1150CH103 Key - AKRaj - 6dec2017

Reg.No.
B.TECH. DEGREE EXAMINATION - NOV / DEC 2017

SEMESTER – III / V
ALL BRACNCHES
ANSWER KEY / 1150CH103 – ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Maximum : 60 Marks Duration : 3 Hours
Cognitive (K) levels

K1-Remember, K2 –Understand, K3-Apply, K4-Analyze, K5-Evaluate, K6-Create
PART – A (10 x 1 = 10 Marks)

CO K
no level
1. Categories of environment 1 1
The main categories of environment are biotic and abiotic environments. The
abiotic environment can further be classified into atmosphere (air), lithosphere (soil),
and hydrosphere (water). The biotic environment is called as biosphere.
2. Equitable use of resources 1 2
The Equitable use of resources is a concept that deals with the rational use of
resources so that a harmony between man’s resource requirement and its availability
can be established.
3. Ecosystem defined 2 1
Ecosystem has been defined as a system of interaction of organisms with their

surroundings. Numerous dynamic interactions are occurring within an ecosystem and
these are complex.
4. Functions of biodiversity 2 2
It is the source of species on which the human compete depends for food, fiber,
shelter, fuel and medicine. It depends on the biosphere, which in turn leads to the
stability in climate, water, soil, air, and the overall health of biosphere.
5. Impacts of CO on human health 3 1
At lower doses, they can impair concentration and neurobehavioral function

whereas in higher doses they can cause heart pain and even death. When inhaled it has
the ability to combine with haemoglobin of blood and reduce its ability in transfer of
oxygen to the brain, heart, and other important organs. But carboxy haemoglobin
contents of blood depend on the CO contents of the air inhale, time of exposure and the
activity of the person inhaling. It is particularly dangerous to babies and people with
heart disease.
6. Ill-effects of tsunami 3 2
Tsunami attacks mostly the coastlines, causing devastating property, damage

and loss of life. Tsunami can kill lot of human beings, livestock and animals. Tsunami
may also spread lot of water borne diseases.
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7. Declaration about the sustainable development. 4 1
The Rio declaration states that, “human beings are at the center or concern for
sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony
with the nature. Every generation should leave air, water and soil resources without
any pollution as pure as it came to the Earth.”
8. Need for wasteland reclamation 4 2
Population of the world is increasing at an alarming rate. This increases demand

for food and demand of land for shelter and other resources. The available land area
should be properly utilized for making food for increasing population of the world.
9. Demography defined 5 1
It refers to the science of dealing with the study of size, composition and
territorial distribution of population; it includes study of natality, fertility, mortality,
migration, and social mobility.
10. Opportunistic infection defined 5 2
Infection with HIV can weaken the immune system to the point that it has
difficulty fighting off certain infections. These types of infections are known as
“opportunistic infections” because they take the opportunity to weaken the immune
system which causes illness of the body.
PART – B (5 x 4 = 20 Marks)
CO K
No Level
11. (a) Environmental effects of mining 1 2
Depending on the conditions of terrain and depth of ore deposits, two types of mining
operations are carried out. They are open cast mining and underground mining. In both
types each steps in mining processing produce several environmental effects such as,
 Deforestation takes place due to removal of vegetal covers.
 Great volume of debris has been generated which disrupt the surface and ground
water circulation. It also reduces the water carrying capacity of streams very close to
mining area
 The stacking of over burden and building of spoil banks creates problems of
landslides
 Under ground fire in coal mines is a hazard that is difficult to control
 Mining and ore processing normally causes air pollution and water pollution
 The acid water generated in coalmines can pose a serious problem of water pollution,
which adversely affects the flora and fauna.
 Deeper excavation of ground causes lowering of water table, which leads to drying of
wells or sea water intrusion
 In stone quarries, blasting of rocks not only annoying the people nearby, but also
cause hazard from fly rocks and dusts and damage to buildings due to vibrations
[OR]
11. (b) Petroleum as a energy resources 1 2
Advantages
 Oil is one of the most abundant energy resources
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 Liquid form of oil makes it easy to transport and use
 Oil has high heating value
 Relatively inexpensive
 No new technology needed to use
Disadvantages
 Oil burning leads to carbon emissions
 Finite resources (some disagree)
 Oil recovery processes not efficient enough—technology needs to be developed to
provide better yields
 Oil drilling endangers the environment and ecosystem
 Oil transportation (by ship) can lead to spills, causing environmental and ecological
damage
12. (a) Structure of an ecosystem 2 2
Components that make up the structure of an ecosystem include:

 Inorganic aspects – C, N, CO2, H2O.
 Organic compounds – Protein, Carbohydrates, Lipids – link abiotic to biotic aspects.
 Climatic regimes – Temperature, Moisture, Light & Topography.
 Producers – Plants.
 Macro consumers – Phagotrophs – Large animals.
 Micro consumers – Saprotrophs, absorbers – fungi.
[OR]
12. (b) Four major functions of ecosystem 2 2
(i)Regulating function – Maintenance of essential ecological processes and life support

systems
 Control of green house gases, photochemical smog and volatile organic
compounds.
 Maintaining climate – weather, T, P, moisture and micro-climate.
 Removing any disturbance caused in soil and vegetation by wind, water and
wave.
 Water maintenance, soil retention, nutrient cycling and pollination
 Waste assimilation, barrier effect and biological pest control
(ii)Supporting function
 Providing habitat (suitable living space) for plant and animal at local / regional
levels
 Soil formation by weathering of rocks, followed by transport / accumulation of
inorganic matter.
(iii) Provisioning function
 Provisions for natural resources (forest / water / mining/ food / energy / land)
 Provisions for shade and shelter, genetic information and medical applications
(iv) Cultural function – Providing for fulfillment opportunities / cognitive development

through exposure to life process / natural systems
13. (a) Sources of soil pollution 3 2
Some of the most important sources of land or soil pollution are: Domestic and
Municipal Wastes, Industrial and Mining Wastes, Agricultural Wastes, Radioactive
Materials and Biological Agents.
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(i) Domestic and Municipal Wastes - One of the main causes of land and soil pollution is
the growing quantity of domestic and municipal wastes. Household garbage includes
food scraps, old newspapers, and a variety of plastic items, bottles, discarded papers,
wood, lawn trimmings, glass, canes, old appliances, tyres, worn-out furniture, broken
toys and a host of other items.
(ii) Industrial and Mining Wastes - The disposal of industrial solid wastes is the major
source of soil pollution by toxic chemicals. The industrial wastes are mainly discharged
from coal and mineral mining industries, metal processing industries and engineering
industries. They contain toxic metals such as lead, copper and chemicals having acids
and are responsible for soil pollution.
(iii) Agricultural Wastes - Agricultural practices also pollute the soil. According to an
estimate, agricultural activities produce more than 1.8 billion tonnes of waste, each
year. About three-quarters of this is manure. Much of this manure is piled in dumps
where it pollutes streams and waterways. Yet, at the same time, farmers across the
continent are suffering from worn-out and depleted soils. Other agricultural wastes
include branches and slash left over from logging apart from animal wastes. In addition
to fertilisers and pesticides, soil conditioners and fumigants are used in agriculture.
Organic compounds containing lead, mercury and arsenic, when applied to a land,
accumulate on the soil permanently and introduce these toxic metals into plant
products.
(iv) Radio-active Materials - The radioactive wastes produced by nuclear testing
laboratories and industries reach the soil and accumulate there. Wastes from nuclear
reactors contain ruthenium-106 and rhodium-106, iodine-131, barium-140, lanthanum-
140, cerium-144, etc. All the radio-nuclides deposited on the soil emit gamma radiations,
and are harmful to soil as well as for plant growth.
(v) Biological Agents - The excreta of humans, animals and birds are also a source of soil
pollution by biological agents. Digested sewage sludge, which is used as manure, also
causes soil pollution. In the developing countries, intestinal parasites constitute the
most serious soil pollution problems. Faulty sanitation, waste water and wrong methods
of agriculture also induce soil pollution.
[OR]
13. (b) Bio-magnification of fat-soluble pollutant DDT 3 2
Biomagnification, also known as bioamplification or biological magnification, is the

increasing concentration of a substance, such as a toxic chemical, in the tissues
of organisms at successively higher levels in a food chain. Toxins enter a food chain
through several means: they can be ingested, absorbed through skin or inhaled, and
plants take in toxins directly from soil. In order to bioaccumulate, a substance needs to
be fat-soluble, long-lived, biologically active and mobile -able to be taken up by
organisms. When herbivores eat contaminated plants, the toxins accumulate in their
fatty tissues. If a carnivore eats several toxin-laden herbivores, the toxins become even
more concentrated in its body. This process of biomagnification continues up the food
chain. An example of a chemical substance which is biomagnified is DDT
(dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane)
 DDT is a chemical pesticide that is sprayed on crops and subsequently washed
into waterways at low concentrations
 It is fat soluble and is selectively retained within the tissues of an organism
instead of being excrete
When DDT is sprayed on water to eliminate mosquito larvae, it is taken up by algae and
passed on to primary consumers
 At each subsequent trophic level the concentration of DDT stored in the body
increases due to increased food intake
 Very high levels of DDT were discovered in birds that preyed on fish, and was
found to interfere with eggshell formation,
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Birds exposed to high levels of DDT were found to produce thinner shells, which
decreased survival rates of fledglings
DDT was widely employed as a chemical pesticide in the 1940s and 1950s to control
insect-borne diseases like malaria
 Its use as an agricultural insecticide led to the complete eradication of malaria in
many high socioeconomic world regions
 It was less effective in low socioeconomic tropical regions where eradication
programs could not be sustained
Eradication programs were curtailed by the World Health Organisation in 1969 over
safety and environmental concerns
 DDT can bioaccumulate to toxic levels and poses a significant threat to higher
trophic levels (due to biomagnification)
 Current interventions for malaria now focus on non-spraying strategies (such as
the use of bednets soaked in insecticides)
14. (a) Strategies for conservation of water 4 2
Water conservation includes all the policies, strategies and activities to sustainably
manage the natural resource of fresh water, to protect the hydrosphere, and to meet the
current and future human demand. Population, household size, and growth and
affluence all affect how much water is used.
(i) Reducing evaporation loss – Evaporation of water in humid region can be reduced by
placing horizontal barriers of asphalt below the soil surface, which increases the water
availability and crop yield.
(ii) Reducing irrigation losses – The water losses during irrigation can be reduced by the
following methods
 Sprinkling irrigation and drip irrigation conserves water by 30-40%
 Growing hybrid crop varieties, which require less water, also conserve water
 Irrigation in early morning or later evening, reduces evaporation losses
(iii) Re-use of water
 Treated waste water can also be used for ferti-irrigation
 Grey water, from washings, bath-rooms, etc may be used for washing cars,
watering gardens.
(iv) Preventing wastage of water
 Closing tap when not in use
 Repairing any leakage from pipes
 Using small capacity taps
(v) Preventing run-off looses – Run off on most of the soils can be reduced by allowing
most of the water to infiltrate into the soil. This can be done by using contour cultivation
or terrace farming.
(vi) Avoid discharge of sewage into natural water resource should be prevented as much
as possible.
[OR]
14. (b) Nuclear accidents and holocausts 4 2
Effects of nuclear radiation

 Radiation affects DNA in cells.
 Exposure to low dose of radiation (100to 250 rds ) people suffer from fatigue,
vomiting, and loss of hair.
 Exposure to high radiation (400- 500 rds ) affect bone marrow ,blood cells ,
natural resistance fail of blood clot.
 Exposure to very high dose of radiation (10000rds ) kills organisms by damaging
the tissues of heart and brain.
Nuclear accident - Nuclear power plants located in seimic vulnerable area may cause
nuclear accidents which releases radiation.
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The major accident at a nuclear power plant is a core melt down – is the first problem.
Accidents during transport - trucks carrying radioactive wastes (or) fuels in accidents, is
second problem. Improper disposal of radioactive wastes is third problem. It includes
drums with radioactive wastes, stored underground rust and leak radioactive wastes
into water, land and air.
For an example, reactor explosion at Chernobyl (USSR). When the operators lost the
control of water cooled graphite moderated reactor during low power tests. At Chernobyl
in Ukraine the nuclear reactor exploded. Case study on Chernobyl Nuclear disaster
revealed the following. On April 28th 1986 the world worst nuclear power accident
occurred at Chernobyl in Ukraine. This disaster was caused mainly due to poor reactor
design and human error. The bad impact / Chernobyl accident killed more than 80000
people and 35 million people have suffered ill because of The accident. Nearly
135000people have to be evacuated at around Chernobyl.
Nuclear holocaust - Destruction of Biodiversity by nuclear equipments and nuclear

bombs is called nuclear holocaust.
For example, nuclear bombing of Japan by US Air Force. Hiroshima and Nagasaki are
examples of holocaust during World War II. In 1945, two nuclear bombs were dropped in
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. About 100000 people were Killed and the cities were
badly destroyed. This explosion emitted forceful neutrons and gamma radiation.
Radioactive Strontium liberated in the explosion replaced calcium in the bones. Large
scale bone deformities occurred in the people of these cities.
15. (a) Value education 5 2
Value education in the context of our environment is expected to bring about a new
sustainable way of life. Education, both through formal and non-formal processes, must
thus address understanding environmental, natural and cultural values, social justice,
human heritage, equitable use of resources, managing common property resources and
the causes of ecological degradation.
Essentially, environmental values cannot be taught. They are inculcated through a

complex process of appreciating our environmental assets and experiencing the
problems caused due to our destruction of our environment. The problems that are
created by technology and economic growth are a result of our improper thinking on
what 'development' means. Since we still put a high value only on economic growth, we
have no concern for aspects such as sustainability or equitable use of resources. This
mindset must change before concepts like sustainable development can be acted upon.
Unsustainable development is a part of economic growth of the powerful while it makes

