deltoideus is
highly involved in the stroke execution due to the fact that its primary
function is upper arm abduction. In a forehand stroke, the upper arm
moves from an adduction to a front raise diagonally inwards.
Greater differences in the contraction intensities are obvious from
the data obtained for the other two observed muscles. For the m. biceps
brachii the peak EMG amplitude ranged from 1 to 2.2 mV and from 1.3
to 2.4 mV for the 38 mm and 40 mm ball strokes, respectively. The
difference is by no means irrelevant when compared to the minute size
differences between the old and the new ball.
A similar result was obtained for the m. pectoralis major
contractions. Rather uneven intensities of contractions (Figure 2.3a)
were obtained for the 38 mm ball strokes, ranging from 1.5 mV to 2.6
mV. More balanced values were obtained for the 40 mm ball strokes
ranging from 1.6 to 2.2 mV (Figure 2.3b).
Another substantial difference existed in the all detected muscles
contractions (Figure 2.2b, 2.3b). The 38 mm ball stroke contraction has
only one peak (the maximal contraction), whereas in the 40 mm ball
stroke two peaks occurred. This peculiarity could be explained by the
additional voluntary contraction (the so called, squeezing). It further
means that muscle contraction in the 40 mm ball stroke lasts somewhat
longer than in the 38 mm ball stroke.
Table 2.1: Basic parameters of EMG signals in mV (descriptive

statistics)
Maximum Minimum Mean SD
38mm 40mm 38mm 40mm 38mm 40mm 38mm 40mm
DELTANT 2,50492 2,61745 0,00179 0,00234 0,26669 0,30419 0,37062 0,38737
DELTMED 2,75649 2,97182 0,00507 0,00187 0,22477 0,22006 0,33699 0,35829
BICBR 2,11823 2,34271 0,00011 0,00312 0,12668 0,19720 0,22696 0,33222
PECTMAJ 2,60692 2,19047 0,00027 0,00316 0,12478 0,16702 0,25376 0,28705
Mean values
0,35
0,3
0,25
0,2 38mm ball
mV
0,15 40mm ball

0,1
0,05
0
DELTANT DELTMED BICBR PECTMAJ
Muscules
Figure 2.4: Mean values of EMG signals

Table 2.2: Results of ANOVA

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig
DELTANT Between Groups 6,029 1 6,029 41,509 ,000
Within Groups 2644,814 18210 ,145
Total 2650,842 18211
DELTMED Between Groups 9,527E-02 1 9,527E-02 ,776 ,378
Within Groups 2235,398 18210 ,123
Total 2235,493 18211
BICBR Between Groups 21,320 1 21,320 242,141 ,000
Within Groups 1603,358 18210 8,805E-02
Total 1624,678 18211
PECTMAJ Between Groups 7,649 1 7,649 101,223 ,000
Within Groups 1376,131 18210 7,557E-02
Total 1383,781 18211
There were significant differences in ANOVA, in results between
m. deltoideus anterior, m. biceps brahii and m. pectoralis major. In the
m. deltoideus medialis there were no statistically significant differences
between stroke with 38 and 40 mm ball.
Results of the kinematic analysis of forehand top spin stroke point
out, that there are differences between the strokes with a 38 as opposed
to a 40mm ball. The peak velocities and speeds of the bat, ranged from
8,488 m/s with the smaller ball to the 9,485 m/s with the larger ball.
Peak velocities of the shoulder, of two different strokes, were found to
differ significantly in the vertical directions. The speed of the shoulder
ranged from 4,650 m/s by the stroke with smaller ball to the 5,619 m/s
with the larger ball.
DISCUSSION
The deltoid muscle is the dominant force providing arm elevation.
The deltoid muscle’s shear force tends to displace the humerus in a
cephalic direction opposed by the
weight of the arm and action of the
rotator cuff musculature. The rotator
cuff is critical for providing assistance
in abduction, opposing the upward
shear force of the deltoid muscle, and
providing for joint stability by
glenohumeral compression (Grana,
Lombardo, Sharkey, & Stone, 1989).
Although the value of strength in table tennis is no longer an issue
of debate, we should be careful not to work on development of massive
strength exclusively. Our first concern should be to ensure all-round
strengthening of the body and herewith to avoid injuries. When selecting
exercises for the strengthening programme, an analysis of movements

involved in a particular stroke, in terms of type, speed, direction, etc.,
should be done in order to be sure which groups of muscles are involved
in these movements (Kondrič, Furjan-Mandić, & Medved, 2003).
It is also very important to mention biomechanical considerations
concerning the aerodynamic force of drag, which is very important
factor in relation to the different diameter of the balls. In the case when
the machine catapults the balls at the same initial velocity, the ball with a
larger diameter has a smaller velocity (due to the bigger drag) at the
moment of hitting, and so the subject has more opportunity to hit this
ball with a higher velocity of the bat. The second thought is about the
subconscious reaction of the player to a larger ball. Experiance has
shown that the velocity of this one is lower and the player hits it with a
higher sharpness to compensate for the higher drag.
Special exercises should be designed to approximate as closely as
possible the pattern and rate of movements of an actual table tennis
stroke execution. This will recruit (activate) and train stroke-related
groups of muscles thus enhancing their specific neuro-muscular
functions needed for a particular performance. Dynamic
electromyographic studies of the four rotator cuff muscle and the deltoid
muscle during arm elevation have shown that all were active throughout
the full range (Glousman et al., 1988; Gowan et al., 1987). Inmann et al
(1944) interpreted this as an obligatory multi directional force couple to
counteract the effect of the deltoid muscle’s longitudinal alignment.
Nevertheless, we must not forget that movement acceleration of a
joint involved in a particular stroke will depend on the state of certain
muscles, which can influence the joint's degree of flexibility. From this
point of view, it is obvious that both the ligamentous structures and
muscular ability to contract and relax are important. Therefore, it is
essential that table tennis players have good flexibility to assist
movement and to control a particular stroke performance. It is also well
established that muscle damage can be prevented by training, whether it
involves concentric (Bosman et al., 1993) or eccentric exercise
(Clarkson, & Tremblay, 1988; Balnave, & Thompson, 1993).
In our research we did not take into account the rubber gluing
although it could have affected the measured parameters. Namely,
several layers of glue can change the characteristic of rubber due to
which velocity of the ball can be enhanced.

CONCLUSIONS
It is important to document the strength of forward flexion,
abduction, external rotation, and internal rotation. Classically, abduction
and external rotation strength is diminished or absent with rotator cuff
disease. The obtained measurements and graphical displays from the
experiment indicate that in general, there is a significant difference in
operation of the studied muscles between forehand attack strike using 38
mm and 40 mm ball. Although in three observed muscles (m. deltoideus
anterior, m. biceps brachii, m. pectoralis major) differences in the
intensity of EMG signals are significant, so we can conclude that the
player uses more muscle activities in a stroke with the larger ball. The
presumption is, that the differences would be even greater if the player
hadn’t undertaken his training for more than a year with the larger ball,
i.e. if we have done this experiment at the beginning of the use of 40 mm
ball.
We conclude that the contraction of m. pectoralis major is more
powerful when the player hits the larger ball. From this point of view
more attention should be paid to develop this muscle in the physical
preparation of the table tennis player. The qualified table tennis players
should, therefore, develop those muscles and muscle groups that are
needed for their specific style of play after they have established a broad
foundation of physical fitness. The speed of the game and particularly of
the shot utilized in this study suggests that the focus in training should
be on speed and power development with no real need for massive
strength.
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eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage. Journal of Applied
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fatigue, (pp. 74-5). North-Holland, Amsterdam.
Clarkson, P.M., & Tremblay, I. (1988). Exercise-induced muscle
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Top Table tennis]. Flensburg.

Physiological anaerobic characteristics of Slovenian …
Miran Kondrič, Radoje Milič, Gordana Furjan-Mandić
Physiological anaerobic characteristics of

Slovenian elite table tennis players

Physiological Anaerobic Characteristics of Slovenian Elite
Table Tennis Players
ABSTRACT
The aim of the research was to analyze anaerobic characteristics
of Slovenian elite table tennis male and female players. A total of 8
subjects were divided in two groups. The first group consisted of four
best Slovenian female players while the second group consisted of four
best Slovenian male players. For the measurements we used Wingate
test (WanT). WanT requires pedaling for 30 sec at maximal speed
against a constant force setting to yield the highest mean and peak
power. We used the original recommended equation for force settings
(0,075 kpkg-1 bw, a force equivalent to mechanical work of 4,41 J per
pedal revolution per kilogram body weight) on Monark 634 ergo meter.
To estimate the lactate concentration in blood and muscles, we collected
20 μL blood samples from heparinzed earlobe, before and immediately
after finishing the test and also, respectively, after 3, 5 and 7 min after
the test for lactate analysis. Data were processed by the statistical
software SPSS 8.0 for Windows and the software for WAnT. The
anaerobic capacities of the subjects as measured by the WAnT 30
second test indicated that the male group developed mean power of 7.95
watts.kg-1, peak power of 9.60 watts.kg-1, and that power output declined
by 33.08% over 30 seconds. For the female group the corresponding
values were mean power of 6.55 watts.kg-1, peak power of 8.03 watts.kg-
1
, and that power output declined by 31.83% over 30 seconds. The peak
power, calculated in this study, ranged from 8.7watts.kg-1 to 10.4
watts.kg-1 in males group and 7.0 watts.kg-1 to 8.8 watts.kg-1 in females
group. Based on the established sensitivity of the WAnT to detect
changes brought about by basic physical preparation of table tennis
players, addresses the problem of training effects on anaerobic
performance.
Keywords: table tennis, motor tests, anaerobic ability, Wingate
anaerobic test
INTRODUCTION
The modern table tennis game demand very good motor abilities
as: speed, strength, endurance, agility, balance and good reflexes and
touch. The majority of world top players prefer to concentrate on
attacking or counter attacking game. Many young players have sound

backhand plays but very few are able to match their forehand power
capabilities.
Numerous table tennis trainers have focused on maximal aerobic
capacity, completely ignoring such items as peak muscle power and
local muscle endurance, even though these fitness components are
important for various situations in the table tennis game. For example,
there are many events where it is essential to develop high-intensity
power instantaneously or within a few seconds. Intermediate-term
anaerobic performance capacity is defined as the total work output
during maximal exercise lasting about 30 sec. This can be considered as
equivalent to the Wingate test in terms of intensity and duration
(MacDougall, Wenger, & Green, 1991).
Tests of anaerobic ability involve very high-intensity exercise
lasting between a fraction of a second and several minutes (Skinner, &
Morgan, 1985). The anaerobic capacity is set by an accumulation of
lactic acid within the active muscles during the training or testing.
During the effort, production of lactate continues for about 40 to 50
seconds, but usually exercise is halted when a blood lactate
concentration of 10 to 15 mmol per liter has been reached, although
intramuscular concentrations may be then be as high as 30 mmol per
liter (Shephard, 1987). Gladden (2004) reports that lactate can no longer
be considered the usual suspect for metabolic “crimes”, but is instead a
central player in cellular, regional and whole body metabolism. Very
few scientific studies in table tennis have been conducted on the
anaerobic performance as a component of fitness. Even today, many
coaches, fitness appraisers, health professionals and others consider
fitness and physical working capacity to be synonymous with aerobic
fitness (deVries, 1986).
Performance in table tennis and also in any sporting event is the
result of a number of factors, which include the amount and structure of
training performed, the body's predisposition and adaptation to the
training, motivation level, facilities, social-cultural background etc.
Therefore, physiological parameters only account for a portion of any
performance, and so the role of any exercise physiologist is also
similarly limited. Through fitness testing, the factors involving
physiological processes, over which there is some control, can be
measured and ultimately improved upon. Competition is the ultimate test
of performance capability, and is therefore the best indication of training
success. Nevertheless, when trying to maximize performance, it is
important to determine the player's ability in individual aspects of
performance. Fitness testing attempts to measure individual components

of performance, with the ultimate aim of studying and maximizing the
player's ability in each component (Kondrič, & Furjan-Mandić, 2002).
Benefits of fitness testing in table tennis are necessarily for the
exact planning of training. First of all we can identify and establish
weaknesses and strengths of the player. This can be done by comparing
test results to other athletes in the same training group or a similar
population group. Previous test results of large groups are often
published as normative tables. By the small nations there is a problem
how to assure enough subjects to make standards, which are declared as
norms for table tennis players.
Fitness testing is primarily used for help in designing the most
appropriate athletic training programme for achieving of better results in
the table tennis game. Training on anaerobic level is for the table tennis
player as much important as training on the aerobic level. Table tennis is
a unique game requiring instant explosive power and endurance at the
same time; both tempered with the fine motor control utilized during all
match. In modern table tennis most international competitors favor
aggressive and powerful game in which anaerobic performance is of
great importance. Aim of our research was to find out what are
physiological anaerobic characteristics of Slovenian elite table tennis
players.
METHODS
Subjects
A total of 8 subjects were divided in two groups. The first group
consisted of four best Slovenian female players while the second group
consisted of four best Slovenian male players. All of them are members
of Slovenian National Table Tennis Team. Players were highly ranked in
national ranking list and had taken part on last two World- and European
Championships.
Description of the test and test lay-out

The test Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT) has been accepted in
laboratories around the world to asses muscle power, muscle endurance
and fatigability (Bouchard, Taylor, Simoneau, & Dulac, 1991; Inbar,
Bar-Or, & Skinner, 1996; Bar-Or, 1987). The Wingate Anaerobic Test
(WAnT) is a state-of-the-art review of the most widely used anaerobic
performance test in the world. The test has been chosen because
numerous laboratories have confirmed its very high reliability as well as
its validity as a test that can yield information on peak mechanical power
and on local muscle endurance. Peak power is the highest mechanical

power elicited from the test taken as the average power over any 5 sec
period. Mean power is the average power maintained throughout the six
5 sec segments. The fatigue index is the amount of the decline in power
during the test expressed as percentage of peak power (Inbar, Bar-Or, &
Skinner, 1996). For a long period of time it has been considered that the
30 sec maximal test does not tax maximally the lactic anaerobic capacity
(Jacobs et al., 1982) but the latest study on energetic of WAnT (Beneke,
Pollmann, Bleif, Leithäuser, & Hütler 2002) clearly underlined the fact
that WAnT metabolism is highly anaerobic, and showed that 80% of the
energy turnover during test is derived from anaerobic alactic and lactic
acid metabolism dominated by glycolysis. According to published data,
we can support the hypothesis that the maximal ATP-generation rate
from ATP-PC system is insufficient for the generation of energy
necessary for the production of the peak power (Weicker, & Strobel
1994), so that energy from anaerobic lactic acid metabolism can be
assumed to contribute to power output even within the initial 5 sec of the
WAnT (Bangsbo et al. 1990; Boobis, Williams, & Wooton, 1982; Jones
et al. 1985; Jacobs et al. 1982, 1983).
Kavanagh and Jacobs (1988) investigated
oxygen consumption during the Wingate
test after noting conflicting data that
reported aerobic contributions ranging
from 13 to 44% during the 30-second test.
Based on an assumed mechanical
efficiency of 25% for cycle exercise, they
estimated the aerobic contribution to be 18.5%. Other studies (Smith and
Hill 1991) using similar procedures, estimated the aerobic contribution
to be 16%. In contrast to these rather low estimates, 5 studies that used
the accumulated oxygen deficit to quantify energy supply reported
values between 23 to 33% for 30 seconds of maximal, exhaustive
exercise (Withers, Sherman and Clark 1991, Gastin and Lawson 1994,
Calbet, Chavarren and Dorado 1997, O’Brien, Payne and Gastin 1997).
The peak oxygen deficit was determined by the method developed by
Hermansen and Medbø (1984). Peak oxygen deficit was calculated as
the difference between the total oxygen uptake (liters) and the estimated
total energy required during the supramaximal bout of exercise. The total
energy required was calculated as the product of the rate of energy
expenditure and the exercise duration. In line with these estimates,
Bogdanis et al. (1996) using direct muscle measures, reported a 29%
aerobic contribution.

The WanT requires pedaling for 30 sec at maximal speed against a
constant force setting to yield the highest mean and peak power.
We used the original recommended equation for force settings (0,075
kpkg–1) bw, a force equivalent to mechanical work of 4,41 J per pedal
revolution per kilogram body weight) on Monark 634 ergometer (Bar-
Or, 1987). A sampling period of 1 sec was obtained by using the special
sensor and data acquisition software (SMI, USA). The warm-up has
been done on a cycle ergo meter to promote more specific physiological
and motor adaptations. The subjects pedal as fast as possible against a
low resistance to overcome the inertial and frictional resistance of the
flywheel and to shorten the acceleration phase. After few seconds the
full load is then applied to start the 30 sec test. The subject needs to
pedal as fast as possible from the beginning and to maintain maximal
speed throughout the 30 sec period.
To estimate the lactate concentration in
blood and muscles, we collected 20 μL blood
samples from heparinized earlobe, before and
immediately after finishing the test and also,
respectively, after 3, 5 and 7 min after the test
for lactate analysis. Blood samples were stored
in special plastic containers with EDTA (Eppendorf, W.Germany) and
sent on immediate biochemical analysis Eppendorf Ebio+ lactate
analyzer. Lactate analysis was carried out within one hour after the test.
To prevent dizziness and syncope following the exertion of the
WanT, each subject has pedaling 2-3 min against a light resistance
immediately after the test to cool down.
Statistics
Data were processed by the statistical software SPSS 8.0 for
Windows and the software for WAnT. The results, unless otherwise
specified are in median values with standard deviations. A oneway
analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test all variables for
significant differences among two groups (Petz, 1981). When the result
of the ANOVA was significant (p<0,05), canonical discriminant analysis
was used for significant effects among two groups.
RESULTS
The results of both groups are presented in Table 3.1 and Table
3.2. In Table 3.3 are results of ANOVA and in Table 3.4 results of
canonical discriminant analyses.

Table 3.1: Anaerobic capacities of selected male table tennis players

Group A
F- La La
Player Ppeak Pmean Pmin La 3 La 5 La 7 Work Rel Work
Index rest max
mmol mmol mmol mmol mmol
W/kg W/kg W/kg % Joules J/kg
/L /L /L /L /L
M1 9,2 7,5 5,80 37,50 1,8 3,4 7,5 8,2 8,2 15449 224,0
M2 8,7 7 5,60 35,40 1,8 5,2 9,6 11,1 11,2 16170 210,0
M3 10,1 9 7,70 23,80 1,7 3,4 8,2 9,4 10,2 20853 271,0
M4 10,4 8,3 6,70 35,60 1,9 7 10,1 11,5 11,4 18653 249,0
No cases 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Min 8,7 7 5,6 23,8 1,7 3,4 7,50 8,20 8,20 15449,00 210,00
Med 9,65 7,9 6,25 35,5 1,8 4,3 8,90 10,25 10,70 17411,50 236,50
Max 10,4 9 7,7 37,5 1,9 7 10,10 11,50 11,40 20853,00 271,00
average 9,60 7,95 6,45 33,08 1,80 4,75 8,85 10,05 10,25 17781,25 238,50
SD 0,79 0,88 0,96 6,26 0,08 1,72 1,21 1,53 1,46 2465,16 27,01
Skew -0,21 0,25 0,81 -1,86 0,00 0,85 -0,14 -0,44 -1,33 0,57 0,31
Kurt -3,49 -1,97 -1,20 3,60 1,50 -1,29 -3,67 -2,92 1,17 -2,13 -2,03
Table 3.2: Anaerobic capacities of selected female table tennis players

Group B
F- La La
Player Ppeak Pmean Pmin La 3 La 5 La 7 Work Rel Work
Index rest max
mmol mmol mmol mmol mmol
W/kg W/kg W/kg % Joules J/kg
/L /L /L /L /L
F1 7,9 6,7 5,40 31,30 1,6 6,6 10,4 11,3 10,8 12663 201,0
F2 7,0 5,8 4,90 30,30 1,9 6,5 11,7 12,0 12,1 12065 175,0
F3 8,4 6,6 5,10 38,70 1,2 4,5 9,2 8,7 8,6 11942 199,0
F4 8,8 7,1 6,40 27,00 1,6 3,2 7,1 7,4 7,6 13301 225,0
No cases 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
min 7 5,8 4,9 27 1,2 3,2 7,1 7,4 7,6 11942 175
med 8,15 6,65 5,25 30,8 1,6 5,5 9,8 10 9,7 12364 200
max 8,8 7,1 6,4 38,7 1,9 6,6 11,7 12 12,1 13301 225
average 8,03 6,55 5,45 31,83 1,58 5,20 9,60 9,85 9,78 12492,75 200,00
SD 0,78 0,54 0,67 4,94 0,29 1,65 1,95 2,16 2,05 624,11 20,43
skew -0,80 -1,04 1,46 1,16 -0,52 -0,51 -0,53 -0,21 0,13 0,79 0,00
kurt 0,13 1,97 2,12 2,10 1,65 -3,11 -0,04 -3,84 -3,13 -1,35 1,45
The anaerobic capacities of the subjects as measured by the

WAnT 30 second test are presented in Table 3.1 and Table 3.2 and
indicated that the male group developed mean power of 7.95 watts.kg-1,
peak power of 9.60 watts.kg-1, and that power output declined by
33.08% over 30 seconds. For the female group the corresponding values

were mean power of 6.55 watts.kg-1, peak power of 8.03 watts.kg-1, and
that power output declined by 31.83% over 30 second period.
The peak power, calculated in this study, ranged from 8.7
watts.kg-1 to 10.4 watts.kg-1 in males group and 7.0 watts.kg-1 to 8.8
watts.kg-1 in the female group.
The fatigue index various from 23,80% to 37,50% in male and
27,00% to 38,70% in females.
Table 3.3: One-way ANOVA table

Sum of Mean
df F Sig
Squares Square
PPEAK Between Groups 4,961 1 4,961 8,117 ,029
Total 8,629 7
PMEAN Between Groups 3,920 1 3,920 7,304 ,035
Total 7,140 7
PMIN Between Groups 2,000 1 2,000 2,927 ,138
Total 6,100 7
FINDEX Between Groups 3,125 1 3,125 0,098 ,764
Total 193,660 7
LAREST Between Groups 0,101 1 0,101 2,271 ,183
Within Groups 0,267 6 4,458E-02
Total 0,369 7
LAMAX Between Groups 0,405 1 0,405 0,143 ,719
Total 17,455 7
LA3 Between Groups 1,125 1 1,125 0,426 ,538
Total 16,955 7
LA5 Between Groups 8,000E-02 1 8,000E-02 0,023 ,885
Total 21,180 7
LA7 Between Groups 0,451 1 0,451 0,143 ,719
Total 19,449 7
WORK Between Groups 55936464,500 1 55936464,50 17,300 ,006
Within Groups 19399661,500 6 0
Total 75336126,500 7 3233276,917
RELWORK Between Groups 2964,500 1 2964,500 5,169 ,063
Within Groups 3441,000 6 573,500
Total 6405,500 7
A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test all

variables for significant differences among two groups. In three
variables (PPEAK, PMEAN and WORK) there are significant
differences between two measured groups. A canonical discriminant

analysis showed that there is a high correlation (0,939) but because of

low number of variables not statistically significant.
Table 4: Canonical discriminant function

Canonical
Function Eigenvalue % of Variance Cumulative%
Correlation
1 7,508a 100,0 100,0 0,939
DISCUSSION
During high-intensity exercise, lactate accumulates as the result of

lactic acid production being greater than its removal. At a physiological
pH, lactic acid, a strong organic acid, dissociates a proton (H+) and
almost completely dissociates to hydrogen and lactate ions; therefore,
the term lactic acid and lactate are used synonymously (Brooks 1985). A
strong correlation between blood and muscle lactate concentrations
exists during exercise (Foster, Schrager, & Snyder, 1995; Jacobs, 1986;
Karlsson, & Jacobs, 1982). However, it is erroneous to interpret blood
lactate accumulation as wholly reflective of muscle lactate production.
Blood lactate concentration depends on the existence of a net positive
gradient for lactate between muscle and blood, and is affected by
dilution in the body water; by removal by organs such as liver, heart and
inactive skeletal muscle; and by the temporal lag before lactate produced
in the muscle appears in the blood (Foster, Schrager, & Snyder, 1995).
Therefore, at high muscle lactate concentrations there may be a
significant time lag before lactate equilibrates with the blood. In our
measurements we found out the peak lactate concentrations in blood
after 7. min in group A, and after 5. min in group B. Also, the values of
peak lactate concentrations were
significantly higher in the group A.
It is generally agreed that most
anaerobic tests are reliable in motivated
subjects and that they correlate highly
with each other, but there is less
agreement about what they measure. It is
difficult to determine the amount of
aerobic and anaerobic involvement in
tests lasting more than a few seconds. WanT measures performance of
several muscle groups combined and therefore cannot yield information
about any specific muscle or muscle group.

The practical problem of measuring anaerobic characteristics of
table tennis players during sporting activity has meant that the majority
of assessments have been carried out in the laboratory on cycle
ergometer and not in the practice hall at the table. However, many
sports, including also table tennis, require intermittent exercise, and such
tests therefore represent artificial situations.
The desirability of a minimum quantity of strength in table tennis
has been for long recognized. Unfortunately the advantages of maximum
levels of strength in table tennis were not recognized by all physical
educators, athletes and coaches. This neglect of the strength factor was
the result of an unscientific acceptance by almost everyone concerned
that the development of large amounts of strength in the musculature
inevitably resulted in a condition known as muscle-bound. Being
muscle-bound was supposed to limit both range and speed of table tennis
strokes.
The importance of strength in table tennis is not always obvious.
However, the need to produce powerful strokes, the need for maximum
power is apparent. From this point of view we can observe power as the
result of two factors: strength to produce the force and speed to increase
the rate at which the force can be applied (first of all by spin on spin
game).
The registered changes are different due to different choosing of
force settings that would elicit the highest possible peak power and mean
power. In present study we used recommended force settings (0,075
kpkg–1 bw, a force equivalent to mechanical work of 4,41 J per pedal
revolution per kilogram body weight. It is difficult to compare findings
of several authors (e.g., Inbar, & Bar-Or, 1977; Inbar et al., 1989;
Rhodes, Cox, & Quinney, 1986) because of different testing protocols,
incompatible athletic proficiency and unequal ages. Skinner and
O’Connor (1987) tested 44 male athletes from several specialties
performed the WAnT. There were no significant differences between
“anaerobic” and “aerobic” athletes in mean power (8.8 to 9.3 W.kg-1).
Peak power of the group was 11.2 W.kg-1 and the fatigue Index 38.1%.
Although there are no significant differences in mean power, the
“anaerobic athletes” had higher initial values but fatigue more rapidly,
while the “aerobic” athletes had lower initial values but fatigue less
rapidly. There are no data for table tennis players. Inbar (1985) found
that the highest absolute values in W for mean and peak power were
found in rowers. In Figure 3.1 (male) and Figure 3.2 (female) are

compared anaerobic performance capacities of elite Israeli athletes in

various sport events with Slovenian table tennis players.
Figure 3.1: Anaerobic performance capacity (relative to body mass) of

elite male Israeli athletes in various sport events and Slovenian table
tennis players
Mean power Peak power
Table tennis Table tennis

Long-distance running Cycling
Ball games
Ball games
Water polo
Weight lifting and wrestling
Weight lifting and wrestling
Midle-distance running
Midle-distance running
Water polo
Cycling
Swimming Swimming
Sprinting an Jumping Sprinting and Jumping

Rowing Rowing
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Figure 3.2: Anaerobic performance capacity (relative to body mass) of

elite female Israeli athletes in various sport events and Slovenian table
tennis players
Mean power Peak power
Table tennis Table tennis
Swimming Swimming
Gymnastics Gymnastics
Sprinting an Jumping Sprinting an Jumping
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Table 3.5: Anaerobic performance capacity of Slovenian and Australian

table tennis players
Peak Power Total Power Power Decline
(watts.kg.-1) (watts.kg.-1) (%)
Australia – male 9,89 7,60 39,95
Slovenia – male 9,60 7,95 33,08
Australia – female 7,68 6,13 32,59
Slovenia - female 8,03 6,55 31,83
Allen (1986) tested 21 male and female table tennis players nominated
by four State Table Tennis Associations performed the WAnT. As
shown in Table 3.5, there were some differences between Slovenian and
Australian players. Despite of the fact that we do not have enough data
about physical preparation programs, it is difficult to find a reason why
there are differences.

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the established sensitivity of the WAnT to detect
changes brought about by basic physical preparation of table tennis
players, addresses the problem of training effects on anaerobic
performance.
We can conclude that performance under conditions measured by
WAnT is primarily anaerobic with a major lactic component. The work
rate at the end of such performance test can perhaps be considered an
indirect estimate of the lactic anaerobic power output.
Despite being involved in an anaerobic sport, it appears that these
athletes – both male and female – do not possess appropriately
developed anaerobic energy delivery systems. These capacities should
be well developed in athletes who depend on anaerobiosis during long
points. Especially if they play on the half distance or are defensive
players.
Despite of the fact that the group we measured is so small, much
more research must be done on this topic.
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Differences in grf executing forehand topspin with different balls
Miran Kondrič, Vladimir Medved, Mario Kasović, Gordana

Furjan-Mandić, Uroš Slatinšek
Differences in grf executing forehand topspin

with different balls

ABSTRACT
In modern table tennis most international competitors favour the
forehand top spin as most favourable attacking stroke. Technically
correct performance of top spin strike and its power is, of course
dependable on the player's knowledge, his motor abilities, his
morphological characteristics and especially on his physical
preparation. Perfectly performed top spin has to be initiated from the
legs and an activation of a proper kinetic chain is therefore the most
important part of this stroke.
The aim of this study was to find out if during the forehand top
spin strokes with balls of different sizes there are differences in the
ground reaction force (GRF). Lack of strength in player’s legs can
namely produce over time a wide range of injuries.
The comparison of selected parameters proved that the observed
differences increase due to increased ball size. In order to hit the ball
with more spin, the player must use wider movement path to position a
ball on his racket. As bigger ball has at the same speed less spin, players
need to execute top spin with more power.
The gathered data should facilitate planning of the physical
preparation training process of table tennis players.
Key words: table tennis, GRF, forehand top spin
INTRODUCTION
training, motivation level, facilities, socio-cultural background etc.
success. Nevertheless, when trying to maximize performance, it is
of performance, with the ultimate aim of studying and maximizing the
player's ability in each component (Kondrič, & Furjan-Mandić, 2002).

The importance of strength in table tennis is not always obvious.

However, the need to produce powerful strokes, the need for maximum
power is apparent. From this point of view we can observe power as the
result of two factors: strength to produce the force and speed to increase
the rate at which the force can be applied (first of all by spin on spin
game).
It was expected that the new, bigger ball will not only make it
better visible for players and spectators but will as well to some extend
reduce the speed in the game. At the beginning it was the case, not quite
as much as expected, but due to development of equipment and playing
techniques today the speed in the game is quite the same as before with
the smaller ball and there is still the tendency to make the game even
faster (Kondrič, Furjan-Mandić, Medved 2003; Furjan-Mandić, Kondrič,
Kasović 2003). It seems necessary to run experiments to find out
possibilities to reduce the speed of the ball without any drastic changes
of equipment and rules, without making table tennis more expensive as it
already is. On the other hand, even though that we always read how safe
our sport is, we have to admit that there are some injuries which are
caused due to improper movements regarding different strokes and
footwork (Ogimura, 1973; Trupković, 1978; Hiruta et all, 1992) .
For every action, according to Newton's 3rd Law of Motion (Law
of Action and Reaction), there is an equal and opposite reaction to every
action. In other words, the action to the ground is always accompanied
by a reaction from it. Due to the gravity, we constantly maintain contact
with the ground, and in this process, there occur interactions between the
body and the ground. The reaction force supplied by the ground is
specifically called the ground reaction force (GRF), which is basically
the reaction to the force the body exerts on the ground.
The ground reaction force is an important external force acting
upon the human body in motion. We use this force as propulsion to
initiate and to control the movement.
The aim of our research is to find out if there are differences
between forehand strokes performed with different balls. The gathered
data should show us a difference in GRF providing of different strokes
with different balls.
METHODS
Design
To design an optimal movement for table tennis players executing
top spin stroke, it is essential first to establish exactly how a player
makes his movements regarding leg and centre of gravity. We measured

the kinematic parameters of movements between the forehand top spin
strokes executed with different balls. The greater turn (in stride) should
ensure the greater ground reaction impact forces, which should also
assist in generating unprecise strokes.
Participants
Ground reaction forces (GRF), as well as kinematic parameters
were measured on a professional male table tennis player, a member of
the Slovenian national team. The data were collected and analysed both
visually and quantitatively.
Materials
“Kistler” force platform (model 9281 B11 – dimensions 60 x 40
cm) was used to collect the ground reaction force (GRF) data. There are
four 3-axial force sensors embedded in the plate so that one can measure
the ground reaction force in 3 axes: antero-posterior axis (X axis),
transverse axis (Y axis), and vertical axis (Z axis) with the 1000 Hz
sampling frequency. The force platform was installed in the middle of
one side of the table tennis table in the Biomechanics Laboratory at the
Faculty of Kinesiology in Zagreb, Croatia. The signal
conditioner/amplifier was interfaced with a sampling system interfaced
to a computer. The "Elite 2002" (BTS Bioengineering, Milan, Italy)
biomechanical measurement system was used for kinematic data
collection and analysis. During measurements 2 high speed video
cameras interfaced to a real time automated video based tracking system
were used. The cameras were positioned to obtain a side (sagittal – 2
cameras from left and from right) and rear (frontal – from back) view of
the centre of gravity and legs.
Procedure
The measurements were conducted during forehand top spin
strokes performed with the table tennis ball machine. The participant
was filmed as he executed the strokes. To ensure the same conditions for
all the performances (the same approaching ball trajectory), a table
tennis machine was used. Prior to recording the movement, reflective
markers were placed on the subject’s left and right lower extremity and
above the hips.
In this study we have used also a method of kinematic analysis,
which enables the precise registration and evaluation of the most
significant parameters of forehand top spin strokes. Those parameters
will be described in other article.

Methods for measured signal processing

Averaged GRF signals were translated into numerical ASCI
format and stored into the computer. SPSS statistical package was used
for statistical signal processing.
The mean value of averaged kinematic data was calculated for
each analyzed stroke. Descriptive statistical parameters (min, max,
mean, SD) were calculated for these data. Analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was used for calculating differences between measured
parameters using two ball sizes.
RESULTS
At first glance, it is obvious that there are certain differences in
executing forehand topspin stroke with different balls.
The group means, standard deviations, and ranges for all GRF
temporal and amplitude variables across trials are available by the
authors. For all variables, at both 38mm and 40mm balls, the between-
subject effect was significant (P<.05).
The Wilcoxon test is a nonparametric test that compares two
paired groups. If the p value is small, we can reject the idea that the
difference is due to chance, and conclude instead that the populations
have different medians. If the p value is large, the data do not give us
any reason to conclude that the overall medians differ.
Table 4.1: Wilcoxon matched pairs test results between variables Fz

max 38 and Fz max 40.
Wilcoxon Matched Pairs Test (Table tennis.sta)

Marked tests are significant at p <,05000
Pair of Variables Valid N T Z p-level
Fz_max_38 &
9 5,000000 2,073221 0,038153
Fz_max_40
Variables represent maximal GRF peak in vertical direction with

two different sizes of ball, 38 and 40 millimeters.

Figure 4.1: Graphic description median values of maximal GRF peak in
vertical direction two sizes of ball, 38 and 40 millimeters.
Table 4.2: Wilcoxon matched pairs test results between variables Fx

max 38 and Fx max 40
Wilcoxon Matched Pairs Test (table tennis.sta)
Fx_max_38 &
9 3,000000 2,310161 0,020880
Fx_max_40
Variables represent maximal GRF peak in antero-posterior direction

with two different sizes of ball, 38 and 40 millimeters.

antero-posterior direction two sizes of ball, 38 and 40 millimeters

Table 4.3: Wilcoxon matched pairs test results between variables Fy

max 38 and Fy max 40.
Wilcoxon Matched Pairs Test (Table tennis.sta)

Fy_max_38 &
9 21,00000 0,177705 0,858955
Fy_max_40
Variables represent maximal GRF peak in transverse direction

with two different sizes of ball, 38 and 40 millimeters.

transverse direction two sizes of ball, 38 and 40 millimeters.
The loading rate is important since it reflects the force

development rate during impact phase. Loading rate is closely related to
the hardness of the shoe sole and the executing of the stroke.
DISCUSSION
Although the value of strength in table
tennis is no longer an issue of debate, we
should be careful not to work on development
of massive strength exclusively. Our first
concern should be to ensure all-round

strengthening of the body and herewith to avoid injuries. When selecting
exercises for the strengthening programme, an analysis of movements
involved in a particular stroke, in terms of type, speed, direction, etc.,
should be done in order to be sure which groups of muscles are involved
in these movements.
Special exercises should be designed to approximate as closely as
possible the pattern and rate of movements of an actual table tennis
stroke execution. This will recruit (activate) and train stroke-related
groups of muscles thus enhancing their specific neuro-muscular
functions needed for a particular performance. Nevertheless, we must
not forget that movement acceleration of a joint involved in a particular
stroke will depend on the state of certain muscles, which can influence
the joint's degree of flexibility. From this point of view, it is obvious that
both the ligamentous structures and muscular ability to contract and
relax are important (Nigg, 1985). Therefore, it is essential that table
tennis players have good flexibility to assist movement and to control a
particular stroke performance. It is also well established that muscle
damage can be prevented by training, whether it involves concentric
(Bosman et al., 1993) or eccentric exercise (Clarkson, & Tremblay,
1988; Balnave, & Thompson, 1993).
Ground reaction forces (GRF) play a major role in executing top
spin. The greater the usable forces the greater the speed that one can
attain. Thus how to generate effective GRF is the key how to give a ball
more spin.
The practical problem of measuring characteristics of table tennis
players during sportive activity has meant that the majority of
assessments have been carried out in the laboratory and not in the
practice hall at the table (Medved, 2001). However, many sports,
including also table tennis, require intermittent exercise, and such tests
therefore represent artificial situations.
Considerable confusion sometimes exists about the origin of the
forces measured by a force platform. The best way to understand these is
to think of the force platform as a whole-body accelerometer. Since
Force = mass x acceleration (Newton's 2nd Law of Motion), any
acceleration of the body will be reflected in a reaction when at least one
foot is on the ground. An upwards acceleration (as occurs at performing
top spin stroke) will be reflected in an increase in the vertical load
(weight) recorded, while a downwards acceleration will reduce the
effective body weight. We have to take into account that a downwards
deceleration (such as occurs at initial contact) equals to upwards
acceleration, and vice versa.

In our research we did not take into account the rubber gluing
although it could have affected the measured parameters. Namely,
several layers of glue can change the characteristic of rubber due to
which velocity of the ball can be enhanced.
CONCLUSIONS
It is important to document the strength of forward flexion,
abduction, external rotation, and internal rotation.
The desirability of a minimum quantity of strength in table tennis
has been for long recognized. Unfortunately the advantages of maximum
levels of strength in table tennis were not recognized by all physical
educators, athletes and coaches. This neglect of the strength factor was
the result of an unscientific acceptance by almost everyone concerned
that the development of large amounts of strength in the musculature
inevitably resulted in a condition known as muscle-bound. Being
muscle-bound was supposed to limit both range and speed of table tennis
strokes.
The aim of this study was to find out if during the forehand top
spin strokes with balls of different sizes there are differences in the
ground reaction force (GRF). Lack of strength in player’s legs can
namely produce over time a wide range of injuries.
The comparison of selected parameters proved that the observed
differences increase due to increased ball size. In order to hit the ball
with more spin, the player must use wider movement path to position a
ball on his racket. As bigger ball has at the same speed less spin, players
need to execute top spin with more power.
The gathered data should facilitate planning of the physical
preparation training process of table tennis players.
REFERENCES
Balnave, C.D., & Thompson, M.W. (1993). Effect of training on
eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage. Journal of Applied
Physiology, 73(4):1545-1551.
Bosman, P.J., Balemans, W.A.F., Amelink, G.J., & Bär, P.R. (1993).
A single training session affects exercise-inducted muscle damage
in the rat. In A.J. Argeant, & D. Kernell (Ed.), Neuromuscular
fatigue, (pp. 74-5). North-Holland, Amsterdam.
Clarkson, P.M., & Tremblay, I. (1988). Exercise-induced muscle
damage, repair, and adaptation in humans. Journal of Applied
Physiology, (65):1-6.

Furjan-Mandić, G., Kondrič, M., & Kasović, M. (2003). Kinematic
analysis of forehand strike in table tennis executed with balls of
two different sizes. In: 8th International Table Tennis Federation
Sports Science Congress and 3rd World Congress of Science and
Racket Sports, 17-19 March 2003, INSEP, Paris, France -
Programme and abstracts. Programme and abstracts : les
entretiens de l'INSEP.
Hiruta, S., Shimaoka, M., Yoshimura, Y., Kasai, J., Shibata, Y., &
Youza, N. (1992). The Problem of Physical Training Confronting
Table Tennis Players in Japan. International Journal of Table
Tennis Sciences, 1:105-109.
Players]. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport (Faculty of Sport).
Kondrič, M., Furjan-Mandić, G., & Medved, V. (2003). Myoelectric
and neuromuscular measures of forehand strike in table tennis
executed with balls of two different sizes. V: 8th International
Table Tennis Federation Sports Science Congress and 3rd World
Congress of Science and Racket Sports, 17-19 Marz 2003, INSEP,
Paris, Francija - Programme and abstracts. Programme and
abstracts : les entretiens de l'INSEP.
Raton, Fl.: CRC Press.
Nigg, B.M. (1985). Biomechanics, load analysis and sports injuries in
the lower extremities. Sports Medicine, 2:367-79.
Ogimura, I. (1973). Tischtennis. [Table tennis]. Sibeldingen: Joola.
Trupković, J. (1978). Wege zum Leistungstischtennis. [Ways to the
Top Table tennis]. Flensburg.

Kinematic analysis of top spin stroke with balls of two…
Miran Kondrič, Vladimir Medved, Arnold Baca, Mario Kasović,

Gordana Furjan-Mandić, Uroš Slatinšek
Kinematic analysis of top spin stroke with balls of

two different sizes

Kinematic analysis of top spin stroke with balls of two
different sizes
ABSTRACT
In order to increase the sports attractiveness of table tennis, the
International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF) has carried out reforms
such as having different combine rubbers on the two sides of the racket,
the co-existence of the white and yellow ball, regulations on service and
lately also the 40-mm ball.
The purpose of our research was to find out if there are
differences between top spin strokes with 38- and 40-mm ball,
respectively. The comparison of selected kinematic parameters proved
that differences in the amplitude of forehand stroke of the tested player
increase due to increased ball size. The possible reason for the observed
difference in technique is that the player uses more power in upper limb
segments to produce the same velocity and rotation of the ball. High
upward velocity would give the ball increased topspin to ensure that it
would hit the opponent’s side of the table. A possible means to achieve
this goal is to improve his preparation for the stroke.
The gathered data should facilitate planning of the training
process of TT players and especially for promising young players.
Key words: table tennis, kinematic analysis, forehand top spin
INTRODUCTION
Important role by the learning procedure and technique analysis in
modern approach has video and computer equipment. Using the program
for biomechanical analysis it is easy to define the most important
biomechanical parameters of some strikes in three-dimensional space. In
this study we have used method of kinematic analysis, which enables the
precise registration and evaluation of the most significant parameters of
forehand top spin strikes of two different sized balls.
In modern table tennis most international competitors favor the
forehand top spin as most favorable attacking stroke especially on cut
balls. Technically correct performance of top spin strike is, of course
dependable on the player's knowledge, his motor abilities and his
morphological characteristics.
In most of acyclic movements a three-part pattern is obvious. The
same is with the table tennis strokes. The preparation phase is a
predecessor to the main phase, in which the basic motor problem is
solved the impact of the ball and the racket, and then comes the closing
phase of a stroke performance. The principal function of the preparation

phase is providing "an optimal preparation for successful and

economical performance of the main phase". In table tennis it means the
racket-holding arm swing. The basic characteristic of the preparation
phase is its movement direction opposite to the direction of the main
phase movement execution. Through the swing we provide "an optimal
way to muscles and adequate angle of the involved joints" (the shoulder,
elbow and wrist).
METHODS
Design
To design an optimal technique of certain stroke, it is essential to
establish exactly his own technique and find out in which way it deviate
from theoretic model. Therefore, we measured kinematics parameters
between the forehand top spin strokes performed with the 38-mm and
the 40-mm balls. The greater turn (in the 40mm-ball strike) should
ensure the greater angular velocity of the shoulders, which should also
assist in generating higher linear velocities of the arm, forearm and hand
segments. We analyzed differences in kinematic chain which are
produced due to different ball size.
Participant
The measurement has been carried out on a professional table
tennis player, a member of the Slovenian national team. The data were
collected and analyzed both visually and quantitatively.
Materials
The study came into existence in collaboration between Faculty of
Sport in Ljubljana and Faculty of Kinesiology in Zagreb. The
measurement has been performed in biomechanics laboratory at the
Faculty of Kinesiology in Zagreb. Kinematic analysis is applicable in
sports since because it provides objective indicators of the initial,
transitive and final states of an athlete's movement. The "Elite 2002"
biomechanical system was used for data collection and analysis. Aside
the kinematic analysis with eight cameras, it includes also a ground
reaction force platform.
Procedure
The player was filmed as he completed a 10 ball play with table
tennis robot. Picture shows the experimental setup and also indicates the
approximate displacements during the exercise. At least eight trials of
subject were filmed and five of these were used for detailed analysis.

Best strike was used as the basis for choice of trials for detailed,
kinematics analysis.
23 different parameters were measured: different angles, angle
velocities, velocities of different body parts and the bat and trajectory of
ball flight.
RESULTS
Modern table tennis game demand very good motor abilities as:
speed, strength, endurance, agility, balance and good reflexes and touch.
The majority of world top players prefer to concentrate on attacking or
counter attacking game. Most international competitors favor the
forehand spin to produce high velocity and a lot of rotation. The angle
under which player hit the ball has augmented with its diameter. The
loads of the muscle of upper limb segment have changed due to
abduction, which proceeds much more vertically.
Results of kinematic analysis of forehand top spin stroke point
out, that there are differences between the strokes with 38- and 40-mm
ball (Figure 5.4 and Table 5.1). A number of researchers (Ariel, 1976;
Bunn, 1971; Neal, 1989; Čoh, 1998; etc.) have advocated a summation
of speed principle for events and activities in which maximal speed at
the distal end of kinematic chain is a desired outcome. This principle
basis on the theory, that the proximal segments - the ones close to the
body - should reach peak velocity earlier in the action than the more
distal ones - the ones further out from the center of the body. The data of
the present study indicate that these notions held. The timing of the peak
velocities of all three upper limb segments (arm, forearm and hand) for
the top spin stroke in vertical direction of both strokes (with 38- as also
with 40-mm ball) peaked simultaneously at impact.
The peak velocities and speeds of the bat, calculated in the present
study, ranged from 8,488 m/s with the smaller ball to the 9,485 m/s with
the bigger ball. Peak velocities of the shoulder of two different strokes
were found to differ significantly in the vertical directions. The speed of
the shoulder ranged from 4,650 m/s by the stroke with smaller ball to the
5,619 m/s with the bigger ball. Not surprisingly, there was a significant
difference for the speed of the hand as a function of shot type.
The possible reason for the difference in technique is that the
player uses more power in upper limb segments to produce the same
velocity and rotation of the ball. The high upward velocity would give
the ball increased topspin to ensure that it would hit the opponent’s side
of the table. A possible means to achieve this goal is to improve his
preparation for the shot. Figures 5.3 and 5.5 indicates this consideration.

Figure 5.1: Forehand strike with 38-mm ball
Figure 5.2: Forehand strike with 40-mm ball
Figure 6.3: Elbow angles striking 38 and 40 mm ball

38 vs 40 mm
1500
1400
1300
1200
Y lakta
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
1 7 13 19 25 31 37 43 49 55 61 67 73 79 85 91 97 103 109 115 121 127 133 139 145
time
Avr_40mm Avr-Std_40mm Avr+Std_40mm Avr_38mm Avr-Std_38mm Avr+Std_38mm

Figure 5.4: Difference in range of Table 5.1: Basic data of peaks
motion between two types of ball in in range motion of elbow joint
elbow joint
Difference in range of motion 40 mm 38 mm
40 mm 38 mm Avr_max 1417,59 1395,60
630
Avr_min 793,64 788,19
625
Avr_renge 623,95 607,40
Range of motio (mm)
620
615
(max-min)
610
605
600
595
Avr_max-min
Type of ball (mm)
Table 5.2: Elbow movement

Wilcoxon Matched Pairs Test (TT.sta)
max_kin 40 &
8 7,000000 1,540308 0,123486
max_kin 38
Figure 5.5: Elbow movement
Box & Whisker Plot

1460
1440
1420
1400
1380
1360
Median
25%-75%
1340 Min-Max
max_kin 40 max_kin 38

DISCUSSION
Forehand top spin is the most common strike on the long cut ball.
The majority of world top players prefer to concentrate on attacking or
counter attacking game. Many players are playing near the table but
there are also players that are playing on the half distance and are using
spin strokes. Particularly physically well prepared players decide for
longer distance, in purpose to weaken the opponent. One of those strikes
is forehand top spin strike, which is analyzed through this measurement.
The greater turn would ensure greater angular velocity of the
shoulders which would also assist in generating high linear velocities of
the arm, forearm and hand segments. However, while the shoulder joint
has great range of motion, it is not very stable. This makes the shoulder
vulnerable to problems if any of its parts aren’t in good working order.
Especially attacking players that are playing far from table have to
develop their physical condition to avoid the problems with shoulder
injury.
CONCLUSIONS
The used analysis has some imperfections. We should know that
there is no technically correct top spin strike. That is why we, during the
technique training, should not stay at the ideal performance, but at
defining the most efficient strike of each player.
The purpose of our research was to find out if there are
differences between top spin strokes with 38- and 40-mm ball. The
comparison of selected kinematic parameters proved that differences
increase in the amplitude of forehand strike of the tested player due to
increased ball size. The gathered data should facilitate planning of the
training process of TT players and especially for promising young
players.
REFERENCES
Ariel, G. (1976). Computerized biomechanical analysis of throwers at
the 1975 Olympic javelin camp. Track and Field Quarterly
Review, 76, 45-49.
Čoh, M., & Štuhec, S. (1998). Kinematična analiza tehnike udarca.
[Kinematic analysis of stroke technique. In Slovenian]. Fakulteta
za šport, Ljubljana.
Players. In Slovenian]. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport.

Norris, T.R. (1985). Diagnostic techniques of shoulder instability. In:
Instructional Course letter. The Amer. Acad. Orthop. Surg.,
Mosby, St. Louis, Toronto.
Ogimura, I. (1973). Tischtennis. [Table tennis. In German].
Sibeldingen: Joola.
Perry, J. (1988). Biomechanics of the shoulder. In: Rowe (ed.): The
shoulder. New York: Churchill Livingstone.

Possibilities to reduce speed and spin by changing the thickness…
Miran Kondrič, Matej Supej, Bojan Nemec, Radivoj Hudetz,

Jure Koščak
Possibilities to reduce speed and spin by changing

the thickness of sponge, upper layer or total
thickness of sandwich rubber

Possibilities to reduce speed and spin by changing the thickness
of sponge, upper layer or total thickness of sandwich rubber
ABSTRACT
Table tennis is without no doubt the fastest game in the world. As
table tennis has developed during last decade and player’s techniques
have improved, the ball’s speed and spin have become too fast and
that’s why rallies are shorter. The aim of our research was to find out
what are the differences in results when strokes are performed with
rubbers of different thicknesses.
For this purpose the impact has been investigated, and a simple
impact model has been proposed on the basis of the idea that the contact
duration is determined by the natural period of a whole system
composing the mass of ball, the nonlinear stiffness of ball and rubber.
Different rebound angles from the racket on the robot arm
determine different trajectories of parabolic shape. Therefore, at
another angle where the parabolas are higher and the ball flight paths
longer, the quartiles are wider since even a slight change in the rebound
angle affects the duration of the ball flight more than when parabolas
are lower, that is the flights of the ball are more direct.
These measurements and results of measurements show us that
there is a big potential to regulate table tennis rules regarding to slow
down a game and take into consideration health of table tennis players.
We can do this with limitation of rubbers or with prohibition of speed
gluing. Even though results show us differences in different kind of
rubbers there is still a lot of work to be done.
Key words: table tennis, rubber, speed, spin
INTRODUCTION
Modern table tennis is a sport game that demands great speed,
strength, power, endurance, flexibility, agility and good reflexes. The
majority of top-level players prefer to concentrate on attacking or
counter-attacking. Most international competitors favor the forehand
spin stroke to produce high velocity and
high rotation. However, a stroke angle has
been changed since the circumference of
the ball has been enlarged. The shoulder
girdle muscles are today exposed to
different loads than before because
shoulder abduction should be performed
more quickly now. As table tennis has

developed during last decade and player’s techniques have improved, the
ball’s speed and spin have become too fast and that’s why rallies are
shorter. In order to regain interest of spectator and make table tennis
more attractive again, International Table Tennis Federation has made
some rule changes in last few years, but it looks like that these measures
have not been effective in improving the attractiveness for table tennis
spectators.
After Olympic Games in Sidney, ITTF replaced 38mm ball with
40mm ball. It was expected that the new, bigger ball will not only make
the ball better visible for the players and spectators but will as well to
some extent reduce the speed in the game. At the beginning it was the
case, not quite as much as expected, but due to development of
equipment and playing techniques today the speed in the game is quite
the same as before with the smaller ball and there is still the tendency to
make the game even faster. It seems necessary to run experiments to find
out possibilities to reduce the speed of the ball without any drastic
changes of equipment and rules, without making table tennis more
expensive as it already is. We have to take in consideration different
materials we play with. Rubbers are probably most important part of
modern table tennis equipment. We have a lot of different rubbers today
that we can find in table tennis stores. The same stroke produced with
different rubbers will result with different ball speed and rotation due to
different characteristics of the rubber.
The aim of our research is to find out what are the differences in
results when ball hits the bat with rubbers of different thicknesses.
Goal of the experiment

To test the possibility of reducing the speed and spin in the game
by reducing the total thickness of the sandwich rubber and/or reducing
the thickness of the sponge and/or reducing the thickness of the upper
layer of the sandwich rubber.
For this purpose the impact has been investigated, and a simple
impact model has been proposed on the basis of the idea that the contact
duration is determined by the natural period of a whole system
composing the mass of ball, the nonlinear stiffness of ball and rubber.
METHODS
Design
To design an optimal rubber which has positive influence on
modern table tennis game, it is essential first to establish exactly how

which thickness of rubbers affects speed and rotation of the ball.
Therefore, we have measured the magnitude of the difference in speed of
ball caused with rebound from different rubbers.
Materials
Physical parameters have been collected with measurement
equipment located on the Faculty of Sport and Institute Jozef Stefan in
Ljubljana. For this purpose we have used:
»Microgate Polifemo Radio« photocell
Two 6 dimenzional sensors Jr3
A 2D Motion Analysis System
Mini DV camcorder
TTmatic 500 (table tennis machine)
MHI General Purpose Robot PA10 Series- 7-axis redundancy
control robotic arm (Mitshubishi heavy industries)
Rubbers of different thickness have been provided free of
charge by ESN and TIBHAR, Germany.
Procedure
Physical parameters of single rebounds and intensity have been
measured on a professional engeneering system. The data has been
collected and analysed both visually and quantitatively.
The measurements have been conducted during fifty rebounds (for
each rubber) performed with the different rubbers on the same blade.
The measurement has been filmed as table tennis machine launched the
ball. To ensure the same condition for all the performances (the same
approaching ball trajectory), a table tennis machine has been used.
The measurements have been taken at the Faculty of Sport and
Institute Jozef Stefan in Ljubljana.
The measurement apparatus was put together as shown in
following photo. The robot TTmatic 500 automatically launched balls
with a frequency of approximately 10 min-1. Immediately after being
launched, the ball was intercepted by the »Microgate Polifemo Radio«
photocell which triggered a specially
designed program for capturing data
from the computer AD card. Two 6-
dimensional sensors Jr3 were plugged
to the AD card for measuring force and
torque in all three axes. The first,
smaller sensor (maximum load 250 N)
was plugged to the Mitshubishi Pa10

robot arm, which had a table tennis racket attached to it. The second,
bigger sensor (maximum load 1 kN) was attached to a specially designed
frame with a board. The ball bounced from the board after being
returned from the racket. The board was placed 2 cm behind the edge of
the middle of the table (see picture). The second computer controlled the
Mitsubishi robot, and thus the appropriate racket settings – 2 positions
wit corresponding orientations and angles. Data of all three force
components of the smaller Jr3 sensor, and data of the main movement
direction force component of the bigger Jr3 sensor was captured at a
frequency of approximately 5.5 kHz.
The signals captured from the sensors show an impact force on the
racket and an impact force on the rebound board. Using a specially
developed program in the Matlab environment and a 1 N high trigger,
we have determined the ball traveling times from the photocell to the
racket and returning from the racket to the rebound board.
The task
find out theoretically (computer calculations) the influence of
different thickness of sandwich rubber, sponge, upper layer on speed
and spin of the ball in the game,
try in practice different total thickness of sandwich rubber,
compare with the rubber in accordance with the present rule,
try in practice different sponge thickness, compare with rubber
in accordance with the present rule,
try in practice different upper layer thickness, compare with
rubber in accordance with the present rule,
test the influence on the game, on the stroke technique,
test the durability of such sandwich rubber when speed glued.

RESULTS
Table 6.1: Differences between different rubbers (Bonferroni - Multiple

Comparisons) – 1.8mm
Mean
Dependent (I) (J)
Difference Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval
Variable RUBBER RUBBER
(I-J)
Lower Bound Upper Bound
1.8 mm 1 2
-32,70650(*) 7,63327 ,000 -51,3283 -14,0847
Angle 1
3 -18,82112 7,91094 ,058 -38,1202 ,4780
2 1 32,70650(*) 7,63327 ,000 14,0847 51,3283
3 13,88538 7,49058 ,201 -4,3883 32,1590
3 1 18,82112 7,91094 ,058 -,4780 38,1202
2 -13,88538 7,49058 ,201 -32,1590 4,3883
1.8 mm 1 2
-24,92163 11,36688 ,092 -52,6188 2,7755
Angle 2
3 -13,44996 11,87509 ,781 -42,3854 15,4855
2 1 24,92163 11,36688 ,092 -2,7755 52,6188
3 11,47167 10,94554 ,892 -15,1988 38,1422
3 1 13,44996 11,87509 ,781 -15,4855 42,3854
2 -11,47167 10,94554 ,892 -38,1422 15,1988
LEGEND: Rubber 1 = Conventional 1.8; Rubber 2 = Tension 1.8; Rubber 3 = Test 1.8
(04/296); Angle 1 = 112,8o; Angle 2 = 107,9o

Dependent (I) (J) Mean
Variable RUBBER RUBBER Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval
2.0 mm 4 5
-22,31870(*) 8,23259 ,023 -42,3123 -2,3251
Angle 1
6 -12,65694 8,08235 ,360 -32,2856 6,9718
5 4 22,31870(*) 8,23259 ,023 2,3251 42,3123
6 9,66176 8,13525 ,712 -10,0954 29,4189
6 4 12,65694 8,08235 ,360 -6,9718 32,2856
5 -9,66176 8,13525 ,712 -29,4189 10,0954
2.0 mm 4 5
-14,25836 9,17666 ,370 -36,5846 8,0679
Angle 2
6 -25,94011(*) 9,32379 ,019 -48,6243 -3,2559
5 4 14,25836 9,17666 ,370 -8,0679 36,5846
6 -11,68175 9,62014 ,682 -35,0870 11,7235
6 4 25,94011(*) 9,32379 ,019 3,2559 48,6243
5 11,68175 9,62014 ,682 -11,7235 35,0870
LEGEND:
Rubber 4 = Conventional 2.0; Rubber 5 = Tension 2.0; Rubber 6 = Test 2.0 (04/297);
Angle 1 = 112,8o; Angle 2 = 107,9o


Mean
Dependent (I) (J) Difference
Variable RUBBER RUBBER (I-J) Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval
2.2 mm 7 8
-39,00259(*) 7,58381 ,000 -59,2831 -18,7221
Angle 1
9 -24,72355(*) 7,88749 ,012 -45,8161 -3,6310
10 -11,21960 7,44791 ,805 -31,1367 8,6975
8 7 39,00259(*) 7,58381 ,000 18,7221 59,2831
9 14,27905 7,18900 ,293 -4,9457 33,5038
10 27,78299(*) 6,70378 ,000 9,8559 45,7101
9 7 24,72355(*) 7,88749 ,012 3,6310 45,8161
8 -14,27905 7,18900 ,293 -33,5038 4,9457
10 13,50394 7,04549 ,343 -5,3370 32,3449
10 7 11,21960 7,44791 ,805 -8,6975 31,1367
8 -27,78299(*) 6,70378 ,000 -45,7101 -9,8559
9 -13,50394 7,04549 ,343 -32,3449 5,3370
2.2 mm 7 8
-35,80558(*) 8,61573 ,000 -58,8478 -12,7634
Angle 2
9 -29,78131(*) 8,55593 ,004 -52,6636 -6,8991
10 -17,54027 8,74416 ,280 -40,9259 5,8454
8 7 35,80558(*) 8,61573 ,000 12,7634 58,8478
9 6,02427 8,77557 1,000 -17,4454 29,4939
10 18,26531 8,95919 ,260 -5,6954 42,2261
9 7 29,78131(*) 8,55593 ,004 6,8991 52,6636
8 -6,02427 8,77557 1,000 -29,4939 17,4454
10 12,24104 8,90170 1,000 -11,5660 36,0480
10 7 17,54027 8,74416 ,280 -5,8454 40,9259
8 -18,26531 8,95919 ,260 -42,2261 5,6954
9 -12,24104 8,90170 1,000 -36,0480 11,5660
* The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
LEGEND: Rubber 7 = Conventional 2.; Rubber 8 = Tension 2.2; Rubber 9 = Test 2.2
(04/298; Rubber 10 = Test 2.2 (04/299); Angle 1 = 112,8 ; Angle 2 = 107,9o

Figure 6.1: Difference between different rubbers – angle 1 and angle 2
334 505
99
750,00 583
255 47 503
370 144
45
311 675 592
538
162 695
339 217
700,00 544 658
553 690
251 472
DIFFERENCE
205 461
172 143
618 223
650,00 660 211
191 236
178
21 626
430
449
600,00
550,00
21
21
21
22
22
22
22
22
22
22 b .
11
11
11
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
8d
8t
8x
0t
0x
2d
2t
2t
2x
0d
0x
8d
8t
8x
0d
0t
2d
2t
2t
2x
e
e
eb
p
t
t
t
p
p
t
t
t
.
.
.
ˇ
.
.
.
.
VAR00001
LEGEND:
Name convention: XYYAAA:
X=1 … angle 1 = 112.8°
X=2 … angle 2 = 112.8°
YY … rubber thickness [mm]
AAA … rubber type
xp = Conventional 2.2
dt = Tension 2.2
te = Test 2.2 (04/298)
teb = Test 2.2 (04/299)

Table 6.4: Significant differences between different rubbers (One-way

ANOVA)
(I) Rubber (J) Rubber Sig Angle
Conventional 1.8 Tension 1.8 ,000 Angle 1
Conventional 2.0 Test 2.0 (04/297) ,019 Angle 2
Test 2.2 (04/299) Tension 2.2 ,000 Angle 1
DISCUSSION
The coefficient of restitution is closely related to the impact’s
energy losses. Racket vibration induced by impact seems to be one of
the main sources of energy loss. The impact force and contact duration
have strong influence on the racket vibrations. But there are still a
number of unclarified points regarding impact phenomenon between a
ball and a racket as well.
In this research rebound of a ball caused by different rubbers has
been investigated.
The results (qualitative) demonstrate very well how a small
modification (5 degrees) enormously affects the flight of the ball, which
is extremely significant when performing spins.
Different rebound angles from the racket on the robot arm
determine different trajectories of parabolic shape. Therefore, at another
angle where the parabolas are higher and the ball flight paths longer, the
quartiles are wider since even a slight change in the rebound angle
affects the duration of the ball flight more than when parabolas are
lower, that is the flights of the ball are more direct (as shown in Figure
6.1).
Different rebounds and the coefficient of quality impact depend
not only on the rubber thickness, the type
of rubber etc., but also on the point where
the ball hits the racket (Tiefenbacher &
Durey, 1994). Any deviation from the
‘sweet point’ on the racket results in a
different or worse rebound. These are the
very deviations in all directions (resulting
from the dispersion of the robot induced
ball flight trajectories), which cause the upper edge of the quartile width

(longer times than the median) is further from the median than the lower
edge of the quartile (shorter times than the median). The same behaviour
can be observed with all rubbers and both rebound angles.
A similar effect of widening the area of the quartiles can be
observed with rubbers, particularly at the first angle. Faster,
conventional rubbers have a smaller dispersion of the ball flight
trajectory and from the players point of view, this could mean these
rubbers are more accurate, that is the good hit racket area (sweet area in
terms of ‘point’) is wider – assumed that the effect of different parabolas
is not the cause for differences in times. In the course of this project
extension, we intend to further investigate the problem of trajectories
with the help of mechanical modeling and the kinematic measurements
that was taken at the same time.
It is necessary to consider the fact that at this time by the first
method no ball rotation was measured (the racket was namely firmly
fixed to the robot arm), since this research was focused solely on
observing rubber at racket-ball impact. Spin measurement has been done
by the second Wassing dom method by Tiefenbacher.
CONCLUSIONS
These measurements and results of measurements show us that
there is a big potential to regulate table tennis rules regarding to slow
down a game and take into consideration health of table tennis players.
We can do this with limitation of rubbers or with prohibition of speed
gluing. Even though results show us differences in different kind of
rubbers there is still a lot of work to be done, but first we need to know
in which direction we should take our researches. Namely, those
researches are very expensive.
REFERENCES
Bompa, O.T. (1994). Theory and methodology of training.
Kendall/Hunt publishing company, Dubuque.
Delavier, F. (2001). Muskel Guide. München: BLV
Verlagsgeselschaft mbh.
Grosser, M., Ehlenz, H., Griebl, R. & Zimmerman, E. (1999). Richtig
Muskeltraining. [Right muscle training] München: BLV
Verlagsgeselschaft mbh.
Hudetz, R. (2000). Stolni tenis. Tehnika s Vladimirom Samsonovom.
[Table tennis. Technique with Vladimir Samsonov]. Zagreb:Huno
sport.

Ishigaki, H. (2002). Distribution of contact points on the racket when

hitting 40mm balls. International Journal of Table Tennis
Sciences. No.4&5:244-250.
Kondrič, M., Furjan-Mandić, G. & Medved, V. (2005). Myoelectric
and neuromuscular features of table tennis forehand stroke
performance executed with balls of different sizes. In: A. Lees, J.-
F. Kahn and I. W. Maynard (Ed). Science and Racket Sports III.
The Proceedings of the Eighth International Table Tennis
Federation Sports Science Congress and the Third World
Congress of Science and Racket Sports. (pp. 121-126). London
and New York:Routledge.
Major, Z., & Lang, R.W. (2005). Characterization of table tennis
racket sandwich rubbers. In: A. Lees, J.-F. Kahn and I. W.
Maynard (Ed). Science and Racket Sports III. The Proceedings of
the Eighth International Table Tennis Federation Sports Science
Congress and the Third World Congress of Science and Racket
Sports. (pp. 146-151). London and New York:Routledge.
Tiefenbacher, K. & Durey, A. (1994). The Impact of the Table
Tennis Ball on the Racket (Backside Coverings). International
Journal of Table Tennis Sciences, 2:01-14.
Tiefenbacher, K., Seydel, R. & Durey, A. (1996). Analysis of the
influence of special equipment materials on decisive strokes.
International Journal of Table Tennis Sciences, No.3. P.p 51-60.
Yamamoto, F., Tsuji, Y., Chen, G., Ogawa, M., & Nakagawa, M.
(1996). Basic theory and experiment for the simulation of ball
trajectory. International Journal of Table Tennis Sciences, 3:01-
15.


The expert system for orientation of children into …
Miran Kondrič
The expert system for orientation of children into

table tennis in the Republic of Slovenia

The expert system for orientation of children into table tennis
in the Republic of Slovenia
ABSTRACT
The orientation of children into table tennis in Slovenia is based
on our expert system for the initial selection and orientation of children
into different sports, which has been gradually introduced since 1989.
The data for the system are gathered by the Information System SLO-
FIT, which includes most of the children (more than 300 thousand each
year) in primary and secondary schools of Slovenia.
The data on their morphological status and basic motor abilities
of the anthropologic status are, at present, used for directing school
children into 19 sports. One of these is table tennis. In 1994 we found
more than 20,000 pupils, talented in sports (more than 1500 in table
tennis).
The paper presents the professional, methodological and
organizational aspects of the expert system for orientation into sports,
especially into table tennis.
Key words: table tennis, talent, identification
INTRODUCTION
The fact, that some of many experts world-wide who are
addressing the problem of talent, speak about a "theory of sports
talents" (Letzelter, 1980) proves, that the problem of talent, which has
its organizational, scientific and professional aspects, is much more
complex than it seems.
Recently one of the largest projects in the field of sports in
Slovenia has been Information System for Monitoring and Assessing
Morphologic Characteristics and Motor Abilities of Youth Between Six
and Eighteen Years of Age (Strel, Sturm, 1981). The aim of the project,
which has been carried out with a complete data-base since 1987, is a
longitudinal monitoring of the most important morphologic
characteristics and motor abilities of the whole school-age population in
the Republic of Slovenia. Defining the average, underachieving and
exceptionally gifted pupils according to each single indicator of their
motor abilities made it possible to develop different procedures for
selecting children and orienting them into one of the many sports
programs.
The selection and directing of children into table tennis in

Slovenia is based on the previously mentioned Information System for

Monitoring and Assessing Morphologic Characteristics and Motor

Abilities of the school-age population. Actually it represents its
superstructure.
The question we are confronted with is how to choose the most
suitable sports discipline, since we know that early directing of children
into sports is a very important condition for achieving international-
level results. The potential top sportsmen and sportswomen should,
irrespective of the sports discipline, be chosen among their schoolmates
at the right time and for the most suitable discipline. The purpose of the
Slovenian project Selection and Orientation of Children into Sports
Disciplines on the Basis of Expert Modeling was to start with a
systematic scientific approach to finding children, gifted for a certain
sport. Finding out whether a child is gifted for a particular sport has
been for many years a topical problem for many authors all over the
world, so that eventually "a theory of sports talents" (Letzelter, 1980)
could be developed. In Slovenia, such a theory could have its starting-
point in the theory of the existence of the psychosomatic status of a
sportsman and sportswoman. Hypothetically the dimensions of the
psychosomatic status can be divided into potential dimensions, which
define the talent, and into realizing and mobilizing dimensions, which
define the realization of the potential dimensions. Ascertaining the
talent does not mean a process but only a piece of information which is
necessary for dealing with the problem. The next important item of
information is the speed of the progress, since variability exists among
the chosen candidates at the beginning and also during their progress. A
high level of suitability for a particular sport does not necessarily mean
rapid progress; a lower level of suitability at a more rapid pace may also
make top results possible.
From the point of kinesiology the problem we are dealing with
represents the greatest congruence between the specification equation of
successfulness in table-tennis (in our case), and the quantitatively
assessed values of the components, which constitute the status of the
subjects for whom table-tennis is the most suitable discipline. For each
individual, table-tennis (in this case) contributes to the quality of his
life, which means good health and good physical condition. Moreover,
going in for sports gives the participants a good chance to experience it
as play, as self-actualization and a way of expressing one's own
personality.
Most of the information on which the process of defining the
level of the candidates’ suitability for table-tennis was based, was

contributed by the variables, obtained through motor tests. Table tennis
is a motor activity in which basic and specific motor abilities are
expressed through special kinematic structures which represent the
content of the technique. Because of this fact, the above-mentioned kind
of decision-making procedures is necessary. Theory requires a lot of
measurements, which are indispensable because of the great number of
parameters required by the nature of the problem. There are not many
candidates for measurements in the comparatively small country of
Slovenia, and these are only willing to make measurements directly
connected with the training process. The small number of measured
pupils is an unavoidable problem, since multivariate methods of data-
processing, the most suitable methods for our purpose, require a great
number of measured candidates.
A special value of expert methods in our case is that they do not
limit either the number of used variables or the number of areas of
psychosomatic status that are included in the decision-making
procedures. The greater number of variables demands only such a form
and arrangement of the decision-making system (criterion tree and
decision-making rules) as would require a certain deviation from the
theories about the dimension structure of individual subspaces of the
psychosomatic status. This deviation does not necessarily imply a great
lack or loss of information in the final solutions of the decision-making
process. (Sturm, 1992)
This paper presents the system, which we have already stabled
but evalvation of the results unfortunately hasn’t been possible yet.
Description of the system

As already mentioned, the selection and orientation of children
into table tennis and other sports in Slovenia is based on the
Information System for Monitoring and Assessing Morphologic
Characteristics and Motor Abilities of Children between Six and
Eighteen Years of Age. The 3 morphologic and 8 motor tests are carried
out once a year in all Slovenian schools, which means that more than
300.000 pupils are tested. The tests were chosen according to the plan
and they represent the most global estimation of the morphologic status
of children in Slovenia. Yet, we have to take into account the fact that
such a system estimates an individual only superficially. A more
complex estimate must also consider personal, intellectual, social,
demographic and similar characteristics. Children, who are considered
as talented according to the first 11 tests are therefore invited to submit
to additional tests, in the capital of Slovenia, Ljubljana. These

additional tests include 39 motor, 12 anthropometric, 21 psychological

and 8 social and demographic measurements; they were chosen by a
group of sports experts (coaches, kinesiologists, psychologists,
sociologists) assisted by methodologists and computer-experts.
The construction of the model and its application were performed
with a personal computer and the ND computer program, a specialized
program constructed within the project at the Faculty of Sport in
Ljubljana; it is intended for solving qualitative decision-making
problems (Leskosek, 1992).
Table 7.1: Basic battery of criteria for the evaluation of sports talent
and the tests to measure them
Criterion (dimension) Test (code, name and measurement unit)

Longitudinal dimensions HEIGHT body height (cm)
Volume WEIGHT body weight (kg)
Subcutaneous fat SKIN FOLD upper arm skin fold (mm)
Flexibility DEEPBEND deep forward bend on
bench (cm)
Coordination POLYGON polygon backwards (s)
Static and repetitive B ARM HANG bent arm hang on
strength of arms horizontal bar (s)
Static and repetitive SIT_UP sit ups (number)
strength of the trunk
Explosive strength STAND JUMP standing board jump (cm)
Speed SPRINT 60-m sprint (s)
Aerobic and anaerobic RUN_600M 600-m run (s)
endurance
However, the raw results achieved in the testing of a child do

not tell much by themselves. They have to be evaluated from the
standpoint of the age and sex of a child and from the standpoint of
table-tennis requirements. Therefore, prior to further processing, all the
raw results are correspondingly transformed and evaluated as follows:
1. First of all the raw data (Table 7.2 - column 2) are entered into
the computer.

2. The raw results are transformed into standardized and
normalized T-values (T=10.t+50 - see Ferguson, 1966) (third column)
according to the sex and age of the pupils.
3. The deviation of the pupil's t-value from the ideal value
(determined by an expert) for a certain sports discipline is calculated
(Deviation-column).
4. Each result (T-value) gets a descriptive and a numerical mark.
The descriptive mark has 4 levels: unacceptable, acceptable, good,
excellent. The numerical estimate includes values from 1 to 5, but these
can be surpassed, since extreme results are possible. The levels
expressed in numerical form are as follows:
less than 2.0 = unacceptable

2.0-3.0 = acceptable
3.0-4.0 = good
4.0 and more = excellent
An example of test scores of a 10-year-old schoolgirl and their

transformed values for table-tennis is shown in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2: An example of raw and transformed test scores

Test Raw T Score
result value Deviation Descriptive Num.
Height 133.0 cm 59 7.0 excel. 4.1
Weight 38.5 kg 40 17.0 unacc. 1.8
Skin-fold 12 mm 45 19.0 acc. 2.2
Polygon 11.0 s 79 -5.0 exc. 5.5
Arm Plate-Tapping 35 X 72 0.0 exc. 4.7
Stand_jump 150 cm 64 10.0 good 3.0
Run_60_m 11.1 s 67 -7.0 excel. 5.4
This completes the evaluation of the tests. The next step is the
estimation of the nodes and branches of the criterion tree.

Table 7.3: Criteria tree

SCORE Child's talent for table tennis
⏐⎯ANTHROPOM Anthropometric characteristics
⏐ ⏐⎯height Body height
⏐ ⏐⎯ MASS Body weight
⏐ ⏐⎯rel. weight Relative weight
⏐ ⏐⎯skin_fold Skin-fold of the upper arm
⏐⎯MOTOR Motor abilities
⏐⎯COORDINATION Informatic component of motor abilities
⏐ ⏐⎯polygon Polygon backwards
⏐ ⏐⎯tapping Arm Plate-Tapping with hand
⏐⎯stand_jump Standing broad jump
⏐⎯sprint 60 m sprint
Each node value is calculated as a weighted average of branch

values which are direct successors of the node in question, i.e.:
Estimate of Coordination (Table 7.4):

EC = = 4.9 (see Table 7.4)
In the same way as the numerical marks, we get also the

deviation from the ideal values and from the t-values.
Verification and use of the expert system
Table 7.4: An example of a computer printout

Result T Deviation M a r k
GEN MARK 65 3.9 4.0 exc.
⏐⎯ANTHROPOM 46 13.7 2.5 acc.
⏐ ⏐⎯height 133.0 59 7.0 4.1 exc.
⏐ ⏐⎯MASS 40 17.0 1.8 unacc.
⏐ ⏐⎯rel_weight 0.263 35 15.0 1.3 unacc.
⏐ ⏐⎯skin_fold 12 45 19.0 2.2 acc.
⏐⎯MOTORICS 71 0.8 4.5 exc.
⏐⎯COORDINAT. 76 -2.6 4.9 exc.
⏐ ⏐⎯polygon 11.0 79 -5.0 5.5 exc.
⏐ ⏐⎯tapping 35 72 0.0 4.7 exc.
⏐⎯stand_jump 150 64 10.0 3.0 good
⏐⎯run 60m 11.1 67 -7.0 5.4 exc.

This model has been gradually implemented in practice.
Problems of communication with the parents, teachers of physical
education and coaches still have to be taken into account. Further
problems are caused by the provisions of the Law on Protection of
Personal Data which requires a parent’s assent for use of the data from
the Information System SLO-FIT.
CONCLUSIONS
Solving the problem of directing children into table-tennis
demands very good expert knowledge, which must be as wide as
possible and should be applied very systematically. Yet we must take
into account, that science is not "almighty" and that one can never
determine for sure the most suitable sports discipline for each
individual. Those who expect this from science, are lacking knowledge
in kinesiology. Despite this fact, the use of expert methods and
statistical procedures, as applied in Slovenia, reduce the mistakes that
are made when sportsmen and sportswomen are chosen by intuition
only, without any expert knowledge.
The use of the system in practice is not of sufficient duration to
enable a reliable assessment of its predictive power in identification of
future top sportsmen and sportswomen. However, an attempt was made
to obtain the marks in retrograde for some of the young sportsmen and
sportswomen with high achievements, who were measured with tests
from the system, before it was used for the orientation process.
Although the system is still being developed, the data from the
year 1994 show that, among the 20,000 tested children of both sexes,
1500 are suitable for table tennis and this justifies the existence of both
projects in such a small "sports area" as Slovenia is.
REFERENCES
Anderson, T.W., & Sclove, S.L. (1978). An Introduction to the
Statistical Analysis of Data. Houghton Mifflin Company. Boston,
USA.
DEX- (1989). An Expert System Shell for Multi-Attribute Decision
Making (User’s Manual). Ljubljana:Institut Jozef Stefan,.
Ferguson, G.A. (1966). Statistical Analysis in Psychology and
Education. London:McGraw-Hill.
Rajkovič, V., Bohanec, M., Šturm, J., & Leskošek, B. (1991). An
expert system for advising children in choosing sports.

Proceedings of I. International Symposium “Sport of Young”,

Faculty of Sport, Ljubljana, pp. 641-646.
Strel, J., Šturm, J., & Ambrožič. F. (1982). The Evaluation of an
Information System for the Assessment and Monitoring of Motor
Abilities and Morphologic Characteristics of School Youth in SR
Slovenia. Institut of Kinesiology, Faculty for Physical Culture,
Ljubljana.
Šturm, J., Rajkovič, V., Bohanec, M., Leskošek, B., Tušak, M.,
Petrović, K., Pustovrh, J., Dežman, B., Verdenik, Z., Šibila, M.,
Zadražnik, M., Žvan, M., Jošt, B., Kapus, V., & Čuk, I. (1992).
Izbor in usmerjanje otrok v športne panoge na podlagi
eklspertnega modeliranja. [Selection and Orientation of Children
into Individual Sports on the Basis of Expert Modeling]. Institute
of Kinesiology, Faculty of Sport, Ljubljana.
Šturm, J., Rajkovič. V., Kapus, V., Leskošek, B., Tušak, M.,
Petrovič, K., et al. (1991). Computer-assisted System of Initial
Choice and Advising Children in Choosing Sports Branches.
Proceedings of I. International Symposium “Sport of Young”,
Faculty of Sport, Ljubljana, pp. 15-21.