the poor poorer, and consumerism is one aspect of this process. As the consumption of
resources has till recently been an index of development, consumerism has thrived. It is
only recently that the world has come to realize that there are other more important
environmental values that are essential to bring about a better way of life.
[OR]
15. (b) Impacts of population growth on environment 5 2
 Increased hunger/starvation while food production levels off or even declines (i.e.,
less food/person)
 Increasing desertification - Desertification is the conversion of productive rangeland
or cropland into desert-like land. It is usually caused by a combination of
overgrazing, soil erosion, prolonged drought and climate change.
 Increased number of refugees.
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 Increased urbanization - Cities may offer opportunities for the people of developing
countries. However, the danger lies in the structural inadequacies typical of many
cities in these countries. The most obvious of these inadequacies are those of public
sanitation. Insufficient or non-existent sewage systems in exist in many parts of
these cities. Water supplies can thereby become polluted, leading to the high
incidences of disease.
PART – C (5 x 6 = 30 Marks)
CO K
no level
16. (a) Impact of dams on people 1 2
Dams are built worldwide to store water for irrigation, flood control, and to generate
electricity. However, there are some negative environmental effects of building large
hydroelectric dams.
Benefits
 Once a dam is constructed, electricity can be produced at a constant rate.
 If electricity is not needed, the sluice gates can be shut, stopping electricity
generation. The water can be saved for use another time when electricity demand
is high.
 Dams are designed to last many decades and so can contribute to the generation
of electricity for many years / decades.
 The lake that forms behind the dam can be used for water sports and leisure
/pleasure activities. Often large dams become tourist attractions in their own
right.
 The lake's water can be used for irrigation purposes.
 The buildup of water in the lake means that energy can be stored until needed,
when the water is released to produce electricity
 When in use, electricity produced by dam systems do not produce green house
gases. They do not pollute the atmosphere.
Negative impacts
 Dams are extremely expensive to build and must be built to a very high
standard.
 The high cost of dam construction means that they must operate for many
decades to become profitable.
 The flooding of large areas of land means that the natural environment is
destroyed.
 People living in villages and towns that are in the valley to be flooded, must move
out. This means that they lose their farms and businesses. In some countries,
people are forcibly removed so that hydro-power schemes can go ahead.
 The building of large dams can cause serious geological damage. For example,
the building of the Hoover Dam in the USA triggered a number of earth quakes
and has depressed the earth’s surface at its location.
 Although modern planning and design of dams is good, in the past old dams have
been known to be breached (the dam gives under the weight of water in the lake).
This has led to deaths and flooding.
 Dams built blocking the progress of a river in one country usually means that the
water supply from the same river in the following country is out of their control.
This can lead to serious problems between neighbouring countries.
 Building a large dam alters the natural water table level. For example, the
building of the Aswan Dam in Egypt has altered the level of the water table. This
is slowly leading to damage of many of its ancient monuments as salts and
destructive minerals are deposited in the stone work from rising damp caused by
the changing water table level.
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[OR]
16. (b) Renewable energy resources 1 2
Solar Energy
 Life would not exist without the sun’s energy
 It can be used to heat buildings and to produce electricity.
 There are two types of Solar energy:
o Passive Solar heat: When the sun is shining the energy is given off, when
it is not, there is no energy. In this form there is no collection / storage of
energy.
o Active Solar heat: This is a system where a device called a solar collector
is installed. It absorbs the sun’s energy and traps the heat. It also used
water to transfer the heat.
o Solar cells: Science has recently advanced our solar energy systems with
the invention of solar cells. These are like batteries that collect the energy
for future use. Many car manufacturers are experimenting with solar-
powered cars that use these photovoltaic cells (solar batteries). Up until
recently they were too expensive and produced too little power.
o Solar Power Towers: These are power plants that use mirrors to reflect
the sun’s energy into a boiler. The boiler converts water to steam, which
turns a turbine and produces electricity.
Wind Energy
 Wind energy is an indirect form of solar energy (caused by the uneven heating of
the atmosphere)
 Windmills have been used since the 1800’s to power water pumps. Now they are
used to produce electricity.
 Wind generators are not always reliable; they need a constant source of wind so
they are only used in certain areas.
Water Energy
 Also a form of indirect solar energy.
 Used to produce electricity.
 Hydroelectric power: The use of running or falling water to produce electricity.
 Dams hold back millions of tons of water. It flows through turbines to product
electricity.
 It is also a limited energy source because there are only a few locations where
dams can be built.
Alternative Energy Sources
 We are running out of current energy sources and pollution problems exist with
many of the current sources.
 Geothermal: Geo: means earth & Thermal: means heat Geothermal means the
heat energy from the earth.
o Magma within the earth heat up in certain spots near the surface. Water
comes in contact with these spots, it heats and bursts out as steam. We
call this release of steam a geyser. A famous geyser is “Old Faithful” in
Yellowstone National Park. We can use this steam energy to produce
electricity.
o This is a limited source of energy because there are only a few places on
earth where hot spots exist.
 Tidal Energy
o This can be used where the difference between high and low tides are
great.
o Used to produce electricity.
o Can only be used in a very limited area where tidal plants can be built.
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 Biomass
o Materials that come from living things.
o They can be burned directly to produce energy or turned into other fuels.
o Wood, plants, animal wastes are used to produce heating energy
o Burning Garbage is another example (American Refuel)
o Gasahol – this is when biomass from corn, wheat or barley is turned into
fuel
o Limited in the amount of energy produced and pollution problems.
 Hydrogen Power
o Hydrogen is available everywhere from the water (H2O) on earth.
o It can be burned instead of fossil fuels.
o Problem is the amount of energy used to separate out the hydrogen from
the oxygen in the water is more than the energy that it produces!
17. (a) Nitrogen cycle and phosphorous cycle 2 2
Nitrogen cycle
 Proteins, nucleic acids, and other organic chemicals contain nitrogen, so nitrogen is a
very important atom in biological organisms.
 Nitrogen makes up 79% of Earth’s atmosphere, but most organisms cannot use
nitrogen gas (N2). N2 enters the trophic system through a process called nitrogen
fixation.
 Bacteria found on the roots of some plants can fix N2 to organic molecules, making
proteins. Again, animals get their nitrogen by eating plants. But after this point, the
nitrogen cycle gets far more complicated than the carbon cycle.
 Fish releases NH3, but NH3 when concentrated, is poisonous to living living
organisms. So organisms must dilute NH3 with lot of water. Living in water, fish
have no problem with these requirements, but terrestrial animals have problems.
They convert NH3 into urine, or another chemical that is not as poisonous as NH3.
The process of release of NH3 is called ammonification.
 Because NH3 is poisonous, most of the NH3 which is released is untouchable. But soil
bacteria have the ability to assimilate NH3 into proteins. These bacteria effectively
eat the NH3, and make proteins from it. This process is called assimilation.
 Some soil bacteria does not convert NH3 into proteins, but they make nitrate NO3
This process is called nitrification proteins. Some plants can use NO3-, consuming
nitrate and making protein This last process is called denitrification, because it
breaks nitrate apart. However, takes NO3-, and converts it into N2, returning
nitrogen. The gas back into the atmosphere.
 Animals releases nitrogen in their urine.
N2 + 2(O) → electric changes → 2NO
2NO+ 2(O) → 2NO2
2NO2 + (O) → N2O5
N2O5 + H2O → 2HNO3
2HNO3 + CaCO3 → Ca(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O
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Nitrogen assimilation means that the inorganic nitrates, nitrites or ammonia must be
incorporated into organic compounds. Ammonification means that the dead organic
remains of plants and animals and excreta are acted upon by bacteria, actinomycetes
releasing nitrogen as ammonia. Enitrification means conversion of ammonia into nitrate
by nitrosomonas, nitro coccus, in oceans and soils. Conversion of nitrite into nitrate by
nitrobacter is also nitrification. Denitrofication in conversion of nitrite and nitrate into
nitrogen by Thiobacillus denitrifications, micro coccus, denitrificans, pseudomonas
aerusinosa, etc.
Phosphorous cycle
 It is the simplest of the cycles that we will examine. Phosphorous has only one form,
phosphate, which is a phosphorous atom with 4 oxygen atoms.
 This heavy molecule (phosphates) never makes its way into the atmosphere; it is
always part of an organism, dissolved in water, or in the form of rock.
 When rock with phosphate is exposed to water (especially water with a little acid in
it), the rock is weathered out and goes into solution.
 Autotrophs take this phosphorous up and use it in a variety of ways.
 It is an important constituent of cell membranes, DNA, RNA, and, of course ATP,
which, after all, stands for adenosine triphosphate.
 Heterotrophs (animals) obtain their phosphorous from the plants they eat, although
one type of heterotroph, the fungi, excel at taking up phosphorous and may form
mutualistic symbiotic relationships with plant roots.
 The plant gets phosphate from the fungus and gives the fungus sugars in return.
 Animals, by the way, may also use phosphorous as a component of bones, teeth and
shells. When animals or plants die (or when animals defecate), the phosphate may
be returned to the soil or water by the decomposers. There, it can be taken up by
another plant and used again.
 This cycle will occur over and over until at last the phosphorous is lost at the bottom
of the deepest parts of the ocean, where it becomes part of the sedimentary rocks
forming there. Ultimately, this phosphorous will be released, if the rock is brought to
the surface and weathered.
 Two types of animals play a unique role in the phosphorous cycle. Humans often
mine rock rich in phosphorous.
 For instance, in Florida, which was once sea floor, there are extensive phosphate
mines. The phosphate is then used as fertilizer.
 This mining of phosphate and use of the phosphate as fertilizer greatly accelerates
the phosphorous cycle and may cause local overabundance of phosphorous,
particularly in coastal regions, at the mouths of rivers, and anyplace where there is a
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lot of sewage released into the water (the phosphate placed on crops finds its way
into our stomachs and from there to our toilets).
 Local abundance of phosphate can cause overgrowth of algae in the water; the algae
can use up all the oxygen in the water and kill other aquatic life. This is called
eutrophication.
 The other animals that play a unique role in the phosphorous cycle are marine birds.
These birds take phosphorous containing fish out of the ocean and return to land,
where they defecate.
 Their guano contains high levels of phosphorous and in this way marine birds
return phosphorous from the ocean to the land. The guano is often mined and may
form the basis of the economy in some areas.
[OR]
17. (b) Hot spots of biodiversity, threats and 2 2

conservation
Hot spots (areas marked black)
 These are the main areas of focus for biodiversity conservation. These are the
areas that are extremely rich in biodiversity, have high level of endemism, and
are under constant threat of species extinctions and habitat destruction.
 Myers et al (2000) recognized 25 hot spots ay global level. Out of 25, two are
present in India, namely the Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats.
 Nearly 70% of the bird species in this hotspot are endemic. These are the areas of
high diversity, endemism and are also threatened by human activities.
 About 40% of terrestrial plants and 25% of vertebrate species are endemic and
found in these hotspots.
 These identified hotspots of biodiversity are: Caribbean, California Floristic
Province and Mesoamerica in North and Central America ; Tropical Andes,
Choco-Darien-Western Ecuador, Atlantic Forest, Brazilian Cerrado and Central
Chilein South America ; Caucasus and Mediterranean Basin in Europe and
Central Asia; Madagascar and Indian Ocean Islands, Eastern Arc Mountains and
Coastal Forests, Guinean Forests of West Africa, Cape Floristic Region and
Succulent Karoo in Africa; Mountains of Southwest China, Indo-Burma and
Western Ghats of India in Mainland Asia; and Philippines, Sundaland, Wallacea,
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Southwest Australia, New zealand, New Calenonia and Polynesia and
Micronesia in Asia Pacific region.
 It has been estimated that 50,000 endemic plants which comprise 20% of global
plant life, probably occur in only 18 hot spots in the world.
 Countries which have a relatively large proportion of these biodiversity hotspots
are referred to as ‘mega-diversity nations’
Threats
 Population Risk: uneven change in population rates (i.e. birth rates and death rates)
can cause a species in low abundance to become extinct. For example - blue whales.
As they swim over the vast areas of ocean, and if in one year most whales were
unsuccessful in finding a mate then births could be dangerously low.
 Environmental Risk: Environmental risk means variation in the physical or
biological environment, including variations in predator, prey, symbiotic or
competitor species. In case of species that are sufficiently rare and isolated, such
normal environmental variations can lead to their extinction.
 Natural calamities: A natural catastrophe is a sudden change in the environment. It
includes fires, storms, floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions etc. Such a natural
catastrophe may cause the extinction of most forms of life there.
 Genetic Risk: Change in genetic characteristics in a small population of a species,
due to reduced genetic variation, genetic drift or mutation, genetic assimilation
[cross-breeding] makes the species more vulnerable to extinction
 Human Actions: human activities like hunting ; development of agriculture, rise of
civilization, rapid deforestation and introduction of industrial chemicals and
emissions, pesticides and pollution are also leads to extinction of species.
 Habitat Loss and Degradation: Habitat loss and degradation are the major
proximate causes of species extinction, affecting 89% of all threatened birds, 83% of
mammals and 91% of all threatened plants assessed globally. The main causes of
habitat loss are agricultural activities, harvesting or extraction (including mining,
fishing, logging, etc.) and development of human settlements, industry and
associated infrastructure.
 Habitat Fragmentation: Habitat fragmention may take place due to the development
of roads, towers, canals, fields, industries, etc. in an original large habitat. Habitat
fragmentation divides populations into isolated groups. These isolated, small,
scattered populations are increasingly vulnerable to inbreeding depression, high
infant mortality and susceptible to environmental hardships, and consequently, in
the end, possible extinction.
 Diseases: Pathogens, or disease organisms, may cause extinction. Animals (in
sanctuaries and reserves) are more prone to infection when they are under stress.
 Poaching: Poaching is another threat to living species. Wildlife is sold for live
specimens, folk medicines, furs, hides, skin (or leather) and other products such as
ivory, antlers and horns.
Conservation
It is defined as ’the management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield the
greatest sustainable benefit to present generation while maintaining its potential to
meet the needs and aspirations of future generations’. Conservation of our natural
resources has the following three specific objectives: (i) to maintain essential ecological
processes and life-supporting systems ; (ii) to preserve the diversity of species or the
range of genetic material found in the organisms on the planet; and (iii) to ensure
sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems which support millions of rural
communities as well as the major industries all over the world. The wildlife conservation
efforts are mostly centred on protecting plant and animal life in protected habitats, such
as botanical gardens, zoos, sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves, etc. There
are two approaches of biodiversity conservation:
(a) In situ conservation (within habitat): This is achieved by protection of wild flora and
fauna in nature itself, e.g. Biosphere Reserves, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Reserve
Forests etc.
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(b) Ex situ conservation (outside habitats) This is done by establishment of gene banks,
seed banks, zoos, botanical gardens, culture collections etc.
Ex-situ Conservation: Ex-situ conservation means conservation of species (sample of
genetic diversity), particularly of endangered species, away from their natural habitat
under human supervision. The strategy of conservation of biodiversity is termed as ’ex-
situ or off-site preservation’. In ex-situ conservation, the endangered species of animals
are collected and bred under controlled conditions in zoos, game farms, aquaria, etc.,
while plant species are maintained in botanical gardens, arboreta and seed banks.
18. (a) Causes, effects and control of marine 3 2