Computer supported system for the evaluation …
Miran Kondrič, Bojan Leskošek
Computer supported system for the evaluation of

fitness of Slovenian youth table tennis players

Computer supported system for the evaluation of fitness of
Slovenian youth table tennis players
ABSTRACT
The aim of this paper is to describe the possibility of using
computer software for the evaluation of fitness of Slovenian junior table
tennis players. A SMMS (Sport Measurement Management System) has
been used to determine the optimal morphological and motoric
condition for table tennis players. In our case, the 36 best male and
female junior players in Slovenia were submitted to several
morphological and motoric tests. Within different measurements, we can
observe the condition of the player. We also discuss the importance of
the test in determining the level of a player’s predispositions (talent) for
table tennis and in evaluating the readiness of the sportsmen or of the
effectiveness of their training. In the second part of the paper there is an
overall presentation of the SMMS program, the hardware and software
requirements for its use, its database and a number of presentations and
reports on its applications in table tennis.
If we compare the data with the juniors in other racket sports, we
can see that there is considerable potential in the motoric status of
Slovenian table tennis players. Especially important are the longitudinal
data on this status and evaluation of the results gained in a longer
period of time. This information is necessary for good planning of the
training process and its connection with the morphological status of a
player.
With the SMMS program, table tennis coaches can regularly
follow the results of morphological and motoric measurements on the
one hand, while on the other hand they can obtain an analysis of the
results and an evaluation based on different models (Z-value and ND-
models).
Key words: table tennis, evaluation, computer
INTRODUCTION
training, motivation level, facilities, social-cultural background etc.


success. Nevertheless, when trying to maximise performance, it is
of performance, with the ultimate aim of studying and maximising the
player's ability in each component.
There are hundreds of standard fitness tests used, and many more
variations of these. They can range from elaborate and expensive
laboratory tests to simple and inexpensive field tests. Each test also has
many advantages and disadvantages that can ultimately determine which
is the most appropriate test to perform. If you are designing your own
fitness-testing regime, with the information about the relative merits and
requirements of each test, you can make an informed choice of the most
appropriate test or tests to use.
Benefits of fitness testing in table tennis are necessarily for the
exact planning of training. First of all we can identify and establish
weaknesses and strengths of the player. This can be done by comparing
test results to other athletes in the same training group or a similar
population group. Previous test results of large groups are often
published as normative tables. By the small nations there is a problem
how to assure enough subjects to make standards, which are declared as
norms for population. By comparing results to successful table tennis
players, we can see the areas, which need improvement, and the training
programme can be modified accordingly. On base of the information
you can get thru fitness testing valuable training time can be used more
efficiently. The initial testing session can give the athlete an information
of where their fitness levels are at the start of a programme, so that
future testing can be compared to this and any changes can be noted.
This information are especially important for current adaptation of the
contents and loads in the process of training. By repeating tests at
regular intervals, we can get an idea of the effectiveness of the training
programme.
Fitness testing is primarily used for help in designing the most
appropriate athletic training programme for achieving of better results in
the table tennis game. A general non-sport specific testing battery can
provide you with an idea of basic strengths and weaknesses of the
player, and from this you may find you would be better suited to another
sport, which makes better use of your strengths. Sometimes testing has

been used in this way for talent detection. Due to many factors
influencing sport performance it has generally low or unknown validity
in predicting the future success of juniors.
Firstly Sport Measurement Management System was developed
on basis of question why we should perform fitness testing and the
benefits of testing, then how to select appropriate fitness tests and how
to interpret the results.
METHODS
The participants were 36 best male and female junior players in
Slovenia. The sample of variables consisted of 28 anthropometric
measures and 17 motoric tests.
Data were processed by the statistical software SPSS 8.0 for
Windows and the new software SMMS.
PROGRAM SMMS
The organisation and execution of tests is often a time-consuming,
strenuous and expensive job for both the athletes and the measurers, the
coaches, and other experts involved. In carrying out this work, a special
problem represents the processing of the test data, which includes their
collection, storing, analysis, and presentation. All the said phases of
processing can be computer supported. To this end, a number of
programs intended specifically for testing the athletes, children and
youth, the participants in the various programs as well as other
population groups have already been developed in the world and in
Slovenia. However, for the majority of them it applies that their
applicability is very limited as they are often connected with a particular
target group only (e.g. pupils in primary schools, athletes in a particular
branch of sport, etc.); they do not allow the selection of new tests and
other methods for their evaluation; they have limited possibilities as
regards the presentation of the results, etc. In developing the program,
special attention was paid to the following requirements:
• the program must support all most frequent operations
associated with test data processing;
• the program must allow the processing of data of all population
groups, irrespective of gender, age, branch of sport, type of pursuit
(recreational, competition or top-level sport), and similar;
• the program must allow the inclusion of arbitrary tests, their
conversion into arbitrary indices, and their arbitrary combining into test
batteries;

• the program must, within the framework of evaluation models

it incorporates, allow arbitrary evaluation of the obtained test results in
accordance with the needs of a group which is being evaluated;
• the program must enable import and export of all kinds of data
in generally known layouts (formats).
Hence, the program has been laid out not only as the so-called
production tool intended for end users (i.e. teachers, coaches etc.) but
also as a developmental tool allowing the laboratories, researchers and
more progressive coaches who wish so that they can carry out their own
modifications of and supplements to the testing system. The products
they thus develop; i.e., especially tests, test batteries and evaluation
models, are not part of the program itself, yet the program allows their
exchange between the developers or development institutions and end
users (coaches, teachers). The program thus encourages the creation of
new knowledge or products and their exchange and application.
Database
All data needed for the work with the program are stored in a
database. The structure of the data is relational, which means that the
data are presented by means of mutually related tables (Figure 8.1). In
addition to the data on the athletes and the results attained by them on
the tests, the database also stores the data (parameters) on the models
intended for the evaluation of the obtained results. The data form is
Paradox. The database is physically represented by a multitude of files
stored in a separate folder, which serves to facilitate their transfer to
another computer or making of a back-up copy. The data is easily
accessible on an individual computer only; by means of suitable
adjustments they are also accessible from several computers in a local
area network, which have been given the access right.

Athlete Subject Result Test in battery
Name Athlete Subject Test

Sex Measurement Test Battery
Brth.d. Remark Value
Start with TT X
Discipline
Club
Measurement
Test
Date Name
Discipline Code
Author
Sex Label
Remark
Sex Team Unit
Category Sort 9-0
Width
Label Dec
Formula Kind of model
Description
Discipline
Label
Label
Code Model
Model of Z-value
Label
Kind
Model
Tets
XA
SD ND Model
Parameters
Figure 8.1: Data model
When installing the program, some tables (e.g., branch of sport

and gender) already contain input data, while others are empty. The user
himself takes care of the filling in of the tables by manual input or by
import from external files. An example of such an import is, for
instance, the import of tests and models; here, the user can import only
those data which are of interest for his branch of sport, age group of
athletes he coaches, etc. On the other hand, the user who has prepared
some data by himself (e.g. a new test or a new test battery), can - most
easily simply over the Internet - offer them to other users.
For editing of the data, the SMMS program has several windows
or forms available. The basic form is the form Test results (Figure 8.2)
into which the basic data on the measurement (date, team, etc.), athletes
(name, birth date, and similar), and the results attained by them on the
tests are entered. In addition to the results of measurements we can also
use indices (e.g. the proportion of fat in the body), which the program
calculates on the basis of the formulae stored in its database. The data of

this kind can also be imported into or exported from the database. In
addition to the formats usually applied in carrying out measurements on
top-level athletes at the Faculty of Sport, widely used formats, such as
are DBF (it can, for example, be created in Excel) or SPPS (one of the
most widespread statistical packages), can also be applied. The data on
the tests (including their descriptions, sketches, etc.) are being ordered,
and their combining into groups is carried out on the form
Tests/batteries.
Figure 8.2: Window of the SMMS program with the Test Results form
Models for the evaluation of test results

Stored in the database are - in addition to the data on athletes and
the results of the tests performed on them - also models by which the
results attained by the athletes can be evaluated. The SMMS program
supports two kinds of models: z-value models and ND models. The
former are used for making the so-called profiles which show for each
test how much the athlete deviates from the model (in the positive or in

the negative direction). ND models allow that the attained results are
divided into quality categories (e.g., into a 5-level “school” scale from
unsatisfactory to excellent, while the user can arbitrarily select the
number of levels and their denomination). Qualified experts or
institutions usually design the models; however, the user can also design
them by himself, or he can supplement or modify the existing ones. For
this purpose a form for ordering for every type of the model (Figure 8.3)
is available to him.
Model: Table tennis kadets (nd)
Tree Des.mark
Atribut:
Code: MMEN3SM
MMERMML
MMEN3SM Name: Triple jump
speedlokom
anaaeroend Test: Test parameters:
MVAA600
informkomp
Weig.: 6,5
AKGT abdominal s
agility
AONL left leg circu Utility function:
MKAGKVS left arm circ Normalisers::
AOSL
fleksibility
ARP bicristal spa
MS38ZARO
specmotor ASR biacromial s
inf-energ AT body weigh x f(x)
strenleg AV body heigh
684.5 0
MS38MMZ MHGNS2 Sprint 20m
morpholog
MKAGKV Sidesteps 692 0
ekstern
MMEN3S Triple jump
lontransd 740 2
MMENSD Long jump
AV 764 3
MMERMM Heavy ball t
ASR
ARP MS38MM Heavy ball w 803 3.5
mcircum MS38ZA Sholder flek
815 4
AT MVAA60 600m run
AONL 839 5
Figure 8.3: Form for editing of the ND models
Presentation of test results

In addition to the forms already mentioned in the chapter on
database, the results of testing can also be shown in form of tables and
charts. The latter form is particularly illustrative and enables three
different presentation units: measurement, athlete, and test subject. The
presentation of a measurement (Figure 8.4) shows the results of all
athletes for an individual (arbitrarily selected) test; the presentation of an
athlete shows all results of an individual athlete and individual test for
all measurements he or she participated in so far, while presentation of a
test subject shows the results of an athlete for several arbitrarily selected
tests and measurements at the same time.

Table 8.1: Motor results by SPSS
Cadets Juniors
GROUP 1 2 3 GROUP 1 2 3
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
MSARG 55.3 5.06 47.9 6.04 33.3 5.71 MSARG 39.2 4.17 35.8 7.01 28.0 4.69
M4SKOK 1015.0 28.87 935.0 66.40 744.3 58.55 M4SKOK 815.8 40.55 781.9 76.48 712.5 40.52
MTRSK 725.0 23.45 647.1 35.57 520.0 46.55 MTRSK 586.7 33.71 568.1 49.92 523.8 29.26
MT20 3.1 0.03 3.4 0.13 3.8 0.10 MT20 3.7 0.17 3.8 0.21 4.0 0.18
MST 11.0 1.08 9.3 1.47 7.1 1.28 MST 6.2 0.93 7.1 1.12 6.9 2.06
MT5REA 1.1 0.04 1.2 0.09 1.3 0.04 MT5REA 1.3 0.06 1.3 0.09 1.3 0.11
MSDM 243.8 3.86 216.9 12.52 181.6 16.04 MSDM 192.2 17.54 184.9 18.78 174.5 6.35
MDT60 59.0 6.06 50.7 2.36 41.6 5.03 MDT60 47.2 3.82 46.9 6.45 43.0 11.17
MTAPNO 35.8 0.50 30.9 2.48 28.1 1.07 MTAPNO 31.2 1.17 29.4 2.45 26.0 2.16
MTAPRO 53.3 2.89 50.1 3.39 40.2 5.34 MTAPRO 50.0 3.79 45.5 3.21 37.5 7.05
MTPK 52.5 4.04 51.0 7.85 44.9 2.27 MTPK 53.8 2.56 53.1 3.27 46.0 3.74
MZVIN 75.8 7.32 76.6 15.81 66.7 6.31 MZVIN 62.3 4.89 55.5 8.96 65.8 7.93
MIZPK 177.5 12.56 177.7 15.03 159.3 10.13 MIZPK 167.7 8.50 169.4 11.76 155.8 7.59
MZON 26.0 2.00 24.1 3.85 19.8 4.44 MZON 23.8 2.32 20.8 3.33 14.0 2.45
MKVS 8.1 0.61 8.1 0.28 9.5 0.82 MKVS 9.7 0.56 9.3 0.39 10.7 0.97
MTSS 9.7 0.50 10.5 0.65 11.4 0.49 MTSS 11.4 0.47 11.4 0.43 12.3 0.46
MTAG 10.0 0.52 10.3 0.57 11.7 0.80 MTAG 11.8 0.40 11.7 0.53 12.2 0.51
Figure 8.4: Presentation of the results in form of a chart

REPORTS
If tables and charts are primarily intended to present the results of
testing on a screen, then the reports made by the SMMS program are
usually printed out or sent in some other way (e.g. by e-mail) to the end
users (coaches, athletes etc.). The program allows the designing of
several kinds of reports: the report Title page shows the basic data on the
measurement and athletes taking part in it. The report Order by tests
shows - for an individual test or for all tests performed in connection
with the measurement selected - for all participants in the tests, the last
result achieved by them and all previous results for the period selected.
The reports Profile of a test subject (Figure 8.5) and ND (Figure 8.6)
show the results of data processing by z-value models and ND models,
respectively. A special kind of report is the Record sheet, which for an
arbitrarily selected test battery displays a form into which the results of
testing are entered.
The SMMS program makes all reports simply in the MS Word
program where they can be viewed, printed out, sent by fax or e-mail,
and if necessary they can also be additionally ordered, provided with
opinions, instructions for training and similar.
Figure 8.5: Profile report (opened in MS Word)

PLAYER 1 PLAYER2 PLAYER 3 PLAYER 4

Code Unit Res. f(x) Mark Res. f(x) Mark Res. f(x) Mark Res. f(x) Mark
OCENA 3,5 v. good 3,4 good 3,2 good 3,2 good
├─motoric 3,5 good 3,6 v.good 3,4 good 3,4 good
│ ├─basicmotoric 3,4 good 3,6 v.good 3,3 good 3,3 good
│ │ ├─enercomp 4,1 exc. 3,6 v.good 3,3 good 3,3 good
│ │ │ ├─faststreng 4,3 exc. 3,3 good 3,0 good 2,7 accep.
│ │ │ │ ├─MMENSDM cm 255 3,3 good 255 3,3 good 270 4,5 exc.
│ │ │ │ ├─MMERMML pon. 235 4,3 exc. 300 225 3,4 good 190 1,0 unacc.
│ │ │ │ └─MMEN3SM cm 795 3,4 good 750 2,4 accep. 760 2,8 accep.
│ │ │ ├─fastlokom 4,2 exc. 4,4 exc. 4,2 exc. 4,6 exc.
│ │ │ │ └─MHGNS20L s 3,02 4,2 exc. 2,96 4,4 exc. 3,03 4,2 exc. 2,92 4,6 exc.
│ │ │ └─anaaerobend 3,3 good 3,3 good 2,8 accep. 3,1 good
│ │ │ └─MVAA600 s 115 3,3 good 115 3,3 good 123 2,8 accep. 118 3,1 good
│ │ └─inforcomp 0,6 unacc. 3,4 good 3,2 good 3,1 good
│ │ ├─agility 3,8 v.good 3,3 good 3,2 good
│ │ │ └─MKAGKVS s 7,15 3,8 v.good 7,46 3,3 good 7,5 3,2 good
│ │ └─flexibility 0,6 unacc. 2,0 accep. 2,7 accep. 2,7 accep.
│ │ └─MS38ZARO cm 60 0,6 unacc. 70 2,0 accep. 75 2,7 accep. 75 2,7 accep.
│ └─specmotor 3,7 v. good 3,8 v.good 3,8 v.good
│ └─inf-energ 3,7 v. good 3,8 v.good 3,8 v.good
│ └─strenttle 3,7 v. good 3,8 v.good 3,8 v.good
│ └─MS38MMZ cm 300 3,7 v. good 380 310 3,8 v.good 305 3,8 v.good
└─morpholog 3,4 good 3,2 good 2,9 accep. 3,0 accep.
├─eksternedi 3,4 good 3,2 good 2,9 accep. 2,9 accep.
│ ├─longitudi 3,5 good 3,4 good 3,0 good 2,8 accep.
│ │ ├─AV cm 175,2 189,2 3,2 good 175,8 189 3,1 good
│ │ ├─ASR cm 43,5 3,5 v. good 44,1 3,7 v.good 42,1 3,0 good 40 1,7 unacc.
│ │ └─ARP mm 217 249 4,1 exc. 222 236 2,8 accep.
│ └─mcircum 3,0 accep. 2,5 accep. 2,3 accep. 3,0 good
│ ├─AT kg 74,3 1,6 unacc. 75,6 1,8 unacc. 70,3 1,0 unacc. 79,2 2,3 accep.
│ ├─AONL mm 317 3,8 v. good 296 3,3 good 298 3,3 good 303 3,4 good
│ └─AOSL mm 585 3,3 good 542 2,1 accep. 550 2,3 accep. 589 3,3 good
└─interndi 3,7 v. good 4,4 exc. 4,4 exc. 4,0 exc.
└─skinfold 3,7 v. good 4,4 exc. 4,4 exc. 4,0 exc.
├─AKGT mm 12 3,3 good 7,8 4,2 exc. 6,2 5,0 exc. 10 3,4 good
└─AKGS mm 12 4,0 exc. 7,8 4,6 exc. 11,8 4,0 exc. 9 4,4 exc.
Figure 8.6: ND Report
The possibilities of SMMS application in table tennis

At the Faculty of Sport we have managed, in the past, to define
the motor and morphological model of a table tennis player in the
various age categories for both genders by means of research work and
empirical knowledge of table tennis. For this purpose we have selected
and adapted a suitable group of tests, prepared norm values and software
by means of which the results of tests can be processed and presented in
a suitable manner. On the basis of the thus acquired knowledge we could
start some years ago with the measurements of motor abilities and
morphological characteristics using a test battery of an optimal size,
which allows a relatively rapid and easy execution of the measurements
on a larger number of test subjects. The results, which have been
suitably processed and presented, give a basic (though rough), yet for the
needs of practice thoroughly satisfactory, insight into the state of the
morphological characteristics and motor abilities of an individual. Here
we think, of course, of those morphological characteristics and motor
abilities, which are of a particular importance for successful, playing
performance in table tennis. The mentioned measurements are carried

out above all with the objective that the data acquired would help the
coaches in their decisions concerning the selection as well as in planning
and executing the training sessions.
In addition it is also necessary to mention that the norm values are
set from the aspect of the achievement of top-level results and caution is
necessary when using them for the needs of the work in clubs.
Conditionally, the above-mentioned results can also be used for
checking the training status. The program will also be gradually
upgraded with other processing possibilities. It is, as already mentioned,
also open to setting up specific test batteries and evaluation models by
individual coaches.
SUMMARY
In the end it is, as many time so far, worth mentioning that for
successful playing of table tennis other abilities, characteristics and
properties of a child, as well as also the circumstances in which an
individual club works are also important. Excluding the children from a
group solely on the basis of poor results on motor and morphological
tests can be more harmful than useful. On the basis of the knowledge of
the child’s abilities the coach must, of course, be aware of the child’s
limitations as regards the possibility of achievement of the top-level
results and must not encourage false hopes or even give the child a role
which he or she cannot justify in front of himself or herself and in front
of others. The situation is different in national teams, where the criteria
of selection must be objectified and fair - here the evaluation of the
motor and morphological model of a player can make the coach’s work
considerably easier.
The software, which allows the coach to monitor more easily, the
effects of transformation processes are more than welcome. A
particularly great value has the SMMS program which allows the user a
continuous adaptation to the current circumstances, at the same time also
allowing him the creation of new models or setting up of new test
batteries or measurement procedures. If you don’t know what the
numbers in the results mean, the tests are fairly useless. The results must
have meaning so that they can be applied to modify a training
programme. This information is especially important for current
adaptation of the contents and loads in the process of training.

REFERENCES
Bompa, O.T. (1994). Theory and methodology of training.
Kendall/Hunt publishing company, Dubuque.
Kondrič, M. (1996). The expert system for orientation of children
into table tennis in the Republic of Slovenia. International
journal of table tennis sciences. no. 3. pp. 125-130.
Leskošek, B. (1995). Comparative Analysis of Expert Methods from
the Viewpoint of their Usefulness for the Initial Selection and
Orientation of Children into Different Sports (in Slovenian).
(Ph.D. Thesis). University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Sport.
Šturm, J. (ed.) (1992). Initial Selection and Orientation of Children
to Sports Based on Expert Modeling (in Slovenian). University of
Ljubljana, Faculty of Sport.
Williams, A., & Reilly, T. (2000). Talent identification and
development in soccer. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 657-667.

Part 2
TENNIS
Injuries in tennis from the aspect of training factors
Aleš Filipčič
Injuries in tennis from the aspect of training

factors

Tennis
ABSTRACT
The aim of the research was to identify and analyse the injuries of
male tennis players. The analysis covered a sample of 100 male tennis
players. Based on the survey conducted within the scope of regular
annual testing of the national team members, we wished to establish the
relevance of training factors and their influence on the occurrence of
injuries.
We were interested in the incidence and the anatomic location of
injuries, the incidence of injuries resulting from tennis strokes, the
impact of the scope and contents of practice as well as regeneration on
the incidence of injuries. Furthermore, we wanted to find out about the
connection between 21 predictor variables (training factors) and the
criterion variable (number of tennis injuries). The chi-square test
showed that statistical difference between expected and actual
frequencies was recorded in five variables. These variables were:
estimate that the tennis player has technical difficulties in two-handed
backhand, the number of fitness trainings per week, the agility and speed
that are prevailing elements of fitness trainings, and regular tennis
players’ implementation of regeneration procedures. In sum, optimal
tennis technique, suitable fitness training and regeneration procedures
can influence the occurrence of injuries.
Key words: tennis, injuries, training
INTRODUCTION
Tennis is a sport that has changed considerably in the last few
decades. Stroke exchanges are shorter, movements are more intensive
and strokes faster. Many tennis experts believe that this is due to better
affecting them (Filipčič, 1996).
Most common causes of injuries, disorders and other pathological
conditions in sports were classified into six groups by Medved (1987):
mechanical force (one-off or repeatable; high or low intensiveness),
physical strain (within the scope or exceeding physiological limitations;
one-off, multiple or repeatable), lower oxygen concentration - hypoxia
(high above sea level, sea depth, etc.), thermal influence and radiation
(heat, cold, UV radiation, etc.), bacteria, toxins, viruses and doping.
Biener (1988) conducted a research and established that of the
total 144 injuries suffered by tennis players 47 were joint dislocations,
32 muscle injuries, 21 open wounds, 12 ligament and tendon injuries, 8
fractures, 2 meniscus lesions, 12 sprains and 2 teeth injuries.

In research, which covered a sample of recreational tennis players,

Popovič (1997) discovered that severe injuries in tennis on average
occur after the age of 33. Injuries are more frequent during the winter
(indoors) than in the summer (outdoors). In more than half cases the
reasons for specific tennis injuries include fast start, going for the ball
and skid. A third of injuries are caused by worn out sports tools and
equipment (sneakers, rackets or balls). Of these injuries 75% is
accounted for by injuries to lower extremities, 12% by injuries to upper
extremities and 10% by head injuries.
Marshall & Elliott (1998) established that most assessments of
segmental sequencing in throwing, striking or kicking have indicated a
proximal-to-distal sequencing of end-point linear speeds, joint angular
velocities, segment angular velocities and resultant joint moments. The
timing and importance of pronation-supination in the development of
racket head speed have been examined in the tennis serve and squash
forehand drive and considered in relation to conventional concepts of
proximal-to-distal sequencing. Both long-axis rotations reached their
peak angular speeds late in both strokes, typically after shoulder flexion-
extension, shoulder abduction-adduction and elbow extension. These
results clarify and confirm the importance of upper limb long-axis
rotations in the production of racket head speed. It appears that
traditional proximal-to-distal sequencing concepts are inadequate to
describe accurately the complexity of the tennis serve or squash
forehand drive. It is essential to consider upper arm and forearm
longitudinal axis rotations in explaining the mechanics of these
movements and in developing coaching emphases, strength training
schedules and injury prevention programmes.
Field & Savoie (1998) discovered that athletes of all ages and skill
levels are increasingly participating in sports involving overhead arm
motions, making elbow injuries more common. Among these injuries is
lateral epicondylitis, which occurs in over 50% of athletes using
overhead arm motions. Lateral epicondylitis is characterised by pain in
the area where the common extensor muscles meet the lateral humeral
epicondyle. The onset of this pathological condition begins with the
excessive use of the wrist extensor musculature. Repetitive micro
traumatic injury can lead to mucinoid degeneration of the extensor origin
and subsequent failure of the tendon. Golfers and tennis players often
develop this condition because of the repetitive valgus stress placed on
the medial elbow soft tissues. A less common cause of medial elbow
pain is medial ulnar collateral ligament injury. Repetitive valgus stress
placed on the joint can lead to micro traumatic injury and valgus

Tennis
instability. When the medial ulnar collateral ligament is disrupted,

abnormal stress is placed on the particular surfaces that can lead to
degenerative changes with osteophyte formation.
Bylak & Hutchinson (1998) found that tennis is a popular racket
sport played by boys, girls, men and women. Tennis players frequently
begin playing in childhood and may continue playing into late
adulthood. Preadolescent and adolescent players have open growth
plates and a reduced muscle power, lower level of coordination and
smaller stature compared with adult players. The physical characteristics
of the young tennis player mean that unique demands are placed on the
developing athlete, which can, in turn, be associated with different types
and patterns of injury. The most common types of injury in tennis
players of all ages are muscle sprains and ligament sprains secondary to
overuse. These are a particular problem in the adolescent age group
because, in general, this group began playing with a lower level of
physical conditioning. Fortunately, injuries in younger players are
usually not longstanding and the overuse (chronic) problems seen in
older players, such as patellar tendinosis and tennis elbow, are less
common in younger players. Anatomically, lower extremity injuries are
twice as common as those to the upper extremity or spine, with ankle
injury being the most common. Prevention of injury in young tennis
players, or at least a reduction in the incidence, is possible. Some
traumatic injuries, including contusions, abrasions, lacerations and
fractures, may be unavoidable as a result of aggressive play, but others
may be prevented by monitoring equipment and the court surface to
ensure a safe field of play. The prime target of prevention in young
tennis players should be overuse injuries. The principles of 'overload'
and staged involvement are of particular importance in this age group. A
gradual, progressive increase in the intensity of tennis practice, the slow
introduction of new court surfaces and a staged progression in the
teaching of tennis skills can help to reduce the incidence of injury in
young tennis players.
In his analyses Strojnik (1998) established that tennis injuries
most often involve injuries to lower extremities. The prevailing are ankle
sprains, torn internal head of the gastrocnemius muscle (tennis leg) and
torn lateral thigh muscles. These are followed by injuries to the lower
spine, arms and the shoulder girdle. Strojnik also discovered that
movements and strokes are optimal if the foot axis and the thigh axis are
parallel to the direction of strain.
The research carried out by Vuga (1998) defines the reasons for
injuries. They are divided according to the functioning external

(exogenous) or internal (endogenous) mechanical force. The

pathological conditions mainly cover the locomotion apparatus and
partly back and abdominal musculature. In the case of sports injuries
resulting from a specific degree and frequency of strain, the individual
capacity of ligament and supporting tissue and the actual strain are
imbalanced. Consequential micro traumatic changes lead to subsequent
reactive inflammations of affected tissue. Unfavourable microclimatic
conditions often accompanying tennis matches can cause systemic
pathological conditions in players.
Kibler & Safran (2000) and Safran (2003) established that there is
no specific difference in the type of injury between boys and girls.
However, there are differences in the number of injuries to a certain
body part. Boys experienced more injuries to upper extremities and girls
to lower extremities. In girls, injuries to the knee, foot, calf and wrist are
more common, while in boys a higher incidence of ankle, groin and arm
injuries was recorded.
Fragniere, Landry & Siegrist (2001) discovered that stress
fractures of the ulna are uncommon injuries, but they have been reported
in athletes from various sports. In tennis players stress fractures of the
ulna are described exclusively in the no dominant forearm of athletes
using a two-handed backhand stroke. We report such a case in a 24-year-
old tennis player, with special emphasis on diagnostic imaging, accurate
grading of the injury, and specific treatment recommendations.
Tisak (2001) found that an injury resulting from overuse can
occur even without an accident, as a result of one or more reasons
(muscle injuries caused by insufficient warming up and non-optimal
muscle contraction co-ordination, etc.). The reasons for injuries were
classified into three groups: injury due to the player, due to
equipment (requisite, footwear, clothes, etc.) and due to surroundings
(tennis court, ball on the court, etc.). Major conclusions involve the
finding that players who have regularly underwent strength training
suffered less injuries to the shoulders and back as those who did not.
Based on gathered information from previous investigations the
purpose of the present study was to establish:
• the number of injured and uninjured male tennis players,
• incidence of injuries by anatomic location,
• correlation between variables (competition successfulness,
number of matches, tennis training and fitness training,
difficulties in tennis strokes, elements of fitness trainings,
regeneration procedures) and injuries.

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METHODS
Participants
The sample of respondents covered 100 male tennis players of
different ages, who are members of the national teams and take place at
the Slovene Tennis Association ranking scale. The sample included only
tennis players who have been regularly training for at least 2 years.
Table 9.1: General characteristics of the subject sample
Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Age /years/ 14.00 18.00 14.82 3.49
Height /cm/ 157 192 168.17 19.96
Weight /kg/ 47.0 88.0 54.21 18.36
Training period /years/ 2 13 7.10 2.93
Procedures
Data were collected by a written survey. The survey questionnaire
was designed to provide as much information as possible about tennis
injuries as well as about the scope and method of training by male tennis
players. The survey was anonymous and conducted in the framework of
regular annual testing of the national tennis team members.
The survey questionnaire was divided into four segments:
- personal data of the tennis player (age, height, weight, playing
span, scale ranking, the number of matches played in one year),
- data about tennis practice (number of hours of tennis practices
per week, duration of tennis practice, duration of warming up,
estimate of difficulties in performing tennis strokes),
- data about fitness trainings and regeneration procedures
(number of fitness trainings per week, elements of the training,
implementation of regeneration procedures, time allocated to
regeneration),
- data about tennis injuries (location of the injury, cause).
To facilitate the classification of a player's injuries, the locations
and types of injuries were previously stated in a table in which the
respondents entered their data. If the relevant number was high, we
instructed the respondents to provide only the information about the last
three major injuries.
Variables
In selecting predictor variables we used those which were
estimated to have a suspected influence on the number of injuries.

Table 9.2: Selected predictor variables

Code Name of test
CS Coefficient of competition successfulness (no. point/no.
tourn.)
N_TOUR Number of tournaments played in one year (freq.)
N_TP Number of hours of tennis practices per week (hours)
D_TP Duration of tennis practice (1 min)
D_WU Duration of warming up in minutes (1 min)
TD_S Estimate that a player is experiencing technical difficulties in
serve
TD_F Estimate that a player is experiencing technical difficulties in
forehand
TD_B Estimate that a player is experiencing technical difficulties in
backhand
TD_FV Estimate that a player is experiencing technical difficulties in
forehand volley
TD_BV Estimate that a player is experiencing technical difficulties in
backhand volley
TD_SM Estimate that a player is experiencing technical difficulties in
smash
TD_NO Estimate that a player is not experiencing technical difficulties
N_FT Number of fitness trainings per week (freq.)
FT_AGIL Agility is the prevailing element of fitness trainings
FT_SPE Speed is the prevailing element of fitness trainings
FT_COOR Co-ordination is the prevailing element of fitness trainings
FT_STR Strength is the prevailing element of fitness trainings
FT_END Endurance is the prevailing element of fitness trainings
REG The player is regularly implementing regeneration procedures
T_REG Time allocated to regeneration (freq.)
Dependent variable (N_INJURY) is represented by injuries, i.e.

the total number of injuries at all anatomic locations of a tennis player.
The variable N_INJURY reflects the number of injuries of tennis
players.
Data analysis
In the beginning we collected the information about the locations
of injuries. The basic method used was the chi square test (χ2). In this
case the chi square test was used to determine the statistically significant
connection between the established frequency of injuries and the
expected (hypothetical) frequency.

Tennis
RESULTS
Based on collected data it was established that out of 100 male
tennis players 83 suffered at least one injury, i.e. 30 one injury, 23 two,
12 three, 18 four or more. Only 17 tennis players have not experienced
any injury so far.
In male tennis players the most common injury in terms of
location is the elbow injury, followed by the shoulders and back. Others
include skin abrasions due to falls or hits.
Table 9.3: Comparison of the number of injuries in male tennis players

by anatomic location
Injury location Number of injuries Percentage
Elbow 18 16.2%
Shoulder 17 15.3%
Back 15 13.5%
Ankle 14 12.6%
Knee 11 9.9%
Wrist 9 8.1%
Other locations 27 24.4%
The results of the chi square test (Table 9.4) show that in five variables
(TD_B, N_FT, FT_AGIL, N_SPE, and REG) the difference between the
expected frequencies and actual frequencies is statistically significant.
Table 9.4:Connection between the dependent and independent variables

Variable Description Sig. χ2
CS Coefficient of competition successfulness (no. point/no. 0.717
tourn.)
N_TOUR Number of tournaments played in one year (freq.) 0.091
N_TP Number of hours of tennis practices per week (freq.) 0.332
D_TP Duration of tennis practice (1 min) 0.556
D_WU Duration of warming up in minutes (1 min) 0.518
TD_S Estimate that a player is experiencing technical 0.117
difficulties in serve
TD_F Estimate that a player is experiencing technical 0.243
difficulties in forehand
TD_B Estimate that a player is experiencing technical 0.041
difficulties in two-handed backhand
TD_FV Estimate that a player is experiencing technical 0.124
difficulties in forehand volley
TD_BV Estimate that a player is experiencing technical 0.063
difficulties in backhand volley
TD_SM Estimate that a player is experiencing technical 0.332
difficulties in smash

TD_NO Estimate that a player is not experiencing technical 0.487

difficulties
N_FT Number of fitness trainings per week (freq.) 0.046
FT_AGIL Agility is the prevailing element of fitness trainings 0.009
FT_SPE Speed is the prevailing element of fitness trainings 0.006
FT_COOR Co-ordination is the prevailing element of fitness 0.411
trainings
FT_STR Strength is the prevailing element of fitness trainings 0.214
FT_END Endurance is the prevailing element of fitness trainings 0.225
REG The player is regularly implementing regeneration 0.007
procedures
T_REG Time allocated to regeneration (freq.) 0.277
Statistically significant correlations (p<0.05) are shown in bold.
Legend:
Sig. χ2 – statistical significance of the Chi square test
DISCUSSION
Comparison of the number of injuries in male tennis players in
terms of anatomic location (Table 9.3) reveals that male tennis players
sustain a lot of injuries to upper extremities. The reason for this could be
the fact that male players play more aggressively, faster and more
intensely. In their case the serve speed is of exceptional importance for
success.
The analysis of the chi square test (Table 9.4) showed that in the
case of a variable - estimate that a male tennis player has technical
difficulties in backhand (TD_B) - the difference between the expected
frequencies and actual frequencies is statistically significant. This means
that the number of male tennis players experiencing difficulties in
backhand stroke is increasing alongside with the number of injuries. On
this basis it can be suggested that most injuries are sustained by the
tennis players who have technical difficulties in performing a backhand.
It was found that as much as 44% of tennis players aged 15 or fewer
estimates that they have serious technical problems in two-handed
backhand.
Since the research covered only players using two-handed
backhand, a more detailed analysis showed that the most common injury
in tennis players experiencing technical difficulties in this stroke is the
wrist injury of the no dominant hand. This means that in the case of a
two-handed backhand the no dominant hand is under most strain (the left
hand of right-handers). Fragniere, Landry & Siegrist (2001) discovered
that no dominant hand injuries are frequently caused by two-handed
backhand. Similar conclusions were made by Safran (1999), who

Tennis
established that male players experience more injuries to upper

extremities and female players to lower extremities.
Therefore, it can be concluded that a two-handed backhand
performed optimally in terms of technique has a crucial impact on the
number of injuries of tennis players. For this reason the role of coaches,
who are responsible for suitable development of tennis technique, is of
extreme importance. In addition to technical problems in performing the
stroke, the development of the no dominant body side must not be
neglected during strength training, which ensures balanced physical
development of a player.
Another variable which displayed a statistical difference between
frequencies is the number of fitness trainings per week (N_FT). This
means that those male tennis players who undergo more fitness trainings
per week experience fewer injuries. The least injuries were recorded in
those players who had three fitness trainings weekly. Tisak (2001) made
similar findings, which, however, apply only to strength training. He
discovered that the player who regularly underwent strength training
sustained less shoulder and back injuries.
The importance of adequate fitness training has been well
discussed and presented in sports community, but the fact is that in
practice there are many deviations from theoretical basis. Since the
research included mainly young athletes, the obtained results are even
more relevant; as they point to the fact that suitable load in fitness
training has an essential influence on the incidence of injuries and in
tennis players.
The number of injuries was significantly affected also by two
variables determining the prevailing contents of fitness training. These
are agility (FT_AGIL) and speed (FT_SPE) as the prevailing elements of
fitness training. Thus, male players included in fitness training
programmes where the prevailing element is agility or speed experience
less injuries that those who did not frequently deal with these two
elements. This can to a high degree be explained by the above-
mentioned importance of fitness training and development of motor
abilities. Tennis players who are through fitness training gradually
prepared for the strain of a match are less likely to sustain an injury.
The last variable showing statistically significant difference in
frequency is the variable which estimates whether a player is regularly
implementing regeneration procedures (REG). This refers to the
frequency of regeneration procedure implementation. Regeneration
procedures most often carried out by tennis players include: cool-off
running after practice or match, stretching, massage, swimming and

sauna. The results showed that those tennis players who carry out
regeneration procedures more frequently suffer fewer injuries than those
who do not.
Regeneration procedures are very important in extensive and
intensive training. They counter balance the strain which is part of
training and matches. Data obtained from this research show that the
number of hours of tennis practices per week is between 4 and 10. The
players compete in 15 to 22 matches every year. It has to be noted that in
addition to tennis and fitness trainings, the players also attend school.
These points to great burden of tennis players, therefore, the
implementation of regeneration procedures is even more important and
essential.
In sum, it appears that the factors such as: optimal tennis stroke
technique, suitable fitness training and the frequency of regeneration
procedures have a crucial impact on the number of injuries sustained by
male tennis players.
REFERENCES
Biener, K. (1988). Stress, Epidemiologie und Prävention. Bern:
Verlag Hans Huber.
Bylak, J., & Hutchinson, M. R. (1998). Common Sports Injuries in
Young Tennis Players. Sports medicine, 26(2), 119.
Field, L. D., & Savoie, F. H. (1998). Common Elbow Injuries in
Sport. Sports medicine, 26(3), 193.
Filipčič, A. (1996). Evalvacija tekmovalne in potencialne uspešnosti
mladih teniških igralcev [Evaluation of Competitive and Potential
Performance of Young Tennis Players]. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport (Faculty of Sport).
Fragniere, B., Landry, M., & Siegrist, O. (2001). Stress fracture of
the ulna in a professional tennis player using a double-handed
backhand stroke. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc, 39(4),
239-241.
Kibler, W. B., & Safran, M. R. (2000). Musculoskeletal Injuries in
the Young Tennis Player. Clinics in sports medicine, 19(4), 781-
792.
Marshall, R. N., & Elliott, B. C. (1998). Long-axis rotation: The
missing link in proximal-to-distal segmental sequencing. Journal
of Sports Sciences, 18(4), 247-254.
Medved, R. (1987). Sportska medicina [Sports medicine]. Zagreb:
Fakulteta za fizičku kulturu.

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Popovič, J. (1997). Tenis in teniške poškodbe [Tennis and tennis

injuries]. Ljubljana: Medicopharmacia.
Safran, M. R. (2003). Biomechanics of Tennis Strokes and Its
Association with Tennis Injuries. American Journal of Medicine
and Science, 5, 276-284.
Strojnik, V. (1998). Biomehanski principi gibanja in poškodbe pri
tenisu [Biomechanic Principles of Movement and Tennis
Injuries]. Ljubljana: Olimpijski komite Slovenije (Olympic
Committee of Slovenia), Združenje športnih zvez (Association of
Sports Federations), Odbor športa za vse (Sports Committee for
Everyone) 14-16.
Tisak, B. (2001) Analiza poškodb slovenskih teniških igralk in
igralcev starih od 10 do 29 let [Analysis of Injuries of Slovene
Male and Female Tennis Players aged 10 to 29]. Unpublished
bachelor’s Thesis. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport (Faculty of Sport).
Vuga, V. (1998). Poškodbe in okvare gibalnega sistema pri
športnikih [Injuries and disorders of the motor system in athletes].
Ljubljana: Olimpijski komite Slovenije (Olympic Committee of
Slovenia), Združenje športnih zvez (Association of Sports
Federations), Odbor športa za vse (Sports Committee for
Everyone). 8-13.