pollution
Causes
 Municipal waste & sewage from residences and hotels in coastal towns are
directly discharged into sea
 Pesticides and fertilizers from agriculture which are washed off by rain enter
water courses & finally to sea. India is estimated to use 55,000 tons of pesticides
annually and about 25 percent of it is carried to ocean.
 Petroleum & oil washed of from roads normally enter sewage system & finally
into seas
 Ship accidents & accidental spillage at sea can therefore be very damaging to the
marine environment.
 Off shore oil exploration also pollute the sea water to a large extent.
 Dry docking: All ships periodic dry docking servicing; cleaning the hulls etc
during this period when cargo compartments are emptied, residual oil goes into
sea.
 Pollution due to organic wastes: When O2 concentration falls 1.5 mg/l, the rate of
aerobic oxidants reduced and replaced by the anaerobic bacteria that can oxidize
the organic molecules without the use of oxygen.
 Pollution due to oil: Crude oil is transported by sea after a tanker has unloaded
its cargo of oil; it has to take on sea water ballast for return journey. This ballast
water is stored in cargo compartments that previously contained oil. During
unloading of cargo certain amount of oil remains clinging to the walls of
container & this may amount to 800t in a 200,000t tankers. The ballast water
thus contaminated with oil.
 When fresh crag of oil is to be loaded these compartments are clean with water
which discharges the dirty ballast along with oil into sea.
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 Tanker accidents: In the natural process, a large no of oil tanker accidents
happen every year. Sometimes this can results in major disasters.
 Volcanic eruptions in the sea.
 Deep sea mining is a relatively new mineral retrieval process that takes place on
the ocean floor. Ocean mining sites are usually done at about 1,400 - 3,700
meters below the ocean’s surface. The vents create sulfide deposits, which contain
precious metals such as silver, gold, copper, manganese, cobalt, and zinc. These
raises questions about environment damage to surrounding areas. Removal of
parts of the sea floor will result in disturbances to the benthic layer, and habitat
of benthic organisms. Beside from direct impact of mining the area, leakage,
spills and corrosion would alter the mining area’s chemical makeup.
Effects
 Apart from causing Eutrophication, a large amount of organic wastes can also
result in the development of ‘red tides’. These are phytoplankton blooms because
of which the whole area is discolored.
 Commercially important marine species are also killed due to clogging of gills
and other structures.
 When oil is spilled on the sea, it spreads over the surface of the water to form a
thin film called as oil slick. This damages marine life to a large extent.
Commercial damage to fish by tainting which gives unpleasant flavor to fish and
sea food reduces market values of sea food and causes death of birds through its
effect on feathers. Birds often clean their plumage by pruning and in the process
consume oil which can lead to intestinal, renal and liver failure.
 For salt marshy plants oil slick can affect the flowering, fruiting and
germination.
 Organic waste addition results in end products such as hydrogen sulphide,
ammonia and methane which are toxic to many organisms. This process results
in the formation of an anoxic zone which is low in its oxygen content; from which
most life disappears except for anaerobic microorganisms and renders the water
foul smelling.
 The coral reefs are the productive ecosystems offer many benefits to people.
These coral reefs are threatened by (i) the sediments from deforestation carried
by the runoffs, (ii) the agricultural and industrial chemicals reaching through
river discharges. To mention an example, River Ganga is estimated to carry 1.5
billion tons of sediments due to deforestation and intensive farming in India,
Bangladesh and Nepal through which it flows to Bay of Bengal.
 Drill cuttings dumped on the seabed result in the production of toxic sulphides in
the bottom sediment thus eliminating the benthic fauna.
Control
 Introduction of sewage treatment plants to reduce BOD of final product before
discharging into sea.
 Cleaning oil from surface waters and contaminated beaches can be accelerated
through the use of chemical dispersants which can be sprayed on the oil.
 Load on top system reduce oil pollution cleaned with high pressures jets of water.
 Crude oil washing: The clingage is removed by jets of crude oil while the cargo is
being unloaded.
[OR]
18. (b) Methods of waste management in the 3 2

order of preference.
Municipal solid waste (MSW), commonly known as trash or garbage (US), refuse or
rubbish (UK) is a waste type consisting of everyday items that are discarded by the
public.
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Functional elements of solid waste
The municipal solid waste industry has four components: recycling, composting, land
filling, and waste-to-energy via incineration. The primary steps are generation,
collection, sorting and separation, transfer, and disposal. Activities in which materials
are identified as no longer being of value and are either thrown out or gathered together
for disposal.
The three primary strategies for effectively managing materials and waste are reduce,
reuse, and recycle. Reduce waste by considering product packaging and making smart
purchasing decisions.
Purchase products manufactured with recycled content (learn more at Buy Recycled).
Reuse containers and products. Recycle anything from plastics to electronics.
MSW can be broadly categorized into five broad categories as-
(i)Biodegradable waste: food and kitchen waste, green waste (vegetables, flowers, leaves,
fruits), paper (can also be recycled).
(ii) Recyclable material : paper, glass, bottles, cans, metals, certain plastics, etc.
(iii) Inert waste: construction and demolition waste, dirt, rocks, debris.
(iv) Composite wastes: waste clothing, Tetra Packs, waste plastics such as toys.
(v) Domestic hazardous waste (also called "household hazardous waste") & toxic waste:
medication, e-waste, paints, chemicals, light bulbs, fluorescent tubes, spray cans,
fertilizer and pesticide containers, batteries, shoe polish.
Collection System
This section should contain descriptions and analyses of the various significant
pathways along which MSW is transported from its point of generation to its end use or
ultimate disposal, and the collection methods for each, according but not limited to the
following:
(a) type and number of pathways available, including nodes such as transfer stations
and marshalling yards;
(b) estimates of the amount and type of municipal solid waste flowing along each
pathway;
(c) the persons responsible for funding, operating and maintaining the collection systems
for each pathway;
(d) the geographic area and population served by communal systems;
(e) the potential for and constraints to expansion of communal systems;
(f) problems with and impacts of various collection methods and pathways; and
(g) the total collection system costs, in aggregate and for each pathway.
Post-collection System - Operations

(i) This section should contain information about the various methods of processing and
disposing of MSW after collection, including the following:
(a) recycling, including individual and communal composting, and markets for
recyclables;
(b) recovery;
(c) thermal reduction, including incinerators; and
(d) land filling
(ii) In addition to identifying existing landfill sites, the study should identify the location
and environmental status of all closed landfill sites, including historical sites, private
landfills, illegal dumps and landfills on federally administered lands which are on sites
adjacent to provincially administered lands.
(iii) Each method identified in (i) should be described and analyzed in terms of, but not
limited to the following elements, as applicable:
(a) site / facility locations, classification and number of people served;
(b) operational status and requirements;
(c) types and quantities of MSW accepted and banned;
(d) ownership and persons responsible for each aspect of the operation;
(e) land, equipment and labour involved;
(f) operational problems;
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(g) markets and quantities of recyclables shipped;
(h) disposal of residue;
(i) public involvement / support;
Post-collection System — Administrative and Financial Structure

(i) In terms of the administrative structure, this section should describe any existing or
proposed solid waste management bylaws and regulations. Specified area bylaws should
be described in terms of population served, location and functions. A listing and brief
description of all existing waste management permits should also be included.
(ii) In terms of financial structure, this section should include total solid waste
management system costs, including projected facilities. The funding of each system
element should be described, including revenues and cost recovery mechanisms such as
general taxation, specified areas, local service areas, user-pay strategies and
government grants or loans. Finally, the economic viability of facilities or operations and
future financial requirements should be assessed.
19. (a) Green house gases and global warming 4 2
Green house gases

S.No Gas Contribution
1 Carbon dioxide 64%
2 Methane 19%
3 Chlorofluorocarbons 11%
4 Nitrous oxide 6%
5 Sulfur hexafluoride 0.4%
Green house effect
 Green house gases stay in the air for a long time and warm up the planet by
trapping sunlight. This is called the greenhouse effect because the gases act like
the glass in a greenhouse.
 The greenhouse effect can lead to changes in the climate of the planet. Some of
these changes might include more temperature extremes, higher sea levels,
changes in forest composition, and damage to land near the coast.
 Human health might be affected by diseases that are related to temperature or
by damage to land and water. The greenhouse effect causes trouble by raising the
temperature of the planet. The actual rise is not very much, but the Earth’s
ecosystem is very fragile, and small changes can have large effects.
Global warming
Over the past fifty years, production of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane has
risen sharply, and a new type of chemical - the chlorofluorocarbon, or CFC - has been
introduced as a refrigerant, solvent and aerosol propellant, but it is also a very powerful
greenhouse gas, because it can trap a lot of radiation - one molecule of CFC is 12,000 to
16,000 times as effective at absorbing IR radiation as a molecule of carbon dioxide. The
carbon dioxide comes mainly from burning fossil fuels in power stations, which also
causes acid rain. It is also created by living animals breathing, and is naturally
converted by plants back to oxygen. However, deforestation is reducing the planet’s
carbon dioxide absorbing capability.
Nitrous oxide is a by-product of nylon production, and is also released by fertilizer use in
agriculture. The extra methane is produced in coal mining, natural gas production and
distribution (natural gas is methane), and waste disposal. One fifth of all methane
generated by human activity comes from microbial decay of organic material in flooded
rice fields.
The Earth is kept warm by it’s atmosphere, which acts rather like a woolly coat -
without it, the average surface temperature would be about -18 degrees Centigrade.
Heat from the sun passes through the atmosphere, warming it up, and most of it warms
the surface of the planet.
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As the Earth warms up, it emits heat in the form of infra-red radiation - much like a hot
pan emits heat even after it’s taken away from the cooker. Some of this heat is trapped
by the atmosphere, but the rest escapes into space. The so called "greenhouse gases"
make the atmosphere trap more of this radiation, so it gradually warms up more than it
should, like a greenhouse (although a greenhouse actually does this by stopping warm
air rising and escaping from it).
[OR]
19. (b) Salient features of Air Act 1981 and EPA 4 2

1986
Air Act 1981

As per Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981; Air Pollution means the
presence in the atmosphere of any air pollutant. Air pollution means any solid, liquid or
gaseous substances (including noise) present in the atmosphere in such concentration as
may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plants or
property or environment. The objective of the Act is to provide for the prevention,
control and abatement of air pollution for the establishment with a view to carrying out
the aforesaid purpose of boards for conferring on and assigning to such boards powers
and functions relating there and for matters connected therewith.
Functions of Central Board - The main function of the central board as specified in
Section 16 of the act shall be to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or
abate air pollution in the country.
 Advice to central government on any matter related to air quality
 To execute nation-wide awareness programmes
 Co-ordinate with state boards and resolve disputes among them
 To provide technical assistance and guidance to state boards
 Sponsor research and investigation regarding problem of air pollution
 Collect technical and statistical data to prepare manuals, code, and guide related
to air.
 To lay down standards for the quality of air.
 No court shall take cognizance of any offence except on a complaint made by any
person who has given notice of not less than 60 days, in the manner prescribed of
the alleged offence and his intention to make a complaint to the board.
EPA 1986
As per Environment Protection Act, 1986; the Terms like Environment, environmental
pollutants, environmental pollution and hazardous substance defined.
(a) Environment includes water, air and land and the interrelationship which exists
among and between them and human beings, other living creature, plants, micro-
organisms and property.
(b) Environmental Pollutant means any solid, liquid or gaseous substances present in
such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to environment.
(c) Environment Pollution means the presence in the environment of any environmental
pollutants.
(d) Hazardous Substance means any substance or preparation which by reason of its
chemical or physico-chemical properties or handling is liable to cause harm to human
beings, other living creatures, plants, micro-organisms, property of the environment.
General Powers of the Central Government under EPA - Subject to the provisions of the
act, the central government shall have power to take all such measures as it seems
necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the
environmental pollution. In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the
provisions of sub-section (1) such measures may include measures with respect to all or
any of the following matters.
 Co-ordination of actions by the state government officers.
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 Planning and execution of nation wide programme on Environmental Pollution.