Correlation of tennis motor skills and basicanthropometric …
Aleš Filipčič
10
Correlation of tennis motor skills and basic

anthropometric characteristics and its influence
on the competition successfulness of young tennis
players

Tennis
Correlation of tennis motor skills and basic anthropometric

characteristics and its influence on the competition
successfulness of young tennis players
ABSTRACT
The aim of the present research is to find out how selected
variables (muscular power of the arms and elastic power of the legs,
repetitive strenghth of the trunk, movement speed, speed of alternative
arm movements, agility, dynamic balance, flexibility in the shoulders,
running endurance, body height and body weight) can be used to explain
the variance of criterion variable, represented by competition
successfulness. The tests of tennis motor abilities and anthropometric
measurements were carried out on a sample of 51 female and 52 male
tennis players, aged 13.
Regression analysis was made for female and male tennis players
respectively. It showed that the system of tennis motor variables explains
49% of the variance of criterion variable in female tennis players, and
54% in male tennis players.
For female tennis players three variables were extracted that
seem statistically significant in the explanation of the variance of
criterion variable: the tests of elastic leg power, balance and running
endurance; for male tennis players two variables seem statistically
significant. These two variables are the test of agility (fandrill) and body
height.
The findings indicate that the results of tennis motor tests and
anthropometric measurements should be valued differently for female
and male tennis players of the same age.
Key words: tennis, success, tennis motor tests, anthropometric
measurements
INTRODUCTION
Tennis is a dynamic sports game played with a racket and a ball.
Success in tennis is defined by several factors that can be divided into
social (sport infrastructure, sport popularity,...), external (competitor,
coach, parents, training conditions) and internal factors (potential
capacity, realisation – mobility capacity and competition experience).
In the present research, the competition successfulness of young
female and male tennis players, aged 13, is explained on the basis of
selected tennis motor tests, anthropometric measurements, and the test of
running endurance. The selected tests measure muscular power of the

arms, elastic power of the legs and repetitive strenghth of the trunk,
speed of movement, speed of alternative movements with the arm,
agility, dynamic balance, flexibility in the shoulders, running endurance,
body height and body weight.
Muscular strength is defined as the ability of a muscle or a group
of muscles to exert maximal force during contraction. Muscular power is
a combination of strength and speed. The test measures how quickly we
apply our muscular strength.
The research was carried out with the aim of answering the
following questions:
1. To what extent can the selected variables explain the variance
of criterion variable in female and male tennis players?
2. Which variables have the highest prediction value for female
and which for male tennis players?
In this problem field the following pieces of research have been
consulted. Bunc, Dlouha, Hoehm and Safarik (1990) have conducted
research on 80 boys and girls aged 13 and 14 with a test battery, which
was composed of eight tennis motor tests and anthropometric measures.
Based on comparison between tests and competition successfulness in
tennis have figured out high importance of speed for young tennis
player.
Filipčič (1993) compared competition successfulness with the
results of basic motor and tennis tests on 43 tennis players between 15
and 23 years of age. The results of regression analysis show a
statistically significant connection between the system of predictor
variables and the criterion variable. By applying the system of used
predictor variables approximately 40 percent of the criterion variance
can be explained.
Filipčič (1996) compared competitive and potential successfulness
to regression analysis and expert modelling on 87 young tennis players,
aged between 12 and 14. Regression analysis was initially performed
separately on motoric, morphologic and functional parts of the expert
tree. Using morphologic predictor variables, 50 percent of the criterion
variable was explained, using tennis motor predictor variables, 63
percent of the criterion variable was explained, and using functional
predictor variables, 53 percent of the criterion variable was explained.
Regression analysis was furthermore performed on the highest level of
the three dimensions that helped explain 66 percent of the criterion
variable.
Congruity of the results obtained through expert modelling and
regression analysis with the morphologic dimensions turned out to be

Tennis
0.40, with the motor dimensions 0.65 and with the functional dimensions
0.58. On the highest level, i.e. the level of potential successfulness of
young tennis players, the congruity of the results turned out to be 0.71.
The congruity of the results obtained through expert modelling
and regression analysis on the one hand and the criterion variable on the
other hand turned out to be 0.53 considering the first method and 0.81
considering the second method.
Šerjak (2000) determined a connection between tennis motor tests
and competition successfulness on 51 female tennis players aged 11 to
14. The results of regression analyses showed that the system of tennis
motor variables had a statistically significant connection with the
criterion variable. Variables of muscular strenghth, speed of movement,
flexibility and coordination have the highest prediction value.
Stare (2002) used regression analysis to determine correlations
between anthropometric and tennis motor dimensions with competition
successfulness of tennis players. 75 young tennis players, aged between
12 and 14, participated in the research. The calculated values were
statistically significant. Using anthropometric variables, 32 % of the
criterion variable was explained, while tennis motor predictor variables
explained 41 % of the criterion. Within anthropometric variables, three
variables were correlated to the criterion with statistic significance.
Within tennis motor variables, stamina and speed of movement were
statistically significant as well.
METHODS
Subjects
The sample of subjects consisted of 51 female and 52 male tennis
players, all aged thirteen. The study covered only the players satisfying
the following conditions:
• female and male tennis players were ranked among the first 60
players in Slovenia;
• they participated in the process of regular training;
• they completed all the tests relevant to the research.
Procedures
The measurements were carried out at the Faculty of Sport in
Ljubljana within regular annual measurements organised for candidates
for the Slovenian national team. Apart from these candidates, the best
tennis players from different tennis clubs were invited to take part in the
project. The measurements were carried out within one day. The tests of
speed of movement and speed of alternative movements with the arm

were carried out immediately after the warming up, while the tests of
repetitive strength of the trunk and of running endurance were carried
out last.
Description of tennis motor tests

Medicine Ball Put (MBP)
TASK: The subject stands behind a line (a right-hander with his/her left
side towards the direction of the throw), holding the ball in his/her
dominant hand, the left hand supporting the ball from the bottom. After a
slight arch backward, the ball is thrown straight ahead with a move
similar to a serve. The distance from the line to the point where the ball
landed is measured.
Quarter jump (QJ)
TASK: The subject, from a sideways stance with his/her feet apart
behind the line, takes four alternate jump steps, landing on both feet. The
distance from the line to the last set of footprints (heel) is measured.
Sit-ups 60 s (SU60)
TASK: The subject lies back down with legs bent and the soles of the
feet resting on the ground about 30 cm apart, hands behind the head,
fingers interlocked. On the signal, the subject sits up, twisting the trunk
and touching one elbow to the opposite knee, then lies back flat again.
The sit-up is repeated, the other elbow touching the other knee; the test
is continued without interruption as many times as possible for a period
of 60 seconds or as long as the subject can continue.
20-m Run (R20)
TASK: The result is the time of the subject’s running a 20 m distance,
starting from standing position at the start.
Tapping 20 s (TAP20)
TASK: For twenty seconds the subject has to tap alternately two plates
on the tapping board with his dominant hand, while holding the other
hand in between the two plates. The result is the number of alternate
double hits.
Fandrill (FAN)
TASK: The subject runs with a racket in his/her dominant hand, along a
marked-out course of five directions of four meters. The subject must
always step on the central marker and the other bases, or at least touch
them with one foot. In addition, the racket must touch the ground in
front of the player at each of the outside bases. Leg number three must

Tennis
always be run backward, while the other legs in any manner desired, as
quickly as possible.
Turns on Low Beam (TLB)
TASK: The subject stands on low beam and on command performs
alternating turns of 180 degrees to the left and then to the right for 60 s.
If the subject falls from the beam, he/she again steps on it and continues
the task. The turn to one direction and back is one repetition.
Twist with the Stick (TS)
TASK: The subject stands and holds a stick forward with arms extended.
The left hand must be on the stick all the time while the right one can
move. The subject moves the stick over his/her head so that the distance
between the left and the right hand is as small as possible. The elbows of
both arms must be extended. The result is the distance between the left
and the right hand on the stick.
2400-m Run (R2400)
TASK: The result is the time of the subject’s running a 2400 m distance
(6 laps on an athletics stadium) from standing position at the start.
Subjects are divided into groups, with a maximum of 8 subjects.
Table 10.1: Predictor variables
Code Name of test Ability
MBP Medicine Ball Put (cm) Muscular power of arms
QJ Quarter Jump (cm) Elastic power of the legs
SU60 Sit-ups in 60 s (freq.) Repetitive strenghth of the trunk
R20 20-m Run (.1 s) Speed of movement
Speed of alternative movements
TAP20 Tapping in 20 s (freq.)
with the arm
FAN Fandrill (.1 s) Agility
TLB Turns on Low Beam (freq.) Dynamic balance
TS Sprain with the Stick (cm) Flexibility in the shoulders
R2400 2400-m Run (s) Running endurance
Longitudinal dimensionality of the
BH Body Height (cm)
body
BW Body Weight (.1 kg) Body maTS
In defining the criterion variable, all the competitions for female
and male tennis players aged up to 13 which had taken place in the
period of the last competitive season were taken into account. Since the
players competed in a different number of tournaments, we selected the
most suitable criterion variable (competition successfulness), which is
the ratio between the number of points collected by an individual player
in tournaments and the number of played tournaments.

The number of collected points represents all the points received

for ranking in a competition (depending on the competition rank; from
1st to 3rd rank), while the points received for winning depend on the
opponent's ranking – bonus points. Points received collectively are
divided by the number of tournaments played and on this basis the
coefficient of competition successfulness is calculated.
Data analysis
Regression analysis was used to establish a relation between
tennis motor variables and anthropometric variables on the one hand and
competition successfulness of female and male tennis players on the
other.
RESULTS
Basic statistical parameters of female and male tennis players are
shown in Tables 10.1 and 10.2. A high coefficient of variation (the ratio
between standard deviation and arithmetic mean) appears only in the
variable Turns on Low Beam (TLB), in both female and male tennis
players. The variable Turns on Low Beam (TLB) represents the test that
measures dynamic balance on the low beam. The high coefficient can be
explained with the duration of the test (60 s). It needs to be emphasised
that the task was very difficult with regard to the participant’s balance,
and it distinguished those with good from those with poor balance.
In other variables variation coefficients are much lower, indicating
a relatively homogeneous sample of young tennis players.
Table 10.2: Basic statistical parameters of female tennis players

Variable Mean Std.dev. CV
MBP 758,18 147,34 0,19
SU60 51,84 7,91 0,15
QJ 755,22 70,19 0,09
R20 3,7116 ,2098 0,05
TAP20 44,59 3,68 0,08
FAN 15,447 1,452 0,09
TLB 26,04 14,57 0,55
TS 66,80 18,34 0,27
R2400 636,53 66,80 0,10
BH 163,225 6,660 0,04
BW 51,225 7,557 0,14
Legend:
Mean – arithmetic average
Std. Dev. – measure of dispersion around the mean

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CV – ratio between Std. dev in Mean (coefficient of variation)Table 10.3: Basic

statistical parameters of male tennis players
Variable Mean Std.dev. CV
MBP 898,65 222,50 0,24
SU60 55,13 8,32 0,15
QJ 820,29 77,94 0,09
R20 3,6079 ,2306 0,06
TAP20 44,12 4,68 0,10
FAN 14,894 1,540 0,10
TLB 25,52 11,61 0,45
TS 75,44 19,80 0,26
R2400 639,54 51,69 0,08
BH 162,681 9,090 0,05
BW 51,727 9,616 0,18
Legend:
Mean – arithmetic average
Std. Dev. – measure of dispersion around the mean
CV – relation between Std. dev in Mean
Table 10.4: Correlation between tennis motor and morphological

variables of female tennis players
MBP SU60 QJ R20 TAP20 FAN TLB TS R2400 BH BW

MBP 1,000 ,154 ,326 -,344 ,288 -,172 ,006 -,085 -,315 ,341 ,215
SU60 ,154 1,000 ,025 -,120 ,158 -,114 ,098 -,106 -,352 ,003 -,146
QJ ,326 ,025 1,000 -,738 ,322 -,551 ,365 -,114 -,055 ,281 ,115
R20 -,344 -,120 -,738 1,000 -,385 ,405 -,156 ,109 ,211 -,196 -,092
TAP20 ,288 ,158 ,322 -,385 1,000 -,334 ,113 -,031 -,021 ,270 ,301
FAN -,172 -,114 -,551 ,405 -,334 1,000 -,515 ,314 ,082 -,361 -,172
TLB ,006 ,098 ,365 -,156 ,113 -,515 1,000 -,309 -,088 ,072 -,034
TS -,085 -,106 -,114 ,109 -,031 ,314 -,309 1,000 -,082 ,170 ,206
R2400 -,315 -,352 -,055 ,211 -,021 ,082 -,088 -,082 1,000 -,130 ,064
BH ,341 ,003 ,281 -,196 ,270 -,361 ,072 ,170 -,130 1,000 ,687
BW ,215 -,146 ,115 -,092 ,301 -,172 -,034 ,206 ,064 ,687 1,000
The intercorrelation between predictor variables in the male

category is shown in Table 10.4. Body Weight (BW) and Body Height
(BH) have very significant and positive correlation. Medicine Ball Put
(MBP) has significant correlation with Quarter Jump (QJ), 20-m Run
(R20), Tapping in 20 s (TAP20), 2400-m Run (R2400) and Body Height
(BH). Sit-ups in 60 s and 2400-m Run have significant correlation.
Quarter Jump (QJ) has significant correlation with all other variables

except Sit-ups in 60 s (SU), Twist with the Stick (TS), 2400-m Run
(R2400) and Body Weight (BW). 20-m Run is related to Tapping in 20 s
(TAP20) and Fandrill (FAN). Tapping in 20 s (TAP20) has significant
correlation with Fandrill (FAN), Body Height (BH) and Body Weight
(BW). Fandrill (FAN) is significantly related to Turns on Low Beam
(TLB), Twist with the Stick (TS), and Body Height (BH). Turns on Low
Beam has significant correlation with Twist with the Stick (TS). The
final conclusion is that motor variables which represent speed, agility
and muscular power are significantly related.
Table 10.5: Correlation between tennis motor and morphological

variables of male tennis players
MBP SU60 QJ R20 TAP20 FAN TLB TS R2400 BH BW

MBP 1,000 ,268 ,531 -,356 ,409 -,009 -,261 ,088 -,045 ,595 ,658
SU60 ,268 1,000 ,445 -,509 ,454 -,428 ,215 -,020 -,324 ,250 ,198
QJ ,531 ,445 1,000 -,728 ,560 -,460 ,173 ,164 -,512 ,547 ,407
R20 -,356 -,509 -,728 1,000 -,403 ,395 -,191 -,120 ,570 -,316 -,270
TAP20 ,409 ,454 ,560 -,403 1,000 -,238 -,172 ,220 -,382 ,497 ,398
FAN -,009 -,428 -,460 ,395 -,238 1,000 -,647 -,005 ,334 -,204 -,287
TLB -,261 ,215 ,173 -,191 -,172 -,647 1,000 ,105 -,234 -,063 -,044
TS ,088 -,020 ,164 -,120 ,220 -,005 ,105 1,000 -,260 ,185 ,037
R2400 -,045 -,324 -,512 ,570 -,382 ,334 -,234 -,260 1,000 -,218 -,084
BH ,595 ,250 ,547 -,316 ,497 -,204 -,063 ,185 -,218 1,000 ,820
BW ,658 ,198 ,407 -,270 ,398 -,287 -,044 ,037 -,084 ,820 1,000
The intercorrelation between predictor variables in the male

category is shown in Table 10.5. Body Weight (BW) and Body Height
(BH) have very significant and positive correlation. Medicine Ball Put
(BMP) has strong correlation with Body Weight (BW), Body Height
(BH) and Quarter Jump (QJ). Sit-ups in 60 s (SU60) has significant
correlation with Quarter Jump (QJ), 20-m Run (R20), Tapping in 20 s
(TAP20) and Fandrill (FAN). It is obvious that Quarter Jump (QJ), 20-
m Run (R20), and Tapping in 20 s (TAP20) have significant correlation
with all other variables except Turns on Low Beam (TLB) and Twist
with the Stick (TS). Fandrill (FAN) has significant correlation with all
other variables except Medicine Ball Put (MBP), Twist with the Stick
(TS) and Body Height (BH). Turns on Low Beam (TLB) is significantly
related with Fandrill (FAN), Medicine Ball Put (MBP) and 2400-m Run
(R2400). Sprain with the Stick has significant correlation only with
2400-m Run (R2400). The final conclusion is that almost all motor
variables have significant correlation except Turns on Low Beam (TLB)
and Twist with the Stick (TS).

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Table 10.6 shows that the predictor system and the criterion
variable are correlated with statistical significance (p <.005). The
coefficient of determination (R2 = .49) shows that the association of the
system of prediction variables with the criterion variable is statistically
significant. Among the selected variables three beta coefficients (Quarter
Jump - QJ, Turns on Low Beam - TLB, 2400-m Run - R2400) have
statistical significance. Additionally, all three variables also have a high
beta coefficient, correlation and partial correlation.
Table 10.6: Regresion analysis for female tennis players

R R2 F Sig. F
,700 ,49 3,414 ,00
Variable Beta Correl Part Cor T Sig. T

MBP -,130 ,136 -,107 -,934 ,356
SU60 -,066 ,019 -,059 -,519 ,606
QJ ,419 ,377 ,236 2,064 ,046
R20 ,245 -,173 ,150 1,309 ,198
TAP20 ,045 ,167 ,037 ,327 ,745
FAN ,123 -,327 ,083 ,730 ,470
TLB ,365 ,459 ,291 2,543 ,015
TS -,025 ,006 -,021 -,188 ,852
R2400 -,358 -,296 -,297 -2,602 ,013
BH ,188 ,411 ,119 1,044 ,303
BW ,235 ,324 ,158 1,385 ,174
Legend:
R – coefficient of multiple correlation
R2 – coefficient of determination
F – F test of H0: R2=0
Sig. F – significance of F test
Beta – standardized beta coefficient
Correl – Pearson correlation coefficient
Part Cor – Partial Correlation coefficient
T – t value for H0: Beta=0
Sig T – two-tailed significance level of T
variable are correlated with statistical significance (p <.005). The
coefficient of determination (R2 = .54) shows that the predictor system
of tennis motor variables explains 54% of the variance of criterion
variable. The coefficient of multiple correlation (R = .739) shows that

the relation of the system of predictor variables with the criterion

variable is .74. Among the selected variables two variables, namely
Fandrill (FAN) and Body Height (BH) explain significantly the variance
of criterion variable. Additionally, both variables have a higher Beta
coefficient, correlation and partial correlation. A comparison between
correlation and partial correlation in male players shows a lower
coefficient value in Sit-ups in 60 s (SU60), Quarter Jump (QJ), 20-m
Run (R20), Turns on Low Beam (TLB), Body Weight (BW).
Table 10.7: Regression analysis for male tennis players

R R2 F Sig. F
,739 ,54 4,382 ,00
Variable Beta Correl Part Cor T Sig. T

MBP ,155 ,275 ,086 ,812 ,421
SU60 ,030 ,304 ,022 ,206 ,838
QJ -,293 ,408 -,138 -1,300 ,201
R20 -,131 -,384 -,078 -,737 ,466
TAP20 -,240 ,220 -,158 -1,486 ,145
FAN -,463 -,481 -,263 -2,468 ,018
TLB -,046 ,265 -,029 -,273 ,787
TS ,052 ,164 ,046 ,436 ,665
R2400 -,257 -,397 -,189 -1,771 ,084
BH ,681 ,558 ,319 2,993 ,005
BW -,180 ,465 -,078 -,734 ,467
Legend:
F – F change
Sig. F – significance of F change.
Beta – standardized coefficient beta
Correl – correlation coefficient
Part Cor – Partial Correlation coefficient
T – T value for B
DISCUSSION
The results of regression in female and male players show
relatively high values of explained variance of criterion variable (49% in
female and 54% in male players).

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Filipčič (1996) made a regression analysis of male tennis players

(aged 14) on different abilities and characteristics. The following values
of explained variance were obtained: in 15 morphological variables the
explained variance was 51%, in 22 tennis motor variables 63%, while in
6 functional variables the explained variance was 53 %. The criterion
variable in the present research also included competition
successfulness, estimated with a coefficient of successfulness.
Female tennis players

The most significant predictor of the criterion variable is Quarter
Jump (QJ), which measures the elastic power of the legs. The variable
belongs to the field of energy component of movement (mechanisms for
regulation of excitation intensity). It needs to be mentioned that a high
level of correlation between the variables Quarter Jump (QJ) and 20-m
Run (R20) (0,72) was found which may indicate specific common
mechanisms.
Čoh and Šturm (1987) proved a high reliability of the jump test.
Their research included 124 categorized sport athletes in six different
sport disciplines and confirmed the hypothesis of the multidimensional
field of jump power where latent structure is determined by three
factors: the factor of elastic power, the short sprint factor, and the factor
of muscular power. Čoh and Šturm (1987) also discovered that elastic
power was the ability characteristic of good athletes.
Filipčič (1993) found out that the variable 20-m Run (R20) is the
only individual predictor that can explain successfulness in tennis with
statistical significance. He also established that the speed of movement
and start speed were very important in tennis. Namely, variables
influence the movement of tennis players, since the start and the first
meters of the run are crucial in the preparation and realisation of the
stroke. In a tennis game many short sprints are no longer than 11
metres. Usually they are five metres long (Schönborn, 2000).
The second variable with statistical significance of influence on
the criteria is Turns on Low Beam (TLB), which measures the balance
and belongs to the field of informational component of movement. In
previous research on male and female tennis players (Filipčič, 1993,
1996), no importance of the variables that represent balance was proven.
However, the results obtained by the present research are not surprising
because the importance of balance is high in tennis. Balance exerts a
major influence on most strokes performed in a tennis game, particularly
on those that are performed during the nonsupporting phase, that is in a

jump. Because of a faster and more dynamic style of playing, these

strokes are now more frequent.
The last predictor variable that explains the competition
successfulness of female tennis players with statistical significance is
2400-m Run (R2400). This variable belongs to the field of energy
component of movement, or, more precisely, to the field of running
endurance. The test is frequently used and known as the Cooper test of
aerobic endurance. In the research on tennis game (Filipčič, 1993), a
similar variable was used (R2000), which was also found to act as an
individual predictor to explain competition successfulness with
statistical significance. For a successful performance in the test 2400-m
Run (R2400), the following factors are important: functional ability of
organic systems for O2 transport (respiratory and cardiovascular system
and the capacity of the blood), morphological and functional
characteristics of the muscles, and mechanism for the regulation and
excitation of the nerve–muscular system.
The importance of the mentioned mechanisms for tennis is
reflected particularly in time-consuming matches where the player must
retain a high level of abilities throughout the entire match or must
perform at her best at the very end of the match.
Male tennis players

The most significant tennis motor predictor of the criterion
variable is Fandrill (FAN). The variable belongs to the field of
information component of movement, or, more precisely, to the field of
regulation of movement. Fandrill (FAN) is one of the best
representatives of the tests that measure agility (the speed of specific
tennis movements on a marked tennis court). The movement is
performed with a tennis racket which links the testing task to actual
movements in a tennis game. The test lasts for about 10 seconds, which
comes very close to the average duration of the point played on the clay
court. As for the playing situation, Fandrill (FAN) comes close to the
contents of the game (way of movement) and also to the duration and
intensity of movement.
The field of agility has been mentioned several times as a very
important predictor of competition successfulness of male tennis players
(Müller, 1989; Bunc, Dlouha, Hoehm, Safarik, 1990; Filipčič, 1993,
1996). Agility is an ability that belongs to the field of regulation of
movement. The most decisive mechanisms, however, are those that
make up the structure of movement. It has been established that agility
as the ability to structure and accomplish complex movements plays an

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important role in tennis. In the language of tennis, agility stands for

footing which is in positive correlation to space orientation (body
orientation in the field), leg coordination and the speed of performing
complex motor tasks. Also, it has a high correlation to the reorganisation
of stereotypes of movement, and, finally, with tennis technique and the
technique of movement.
Body Height (BH) stands out as an individual predictor that can
explain the variance of criterion variable with statistical significance.
This is not surprising if we know that body height is an advantage in
most motor skills, including tennis. Body height offers a possibility of
higher contact points (the point where the racket hits the ball) in service,
forehand, backhand, volley, and smash. It also allows the player to hit a
distant ball. As far as competition successfulness is concerned, body
height represents one of the most important morphological
characteristics. Body height is highly correlated to the length of
individual body parts. A recent trend shows that players of 185 cm and
higher top the world tennis ranking list. It also needs to be mentioned
that a greater body height might indicate accelerated physical and
biological development in individual athletes. Two athletes of the same
age may have completely different morphological (body) characteristics.
Usually, a faster body development could also mean a faster
psychological development of the athlete. Therefore, where Body Height
(BH) is concerned, the possibility of a faster or slower growth of a tennis
player during puberty has to be taken into account.
CONCLUSION
The analyses of regressions in female and male tennis players
show a relatively high value of explained variance of criterion variable.
This indicates the importance of motor and morphological variables.
For female tennis players, three variables Quarter Jump (QJ),
Turns on Low Beam (TLB), 2400-m Run (R2400) were found to be
statistically significant. For male tennis players, only two variables were
found to be statistically important: Fandrill (FAN) and Body Height
(BH), which points to a certain difference between male and female
tennis players. The findings indicate that the results of tennis motor tests
and morphological measures performed by athletes of the same age
should be valued differently for female and male tennis players.
The results obtained could explain the different demands of
tennis playing for female and male tennis players. Male tennis players
namely tend to show more variety, dynamics and speed in the tennis
game.

REFERENCES
Čoh, M., & Šturm, J. (1987). Latentne dimenzije odrivne moči
[Latent dimensions of take-off power]. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za
telesno kulturo.
Bunc, A., Dlouha, O., Höhm, J., & Safarik, J. (1990). Testova
baterie pro hodnoceni urivne telesne pripravenosti mladyh tenistu
[A test batery for measuring the level of physical preparedness of
young tennis players]. TPV, 38 (4), 194-203.
Filipčič, A. (1993). Zanesljivost in veljavnost izbranih motoričnih
testov v tenisu [Reliability and validity of chosen motoric tests in
tennis]. Unpublished master’s thesis, Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport
(Faculty of Sport).
dissertation. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport.
Müller, E. (1989). Sportmotorische Testverfaren zur Talentauswahl
im Tennis [Phychomotor tests for selecting those talented for
tennis]. Leistungssport, 19 (2), 5-9.
Schönborn, R. (2000). Speed training for tennis. Oxford: Meyer &
Meyer Sport UK.
Stare, M. (2002). Povezanost izbranih antropometričnih in
motoričnih spremenljivk s tekmovalno uspešnostjo pri teniških
igralkah starih od 12 do 14 let [Connection of chosen
antropometrical and motor variables with competitive
successfulness of young female tennis players aged from 12 till 14
years]. Unpublished bachelor's thesis, Ljubljana: Fakulteta za
šport (Faculty of Sport).
Šerjak, M. (2000). Povezanost izbranih motoričnih sposobnosti in
tekmovalne uspešnosti mladih teniških igralk [Connection of
chosen motor variables with competitive successfulness of young
female tennis players]. Unpublished bachelor's thesis, Ljubljana:
Fakulteta za šport (Faculty of Sport).

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Photo by: Vanda Kukovec

Regression analysisof tennis-specific moto rabilities and the competition …
Aleš Filipčič
11
Regression analysis of tennis-specific motor

abilities and the competition efficiency of young
female tennis players

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Regression analysis of tennis-specific motor abilities and the

competition efficiency of young female tennis players
ABSTRACT
A sample of 96 young female tennis players, aged 13 and 14, was
included in a research aimed at establishing the influence of selected
tennis-specific motor abilities on the competition efficiency of young
tennis players. Young female tennis players were ranked on the Slovene
Tennis Association ranking list for U14 category, they participated in
the process of regular training and they completed all the tests relevant
to the research.
The selected tennis-specific motor variables include: muscular
power of arms and shoulders (MBP – medicine ball put), muscular
power of the legs (QJ – quarter jump), muscular strength of the trunk
(SU60 – sit-ups in 60 s), acceleration (R20 – 20-m run), shuttle run
ability (R9x6 - 9x6-m run), speed of alternative movements with the arm
(TAP20 - tapping in 20 s), flexibility of back (FBB - forward bend on the
bench), flexibility in the shoulders (TS - twist with the stick), flexibility of
hips (FH - flexibility of hips), agility (FAN - fandrill), coordination (OC
- obstacle course), hand-eye coordination (RTBR - rebounding tennis
ball with the racket) and dynamic balance (TLB - turns on low beam).
In defining the criterion variable, all the tournaments for female
tennis players which had taken place in the period of the last competitive
season were taken into account. Since the players competed in a
different number of tournaments, we selected the most suitable criterion
variable (competition efficiency), which is the ratio between the number
of points collected by an individual player in tournaments and the
number of entered tournaments.
The results revealed a statistically significant connection between
the group of selected tennis-specific motor variables and the criterion
variable - competition efficiency (0.83). The regression analysis results
show that the system of predictor variables explains 69% of the variance
of criterion variable.
Among the selected variables there is a statistically significant
connection between seven of them and the variance of criterion variable.
These variables measure the muscular power of arms and shoulders
(MBP – medicine ball put), acceleration (R20 – 20.m run), flexibility in
the shoulders (TS – twist with the stick), flexibility of back (FBB –
forward bend on the bench), flexibility of hips (FH – flexibility of hips),
hand-eye coordination (RTBR – rebounding tennis ball with the racket)
and dynamic balance (TLB – turns on low beam).

Medicine ball put (MBP) is used for measuring the muscular

power of arms and shoulders, which is necessary for good serve and
smash. In the past high correlation was established between the
technical performance of the serve and the tests measuring muscular
power of arms and shoulders or throw abilities measured using the
cricket ball throw test and ball throw kneeling (Filipčič, 1993;
Unierzyski, 1994). In the past, the serve was in female tennis typically
considered to be of lesser importance than in males, but this has
changed considerably lately. It was, however, established that good
throw ability is strongly connected with the quality of the serve (Filipčič,
1996).
It has been established several times that the acceleration test
(20-m run) is one of the tests with high prediction value in explaining
competition efficiency of young tennis players (Bunc, Dlouha, Höhm, &
Safarik, 1990; Müller, 1989; Filipčič, 1993, 1996; 1999, 2004;
Unierzyski, 1994; Schönborn, Kraft, & Grosser, 2000; Šerjak, 2000;
Stare, 2002). Acceleration as well as start speed are abilities that play a
special role in tennis. They have a decisive influence on the efficiency of
tennis players' movement, since the start and the first few meters of the
run determine the performance of a tennis player.
9x6-m run (R9x6) is the test used for measuring a player's shuttle
run ability. For 9x6-m run (R9x6) it can be established that it is to a
certain extent similar to movement in a tennis match, since the female
players during a single point make several short runs, changing the
direction. Therefore, the ability to move fast and change direction is
crucial in points played at the baseline.
Flexibility is measured by the tests forward bend on the bench
(FBB), twist with the stick (TS) and flexibility of hips (FH). All three
variables explain with statistical significance the competition efficiency
in tennis, which points to great importance of flexibility in female tennis
in this age group. Every variable represents a flexibility measurement
covering a different body segment.
Forward bend on the bench (FBB) reflects the basic flexibility of a
female tennis player. Adequate flexibility in the sagittal direction is
necessary for many movements involved in tennis. The importance of
optimal flexibility of the shoulder girdle, which is measured by twist with
the stick (TS), is reflected in serve and smash. Good flexibility enables
fast and relaxed loop in these two strokes. The importance of flexibility
of hips (FH) can be explained by the player's ability to hit the balls that
she has more difficulty reaching and in doing so uses mainly open
stance.

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The variable rebounding tennis ball with the racket (RTBR)

measures the ability of hand-eye coordination. Undoubtedly, successful
players have well developed ability to quickly perform complex and
untaught motor tasks with a racket and a ball.
The last variable which explains competition efficiency in female
tennis players with statistical significance is turns on low beam (TLB). It
measures the ability of dynamic balance on a low beam. It can be
concluded that dynamic balance is very important in tennis, since tennis
players perform more and more strokes in a position when they are not
in contact with the surface.
At the end it can be established that the selection of variables
included in regression analysis was adequate, both in terms of
individual tennis-specific motor abilities covered and the aspect of
explaining tennis success. It is above all important that some significant
bases were developed for further research of girls' tennis and the
importance of tennis-specific motor abilities in explaining the
competition efficiency of female tennis players.
Key words: tennis, competition efficiency, tennis-specific motor
tests
INTRODUCTION
Tennis is a dynamic sports game played with a racket and a ball.
Success in tennis is defined by several factors that can be divided into
social (sport infrastructure, sport popularity, etc.), external (competitor,
coach, parents, training conditions) and internal factors (potential
capacity, realisation capacity and competition experience).
In the present research, the competition efficiency of young
female tennis players, aged 13 and 14, is explained on the basis of
selected tennis-specific motor tests. The selected tests measure muscular
power of arms and shoulders, muscular power of the legs, muscular
strength of the trunk, acceleration, shuttle run ability, speed of
alternative movements with the arm, flexibility of back, flexibility in the
shoulders, flexibility of hips, agility, coordination, hand-eye
coordination and dynamic balance.
Muscular strength is defined as the ability of a muscle or a group
of muscles to exert maximal force during contraction. Muscular power is
a combination of strength and speed. The test measures how quickly we
apply our muscular strength.
In this problem field the following pieces of research have been
consulted. Müller (1989) carried out 21 motor tests on 80 subjects, aged
between 10 and 13. The criterion variable was the estimate of tennis

strength. The highest correlation with the criterion variable was recorded
in reaction tests, 20-meter run and Sargent jump.
Bunc, Dlouha, Höhm, & Safarik (1990) have conducted research
on 80 boys and girls aged 13 and 14 with a test battery, which was
composed of eight tennis-specific motor tests and anthropometric
measures. Based on comparison between tests and competition
efficiency in tennis they established that the speed of young tennis
players was of high importance.
Filipčič (1993) compared competition efficiency with the results
of basic motor and tennis-specific tests on 43 tennis players between 15
and 23 years of age. The results of regression analysis show a
statistically significant connection between the system of predictor
variables and the criterion variable. By applying the system of used
predictor variables approximately 40% of the criterion variance can be
explained.
Unierzyski (1994) used a sample of 217 boys and 163 girls to -
among other things - establish the connection between the position on
national ranking list and seven motor tests. He succeeded in explaining
36.5% of competition efficiency with motor variables in 11-year old
girls and 65.4% of criterion variable in 14-year old girls. He discovered
the great significance of first step acceleration in movement and of the
agility and strength in explaining competition efficiency.
Filipčič (1996) compared competitive and potential efficiency
with regression analysis and expert modelling on 87 young tennis
players, aged between 12 and 14. Regression analysis was initially
performed separately on motoric, morphologic and functional parts of
the expert tree. Using morphologic predictor variables, 50% of the
criterion variable was explained, using tennis-specific motor predictor
variables, 63% of the criterion variable was explained, and using
functional predictor variables, 53% of the criterion variable was
explained. Regression analysis was furthermore performed on the
highest level of the three dimensions that helped explain 66% of the
criterion variable. Congruity of the results obtained through expert
modelling and regression analysis with the morphologic dimensions
turned out to be 0.40, with the motor dimensions 0.65 and with the
functional dimensions 0.58. On the highest level, i.e. the level of
potential efficiency of young tennis players, the congruity of the results
was 0.71. The congruity of the results obtained through expert modelling
and regression analysis on the one hand and the criterion variable on the
other hand turned out to be 0.53 considering the first method and 0.81
considering the second method.

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Šerjak (2000) determined the connection between tennis-specific

motor tests and competition efficiency on 51 female tennis players aged
11 to 14. The results of regression analyses showed that there was a
statistically significant connection between the system of tennis-specific
motor variables and the criterion variable. Variables of muscular
strength, speed of movement, flexibility and coordination have the
highest prediction value.
Stare (2002) used regression analysis to determine correlations
between anthropometric and tennis-specific motor dimensions with
competition efficiency of tennis players. 75 young tennis players, aged
between 12 and 14, participated in the research. The calculated values
were statistically significant. Using anthropometric variables, 32% of the
criterion variable was explained, while tennis-specific motor predictor
variables explained 41% of the criterion. Within anthropometric
variables, three variables were correlated to the criterion with statistic
significance. Within tennis-specific motor variables, stamina and speed
of movement were statistically significant as well.
METHODS
Subjects
The sample of subjects consisted of 96 active female tennis
players in the category 13 to 14 years of age. The study covered only the
players satisfying the following conditions:
- tennis players were ranked on the Slovene Tennis Association
ranking list for U14 category;
- they participated in the process of regular training;
- they completed all the tests relevant to the research.

Age /years/ 12.00 14.81 13.5636 0.91215
Height /cm/ 145.0 174.0 164.023 6.7771
Weight /kg/ 32.0 68.0 53.727 8.6733
Procedures
The measurements were carried out at the Faculty of Sport in
Ljubljana within regular annual measurements organised for members of
the Slovenian national team. Apart from these candidates, the best
female tennis players from different tennis clubs were invited to take
part in the project. The measurements were carried out within one day.
The tests of acceleration and speed of alternative movements with the

arm were carried out immediately after the warming up, while the tests
of strength of the trunk were carried out last.
Description of tennis-specific motor tests
Medicine ball put (MBP)

TASK: The subject stands behind a line (a right-hander with his/her left
side towards the direction of the throw), holding the ball in his/her
dominant hand, the left hand supporting the ball from the bottom. After a
slight arch backward, the ball is thrown straight ahead with a move
similar to a serve. The distance from the line to the point where the ball
landed is measured.
Quarter jump (QJ)

TASK: The subject, from a sideways stance with his/her feet apart
behind the line, takes four alternate jump steps, landing on both feet. The
distance from the line to the last set of footprints (heel) is measured.
Sit-ups 60 s (SU60)
TASK: The subject lies back down with legs bent and the soles of the
feet resting on the ground about 30 cm apart, hands behind the head,
fingers interlocked. On the signal, the subject sits up, twisting the trunk
and touching one elbow with the opposite knee, and then lies back flat
again. The sit-up is repeated, the other elbow touching the other knee;
the test is continued without interruption as many times as possible for a
period of 60 seconds or as long as the subject can continue.
20-m run (R20)

TASK: The result is the time of the subject’s running a 20 m distance,
starting from standing position at the start.
Tapping 20 s (TAP20)
TASK: For twenty seconds the subject has to tap alternately two plates
on the tapping board with his dominant hand, while holding the other
hand in between the two plates. The result is the number of alternate
double hits.
Fandrill (FAN)
TASK: The subject runs with a racket in his/her dominant hand, along a
marked-out course of five directions of four meters. The subject must
always step on the central marker and the other bases, or at least touch

Tennis
them with one foot. In addition, the racket must touch the ground in
front of the player at each of the outside bases. Leg number three must
always be run backward, while the other legs in any manner desired, as
quickly as possible.
Turns on low beam (TLB)

TASK: The subject stands on low beam and on command performs
alternating turns of 180 degrees to the left and then to the right for 60 s.
If the subject falls from the beam, he/she again steps on it and continues
the task. The turn to one direction and back represents one repetition.
Twist with the stick (TS)

TASK: The subject stands and holds a stick forward with arms extended.
The left hand must be on the stick all the time while the right one can
move. The subject moves the stick over his/her head so that the distance
between the left and the right hand is as small as possible. The elbows of
both arms must be extended. The result is the distance between the left
and the right hand on the stick.
Forward bend on the bench (FBB)

TASK: The subject stands bare-footed on a bench. The legs are
extended, feet are together and parallel. The toes are touching the tape
measure. The subject bends forward and pushes the board which slides
down the tape measure. The final position must be maintained for at
least 2 seconds.
Flexibility of hips (FH)

TASK: The subject stands beside the wall so his/her back touches the
wall. First foot is on a marked line, meanwhile with the second one
he/she tries to make as long step aside as possible
9x6-m run (R9x6)

TASK: The subjects stands behind the first line and on the sign "Go!"
starts running across the first line (2.5 meters), continues the run to the
second line (8.5 meters), where he/she stops (with both feet over the
line) and runs in the opposite direction towards the first line. The six
meter distance must be covered six times and he/she must finish the run
over the third line (11 meters).

Obstacle course (OC)

TASK: The subject stands on all four limbs with the back turned to the
obstacles. Subject's feet are behind the line. He/she must on the sign of
the measurer move backwards, remaining on all four limbs, and cross
the area between two lines as fast as possible.
Rebounding tennis ball with the racket (RTBR)

TASK: The subject holds the tennis racket in one and the tennis ball in
the other hand. On the sign of the measurer the subject starts rebounding
the tennis ball alternately once with a string and once with a frame of the
racket. If the ball drops off, the subject picks it up and continues with the
task. The task is done after 60 seconds.
Table 11.2: Predictor variables

Code Name of test Ability
muscular power of arms and
MBP medicine ball put (cm)
shoulders
QJ quarter jump (cm) muscular power of the legs
SU60 sit-ups in 60 s (freq.) muscular strength of the trunk
R20 20-m run (.1 s) acceleration
R9x6 9x6-m run (.1 s) shuttle run ability
speed of alternative movements
TAP20 tapping in 20 s (freq.)
with the arm
FBB forward bend on the bench (cm) flexibility of back
TS twist with the stick (cm) flexibility in the shoulders
FH flexibility of hips (cm) flexibility of hips
FAN fandrill (.1 s) agility
OC obstacle course (.1 s) coordination
rebounding tennis ball with the
RTBR hand-eye coordination
racket (freq.)
TLB turns on low beam (freq.) dynamic balance
In defining the criterion variable, all the tournaments for female

tennis players aged up to 14 which had taken place in the period of the
last competitive season were taken into account. Since the players
competed in a different number of tournaments, we selected the most
suitable criterion variable (competition efficiency), which is the ratio
between the number of points collected by an individual player in
tournaments and the number of entered tournaments.
The number of collected points represents all the points received
for ranking in a competition (depending on the competition rank; from
1st to 3rd rank); while the points received for winning depend on the
opponent's ranking – bonus points. Points received collectively are

Tennis
divided by the number of tournaments entered and on this basis the

coefficient of competition efficiency is calculated.
Data analysis
The basic statistical parameters of all the variables were computed
in the first phase of the data analysis. In the second part classic multiple
regression analysis was used to asses the relation between tennis-specific
motor variables and competition efficiency of young female tennis
players.
RESULTS
Basic statistical parameters of female tennis players are shown in
Table 11.3.
Table 11.3: Basic statistical parameters of female tennis players

Min. Max. Mean SD K-S Sig. K-S
MBP 430.00 810.00 578.039 76.9940 1.002 0.268
QJ 550.00 830.00 728.922 56.0385 0.623 0.833
SU60 30.00 68.00 47.059 7.8420 0.691 0.726
R20 3.50 4.36 3.857 0.1837 0.602 0.861
R9x6 13.40 19.50 16.155 1.1760 0.566 0.905
TAP20 30.00 50.00 41.980 4.2402 1.029 0.241
FBB 36.00 64.00 51.274 6.5851 0.948 0.330
TS 7.00 120.00 65.941 18.3133 0.593 0.873
FH 124.00 191.00 160.157 13.1869 0.925 0.360
FAN 11.90 20.70 15.633 2.2042 0.845 0.472
OC 7.50 17.30 10.729 1.9175 0.930 0.353
RTBR 6.00 61.00 37.9216 11.6839 0.518 0.952
TLB 6.80 11.30 9.2824 1.0950 0.780 0.576
CE 1.000 39.600 12.87727 10.75617 1.313 0.640
Legend:
Min. – minimal result
Max. – maximal result
Mean – arithmetic mean
SD – standard deviation
K-S – Kolmogorov-Smirnov test of distribution normality
Sig. K-S - probability of K-S (p<0.05)
The results of Kolmogorov-Smirnov test of distribution normality

show that all predictor variables and criterion variable (CE – competitive
efficiency) have normal distribution.