 Laying down standards for emissions or discharge of environmental pollutants
from various sources whatsoever.
 Laying down procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which
may cause environmental pollution.
 Laying down procedures to safeguard hazardous substances.
 Examination of such manufacturing process, materials and substances as are
likely to cause environmental pollution.
 Carrying out and sponsoring investigation and research.
 Inspection of the premises, plants, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or
other processes, material or substances.
 Establishment or recognition of environmental laboratories and institutions to
carryout function entrusted to them.
 Preparation of manuals, codes, guides, etc.
Section 4 - Appointment of officers and their powers and functions
Section 5 - Power to give directions
Section 6 - Rules to regulate environmental pollution
Under EPA pollution of land and soil is also covered. Penalties for violation under EPA
are also listed. Companies and government may also be prosecuted under EPA.
20. (a) IT on environment 5 2
 Information Technology has tremendous potential in dealing with environmental

issues and health related problems
 IT can perform a number of tasks extremely rapidly, accurately and spread the
information through millions of computers assisted by communication satellites.
 IT comprises of various components mainly internet facility, World Wide Web,
Remote sensing, geographical information system and satellites.
 A number of software has been developed to study the environment and health
related problems.
 The data on various environmental topics such as wildlife, forest cover,
deforestation, desertification, floods, earthquakes, etc. inserted into the
computers can be retrieved whenever required.
 The various changes in the environment can be assessed easily through satellites
by remote sensing techniques.
 The occurrence of natural calamities like drought, floods, volcanic eruptions,
earthquakes, etc., can be predicted well in advance through remote sensing
techniques.
 Geographical information system (GIS), which acts as a technique of
superimposing various thematic maps with the use of digital data on a large
number of inter-related aspects, is considered to be an effective tool in
environmental management.
 Information relating to a number of topics like water resources, industrial
growth, forest cover, cropland, grass land, road network, and human settlement
can be obtained through GIS.
 The internet coupled with a number of websites is another efficient tool for
providing appropriate environmental data on various topics for any study or
environmental management planning.
 The internet facility can also be extended to create awareness among the general
public about environmental issues.
Information technology plays also a key role in human health management

 Several software’s have been developed to insert into computers the information
relating to various diseases such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, malaria, encephalitis,
fluorosis, etc.
Page 18 of 19 1150CH103
 The data regarding birth and death rate, immunization and sanitation
programmes can be maintained accurately with the help of computers.
 The data regarding outbreak of epidemic diseases at remote places can be used
to take preventive and remedial measures.
 Now-a-days, patients can seek the advice of a specialist doctor at far off distance
availing themselves of the on-line facility.
[OR]
20. (b) Issues and measures for women and child 5 2

welfare
Women welfare
 Women and children are usually the main targets, who suffer in a number of ways
mainly because they are weaker, helpless and economically dependent. They are also
malnourished because they are forced to eat their husbands left overs.
 Dowry- is source of many of the problems, including domestic violence. Every
93minutes a woman is burnt to death due to dowry problem. Female trafficking,
which is sexual abuse, is a big part of the violence problem in their society today.
 She is just 15 yrs, her son is 18 months old. 60 % of the Girls are married before the
age of 16. Nearly 60% of the married girls bear children before they are 18 125,000
women die from pregnancy and related causes every year.
 Overworked – Many are overworked. They often work double the hours and get paid
less. WHO estimates that 1.6 billion early deaths occur annually from cooking stove
pollution.
 Divorce- very common in India because it is looked down on in society comparable to
the U.S. many years ago. It is a signature of failure, but especially for the women.
 Indian Policy Reform to consider stringent norm, women education & legal
awareness.
 WW Objects – women education, vocational training, environmental awareness,
women employment, population awareness, & restoring dignity, status, equality and
respect for women.
 WW Commision– Examining constitutional / legal rights for women, revising
existing legislation, and examining enforcement / administrative machinery for
women causes.
 WW Schemes – national network for women welfare, and gender audit in mining
 UNO has special schemes for women welfare. UN International Convention is on
Elimination of all problems against women. NGOs mahila mandals – create
awareness among people on empowering women, train them and advance them to
make them economically self-reliant. Ministry of Women & Child Development
involves in educating and helping them.
Children welfare
 Approximately 40% of the population (≈440 million) is children. >1/3rd of population
is < 18 years. India has highest No of children in the world.
 Around 20 million Indian children are working as child labors. 1 million out of 21
million Indian babies born every year in India are abandoned. They undergo many
problems due to pollution in the environment. They are attacked by Pneumonia,
Diarrhea, Measles, Malaria, etc. They are exploited by substance abuse, abused,
tortured and exploited sexually. Foetus is not safe. Water born diseases are affecting
6 million children yearly.
 It includes supplementary nutrition, girl child protection scheme, check on child
traffic, and children homes. The law defines right of the child to survival, protection,
development and participation. MHRD formulated for children welfare in the
priority areas of health, education, nutrition, clean and safe drinking water,
sanitation and environment. Provides useful and relevant elementary education for
all children in 6 to 14 age group.
Page 19 of 19 1150CH103
Environmental Studies
Topics of interest to the environmentalist. Especially tailored to the subject titled,
"Environnmental Studies" common to the engineering students in Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India
Sunday, November 10, 2013

Disaster management in India
DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA
India, due to its geographical locations and geological formations, is a highly disaster prone
country. Its long coastline, snow-clad high peaks, high mountain ranges, the perennial rivers in
the north all combine to add to this problem. India, which has only two per cent the total
geographical area, has to support 16 per cent of total world population. Naturally, there is a
tremendous pressure on the natural resources, which directly or indirectly lead to the occurrence
of disasters, namely floods, droughts, landslides, earthquakes, etc.
India has faced a number of disasters, ranging from flood, earthquakes, cyclones, tsunami,
drought, landslides. A few recent disasters faced by India include Uttar Kasha earthquake in UP
in 1991, Later earthquake in Maharashtra in 1993, Chama earthquake in Gujarat, super cyclone
in Orissa in 1999, Buhl earthquake in Gujarat in 2001, Tsunami in 2004 and Mumbai-Gujarat
flood in 2005. Besides, India has a bad experience of technology-related tragedy in the form of
gas tragedy in Bhopal in 1984. India also faced the problem of Plague in Gujarat.
India has set-up a disaster management unit in the centre called the National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA - http://www.ndmindia.nic.in/) under the ministry of home
affairs, where several disasters are handled by different units. The website lists a central
contact for information regarding any disaster in the country.
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Diasater Management Cycle
DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE
The Disaster management cycle illustrates the ongoing process by which governments,
businesses, and civil society plan for and reduce the impact of disasters, react during and
immediately following a disaster, and take steps to recover after a disaster has occurred.
Appropriate actions at all points in the cycle lead to greater preparedness, better warnings,
reduced vulnerability or the prevention of disasters during the next iteration of the cycle. The
complete disaster management cycle includes the shaping of public policies and plans that
either modify the causes of disasters or mitigate their effects on people, property, and
infrastructure.
The disaster cycle or the disaster life cycle consists of the steps that emergency managers
take in planning for and responding to disasters. Each step in the disaster cycle correlates to
part of the ongoing cycle that is emergency management. This disaster cycle is used
throughout the emergency management community, from the local to the national and
international levels.
The first step of the disaster cycle is usually considered to be preparedness. Prior to a
disaster’s occurrence, emergency manager will plan for various disasters which could strike
within the area of responsibility.
The second stage in the disaster cycle is response. Imminently prior to a disaster, warnings
are issued and evacuations or sheltering in place occurs and necessary equipment is placed at
the ready.
After the immediate response phase of the disaster cycle has been completed, the disaster
turns toward recovery, focusing on the longer term response to the disaster. During the
recovery phase of the disaster cycle, officials are interested in cleanup and rebuilding. During
the recovery phase, lessons learned are collected and shared within the emergency response
community.
The mitigation phase of the disaster cycle is almost concurrent with the recovery phase. The
goal of the mitigation phase is to prevent the same disaster-caused damages from occurring
again.
Finally, using the lessons learned from the response, recovery, and mitigation phases of the
disaster the emergency manager and government officials return to the preparedness phase
and revise their plans and their understanding of the material and human resources needs for
a particular disaster in their community.

Basic principles of disaster mitigation, disaster management and methodology
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DISASTER MITIGATION
DISASTER MANAGEMENT & METHODOLOGY
Disaster management relies heavily on the use of maps and mapping techniques for control of
disasters and managing response. The maps used vary from topographic maps, land-use
maps, hazard maps, geologic maps, vegetation maps, population distribution rods, seismic
maps and hurricane tracking maps.
Schematic maps generated using computer graphics are used extensively to generate updated
information about disaster situations as they develop. By monitoring stream flow and water
level at an upstream location, the disaster manager can map the expected flood zone and
predict threatened areas, extent of flooding and the areas that need to be evacuated on a
priority basis. Computer-generated maps are used in risk analysis, vulnerability analysis,
evacuation planning, flood monitoring, damage assessment and reconstruction planning.
Aerial photography is widely used as a tool for disaster management for both pre and post-
disaster planning activities. Aerial photographs are extensively used for hazard analysis,
disaster assessment, reconstruction planning and management.
Remote sensing is acquisition of information about a subject that is not in direct contact with
the device. Weather RADAR, weather satellites, seismographs and sono buoys are examples
of remote sensing systems.
Remote sensing data may be used for disaster management in the form of risk analysis and
mapping, disaster warning, cyclone warning, drought monitoring, volcanoes, large-scale
fires, etc.
Electronics communications are very important in disaster management. They are used for
coordination and control, assessment, reporting, monitoring, scheduling logistics,
reunification and tracing separated families.
Impact of disasters on Environment, Infrastructure and development
IMPACT OF DISASTERS ON ENVIRONMENT, INFRASTRUCTURE &
DEVELOPMENT
Disasters are now recognized as one of the major contributors to underdevelopment, and
underdevelopment is one of the major contributors to disaster. It has
also been recognized that if disaster response is mishandled, many years of progress can be
wiped out and the chances for further progress set back. Disasters can alter agricultural
patterns, settlement patterns, patterns of migration, work habits, diets, and even basic family
structures. If disaster management is well planned and development oriented, a disaster can
provide opportunities for accelerating the pace of development. Constructive changes can
then be made.
All disaster-related activities are divided in-to distinct time periods.
Phases Of Disaster Response (Natural Disasters)

The Preparatory Phase. Activities carried out in the preparatory phase include organization,
legislation, development of procedures, inventories of resources, and establishment of response plans.
These activities are broadly classified as disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness.
Warning Phase. By monitoring events, we look for indicators that tell when, where, and what
magnitude the event may be. This is known as prediction or forecasting. Warning is possible for
droughts and famines, cyclones and most severe weather phenomena, volcanoes, large scale fires, and
in some cases earthquakes.
Emergency Phase This phase include search-and-rescue, first aid, emergency medical assistance, and
restoration of emergency communication and transportation networks. Sometimes, it also necessitates
evacuation from areas still vulnerable to further disaster events and provision of temporary shelter,
food, and water.
Rehabilitation (Or Transitional) Phase. In this phase, people begin to return to work, to repair
infrastructure, damaged buildings and critical facilities, and to take other actions necessary to help the
community to return to normal.
Emergency relief measures must be discontinued during this phase so that people can begin to regain
their self-reliance.
Reconstruction Phase. During this period people reconstruct housing and other community facilities,
and agriculture returns to normal. The actual time span is often very difficult to define.
Types of disasters
TYPES OF DISASTERS
A disaster is a natural or man-made hazard resulting in an event of substantial extent causing

significant physical damage or destruction, loss of life, or drastic change to the environment.
A disaster can be defined as any tragic event stemming from events such as earthquakes,
floods, catastrophic accidents, fires, or explosions. It is a phenomenon that can cause damage
to life and property and destroy the economic, social and cultural life of people.
Hazards are divided into natural or human-made.
A natural disaster is a consequence when a natural hazard affects humans and/or the built
environment. Various phenomena like earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, floods and
cyclones are all natural hazards that kill thousands of people and destroy crores of rupees of
living environment and property each year. Developing countries suffer more or less
chronically by natural disasters. Asia tops the list of casualties due to natural disasters.
Man-made disasters are the consequence of technological or human hazards. Examples are
stampedes, fires, transport accidents, oil and chemical spills, nuclear radiations and wars.
Saturday, November 9, 2013
Issues involved in enforcement of environmental legislation
Three issues that are especially important for environmental legislation are:
1. The precautionary principle This principle has evolved to deal with risks and
uncertainties faced by environmental management. The principle implies that an ounce of
prevention is worth a pound of cure— it does not prevent problems but may reduce their
occurrence and helps ensure contingency plans are made.
2. The polluter-pays principle In addition to-the obvious—the polluter pays for the
damaged caused by a development—this principle also implies that a polluter pays for
monitoring and policing. A problem with this approach is that fines may bankrupt small
businesses, yet be low enough for a large company to write them off as an occasional
overhead, which does little for pollution control.
3. Freedom of information: Environmental planning and management is hindered if the

public, NGOs or even official bodies are unable to get information.
A number of laws have been enforced for safeguarding the environmental quality. However,
these laws and acts could not be enacted successfully in light of the following problems.
1. Drawbacks of wildlife protection act, 1972

1. Since this act has been enacted just as a fallout of Stockholm conference held
in 1972, it has not included any locally evolved conservation measures.
2. The ownership certificates for some animal articles (Ex: Leopard and Tiger
skins) often serve as a tool for illegal trading.
3. Jammu and Kashmir have their own wildlife acts, therefore, hunting and
trading of many endangered species, prohibited in other states are allowed in
Jammu and Kashmir.
4. The offenders of this act are not subject to any harsh fines. The fine is only Rs.
25000 or imprisonment for up-to three years.
2. Drawbacks of the Forest (conservation) Act, 1980
1. This act only transfers the powers from state to centre to decide the conversion
of reserve forests to non-forest areas.
2. The power has been centralized at the top and local communities have been
completely ignored from the decision making process regarding the nature of
forest areas.
3. Tribal people living in forests are totally dependent on forest resources. If they
are stopped from exploiting forests for their livelihood, they resort to criminal
activities like smuggling, killing, etc.
4. This law is concentrated on protecting trees, birds and animals but not on
protecting poor people
5. The forest dwelling tribal communities have a rich knowledge about forest
resources, their importance and conservation. However, their role and
contribution is not acknowledged.
3. Drawbacks of pollution related acts
1. The power and authority has been given only to the central government with
little power to the state government. This hinders effective implementation of
the act in the states.
2. The penalties imposed by this act are very small when compared to the
damage caused by big industries due to pollution.
3. A person cannot directly file a petition in the court.
4. Litigation, related to the environment is expensive, since it involves technical
knowledge.
5. For small industries, it is very expensive to install an individual custom-made
effluent treatment plant
6. The position of chairman of the board of most industries is occupied by a
political appointee. Hence it becomes difficult to implement the act without
political interference.
Posted by Mrinal Gour at 6:03 PM 2 comments:

Wednesday, November 6, 2013
Environment Protection Act
Posted by Mrinal Gour at 9:02 PM 1 comment:

Acid rain - Formation, Effects and Control measures
Acid rain
Normally rain water is slightly acidic due to the fact that CO2 present in the atmosphere gets
dissolved in it. Because of the presence of Oxides of Nitrogen and Sulphur (NOx and SOx) as
pollutants in the atmosphere, the pH of rain water is lowered further. This type of
precipitation of water is called acid rain or acid deposition.
Formation of Acid Rain

Acid rain means the presence of excessive acids in rain water. Thermal power plants,
industries and vehicles release nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere by
burning of coal and oil. When these gases react with water vapour in the atmosphere, they
form acids and descend on Earth as "acid rain" through rain water.
SOx + H2O = H2SO4
NOx + H2O = HNO3
Due to the drifting of these gases in the atmosphere by wind, their presence is felt as far as
2000 km away. Air pollution in one nation can cause acid rain in another nation.
Effects of Acid Rain
Effect of acid rain on human beings:
1. Acid rain has been found to be very dangerous to living organisms as it can destroy
life. Human nervous system, respiratory system and digestive system are affected by
acid rain.
2. It can also cause premature death from heart and lung disorders such as asthma and
bronchitis
Effect of acid rain on buildings
1. The 'Taj Mahal' in Agra is affected from the acid fumes being emitted from 'Mathura
Refinery'. Crystals of CuSO4 and MgSO4 are formed as a result of corrosion due to
acid rain.
2. Acid rain corrodes houses, monuments, statues, bridges and fences.