Table 11.4: Regression analysis of female tennis players

R R2 F Sig. F
.828 .686 5.623 .000
Correl Beta T Sig. T
MBP 0.613 0.326 2.410 0.021
QJ 0.278 -0.219 -1.382 0.175
SU60 0.351 0.057 0.487 0.629
R20 -0.365 0.105 0.685 0.498
R9x6 -0.279 -0.414 -2.281 0.028
TAP20 0.383 0.234 1.612 0.115
FBB 0.525 0.435 3.804 0.001
TS -0.166 -0.236 -2.089 0.044
FH 0.120 -0.431 -3.289 0.002
FAN -0.195 -0.159 -0.728 0.471
OC -0.224 -0.035 -0.292 0.772
RTBR 0.509 0.367 2.473 0.018
TLB -0.148 0.550 2.706 0.010
Statistically significant correlations (p<0.05) are shown in bold.
Legend:
F – F test of H0: R2=0
Sig. F – significance of F test
Beta – standardized beta coefficient
Correl – Pearson correlation coefficient
T – t value for H0: Beta=0
variable are correlated with statistical significance. The coefficient of
determination (R2 = .686) shows that the predictor system of tennis-
specific motor variables explains 69% of the variance of criterion
variable. The coefficient of multiple correlation (R = .828) shows that
the relation of the system of predictor variables with the criterion
variable is .83.
Among the selected variables seven variables, namely medicine
ball put (MBP), 9x6-m run (R9x6), forward bend on the bench (FBB),
twist with the stick (TS), flexibility of hips (FH), rebounding tennis ball
with the racket (RTBR) and turns on low beam (TLB) have the largest
partial projection and the Beta coefficients are statistically significant.
Person correlation coefficients with predictor and criterion variable are

Tennis
higher for medicine ball put (MBP), forward bend on the bench (FBB)
and rebounding tennis ball with the racket (RTBR).
DISCUSSION
The results of regression analysis (Table 11.4) show that as many
as 7 variables of the total 13 are strongly statistically correlated with the
criterion. This at first glance may seem surprising, but a detailed analysis
of the results reveals sensible interpretation of the results.
The area of muscular power and strength is covered by the tests
medicine ball put (MBP), quarter jump (QJ) and sit-ups in 60 s (SU60).
Medicine ball put (MBP) is used for measuring the muscular power of
arms and shoulders, which is necessary for good serve and smash. In the
past high correlation was established between the technical performance
of the serve and the tests measuring muscular power of arms and
shoulders or throw abilities measured using the cricket ball throw test
and ball throw kneeling (Unierzyski, 1994). In serve, where the entire
body takes part, the arms and the shoulder girdle play a decisive role,
especially in the last phase of the serve, i.e. before and at the time the
ball is hit, when the hand and the racket need to move as fast as possible
(Filipčič, 1993). Serve is becoming more and more important, since on
grassy surfaces tennis players win about 20% of all points in a match
with the serve (Höhm, 1987). In view of the modern development trends
of a tennis match, the importance of the serve and return is increasing,
because on clay court as much as 33% of points are won immediately
after both strokes, while on hard courts the relevant share is 42%
(Schönborn, 1999).
The comparison of serve and the test medicine ball put (MBP)
shows that the movements are in the active phase (just before the
medicine ball is thrown and before the hit) very similar. Both motor
actions include partial movements, which was based on biomechanical
analyses recognised as relevant. These movements involve leg stretching
in knees, upper arm stretching forward and sideways in the elbow and
hand stretching in wrist. These three partial movements account for 35 to
55% of the final serve speed (Elliott, Marsh, & Blanksby, 1986). All
three partial movements are recorded also in the test medicine ball put
(MBP).
In the past, the serve was in female tennis typically considered to
be of lesser importance than in males, but this has changed considerably
lately. This means that the best female tennis players are capable of
extremely fast serves (exceeding 200 km/h). In the age group which was
the subject of this research the serve does not play such an important

role as in female category in general. It was, however, established that

good throw ability is strongly connected with the quality of the serve
(Filipčič, 1996).
It has been established several times that the acceleration test (20-
m run) is one of the tests with high prediction value in explaining
competition efficiency of young tennis players (Bunc, Dlouha, Höhm, &
Safarik, 1990; Müller, 1989; Filipčič, 1993, 1996; 1999, 2004;
Unierzyski, 1994; Schönborn, Kraft, & Grosser, 2000; Šerjak, 2000;
Stare, 2002). The above-mentioned findings - with the exception of
Šerjak (2000) - apply to boys, which could be the reason why the high
importance of the test 20-m run (R20) was not reaffirmed in this
research.
Acceleration as well as start speed are abilities that play a special
role in tennis. They have a decisive influence on the efficiency of tennis
players' movement, since the start and the first few meters of the run
determine the performance of a tennis player. Tennis involves many
short sprints 5 to 11 meters long (Filipčič, 1996, 1999).
9x6-m run (R9x6) is the test used for measuring a player's shuttle
run ability. The variable 9x6-m run (R9x6) has a high Beta coefficient
and is statistically connected with the criterion variable.
For 9x6-m run (R9x6) it can be established that it is to a certain
extent similar to movement in a tennis match, since the female players
during a single point make several short runs, changing the direction. If
we observe the play of 14-year old girls, we can see that the match is
concentrated at the baseline of the court and there is much less action in
the court and at the net. Therefore, the ability to move fast and change
direction is crucial in points played at the baseline. It is obvious that in
addition to the acceleration the ability to quickly change the direction of
movement is important in girls' tennis. This ability is part of the shuttle
test run (R9x6).
Flexibility is measured by the tests forward bend on the bench
(FBB), twist with the stick (TS) and flexibility of hips (FH). All three
variables explain with statistical significance the competition efficiency
in tennis, which points to great importance of flexibility in female tennis
in this age group. Every variable represents a flexibility measurement
covering a different body segment.
Forward bend on the bench (FBB) reflects the basic flexibility of a
female tennis player. Adequate flexibility in the sagittal direction is
necessary for many movements involved in tennis. The importance of
optimal flexibility of the shoulder girdle, which is measured by twist
with the stick (TS), is reflected in serve and smash. Good flexibility

Tennis
enables fast and relaxed loop in these two strokes. The importance of
flexibility of hips (FH) can be explained by the player's ability to hit the
balls that she has more difficulty reaching and in doing so uses mainly
open stance. In boys Filipčič (1966) established that flexibility of hips
(FH) is very important for explaining competition efficiency. Ultimately,
we must not forget the positive impact of flexibility on other motor
abilities (coordination, speed, strength, etc.).
The variable rebounding tennis ball with the racket (RTBR)
measures the ability of hand-eye coordination. The task is carried out
with a racket and is very demanding. It involves a very specific activity,
the importance of which is reflected in the precision of a tennis stroke.
Undoubtedly, successful players have well developed ability to quickly
perform complex and untaught motor tasks with a racket and a ball.
The last variable which explains competition efficiency in female
tennis players with statistical significance is turns on low beam (TLB). It
measures the ability of dynamic balance on a low beam. It can be
concluded that dynamic balance is very important in tennis, since tennis
players perform more and more strokes in a position when they are not
in contact with the surface. This is particularly true of serve and smash,
whereas in the case of other strokes (return, forehand, backhand, and
volley) this depends on the situation.
At the end it can be established that the selection of variables
included in regression analysis was adequate, both in terms of individual
tennis-specific motor abilities covered and the aspect of explaining
tennis success. It is above all important that some significant bases were
developed for further research of girls' tennis and the importance of
tennis-specific motor abilities in explaining the competition efficiency of
female tennis players.
REFERENCES
Čoh, M., & Šturm, J. (1987). Latentne dimenzije odrivne moči
[Latent dimensions of take-off power]. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za
telesno kulturo.
Bunc, A., Dlouha, O., Höhm, J., & Safarik, J. (1990). Testova baterie
pro hodnoceni urivne telesne pripravenosti mladyh tenistu [A test
battery for measuring the level of physical preparedness of young
tennis players]. TPV, 38(4):194-203.
Elliott, B., Marsh T., & B. Blanksby. (1986). A three-dimensional
cinematographic analysis of the tennis serve. International
Journal of Sport Biomechanics, 2(4):260-271.


testov v tenisu [Reliability and validity of chosen motoric tests in
tennis]. Unpublished master’s thesis, Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport
(Faculty of Sport).
dissertation, Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport (Faculty of Sport).
Filipčič, A. (1999). Potential and competitive successfulness of
young tennis players. Kinesiology, 31(2):19-30.
Filipčič, A. (1999). Reliability and validity of motor tests in tennis.
Sportonomics, 5(2):86-92.
Filipčič, A., Filipčič, T., & Leskošek, B. (2004). The influence of
tennis motor abilities and basic anthropometric characteristics on
the competition successfulness of young tennis players.
Kinesiologia Slovenica, 10(1):16-26.
Höhm, J. (1987). Tennis - Play To Win The Czech Way. Toronto:
Sports Book Publisher.
im Tennis [Phychomotor tests for selecting those talented for
tennis]. Leistungssport, 19( 2):5-9.
Schönborn, R. (1999). Advanced Techniques For Competitive Tennis.
Oxford: Meyer & Meyer Sport UK.
Schönborn, R., Kraft K., & Grosser, J. (2000). Speed training for
tennis. Oxford: Meyer & Meyer Sport UK.
Stare, M. (2002). Povezanost izbranih antropometričnih in
motoričnih spremenljivk s tekmovalno uspešnostjo pri teniških
igralkah, starih od 12 do 14 let [Connection of chosen
anthropometrical and motor variables with competitive
successfulness of young female tennis players aged from 12 till 14
years]. Unpublished bachelor's thesis, Ljubljana: Fakulteta za
Šerjak, M. (2000). Povezanost izbranih motoričnih sposobnosti in
tekmovalne uspešnosti mladih teniških igralk [Connection of
chosen motor variables with competitive successfulness of young
female tennis players]. Unpublished bachelor's thesis, Ljubljana:
Unierzyski, P. (1994). Motor abilities and performance level among
young tennis players. Poznan: Academy of Physical Education.

Tennis

Comparison of distance covered between young male and female...
Aleš Filipčič, Janez Perš, Ajda Klevišar
12
Comparison of distance covered between young

male and female tennis players

Tennis
Comparison of distance covered between young male and

female tennis players
ABSTRACT
New technologies enable new approaches to the study of sport.
These include computer-vision-based human movement analysis. The
aim of the study was to analyse the movement of young male and female
tennis players in a singles match. The computer-vision-based software
application was used to automatically obtain player motion data from
the digitised video recordings of a tennis match. To collect the video
recordings we used 2 PAL colour SVHS cameras which were fixed to a
construction above the indoor tennis court. One video camera covered
one-half of the tennis court. The video signal was recorded on S-VHS
video tape on an external recorder and the recordings were digitised
and calibrated. The recordings were subsequently processed using the
SAGIT/TENNIS tracking system which is based on computer-vision
technology.
The sample of players included 12 boys and 12 girls who played
in the national championships in the U14 category.
We present the results of the average duration of the matches,
sets, games and points, the number of points separately for boys and
girls. Then time and movement characteristics were compared between
boys and girls and between the winning and losing players. The main
unit of observation was a game where one of the players played the role
of server and the other that of receiver. We were interested in the
differences between the distances covered and the average speed
achieved in the active phase of the game. When analysing the spatial
characteristics the court was divided into 12 zones, namely three zones
along the width (zone C - central – 2.5 m from the middle of the court,
zone R - right – 2.5 to 6 m from the middle of the court, zone L - left –
2.5 to 6 m from the middle of the court) and four zones along the length
(zone 1 – 4.5 m from the net, zone 2 – 4.5 to 9 m from the net, zone 3 – 9
to 13.5 m from the net, zone 4 – 13.5 to 18 m from the net). The time and
average speed of movement of the players in an individual court zone
were compared.
The differences between both groups of players (boys and girls;
winning and losing players) in the selected set of variables were
determined using a one-way analysis of variance.
Key words: tennis, tracking system, time and movement

analysis, juniors.

INTRODUCTION
Tennis game is dynamic and complex system where tactical and
technical skills are very important. Those two parameters are crucial for
qualitative solving and decision making in various playing situation in
tennis game. We can observe different types of movement and very
often fast changes of directions. Due to the complexity and dynamics of
tennis game little research was done in the field of extent, area, way and
speed of movement. This was usually due to inaccessibility of
technology that would enable that kind of analyses. Recently Suda,
Michikami, Sato & Umebayashi (2003) analysed ladies's single that was
recorded with video camera. In the match that was 82 minutes long one
of the player covered 6932 meter. In addition, Hughes (1998) and
O'Donoghue (2004) gave review of research done in this field. It is seen,
researcher were more focused on technical parametres as compared to
movement characteristics in tennis. On the other hand, similar research
was presented in squash (Vučković et al., 2004).
These include computer-vision-based on human movement analysis.
Tracking system so-called SAGIT/TENNIS enables analises of tennis
player movement in the time of his activity. Analises of human
movement presents new challenges to the researches. Namely, results of
tracking gave us information in such a form that allows further
processing with different algorithms (Perš, Vučković, Kovačič &
Dežman, 2001).
The aim of the study

The aim of the study was to analyse the movement of young male
and female tennis players in a singles match. The computer-vision
software application was used to automatically obtain players’ motion
data from the digitilised video recordings of a tennis match. To collect
the video recordings we used 2 PAL colour SVHS cameras which were
fixed to a construction above the indoor tennis court. One video camera
covered one-half of the tennis court. The video signal was recorded on
S-VHS video tape on an external recorder and the recordings were
digitised and calibrated. The recordings were subsequently processed
using the SAGIT/TENNIS tracking system which is based on the
computer-vision technology (Perš, 2001).
METHODS
The sample of players included 12 boys and 12 girls who played
in the national championships in the U14 category. 12 tennis matches

Tennis
were observed. We present the results of total running distance that was
coverd by winners and losers in tennis matches. All matched were
finished in two sets. The differences between both groups of players
(boys and girls; winning and losing players) in the selected set of
variables were determined using T-test.
RESULTS
Table 12.1: Results of descriptive statistics for distance covered by boys

and girls
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Skewness Kurtosis
Distance covered-
12 2326,612 3998,245 3297,28342 564,411077 -,910 -,172
boys
Distance covered -
12 2194,714 3898,950 2713,79093 561,671660 1¸,456 1,222
girls
Results in Table 12.1 show that distance covered by boys was

higher as compared to girls.
Table 12.2: Results of descriptive statistics for distance covered by

losers and winners
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Skewness Kurtosis
Distance covered -
12 2194,714 3743,870 2950,63305 650,851516 ,103 -2,193
winners
Distance covered -
12 2295,701 3998,245 3060,44130 626,797253 ,307 -1,485
losers
Results in Table 12.2 present that distance covered by losers was

higher as compared to winners.
Table 12.3: Results of T-test for distance covered by boys - girls and
losers - winners
Distance covered F Sig.
Boys vs. girls ,033 ,859
Winners vs. losers ,333 ,571
Results in Table 12.3 show no statistically significant differences

were found when total distance covered was compared among boys and
girls. In addition, the same was observed among losers and winners.

DISCUSSION
Application and analysis of movement in tennis game is possible
with tracking system SAGIT/TENNIS. The analysis and comparison of
total distance covered by tennis players showed no statistically
significant differences were found among boys and girls in the national
championships in the U14 category. In addition, the same was observed
among losers and winners although just the opposite was expected.
Reason for this can be found in small number of tennis matches that
were analysed although results of mean among winners and losers show
differences in total distance covered. Secondly, the fast playing surface
(hard court) can be the answer. Namely, points played on the hard courts
are usually shorter as compared to clay surface. Probably, there were
few situations where one of the player controls the game from the base
line, while the second stays in defensive position where longer distance
was covered.
This research is first attempt where usage of SAGIT/TENNIS
system was used to analyse movement characteristics in tennis game. In
the future the following characteristics will be notated with the system.
- distance covered in passive/active part of the game
- time characteristics (average duration of point, game, set, match)
- path of movement
- speed and acceleration of movement
- position, direction and type of stroke.
REFERENCES
Hughes, M.D. (1998). The application of notational analysis to racket
sports. In A. Lees, I. Maynard, M. Hughes and T. Reilly (ed.),
Science and Racket Sports II, T. E & FN Spon, pp. 211-220.
O'Donoghue, P.O. (2004). Match analysis in racket sports. In A.
Lees, J.F. Kahn, & I.Maynard, (Ed.), Science and Racket Sports
III, Routledge, pp. 155-162.
Perš, J. (2001). Sledenje ljudi z metodami računalniškega vida.
Unpublished Master thesis, Ljubljana: Fakulteta za elektrotehniko.
Perš, J. Vučković, G., Kovačič, S., & Dežman, B. (2001). A low-
cost-real-time tracker of live sport events. In Proceedings of the
2nd Int. Symp. On Image and Signal Processing and Analysis in
conjuction with 23rd Int. Conf. on Information Technology
Interfaces (Ed Lončarič, S., Babič, H), Pula, Croatia, pp. 362-365.
Suda K., Michikami, S., Sato, Y., & Umebayashi, K. (2003).
Automatic measurement of running distance during tennis

Tennis
matches using computer-based trace analysis. Applied sport

science for high performance tennis, pp.151.
Vučković, G., Dežman, B., Erčulj, F., Kovačič, S., & Perš, J. (2004).
Differences between the winning and the losing players in a
squash game in terms of distance covered. In A. Lees, Kahn, J.F
& Maynard, I. (Ed.), Science and Racket Sports III, Routledge, pp.
202-207.

Comparison of parents' and coaches' behaviour towards...
Aleš Filipčič
13
Comparison of parents’ and coaches’ behaviour

towards male and female tennis players in
different ages

Tennis
Comparison of parents’ and coaches’ behaviour towards male

and female tennis players in different ages
ABSTRACT
Tennis is clearly one of those sports games where success is
influenced by one’s psychological abilities. Throughout their sports
careers tennis players are usually exposed to psychological pressure.
The aim of the study was to investigate how young tennis players assess
the behaviour (psychological pressure) and activity of their mother,
father and tennis coach. The sample included 96 male and 96 female
players distributed in three age categories who filled in three
questionnaires of the closed type. Data were processed in accordance
with the research goals.
Descriptive statistics parameters were calculated for all variables
by gender: mean value, standard deviation, minimum, maximum,
skewness, kurtosis and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for normality. The
analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the assessments of
behaviour of a player’s father, mother and coach by gender and then
between the three age categories (U12, U14, U16).
A comparison between the assessments of the father's, mother's
and coach's behaviour in terms of gender only revealed statistically
significant differences in the assessments of the father. When
assessments of both parents’ and the coach’s behaviour were compared
in terms of age category, statistically significant differences were again
established only in the assessments of the father.
Key words: tennis, juniors, parental and coach pressure.
INTRODUCTION
Tennis is clearly one of those sports games where success is
influenced by one’s psychological abilities. The most important of these
abilities include motivation, control of one’s feelings, thoughts,
attention, mental images, sensations and behaviour (Crespo & Miley,
2002).
Although top male and female tennis players have been found to
be well prepared for overcoming psychological pressures and are up to
the requirements of the game, as reflected in their mental toughness, this
is not always true of young male and female tennis players. The latter
are exposed to a series of demands, pressures and even psychological
violence.
Psychological violence is one of the most widespread forms of
violence (Kuhar, Guzelj, Drolc, & Zabukovec, 1999). In the course of

our lives we are all victims of this type of violence, as well as its
initiators. Most often it takes the form of oral violence, with deliberate or
thoughtless words, prejudices and stereotypes, offensive opinions and
possibly even non-communication. Silence frequently has a similar
effect as yelling at or hitting a person. Actual forms of psychological
violence are the following: intentional or unintentional use of harsh
words and opinions; yelling, insults, abusive words and degradation;
forming negative opinions about a person based on prejudices and
stereotypes; quarrelling or disagreeing with one party abusing their
physical, emotional, economic, hierarchic, institutional or other type of
dominance; blackmail and threats (including through physical, economic
or other sorts of violence).
The consequences of psychological pressure are also reflected in
young male and female tennis players who react differently, and they
sometimes lead to the end of a sports career (Gould, Tuffey, Udry, &
Loehr, 1996). The reactions can be classified in four categories:
distancing, uncontrolled emotional outburst, stiffness and ‘accepted
challenge’ (Šporn, 2002).
Distancing is the first emotional reaction of female and male
tennis players. Female and male players devote less effort and energy to
tennis as well as mentally distancing themselves from what they are
doing and experiencing. In this way their self-image is threatened less.
An uncontrolled emotional outburst is a male or female player’s
very emotional, uncontrolled, often angry and furious response to a
difficult situation. A male or female player thereby protects him/herself
from the unpleasant and unacceptable reality of events. Through such
uncontrolled outbursts the player lets the opponents, parents, coaches
and spectators know that they are not in fact that bad, but rather that they
are having a bad day.
Stiffness is a response when a male or female player experiences
emotional and physical discomfort, tension and distrust of their own
abilities. Many perceive this reaction as a sign of something very
positive. On the way to mental toughness, stiffness is a more suitable
response than distancing and an emotional outburst. If players become
stiff, they are very focused on what they are doing. They take risks and
are willing to expose their ego to criticism. For players who have already
overcome the distancing and emotional outburst phase, stiffness is a sign
of progress. The more opportunities a player has in order to deal with
pressure constructively, the faster they will find success.
Accepted challenge is the last response on the way towards mental
toughness. Male and female players who are capable of accepting a

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challenge work more intensely and play better if the game situation is
tense. Players no longer see the problems they encounter in a game as
threatening and unsolvable, but as a challenge to try harder and resolve
their problems more easily.
The development of a young tennis player is the responsibility of
parents, tennis and other coaches who guide and lead the player. Several
researches carried out in the past indicate that among young athletes
parental support is associated with the greater enjoyment of sport (Left
& Hoyle, 1995; Baxter-Jones, & Maffully, 2003), a more positive
appraisal of performance outcomes (Smith, Zingale, & Coleman, 1978),
and more positive appraisals of self-worth (Left & Hoyle, 1995).
Parental support is defined as behaviours by parents perceived by their
children as facilitating athletic participation and performance, while
parental pressure is behaviour perceived by their children as indicating
expectations of unlikely, even unattainable heights of accomplishment
(Left & Hoyle, 1995) and has a high negative correlation with
competitive trait anxiety as found in Saferstein (1990). Building on these
findings, Hoyle and Left (1997) examined the association of parental
involvement (support and parental pressure) with enjoyment,
performance, self-esteem, and other characteristics of young tennis
players. Male and female players provided information about the role
their parents played in their tennis game, their own view of their game,
their self-esteem, and their state, regional, and national rankings. Players
who reported a high level of parental support tended to report their
greater enjoyment of tennis, viewed tennis as a more important part of
their lives, and dropped less in state rankings than players who reported
a lower level of parental support. In addition, parental support appeared
to mediate the relations between several player characteristics. The data
provided no evidence that parental pressure is an important influence on
the participation and performance of young tournament tennis players.
Côté (1999) described patterns in the dynamics of families of talented
athletes throughout their development in sport. Four families, including
three families of elite rowers and one family of an elite tennis player,
were examined. Fifteen in-depth individual interviews were conducted
with each athlete, parent and sibling to explore how they dealt with three
types of constraints such as motivation, effort and resources. The results
permit three phases of participation to be identified from early childhood
to late adolescence: the sampling years, the specialising years, and the
investment years.
Kay (2000) examined the central role played by the family in the
development of children's sports talent, with particular emphasis on the

practical ways in which families support children's excellence in sport.

Interviews with 20 families from three sports (swimming, tennis and
rowing) were used to investigate how the family provides support to
young performers, and how they are affected by so doing. The findings
showed that, in addition to providing essential financial resources,
families' abilities to accommodate the activity patterns required by a
particular sport are critical to children's participation. It is shown that a
number of these factors are also likely to affect families' abilities to
support their children's sport talent. Harwood and Swain (2002)
investigated the effects of a player, parent and coach intervention
programme on the goal involvement responses, self-regulation,
competition cognitions, and goal orientations of three junior tennis
players. First, each player reported their goal involvement, self-
regulation, self-efficacy, and perceptions of threat and challenge prior to
three ego-involving match situations. Aligned with a matched control
participant, each treatment player, along with their parents and coach,
were engaged in educational sessions and cognitive-motivational tasks
over a three-month competition and training period. Postintervention,
positive directional changes were reported in all players except the
control participant. This study reinforces for applied researchers and
practitioners the importance and practicability of social-cognitive and
task-based interventions designed to facilitate optimal, motivational, and
psychological states in high pressure competitive situations. Gould et al.
(1996) examined burnout in competitive junior tennis players. Content
analyses of the 10 respondents' interviews identified mental and physical
characteristics of burnout, as well as the reasons for burning out.
Recommendations for preventing burnout in players, parents and
coaches were also gleaned. It is obvious that the success of the player-
parents-tennis coach triangle influences the successful development and
progress of a player. In such a triangle each plays their own role and this
article poses the question: How do male and female players of different
age categories assess the behaviour and actions of their fathers, mothers
and tennis coaches? The results will no doubt attract the attention of all
those who play important roles in the game of tennis, namely parents,
coaches and players.
In his research involving young tennis players, Šporn (2002) tried
to find out whether parents and the tennis coach exerted any
psychological pressure on players. He established that parents exerted
greater psychological pressure on their sons than on their daughters, that
fathers' psychological pressure on their children was stronger than that
of mothers, and that 12-year-old boys regarded the coach's behaviour as

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psychological pressure. In terms of age, it was established that 12-year-

old boys felt greater psychological pressure than girls, that 16-year-old
girls felt stronger psychological pressure from their father, mother and
tennis coach, that 12-year-old boys felt greater psychological pressure
from their coach than 16-year-old boys and that parents’ psychological
pressure is regarded as the strongest by 16-year-old boys.
Aim of the study

The aim of the study was to provide answers to the following
questions:
1. Do boys and girls assess their father’s, mother’s and tennis
coach’s behaviour differently?
2. Do boys and girls of different age categories assess their father’s,
mother’s and tennis coach’s behaviour differently?
METHODS
Subjects
The sample included 96 male and 96 female players classified in
three age categories. The first age category (U12) consisted of 32 boys
and 32 girls between 11 and 12 years of age. The second age category
(U14) included 32 boys and 32 girls aged 13 and 14, while the third
category (U16) was composed of 32 boys and 32 girls between 15 and
16 years old. They were all ranked on the national ranking list and
practiced regularly. The period of training differed by age group,
namely: boys U12 2.67 ± 1.01 years; girls U12 2.45 ± 1.21 years; boys
U14 3.24 ± 1.82 years; girls U14 3.26 ± 1.96 years; boys U16 4.59 ±
1.69 years; girls U16 4.32 ± 1.87 years.
Procedure
All male and female players filled in three questionnaires of the
closed type, which referred to assessments of their parents’ and coaches’
behaviour and/or indirectly to their perception of psychological pressure.
The questionnaire was based on Loehr's and Kahn's questionnaire (1989)
which was designed for estimating parents' behaviour. It was intended
for the surveying of parents and for producing a quarterly parental
(coach) report card. The questionnaire was translated into Slovenian and
the terminology adapted to suit Slovenian male and female players. The
source did not provide any information on the validity of the
questionnaire. The parents' questionnaire (separate for father and
mother) included 21 statements (variables: GF1-21; BF1-21 and GM1-
21; BM1-21), while the coach was assessed based on a questionnaire

containing 20 statements (variables: GC1-20 and BC1-20). The players

selected answers using a 5-point Likert scale. A Likert scale measures
the extent to which someone agrees or disagrees with a question. The
most common scale is 1 to 5. Often the scale will be 1 - strongly
disagree, 2 - disagree, 3 - not sure, 4 - agree and 5 - strongly agree. The
final result of the questionnaire is the sum total of points assigned to
each question separately for the father, mother and coach. The maximum
score regarding the father and mother was 105 points and the minimum
21, while for the coach the maximum score was 100 and the minimum
20 points. Parents’ behaviour is assessed on the basis of the total score.
Those fathers and mothers achieving between 21 and 42 points are
considered to be ‘adequate tennis parents’ (i.e. performing well), those
achieving between 43 and 63 are ‘slightly problematic’ while those
achieving between 64 and 105 points are ‘problematic parents’.
First, descriptive statistics parameters were calculated for all
variables by gender: mean value, standard deviation, minimum,
maximum, skewness, kurtosis and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for
normality.
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the
assessments of the father's, mother's and coach's behaviour between
genders and then the assessments of behaviour were compared between
the three age categories (U12, U14, U16). The tables of results show the
mean value, standard deviation, F-coefficient and the level of F-
coefficient statistical significance.
RESULTS
Descriptive Statistics
Table 13.1: Basic statistical parameters for boys

Age Variable Min Max. Mean Std. Skewness Kurtosis K-S Sig. K-S
category . Deviation
U12 B12E_FATHER 22 76 36.39 13.383 1.041 .942 .857 .413
B12E_MOTHER 21 70 29.71 11.326 2.334 5.843 1.230 .083
B12E_COACH 25 71 37.94 11.171 1.194 1.221 .846 .428
U14 B14E_FATHER 23 54 33.10 7.422 .714 .412 .529 .917
B14E_MOTHER 21 47 27.94 6.449 1.312 1.664 .887 .371
B14E_COACH 24 52 35.19 6.695 .313 -.188 .757 .570
U16 B16E_FATHER 24 71 38.00 10.000 1.271 3.162 .554 .887
B16E_MOTHER 21 53 28.93 7.659 1.759 3.693 .876 .348
B16E_COACH 23 54 35.57 8.487 .605 -.172 .536 .908

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An analysis of the basic statistical parameters for boys reveals

some deviations in certain variables of skewness and kurtosis, namely:
in mother’s assessments in the U12 category (B12E_MOTHER), in
mother’s assessments in the U14 category (B14E_MOTHER), in
father’s assessments in the U16 category (B16E_FATHER) and in
mother’s assessments in the U16 category (B16E_MOTHER). In all of
the above stated variables the assessments showed the peak dispersion
and an asymmetry to the left as well as the deviation of entities towards
higher assessments. A test of the normality of distribution of individual
variables showed the normal distribution of all variables.
Table 13.2: Basic statistical parameters for girls
Age Variable Min Ma Mean Std. Skewnes Kurtosis K-S Sig. K-S
categor x Deviation s
y
U12 G12E_FATHER 21 44 29.43 5.224 .988 1.021 .911 .339
G12E_MOTHER 21 34 25.37 3.634 .898 .180 .899 .355
G12E_COACH 24 47 33.43 5.894 .410 -.498 .709 .650
U14 G14E_FATHER 21 71 32.39 9.820 2.013 6.513 .758 .568
G14E_MOTHER 21 47 27.33 6.198 1.263 1.831 .881 .380
G14E_COACH 25 52 35.79 7.288 .449 -.810 .879 .384
U16 G16E_FATHER 23 69 37.17 12.384 .935 .540 .619 .793
G16E_MOTHER 22 60 31.54 8.723 1.518 3.604 .671 .708
G16E_COACH 23 59 38.92 8.667 .346 -.102 .446 .978
An analysis of the basic statistical parameters for girls reveals

some deviations in certain variables of skewness and kurtosis, namely:
in father’s assessments in the U14 category (G14E_FATHER), in
mother’s assessments in the U14 category (G14E_MOTHER) and in
mother’s assessments in the U16 category (G16E_MOTHER). In all of
the above stated variables the assessments showed a peak dispersion and
an asymmetry to the left as well as the deviation of entities towards
higher assessments. A test of the normality of distribution of individual
variables showed the normal distribution of all variables.

Comparison of assessments of fathers’, mothers' and tennis

coaches’ behaviour by gender between all age categories
Table 13.3: Comparison of assessments of fathers’, mothers' and tennis

coaches’ behaviour by gender between all age categories
Parent/Coach Sex Mean Std. Deviation F Sig.

E_FATHER Boys 35.76 10.652 3.975 .048
Girls 32.69 9.769
E_MOTHER Boys 28.86 8.695 .788 .376
Girls 27.82 6.720
E_COACH Boys 36.26 8.975 .112 .738
Girls 35.84 7.499
First we were interested in whether boys and girls of all age

categories assess their fathers’, mothers’ and tennis coaches’ behaviour
differently and whether they consider it to be psychological pressure.
Based on the results of the analysis of variance it may be established that
statistically significant differences in the assessments of parents' and
tennis coaches' behaviour between boys and girls were only seen in
fathers (Table 13.3).
Comparison of assessments of fathers’, mothers' and tennis

coaches’ behaviour between age categories
Table 13.4: Comparison of assessments of fathers’, mothers' and tennis

coaches’ behaviour between age categories
Parent/Coach Age Mean Std. Deviation F Sig.

category
E_FATHER U12 32.97 10.725
U14 32.73 8.680 4.068 .019
U16 37.62 11.058
E_MOTHER U12 27.57 8.678
U14 27.63 6.278 1.970 .143
U16 30.13 8.191
E_COACH U12 35.72 9.184

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U14 35.50 6.958 .620 .539

U16 37.12 8.652
The assessments of fathers’, mothers' and tennis coaches’
behaviour were compared between the three age categories U12, U14,
U16). Based on the results of the analysis of variance it may be
established that statistically significant differences in the assessments of
fathers’, mothers’ and tennis coaches' behaviour between different age
categories were again seen only in fathers (Table 13.4).
DISCUSSION
A comparison of the assessments of parents' and coaches'
behaviour between genders on the basis of the results of the analysis of
variance (Table 13.3) revealed statistically significant differences only in
fathers. An analysis of players’ individual answers showed that the
reason for these differences lies in the father’s inappropriate behaviour.
Consequently, players do not feel at ease in terms of performing to their
best abilities when their fathers are present at a match. The inappropriate
behaviour of fathers may result in a player’s poor performance that does
not correspond to their actual abilities and skills. It may be concluded
that players regard their fathers as people who do not support their
children when they fail or face difficulties, attributing the highest
importance to tennis and interfering too much in the game. Since it is
relatively easy to recognise the above attitude during a match, one can
only imagine what kind of pressure fathers exert outside the tennis court,
reflected in constant talking about tennis, setting high performance
criteria and ignoring other activities that are vital to a child's
development (schooling, other activities, social life etc.).
In our opinion such behaviour of fathers triggers various reactions
in male and female players. Whether players regard their father’s
behaviour as psychological pressure depends primarily on the father’s
behaviour, namely, to what extent and in what way they express their
views and requests related to tennis. As regards players' comprehension
of behaviour or psychological pressure, it all depends on the player’s
mental maturity and ability to withstand psychological pressure.
As regards average assessments (Tables 13.1 and 13.2) it may be
established that boys of the U12 and U14 categories also assess their
mothers' and tennis coaches' behaviour as disturbing since their
respective total scores are higher than those of girls. Boys achieved
higher values, thus leading to the conclusion that they also felt greater
psychological pressure. We believe that the reasons for these differences

between boys and girls also lie in the greater mental maturity of female
players since, by the age of 14, they are ahead of boys because their
puberty has started earlier. Both physical and mental maturity may offer
a totally different perspective on parents' and coaches' behaviour and
actions, which probably means that resistance to psychological pressure
and negative effects in girls of this age is substantially higher. Šporn
(2002) also established that parents exerted greater psychological
pressure on their sons than daughters, that fathers' psychological
pressure on their children was stronger than that of mothers and that 12-
year-old boys regarded their coach's behaviour as psychological
pressure.
A comparison of assessments of parents' and coaches' behaviour
between age categories on the basis of the results of the analysis of
variance (Table 13.4) revealed statistically significant differences in
fathers. It can again be established that the father is the person whose
behaviour is comprehended differently by female and male players of
different age categories. Why fathers were given such different
assessments may be explained by the fact that female and male players
of the U16 category predominantly saw their fathers' behaviour as
problematic. This in itself does not have to be considered negatively
because a comparison of the average values (Table 13.4) reveals that
these values increase from the lower to higher age groups in all – fathers,
mothers and coaches. A specific trend may thus be established, namely,
psychological pressure from parents and tennis coaches on male and
female players increases with age. This may mean that parents and
tennis coaches who are involved in the process of developing male and
female players take tennis increasingly seriously and, consequently, their
criteria become stricter and their approach more serious and focused on
competition results. Such an approach may – if adequately dosed and
managed – positively affect and stimulate a player's development as it
enables the exploiting of all potential needed for progress and success in
tennis. The study by Šporn (2002) established that 12-year-old boys felt
greater psychological pressure than girls, that 16-year-old girls felt
stronger psychological pressure from both parents and their tennis coach,
that 12-year-old boys felt greater pressure from their coach than 16-year-
old boys and that parents’ psychological pressure was regarded as the
strongest by 16-year-old boys.
CONCLUSION
Young male and female tennis players often perceive the actions
and behaviour of their parents and coaches as negative and disturbing, a

Tennis
finding also made in the Saferstein research (1990). We were primarily

interested in whether there are specific differences in the assessments of
parents' and coaches' behaviour between genders and different age
categories. This study did not reveal whether the parents’ and coaches’
behaviour should raise concern. Nevertheless, this area is exceptionally
important and still insufficiently researched; it is difficult to provide
unequivocal answers to the questions relating to parents' and coaches'
influence on athletes' development – in our case, male and female tennis
players.
It is recommended to pursue a joint action project: player-parents-
tennis coach, which basically points to a potential solution to the
problem of the inappropriate actions and behaviour of parents and tennis
coaches (Harwood & Swain, 2002). With the aim of ensuring more
humane and child-friendly sports development, a programme for training
tennis coaches would have to incorporate information related to the
suitable treatment of male and female tennis players at a particular age,
with an emphasis on the youngest, while the training and awareness-
raising of parents about the importance and their roles in the
development of young male and female tennis players will have to start
being implemented through tennis clubs.
REFERENCES
Baxter-Jones, A.D.G., & Maffully, N. (2003). Parental influence on
sport participation in elite young athletes. Journal of Sports
Medicine and Physical Fitness, 43, (2), 250-255
Côté, J. (1999). The influence of the family in the development of
talent in sport. Sport Psychologist, 13 (4) 395-417.
Crespo, M., & Miley, D. (2002). Advanced coaches manual – 2nd
edition. London: ITF.
Gould, D., Tuffey, S., Udry, E., & Loehr, J. (1996). Burnout in
competitive junior tennis players: II. Qualitative analysis. Sport
Psychologist, 10 (4). 341-366.
Harwood, C., & Swain, A. (2002). The development and activation
of achievement goals within tennis: A player, parent, and coach
intervention. Sport Psychologist, 16 (2) 111-137.
Hoyle, R. H., & Leff, S. S. (1997). The role of parental involvement
in youth sport participation and performance. Adolescence, 32,
233-243.
Kay, T. (2000). Sporting excellence: A family affair? European
Physical Education Review, 6 (2) 151-169.

Kuhar, R., Guzelj, P., Drolc, A., & Zabukovec, K. (1999). O nasilju
[About Violence]. Ljubljana: Association against Violent
Communication.
Left, S.S., & Hoyle, R.H. (1995). Young athletes' perception of
parental support and pressure. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,
24, 187-203.
Loehr, J., & Kahn E.J. (1989). Parent – player tennis training
program. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd.
Saferstein, D.B. (1990). Factors affecting competitive trait anxiety in
elite junior tennis players. Unpublished PhD thesis, California
School of Professional Psychology.
Smith, M.D., Zingale, S. A., & Coleman, J. M. (1978). The influence
of adult expectancy/child performance discrepancies upon
children's self-concepts. American Educational Research Journal,
15, 259-265.
Smith, M.D. (1986). Toward a cognitive-affective model of athletic
burnout. Journal of Sport Psychology, 8,36-50.
Šporn, A. (2002). Pritisk ožje družbene okolice na otroka tenisača
[The Pressure of Close Social Environment on a Junior Tennis
Player]. Unpublished Bachelor's thesis. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za

Tennis
Photo by: Vanda Kukovec

Reliable and valid tests in tennis
Aleš Filipčič
14

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ABSTRACT
The basic motor and tennis abilities were assessed on a sample of
43 tennis players - between 15 and 23 years of age. For multiple-item
motor tests, both the basic and tennis ones, the reliability of the
measurement procedures has been calculated. All the tests that showed
an adequate level of reliability were used in further research.
Four factors were isolated using factor analysis: agility, repetitive
power and flexibility, quick power of the legs and quickness of arm
movement.
The regression analysis was performed separately for the basic
motor tests and for the tennis tests, due to the rather small sample.
Based upon the two partial regressions a combined test battery was
constructed. It consisted of basic and a tennis motor tests. The results of
regression analysis show a statistically significant connection between
the system of tests and the criterion. Applying the system of predictor
variables (tests) approximately 43 percent of the criterion variance can
be explained.
Key words: tennis - motor tests - validity
THE PROBLEM AND THE AIMS OF THE ANALYSIS

In Slovenia tennis definitely falls under the group of sports that
have just started embarking on a scientific and research journey.
Therefore the researchers are bound to come across the most elementary
and basic questions first. And they have to solve them first, if they want
to start dealing with more complex problems.
Recently, it has been found that the most successful tennis players
have very high motoric and other potentials. It is worth noting at this
point that this trend will probably continue in the future. Therefore, it is
of great interest what kind of tests or measures can be used to measure a
particular motoric ability. Furthermore, it is very interesting to know
what is the influence of a particular motoric ability on successfulness in
tennis.
In the field of motorics it was attempted to consider both the basic
motor abilities as well as specific tennis ones. Since these measurement
procedures have not yet been carried out on Slovenian players, it was
decided to verify both the reliability and the factor and predictor validity
of the motor tests (Filipčič, 1993).
Four aims were targeted:

• to establish the reliability of the measurement procedures in the

fields of basic and special motorics of tennis players
• to establish the reliability of the coaches' grades
• to establish the factorial validity of the chosen motor tests and
• to establish the predictive validity of the chosen basic and special
motor tests.
METHOD
The sample of players
With a sample of the 43 top Slovenian male tennis players,
between 15 and 23 years of age, measurements of the basic and special
motor abilities were carried out. The criterion for the inclusion of the
players in the testing procedure was the ranking list of the Slovene tennis
association in the male category.
The sample of variables

The sample of the predictor variables consisted of motor tests. All
tests except those for endurance and repetitive power consisted of three
repetitions.
Table 14.1: Predictor variables - motor tests
No. Items Code Tipe Measured ability Name of test

1. 3 SJ BA quick power of legs Sargent jump without racket
2. 3 SJR TS quick power of legs Sargent jump with racket
3. 3 TCB BA quick power of arm throwing a cricket ball
4. 3 TMB BA quick power of arm throwing a 2-kg ball
5. 3 R20 BA speed 20-meters run without racket
6. 3 R20R TS speed 20-meters run with racket
7. 3 FT BA flexibility flexibility of trunk
8. 3 FS BA flexibility flexibility of shoulders
9. 3 FH BA flexibility flexibility of hips
10. 3 QS BA agility quick stepping
11. 3 FAN TS agility fandrill
12. 3 HEX TS agility hexagon
13. 3 SS TS agility side-steps
14. 1 SU BA repetitive power sit-ups
15. 1 R2000 BA endurance 2000-meters run
Tipe: BA - basic motor test
TS - tennis specific test
As prediction variables the basic and specific tennis motoric tests

were used. For the basic tests the measure procedures were included that

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measure basic motoric abilities as power, speed, flexibility and

endurance, meanwhile the specific tennis tests measure abilities or
movements that are specific in tennis play (agility, speed, quick power).
Description of the motoric tests

1.-2. SJ - Sargent jump without racket / SJR - Sargent jump
with racket
Task: The measure is attached onto the basketball board or onto a
doublewinged door. The measured person stands by the side of the
measure, so that there is enough space to swing arms. Before the skip a
preliminary step is made with the free leg, then a bi-legged jump and the
measure touched with the fingers at the highest possible point. It is not
allowed to lift the other, unfree foot from the ground before the jump.
The foot is placed on a mark under the measure.
3. TCB - Throwing a cricket ball
Task: The measured person stands behind the line with one foot placed a
bit forward. A cricket ball is held in one hand. From this position it is
thrown as far as possible. After the throw it is allowed to cross the line.
4. TMB - Throwing a medecine (2 kg) ball
Task: The measured person stands behind the line with one foot pushed
a bit forward. The ball is held with both hands above the head. From this
position the thrower leans backwards a bit and throws the ball as far as
possible. After the throw it is allowed to cross the line.
5.-6. R20 - 20 meters run / R20R 20 meters run with a racket
Task: The measured person stands behind the start line in the basic
tennis position. On the sign of the measurer he /she tries to cover the 20
meters distance as fast as possible.
7. FT - Forward bend on the bench
Task: The measured person stands bare-footed on a bench. The legs are
extended, feet are together and parallel. The toes are touching the tape
measure. The measured person bends forward and pushes the board
which slides down the tape measure. The final position must be
maintained at least for 2 seconds.
8. FS - Flexibility of shoulders
Task: The measured person stands and holds the measuring pole in front
of the face. The pole must be brought around the head to the back, so the
distance between the hands on the pole is as small as possible. The pole
has to be held constantly with both hands. Shoulders have to go back at

the same time. The subject has to maintain this position till the result is
seen by the measurer.
9. FH - Flexibility of hips
Task: The measured person stands with the back touching the wall. One
foot is on a marked line, with the other he/she tries to make as long a
step as possible.
10. QS - The speed of stepping

Task: The measured person stands with the left foot in the middle of the
left square and with the right foot in the middle of the right square in the
first line. On the sign of the measurer he/she starts to step onto the
designated central parts of the squares from one to eight. The task is to
be repeated five more times after the the initial position is again reached.
11. FAN - Fandrill

Task: The measured person stands at the starting point. A racket is held
in the playing hand. On the sign of the measurer he/she starts to move
towards the base number one, returns to the initial point number 0,
moves towards the base number two, returns again and proceeds towards
base number three, form where he/she must return to the initial point
running backwards. This action is repeated at bases four and five. The
measured person must touch the designated point with the foot at each
base and touch the floor with the racket. The movement pattern is
running ahead, with the exception at base number three (running
backwards).
12. HEX - Hexagon

Task: The measured person stands in a hexagon with sides 60 cm long.
On the sign of the measurer he/she starts to jump both-leggedly in and
out of the hexagon. Three rounds are made.
13. SS - Side-stepping
Task: The measured person stands in a small marked place between two
balls with a tennis racket in the playing hand. On the sign of the
measurer he/she starts to step to the left and right side, so that the ball is
touched with the racket on both sides. Meanwhile, one leg must always
be in the marked place. The side-stepping lasts 60 seconds. The number
of touches counts as the result in this task.
14. SU - Sit-ups in 60 seconds

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Task: The measured person lays on the ground with the legs banded
(thigh and shin are under a right angle) and the hands are under the neck.
The measured person gets from this position to a sitting position. The
sit-up is complete when the diagonal knee is touched with one of the
elbows. The knees are touched alternately with the left and right knee.
The test is performed for 60 seconds or as long as possible.
15. R2000 - 2000 meters run
Task: The measured persons are divided into groups of not more than 8
persons. The group of measured persons stands behind the start line and
on the sign "Go!" starts to run. They run 6 laps (one lap is 400 metres).
The criterion variable

The criterion variable was established on the basis of subjective
estimations of six coaches with the goal to obtain the validity of the
tests. Coaches graded the actual tennis successfulness of the players. The
players were all well known by the coaches and were graded with marks
between one and five. The coaches were instructed to give their grades
in the context of the measured sample (relative grades) and not in
general context. The coaches were advised to use the following basic
grading criteria: the actual successfulness, the grade of the talent and the
grade of the technical and tactical qualities of the player.
RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION
Reliability of the motor tests

Reliability of the tests was verified through the Cronbach Alpha
coefficient.
Table 14.2: Reliability coefficients of the motor tests.
No. Test Cronbach Alpha No. Test Cronbach Alpha
1. + SJ .9552 8. - FS .9743
2. + SJR .9808 9. + FH .9853
3. + TCB .9200 10. - QS .9433
4. + TMB .9823 11. - FAN .9243
5. - R20 .9704 12. - HEX .9281
6. - R20R .9763 13. +SS .8336
7. + FT .9838
Most of the items of the tests showed very high reliability
coefficients, higher than 0.95. Especially high reliability was shown by
the basic motor tests: 20-meters run with no racket (R20), Sargent

without racket (SJ), throwing a medecine ball (TMB), those with a

heavily stressed energy component and all tests that measured flexibility.
The agility tennis tests hexagon (HEX), fandrill (FAN) and tennis
side-steps (SS) gave somewhat lower values (between 0.92 to 0.83).
Nevertheless, the majority of these tests surpass the conventional limit of
a satisfactory reliability (0.80). The reason for lower reliability
coefficients the specific tennis tests can be explained through an obvious
complexity of these tests and the possibility to learn and improve
throughout the process of numerous repetitions of the individual test of
this kind.
Regarding the data for the reliability coefficient it can be
concluded, that the majority of the tests have adequate reliability and can
therefore be used in further research.
Reliability and objectivity of the coaches' grades
Table 14.3: Reliability coefficient of the coaches' grades.

No. Test Cronbach Alpha
16. + CG .9458
Table 14.3 shows that the value of the reliability coefficient for
the coaches' grades (CG) is around 0.95. This proves a satisfactory
reliability of the criterion variable. Also, the correlations between
individual coaches are quite high (between 0.60 and 0.88). The coaches
themselves had a similar impression of what the common object of
measurement should be and they used similar criteria to define success
in tennis, as well.
Correlation between tests and criterion variable
Table 14.4: Intercorrelation matrix of the tests and criterion variable

SJ SRJ TCB TMB R20 R20R FT FS FH QS FAN HEX SS SU R2000 CG
1. +SJ 1.00
2. +SJR .612 1.00
3. +TCB .184 .168 1.00
4. +TMB .665 .519 .348 1.00
5. -R20 -.660 -.533 -.358 -.663 1.00
6. -R20R -.729 -.574 -.327 .724 .943 1.00
7. +FT .483 .146 .357 .449 -.360 -.385 1.00
8. -FS -.425 -.128 -.056 -.230 .233 .234 -.453 1.00
9. +FH .408 .348 .167 .191 -.182 -.148 .456 -.468 1.00
10. -QS -.342 -.269 -.437 -.502 .471 .480 -.424 .256 -.304 1.00
11. -FAN -.394 -.324 -.380 -.560 .597 .583 -.479 .290 -.223 .752 1.00
12. -HEX -.351 -.273 -.397 -.650 .466 .518 -.519 .228 -.234 .629 541 1.00
13. +SS .454 .196 .161 .631 -.588 -.581 .574 -.553 .235 -.556 -.666 -.559 1.00
14. +SU .295 .161 .211 .316 -.028 -.040 .361 -.471 .473 -.333 -.232 -.334 .361 1.00
15. -R2000 -.342 -.164 -.234 -.618 .427 .473 -.379 .115 -.263 .404 .403 .494 -.520 -.238 1.00
16. +CG .288 .276 .070 .425 -.513 -.493 .177 .072 .154 -.285 -.254 -.455 .191 -.078 -.478 1.00

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It is seen from the correlation matrix of the tests that 68,6 % of

coefficients are statistically significant. In addition, it can be seen that
from 105 correlation coefficients 13 are high (from 0.61 to 0.80), 35
middle high (from 0.41 to 0.60) and 57 are low (from 0.22 to 0.40).
The analyse of correlation among individual groups of tests that
were distributed in four hypothetical factors gives an explanation that
tests where speed and explosion of the movement is important (Sargent
jump without a racket - SJ, Sargent jump with a racket - SJR, 20 m run
without a racket - R20, 20 m run with racket - R20R, throwing a
medecine ball - TMB) are high and middle high positive correlated. The
highest correlation is among test 20 m run without a racket (R20) and 20
m run with a racket (R20R), namely, 0.94. The correlation is logical
because tests are very similar. The only difference is that in first test the
racket is used, while in second the racket is not needed. High and middle
high positive correlation is obtained among tests of agility (FAN, HEX,
SS, QS), speed tests and tests that measure quick power (R20, R20R,
TMB). In conclusion, it is seen those tests are very similar structured as
far as movement is concerned (information component movement and
energetic component movement) (Jeschke, 1985; Müller, 1989).
The analyse of correlation among tests with criterion variable
shows that the highest correlation is obtained in tests as R20, R20R,
TMB, HEX and R2000. All these tests measure abilities (speed, quick
power, agility and endurance), that are of big importance of
successfulness in tennis (Höhm, 1987; Chandler, 1991). In addition,
those tests are found as measure procedures that have the highest
prediction values.
Results of the factor analysis
Factor analysis was performed with 15 motor tests. The Guttman -

Kaiser criterion extracted four latent dimensions, which explain 73
percent of the system's variance. The first eigenvalue extracted 45.4
percent of the variance. Based on the high percentage of the explained
variance of the system's first main component and the obtained
eigenvalue of the first main component, it can be concluded with high
certainty that there exists a general factor of tennis motorics. It can be
supposed that its functional base lies in functional adjustment of the
mechanisms in order to regulate motion and energy (Šturm, 1971;
Šturm, 1992).

Table 14.5: Eigenvalues, Hotelling method.

Test Factor Eigenvalue Percentage of variance
SJR 1 6.81668 45.4
SJ 2 1.80413 12.0
R20R 3 1.39311 9.3
R20 4 1.01122 6.7
N.B. Only the first four significant (λ ≥ 1.0) factors are shown.
The factorial validity of the tests will be analysed on the basis of

the information obtained from the rotated factor matrix of the parallel
and orthogonal projections (Table 14.6 and 14.7).
The first component explains 45.4 % variance of the system. This
factor is bipolar. On its positive pole it is defined by the variables of
strength (SJ, TMB in SS), whereas on its negative pole it is defined by
the variables that measure running speed and agility (R20R, R20, FAN,
HEX, QS).
At the positive pole of the bipolar factor it is possible to find the
common variance of that group of variables. Their realisation depends
on the mechanism of the intensity of excitation and endurance. This
realisation is seen on the manifest level (one-leg jumps or one-hand
throws with the medicine ball).
At the negative pole are variables whose content is distributed
between the mechanism for synergistic regulation and the mechanism
for regulation of movement. Those mechanisms can be seen in concrete
movement tasks such as the 20 m run with or without racket (R20,
R20R) and fandrill (FAN).
The second main component explains 12 % of the system's
variance. This dimension also has a positive and negative side. The
positive pole is manifested through variables such as sit-ups in 60
seconds and flexibility of hips. The test sit-ups measures repetitive
strength of the trunk, whereas the test flexibility of hips measures the
flexibility of the hips joint. The negative pole is defined by the variable
FS, which measures the flexibility of the shoulders.
The third main component explains 9,3 % of the common
variance. This factor is manifested through the variables Sargent jump
without racket (SJ) and Sargent jump with racket (SJR). These two
variables are defined by the mechanism for synergetic regulation. In the
Sargent test the subject has to manifest the greatest power possible in the
shortest possible time.
The fourth main component explains only 6,7 % of the variance
and furthermore brings little new information. It is best defined by the

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variable throwing a cricket ball (TCB) where the subject has to manifest
a very fast execution of a single movement.
To find the real structure of the latent dimensions of the tennis
motor field, the rotation of the main components was carried out.
In further text the interpretation of the latent structure for the
tennis motorics is made on a basis of the pattern and structure matrix 1.
Table 14.6: Pattern matrix (parallel projections).
No. Test Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4

1. +SJ .11718 .27874 .75351 -.17389
2. +SJR -.19003 .12108 .91421 .15923
3. +TCB .34169 .09566 .05750 .72389
4. +TMB .59769 -.01877 .43403 .02031
5. -R20 -.49394 .20859 -.64871 .05765
6. -R20R -.50293 .21600 -.68197 .07714
7. +FT .48799 .46288 .03057 -.04028
8. -FS -.19159 -.66935 -.02689 .43860
9. +FH -.14650 .81138 .25568 .11103
10. -QS -.72541 -.13283 .03083 -.29727
11. -FAN -.77753 -.00673 -.07636 -.09307
12. -HEX -.74538 -.08646 .00036 -.21845
13. +SS .83963 .14202 -.01149 -.36729
14. +SU .13215 .77707 -.11218 .10279
15. -R2000 -.67520 .01773 -.03121 .00783
1
It has been found that human motor abilities are inter-correlated. Therefore,
when the variables are dependent to each other, it is better to use the factor
analyse with the parallel and orthogonal projections than the varimax rotation
(Dežman, 1993). Namely, when the varimax rotation is used only one matrix
can be obtained but the sensible interpretation of the results is absolutely more
difficult.

Table 14.7: Structure matrix (orthogonal projections).
No. Test Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4

1. +SJ .48595 .43662 .84033 -.13860
2. +SJR .21974 .21811 .86411 .17807
3. +TCB .44207 .20835 .23399 .74984
4. +TMB .76628 .22685 .66936 .07609
5. -R20 -.68742 -.04202 -.80868 .00268
6. -R20R -.70614 -.04262 -.84361 .02046
7. +FT .63187 .60950 .29996 -.00323
8. -FS -.36662 -.72710 -.19895 .42091
9. +FH .19856 .81176 .33556 .11408
10. -QS -.77215 -.34008 -.28987 -.34675
11. -FAN -.81625 -.24577 -.38994 -.14912
12. -HEX -.78536 -.30413 -.31792 -.27010
13. +SS .85109 .38207 .33346 -.30926
14. +SU .32034 .79744 .07258 .11222
15. -R2000 -.68193 -.18356 -.29659 -.03951
The pattern matrix (Table 14.6) and the structure matrix (Table
14.7) show the structure of all four factors. For the structure of the first
factor it is characteristic that all tennis agility tests and the endurance test
have high parallel and orthogonal projections on the mentioned factor.
(The tests that hypothetically define agility and quickness at performing
various tennis movements). The highest parallel projections with the
mentioned factor were found for the following tests: fandrill (FAN),
hexagon (HEX), tennis steps aside (SS), quick-stepping (QS), 2000-
meters run (R2000). The first factor was named the factor of agility and
endurance.
For the structure of the second factor it is characteristic that high
parallel projections with the factor were found for the test of repetitive
power (SU) and the tests of flexibility: flexibility of shoulders (FS) and
flexibility of hips (FH). The isolated latent ability was named the factor
of repetitive power of the body and flexibility.
The third factor is defined by the tests of the quick power of legs.
The highest parallel projections were found for the Sargent jump without
racket (SJ), Sargent jump with racket (SJR), 20-meters run without
racket (R20) and 20-meters run with racket (R20R). The characteristics
of these tests are quick movement, cyclic or acyclic, and explosive one-
legged or bi-legged skips. A similar latent ability in tennis was isolated
by (1989). The isolated ability was named the factor of quick power of
the legs.

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The fourth factor is defined poorly because it can basically be

explained by one test only. A test called throwing a cricket ball (TCB)
has the characteristics of a rapid and single movement while throwing a
light object (130 grams). Therefore it requires rapid arm movement and
not so much power. It is obvious that this test (TCB) was structured so to
exclude all mechanisms that are present in other tests. The fourth latent
ability was named the factor of quickness of arm movement.
Table 14.8: Inter-correlation matrix.

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4
Factor 1 1.00000
Factor 2 .29053 1.00000
Factor 3 .39778 .16559 1.00000
Factor 4 .06868 .00539 .03417 1.00000
It is seen from the Table 14.8, that factors are very poorly
correlated with each other. Somewhat higher correlation can be seen
between the first (factor of agility) and the third factor (factor of quick
power of legs). Therefore these factors give separate latent abilities,
defined with different mechanisms. At the manifest level the movements
are similar, as is seen through fast acceleration of the one-leg jumps.
The lowest correlation is seen among factors for fast hand
movement and other factors. This factor has its own functional base that
is not manifested in any other factor.
The analysis of the results of the regression analysis

Based on the data analysis of both partial regressions (especially
the importance of influence of the individual variables on success in
tennis and the correlation of the individual predictor variables with the
criterion variable), a common battery of basic and special motor tests
was formed. Ten basic and tennis motor tests were chosen

Table 14.9: The results of regression with the chosen basic motor and
tennis tests on the criterion.
Multiple R .65315
R Square .42660
F= 2.38075
Signif F = .0306
No. Test B SE B Beta Correl Partial t Sig t
1. SJ -.010461 .025297 -.099868 .244328 -.055354 -.414 .6820
4. TMB -6.74511E-04 6.1022E-04 -.270690 .335811 -.147965 -1.105 .2772
5. R20 -2.088643 1.178029 -.397708 -.443127 -.237335 -1.773 .0857
7. FT -.017361 .019960 -.171449 .183383 -.116426 -.870 .3909
10. QS .151472 .114652 .319919 -.213154 .176850 1.321 .1958
11. FAN -.010117 .153231 -.017345 -.254726 -.008838 -.066 .9478
12. HEX -.232775 .120916 -.402083 -.397516 -.257696 -1.925 .0631
13. SS -.011296 .030116 -.083357 .263058 -.050210 -.375 .7101
15. R2000 -.007038 .003017 -.393405 -.473331 -.312259 -2.333 .0261
(Constant) 15.350230 6.070464 2.529 .0166
The result of statistical significance shows that the common

system of tests is significantly connected with the criterion (Signif F =
0.0306). The determination coefficient (R Square = 0.42660) and
multiple correlation (Multiple R = 0.65315) show that about 43 percent
of the criterion variance can be explained with the used predictor
variables. The correlation of the criterion with the predictor system is
about 0.65.
The values of the statistical significance show that only the 2000-
meters run (R2000) with a part of its variance statistically significantly
explains the variance of the criterion by itself. The test 2000-meters run
measures endurance. Endurance is the decisive factor for success in
long, time consuming matches, where a player must retain a high level
of abilities throughout the whole match or must perform best at the very
end of the match. If the player is poorly prepared in terms of endurance,
successful use of the otherwise highly developed technical, tactical or
psychical potentials may be impossible.
The test 20-meters run without racket (R20) also has a high
correlation with the criterion and also a high Beta value. This test falls
among the tests with an acceptable predictive power for successfulness
in tennis. These results revealed the importance of running speed and
acceleration on a short distance in tennis (Müller, 1989). These findings
are in agreement with Schönborn (2000) and Groppel, Loehr, Melville &
Quinn (1989) who indicated that speed as a motor ability is one of the
most important aspects for success in tennis. Speed, as a fast start of

Tennis
movement or run, determines whether the tennis player will succeed to

hit the ball or not.
The next test is the agility test - hexagon (HEX). It is one of the
best variables within the battery of the more tennis specific tests. For
agility, as the ability to structure and accomplish complicated
movements, it has been established, that it has an important role in
tennis. In tennis language agility stands for footing, that encompasses the
area of tennis technique. Footing is a decisive factor while performing
all strokes, especially the strokes that must be performed in motion and
at high velocity. An impressive technique of striking the ball is
completely useless if the player is not in the perfect position for the hit
before the stroke. The analysis of trends of progress in tennis shows that
with the rising velocities of the strokes the importance of quickness and
exact motion is becoming ever more important (Dežman, 1983).
The last test that has a high correlation with the criterion -
throwing a medecine ball (TMB) - was excluded. The test that measures
quick power of arm is important especially at serve and overhead smash.
The test Throwing medicine ball in certain way simulates serve that is
one of the most important stroke in tennis (Filipčič, 1993).
Correlation analysis of the other tests shows that other coefficients
are also very highly correlated. The majority of the tests have low Partial
correlation coefficients and Beta values. This can be explained by the
influence of the supressor effect and also that the criterion variance is slit
among the related tests (those with the same mechanism of activity).
CONCLUSION
One of the aims of this research was to establish the condition of
players regarding basic and tennis motor abilities which are important
for successful tennis performance and are developed through training.
The sample contained 43 tennis players, aged between 15 and 23.
All the players were in the training process and ranked on the ranking
list of the Slovene tennis association in the male category. Fifteen
measurements of basic and tennis specific motor abilities were used as
prediction variables. As the criterion variable, 6 ratings of six tennis
coaches were used.
According to the reliability of the tests it was found that many of
them have very high reliability. Most of the coefficients of reliability
(Cronbach Alpha) exceed the value 0.95. The same can be said for the
reliability of the criterion variable.

In the factor analysis of 15 motor tests, the Kaiser-Guttman

criterion gave four latent dimensions, that explain 73 percent of the
system's variance. The first eigenvalue extracted 45.4 percent of the
variance and it can be concluded with high certainty that a general factor
of tennis motorics exists (Filipčič, 1993).
Analysis of the pattern and the structure matrices shows the
structure of all four factors. The first factor was named the factor of
agility and endurance, the second the factor of repetitive power of the
body and flexibility. The third factor is defined by the tests of the quick
power of the legs. The fourth latent ability was named the factor of
quickness of arm movement (Filipčič, 1993).
Based on the data analysis of both partial regressions a common
battery of tests was formed, which creating basic and tennis motor tests.
The statistical significance shows that the common system of tests
is significantly connected with the criterion (Signif F = 0.0306). The
determination coefficient and multiple correlation show that about 43
percent of the criterion variance can be explained with the used predictor
variables. The correlation of the criterion with the predictor system is
about 0.65 (Filipčič, 1993).
From the predictors, the 2000 m run alone significantly explains
the variance of the criterion variable. Most of the tests have acceptable
correlation coefficients and Beta values. Among the tests that have a
certain influence on tennis successfulness it is worth to mention 20-
meters run without racket (R20), hexagon (HEX) and throwing medicine
ball (TMB). Each of these tests has a mechanism or movement for its
base as is manifested in tennis and has therefore predictive value for
successfulness in tennis (Filipčič, 1993).
Based on this data a more successful planning, evaluating the
training process and understanding of important factors for
successfulness in tennis will be possible as well as establishing the
effects of the training process on the abilities.
REFERENCES
Chandler, J. (1991). Are you training your players properly. Tennis
Pro, 3, 23-24.
Dežman, B. (1983). Zanesljivost in faktorska veljavnost testov
osnovne in košarkarske motorike [Realibility and Factor Validity
of Basic and Basketball Motor Ability Tests]. Ljubljana, Fakulteta
za šport (Faculty of Sport).

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testov v tenisu [Realibility and Validity of Selected Motor Ability
Tests in Tennis]. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport (Faculty of Sport).
Groppel, J., Loehr, J. E., Melville, S., & Quinn, A. M. (1989).
Science of coaching tennis. Champaign, Illinois. Leisure Press.
Höhm, J. (1987). Tennis, play to win the Czech way. Toronto: SBP.
Jeschke, D. (1985). Zur Beurteilung der sportartspezifischen
Dauerleistungshigkeit bei Tennis spielern. Leistungssport, 15, 34-
37.
im Tennis. Leistungssport, 19, 5-9.
Schonborn, R. (2000). Speed training for tennis. Oxford: Meyer &
Meyer Sport, UK.
Šturm, J. (1971). Zanesljivost motoričnih testov. [Realibility of Motor
Skill Tests]. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport (Faculty of Sport).
Šturm, J. (1992). Izbor in usmerjanje otrok v športne panoge na
podlagi ekspertnega modeliranja [Selecting and Directing
Children Towards Sport Activities]. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport
(Faculty of Sport).

Time and game analysis at the men’s Grand slam tennis…
15
Time and game analysis at the men’s Grand slam

tennis tournaments finals

Tennis
Time and game analysis at the men’s Grand slam tennis

tournaments finals
ABSTRACT
The analysis of time characteristics of the final matches at four
Grand Slam tournaments in 2001 confirms the trend that the active part
of the game is shortening, which to a high degree depends also on the
speed of the court surface.
As the game characteristics were analysed, it was established that
there were certain differences between winners and losers. These are
mainly reflected in the percentage of winning points after the 1st and 2nd
serve. Also the 1st serve percentage and the percentage of successful
returns in most cases distinguish the winners from losers. The winners of
the three final matches made less faults than the losers, while two
winners recorded a higher number of winning strokes. The analysis of
the position of hits reveals that the serve and hits are more often
directed into particular zones of the court.
Further match analysis will be based on modern technologies that
will enable automatic tracing of movement and actions of tennis players
during a tennis match. This will provide numerous data about the
activities of the player (information about the speed and position of
movement, the hits, etc.), time characteristics and work-load of players.
Key words: match analysis, game and time characteristics in
tennis
INTRODUCTION
Tennis is classified among acyclic polystructural sports and sports
games involving a racket and a ball. It is characterised by fast flight of
the ball, speedy ball exchange between players and coverage of the
court. In a tennis match a player carefully monitors the ball's flight and
decides among various tactical possibilities. A player uses a wide range
of strokes, which classifies tennis among the so-called "open" sports
games, since specific tactical and technical actions are never repeated
(Filipčič, 2002; Filipčič, 2004). It is difficult to divide tennis game into
the defense and offense phase, but some parts of it may be categorised as
offensive and others as defensive, while both players during the match
constantly alternate in defense and offense positions.
The success of a player in a tennis match is established indirectly
and directly. Indirect (prognostic) success can be determined by testing
as many factors as possible, namely those factors which influence
competitive successfulness and reflect the development level of those

factors that have the strongest impact on successfulness (e.g. motor

abilities - speed, co-ordination, strength, etc.; morphological
characteristics - body height and weight, the percentage of subcutaneous
fat, body somatotype; functional abilities - maximum oxygen
consumption, etc.; psychological abilities - concentration, emotional
control, motivation, etc.). Direct (competitive) success is reflected in
competitive successfulness of an individual, which is checked by
statistical data (the percentage of serves won, the number of winning
strokes, faults, etc.) and also by the classification of tennis players on
ranking lists, either national, European or international.
Match analysis is an area of sport science that has matured over
recent decades and has taken advantage of technological advances. It is
also a term used to describe the analysis of actual sport competition.
Two different approaches can be observed: firstly, practical match
analysis exercises that are used within media and coaching contexts to
evaluate individual matches. This type of match analysis activity is
characterised by the need to produce rapid performance information.
Secondly, theoretical match analysis as a research discipline within sport
that can discover general properties of competitive sport rather than
merely retrospectively analysing unique characteristics of matches for
historical purposes. Theoretical match analysis research is important for
all five purposes of notational analysis such as: technical/tactical
evaluation, analysis of movement, performance modelling and
effectiveness of coach and player education (O'Donoghue, 2004).
Several interesting items of research have been carried out in the field of
time and game characteristics of tennis game, however, they covered
only a small number of tennis matches played by players of various age
and quality categories.
A group of German experts (Lames, Perl, Schroder, Uthmann;
1990) presented the project of establishing the expert tennis system,
called TESSY (tennis simulation system). The TESSY system functions
within the scope of three major phases, namely: description and
observation of the game and tactics, processing and interpretation of
results and the transposition of obtained results into practice. The above-
mentioned experts processed the final match of the 1989 Wimbledon
tournament, played by Becker and Edberg. The serve analysis showed
that Becker was successful in long serves directed into both corners of
the service court. On the backhand side of the court mostly all serves
were straight. Contrary to Becker, Edberg had difficulties with the length
and direction (accuracy) of the serve. Most often he used the body serve
(right: 17.8% and left: 12.7%) and the spin serve typical of him. The

Tennis
analysis confirmed the finding about the great importance of return in

matches played on fast courts. The importance of faults in defense and
offense is clearly distinguished depending on which player has the serve.
Baseline game is of no particular importance on such fast court. Due to
the spectacularity, the importance of aces is overestimated, since
according to the total number of points played, the aces represent
relatively rare events. The final conclusion of the researchers was that
the expert system provides the opportunity for presenting expert
knowledge in a certain sports field, that such procedure can be included
in the interpretation of a complex sports achievement and that the
existing intuitive rules are checked by means of the system as well as
new ones formulated.
Planinšek (1993) analysed the elements of tennis game and time
characteristics of the finals at the 1993 US Open and 1993 French Open.
She processed the gathered data using the Tennis Expert System. The
goal of her research was to determine how the court surface influences
the method of playing and what are the playing methods of an individual
player. The analysis of the game showed that the tennis court surface is
an important factor of tennis game, determining the playing method. The
results revealed that tennis game on asphalt surface was much faster than
that on clay court, the breaks between points were shorter and net
playing time represented only the fifth of total playing time on asphalt
surface.
Frčej in 1994 carried out a research with the aim of establishing
and comparing the structure of tennis game in matches played by tennis
players of different age categories. This research presented the analysis
of the tennis game elements by means of the Tennis Expert System
statistical programme. The research covered the matches between
various age categories, i.e. senior, under 16 and under 14. The elements
of the analysis were the serve, the last stroke within a point and the
result. In the case of the majority of observed elements of tennis game
the results did not show significant differences between matches played
by players of different age categories. The differences, however, were
recorded in the serve location, as the serve dispersion was lower in older
players. Differences were apparent as the winners and losers were
compared. All winners won a greater percentage of points on the first
serve, had a higher percentage of point-winning strokes in the game, a
lower percentage of forced errors and more points in series, they also
recorded a higher number of series, more breaks of serve and a higher
number of total points than the losers.

Cvetko (1995) established and compared the structure of tennis

game in male and female matches. He analysed matches played by
fourteen-year old boys and girls. The elements of the analysis included:
serve, the last stroke within a point and the result. He established that
there were no major differences between matches played by boys and
those played by girls. But a difference was recorded in the percentage of
won and lost points using the flat and rotated serve. Boys used flat as
well as spin serve, while girls seldom resorted to flat serve. All winners,
among boys and girls, reached a higher percentage of points by rotated
serve, more points in series, recorded a greater number of series, more
breaks of serve and won a higher number of total points.
Ferjan (2001) compared the game characteristics of final matches
at open championships (hereinafter referred to as OC) of the USA and
Australia in 2000 and 2001. He presented the structure of tennis
elements and time characteristics in men's final matches at the 2000 US
OC (Sampras - Safin) and the 2001 Australia OC (Agassi - Clement).
The elements of the analysis included: serve-return, density and position
of hits of all successful strokes and the last stroke within a point. He
found that the winner achieves a higher total number of points than the
loser and also more points in series. The analysis of the number of faults
and winning strokes revealed that between the winners and losers there
were differences in the ratio between the number of faults and winning
strokes, namely, the winners always recorded a better ratio. Major
differences between the winner and the loser were noted in the number
of hits in the "negative" zones (5, 4), which the losers hit considerably
more often than the winners, the latter being more successful in targeting
the "positive" zones (D3, L3, D2 and L2). The analysis of time
characteristics revealed that these depend on the playing method of both
competitors. Baseline players (Agassi and Clement) played every point
on average two seconds longer than the other two finalists, of which one
played serve volley (Sampras).
Pintarič (2002) analysed the elements of tennis game and time
characteristics of the final matches at the 2001 French and Wimbledon
OC. He established that the game is becoming faster also on clay courts -
individual points are becoming shorter. The game structure analysis
revealed the differences between players who played at the French and
Wimbledon OC, which perhaps points to the fact that players are
specialising in different court surfaces.
Zlatoper (2002) compared the game characteristics of the final
matches at the 2002 French and US OC. He analysed the game from the
point of view of serve - return, density, the position of hits and the last

Tennis
stroke within a point. He discovered that the percentage of serves hit

does not have a decisive impact on the result. It turned out that more
important was the serve return (the quality of return) and the percentage
of points won after the first and second serve. As the direction of the
serve, the density and the position of hits within the court during the
match were observed, it was established that the players direct most balls
to the opponent's backhand. With winners it was noticeable that they
targeted more balls to D2, L2, D3 and L3 (positive zones), while the
losers directed more balls to the negative zones 4 and 5. The winner of
the match recorded a higher total number of points and more points in
series.
The analysis of men's tennis matches at the 2001 Grand Slam (GS
in the following text) tournaments is presented further in the document.
The focus is mainly on the variables of direct competitive successfulness
of tennis players, especially as regards the differences between the duel
winners and losers.
Goals of the research

Among the sample data collected and analysed in the past years
(all final GS tournaments in the recent years) we decided to present the
2001 results, which have some very specific characteristics. According
to the bases presented in the introduction and research carried out in this
field, the following goals were set:
1. To analyse and compare time characteristics of men's final
matches at all four GS tournaments;
2. To identify and compare game characteristics of individual
matches;
3. To establish and compare the differences in the position of
selected hits in individual matches.
METHODS
The sample of observed tennis matches included the following
matches:
Table 15.1: Basic data about individual final matches
Tournament Australian Open French Open Wimbledon US Open
Year 2001 2001 2001 2001
Match Finals Finals Finals Finals
Kuerten- Hewitt-
Players Agassi–Clement Ivanišević - Rafter
Corretja Sampras
Result 6:4,6:2,6:2 6:7,7:5,6:2,6:0 6:3,3:6,6:3,2:6,9:7 7:6,6:1,6:1
Surface Hard court Clay Grass Hard court

Organisation of data collection

Based on the observation of videos of final matches we have
collected all the data necessary for research. Time characteristics were
gathered by measurements of individual parts of the match. Data about
the density and position of hits were collected using the Schönborn
system of tennis court division as shown in Figures 15.1 and 15.2. We
have slightly adjusted the specification of serve zones with the aim of
greater differentiation of serve direction.
Figure 15.1: Court zones for return and other strokes (forehand,
backhand, volley, smash...)
Figure 15.2: Court zones for serve
Sample of variables
The sample of variables was divided into three sets:
• basic data about the match (tournament, year, match status, players -
opponents, result, court type);
• time characteristics (no. of played sets, no. of played games, no. of
played points, total playing time (min.), point duration (sec); break
between points (sec), break upon serve fault (sec), break between

Tennis
change of ends after a game (sec), break between games without

change of ends (sec), game : rest ratio between games, total game :
rest ratio, points shorter than 10 sec, points between 10 and 25 sec,
points longer than 25 sec;
• game characteristics (serve - return: percentage of first serves hit,
percentage of points won after the first serve, percentage of points
won after the second serve, percentage of successfully returned first
serves, percentage of successfully returned second serves; last stroke
within a point: total no. of faults (all strokes), serve - double fault,
return, forehand, backhand, volley, smash: total no. of winning
strokes (all strokes), serve - ace, return, forehand, backhand, volley,
smash; no. of points won: total no. of points won, total no. of points
won in series, 3 points won in a row, 4 points won in a row, 5 points
won in a row, 6 or more points won in a row; ratios: the ratio
between the total no. of points and the no. of faults, the ratio between
the total no. of points and the no. of winning strokes, the ratio
between the number of winning strokes and faults; position of hits in
the court: total no. of serves made - 1st, 2nd, the no. of serves from the
right to the outer side, the no. of serves from the right down the T, the
no. of serves from the right to the inner side, the no. of serves from
the left to the outer side, the no. of serves from the left down the T,
the no. of serves from the left to the inner side, the no. of hits in the
positive zones 1, 2, 3 and 4, the no. of hits in the positive zone 4, the
no. of hits in the zone 3 right, the no. of hits in the zone 3 left, the no.
of hits in the zone 2 right, the no. of hits in the zone 2 left, the no. of
hits in the zone 1 - right, left, the no. of hits in the zone 5 – negative).
Data processing methods

The collected data were arranged and divided by individual
match. We calculated the ratio between the total number of points, the
number of faults and the number of winning strokes as well as the ratio
between the number of winning strokes and faults. Data were analysed
using expert analysis. We focused mainly on the comparison of winners
and losers in individual matches and on the comparison of individual
matches, if such comparison was possible. As we analysed the hit
positions we used the zones presented in Figures 1.1 and 15.2. The zones
1, 2, 3 and 4 were characterised as positive, while zone 5 was considered
negative, i.e. the zone where players should not direct balls.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Analysis of time characteristics

Data about time characteristics of individual matches are
interesting, but on the other hand also expected. While data about the
number of sets, games and points have merely descriptive meaning, the
information about the average number of points within a set is
interesting, as it points to rather small differences between matches.
In a point of average duration a high correlation can be established
between the speed of the court surface and the duration of a point. On
average, points last the longest at FO, somewhat less at AO and are
significantly shorter at UO and WIM.
The average break between points - with the exception of FO,
where also the active part of the game is the longest - is within the
applicable rules, i.e. less than 20 seconds.
The ratios between the game and break are interesting. A certain
relation can be established with the speed of the court surface and the
average duration of a point. The ratios referred to above are quite similar
for AO and FO, while a considerable deviation was recorded in UO and
particularly WIM. The reason for this lies in the fact that the differences
in the duration of the passive part of the game are very small, whereas
the duration of the active part varies from one match to another. Thus in
WIM the active part of the game accounts only for the fourteenth part of
the total match.
The data about the duration of points show that most points are
over in less than 10 seconds. At WIM none of the points exceeded 10
seconds, at AO and FO one fifth and one fourth of the points
respectively lasted from 10 to 25 seconds. At UO a little more than 0.5%
of points lasted more than 25 seconds, whereas such points at AO and
FO represented between 3 and 4%.
In the end it can be established that there is a connection between
the speed of the court surface and the duration of the active part of the
game, that the players use as much time for a break as permitted by
tennis rules (or some more). Most of the points are finished within 10
seconds, which denotes extremely anaerobic nature of tennis. Tennis is
(has become) a game where high speed of projectiles and consequently
the movement of players result in high intensity of all activities carried
out in the active part of the match.

Tennis
Table 15.2: Time characteristics of individual matches

Australian French US
Wimbledon
Tournament Open Open Open
Agassi - Kuerten - Ivanišević - Hewitt -
Players Clement Corretja Rafter Sampras
No. of sets 3 4 5 3
No. of games 26 39 51 27
No. of points 171 244 304 176
Average no. of points per set 57 61 61 58
Total playing time (1 min.) 104 192 181 113
Average point duration (1 s) 7,3 8,2 2,7 3,8
Average rest time between points
19,06 23,1 18,7 19,9
(1 s)
Average rest time - changing
95,18 106,4 95,6 100,9
sides (1 s)
Average rest time - no changing
31,41 35,9 38,1 30,4
sides (1 s)
Ratio - rest : game (playing time) 01:02,6 01:02,8 01:06,9 01:05,2
Ratio - rest : game (total time) 01:03,8 01:04,4 01:14,1 1:08
% of points last ≤ 10 s 76,40% 68,50% 100,00% 92,60%
% of points last 10 - 25 s 20,50% 27,70% 0,00% 6,80%
% of points last ≥ 25 s 2,90% 3,80% 0,00% 0,60%
Analysis of game characteristics

As we analysed the data referring to game characteristics of
individual final matches we were above all interested in the differences
between the winners and the losers.
Serve – return
Three winners (Agassi, Kuerten, and Hewitt) have a higher
percentage of first serve, whereas at the WIM finals Rafter, who lost the
match, was in this respect better than the winner. As established later in
the document, some game characteristics recorded at the WIM finals
deviate from the other three matches, as a result of which the
interpretation of results is difficult. This was in our opinion caused by
extremely equal match (both players won the same number of points);
the characteristics of the game played by both players (serve - net) as
well as very risky game by the winner, which in the end brought him
victory.
The comparison of the percentage of points won after the 1st and
nd
the 2 serve shows that the winners of matches had in most cases a
much higher percentage than the losers. The fact is that in modern tennis
a successful serve gives a great advantage. This means that a player, who

without many difficulties wins points on his serve, saves much energy
and, in addition, can play a more risky and relaxed game to the
opponent's serve.
The analysis of the results of successfully returned 1st and 2nd
serves reveals that the three winners (Agassi, Kuerten and Ivaniševič)
recorded better results in this aspect, whereas Sampras, who lost the UO
finals, recorded a higher percentage than Hewitt. In spite of that it can be
established that a successful return is a precondition for the continuation
of the game and that this stroke is equally important as the serve. We can
also discover a certain connection between the percentage of successful
returns and the speed of the court surface (the faster the surface the
lower the percentage), since the lowest percentages were recorded by the
players of the WIM finals.
Last stroke within a point

Based on the comparison of the number of faults it can be
established for the total number of strokes that the winners Agassi,
Kuerten and Hewitt made significantly less faults, whereas at the WIM
finals the loser was more successful in this respect. If data are examined
more closely, we can find that the highest number of faults at the AO,
FO and UO result from forehand and backhand, which are also the most
common strokes on such court surfaces. The WIM finals show a
different picture, since the players made most return faults, with
Ivaniševič recording one fault more than Rafter. According to the
number of return faults, Sampras was better than Hewitt, but he made
very many volley and smash faults. The winners of the AO and FO
finals, Agassi and Kuerten, made less faults, whereas at WIM and UO
finals the situation was reverse.
The comparison of the number of winning strokes gives a
somewhat different picture, since Clement and Corretja had more
winning strokes than the winners, but at WIM and UO finals the winners
were slightly more successful. All winners, with the exception of Hewitt,
hit more aces. Clement and Corretja were significantly better as regards
the number of winning forehand and backhand strokes, which points to
extremely offensive and often risky game reflecting certain
powerlessness. The analysis of the net play showed that Rafter and
Sampras were more successful, as they recorded more volley and smash
winning strokes than the winners.

Tennis
Ratios
Data about the number of faults and winning strokes do not
provide the actual picture of the strength ratio on court, which is why we
presented these data also in relation to the total number of points played
and the comparison of the number of faults and winning strokes. The
ratios were calculated so that a higher value denotes a better result. In
this way we can establish that the winners of the AO, FO and UO
recorded a better ratio between the total number of points, the number of
faults and winning strokes. Again, the exception is the above-mentioned
final match at WIM, where Rafter was slightly better than Ivaniševič.
However, if the ratios between the number of winning strokes and faults
are compared, it can be established that all winners achieved higher
values, which stands also for WIM finals, where the difference is very
small, yet it points to the fact that in this very equal match Ivaniševič
found the right balance between risk and reliable game.
Extremely interesting are the data about the number of points
won. In the total number of points won Agassi, Kuerten and Hewitt won
considerably more points than the losers. At the WIM finals the players
recorded the same number of points and the game came to a tie. Equally
interesting are the data about the number of points won in series, which
refers to the number of successively won points. A series consists of at
least three points won. Also in this case the winners of the AO, FO and
UO finals won considerably more points in series, while at the WIM
finals Rafter was in this respect better than the winner. In any case, the
total number of points and the number of points won in series are crucial
for success and point to great importance of an individual point in tennis,
where the count method is specific. Matches where a loser wins more
points than the winner are extremely rare, but those recorded are the
result of the score count method or exceptional equality of players, part
of a game (set) where one of the players played very poorly and lost
heavily a set or a higher number of games.