Ozone layer depletion
Ozone layer depletion process
Ozone is a colourless, odorless gas composed of three atoms of oxygen (O3). Ozone has the
same chemical structure regardless of where it occurs and can be useful or harmful depending
on where it occurs in the atmosphere. Ozone is formed naturally in the upper stratosphere
when wavelengths less than 240nm are absorbed by normal oxygen molecules which
dissociate to give O atoms. The O atoms in combination with other oxygen molecules
produce ozone.
In the stratosphere, about 19 to 30 km above the Earth's surface, ozone is constantly being
produced and destroyed naturally. This production and destruction makes stratosphere with
ozone layer that filters the Ultra-Violet radiation from the Sun and protects life on Earth.
Normally there is a fine balance between production and destruction of ozone thereby
safeguarding life on Earth.
Man-made chemicals called Chloro Fluoro Carbons(CFCs) are used as aerosol sprays,
refrigerants and coolants etc destroy ozone molecules in the stratosphere.
The CFCs themselves do not destroy ozone molecules but they decay ozone molecules at low
temperatures. A small amount of chlorine atom and chlorine mono-oxide function as catalyst
in the process of destruction of ozone. The equations involved are:
Cl + O3 = ClO + O2
ClO + O = Cl + O2
Hence, net effect:
O3 + O = 2O2
Chlorine atom in the above reaction functions as a catalyst and is not consumed in the
reaction. Chlorine atom used in the reaction remains as chlorine atom even at the end of the
reaction. Once chlorine has broken one ozone molecule, it is free to repeat the process until it
is removed by another reaction in the atmosphere. Chloro-Fluoro-Carbons are very stable
molecules and can live upto 100 years.
Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP)

The ozone depletion potential of a compound is defined as the measure of its ability to
destroy stratospheric ozone.
It may be defined as the ratio of total amount of ozone destroyed by a particular agent to the
amount of ozone destroyed by the same mass of CFC-11.
The ODP of CFC-11 is always taken as 1.0
ODP is a relative measure with CFC-11 taken as a standard reference. Therefore, if the ODP
of a compound is 0.5, it is roughly speaking half as 'bad' as CFC-11.
Factors affecting ODP
1. Nature of the halogen (Bromine containing halocarbons usually have much higher
ODPs than hydrocarbons. This is because Bromine is an effective ozone destruction
catalyst than Chlorine)
2. The number of chlorine or bromine atoms in a molecule.
3. Molecular mass and
4. Atmospheric lifetime
Dobson Unit
Dobson Unit (DU) is the scale for measuring the total amount of ozone occupying a column
overhead.
One Dobson Unit (1DU) is defined as 0.01mm at 0C and 1 atmospheric pressure.
If the ozone layer thickness when compressed to 0C and 1 atmosphere pressure is about
5mm, the average amount of ozone would be about 500 DU.
Harmful effects of ozone layer depletion

Ozone layer protects all life forms on Earth from the Sun's harmful UV radiation. Any
significant decrease in the amount of ozone in the stratosphere results in the amount of UV
radiation reaching the Earth's surface leading to harmful effects on all living organisms.
Effects on human health
1. Reddening of skin in sun shine (Sun burn)

2. Skin cancer
3. Reduction in body's immunity to disease
4. Eye disorders like cataracts and blindness
Other living organisms
1. UV rays are particularly harmful to small plants and animals living in the sea called
'plankton'. Plankton forms the base of ocean food chain
2. UV rays damage certain crops like rice which is the staple food for many people in
the world
3. UV radiation can damage polymers used in paint, clothing and other materials.
Posted by Mrinal Gour at 8:16 PM 1 comment:

Global warming - Definition, Effects, Control and Remedial measures
Global warming is defined as the increase in temperature of Earth, that causes change in
climate
The last few centuries have seen an increase in industrial, agricultural and other human
activity resulting in release of more green house gases in the atmosphere. These gases cause
the atmosphere to trap increasing amounts of heat energy in the Earth's surface making the
planet warmer than usual.
The global temperature is now 1C higher than in 1900. Predictions of future climate indicate
that by the middle of the next century, the Earth's global temperature may be 1C to 3C higher
than what it is today.
Researchers have checked through indirect evidence (tree rings, coral growth, ice cores) and
confirmed that the warmest decade in the past 1000 years was from 1990 to 1999. The
warmest year of the millenium was 1998.
The International Red Cross and Red Crescent have analyzed the past 33 years of natural
disasters and 90% of them were weather related. Moreover, the occurrence of these disasters
has increased in the past three decades.
Effects of Global Warming

Following are the effects of global warming:
1. More heat waves

2. Expansion of desert area
3. Natural fires in forest lands
4. More evaporation of water from oceans and water bodies
5. Melting of Ice caps in Arctic and Antarctic regions
6. More cloud formation in the atmosphere
7. Shorter and warmer winters coupled with longer and hotter summers
8. Changes in rainfall pattern
9. Rise in sea level
10. Flooding and submergence of low lying coastal areas
11. Disruption in farming
12. More drought
13. Impact on plants, animals and humans
Control and remedial measures:

Some of the remedial and control measures of global warming are listed below:
1. Reduction in consumption of fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum

2. Use of bio-gas plants
3. Use of nuclear power plants
4. Increasing forest cover
5. Use of unleaded petrol in automobiles
6. Installation of pollution controlling devices in automobiles (catalytic converter) and
industries (Electro Static Precipitators, Bag filters, Wet scrubbers etc)

Climate change - causes and effects
Climate change
Climate change refers to the sum of all statistical weather information of the atmospheric
elements, with specified area over a long period of time. Climate never remains static but is a
dynamic process and changes to a lesser or greater degree. Climate change is a common
deviation from average as well as extreme temperatures.
The Earth's surface and lowest part of the atmosphere have warmed up to an average by
almost 0.6C during the last 100 years. If the rate climate change is constant, global surface
temperatures could be anywhere between 1.4 and 5.8C higher now than in 1999 by 2100. Sea
level rise is projected to be between 9 and 88cm by 2100.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC-1992) and the
Kyoto Protocol (KP-1997) represent the first steps taken by the international community to
protect the climate system from man-made interferences. Several countries have agreed to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions by about 5% by 2008 to 2012. In practical terms, this means
 using resources, particularly fossil-fuel-derived energy more efficiently

 reusing and recycling products wherever possible and
 developing renewable forms of energy that are inexhaustible and do not pollute the
environment
Causes of climate change
1. Variation of Earth's orbital characteristics

2. Atmospheric carbon dioxide variations
3. Volcanic eruptions and
4. Variations in solar output
Effects of climate change

Climate change has pronounced effects on every part of the Earth. It affects both living and
non living components of most ecosystems on the Earth.
1. Mean Sea Level (MSL) is increased by around 1.8mm per year.

2. Many ecosystems of the world will have to adapt rapidly to the constantly changing
global temperatures.
3. The rate of species becoming extinct will be increased.
4. Human health, agriculture, forestry and water resources will be affected.
5. Increasing change in surface temperatures, changing rates of evapo-transpiration and
precipitation (due to climate change) will influence the hydrological cycle.
6. Frequency and intensity of extreme weather events is increased leading to unexpected
flooding and drought
7. Societies experiencing social, economic and climatic stress will be worst affected and
least able to adapt.
Posted by Mrinal Gour at 2:10 PM No comments:

Envionmental ethics
Environmental ethics is defined as the analysis of the human use of Earth's limited resources.
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that primarily discusses issues dealing with human
behaviour and character. Ethics attempts to establish a basis for judging right from wrong and
good from bad.
Environmental ethics is the branch of ethics which analyzes human use of Earth's limited
resources. A growing trend is to combine the study of both ecology and economics to help
provide a basis for sustainable decisions on environmental use.
Environmental ethics attempts to answer questions of how human beings should relate to
their environment regarding the usage of environmental resources and their treatment of other
species (plant and animal).
A few conflicts that arise from environmental policies deal with the rights of individuals
versus those of the state and rights of private property owners versus those of a community.
Population Explosion
Population Explosion
The enormous increase in population, due to low death rate (mortality) and high birth rate
(natality), is termed as population explosion. Human population is not increasing at a uniform
rate throughout the world.
Population increase can be better understood in terms of doubling time. Doubling time is the
number of years needed for a population to double. It varies from about 25 years in
developing countries to 100 years in developed nations.
Reasons for population explosion:
1. Introduction of modern facilities reduces mortality rate and increases natality rate
leading to population explosion.
2. Increase of life expectancy also a major reason contributing to population explosion
Effect of population explosion or Environmental and Social impacts of growing

population
1. Poverty: Infant mortality is an indicator of poverty. In 34 developing countries, more

than one in ten children die before they reach the age of five. In developing countries,
people opt for smaller families in the face of high mortality rate.
2. Population explosion leads to environmental degradation.
3. Population explosion causes over-exploitation of natural resources leading to shortage
of resources for the future generations.
4. Many of the renewable resources like forests and grass lands are also under threat.
5. Increase in population also increases disease, economic inequity and communal wars.
In order to combat the problem of population explosion, the Government of India introduced
the Family Welfare Programme as an integral part of the overall national policy.
Objectives of Family welfare programme:
1. Slowing down population explosion by reducing fertility and

2. Reducing the pressure on the environment due to over-exploitation of natural
resources.

Watershed management
Watershed management:
Watershed is defined as the geographic area from which water in a particular stream, lake or
estuary originates.It includes entire area of land that drains into the water body. It is
supported from other systems by high points in the area such as hills or slopes.
Ex: Watershed of a lake would not only include the streams entering the lake but also the
land that drains those streams and eventually the lake.
Watershed management is a process aimed at protecting and restoring the habitat and water
resources of a watershed, incorporating the needs of multiple stakeholders.
Impacts of human beings on a watershed:

The activities of human beings have the following impacts on a watershed:
1. Altering water course: The water course is altered by changing the contour of the
land and adding storm water systems
2. Adding pollution sources: The type of pollutant absorbed and carried by the storm
water depends on the land use. During the course of storm water impounded in a
parking area might pick-up litter, road salt, motor oil and carry these pollutants to a
local stream. In agricultural fields, the rainwater might wash fertilizers and soil into a
stream. Melting of snow might wash fertilizers and pesticides into the lawn of
suburban homes.
3. Urbanization: Urbanization has impacted local resources in more ways than one can
imagine. It has resulted in a change in the flow and constituents of water flowing into
a watershed. Urbanization has changed both the surface and ground water. Urban
areas have replaced trees, plants and shrubs with impervious surfaces like roads, roof
tops, parking lots and other hard surfaces. These impervious surfaces prevent water to
seep into the ground thereby increasing surface runoff. This leads to increased
flooding after storms and reduced flow in streams and rivers during dry seasons.
4. Scouring of channels: Erosion of stream banks and scouring of channels occurs due
to increase in volume. Sediment in eroded stream banks clogs the gills of fish and
light needed by aquatic plants. Sediment settles in stream channels, lakes and
reservoirs thereby increasing flooding and requiring dredging to clear streams or
lakes for boating.
Goals of watershed management:

The two main goals of watershed management are listed below:
1. Watershed management seeks to preserve the environment and

2. Watershed management is applied to make the most cost-effective methods to
achieve the above listed goal
Controlling storm water flow

It is essential to control storm-water flow in order to reduce the impact of development of
local watershed and aquifers. Storm-water flow can be controlled in both quality and quantity
by minimizing the disturbances developed in the natural flow of water. By designing in
alignment with nature, the impact of urbanization can be greatly reduced. Storm-water flow
can be controlled in the following ways:
1. Minimizing development of impervious surfaces

2. Maximizing areas of dense vegetation
3. Use of structural storm water management basins
4. Reducing the possibility of pollution of storm-water
Posted by Mrinal Gour at 11:05 AM 1 comment:

Water conservation
Water conservation:
Among the essential elements for the existence of life, water is rated as the most important.
Water is a universal solvent and is largely responsible for determining the structure, function
and distribution of species in an ecosystem.
The original source of water is precipitation from the atmosphere. Water on earth occurs in
all three phases. As a liquid, it forms the hydrosphere. Around 75% of the earths surface is
covered with hydrosphere.
The total amount of water on the earth's surface is around 266 x 10E20 kg. Around 97% of
water on the Earth is salt water, 2% is locked in polar ice -caps, mountains and glaciers and
the remaining 1% is available as fresh water.
The production, development and efficient management of water resources for beneficial use
is called water conservation. Listed below are a few techniques of water conservation.
1. Rainwater harvesting
2. Watershed management
3. Construction of storage reservoirs
4. Reuse of industrial wastewater and
5. Better agricultural practices
Monday, November 4, 2013
Solid waste management - sources, effects and methods of disposal
Solid waste management
Rapid population growth and urbanization in developing countries has led to people
generating enormous quantities of solid waste and consequent environmental degradation.
The waste is normally disposed in open dumpscreating nuisance and environmental
degradation. Solid wastes cause a major risk to public health and the environment.
Management of solid wastes is important in order to minimize the adverse effects posed by
their indiscriminate disposal.
Types of solid wastes: Depending on the nature of origin, solid wastes are classified into
1. URBAN OR MUNICIPAL WASTES

2. INDUSTRIAL WASTES and
3. HAZARDOUS WASTES
SOURCES OF URBAN WASTES

Urban wastes include the following wastes:
Domestic wastes containing a variety of materials thrown out from homes
Ex: Food waste, Cloth, Waste paper, Glass bottles, Polythene bags, Waste metals, etc.
Commercial wastes: It includes wastes coming out from shops, markets, hotels, offices,
institutions, etc.
Ex: Waste paper, packaging material, cans, bottle, polythene bags, etc.
Construction wastes: It includes wastes of construction materials.
Ex: Wood, Concrete, Debris, etc.
Biomedical wastes: It includes mostly waste organic materials
Ex: Anatomical wastes, Infectious wastes, etc.
Classification of urban wastes