Table 15.3: Game characteristics and position of hits in individual final

matches
Player Agassi Clement Kuerten Corretja Ivanišević Rafter Hewitt Sampras
Total no. of points 171 244 304 176
Total points won 94 77 136 108 154 150 100 76
Serve – return
1st Serve % 65% 52% 59% 53% 55% 62% 64% 60%
2nd Serve % 96% 84% 98% 97% 80% 92% 82% 85%
Won on Serve 63% 52% 69% 66% 68% 69% 71% 55%
Won on 1st Serve 72% 58% 53% 35% 80% 76% 84% 63%
Successful returns after 1st
68% 59% 78% 69% 50% 41% 55% 57%
Serve
Successful returns after 2nd
92% 82% 98% 91% 73% 64% 76% 83%
Serve
Last stroke within a point
No. of faults (all strokes) 44 69 60 89 77 69 39 63
Serve (double fault) 1 7 2 4 15 4 5 6
Return 12 15 7 15 38 38 17 16
Forehand & Backhand 29 47 43 69 12 14 17 20
Volley & Smash 2 0 8 1 12 13 0 21
Winners (all strokes) 21 32 47 48 76 67 34 32
Serve (ace) 7 5 10 5 27 13 7 11
Return 1 1 4 4 12 8 8 1
Forehand & Backhand 12 24 21 31 16 16 17 5
Volley & Smash 1 2 12 8 21 30 2 15
No. of points won in series 69 33 73 53 58 67 63 35
- 3 points series 10 1 10 5 9 6 6 3
- 4 points series 3 5 6 3 5 7 4 4
- 5 points series 2 2 1 4 1 3 3 2
- 6 points or more series 2 0 2 1 1 1 2 0
Analysis of the position of hits

We wanted to determine the position of hits by examining videos
of matches and applying the zones to individual strokes. We are aware
of the fact that the accuracy of the estimate of hit position was
subjective, however, the acquired data are interesting and, although
subjective, carry certain weight.

Tennis
The purpose of the analysis of the position of hits by a serve is not

to compare winners and losers, but to find potential patterns and greater
frequency in the case of serves from a particular side and in a particular
direction. At the AO finals both players often served from the right to
the outer side (zone 6); while Clement frequently used the body serve
from both sides (zone 7). Considering the quality of Agassi's return, the
player thus wanted to disable offensive return. At the FO finals Kuerten
from the right often served to zone 6, Corretja used the body serve (zone
7), while from the left Kuerten served on the backhand side (zone 6) and
Corretja down the T (zone 7). At the WIM finals both players used
mostly the serve to the backhand of the opponent, but we have to
consider the fact that Ivaniševič is left-handed. It can be observed that at
the UO finals Hewitt from the right served into zones 6 and 8 and from
the left into zones 6 and 7, whereas Sampras directed serves from both
sides into all three zones.
The analysis of the position of hits in the game (return, forehand,
backhand, volley, smash, passing shot, lob, etc.) shows that the winners
of the AO and FO finals hit a considerably higher number of strokes into
the positive zones (1, 2, 3 and 4) than the losers. In the case of the other
two matches (WIM and UO), the losers made more hits in the above-
mentioned zones of the court. In our opinion this was due to the manner
(serve - net) in which the three players (Ivaniševič, Rafter and Sampras)
played the match. If one or both players play serve - net, the opponent's
optimal or positive targets change. In this event the player returning the
stroke often has to direct the hit to the zones 2 or 1. Moreover, in the
case of the serve - net play, a player intercepts many balls by a volley,
which means that these strokes do not hit the ground. The information
about the number of hits in the negative zone 5, i.e. directing rather short
ball into the centre, on all types of courts proved to be poor, since all the
winners recorded less hits in this zone than the losers.
CONCLUSION
The analysis of time characteristics of the final matches at four
Grand Slam tournaments confirms the trend that the active part of the
game is shortening, which to a high degree depends also on the speed of
the court surface.
As the game characteristics were analysed, it was established that
there were certain differences between winners and losers. These are
mainly reflected in the percentage of winning points after the 1st and 2nd
serve. Also the 1st serve percentage and the percentage of successful
returns in most cases distinguish the winners from losers. The winners of

the three final matches made less faults than the losers, while two
winners recorded a higher number of winning strokes. In all cases the
winners recorded a better ratio between the number of winning strokes
and faults. Most winners achieved a higher number of total points and
more points in series.
The analysis of the position of hits reveals that the serve and hits
are more often directed into particular zones of the court, but this in no
way explains the events on the court and the conclusions apply only to
analysed matches.
In sum it can be established that a tennis match analysis is very
demanding, both from the technological and substance point of view.
Moreover, it requires that the game is studied at least from four aspects.
Firstly, a higher number of strokes (playing pattern or situation) which
led a player into a situation of certain advantage have to be taken into
account, since the playing pattern cannot be discerned from the position
of one hit alone. Secondly, the positions of hits resulting from individual
strokes have to be examined separately, which means that the positions
of hits differ according to the tactics of a player, which are not always
the same, but include numerous variations of a similar game situation
(e.g. after the serve a player moves toward the net or after the serve a
player stays at the baseline). Thirdly, the speed and rotation of played
balls can have a decisive influence on the successfulness of a player and,
fourthly, the result at which a player played a certain situation has to be
considered.
The approach to a solution of this problem is undoubtedly the use
of modern technologies, especially the technology enabling automatic
tracing of movement and actions of tennis players during a tennis match
based on special footage and space determination. This will provide us
numerous data about the activities of the player (information about the
speed and position of movement, the hits, etc.), time characteristics and
work-load of players.
REFERENCES
Cvetko, D. (1995). Struktura teniške igre v dvobojih igralcev
različnih spolov [Structure of Tennis Game in Male and Female
Matches]. Unpublished Bachelor’s thesis, Ljubljana: Fakulteta za
Ferjan, R. (2001). Primerjava igralnih značilnosti finalnih dvobojev
odprtega teniškega prvenstva ZDA in Avstralije v letih 2000 in
2001. [Comparison of Game Characteristics of the 2000 and 2001

Tennis
US and Australian Open Tennis Championship]. Unpublished

Bachelor’s thesis, Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport (Faculty of Sport).
Filipčič, A. (2002). Tenis – treniranje. [Tennis - Training]. Ljubljana:
Filipčič, A. (2004): Tenis – tehnika in taktika. [Tennis - Technique
and Tactics]. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport (Faculty of Sport).
Frčej, F. (1994). Struktura teniške igre v dvobojih igralcev različnih
starostnih kategorij [Structure of Tennis Game in Matches Played
by Tennis Players of Different Age Categories]. Unpublished
Lames, M., Perl, J., Schroder, H.J., & Uthmann, T.. (1990). Tennis
Expert System – TESSY. Leistungssport, 4: 49-54.
Lees, Kahn, J.F & Maynard, I. (Ed.), Science and Racket Sports
III, Routledge, p.155-163.
Pintarič, T. (2002). Analiza elementov teniške igre in časovnih
kazalcev v finalnih dvobojih Francije in Anglije v letu 2001
[Analysis of Tennis Game Elements and Time Characteristics in
Final Matches in France and England in 2001]. Unpublished
Planinšek, T. (1994). Analiza elementov teniške igre in časovnih
kazalev v finalnih dvobojih na OP Francije in ZDA v letu 1994
[Analysis of Elements of Tennis Game and Time Characteristics
of the finals at the 1993 US Open and 1993 French Open]. Šport
42 (2), 31-36.
Zlatoper, Z. (2002). Primerjava igralnih značilnosti finalnih
dvobojev odprtega teniškega prvenstva Francije in ZDA v letu
2002 [Comparison of Game Characteristics of the Finals at the
2002 French and US Tennis Open]. Unpublished Bachelor’s
thesis, Ljubljana: Fakulteta za šport (Faculty of Sport).

Comparative analysis of time, playing and movement factors…
Tjaša Filipčič, Aleš Filipčič, Janez Perš
16
Comparative analysis of time, playing and

movement factors between two different quality
groups of wheelchair tennis players

Tennis
Comparative analysis of time, playing and movement factors

between two different quality groups of wheelchair tennis
players
ABSTRACT
New technologies enable new approaches to the study of sport
what can be stated also for adapted sport. The present research is
focused on comparative analysis of time, playing and motor
characteristics between two different quality groups of wheelchair tennis
players (recreational and top level). Statistically significant differences
between the two groups of players have been found in all three segments
of travelled distance: total match distance, game distance and active
part distance. The average velocity in the active part was 0,93 m/s.
Statistically significant differences between two different groups were
found in average movement velocity of players in the active part.
Foreign players have also achieved higher values in the variables
maximum movement velocity in the active part; however, the difference
was not statistically significant. The variance analysis showed
statistically significant differences between the two groups of players in
the percentage of players travelling within a specific velocity class. The
average values of individual velocity class show that recreational
players spent 68,8% of playing time in the first velocity class (0-1 m/s),
considerably more than top level players who spent in this class only
45,4% of playing time. In all the other velocity classes (1-4 m/s) foreign
players spent more time in comparison to domestic players.
Key words: wheelchair tennis, time, playing and motor

characteristics in wheechair tennis
INTRODUCTION
These also include computer-vision-based human movement analysis.
The aim of the study was to analyse the movement of wheelchair male
tennis players in a singles match (Filipčič & Filipčič, 2006).
The computer-vision-based software application was used to
automatically obtain player motion data from the digitised video
recordings of a tennis match. The goals of the study were to evaluate the
precision of the SAGIT/TENNIS tracking system and to find the time
and playing characteristics of the wheelchair tennis game.

METHODOLOGY
The sample of players was represented by 15 wheelchair tennis
players, split into two groups. First group consisted of five foreign
players ranked in the first 100 on the Mens Singles ranking list, whereas
the second group consisted of ten domestic players from a national
ranking list. The sample of variables has been obtained at 22 singles
matches. Variables were divided into three groups: variables describing
the precision of the SAGIT/TENNIS tracking system, time variables in
the game of tennis and variables about the playing characteristics of
wheelchair tennis (the number and structure of tennis shots, the length
and velocity of player’s movement).
Descriptive statistics was calculated for the collected data. The
normality of distribution was analysed with the Kolmogor – Smirnov
test. Differences between the foreign and domestic players were
analysed with the one-way variance analysis.

As a part of studying the precision of the tracking with the
SAGIT/TENNIS system, the RMS error (RMS- Root Mean Square) was
calculated for individual parts of the trajectory. The largest RMS error
was found on the vertical right side with the value of 0,44 metre. The
average value of the RMS error for estimating the position of tennis
player was 0,23 metre.
The results show that the average total playing time of the match
was 3.248 seconds or 54,13 minutes. This represents the total playing
time of a singles match with both active and passive parts. The average
active part of the match lasted 619,72 seconds (10,32 minutes), which
represents 19,68% of total playing time. Each match included in average
150 active parts. The results of the present study show that the average
time of an individual active part lasted 4,16 seconds, which is less in
comparison to the research by Bullock and Pluim (2003).
In total, 7.388 tennis shots were played in the 22 matches. The
results of descriptive statistics show that in average 336 shots were
played per match, 22 shots in a game and 2,23 shots were played in each
active part. Further, playing characteristics of foreign and domestic
wheelchair tennis players were compared. Statistically significant
differences have been found for all the variables depicting the return of
serve: the percentage of 1st serve return on forehand side, the percentage
of 1st serve return on backhand side, the percentage of 2nd serve return on

Tennis
forehand side, the percentage of 2nd serve return on backhand side.

Significant difference has also been found for the variable ‘backhand
topspin shot’.
The players have in average travelled the distance of 613 metres
per match, 46,1 metres in a game and 6,11 metres in each active part.
Statistically significant differences between the two groups of players
have been found in all three segments of travelled distance: total match
distance, game distance and active part distance.
The average velocity in the active part was 0,93 m/s. This value is
lower compared to the study of wheelchair basketball game by Perez
Tayero, Navaro & Sampedro (2005). Statistically significant differences
between the foreign and domestic players have been found for average
movement velocity of players in the active part. Foreign players have
also achieved higher values in the variables maximum movement
velocity in the active part; however, the difference was not statistically
significant.
The variance analysis showed statistically significant differences
between the two groups of players in the percentage of players travelling
within a specific velocity class. The average values of individual
velocity class show that domestic players spent 68,8% of playing time in
the first velocity class (0-1 m/s), considerably more than foreign players
who spent in this class only 45,4% of playing time. In all the other
velocity classes (1-4 m/s) foreign players spent more time in comparison
to domestic players.
CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of the evaluation of precision of the SAGIT/TENNIS
tracking system and its comparison to similar systems it can be
concluded that the results can be used in the research. It can be assumed
that the differences between the percentage of execution of individual
shots of foreign and domestic players is a result of different tactical
plans and the use of typical playing situations.
Foreign players have always travelled longer distance, which
leads to conclusion that in wheelchair tennis more movement results in
better playing efficiency. Foreign players have also achieved higher
average velocities in the active parts. It can be assumed that foreign
players have more efficient technique of pushing the chair and better
physical preparation.
The velocity and precision of player’s movement on the tennis
court are undoubtedly factors that have significant impact on the playing
efficiency. The differences have also been found in the percentage of

time spent in individual velocity classes. Foreign players spend less time
inside the slowest velocity class and more time in the other three
velocity classes, compared to domestic players. Therefore, it can be
concluded that foreign players move faster in the active parts of the
match. This allows them to arrive earlier to balls that are further away,
correct preparation for shots and faster return to the optimum position
after the shot.
These are the qualities that in largest part separate more and less
successful players. The study presents precise information about specific
time, playing and motor characteristics of wheelchair tennis players and
opens the possibilities for more detailed analysis of the game.
REFERENCES
Bullock, M., & Pluim, B. (2003). Wheelchair Tennis and Physical
Conditioning. ITF Wheelchair Tennis Coaches Review, (9) 2-10.
Filipčič, T., & Filipčič A. (2006). Analysis of tennis strokes in
wheelchair tennis. Wheelchair tennis coaches review, (14) 17-21.
Perez Tejero, J., Navarro, E., & Sampedro, J. (2005). Distance
covered and velocity during wheelchair basketball related
players’ functional classification. 15th International Symposium
Adapted Physical Activity. Verona. Italia. pg. 18.

Tennis
Photo by: Tjaša Filipčič

Analysis of time characteristics in wheelchair tennis
17
Analysis of time characteristics in

wheelchair tennis

Tennis
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study has been to analyse time characteristics in
wheelchair tennis. Data were obtained at 22 tennis singles matches in
2006. Time characteristics were analysed with computer-vision-based
software application called SAGIT/TENNIS tracking system which had
been developed at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering in Ljubljana
accordingly. This software application was used to automatically obtain
player motion data from the digitised video recordings of a tennis match.
Within the time characteristics it has been established that the
active part represented 19,68% of the total playing time, while the
passive one represented 80,32%. The average time of an individual
active phase lasted 4,16 seconds and 2,23 strokes were played in each
active phase. In the first time class 70% of all active phases were
finished. Each half of the tennis court was divided into 14 fields in order
to measure the average time spent in each field. It was found out that in
fields 1 and 4, representing base position in wheelchair tennis, most of
the active time was spent. There were no statistically significant
differences between the winners and losers in the percentage of time
spent in a particular field.
The results in this study have scientific and applicable value.
Based upon the complex analysis the frames of work-load in tennis
matches and training have been proposed. This study will also enable
tennis coaches to compare expert knowledge and solve new problems in
wheelchair tennis. The research brings about new relevant information
and poses many new questions. Further research is needed in the field of
wheelchair tennis players’ work-load, such as movement velocity of
players and distance covered.
Key words: wheelchair tennis, analysis of time characteristics in

wheelchair tennis, tracking system
INTRODUCTION
Match analysis is an area of sports science that has matured over
also a term used to describe the analysis of actual sports competition.
characterized by the need to produce rapid performance information.

Secondly, theoretical match analysis is a research discipline within sport

all five purposes of notational analysis such as: technical and tactical
Several studies of match analysis in different able-bodied sports
(including racket sports) were published: squash, badminton, table tennis
and tennis (Schonborn, 1999; Lees, Kahn and Maynard, 2003). That can
not to be stated for adapted sport and in particular for wheelchair tennis.
Most of the tennis principles that apply to the able-bodied game apply to
wheelchair tennis, especially in areas such as strokes, grips, tactics,
corrective techniques, teaching methodologies, progression, mental
training and match preparation. It can be stated that wheelchair tennis is
only the one played in a seated position (Polic, 2000), although
differences need to be pointed out, such as: methods of mobility,
movements to the ball and two bounces allowed, basic stroke sequence,
recovery approaches, generating torque, recovery and physical
consideration. In spite of similarities only few researches in wheelchair
tennis have been done so far.
In able-bodied tennis several studies researching time
characteristics were published. Planinšek (1995) analysed two final
matches in the French Open and U.S. Open. It was found out that the
active phase on clay surface lasted 8 seconds, while on hard court the
active phase lasted 6,62 seconds. The ratio between the active and
passive phase was 1:4,55 on clay surface and 1:4,95 on hard court.
74,58% of the active phases (82,55 %) were finished in 10 seconds.
Stop-watch was used, therefore the results can be questionable in terms
of accuracy of the method used. Hughes and Clark (1995) used a
computerized notation system to analyse the differences in the playing
patterns of tennis players on grass surface at Wimbledon, to those in the
Australian Open on synthetic surface. They found differences in
performance between the two surfaces; particularly so during the time
the ball was in play. This movement averaged about 10% on synthetic
surface (14 minutes in an average match of just over 2 hours), while it
was as low as 5% on grass surface (7 minutes in an average match of
just over 2 hours). The game on grass surface resulted in shorter active
phases (2,52 seconds compared to 4,87 seconds in the Australian Open).
O’Donoghue and Liddle (1998 a in 1998 b) researched time
characteristics on a larger number of matches (N=34) in the French

Tennis
Open and Wimbledon. In ladies’ singles the active phase lasted 8,05
seconds (SD=6,14) compared to men’s singles where the active phase
lasted 5,64 seconds (SD=4,69). On grass surface this time was shorter: in
ladies’ singles 5,99 seconds (SD=4,33) and in men’s singles 3,69
seconds (SD=2,54).
In wheelchair tennis the only similar research was presented by
Bullock and Pluim (2003) who analysed the duration of active phases on
synthetic surface. In 3 matches (449 active phases) the average active
phase lasted 9,65 seconds. No ratio between the active and passive phase
was reported. Authors suggested that more in-depth analysis was needed
and a larger number of active phases were to be analysed. In addition, a
more accurate system than a stop-watch was to be used in order to get
exact results.
Therefore, the aim of this research has been to analyse time
characteristics in wheelchair tennis. Several active phases were analysed
with computer-vision-based software application called SAGIT/TENNIS
tracking system.
METHODS
Design
The relevant data were obtained in March 2006 at the Tennis
Centre Triglav Kranj (Slovenia) where all the matches were played on
hard court under the same conditions for all the participating players.
The sample of variables has been obtained at 22 singles matches
(44 sets and 339 games) with the total playing time (TIME) of 71.456
seconds (1.190,90 minutes). During this time 6.592 phases were
analysed of which 3.307 active phases (NAP) and 3.285 passive phases
(NPP) (shown in Table 1). Additionally, 7.388 strokes (NSTROKE)
were exchanged at 22 matches. The active phase indicates the time when
the ball is in play; i.e. from the moment it is thrown from the hand when
serving until it hits the net (error) or it touches the ground after the 3rd
bounce (winning stroke). The passive phase indicates the time when the
ball is out of play or the time between two active phases. All variables in
Table 1 show normal distribution (Kolmogorov-Smirnov test of normal
distribution).

Table 17.1: Total playing time, number of active and passive phases,
number of strokes
VARIABLE N MIN MAX SUM MEAN SD K-S SIG

TIME 22 1132 5510 71456 3248,00 1097,28 ,49 ,96
NAP 22 56 261 3307 150,32 43,81 ,69 ,71
NPP 22 55 260 3285 149,32 43,81 ,69 ,71
NSTROKE 22 151 662 7388 335,81 111,57 ,48 ,97
Legend: TIME: the total playing time; NAP: the number of active phases; NPP: the
number of passive phases; NSTROKE: the number of strokes
The sample of variables also includes the average time of active

phases (ATAP), the average time of passive phases (ATPP) as well as
the percentage of active phases in total playing time (PTAP). The
duration of active phases was divided into 4 time classes:
- the 1st time class: the percentage of active phases lasting up to 5
seconds (PAP5)
- the 2nd time class: the percentage of active phases ranging from
5 to 10 seconds (PAP5-10)
- the 3rd time class: the percentage of active phases ranging from
10 to 20 seconds (PAP10-20)
- the 4th time class: the percentage of active phases lasting longer
than 20 seconds (PAP20)
Furthermore, time characteristics were observed with respect to

the field on the court. Therefore, each half of the court was divided into
14 fields (Schönborn, 1999) and marked with numbers. Fields are
presented in Figure 17.5.
Participants
The sample of players was presented by 15 male wheelchair
tennis players (paraplegics). The mean of age was 39,06 (SD=8,24). All
players were training regularly (with at least two training sessions per
week). 14 players had a complete and acquired spinal cordinjury (Th6-
Th12), while one player had congential physical impairment. All players
used wheelchairs and had been playing wheelchair tennis for at least 5
years.

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Materials
All tennis matches were recorded with fixed SVHS video cameras
(Ultrak CCD Color KC 7501 CP) with the frequency of capturing input
images of 25 Hz. Each camera was fastened to the ceiling, therefore its
wide-angled lens (Ultrak KL 28141s 2,8 mm, Japan) covered entire half
of the court. The cameras did not interfere with the play and could not be
hit by the tennis ball. The video-recordings were digitised using the
Video DC30* video digitiser hardware (Miro, Germany) with the
resolution of 384x576 at 2 MB.s-1 data rate, while the processing was
carried out at a resolution of 384 x 288 pixels.
Procedure
Digital images were processed with the SAGIT/TENNIS tracking
system. Conversion into numerical data was carried out by the following
steps:
1. recording tennis matches on S-VHS video cassettes and DVDs

2. re-recording and compression of the recordings into DVD format
3. calibration of the recordings
4. data processing with the SAGIT/TENNIS tracking system (human
movement analysis)
5. data processing with the SAGIT/TENNIS tracking system
(notation of strokes, active and passive phases)
6. importing data into the database
7. exporting data from the database; data processing with statistical
programme SPSS 13.0 for Windows
We used two different ways of data processing in steps 6 and 7:

- direct calculation of values supported by SQL sentences
- programme data processing, result's presentation on web site and
usage of the results in further statistical processing.
Figures 17.1a-c: Tennis court, camera above the tennis court and
recording equipment

RESULTS
In Table 17.2 time variables in all tennis matches are presented.
Table 17.2: Time variables in wheelchair tennis matches

VARIABLE N MIN MAX SUM MEAN SD K-S SIG
TIME 22 1132 5510 71456 3248,00 1097,28 ,49 ,96
NAP 22 56 261 3307 150,32 43,81 ,69 ,71
NPP 22 55 260 3285 149,32 43,81 ,69 ,71
APART 22 294,48 1178,88 13633,96 619,72 188,92 ,671 ,75
ATAP 22 3,24 5,56 91,69 4,16 ,60 ,53 ,93
ATPP 22 12,00 23,76 383,09 17,41 2,82 ,85 ,46
PTAP 22 13,61 26,01 433,07 19,68 3,59 ,89 ,39
PAP5 22 53,59 88,44 1540,04 70,00 7,96 ,42 ,99
PAP5-10 22 8,84 32,43 510,68 23,21 5,12 ,66 ,77
PAP10-20 22 1,60 16,99 140,54 6,38 4,07 ,56 ,90
PAP20 22 ,00 3,57 8,74 ,39 ,79 1,54 ,017
Legend: TIME: the total playing time; NAP: the number of active phases; NPP: the
number of passive phases; APART: the active part of the match; ATAP: the average time
of active phases; ATPP: the average time of passive phases; PTAP: the percentage of
active phases in total playing time; PAP5: the percentage of active phases lasting up to 5
seconds; PAP5-10: the percentage of active phases ranging from 5 to10 seconds; PAP10-
20: the percentage of active phases ranging from 10 to 20 seconds; PAP20: the
percentage of active phases lasting longer than 20 seconds
Time
The total playing time of all matches was 71.546 seconds. It
included the active and passive phases and was then analysed. The
results thus obtained show that players needed in average 3.248 seconds
(54,13 minutes) to finish the match. High SD is indicated. Namely,
where the difference between the winners and losers was significant, the
matches had finished earlier. SAGIT/TENNIS tracking system enables
simulation of movement as shown in Figure 17.2 (the red colour marks
the winner and the yellow one the loser in a selected match).

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Figure 17.2: Diagram of the winner's and loser's movement in the total
playing time of a selected match
Active part of the match

The active part of the match is the time in which only active
phases are included; and in which the ball is in play. The average active
part of the match lasted 619,72 seconds (10,32 minutes) which
represented 19,68% of the total playing time (PTAP – the percentage of
active phases in total playing time). This percentage was varying – the
lowest was 13,61% and the highest was 26,01% in an individual match.
These percentages are higher when compared to those in the research by
Hughes and Clark (1995). There it was established that the active part
represented in average 10% of the total playing time on synthetic surface
and 5% on grass surface.
Active phase
3.307 active phases were analysed. In average 150 active phases
were analysed in an individual match, although high SD (43,81) was
noted. The average time of an individual active phase lasted 4,16
seconds, which is less in comparison to the research by Bullock and
Pluim (2003) – 9,7 seconds. The difference can be explained by different
surfaces which define the bounce speed of a ball. This speed determines
the time frame in which the player approaches and hits the ball and then
returns to the base position. Additional reason can be found in different
impairment. The participants in our research had spinal cord injury (Th 6
– Th 12), while those in research by Bullock and Pluim had lower limb
amputation. The latter enables tennis players to function better. Thus
they are able to retain the ball longer in play. This was confirmed also by
a number of strokes in an active phase where players exchanged 4,7

strokes (in the research by Bullock and Pluim, 2003) and 2,2 strokes in
our research.
A longer duration of an active phase was reported also in able-
bodied tennis (Planinšek, 1995) 6,62 seconds; O'Donoghue and Liddle
(1998 b) 5,99 seconds; Pečelin (2006) players U16 7,5 seconds. Ferjan
(2001) and Pintarič (2002) pointed out that the active phases on clay and
grass surfaces had shortened from the year 1988 to the years 2001/2003.
On clay surface: from 12,2 seconds in 1988 to 4,77 seconds in 2001; on
grass surface: from 8 seconds in 1988 to 6,13 seconds in 2002. Zlatoper
(2002) also reported differences – on grass surface: 2,7 seconds, on hard
court: 3,8 seconds and on clay surface: 8,2 seconds. The reported
duration of active phases was longer than in our research.
Wheelchair tennis is an open and demanding game with a lot of
possibilities for errors, especially on fast surface (hard court) which
reduces the bounce of a ball. Severe spinal cord injury can be an
additional reason for shorter active phases.
Distribution of active phases into four time classes

Four time classes were shaped in order to measure the duration of
active phases. It was found out that 70% of all active phases ranged from
0 to 5 seconds (the 1st time class), 23,2% from 5 to 10 seconds (the 2nd
time class), 6,4% from 10 to 20 seconds (the 3rd time class) and 0,4%
lasted longer than 20 seconds (the 4th time class) (shown in Figure 17.3).
The results are similar to those of Pečelin (2006) where 74% of all active
phases were shorter than 10 seconds, 22,5% ranged from 10 to 25
seconds and only 3,5% lasted longer than 25 seconds.
0-5 seconds
6,4% 0,4%
23,2%
70,0% 5-10 seconds
10-20 seconds
20 seconds and more
Figure 17.3: Distribution of active phases into four time classes

Tennis
Passive part of the match

The passive part of the match is the time in which players rest,
relax, prepare for the next active phase, change sides and pick up balls
(no ball boys were used in our research). The total passive time lasted
57.822,04 seconds (963,7 minutes); 2.628,27 seconds (43,8 minutes) in
average per match; it also represented 80,32% of the total playing time
(Figure 17.4). The average time of an individual passive phase lasted
17,41 seconds. If there were ballboys involved, this phase would
probably be shorter. The passive part has been analysed in many
researches in able-bodied tennis (Planinšek, 1995; Pečelin, 2006). The
results are similar to those in this research, namely the passive part
prevailed in the match.
19,7%
active part in WT
80,3%
passive part in WT
Figure 17.4: Ratio of active and passive part in wheelchair tennis
Active phase in particular field on tennis court

Each half of the tennis court was divided into 14 fields (Figure
17.5) in order to measure the average time spent in a particular field.
Tables 17.3 and 17.4 show the percentage of time spent in a particular
field for winners (w) and losers (l).

Table 17.3: Descriptive statistics of time spent in particular field for

winners
VARIABLE N MIN MAX SUM MEAN SD
PTR1_w 22 16,38 62,88 1006,70 45,75 12,93
PTR2_w 22 4,65 13,99 194,22 8,82 3,07
PTR3_w 22 3,73 24,11 285,60 12,98 4,60
PTR4_w 22 3,08 70,99 636,62 28,93 17,70
PTR5_w 22 ,00 ,69 2,18 ,09 ,18
PTR6_w 22 ,00 ,61 3,28 ,14 ,19
PTR7_w 22 ,39 6,60 52,47 2,38 1,78
PTR8_w 22 ,00 ,87 4,91 ,22 ,23
PTR9_w 22 ,00 1,53 9,79 ,44 ,46
PTR10_w 22 ,00 ,92 ,96 ,04 ,19
PTR12_w 22 ,00 1,41 2,69 ,12 ,34
PTR14_w 22 ,00 ,23 ,53 ,02 ,06
Legend: PTR1_w - PTR14_w: the percentage of time spent in fields 1 to 14 for winners
Table 17.4:Descriptive statistics of time spent in particular field for

losers
VARIABLE N MIN MAX SUM MEAN SD
PTR1_l 22 21,48 64,10 1050,90 47,76 11,44
PTR2_l 22 2,91 19,21 197,40 8,97 3,98
PTR3_l 22 2,81 17,24 281,90 12,81 3,56
PTR4_l 22 9,59 56,87 600,88 27,31 14,72
PTR5_l 22 ,00 ,61 2,89 ,13 ,17
PTR6_l 22 ,00 ,44 2,19 ,09 ,12
PTR7_l 22 ,00 7,72 46,95 2,13 1,80
PTR8_l 22 ,00 2,83 6,01 ,27 ,59
PTR9_l 22 ,00 2,02 7,68 ,34 ,43
PTR10_l 22 ,00 ,19 ,19 ,00 ,04
PTR12_l 22 ,00 ,55 1,82 ,08 ,14
PTR13_l 22 ,00 ,65 ,79 ,03 ,13
PTR14-l 22 ,00 ,22 ,42 ,01 ,06
Legend: PTR1_l - PTR14_l: the percentage of time spent in fields 1 to 14 for losers

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In Tables 17.3 and 17.4 and in Figure 17.5 it is shown that in Field
1 (F1) the winners (red colour) and the losers (yellow colour) spent most
of the time in the active phases (45,8% and 47,8%). This indicates that
almost half of the active time was spent in this field. Most of the strokes
were performed in this field, particularly serve, forehand and backhand
return and also basic strokes such as forehand and backhand.
Field 4 (F4) is an area which lies behind the base line. There the
player is allowed to hit the ball after the second bounce. In this field the
winners spent 28,9% and losers 27,3% of their active time. The
difference is small. F4 represents the optimum position for the players to
prepare themselves for the next stroke after the second bounce.
In Field 7 (F7), which is called “no man’s land”, the players are in
extremely difficult position to hit the ball. Usually the ball bounces over
a player, if he “freezes” in the middle of the court. This circumstance
indicates the percentage of time spent in F7 where the players spent a
small part of the active time; the winners spent 2,38% and losers 2,13%.
When comparing the forehand side (F2) and the backhand side
(F3) the players spent more time in F3. This means that they directed the
ball to the backhand side of their opponents, which is usually the weaker
side (Filipčič and Filipčič, 2006). In other fields the percentage of time
spent was very low. There was no movement in F11 (for winners and
losers) and F13 (for losers). Therefore, they were left out of Tables 17.3
and 17.4.
One-way ANOVA did not prove any statistically significant
differences between the winners and losers in the percentage of time
spent in a particular field. This indicates that both winners and losers had
similar tactical plans: long shots to the base line and attack on the
backhand side of the opponent.
0,1% 0,1%
0% 0,01%
13% 0,4% 0,02% 0,04% 0,3 9%
28,9% 45,8% 2,4% 0,1% 0,1% 2,1% 47,8% 27,3%
8,8% 0,2% 0% 0,02% 0,3% 12,8%

0,1% 0,04% 0% 0,1%
Figure 17.5: Time spent in particular field for winners and losers

Table 17.5: Differences between winners and losers in observed

wheelchair tennis matches
VARIABLE GROUP MEAN SD F P
W 45,75 12,93
PTR1 ,298 ,588
L 47,76 11,44
W 8,82 3,07
PTR2 ,018 ,894
L 8,97 3,98
W 12,98 4,60
PTR3 ,018 ,893
L 12,81 3,56
W 28,93 17,70
PTR4 ,109 ,742
L 27,31 14,72
W 2,38 1,78
PTR7 ,215 ,645
L 2,13 1,80
W ,44 ,46
PTR9 ,494 ,486
L ,34 ,43
Legend: W: winners; L: losers
CONCLUSIONS
Wheelchair tennis is a game in which the passive phases represent
the major part. Namely, the active part represents less than 20% of the
total playing time. The results are similar to those in able-bodied tennis.
The average time of an individual active phase lasted 4,16 seconds. 70%
of all active phases lasted up to 5 seconds, while only 0,4% lasted longer
than 20 seconds. On the basis of these findings it can be concluded that
wheelchair tennis is an anaerobic alactat activity. As regards the active
time spent in particular field it was found out that most of it was spent
around the base line; and only little time was spent close to the net. No
statistically significant differences were found between the winners and
losers.
The results of this study have scientific and applicable value. With
the help of computer-vision-based software application –
SAGIT/TENNIS tracking system an important progress in analysing
wheelchair tennis has been made. Based upon the complex analysis of
time characteristics in this research the frames of work-load in tennis
matches and training have been proposed. This will enable tennis
coaches to plan the process of training with respect to the technical and
tactical requirements as well as to the physical conditioning preparation.
For example, we suggest short distances to be made, lasting from 4 to 5
seconds, during the physical conditioning preparation.
Further research is needed in the field of wheelchair tennis
players’ work-load (such as movement velocity of players and distance
covered) as well as in the field of different surfaces used.

Tennis
REFERENCES
Bullock, M., & Pluim, P. (2003). Wheelchair tennis and Physical
conditioning. ITF Wheelchair Tennis Coaches Review, (9) (2–10).
Ferjan, R. (2001). The comparison of playing characteristics of final
matches in the U.S. Open and Australian Open in 2000 and 2001.
Unpublished Bachelor’s thesis, Ljubljana: Faculty of Sport.
Filipčič, T., & Filipčič A. (2006). Analysis of tennis strokes in
wheelchair tennis. Wheelchair tennis coaches review, (14) 17-21.
Hughes, M.D., & Clark, S. (1995). Surface effect on elite tennis
strategy. In T. Reilly, M. Hughes and A. Lees (Ed.) Proceedings
Science and Racket Sports. E & FN Spon London. (272-277).
Lees, A., Kahn, J.F., & Maynard, I. (2003). Science and Racket
Sports III, Routledge, p. 279.
Lees, Kahn, J.F. & Maynard, I. (Ed.) Science and Racket Sports
III, Routledge, p. 155-163.
O'Donoghue, P.O., & Liddle, D. (1998 a). A match analysis of elite
tennis strategy for ladies' singles on clay and grass surfaces. In A.
Lees, I. Maynard, M. Hughes and T. Reilly (Ed.) Science and
Racket Sports II E & FN Spon. London (p. 247-253).
O'Donoghue, P.O., & Liddle, D. (1998 b). A notational analysis of
time factors of elite men's and ladies’ singles tennis on clay and
grass surfaces. In A. Lees, I. Maynard, M. Hughes and T. Reilly
(Ed.) Science and Racket Sports II E & FN Spon. London (p. 241-
246).
Pečelin, I. (2006). Match analysis of young tennis players regarding
the hitting precision of the targeted playing fields. Unpublished
Bachelor’s thesis. Ljubljana: Faculty of Sport.
Pintarič, T. (2002). The analysis of tennis game’s elements and time
factors of final matches in the French Open and Wimbledon in
2001. Unpublished Bachelor’s thesis. Ljubljana: Faculty of Sport.
Planinšek, T. (1995). The analysis of tennis game’s elements and
time factors of final matches in the U.S. Open and French Open in
1994. Šport 42 (2) 31-36.
Polic, M. (2000). ITF Wheelchair Tennis Coaches Manual. London:
ITF.
Schönborn, R. (1999). Advanced Techniques for Competitive Tennis.
Aachen: Meyer und Meyer.
Zlatoper, Z. (2002). The comparison of playing characteristics of
final matches in the French Open, Wimbledon and U.S. Open in
2001. Unpublished Bachelor’s thesis. Ljubljana: Faculty of Sport.

Stroke analysis in wheelchair tennis
18

Tennis
ABSTRACT
The purpose of the present research was to investigate patterns of
tennis strokes in wheelchair tennis players where larger number of
rallies were analysed. The comparison between two levels of players
(elite and recreational tennis players) was taken upon. The sample of
subjects consisted of 15 male tennis players (top 100 – elite level, while
10 players presented recreational level). Data were collected in March
2006 in Tennis hall Triglav Kranj (Slovenia) where all matches were
played on hard courts in constant conditions for all players. On a base
of 2411 rallies it is concluded forehand, forehand return, backhand and
backhand return contribute the highest percentage of winners and errors
in both groups. Players also performed more errors as compared to
winners (59, 2 % vs. 40,8 %). As far as differences among groups are
concerned few significant differences were found in % of winners and
errors.
Key words: wheelchair tennis, analysis of tennis strokes in

wheelchair tennis
INTRODUCTION
Match analysis is an area of sport science that has matured over
also a term used to describe the analysis of actual sport competition.
characterised by the need to produce rapid performance information.
Secondly, theoretical match analysis as a research discipline within sport
all five purposes of notational analysis such as: technical/tactical
Several studies of match analyses in different sports of able bodied
sports were published what on the other hand cannot be stated for
adapted sport and in particular wheelchair tennis. Bullock & Pluim
(2003) published some data from the match analyses where 150 rallies
were analysed. Therefore, the purpose of the present research was to

investigate patterns of play between wheelchair tennis players where

larger number of rallies were analysed. In addition, the comparison
between two levels of players (elite and recreational tennis players) was
taken upon.
METHODS
Subjects
The sample of subjects consisted of 15 male tennis players (top
100 – elite level, while 10 players presented recreational level). All
players were in regular training (at least two training sessions/week). 14
players had acquired and complete SCI (Th 5- Th 12), while one player
had congenital physical impairment. All players were wheelchair users
and played tennis at least 3 matches (best of two sets). General
characteristics of the players are presented in Table 18.1.

Age /years 27 53 39,06 8,24
Years in tennis
3 14 9 4,09
training process
Tournament
5 20 10 6,11
played per year
Training
2 4 2,53 0,639
session/week
Procedures
Data were collected in March 2006 in Tennis hall Triglav Kranj
(Slovenia) where all matches were played on hard courts in constant
conditions for all players. Two tournaments were organised. Firstly,
tournament was organised for recreational and secondly for elite players.
The sample of variables included number of rallies, number of errors,
winners, number of particular stroke (backhand (B), forehand (F), return
(R), smash (SM), volley (V), lob (L), drop shot (DS) and serve (S). A
hand-notation system was used during all 22 matches to collect the data
which were analysed post-event.

In 22 tennis matches 2411 rallies were analysed (1168 on elite and
1243 in recreational level). The mean number of shots/rally in elite and
recreational level is very low (2,83) as presented in Table 18.2. If we

Tennis
compare this to Bullock & Pluim (2003) who analysed average number
of balls played per rally (4,67) in three matches from the 2000
Paralympic Games in Sydney, it is seen the number is lower what is due
to fast surface. As far as mean number of shots/rally is concerned no
significant difference was found among elite and recreational groups.
Table 18.2: A comparison of match data (n=22) of elite and

recreational male wheelchair tennis players
All matches Elite Recreational
together level level
Number of tennis matches 22 11 11
Number of sets analysed 45 22 23
Number of rallies analysed 2411 1168 1243
Mean no. shots/rally 2,83 3,0 2,87
It is seen in Table 18.2 that players in elite group performed more

shots/rally (3,0) as compared to players in recreational group (2,87). In
the following Table (18.3) all data refers to all matches together. We
compared the percentage (%) of particular last stroke in the rally. In
addition, we will present some of the final strokes where differences
among groups are evident and interesting.
Winners in wheelchair tennis

Table 18.3: Percentage (%) of winner strokes
Type of stroke All shots Elite level Recreational
level
% serve - ace 4,3% 3,5% 5,3%
% Forehand 13,3% 14,6% 12,1%
% Forehand return 6,7% 4,8% 8,5%
% Forehand volley 0,6% 0,8% 0,5%
% forehand smash 0,1% 0,2% 0,1%
% forehand drop shot 0,5% 0,5% 0,5%
% forehand lob 0,2% 0,4% 0%
% Backhand 7,3% 8,0% 6, %
% Backhand return 5,7% 7,6% 3,8%
% Backhand volley 0,3% 0,5% 0,3%
% Backhand drop shot 0,7% 0,4% 0,9%
% Backhand lob 0,1% 0,1% 0,2%
% Backhand passing 0,4% 0,2% 0,6%
Sum % 40,8% 42,2% 40,1%

It is seen (Table 18.3) forehand, forehand return, backhand and

backhand return contribute the highest percentage of all winners in both
groups. Other shots such as volley, drop shot, lob, smash contribute low
percentage of winners in both groups. Also serve is important stroke.
Forehand side is stronger one in both groups. As far as differences
among groups are concerned players in recreational group performed
more forehand return winners. This is probably due to slow serve of the
players in this group what caused relatively efficient forehand return of
the opponent. On the other hand, elite players have better serve that does
not allow the opponent to perform winner with return. Elite players
performed significantly higher percentage of backhand return winners
(p=.000) as compared to recreational level as a result of good mobility
after the serve. Players in elite group performed less aces as compared to
recreational level. The cause is obviously the quality of return and
optimal movement after stroke in elite group.
Forehand winner was performed in higher % among elite players
as compared to recreational level. Elite players look for the opportunity
to performe the forehand and finish the point. At forehand stroke players
have more technical variability especialy in different hights and rotation.
Backhand as a winner is performed in higher procentage among
elite players as a result ob higher technical quality of the strokes. On
recreational level players still have a lot of problems with backhand.
Errors in wheelchair tennis

Table 18.4: Percentage (%) of errors
Type of stroke All shots Elite level Recreational level
% serve- double faults 7,9% 7,8% 7,9%
% Forehand 13,3% 13,1% 13,5%
% Forehand return 10,0% 7,0% 12,9%
% Forehand volley 1,1% 1,3% 0,8%
% forehand smash 0,2% 0,4% 0%
% forehand passing 0,2% 0,1% 0,3%
% forehand drop shot 0,1% 0,1% 0,1%
% forehand lob 0,1% 0,2% 0%
% Backhand 10,9% 10,0% 11,9%
% Backhand return 13,7% 16,1% 11,4%
% Backhand volley 0,9% 1,02% 0,4%
% Backhand drop shot 0,1% 0,08% 0,1%
% Backhand lob 0,0% 0,1% 0%
% Backhand passing 0,2% 0,2% 0,1%
Sum % 59,2% 57,8% 59,9%

Tennis
Forehand, forehand return, backhand and backhand return and

serve also contribute the highest percentage of all errors in both groups.
Other shots such as volley, drop shot, lob, smash contribute low
percentage errors in both groups (Table 18.4). Players performed more
forehand errors and less forehand return errors. As far as differences
among groups are concerned no significant difference were found in
forehand errors, while significant difference in forehand return (p=.002)
was observed. Namely, players in recreational group performed more
forehand errors. On the other hand, players in elite group perform
surprisingly more errors with backhand return what is probably due to
fast and efficient serve of the opponent.
CONCLUSION
On a base of 2411 rallies it is seen forehand, forehand return,
backhand and backhand return contribute the highest percentage of
winners and errors in both groups. Players also performed more errors as
compared to winners (59, 2 % vs. 40,8 %). As far as differences among
groups are concerned few significant differences were found in % of
winners and errors. Addition research is needed in this filed particularly
in the field of work rate of players, such as average speed, highest speed
and positioning in the moment of hitting what will be presented in the
future.
REFERENCES
Bullock, M., & Pluim, P. (2003). Wheelchair tennis and Physical
conditioning. Wheelchair tennis coaches review (9) 10-12.
Lees, Kahn, J.F & Maynard, I. (ur.), Science and Racket Sports
III, Routledge, p. 155-163.

Relation between two aerobic capacity tests and competitive…
Aleš Filipčič, Tjaša Filipčič
19
Relation between two aerobic capacity tests and

competitive successfulness of junior tennis
players

Tennis
Relation between two aerobic capacity tests and competitive

successfulness of junior tennis players
ABSTRACT
A sample of forty-two tennis players, between twelve and fourteen
years of age, performed a laboratory test on a treadmill and a running
test on an athletic track. Both were used to measure aerobic capacity of
the subjects. Two predictive variables were chosen - maximal O2
consumption and running test on 2400 m, and a criterion variable -
competitive successfulness. The correlation between the predictive
variables and competitive successfulness was analysed with the Pearson
correlation coefficient. The results show that the correlation of
competitive successfulness with running endurance and aerobic power is
weak, but statistically significant.
Keywords: tennis, endurance, competitive successfulness,

correlation
INTRODUCTION
Body movement during a tennis game is determined by the
volume, intensity and player’s tactics. The amount of work is determined
by the length of a match, the number of performed shots, the number of
played points, games and sets, and the total distance the player covers on
the court during a match. The intensity depends primarily on playing
surface and the velocity of the ball in flight - which affects the frequency
of shots - and on the breaks between the individual points, games and
sets. In the game, various modes of movement occur: running forward,
backward, running sideways with stepping across and with forward
paces, fast starts, various types of jumps and turning movements, as well
as sliding and falling (Filipčič, 1990).
Measurements of metabolism in tennis point more to an
anaerobic–alactate and lactate consumption of energy; however, it is
necessary to emphasise that tennis matches can last several hours, which
means that due to the limited processes, the mode of energy
consumption during the game varies. A top tennis player must therefore
have well developed both anaerobic and aerobic energy mechanisms. In
the active part of the tennis game the energy processes are mainly
anaerobic. The results obtained in the tests carried out by German
experts have shown that the values of the measured lactates for tennis
players during the game are in the range between 3 and 12 mmol/l

(Weber, 1989). The values of lactate are slightly higher in playing on

fast courts, where movements and activities of tennis players are of very
high intensity and short duration.
The functional dimension occurring in a tennis match can be
defined in terms of the distribution of time between play and breaks, and
in the intensity of the activity itself. The measurements of time
parameters have shown that the effective part of the game represents 20 -
30 % of the total duration of the tennis match on slow surfaces, while on
faster surfaces the percentage of the play is even lower. A point on a
clay court lasts on an average from 6 to 8 seconds, while on grass and
fast surfaces the average duration of a point is from 4 to 6 seconds.
Tennis players exchange the ball on an average 2.9 times in this time.
The remaining time is used for changing sides, interruptions and for
resting (Schönborn, 1999).
Maximal aerobic processes occur in a tennis match to a smaller
extent. It is typical for these processes to take place in the presence of
oxygen and be limited in time. Although maximal activation of aerobic
processes in tennis is not necessary, these processes are very important
for the development of the tennis contest and for the training process of
tennis players, and above all, for younger tennis players, where the
intensity of the tennis game is lower. Aerobic processes find full
expression especially in very long - several hours - lasting matches.
Known data on Dutch players, shows that the optimal value of VO2max
for top male adult players is between 63 and 67 ml/kg/min, and for
female players between 53 and 57 ml/kg/min. Alongside these values,
they also found that at this level, further development of aerobic
capacities can reflect negatively on abilities, where speed is important
(Pluim, 2000).
In the current study we were interested in assessing the possibility
of predicting competitive successfulness with a laboratory test on a
treadmill and a 2400 m running test on an athletic track. Maximal
aerobic power namely tells us about the capacity of the aerobic energy
processes, while running endurance is a specific psychomotor ability.
We namely wished to find out if the duration of a tennis match, which
can last for quite a while, is correlated with the running endurance of a
young tennis player. The existence of such a relation would namely lead
to a conclusion that endurance in tennis can be improved with exercise,
where running has a relatively large role. This interest was entirely
practical, namely which one of these two procedures to use for
monitoring athletes’ state of preparedness in the specified field.

Tennis
METHODS
Subjects
The sample of subjects consisted of 42 active tennis players in the
category of boys, 12 to 14 years of age. The study covered only the
players fulfilling the following conditions:
• that they were ranked on the scale of the Tennis Association

of Slovenia in the category of boys up to the age of 14;
• that they were in regular training;
• that they completed the tests relevant to the research.

Age /years/ 12 14 13.77 0.83
In training /years/ 1 7 4.15 1.62
Height /cm/ 139.9 184.5 159.829 9.942
Weight /kg/ 32.0 70.6 47.456 9.505
Procedures
The measurements lasted two days. On the first day the subjects
completed the treadmill test, on the second day the test at the track.
The functional test was carried out on a treadmill (Woodway) for
analysing the cardio-respiratory, ergo-spirometric and metabolic
parameters (Oxycon Beta).
Description of the test: The subject begins the run at a speed of 6
km/h. The first four minutes the subject runs at this speed. After running
for four minutes, the speed is increased to 9 km/h. The subject then runs
four minutes at this speed. After running for four minutes, the slope of
the treadmill is increased by 5 degrees, and the speed decreases to 8
km/h. The speed of the treadmill increases in the continuation of the test
by 1 km/h per minute. The measured subject perseveres in carrying out
the test up to the level of his maximal abilities.
In setting up the protocol of the tests, the standards recommended
by American College of Sports Medicine (Lea & Febiger, 1986) have
been observed.
The running test was performed on an athletic track. The subjects
covered a 2400 m distance. They ran in groups of 10.

Predictor variables
Two assessments of aerobic capacity were chosen. In the treadmill
test we decided on the VO2max - maximal O2 consumption (ml/min), in
the RT2400 (running test 2400 m) the result was the time (seconds) in
which the subjects covered the 2400 m distance.
Criterion variable
In defining the criterion variable we have taken into account all
competitions of boys up to 14 years of age, which took place in the
period of one competitive season (the last 52 weeks). The players had
different numbers of tournaments, so we selected the most suitable
criterion variable CS (competitive successfulness), which determines the
relationship between the number of the collected points in tournaments
and the number of played tournaments.
Data analysis
The collected data was processed by means of the SPSS program
package for Windows (Release 11.0). Descriptive statistics was
computed. Since certain departures from normality were observed in the
criterion variable, we used the logarithm of the criterion to normalise the
distribution. Pearson product-moment correlation was used to establish
the influence of predictor variables on competitive successfulness.
RESULTS
Table 19.2: Descriptive statistics
Std. Kolmogorov Sig.
Min. Max. Mean Skewness Kurtosis
Deviation -Smirnov Z Z
VO2max 1475 3885 2530.00 611.21 .328 -.424 .993 .135
RT 2400 532 868 640.61 68.10 1.331 2.971 .135 .993
CS -3.51 3.18 -.6312 1.89765 .024 -1.203 2.595 .000
Table 19.3: Correlations between predictor variables and criterion

variable
CS VO2max
VO2max Pearson correlation .519
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
RT 2400 Pearson correlation -.429 -.104
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .513

Tennis
We were interested in this research in the relationship between

aerobic power and running endurance in tennis, when played by young
athletes. Table 1 shows the basic statistical parameters. The values of
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test show a normal distribution of the results in
both predictor variables and non-normal of the criterion variable. For
further analysis we used logarithms of the original values in the criterion
variable.
The correlations between the variables (Table 19.3) show a
medium high and statistically significant association between CS,
VO2max and RT2400. The variable VO2max has a somewhat higher
correlation with the criterion.
4000
3000
VO2max (ml/min)
2000
1000
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
CS
Figure 19.1: Correlation between VO2max and CS

1100
1000
900
800
RT 2400 (min)
700
600
500
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
CS
Figure 19.2: Correlation between RT2400 and CS
1100
1000
900
800
RT 2400 (min)
700
600
500
1000 2000 3000 4000
V02 max (ml/min)
Figure 19.3: Correlation between RT2400 and VO2max
DISCUSSION
If we inspect the correlation of both predictor variables with the
criterion also graphically we can conclude that the correlation between
VO2max and CS (Figure 19.1) is weak, even if statistically significant,
as can be seen from the great dispersion of the results at the individual
values of competitive successfulness.

Tennis
The correlation between RT2400 and CS (Figure 19.2) is weak,

negative, but logically positive and statistically significant. It would be
very difficult to claim that there is any sort of dependence, leading to a
conclusion that CS might be in any way dependent on running
endurance. This leads us to the conclusion that CS depends more on
other factors, which were not analysed in this research.
The correlation between VO2max and RT2400 (Figure 19.3) is
weak (-.104), negative, but logically positive and statistically non-
significant. This is because young tennis players are not runners, are not
motivated for running, therefore their results do not express just their
aerobic capacity, but include also their (non)motivation for running.
All this leads us to conclude that the correlation of both variables
(RT2400 and VO2max) with the criterion variable (SC) is statistically
significant, but weak (Figure 19.1 and 19.2). The lowest correlation is
between the two predictor variables. Competitive successfulness is
therefore less dependent on aerobic power and running endurance and
more on factors, which were not dealt with in this study.
The analysis of the association of both predictor variables with the
criterion showed that it is not possible to predict competitive
successfulness of young tennis players well enough with these two tests
of aerobic capacity, which was also the reason why multiple regression
analysis was not performed. The reasons for the rather low predictive
power lie probably in the characteristics of the used subject sample and
the characteristics of tennis and the factors, which are important
determinants of success in tennis. It is possible that the analysed sample
of young tennis players is inappropriate from the age point of view and
too small. The main reasons for the weak correlation probably lie with
the bad aerobic power of young tennis players. Competitive
successfulness does not have a marked association with aerobic power or
running endurance, which can lead us to conclude that some other kind
of endurance is more important already for the younger categories of
tennis players. Recent analyses of duration of points in matches of elite
tennis players on surfaces of medium speed show that 86% of the points
are shorter than 10 s in duration and 14% of the points last from 10 to 25
s (Schönborn, 1999). In light of this data on elite tennis players, we can
conclude with high certainty that anaerobic endurance has an important
role already for young tennis players. It is therefore necessary to
determine precisely the optimal level of development of aerobic
endurance, which would enable the players to overcome the workloads
of longer duration in the training process and competitions.

It would probably be useful in future to try two things: repeat both

measurement procedures on a larger sample of adult tennis players and
perform a similar study in the field of anaerobic endurance of tennis
players.
REFERENCES
1. Filipčič, A. (1990). Oris problematike razvijanja vzdržljivosti
teniških igralcev [An Outline of the Problems Related to the
Development of Endurance in Tennis Players]. Ljubljana: Fakulteta
za šport (Faculty of Sport).
2. Lea, A., & Febiger, B. (1986). Guidelines for Exercise Testing and
Prescription (3rd Ed.). Indianapolis: ACSM (American College of
Sports Medicine).
3. Pluim, B. M. (2000). Exercise Physiology. Amsterdam: Royal
Netherlands Lawn Tennis Association.
4. Schönborn, R. (1999). Advanced Techniques for Competitive Tennis.
Aachen: Meyer und Meyer Sport.
5. Weber, K. (1989). Theory and practise of tennis-specific endurance.
ITF Coaches Review, 1 (5), 7-14.

Subject index:
A 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201,

ability, 25, 26, 30, 31, 32, 44, 50, 202, 203, 204, 206, 213, 214,
85, 113, 116, 122, 123, 128, 215, 216, 220, 225, 226, 228
129, 130, 135, 139, 140, 158, ankle, 4, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 102, 103,
164, 165, 173, 174, 175, 176, 106
177, 178, 223 ANOVA, 7, 11, 18, 22, 25, 34, 36,
acceleration, 26, 34, 50, 128, 129, 47, 69, 150, 155, 212
130, 131, 132, 135, 139, 147, average, 7, 18, 20, 22, 33, 35, 47,
174, 175 74, 79, 101, 117, 118, 123, 144,
acyclic movement, 20, 54 147, 158, 159, 183, 187, 188,
aerobic, 31, 32, 33, 37, 38, 77, 123, 196, 197, 198, 202, 203, 204,
221, 222, 223, 225, 226,228 205, 207, 208, 210, 213, 218,
achilles tendon, 6 220, 223
age, 4, 6, 7, 16, 38, 74, 75, 76, 77,
78, 86, 88, 93, 101, 102, 104, B
107, 110, 112, 113, 114, 116, badminton, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 11, 203
122, 124, 125, 128, 129, 130, balance, 15, 18, 24, 30, 56, 108,
131, 132, 135, 138, 139, 141, 109, 112, 113, 116, 117, 122,
149, 150, 153, 154, 155, 156, 128, 130, 135, 140, 190
157, 158, 159, 160, 164, 165, ball trajectory, 18, 22, 46, 64, 71
176, 181, 182, 194, 205, 217, battery, 77, 85, 88, 92, 93, 113,
222, 224, 225, 228 131, 140, 164, 174, 176, 177
agility, 30, 56, 62, 90, 93, 100, 105, behaviour, 70, 149, 150, 152, 153,
107, 108, 112, 113, 116, 119, 154, 155, 157, 158, 159, 160
123, 124, 128, 130, 131, 135, boys, 102, 103, 113, 131, 139, 140,
164, 165, 166, 169, 170, 171, 144, 145, 146, 147, 153, 154,
173, 174, 176, 177 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 183,
alactate, 213, 222 210, 224, 225
anaerobic, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, burnout, 153, 160
37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 77, 187, 213,
222, 228, 229 C
analysis, 7, 18, 21, 22, 23, 25, 28, cardiovascular, 15, 123
30, 34, 36, 37, 42, 46, 47, 50, championship, 12, 16, 20, 32, 144,
52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 59, 64, 71, 145, 147, 183, 194
80, 84, 86, 95, 100, 105, 107, characteristics, 20, 21, 26, 29, 30,
110, 112, 113, 114, 117, 120, 32, 38, 40, 41, 44, 50, 51, 54,
121, 122, 127, 128, 130, 131, 55, 63, 74, 75, 76, 79, 81, 93,
132, 136, 137, 138, 140, 144, 94, 102, 104, 111, 112, 122,
145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 155, 123, 124, 132, 141, 144, 145,
156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 164, 147, 152, 153, 173, 174, 180,
170, 174, 176, 177, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186,
181, 182, 183, 184, 186, 187, 187, 188, 191, 192, 193, 194,
188, 189, 191, 192, 193, 194, 196, 197, 199, 201, 202, 203,

204, 205, 213, 214, 216, 217, 196, 197, 198, 202, 203, 207,
224, 228 208, 209, 212, 213, 216, 218,
coach, 31, 38, 51, 77, 80, 84, 86, 219, 220
87, 88, 92, 94, 108, 112, 130, dimensions, 46, 54, 64, 75, 76, 77,
149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 113, 114, 116, 122, 125, 131,
155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 132, 140, 170, 171, 172, 177,
165, 168, 169, 176, 178, 181, 223
199, 202, 203, 213, 214, 216, dynamic balance, 112, 113, 116,
220, 229 117, 128, 130, 135, 140
competition, 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, 12, 14,
19, 20, 31, 40, 44, 85, 86, 103, E
105, 106, 111, 112, 113, 114, efficiency, 13, 33, 127, 128, 129,
116, 117, 122, 123, 124, 127, 130, 131, 132, 135, 136, 139,
128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 135, 140, 198
136, 139,140, 141, 153, 159, elite, 16, 20, 21, 28, 29, 30, 32, 39,
181, 202, 216, 225, 228 40, 46, 55, 152, 160, 161, 214,
computer, 76, 22, 46, 47, 54, 59, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 228
64, 65, 77, 79, 81, 83, 84, 86, emg signal, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27
87, 144, 145, 148, 196, 202, endurance, 20, 30, 31, 32, 56, 62,
203, 204, 213 77, 105, 107, 112, 113, 115,
contraction, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 116, 123, 165, 166, 170, 171,
103, 113, 130 173, 175, 177, 222, 223, 226,
coordination, 15, 77, 79, 102, 114, 228, 229
124, 128, 130, 132, 135, 140 energy, 33, 40, 41, 69, 122, 123,
correlation, 37, 103, 107, 111, 112, 151, 169, 170, 189, 222, 223
114, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, equipment, 6, 14, 45, 54, 63, 64,
124, 129, 131, 132, 137, 138, 71, 101, 102, 103, 206
152, 169, 170, 174, 175, 176, evaluation, 22, 46, 54, 77, 78, 81,
177, 187, 222, 225, 226, 227, 83, 84, 86, 87, 89, 94, 109, 125,
228 141, 181,198, 203, 216
event, 4, 6, 10, 12, 31, 39, 44, 56,
D 84, 147, 151, 182, 192, 193,
development, 6, 25, 27, 38, 45, 49, 217
51, 63, 87, 95, 101, 108, 124, exercise, 4, 12, 14, 15, 25, 26, 27,
138, 152, 153, 158, 159, 160, 31, 33, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 44,
180, 223, 228, 229 50, 51, 55, 84, 181, 202, 216,
diagnosis, 5, 6, 12 223, 229
differences, 4, 7, 14, 18, 20, 21, 22, experiment, 27, 45, 55, 63, 71
23, 24, 25, 27, 34, 36, 38, 39, expert, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79,
43, 44, 45, 47, 51, 54, 55, 56, 80, 81, 86, 90, 95, 100, 113,
58, 59, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 114, 131, 181, 182, 186, 194,
69, 70, 100, 103, 106, 107, 108, 202, 222
124, 144, 146, 147, 148, 150,
157, 158, 159, 170, 180, 182,
183, 184, 187, 188, 190, 192,

F 174, 176, 177, 180, 182, 193,
factors, 4, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 19, 225
20, 26, 31, 38, 44, 45, 51, 84, injury, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,
86, 99, 100, 109, 112, 122, 123, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 25, 27, 44,
130, 153, 161, 164, 165, 169, 45, 50, 51, 52, 59, 99, 100, 101,
170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107,
176, 177, 180, 181, 182, 195, 108, 109, 110, 205, 208, 209
196, 198, 214, 228 intrinsic factors, 6
fairplay, 6, 12 ITF, 160, 199, 214, 229
female, 4, 7, 14, 30, 32, 35, 36, 38, ITTF, 16, 54, 63
39, 40, 41, 84, 86, 108, 110,
112, 113, 114, 116, 117, 118, J
120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, junior, 84, 86, 91, 144, 150, 153,
127, 128, 129, 130, 132, 135, 160, 161, 221, 222
136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141,
143, 144, 145, 149, 150, 151, K
152, 153, 154, 158, 159, 160, kinematic, 22, 25, 46, 47, 52, 53,
183, 193, 223 54, 55, 56, 59, 70, 76
fitness, 4, 19, 20, 27, 28, 31, 32, knee, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 27, 103,
41, 44, 83, 84, 85, 86, 100, 103, 106, 109, 115, 129, 133, 138,
104, 105, 107, 108, 109, 160 168
functional, 5, 12, 13, 19, 113, 114, knowledge, 5, 6, 44, 54, 80, 87, 93,
122, 123, 131, 170, 174, 181, 94, 182, 202
199, 223, 224
L
G lactate, 30, 31, 34, 37, 40, 41, 42,
game analysis, 179, 180 222, 223
girls, 78, 102, 103, 113, 130, 131, leisure, 4, 15, 178
139, 140, 144, 145, 146, 147, load, 5, 6, 11, 13, 14, 19, 23, 34,
154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 183 49, 50, 52, 56, 62, 64, 65, 85,
glue, 26, 51, 65 94, 102, 108, 180, 193, 202,
Grand slam, 179, 180, 184, 192 213, 228
growth, 6, 12, 13, 14, 102, 124
M
H male, 4, 7, 14, 21, 30, 32, 35, 36,
health, 4, 6, 15, 31, 62, 70, 75 38, 39, 40, 46, 84, 86, 100, 103,
height, 7, 77, 78, 79, 104, 112, 113, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110,
116, 118, 119, 121, 124, 132, 112, 113, 114, 116, 117, 118,
152, 181, 224 119, 121, 122, 123, 124, 129,
138, 143, 144, 145, 149, 150,
I 151, 152, 153, 154, 158, 159,
influence, 14, 15, 19, 26, 50, 63, 160, 165, 176, 183, 193, 196,
65, 69, 71, 100, 104, 108, 111, 205, 216, 217, 218, 223
112, 122, 128, 129, 139, 141, match, 20, 31, 32, 47, 48, 49, 58,
150, 152, 153, 160, 161, 164, 103, 104, 108, 109, 123, 129,

138, 139, 144, 145, 146, 147, 158, 160, 161, 176, 181, 202,
148, 153, 158, 175, 180, 181, 203, 216
182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, physical activity, 4, 199
188, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, physical fitness, 4, 19, 20, 27, 160
196, 197, 198, 199, 202, 203, physiology, 5, 6, 20, 27, 29, 30, 31,
204, 206, 207, 208, 210, 213, 32, 34, 37, 40, 41, 42, 44, 51,
214, 216, 217, 218, 220, 222, 84, 85, 100, 229
223, 228 power, 18, 20, 27, 30, 31, 32, 33,
measurement, 18, 19, 21, 22, 27, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 44,
28, 30, 37, 41, 46, 52, 55, 59, 45, 51, 54, 56, 62, 80, 102, 112,
60, 62, 64, 70, 71, 76, 77, 84, 113, 116, 119, 122, 125, 128,
86, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 112, 129, 130, 135, 138, 140, 164,
114, 129, 132, 139, 147, 164, 165, 166, 170, 171, 173, 174,
165, 169, 176, 185, 222, 223, 175, 176, 177, 189, 222, 223,
224, 229 226, 228
metabolism, 31, 33, 41, 42, 222 preparation phase, 20, 54, 55
myoelectric, 15, 17, 18, 21, 52, 71 prevention, 4, 5, 11, 14, 16, 101,
motor abilities, 30, 44, 54, 56, 74, 102
75, 76, 79, 81, 93, 108, 112,
127, 128, 130, 140, 141, 164, Q
165, 172, 175, 176, 177, 178, questionnaire, 7, 104, 150, 154,
181 155
muscles, 4, 6, 9, 10, 12, 13, 18, 19,
20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, R
30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 37, 38, 40, racket sports, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 15,
41, 42, 50, 51, 55, 56, 62, 70, 52, 71, 84, 102, 147, 148, 194,
100, 101, 102, 103, 113, 123, 203, 214, 220
130 range of motion, 13, 58, 59
muscular system, 123 regression, 112, 113, 114, 117,
121, 122, 124, 127, 128, 130,
N 131, 132, 136, 137, 138, 140,
nutrition, 6 164, 174, 175, 177, 228
rehabilitation, 4, 6, 12, 14, 15
O research, 13, 21, 26, 30, 40, 45, 51,
oxygen, 33, 100, 181, 223 54, 56, 59, 62, 63, 69, 70, 87,
overload, 14, 102 93, 100, 101, 102, 107, 108,
overuse injury, 6, 11, 14, 102 109, 112, 113, 114, 122, 123,
128, 130, 131, 132, 138, 139,
P 140, 145, 147, 150, 152, 153,
performance, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 26, 159, 160, 161, 164, 169, 176,
30, 31, 32, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 181, 182, 184, 185, 196, 197,
44, 46, 50, 54, 55, 59, 64, 71, 198, 202, 203, 204, 208, 209,
84, 85, 86, 93, 109, 123, 125, 210, 213, 216, 220, 224, 226,
129, 138, 139, 141, 148, 152, 228

risk, 4, 5, 11, 12, 14, 151, 188, 189, T
190 tendon, 4, 6, 9, 1, 10, 12, 13, 100,
rubber, 26, 51, 54, 61, 62, 63, 64, 101
65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, tennis elbow, 6, 102
test, 14, 19, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35,
S 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 44, 47,
shoulder, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 48, 49, 49, 58, 63, 65, 66, 67,
19, 20, 21, 25, 27, 28, 55, 56, 68, 69, 76, 77, 78, 80, 84, 85,
59, 60, 62, 101, 102, 103, 106, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94,
108, 112, 113, 116, 128, 129, 100, 105, 106, 107, 112, 113,
130, 135, 138, 139, 165, 166, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 120,
171, 173 122, 123, 124, 125, 128, 129,
shuttle run, 128, 129, 130, 135, 139 130, 131, 132, 133, 135, 136,
sit-up, 115, 116, 118, 119, 121, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 146,
128, 133, 135, 138, 165, 167, 150, 155, 156, 163, 164, 165,
168, 171 166, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172,
somatotype, 181 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178,
speed, 20, 25, 26, 27, 30, 34, 38, 197, 204, 221, 222, 223, 224,
42, 44, 45, 46, 50, 51, 56, 61, 225, 226, 228
62, 63, 64, 65, 70, 75, 77, 90, test battery, 88, 92, 93, 113, 131,
100, 101, 105, 107, 108, 112, 140, 164
113, 114, 116, 119, 122, 123, tissue, 4, 5, 11, 12, 14, 101, 103
124, 125, 128, 129, 130, 131, topspin, 16, 18, 21, 22, 25, 43, 44,
132, 135, 138, 139, 140, 141, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55,
144, 145, 147, 165, 166, 170, 56, 59,198
171, 175, 178, 180, 181, 187, trainer, 14, 15, 31
189, 192, 193, 208, 220, 223, training session, 4, 10, 27, 51, 94,
224, 228 205, 217
spin, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 25, 38, 44, treadmill, 222, 223, 224, 225
45, 46, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, 56, treatment, 05, 06, 12, 14, 16, 103,
59, 61, 62, 63, 65, 69, 70, 181, 153, 160
183, 198 V
spine, 4, 8, 9, 10, 13, 16,102 velocity, 19, 21, 26, 51, 54, 55, 56,
SPSS, 7, 22, 30, 34, 47, 86, 91, 59, 62, 176, 196, 197, 198, 199,
206, 225 202, 213, 222
squash, 101, 145, 148, 203
strength, 13, 19, 20, 25, 27, 30, 32, W
38, 44, 45, 49, 50, 51, 56, 62, warming up, 06, 12, 103, 104, 105,
77, 85, 101, 103, 105, 107, 108, 106, 115, 133
113, 115, 128, 130, 131, 132, weight, 07, 15, 25, 30, 34, 38, 39,
133, 135, 138, 140, 171, 181, 50, 77, 78, 79, 104, 112, 113,
190 116, 118, 119, 121, 132, 181,
stretching, 12, 108, 138 191, 224
subcutaneous fat, 77, 181 wheelchair, 195, 196, 197, 198,
199, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205,

207, 209, 210, 213, 214, 215,
216, 217, 218, 219, 220
Wingate, 30, 31, 32, 33, 40, 41, 42
wrist, 04, 08, 09, 13, 20, 55, 101,
103, 106, 107, 138

Authors index:
A Cvetko, D., 193

Abbott, L.C., 28
Allen, G.D., 40 Č
Ambrožič, F., 81 Čoh, M., 59, 125, 140
Amelink, G.J., 27, 51 Čuk, I., 81
Anderson, T.W., 80
Antonelli, D., 28 D
Ariel, G., 59 Delavier, F., 70
Dequeker, J., 15
B Derviševič, E., 15, 27
Balemans, W.A.F., 27, 51 deVries, H.A., 41
Balnave, C.D., 27, 51 DEX-,80
Bangsbo, J., 40 Dežman, B., 81, 147, 148, 177
Bär, P.R., 27, 51 Dlouha, O., 125, 140
Bar-Or, O., 40(a), 40(b), 41(a), Dotan, R., 40, 41(a), 41(b), 41(c)
41(b), 41(c), 41(d) Drolc, A., 160
Baxter-Jones, A.D.G., 160 Dulac, S., 41
Beneke, R., 40 Durey, A. 71(a), 71(b)
Biener, K., 109
Billat, V.L., 40 E
Blanksby, B., 140 Ehlenz, H., 70
Bleif, I., 40 Elliott, B. C., 109, 140
Bohanec. M., 80, 81 Erčulj, F., 148
Bokor, D., 16 Evans, J.A., 41
Bompa, O.T., 70, 95
Boobis, L.H.,41 F
Bosman, P.J., 27, 51 Febiger, B., 229
Bouchard, C., 41 Ferguson, G.A., 80
Brukner, P., 15 Ferjan, R., 193, 214
Bullock, M., 199, 214, 220 Field, L.D., 109
Bunc, A., 125, 140 Filipčič, A., 109, 125(a), 125(b),
Bylak, J., 109 140, 141(a), 141(b), 141(c),
141(d), 141(f), 178, 194(a),
C 194(b), 199, 214, 229
Chandler, J., 177 Filipčič, T., 141, 199, 214
Chang, K.M., 16 Foster, C., 41
Chen, G., 71 Fragniere, B., 109
Clark, S., 214 Frčej, F., 194
Clarkson, P.M., 27, 51 Furjan-Mandić, G., 15(a), 15 (b),
Coleman, J.M., 161 16, 28, 42, 52(a), 52(b),
Côté, J., 160 52(c), 59, 71
Cox, M.H., 42
Crespo, M., 160

G Kahn, J.F., 214
Gastin, P.B., 41 Kaiser, P., 41(a), 41(b)
Geusens, P., 15 Kapus, V., 81(a), (b)
Gladden, L.B., 41 Karlsson, J., 40, 41(a), 41(b), 41(c),
Glousman, R.E., 28 42
Gollnick, P.D., 40 Karpljuk, D., 15
Gould, D., 160 Kasai, J., 28, 52
Gowan, I.D., 28 Kasović, M., 52
Graham, T.E., 40, 42 Kay, T., 160
Grana, W.A., 28 Khan, K., 15
Green, H.J., 42 Kibler, W.B., 109
Griebel, R., 70 Kiens, B., 40
Groppel, J., 178 Kobayashi, Y., 28
Grosser, M., 70 Kondrič, M., 15(a), 15 (b), 16, 28,
Guzelj, P., 160 42, 52(a), 52(b), 52(c), 59,
71, 95
H Koralsztein, J.P., 40
Hadžić, V., 15, 27 Kovačič, S., 147, 148
Harwood, C., 160 Kowalchuk, J.M., 42
Heigenhauser, G.J.F., 42 Krivickas, L.S., 16
Hiruta, S., 28(a), 28(b), 52 Kuhar, R., 160
Hochenbichler, A., 15
Höhm, J., 125, 140, 141, 178 L
Hoyle, R.H., 160 Lames, M., 194
Hudetz, R., 70 Lang, R.W., 71
Hughes, M.D., 147, 214 Landry, M., 109
Hutchinson, M.R., 109 Lea, A., 229
Hütler, M., 40 Lees, A., 214
Left, S.S., 160, 161
I Leithäuser, R., 40
Inbar, O., 40, 41(a), 41(b), 41(c) Leskošek, B., 80, 81(a), 81(b), 95,
Inmann, V.T., 28 141
Ishigaki, H., 28, 71 Liddle, D., 214
Loehr, J., 160, 161, 178
J Lombardo, J.A., 28
Jacobs, I., 41(a), 41(b), 41(c),
42(a), 42(b) M
Jeschke, D., 178 Macdonald, R., 16
Jobe, F.W., 28(a), 28 (b) MacDougall, J.D., 42
Jones, N.L., 42 Madden, C.C., 16
Jošt, B., 81 Maffulli, N., 16
Juel, C., 40 Maffully, N., 160
Major, Z., 71
K Malina, R.M., 16
Kahn, E.J., 161 Marsh T., 140

Marshall, R. N., 109 Planinšek, T., 194, 214
Maynard, I., 214 Pluim, B.M., 199, 214, 220, 229
McCartney, N., 42 Polic, M., 214
Medved, R., 109 Pollmann, C., 40
Medved, V., 15, 28, 52(a), 52(b), Popovič, J., 109
60, 71(a), 71(b) Priest, J.D., 28
Mellion, M.B., 16 Pustovrh, J., 81
Melville, S., 178 Putukian, M., 16
Mercier, J., 40 Py, G., 40
Mereletti, R., 28
Michikami, S., 147 Q
Miley, D., 160 Quinn, A.M., 178
Mišigoj-Duraković, M., 15 Quinney, H. A., 41, 42
Mizuno, M., 40
Morgan, D.W., 42 R
Moynes, D., 28(a), 28(b) Rajkovič, V., 80, 81(a), 81(b)
Müller, E., 125, 141, 178 Reilly, T., 95
Murakami, H., 16 Renström, P., 16
Rhodes , E.C., 42
N Rothstein, A., 40
Nagel, D.A., 28
Nakagawa, M., 71 S
Navarro, E., 199 Safarik, J., 125, 140
Nigg, B.M., 52 Saferstein, D.B., 161
Norris, T.R., 60 Safran, M.R., 109, 110
Saltin, B., 40
O Sampedro, J., 199
O’Connor, J.S., 42 Sato, Y., 147
O'Donoghue, P.O., 147, 194, Saunders, J.B., 28
214(a), 214(b), 214(c), 220 Savoie, F. H., 109
Ogawa, M., 71 Schönborn, R., 125, 141(a), 141(b),
Ogimura, I., 28, 52, 60 178, 214, 229
Schrager, M., 41
P Schroder, H.J., 194
Parker, A.W., 16 Sclove, S.L., 80
Pečelin, I., 214 Scott, M.J., 16
Perez Tejero, J., 199 Seydel, R., 71
Perl, J., 194 Sharkey, B.J., 28
Perry, J., 28(a), 28 (b), 60 Shepard, R., 42
Perš, J., 147(a), 147(b), 148 Sherry, E., 16
Peterson, L., 16 Shibata, Y., 28, 52
Petrovič, K., 81(a), 81(b) Shida, S., 16
Petz, B., 42 Shida, Y., 16
Pintarič, T., 194, 214 Shimaoka, M., 28, 52
Pizzutillo, P.D., 16 Siegrist, O., 109

Simoneau, J.A., 41 V
Sirvent, P., 40 Verdenik, Z., 81
Skinner, J.S., 41, 42(a), 42(b) Vučković, G., 147, 148
Smith, M.D., 161(a), 161(b) Vuga, V., 110
Snyder, A.C., 41
Spriet, L.L., 42 W
Stare, M., 125, 141 Weber, K., 16, 229
Stone, J.A., 28 Weicker, H., 42
Strel, J.,81 Wenger, H.A., 42
Strobel, G., 42 Williams, A., 95
Strojnik, V., 110 Williams, C., 41
Suda K., 147 Wooton, S.A., 41
Sutton, J.R., 42
Suzuki, S., 16 Y
Swain, A., 160 Yamamoto, F., 71
Yoshimura, Y., 28, 52
Š Youza, N., 16, 28(a), 28(b), 52
Šerjak, M., 125, 141
Šibila, M., 81 Z
Šporn, A., 161 Zabukovec, K., 160
Štuhec, S., 59 Zadražnik, M., 81
Šturm, J., 80, 81(a), 81(b), 81(c), Zimmermann, E., 70
95, 125, 140, 178(a), 178(b) Zingale, S. A., 161
Zlatoper, Z., 194, 214
T
Takeuchi, T., 28 Ž
Taylor, A.W.,41 Žvan, M., 81
Teach, P., 40
Tesch, P., 41(a), 41(b), 41(c)
Thompson, M.W., 27, 51
Tibone, J.E., 28(a), 28 (b),
Tiefenbacher, K., 71(a), 71(b)
Tisak, B., 110
Tremblay, I., 27, 51
Trupković, J., 28, 52
Tsuji, Y., 71
Tuffey, S., 160
Tušak, M., 81(a), 81(b)
U
Udry, E., 160
Umebayashi, K., 147
Unierzyski, P., 141
Uthman, T., 194

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I have been very fortunate in meeting a number of people who

have been incredibly supportive of my professional endeavors over the
past 15 years and some of them have become my very good friends.
Many people have contributed to this book in a variety of ways. The list
is very long but in particular I would like to thank Goga, Yutaka,
Radivoj, Vlado, Dule, Zoran, Michael, Jean-Francois, Tsung Min,
Chandra, Ian, Bernd and Bojan.
Special thanks go also to German Academic Exchange Service
(DAAD) who twice supported me in my visits to the Deutsche
Sporthochschule in Cologne, Ruhr University in Bochum and DTTB
Center. Last but not least there is also International Table Tennis
Federation (ITTF) – especially Sports Science Committee and its
president Adham Sharara - who gave me in last year’s opportunity to
work with worlds famous scientists and for the benefit of table tennis.
Dedicated to my dear friend Žarko Dolinar.
Miran Kondrič
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
There are numerous people whom I would like to thank for

accompanying me on my way of becoming an expert, coach, pedagogue
and researcher. May I mention only the most important ones. Among
them the late professor dr. Jože Šturm was outstanding. He offered me a
lot of support when I was preparing the graduation thesis as well as at
the beginning of my work as a young researcher. Also Dr. Brane
Dežman as my mentor assisted me a lot during my master and doctoral
degree preparation. Finally I wish to thank my family which stand by me
during all the professional challenges.
Aleš Filipčič
Who want to become master,
has to remain a pupil!
Ž. Dolinar
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Scientific approach in table tennis

Book · January 2009

Miran Kondric Ales Filipcic

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Journal of Sports Sciences: Special Issue Table Tennis View project

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Edited by Miran Kondrič, Aleš Filipčič

by the International Table Tennis Federation

by the International Tennis Federation

Typset in University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Sport, Slovenia

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced

ISBN 13: 978-0-920905-99-9

PART 1: TABLE TENNIS

Miran Kondrič, Gordana Furjan-Mandić, Vedran Hadžić, Edvin

Miran Kondrič, Gordana Furjan-Mandić, Vladmir Medved

Miran Kondrič, Gordana Furjan-Mandić, Radoje Milič

Miran Kondrič, Vladimir Medved, Mario Kasović, Gordana

Miran Kondrič, Vladimir Medved, Arnold Baca, Mario Kasović,

Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia ~ III ~

Miran Kondrič, Bojan Leskošek

Aleš Filipčič, Janez Perš, Ajda Klevišar

~ IV ~ Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia

Tjaša Filipčič, Aleš Filipčič

Tjaša Filipčič, Aleš Filipčič, Janez Perš

Tjaša Filipčič, Aleš Filipčič

Tjaša Filipčič, Aleš Filipčič

Aleš Filipčič, Tjaša Filipčič

Subject Index 236

Authors Index 242

Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia ~V~

~ VI ~ Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia

Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia ~ VII ~

~ VIII ~ Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia

Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia ~ IX ~

~ X~ Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia

Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia ~ XI ~

This academic monograph presents the results of researches done

Ljubljana, March 2009

Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia ~ XIII ~

Photo by: Miran Kondrič

Photo by: Aleš Filipčič

Miran Kondrič, Gordana Furjan-Mandić, Vedran Hadžić, Edvin

Comparison of injuries between top Slovenian

Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia ~3~

~4~ Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia

any injuries reported in recreational table tennis (Weber, 1982; Scott,

Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia ~5~

~6~ Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Table 1.1: Basic data of monitored athletes (source: Epidemiologija

TABLE TENNIS TENNIS BADMINTON

Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia ~7~

Table 1.2: Injury location

Racket- Racket sports

~8~ Scientific approach in table tennis and tennis in Slovenia

Figure 1.2: Injury location

0,00% 5,00% 10,00% 15,00% 20,00% 25,00%

Table Tennis Badminton Tennis Racquetsports

Figure 1.3: Injuries of individual parts

Badminton Table tennis Tennis Racquetsports