Urban wastes are classified into:
Bio-degradable wastes - Those wastes that can be degraded by micro organisms are called
bio-degradable wastes
Ex: Food, vegetables, tea leaves, dry leaves, etc.
Non-biodegradable wastes: Urban solid waste materials that cannot be degraded by micro
organisms are called non-biodegradable wastes.
Ex: Polythene bags, scrap materials, glass bottles, etc.
SOURCES OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES

The main source of industrial wastes are chemical industries, metal and mineral processing
industries.
Ex:
Nuclear plants: It generated radioactive wastes
Thermal power plants: It produces fly ash in large quantities
Chemical Industries: It produces large quantities of hazardous and toxic materials.
Other industries: Other industries produce packing materials, rubbish, organic wastes, acid,
alkali, scrap metals, rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wood, oils, paints, dyes, etc.
EFFECT OF IMPROPER SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

1. Due to improper disposal of municipal solid waste on the roads and immediate
surroundings, biodegradable materials undergo decomposition producing foul smell
and become a breeding ground for disease vectors.
2. Industrial solid wastes are the source for toxic metals and hazardous wastes that affect
soil characteristics and productivity of soils when they are dumped on the soil
3. Toxic substances may percolate into the ground and contaminate the groundwater.
4. Burning of industrial or domestic wastes (cans, pesticides, plastics, radioactive
materials and batteries) produce furans, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls that are
harmful to human beings.
Solid waste management involves waste generation, mode of collection, transportation,

segregation of wastes and disposal techniques.
STEPS INVOLVED IN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT:

Two important steps involved in solid waste management are:
Reduce, Reuse and Recycle of Raw Materials
Discarding wastes
Reduce - If usage of raw materials is reduced, the generation of waste also gets reduced
Reuse - Refillable containers that are discarded after use can be reused
Rubber rings can be made from discarded cucle tubes and this reduces waste
generation during manufacture of rubber bands.
Recycle- Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new useful products
Ex: Old aluminium cans and glass bottles are melted and recast into new cans and bottles
Preparation of cellulose insulation from paper
Preparation of automobile body and construction material from steel cans
This method (Reduce, Reuse & Recycle), i.e, 3R's help save money, energy, raw materials
and reduces pollution.
DISCARDING WASTES:
The following methods are adopted for discarding wastes:
1. Landfill
2. Incineration and
3. Composting
LANDFILL: Solid wastes are placed in a sanitary landfill in which alternate layers of 80 cm
thick refuse is covered with selected earth-fill of 20 cm thickness. After 2-3 years solid waste
volume shrinks by 25-30% and land is used for parks, roads and small buildings. This is the
most common and cheapest cheapest method of waste disposal and is mostly employed in
Indian cities.
Advantages:
It is simple and economical
Segregation of wastes is not required
Landfilled areas can be reclaimed and used for other purposes
Converts low-lying, marshy waste-land into useful areas.
Natural resources are returned to soil and recycled.
Disadvantages:
Large area is required
Land availability is away from the town, tansportation costs are high
Leads to bad odour if landfill is not properly managed.
Land filled areas will be sources of mosquitoes and flies requiring application of insecticides
and pesticides at regular intervals.
Causes fire hazard due to formation of methane in wet weather.
INCINERATION:
It is a hygenic way of disposing solid waste. It is suitable if waste contains more hazardous
material and organic content. It is a thermal process and very effective for detoxification of
all combustible pathogens. It is expensive when compared to composting or land-filling.
In this method municipal solid wastes are burnt in a furnace called incinerator. Combustibe
substances such as rubbish, garbage, dead organisms and non-combustibe matter such as
glass, porcelain and metals are separated before feeding to incinerators. The non-combustible
materials can be left out for recycling and reuse. The leftover ashes and clinkers may account
for about 10 to 20% which need further disposal by sanitary landfill or some other means.
The heat produced in the incinerator during burning of refuse is used in the form of steam
power for generation of electricity through turbines. Municipal solid waste is generally wet
and has a high calorific value. Therefore, it has to be dried first before burning. Waste is dried
in a preheater from where it is taken to a large incinerating furnace called "destructor" which
can incinerate about 100 to 150 tonnes per hour. Temperature normally maintained in a
combustion chamber is about 700 C which may be increased to 1000 C when electricity is to
be generated.
ADVANTAGES
Residue is only 20-25% of the original and can be used as clinker after treatment
Requires very little space
Cost of transportation is not high if the incinerator is located within city limits
Safest from hygenic point of view
An incinerator plant of 3000 tonnes per day capacity can generate 3MW of power.
DISADVANTAGES
Its capital and operating cost is high
Operation needs skilled personnel
Formation of smoke, dust and ashes needs further disposal and that may cause air pollution.
COMPOSTING
It is another popular method practiced in many cities in our country. In this method, bulk
organic waste is converted into fertilizer by biological action.
Separated compostible waste is dumped in underground trenches in layers of 1.5m and finally
covered with earth of 20cm and left for decomposition. Sometimes, actinomycetes are
introduced for active decomposition. Within 2 to 3 days biological action starts. Organic
matter is destroyed by actinomycetes and lot of heat is liberated increasing the temperature of
compost by 75C and the refuse is finally converted into powdery brown coloured odourless
mass called humus that has a fertilizing value and can be used in agriculture. Humus contains
lot of Nitrogen essential for plant growth apart from phosphates and other minerals.
ADVANTAGES
Manure added to soil increases water retention and ion-exchange capacity of soil.
This method can be used to treat several industrial solid wastes.
Manure can be sold thereby reducing cost of disposing wastes
Recycling can be done
DISADVANTAGES
Non-consumables have to be disposed separately
The technology has not caught-up with the farmers and hence does not have an assured
market.
Thermal pollution - causes, effects and control measures of thermal pollution
Thermal pollution
Thermal pollution is defined as the addition of excess of undesirable heat to water thereby
making it harmful to man, animal or aquatic life. Thermal pollution may also cause
significant departures from nor activities of aquatic communities.
Sources of Thermal Pollution:

The following sources contribute to thermal pollution.
1. Nuclear power plants

2. Coal fired plants
3. Industrial effluents
4. Domestic sewage
5. Hydro-electric power
1. Nuclear power plants: Nuclear power plants including drainage from hospitals,
research institutions, nuclear experiments and explosions, discharge a lot of heat that
is not utilized along with traces of toxic radio nuclides into nearby water streams.
Emissions from nuclear reactors and processing installations are also responsible for
increasing the temperatures of water bodies. The operations of power reactors and
nuclear fuel processing units constitutes the major contributor of heat in the aquatic
environment. Heated effluents from power plants are discharged at 10 C higher than
the receiving waters that affects the aquatic flora and fauna.
2. Coal-fired power plants: Coal fired power plants constitute a major source of thermal
pollution. The condenser coils in such plants are cooled with water from nearby lakes
or rivers. The resulting heated water is discharged into streams thereby raising the
water temperature by 15C. Heated effluent decreases the dissolved content of water
resulting in death of fish and other aquatic organisms. The sudden fluctuation of
temperature also leads to "thermal shock" killing aquatic life that have become
acclimatized to living in a steady temperature.
3. Industrial effluents: Industries like textile, paper, pulp and sugar manufacturing
release huge amounts of cooling water along with effluents into nearby natural water
bodies. The waters polluted by sudden and heavy organic loads result in severe drop
in levels of dissolved oxygen leading to death of several aquatic organisms.
4. Domestic Sewage: Domestic sewage is discharged into rivers, lakes, canals or streams
with minimal treatment or without any treatment. These wastes have a higher organic
temperature and organic load. This leads to decrease in dissolved oxygen content in
the receiving waters resulting in the set-up of anaerobic conditions causing release of
foul and offensive gases in water. Eventually, this leads to development of anoxic
conditions resulting in rapid death of aquatic organisms.
5. Hydro-electric power: Generation of hydroelectric power sometimes leads to negative
thermal loading in water systems. Apart from electric power industries, various
factories with cooling requirement contribute to thermal loading.
Thermal pollution in streams by human activities
1. Industries and power plants use water to cool machinery and discharge the warm
water into a stream
2. Stream temperature rises when trees and tall vegetation providing shade are cut.
3. Soil erosion caused due to construction also leads to thermal pollution
4. Removal of stream side vegetation
5. Poor farming Practices also lead to thermal polloution
Effects of Thermal pollution
1. Reduction in dissolved oxygen: Concentration of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) decreases

with increase in temperature.
2. Increase in toxicity: The rising temperature increases the toxicity of the poison
present in water. A 10C increase in temperature of water doubles the toxicity effect of
potassium cyanide, while 80C rise in temperature triples the toxic effects of o-xylene
causing massive mortality to fish.
3. Interference in biological activity: Temperature is considered to be of vital
significance to physiology, metabolism and biochemical processes that control
respiratory rates, digestion, excretion, and overall development of aquatic organisms.
Temperature changes cause total disruption to the entire ecosystem.
4. Interference in reproduction: In fishes, several activities like nest building,
spawning,hatching, migration and reproduction depend on optimum temperature.
5. Direct mortality: Thermal pollution is directly responsible for mortality of aquatic
organisms. Increase in temperature of water leads to exhaustion of microorganisms
thereby shortening the life span of fish. Above a certain temperature, fish die due to
failure of respiratory system and nervous system failure.
6. Food storage for fish: Abrupt changes in temperature alters the seasonal variation in
the type and abundance of lower organisms leading to shortage of right food for fish
at the right time.
Control measures for thermal pollution

The following methods can be adapted to control high temperature caused by thermal
discharges:
1. Cooling towers: Use of water from water systems for cooling systems for cooling
purposes, with subsequent return to the water way after passage through a condenser,
is called cooling process. Cooling towers transfer heat from hot water to the
atmosphere by evaporation. Cooling towers are of two types:
(i) Wet cooling tower: Hot water coming out from the condenser (reactor) is allowed
to spray over baffles. Cool air, with high velocity, is passed from sides, which takes
away the heat and cools the water.
(ii) Dry cooling tower: Here, hot water is allowed to flow in long spiral pipes. Cool
air with the help of a fan is passed over these hot pipes, which cools down hot water.
This cool water can be recycled.
2. Cooling ponds: Cooling ponds are the best way to cool thermal discharges. Heated
effluents on the surface of the water in cooling ponds maximise dissipation of heat to
the atmosphere and minimise the water area and volume. The warm water wedhe acts
like a cooling pond.
3. Spray ponds: The water coming out from condensers is allowed to pass into the
ponds through sprayers. Here water is sprayed through nozzles as fine droplets. Heat
from the fine droplets gets dissipated to the atmosphere.
4. Artificial lakes: Artificial lakes are man made water bodies that offer once-through
cooling. The heated effluents can be discharged into the lake at one end and water for
cooling purposes may be withdrawn from the other end. The heat is eventually
dissipated through evaporation.

Noise pollution - Causes, types, effects and control of noise pollution
Noise pollution
Noise is defined as, "the unwanted, unpleasant or disagreeable sound that causes discomfort
to all living beings". Sound intensity is measured in decibels (dB), that is the tenth part of the
longest unit Bel. One dB is the faintest sound that a human ear can hear.
TYPES OF NOISE: Environmental noise has been doubling every ten years. Noise is
classified as:
1. Industrial Noise
2. Transport Noise and
3. Neighbourhood noise
Industrial Noise: It is sound with a high intensity sound caused by industry machines.
Sources of such noise pollution is caused by machines from machines in various factories,
industries and mills. Noise from mechanical saws and pneumatic drills is unbearable and a
nuisance to the public.
The Indian Institute of Oto-Rino Laryngology, Chennai reported that increasing industrial
pollution damages the hearing ability by atleast 20%.
Workers in steel industry, who work close to heavy industrial blowers are exposed to 112dB
for eight hours suffer from occupational pollution.
Transport Noise: Transport noise mainly consists of traffic noise from road, rail and aircraft.
The number of automobiles on roads like motors, scooters, cars, motor cycles, buses, trucks
and diesel engine vehicles have increased enormously in the recent past further aggravating
the problem of transport noise.
Noise levels in most residential areas in metropolitan cities is hovering around the border line
due to increased vehicular noise pollution. This high level of noise pollution leads to
deafening in the elderly.
Neighbourhood noise: This type of noise includes disturbance from household gadgets and
community. Common sources being musical instruments, TV, VCR, Radios, Transistors,
Telephones, and loudspeakers etc. Statistically, ever since the industrial revolution, noise in
the environment has been doubling every ten years.
Effects of Noise pollution
1. Noise pollution affects both human and animal health. It leads to:
1. contraction of blood vessels
2. making skin pale
3. excessive adrenalin in the blood stream which is responsible for
high blood pressure.
4. Blaring sounds are known to cause mental distress
5. Heart attacks, neurological problems, birth defects and abortion
2. Muscle contraction leading to nervous breakdown, tension, etc
3. The adverse reactions are coupled with a change in hormone content of blood, which
in-turn increases heart beat, constriction of blood vessels, digestive spams and
dilation of the pupil of the eye.
4. Adverse affects health, work efficiency and behaviour. Noise pollution may cause
damage to the heart, brain, kidneys, liver and may produce emotional disturbance.
5. The most immediate and acute effect of noise is impairment of hearing that
diminishes some part of the auditory system. Prolonged exposure to noise of certain
frequency pattern leads to chronic damage to the inner ear.
6. Impulsive noise may cause psychological and pathological disorders
7. Ultrasonic sound can affect the digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular system and
semicircular canals of the internal ear.
8. The brain is adversely affected by loud and sudden noise by jets and airplanes. People
are subjected to psychiatric illness.
9. Recent reports suggest that blood is thickened by excessive noise.
10. The optical system of human beings is also affected by noise pollution. Severe noise
pollution causes:
1. Pupullary dilation
2. Impairment of night vision and
3. Decrease in rate of colour perception
Control measures:
1. SOURCE CONTROL: This includes source modification such as acoustic treatment
to machine surface, design changes, limiting operational timings, etc
2. TRANSMISSION PATH INTERVENTION: This includes containing the source
inside a sound insulating enclosure, constructing a noise barrier or provision of sound
absorbing materials along the path.
3. RECEPTOR CONTROL: This includes protection of the receiver by altering the
work schedule or provision of personal protection devices such as ear plugs for
operating noisy machinery. The measure may include dissipation and deflection
methods.
4. OILING: Proper oiling will reduce noise from the machine.
Preventive measures:
1. Prescribing noise limits for vehicular traffic

2. Ban on honking (usage of horns) in certain areas
3. Creation of silence zones near schools and hospitals
4. Redesigning buildings to make them noise proof
5. Reduction of traffic density in residential areas
6. Giving preference to mass public transport system.

Soil pollution - Types, effects, sources and control of soil pollution
Soil pollution
Soil pollution is defined as, “contamination of soil by human and natural activities which
may cause harmful effect on living organisms”. Composition of soil is listed below:
COMPONENT %
Organic mineral matter 45
Organic matter 05
Soil water 25
Soil air 25
TYPES, EFFECTS AND SOURCES OF SOIL POLLUTION

Soil pollution mainly occurs due to the following:
1. Industrial wastes
2. Urban wastes
3. Agricultural practices
4. Radioactive pollutants
5. Biological agents
Industrial wastes – Disposal of Industrial wastes is the major problem for soil pollution
Sources: Industrial pollutants are mainly discharged from various origins such as pulp and
paper mills, chemical fertilizers, oil refineries, sugar factories, tanneries, textiles, steel,
distilleries, fertilizers, pesticides, coal and mineral mining industries, drugs, glass, cement,
petroleum and engineering industries etc.
Effect: These pollutants affect and alter the chemical and biological properties of soil. As a
result, hazardous chemicals can enter into human food chain from the soil or water, disturb
the biochemical process and finally lead to serious effects on living organisms.
Urban wastes – Urban wastes comprise of both commercial and domestic wastes consisting
of dried sludge and sewage. All the urban solid wastes are commonly referred to as refuse.
Constituents of urban refuse: This refuse consists of garbage and rubbish materials like
plastics, glasses, metallic cans, fibres, paper, rubbers, street sweepings, fuel residues, leaves,
containers, abandoned vehicles and other discarded manufactured products. Urban domestic
wastes though disposed off separately from industrial wastes, can still be dangerous. This
happens because they are not easily degraded.
Agricultural practices – Modern agricultural practices pollute the soil to a large extent. With
the advancing agro-technology, huge quantities of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and
weedicides are added to increase the crop yield. Apart from these farm wastes, manure,
slurry, debris, soil erosion containing mostly inorganic chemicals are reported to cause soil
pollution
Radioactive pollutants/ - Radioactive substances resulting from explosions of nuclear

testing laboratories and industries giving rise to nuclear dust radioactive wastes, penetrate the
soil and accumulate giving rise to land/soil pollution.
Ex:
1. Radio nuclides of Radium, Thorium, Uranium, isotopes of Potassium (K-40) and

Carbon (C-14) are commonly found in soil, rock, water and air.
2. Explosion of hydrogen weapons and cosmic radiations include neutron, proton
reactions by which Nitrogen (N-15) produces C-14. This C-14 participates in Carbon
metabolism of plants which is then into animals and human beings.
3. Radioactive waste contains several radio nuclides such as Strontium90, Iodine-129,
Cesium-137 and isotopes of Iron which are most injurious. Strontium get deposited in
bones and tissues instead of calcium.
4. Nuclear reactors produce waste containing Ruthenium-106, Iodine-131, Barium-140,
Cesium-144 and Lanthanum-140 along with primary nuclides Sr-90 with a half life 28
years and Cs-137 with a half life 30 years. Rain water carries Sr-90 and Cs-137 to be
deposited on the soil where they are held firmly with the soil particles by electrostatic
forces. All the radio nuclides deposited on the soil emit gamma radiations.
5. Biological agents – Soil gets a large amount of human, animal and bird excreta which
constitute a major source of land pollution by biological agents.
Ex: 1. Heavy application of manures and digested sludge can cause serious damage to
plants within a few years
Control measures of soil pollution:
1. Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm practices.
Ex: Planting trees on barren slopes
Contour cultivation and strip cropping may be practiced instead of shifting

cultivation
Terracing and building diversion channels may be undertaken.
Reducing deforestation and substituting chemical manures by animal wastes also helps arrest
soil erosion in the long term.
2. Proper dumping of unwanted materials: Excess wastes by man and animals

pose a disposal problem. Open dumping is the most commonly practiced
technique. Nowadays, controlled tipping is followed for solid waste disposal.
The surface so obtained is used for housing or sports field.
3. Production of natural fertilizers: Bio-pesticides should be used in place of
toxic chemical pesticides. Organic fertilizers should be used in place of
synthesized chemical fertilizers. Ex: Organic wastes in animal dung may be
used to prepare compost manure instead of throwing them wastefully and
polluting the soil.
4. Proper hygienic condition: People should be trained regarding sanitary
habits.
Ex: Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective disposal methods.
5. Public awareness: Informal and formal public awareness programs should be

imparted to educate people on health hazards by environmental education.
Ex: Mass media, Educational institutions and voluntary agencies can achieve
this.
6. Recycling and Reuse of wastes: To minimize soil pollution, the wastes such
as paper, plastics, metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products and industrial
effluents etc should be recycled and reused.
Ex: Industrial wastes should be properly treated at source. Integrated waste

treatment methods should be adopted.
7. Ban on Toxic chemicals: Ban should be imposed on chemicals and pesticides

like DDT, BHC, etc which are fatal to plants and animals. Nuclear explosions
and improper disposal of radioactive wastes should be banned.

Water pollution - types, effects, sources and control of water pollution
Water pollution
Water pollution may be defined as “the alteration in physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of water which may cause harmful effects on humans and aquatic life.”
Pollutants include:
1. Sewage
2. Industrial effluents and chemicals
3. Oil and other wastes
Chemicals in air dissolve in rain water, fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides leached from
land pollute water.
TYPES, EFFECTS AND SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION Water pollution is any

chemical, biological or physical change in water quality that has a harmful effect on living
organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses.
Infectious agents
Ex: Bacteria, Viruses, Protozoa, and parasitic worms.
Human sources
Human and animal wastes
Effects: Variety of diseases.
Oxygen demanding wastes (Dissolved oxygen): This degradation consumes dissolved oxygen
in water. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen dissolved in a given quantity of
water at a particular pressure and temperature.
The saturated point of DO varies from 8 to 15 mg/L Ex: Organic wastes such as animal
manure and plant debris that can be decomposed by aerobic (oxygen-requiring) bacteria.
Human sources: Sewage, Animal feedlots, paper mills and food processing facilities.
Effects: Large populations of bacteria decomposing these wastes can degrade water quality
by depleting water of dissolved oxygen. This causes fish and other forms of oxygen-
consuming aquatic life to die.
Inorganic chemicals
Ex: Water soluble inorganic chemicals:
1. Acids
2. Compounds of toxic metals such as lead (Pb), arsenic (As) and selenium (Se)
3. Salts such as NaCl in oceans and fluoride (F-) found in some soils
Human sources: Surface runoff, industrial effluents and household cleansers Effects:
Inorganic chemicals can:
1. Make freshwater unusable for drinking and irrigation

2. Cause skin cancer and neck damage
3. Damage nervous system, liver and kidneys
4. Harm fish and other aquatic life
5. Lower crop yields
6. Accelerate corrosion of metals exposed to such water
Organic chemicals
Ex: Oil, Gasoline, Plastics, Pesticides, Cleaning solvents and Detergents.
Human Sources: Industrial effluents, household cleansers and surface runoff from farms.
Effects:
1. Can threaten human health by causing nervous system damage and some cancers.
2. Harm fish and wildlife.
Plant nutrients
Ex: Water soluble compounds containing nitrate, Phosphate and Ammonium ions.
Human sources: Sewage, manure and runoff of agricultural and urban fertilizers.
Effects:
1. Can cause excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants, which die, decay,
deplete dissolved oxygen in water thereby killing fish
2. Drinking water with excessive levels of nitrates lower the oxygen carrying capacity of
the blood and can kill urban children and infants.
Sediment
Ex: Soil, silt, etc.
Human Sources: Land erosion
Effects:
1. Causes cloudy water thereby reducing photosynthetic activity

2. Disruption of aquatic food chain
3. Carries pesticides, bacteria and other harmful substances
4. Settles and destroys feeding and spawning grounds of fish
5. Clogs and fills lakes, artificial reservoirs, stream channels and harbours.
Radioactive materials:
Ex: Radioactive isotopes of:
1. Iodine
2. Radon
3. Uranium
4. Cesium and
5. Thorium
Human sources: Nuclear power plants, mining and processing of uranium and other ores,
nuclear weapon production and natural sources.
Effects: Genetic mutations, birth defects and certain cancers.
Heat (Thermal pollution)

Ex: Excessive heat
Human sources: Water cooling of electric power plants and some types of industrial plants.
Almost half of whole water withdrawn in United States each year is for cooling electric
power plants.
Effects
1. Low dissolved oxygen levels thereby making aquatic organisms more vulnerable to
disease, parasites and toxic chemicals.
2. When a power plant starts or shuts down for repair, fish and other organisms adapted
to a particular temperature range, can be killed by an abrupt temperature change
known as thermal shock.
Point and non-point sources of water pollution:

Point sources These are pollutants that are discharged at specific locations through pipes,
ditches or sewers into bodies of surface waters.
1. Ex: Factories, sewage treatment plants, abandoned underground mines and oil
tankers.
2. Non point sources These pollutants cannot be traced to a single point of discharge.
They are large land areas or air-sheds that pollute water by runoff, subsurface flow or
deposition from the atmosphere.
Ex: Acid deposition, runoff of chemicals into surface water from croplands, livestock
feedlots, logged forests, urban streets, lawns, golf courses and parking lots.
Control measures of water pollution
1. Administration of water pollution control should be in the hands of state or central

government
2. Scientific techniques should be adopted for environmental control of catchment areas
of rivers, ponds or streams
3. Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations as it helps prevent disposal
of wastes into natural waters but also extraction of products from waste.
4. Plants, trees and forests control pollution as they act as natural air conditioners.
5. Trees are capable of reducing sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide pollutants and hence
more trees should be planted.
6. No type of waste (treated, partially treated or untreated) should be discharged into any
natural water body. Industries should develop closed loop water supply schemes and
domestic sewage must be used for irrigation.
7. Qualified and experienced people must be consulted from time to time for effective
control of water pollution.
8. Public awareness must be initiated regarding adverse effects of water pollution using
the media.
9. Laws, standards and practices should be established to prevent water pollution and
these laws should be modified from time to time based on current requirements and
technological advancements.
10. Basic and applied research in public health engineering should be encouraged.

Air Pollution - causes, effects and control measures
Air pollution - Air pollution may be defined as the presence of one or more contaminants like
dust, mist, smoke and colour in the atmosphere that are injurious human beings, plants and
animals.
1. Rapid industrialization
2. Fast urbanization
3. Rapid growth in population
4. Growth of vehicles on the roads and
5. Activities of human beings have disturbed the natural balance of the atmosphere.
The composition of Air is given below:
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Argon less than 1%
Carbondioxide 0.037%
Water vapour Remaining
Ozone, Helium and ammonia Trace amount
Sources of Air pollution

Sources of air pollution are of two types.
Natural sources and Artificial sources
Natural sources of pollution are those that are caused due to natural phenomena. Ex: Volcanic
eruptions, Forest fires, Biological decay, Pollen grains, Marshes, Radioactive materials.
Artificial sources are those which are created by man. Ex: Thermal power plants, Vehicular
emissions, Fossil fuel burning, agricultural activities etc.
Classification of Air Pollutants

Depending on the form of pollutants present in the environment, they are classified as:
1. Primary pollutants and

2. Secondary pollutants
Primary pollutants are those that are directly emitted in the atmosphere in the harmful form
Ex: CO, NO, CO2, SO2 etc.
Secondary pollutants are those that are formed by reacting with other components or some
basic component of the atmosphere to form new pollutants.
Ex: Oxides of Nitrogen (NO2 or NO3) react with moisture in the atmosphere to give Nitric
acid
Indoor air pollutants are primary air pollutants. The most important indoor air pollutant
is Radon gas.
Sources of indoor air pollutants are:
1. Radon gas is emitted from building materials like bricks, concrete, tiles, etc that are
derived from soil containing radium
2. Radon is also found in natural gas and ground water and is emitted while being used.
3. Burning fuel in the kitchen and cigarette smoke release pollutants like CO, SO2,
HCHO (Formaldehyde) and BAP (Benzo-(A) pyrene).
SOURCES AND COMMON EFFECTS OF COMMON AIR POLLUTANTS

Carbonmonoxide: It is a colourless, odourless gas that is poisonous animals. It is formed by
incomplete combustion of carbon containing fuels.
Source of carbonmonoxide is cigarette smoking and incomplete combustion of fossil fuels
(more than 77% comes from motor vehicle exhaust)
Health effects include reduced ability of red blood cells to carry oxygen to body cells and
tissues. This leads to headache and anemia. At high levels it causes coma, irreversible brain
damage and death.
Nitrogen Dioxide: It is a reddish-brown irritating gas that causes photochemical smog. In the
atmosphere, it gets converted into nitric acid (HNO3). It is caused by burning fossil fuels in
industries and power plants.
Health effects include lung irritation and damage. Environmental effects involve acid
deposition leading to damage of trees, lakes, soil and ancient monuments. NO2 can damage
fabrics.
Sulphur Dioxide: It is a colourless and irritating gas that is formed by combustion of sulphur
containing fossil fuels such as coal and oil. In the atmosphere it is converted into Sulphuric
acid which is a major component of acid deposition.
Health effects involve breathing problems for healthy people.
Environmental effects involve reduced visibility and acid deposition on trees, lakes, soils
and monuments leading to their deterioration and adverse effect on aquatic life.
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM): Includes a variety of particles and droplets (aerosols)
that can be suspended in atmosphere for short to long periods.
Human sources for SPM include burning coal in power and industrial units, burning diesel
and other fuels in vehicles, agriculture, unpaved roads, construction, etc.
Health effects include nose and throat irritation, ling damage, bronchitis, asthama,
reproductive problems and cancer.
Environmental Effects include reduced visibility and acid deposition. Acid deposition may
lead to damaged trees, soils and aquatic life in lakes.
Ozone is a highly reactive gas with an unpleasant odour occurring in the stratosphere where
it protects mankind fro the harmful ultra-violet rays from the Sun. However on earth, it is a
pollutant.
It occurs on earth due to reaction between Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and
Nitrogen Oxides. It moderates the climate
Photochemical smog is a browinsh smoke that frequently forms on clear, sunny days over
large cities with significant amounts of automobile traffic.It is mainly due to chemical
reactions among nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight.
Health effects include breathing problems, cough, eye, nose and throat irritation, heart
diseases, reduced resistance to colds and pneumonia.
Environmental effects involve damage to plants and trees. Additionally, Smog reduces
visibility.
Lead is a solid and highly toxic metal. Its compounds are emitted into the atmosphere as
particulate matter.
Human Sources: Paint, Smelters (metal refineries), lead manufacture, storage batteries,
leaded petrol, etc
Health effects: Lead accumulates in the body and brain leading to nervous system damage
and mental retardation (especially in children), digestive and other health problems. Lead
containing chemicals are known to cause cancer in test animals.
Environmental Effects: It can harm wildlife.
Hydrocarbons Lower haydrocarbons accumulate due to decay of vegetable matter.

Human effects: They are carcinogenic
Chromium: It is a solid toxic metal emitted into the atmosphere as particulate matter.
Human sources: Paint, Smelters, Chromium manufacture, Chromium plating.
Health Effects: Perforation of nasal septum, chrome holes, etc.
CONTROL MEASURES
The atmosphere has several built-in self cleaning processes such as dispersion, gravitational
settling, flocculation, absorption, rain-washout, etc to cleanse the atmosphere. However,
control of contaminants at their source level is a desirable and effective method through
preventive or control technologies.
Source control: Some measures that can be adopted in this direction are:
1. Using unleaded petrol

2. Using fuels with low sulphur and ash content
3. Encouraging people to use public transport, walk or use a cycle as opposed to private
vehicles
4. Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and playgrounds are not located on busy
streets
5. Plant trees along busy streets as they remove particulates, carbon dioxide and absorb
noise
6. Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outsdide the city preferably on
the downwind of the city.
7. Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons
Control measures in industrial centers
1. Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by each and every industry
2. Incorporation of air pollution control equipment in design of plant layout must be
made mandatory
3. Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for pollutants should be carried out to know
the emission levels.
EQUIPMENT USED TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION

The following equipment is used to control air pollution:
1. Control of SPM by gravitation
Control of SPM by gravitation

Equipment used: Gravitational Settling Chamber A typical gravitational chamber is shown
below.
The dust laden gas enters at the inlet and due to the sudden increase in cross-section the
particulate matter settles at the bottom and can be removed from the dust hoppers as shown
The clean gas free from particulate matter exits from the outlet
IMPORTANT FACTS:
Simple to construct and maintain
Efficient to remove particles of diameter greater than 50 mm from gas streams
They are used as pre-cleaners before passing gases through high efficiency collection devices
They rely on gravitational settling and are the simplest and oldest mechanical collectors for
removal of particulates from gas streams
Flow within the chamber must be uniform without macroscopic mixing
Dust removal system must be sealed to prevent production of turbulence due to air from
leaking into chamber
Efficiency of the equipment increases with increased residence time of the waste gas. Hence,
the equipment is operated at lowest possible gas velocity
The size of the unit depends on:
gas velocity which should preferably be less than 0.3 m/s
ADVANTAGES
Low capital and energy cost
Low maintenance and operating costs
Low pressure drop
Reliable
Equipment is not subjected to abrasion due to low gas velocity
Equipment provides incidental cooling of gas stream
Temperature and pressure limitations depend on material of construction
Pollutants are collected in dry state
DISADVANTAGES
Low particulate matter collection efficiency
Unable to handle sticky materials
Large size
Trays in multiple tray settling chamber may warp under high temperatures.
2. Control of SPM by centrifugation

Equipment used: Cyclonic separator
Centrifugation is a process that involves the use of centrifugal force for sedimentation of a
heterogeneous mixture with a centrifuge. It involves removal of particulates from air, gas or a
liquid stream without use of filters with a vortex separation. When removing particulates
from a gaseous stream, a gas cyclone is used while a hydrocyclone is used to remove
particulates from a liquid stream. This method can also be used to separate fine droplets of
liquid from a gaseous stream.
A high speed rotating air flow is formed in a cylindrical or conical container called a cyclone.
Air flows in a helical pattern from the top to a narrow bottom as show,
Cyclones use the principle of inertia to remove particulate matter from a gas stream. Several
cyclones operating in parallel is known as multicyclone. In a cyclone separator, dirty gas is
fed into a chamber where a spiral vortex exists. The large particles hit the inside walls of the
container and drop down into the collection hooper. The clean flue gas escapes from the top
of the chamber. Cyclones can be used efficiently to remove particles of size 10 microns or
more. High efficiency cyclones can remove particles of dimeter as small as 2.5 microns. They
are the least expensive of all particulate collection devices. They are used as rough separators
before the gas is passed through fine filtration systems. Their efficiency is between 50-99%.
Cyclone separators work best on flue gases that contain large amount of big particulate
matter.
ADVANTAGES:
Cyclones are less expensive to install or maintain as they do not contain any moving parts
It is easy to dispose particulate matter as it is collected in the dry state
Space requirement is very less
DISADVANTAGES:
They are not efficient in collecting particulate matter smaller than 10 microns
They cannnot handle sticky material
3. Control of SPM by filtration

In a fabric filter system, a stream of the polluted gas is made to pass through a fabric that
filters out the particulate pollutant and allows the clear gas to pass through. The particulate
matter is left in the form of a thin dust mat on the insides of the bag. This dust mat acts as a
filtering medium for further removal of particulates increasing the efficiency of the filter bag
to sieve more sub micron particles (0.5 µm).
A typical filter is a tubular bag which is closed at the upper end and has a hopper attached at
the lower end to collect the particles when they are dislodged from the fabric. Many such
bags are hung in a baghouse. For efficient filtration and a longer life the filter bags must be
cleaned occasionally by a mechanical shaker to prevent too many particulate layers from
building up on the inside surfaces of the bag. A typical bag house filter is shown in the figure
below.
ADVANTAGES:
Bag filter is a high quality performance instrument to effectively control particulate emissions
and its efficiency is as high as 99%
Collection efficiency is not affected by sulphur content in fuel
It is not sensitive to particle size distribution
It does not require high voltage
It can be used to collect flammable dust
Special fiber or filter aids can be used to sub-micron level smoke and fumes
DISADVANTAGES:
Fabric life is reduced due to presence of highly acidic or alkaline atmospheres, especially at
high temperatures
Maximum operating temperature is 500 F
Collection of hygroscopic materials or condensation of moisture can lead to fabric plugging,
loss of cleaning efficiency and large pressure losses.
Certain dusts may require special fabric treatments to aid in reducing leakage or to help in
cake removal
Fabric bags are prone to burning or melting at extreme temperatures.
4. Control of SPM by scrubbing

A scrubber is a system used to remove harmful materials from industrial exhaust gases before
they are released into the environment. The two main ways to scrub pollutants out of exhaust
are:
Dry scrubbing and
Wet scrubbing
In dry scrubbing, harmful components of exhausted flue gas are removed by introducing a
solid substance (usually in the powdered form) in the gas stream.
Wet scrubbing involves removal of harmful components from exhaust by spraying a liquid
substance through the gas.
Both methods work similarly and perform the same process of removing pollutants. The
difference lies in the materials they use to remove the pollutant from the gas stream. By
removing acidic gases from the exhaust before it is released into the atmosphere, scrubbers
help in the prevent the formation of acid rain.
Scrubbing is sometimes referred to as flue gas desulfurization.
Scrubbing is the most effective technique for the removal of oxides of sulphur and is widely
used. Scrubbers remove sulphur oxides from flue gases by passing the gases through a spray
of water in a wet scrubber that contains many chemicals, mainly calcium carbonate.
If a dry scrubber is used, the flue gas comes in contact with pulverised limestone. The
chemical reaction between suphur dioxide and calcium carbonate yields calcium sulphite.
The calcium sulphite either falls out of the gas stream or is removed with other particulates.
Scrubbers are highly efficient and remove almost 98% of sulphur from flue gases. However,
they are expensive to maintain and install. They are also energy intensive as the flue gas must
be reheated after coming into contact with water vapour in the wet scrubber to make the gas
buoyant to exit the smoke stacks.
5. Control of SPM by Electrostatic precipitator

An Electrostatic precipitator is mainly used to control particulate matter. An Electrostatic
precipitator uses electrostatic forces to separate dust particles from exhaust gases. A number
of high-voltage, direct-current discharge electrodes are placed between grounded collecting
electrodes. The contaminated gases flow through the passage formed by the discharge and
collecting electrodes as shown in the figure below.
Air borne particles receive a negative charge as they pass through the ionized field between
the electrodes. These charged particles are then attracted to the oppositely charged electrode
and stick to it. The collected material is then removed by rapping or vibrating the electrodes.
Cleaning the electrodes is done without interrupting the air flow.
The main components of all electrostatic precipitators are:
 a power supply unit to supply high voltage DC power

 ionizing section to impart a charge to the particulates in the gas stream
 an attachment to remove the collected particulates
 a housing to enclose the precipitator zone
The following factors influence the collection efficiency of electrostatic precipitators:
 Larger collection surface areas and lower gas flow rates increase efficiency of
electrostatic precipitators due to increased time for the electrical activity to collect the
dust particles
 The dust particle migration velocity to the collecting electrodes can be increased by:
 Decreasing gas velocity
 Increasing gas temperature and
 Increasing the voltage field
There are two types of precipitators:
1. Single-stage precipitators that combine an ionization and collection step also known
as cottrell precipitators. It is mainly used in mineral processing operations.
2. Low voltage, two stage precipitators that use a similar principle, but in this case, the
ionization section is followed by collection plates. It is mainly used for filtration in
air-conditioning systems.
Electrostatic precipitators may be:

Plate precipitators in which particles are collected on flat parallel surfaces about 20 to 30 cm
apart with a series of discharge electrodes spaced along the centerline of two adjacent plates.
The contaminated particles pass through the passage between the plates and the particles get
charged and adhere to the collection plates. The particles are eventually removed by rapping
the plates and the dust is collected in the hoppers or bins placed at the base of the precipitator.
Tubular precipitators consist of cylindrical collection electrodes with discharge electrodes
located on the axis of the cylinder. The contaminated gases flow around the discharge
electrode and through the inside of the cylinders. The charged particles are collected on the
grounded walls of the cylinder. The collected dust is removed from the bottom of the
cylinder. They are generally used for collection of mist or fog or for adhesive, sticky,
radioactive or extremely toxic materials.
Air pollution can be reduced by adopting the following approaches.
1. Ensuring sufficient supply of oxygen to the combustion chamber and adequate

temperature so that the combustion is complete thereby eliminating much of the
smoke consisting of partly burnt ashes and dust.
2. To use mechanical devices such as scrubbers, cyclones, bag houses and electro-static
precipitators in manufacturing processes. The equipment used to remove particulates
from the exhaust gases of electric power and industrial plants are shown below. All
methods retain hazardous materials that must be disposed safely. Wet scrubber can
additionally reduce sulphur dioxide emissions.
3. The air pollutants collected must be carefully disposed. The factory fumes are dealt
with chemical treatment.

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B.TECH. DEGREE EXAMINATION - NOV / DEC 2017

Cognitive (K) levels

PART – A (10 x 1 = 10 Marks)

2. Equitable use of resources 1 2

Ecosystem has been defined as a system of interaction of organisms with their

5. Impacts of CO on human health 3 1

At lower doses, they can impair concentration and neurobehavioral function

Tsunami attacks mostly the coastlines, causing devastating property, damage

8. Need for wasteland reclamation 4 2

Population of the world is increasing at an alarming rate. This increases demand

10. Opportunistic infection defined 5 2

11. (a) Environmental effects of mining 1 2

11. (b) Petroleum as a energy resources 1 2

12. (a) Structure of an ecosystem 2 2

Components that make up the structure of an ecosystem include:

12. (b) Four major functions of ecosystem 2 2

(i)Regulating function – Maintenance of essential ecological processes and life support

(iv) Cultural function – Providing for fulfillment opportunities / cognitive development

13. (a) Sources of soil pollution 3 2

13. (b) Bio-magnification of fat-soluble pollutant DDT 3 2

Biomagnification, also known as bioamplification or biological magnification, is the

14. (a) Strategies for conservation of water 4 2

14. (b) Nuclear accidents and holocausts 4 2

Effects of nuclear radiation

Nuclear holocaust - Destruction of Biodiversity by nuclear equipments and nuclear

15. (a) Value education 5 2

Essentially, environmental values cannot be taught. They are inculcated through a

Unsustainable development is a part of economic growth of the powerful while it makes

15. (b) Impacts of population growth on environment 5 2

16. (a) Impact of dams on people 1 2

16. (b) Renewable energy resources 1 2

17. (a) Nitrogen cycle and phosphorous cycle 2 2

17. (b) Hot spots of biodiversity, threats and 2 2

Hot spots (areas marked black)

18. (a) Causes, effects and control of marine 3 2

18. (b) Methods of waste management in the 3 2

Post-collection System - Operations

Post-collection System — Administrative and Financial Structure

19. (a) Green house gases and global warming 4 2

Green house gases

19. (b) Salient features of Air Act 1981 and EPA 4 2

Air Act 1981

 Planning and execution of nation wide programme on Environmental Pollution.

20. (a) IT on environment 5 2

 Information Technology has tremendous potential in dealing with environmental

Information technology plays also a key role in human health management

20. (b) Issues and measures for women and child 5 2

Sunday, November 10, 2013

DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA

Posted by Mrinal Gour at 11:04 AM 19 comments:

DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE

Posted by Mrinal Gour at 11:03 AM 13 comments:

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DISASTER MITIGATION

DISASTER MANAGEMENT & METHODOLOGY

All disaster-related activities are divided in-to distinct time periods.

Phases Of Disaster Response (Natural Disasters)

A disaster is a natural or man-made hazard resulting in an event of substantial extent causing

Hazards are divided into natural or human-made.

occurrence and helps ensure contingency plans are made.

3. Freedom of information: Environmental planning and management is hindered if the

1. Drawbacks of wildlife protection act, 1972

Posted by Mrinal Gour at 6:03 PM 2 comments:

Posted by Mrinal Gour at 9:02 PM 1 comment: