272B Notes

272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang
3/30
Instructor: Marcus Roper.
Text: Acheson.
Fungi and spores.
Cooperative effect of ejecting spores: a pack of spores goes farther than one
spore does.
Feeding: birds (in LA) turn to make upward vorticity to feed.
Network: Fungi network, leaf network (damage routing).
Getting around: How do water striders climb?
Getting around: How do bacteria climb up a glass surface?
§1 Properties of a fluid (liquid or gas)
We want to consider the fluid as a continuum. The fluid is made up of

molecules. However we cannot afford to understand the motions of all
molecules ( 0.3 nm 3 1010 m) . So we want to understand the av-
erage motion of molecules, i.e. consider a box containing some molecules
and average all of their velocities. Each molecule has property fi , and let xf y
be average over all molecules in box. Any property f can be broken up into
fi xf y fi1 .
We want to neglect the fluctuation f 1 and only keep xf y. By central limit
theorem
fi1
xf y ?1
N
where N is the number of molecules (heuristically). How small do we want
1
fi
xf y to be? If one can tolerate a ten percent error then
1
?1 0.1 ñ N 100.
N
Thus the box has to contain 100 molecules, which means that the continuum
approach can be used if the side of the box contains about 5 molecules, or
about 1 nm. In nature most things are ¡¡ 1 nm. Cells are 1 µm, cell
membranes are 10 nm thick. One can plot the average velocity xf y v.s.
side length of the box. Once above the critical side length (1 nm) it’s con-
stant until 100 nm, where it starts to grow. It is fluctuating under 1 nm.
After 100 nm it is macroscopic cut-off. The constant region is a good average
length scale.
4/1
Idea: We can define fields that describe the average/summed motions of the
molecules that make up the field, e.g. define a velocity field upx, tq where
u : Rn R Ñ Rn . upx, tq means the average velocity of all molecules in a box
centered at x at time t. What fields are needed to describe what the fluid is
doing?
• velocity, defined by
1 ¸
vi .
N i
• density, defined by
°
mi
i
,
V
where mi is mass of molecule i and V is the volume.
• temperature (not showing up much in class), defined

°
1 2
T °
i 2 mi vi
3 p?q
i 2k
• energy
2
• (linear) momentum
Linear momentum: If particle i has mass mi and velocity vi , then the mo-
mentum is mi vi . We define ppx, tq to be the average momentum of particles
in box. Thus the linear momentum density is defined by
¸
ppx, tq
1
mi vi .
V i
If we assume that tvi u and tmi u are uncorrelated, and this is empirically
validated, then
°
¸
ppx, tq NV N1
i mi vi
mi vi
V i
° ° ° °
p by uncorrelation q NV Ni mi Ni vi i mi
V
i vi
N
ρpx, tqupx, tq.
Kinetic energy is defined by
¸
1
2V
mi vi2 12 ρu2 p?q,
i
where u |u| (it may not defined in the way of summation since we could
2 2
have zero on RHS and non-zero on LHS).
Pressure (force by which fluid resists changes in density)
Consider a particle bounces off from a small surface. Then force is exerted
due to collisions between molecules and the walls of the container. So this
force is exerted in the wall-normal direction. There might be tangent forces
but they are viscosity rather than pressure.
4/3
u: average velocity of molecules. Velocity of molecule:
vi u δvi
where the former gives us the kinetic energy density and the latter represents
the internal kinetic energy (temperature). Now consider pressure. Consider
3
a particle bounces on the wall and gives a normal force. Define a pressure
field ppx, tq, p : Rn 1 Ñ R s.t. if I consider a small (”infinitesimal”) (it cannot
be too small for physical constraint though) element of wall with area dA
and normal n pointing outward, then the force on he element is
ppx, tqndA,
i.e. the pressure is average force (by area) on the wall.
NB:
1. If we change the orientation of the element ndA, then the magnitude of
the pressure should stay the same.
2. In the absence of a solid boundary, ppx, tqndA is the rate of momentum
transferred across the square element from particles starting from above the
element to below the element. Because of Newton’s third law, there is an
equal opposite transfer of momentum ppx, tqndA from molecules below the
element to above the element. Thus ppx, tq can be defined even if we don’t
have a solid surface.
3. Pressure has unit of mN2 P a.
Fields we care: (iv) Force density, defined by

°
f px, tq i fi
,
V
where fi is the force on particle i due to, e.g. gravitational field, electromag-
netic field, and V is the volume. The force we are going to consider is the
gravity force, which is given by
°
f px, tq ρg,
mi g
i
V
where ρ is the density.
§2 Hydrostatics
The study of fluids that are not in motion (u 0) (the boring case). Consider
a control volume, which is a volume of space, containing fluid, and enclosed
by an orientable, piecewise smooth surface B Ω. There can be no net force
acting on the fluid contained in Ω. Thus
4
body force acting on fluids contained in Ω pressure force acting over B Ω 0.
BΩ can be broken up with infinitesimal elements ndS with pressure force

ppx, tqndS. Thus the total pressure force is
»
pndS.
BΩ
This cannot be balanced with the pressure from inside to outside because
that force act to the fluid outside. Now we break Ω up into infinitesimal
volume elements dV . The body force on that element if f px, tqdV . Thus the
total body force is
»
f px, tqdV.
Ω
Thus the force balance reads
» »
f px, tqdV pndS 0.

Ω BΩ
By Gauss’ theorem
» »
f px, tqdV ∇pdV 0.

Ω Ω
Divergence theorem: Generally
»

»
Bψ dV
Ω B xi
ni ψdS
BΩ
if n is the outward normal vector. Thus
»
pf ∇pqdV 0.
Ω
Since Ω can be any control volume we have
f ∇p 0
if f, ∇p are both continuous. If body force is due to fluid weight then f ρg,
then
5
ρg ∇p 0.
Consider a peaker of water. We have ~g gez and at the free surface z 0
we have pp0q pa which is the atmospheric pressure. Thus
dp
dz
ρg ñ p ρgz pa.
Now consider putting a toy boat in the peaker. Want to calculate the buoy-
ant upthrust on the toy boat? (To be continued)
4/6
No class on Wednesday.
What is the force on the iceberg?
p ρgz pa .
We assumed that ρ is a constant (wewill revisit this assumption). Also we
showed that
Bp Bp 0, Bp ρg.
Bx By Bz
We want to integrate the pressure force over the submerged boundary of B Ω.
Call the submerged boundary by B Ωs , the boundary in the air by³ B Ωa , and
the intersection of Ω and the water level line by B Ωf . What is BΩs pndS?
Also
» »
ppanqdS pa p∇1qdV 0.

BΩs YBΩa Ω
Now we want to calculate

» »
ρgzn dS ρgzndS
BΩs BΩs YBΩf
since z 0 on B Ωf . Now we can use the Gauss’ theorem on this closed
surface by
6
» » »
ρgzn dS ρg ∇zdV ρgez dV ρg|Ωs|ez

BΩs YBΩf Ωs Bs
where Ωs is the part of Ω that is submerged in the water. This statement
is Archimedes’ principle: The buoyancy force on a body is the weight of the
fluid that it replaces.
§3 Inviscid fluid flow
Consider a fluid in motion, with velocity field u, density ρ, pressure p, and

potentially also a force density E. Derive conservation laws to relate these
quantities.
Conservation of mass: Take an arbitrary control volume Ω with boundary

BΩ. Consider the rate of change of fluid mass contained in. If the total mass
of fluid contained in Ω is M we can calculate the total mass by:
(i) Split Ω into ”infinitesimal” elements dV .
(ii) Mass of one element is ρpx, tqdV .
ρpx, tqdV .
³
(iii) Total mass in Ω is M Ω
Since we do not concern nuclear reactions in this course we know that

dM
dt
rate at which fluid flow into Ω through BΩ.
Now we break B Ω up into ”infinitesimal ” elements. Suppose we know the
velocity field upx, tq. How much fluid flows into the element in time δt? We
can translate entire element by vector uδt. Only the fluid contained in the
parallelepiped created above will leave in time δt. The mass of fluid that
leaves is ρ volume, where
volume surface area height dS puδtq n.

Thus
rate of which mass flows through element
7
amount of mass flow in time δt

δt
ρpu nqdS.
So we can write
»
dM
ρpu nqdS
dt BΩ
» »
d
ρdV ρpu nqdS
dt Ω BΩ
»
Bρ dV »
ρu ndS.
Ω Bt BΩ
By Gauss’ theorem
»
Bρ ∇ pρuqdV 0.
Ω Bt
Since Ω is arbitrary we have:
Bρ ∇ pρuq 0
Bt
except possibly on some measure zero set.
Conservation of momentum: Consider rate of change of the momentum of

the fluid contained in Ω. The total momentum of fluid in an element dV is
ρudV . The total momentum of fluid in Ω is
»
I ρudV.
Ω
dI
dt
forces acting on fluid in Ω (body forces)
pressure force acting over boundary
rate of which momentum is carried out of Ω through BΩ.
4/10
Last time:
B »
surface forces rate at which momentum is lost through BΩ.

Bt Ω
ρudV body forces
8
Difference between this statement and statement of hydrostatic force balance:
1. Total momentum contained in Ω may change with time.

2. Flow of fluid through B Ω can take momentum with it.
Name the terms by (1)-(3) in order. We can see that (1), (2) are the same
as hydrostatic force balance:
» »
p1q pndS, p2q f dV.

BΩ Ω
For (3) we can break it into contributions from area elements ndS. In time
δt all fluid contained i a parallelopiped with face ndS and the momentum of
fluid in parallelopiped (PP) is
punδtqdSρu.
So the rate of momentum loss is
p3q ρupu nqdS.

Then the equation becomes
B »

» »

»
ρupu nqdS.
Bt Ω
ρudV
BΩ
pndS
Ω
f dV
BΩ
By Gauss’ theorem
»
B pρuqdV ∇pdV » »
f dV ∇ pρuuqdV
»
Ω Bt Ω Ω Ω
where uu tui uj ui,j 1 is a 9-component tensor (can think of the index as in

3
matrix but it’s not a matrix). We can see that
∇ pρuuqj
3
¸ B pρu u q.
i1
B xi i j
Since Ω is arbitrary we have
pB q B pρuq ∇ pρuuq ∇p

Bt f.
Compared to the conservation of mass equation
9
pAq Bρ ∇ pρuq 0.
Bt
We can expand (B) using product rule to get
Bρ Bu ρu ∇u u∇ pρuq ∇p
u
Bt ρ
Bt f
ñ ρ BBut ρu ∇u ∇p f
by eliminating terms using (A). This is called the Euler’s equation. Now we
have 5 unknowns (ρ, u, p) but we only have 4 equations. Thus we need an
equation of state for the fluid as a final equation in the form p ppρq. E.g.
for an ideal gas at constant entropy
p
p0
p ρρ qγ
0
where ρ0 , p0 are reference density and pressure, and γ C Cp

v
. Constant en-
tropy means free and fast flow of heat (do not worry too much). Under many
conditions we may assume that the density of the fluid is constant, i.e. ρ ρ0
is a constant. What conditions are these? Assume that ρ does not change
much. Then
p p0 p1pρ0qpρ ρ0q.
For the ideal gas equation
p1 pρ0 q
γp0
.
ρ0
Also we define c p1 pρ0 q and we will see that c is the speed of sound in
a
the fluid (see homework 1). We can write
dp c2 dρ.
Note that although ρ might not change very much since c is large p will have
significant change. Now we can estimate terms in Euler’s equation. Suppose
flow is over a body with typical dimension L and typical velocity of flow U .
About typical quantities it does not matter so much which quantities one
uses (like length or height of car). But the estimates will not change much.
Then
10
ρ0 U 2
ρu ∇u .
L
2
If L is length of car and ρUL is large, then it will still be large if L is chosen
instead to be the height of car. By Euler’s equation we have
ρ0 U 2
∇p ρu ∇u
L
2 2
ñ c Ldρ dp
L
ρ0 U
L
2
ñ dρ
ρ
U
c2
0
where the LHS represents the relative change in density. The mach number
M a Uc is a dimensionless number. However we can see that
.
U 10m{s, c 330m{s ñ M a 0.03

and
dρ
ρ0
M a2 0.001
which is very small. Thus when M a is small we can assume the density does
not change. Also we can use M a to estimate the size of density changes.
If M a2 1 then we can neglect change in density and assume that ρ is
constant. When ρ is constant (A) becomes
∇ u 0,
i.e. u is an incompressible vector field, and the equation (B) does not change.
Also we can solve for p since we have 4 equations so we are not going to drop
p term.
4/13
Last time we mentioned that if Ma 1 then we claim that we can treat ρ

as a constant. To see this more carefully we non-dimensionalize the equation.
E.g.
11
x x L, u u U
where denotes the non-dimensionalized variables. We can non-dimensionalize
time by setting
t t
L
.
U
From the equation
Bu ρu ∇u ∇p
ρ
Bt F
we can see that the LHS has typical quantity ρ0LU and ∇p
2 ∆p
. Thus (by
linearization in last class and for non-dimensionalized p , ρ )
L
p p0 ρ0 U 2 p px , t q
U2
ρ ρ0 ρ0 ρ px , t q.
c2
From conservation of mass:
Bρ pu ∇qρ 0
Bt ρ∇u
we can see the dimensionless form is
U B ρ U2 U
pρ0 ρ px , t qq ∇ u Ma2 ρ0 pu ∇ qρ 0
U
Ma2 ρ0
L B t
ρ0
c2 L L
B ρ
ñ Ma p Bt
2
ρ ∇ u pu ∇qρq ∇ u 0.
Thus the dominant balance in the equation is
∇ u 0.
In summary Euler’s equations for an inviscid, incompressible fluid read
pAq ∇u0
12
pB q Bu ρpu ∇qu ∇p

ρ
Bt F.
Could the second equation be derived from force balance? We want to show
that the LHS is exactly the product of density with the acceleration. Consider
a particle moving with the fluid and
x xptq, x1 upxptq, tq.

Then
x1 pt ∆tq x1 ptq
a lim .
∆t Ñ0 ∆t
Observe that
x1 pt ∆tq upxpt ∆tq, t ∆tq.

By Taylor’s expansion
xpt ∆tq xptq ∆tupxptq, tq Op∆t2 q

so
x1 pt∆ tq upxptq, tq pu ∇qu∆t BBut ∆t Op∆t2 q
since we have
upx q upx, tq pδ ∇qu Bu

δ, t
Bt h.o.t.
Suppose a particle x xptq is moving through a field θpx, tq, how quickly
does θ change as observed by the particle? The expression is
θpxpt ∆tq, t ∆tq θpxptq, tq

Op∆tq
Dθ
Dt ∆t
θ px ∆x, t ∆tq θpx, tq

∆t
p∆x ∇qθ ∆t
∆ BBθt
Op∆tq px1 ∇qθ
Bθ
Bt Op∆tq
where ∆x x1 ptq∆t Op∆t2 q is given by the Taylor’s expansion. We call Dθ

Dt
the material derivative of θ. Now we can perform a force balance on a small
13
cuboid with dimension ∆x∆y∆z of fluid. Consider the force balance in the
x-direction and let the center of the left square face to be p0, 0, 0q. Then
ρdxdydz
Dux
Dt
pp0, 0, 0qdzdy ppdx, 0, 0qdzdy Fx dxdydz.
However
ppdx, 0, 0q pp0, 0, 0q dx
Bp

Opdx2 q
Bx p0,0,0q

so
Dux
ρ
Dt
px Fx Opdxq,
which is the x-component of (B). Now we have 4 unknowns and 4 equations.
We need boundary conditions on the Euler equations. One class of BCs comes
from considering flow over moving bodies. On surface of body consider an
element moving with velocity of u and the object (car) moving at velocity U .
Consider a pilbox(bunker)-shaped control volume. Let the frame speed be
u1 u U.
Create a thin element with dS as one face. We can see that the total fluid
flow across all faces is zero (to be continued).
4/14
? on the moving object dS

Consider a moving object in a fluid. For a surface
project a distance h into the fluid where h dS. Define the velocity in
the frame of moving object by
u1 uU
where U is the velocity of the object. The conservation of mass in pillbox Ω
reads
»
u1 ndS 0.
? BΩ
Sinceh dS, the contribution from the sidewalls of the pillbox is much
smaller than the contribution from flat faces. Also there is no fluid flow on
the face of the object. Thus is we let B Ωf be the flat face in the fluid we have
14
u1 ndS 0 ñ u1 n 0
BΩf
over the entire boundary of the body. Thus on the boundary of the body
unU n
which is called the no through-flow boundary condition. What BCs should
be applied at the interface between two fluids? We can generalize to two
fluids but now we consider the fluid/air interface. Let’s assume the interface
is given by a function
z hpx, y, tq.
Let the upper part be fluid 2 (air) and the lower part be fluid 1 (could be
water). Want to write the normal velocity BC as a constraint on hpx, y, tq.
By the no through-flow condition we know that if we start a piece of fluid at
the interface, we can’t leave the interface. This means that according to an
observer moving with the fluid
D
Dt
pz hq 0 at z h
ñ Dz
Dt
Dh
Dt
0
ñ uz BBht ux BBhx uy BBhy 0 at z h,

which can be used as an evolution equation for h (kinematic BC). However
since h is unknown we still need an extra piece of information. We can
get one more boundary condition from doing a force balance (deriving a
dynamic BC). Again we consider a pillbox on the free surface extending in
both direction with total height h and surface element dS. Now we want to
balance forces on the pillbox. The equation is
mass acceleration surface forces body forces momentum fluxes.

The LHS scales like maxpρ1 , ρ2 q hdS, and the body forces scales like
body force density hdS. However the surface forces dS so by the domi-
nant balance as h Ñ 0:
15
0 surface forces momentum fluxes.

The momentum flux through the upper face is ρ2 u2 pu2 nqdS and that
through the lower face is ρ1 u1 pu1 nqdS, where n is the outward normal and
we consider the amount flowing into the pillbox. Thus the equation becomes
ρ1 u1 pu1 nqdS ρ2 u2 pu2 nqdS p2 ndS p1 ndS 0.

Doing inner product with n we have
ρ1 pu1 nq2 ρ2 pu2 nq2 p2 p1 0.

By the kinematic boundary condition (fluid near the surface sticks with it)
ui n 0 @i 1, 2
we can obtain
p1 p2
which is the dynamic BC.
§4 Vorticity
Define
ω ∇ u p∇ ^ uq.
How to interpret this?
(1) If C is any closed curve and S is any surface spanning C, then by Stokes’
theorem
» »
u dS ω ndS.
C S
It tells us the circulation or swirl of u around C.
(2) By the definition of curl
ωz BBuxy BBuyx .
16
Image labeling with dye two small perpendicular fluid elements with length
dx along x and y axes. How does this pair of vectors change due to fluid
flow? In time ∆t the movement of points are
p0, 0q Ñ puxp0, 0q∆t, uy p0, 0q∆tq

pdx, 0q Ñ
(to be continued).
4/15
To continue the topic from last time let u ux , v uy . Then the new
positions are
p0, 0q Ñ pu∆t, v∆tq
p0, dxq Ñ ppu Bu q∆t, dx pv Bv dxq∆tq

dx
By By
pdx, 0q Ñ pdx pu dx BBux q∆t, pv Bv dxq∆tq.
Bx
Let θx be the angle of the transformed lower line to the x-axis and θy be that
of the transformed upper line to the y-axis. By tangent approximation:
Bv
θx Bx dx∆t
dx
BBxv ∆t
θy BBuy ∆t
so
1 Bv Bu
1 θx θy
2 ∆t
p
2 Bx By
q 1
2
ωz .
Thus vorticity can be understood as the rotation rate of the fluid. Why
is vorticity important? Knowing the vorticity allows us to reconstruct the
velocity fluid. Given
ω ∇u
17
how much can we say about u? (For more information see P.G. Saffman
”Vortex dynamics”). Given any vector field such as u, we can decompose it
into a sum of potentials:
u∇A ∇Φ
(Helmholtz’s theorem), where WLOG we may assume that ∇ A 0 (gauge
condition). Thus
∇ u ∇ p∇ Aq.
By vector calculus (see Acheson’s book for formula and denote ∆ by ∇2 ):
∇2 A ∇p∇ Aq ∇ p∇ Aq ∇ p∇ Aq
since ∇ A 0. Thus
w ∇2A
ω px1 , tq 3 1
»
ñ Apx, tq 4π 3 }x x1} d x .
1
R
What about Φ? Since ∇ u 0 we have
0 ∇ p ∇ Aq ∇2 Φ ∇2 Φ.
To solve this equation and determine ∇Φ uniquely (or Φ up to some additive
constant). It is enough to have Neumann BC, i.e. we need to know n ∇Φ
on any boundary. Let uA ∇ A we have
n ∇Φ n u n uA
and we can get n u by the no through-flow BC, i.e.
nunU
on rigid boundaries where U is the velocity of the body. Thus
n ∇Φ n U n uA.
It means that we can determine u by the vorticity field ω! Why is this not
a GRE question (not merely a brain storming)? Can we write down an
equation for the vorticity field? By Euler’s equation
18
ρp
Bu u ∇uq ∇p
Bt F.
Let’s assume that the body force is conservative, i.e.
F ∇V
for some potential V . E.g.
V ρgz
for the gravitational body force. Now we want to take the vorticity of the
equation. Recall the identity for a, b, c P R3 :
a pb cq pa cqb pa bqc.
Also if we replace b by ∇ we have
ra p∇ cqsi
¸ B cj ¸ B ci .
j
aj
B xi j
aj
B xj
Let a c u to get
uω u p∇ uq ∇p 21 u2q pu ∇qu.

Thus the Euler’s equation becomes
Bu ρ∇p u2 q ρu ω ∇p ∇V.
1
ρ
Bt 2
Take the curl to get (assuming ρ is constant)
Bω ρ∇ pu ωq 0.
ρ
Bt
By the triple cross product relation
∇ p b cq p ∇ cq b pc ∇qb p∇ bqc pb ∇qc

since
¸ ¸
ra pb cqsi aj c j b i aj b j c i
j j
19
ñ r∇ pb cqsi
¸ B pc b q ¸ B pb c q.
j
B xj j i j
B xj j i
Thus
∇ p u ω q p ∇ ω qu pω ∇qu p∇ uqω pu ∇qω.

We have
∇ω 0
∇u0
by that ω ∇ u and incompressibility. Thus
Bω pu ∇qω pω ∇qu 0
Bt
Dω
Dt
pω ∇qu.
4/17
Note:
1. Vorticity is frozen into the flow. Image a vortex-line: a curve whose

tangent is the vorticity vector denoted by (for fixed t ¡ 0 and curve parameter
s)
xpsq X ps, tq
where
BX ps, tq ωpX ps, tq, tq.
Bs
The vortex line will behave like a material line by the equation.
2. If ω is initially 0, then Dω
Dt
0 @t ¥ 0 ñ ω 0.
3. Define a stream line by (for fixed t ¡ 0 and curve parameter s)
20
xpsq X ps, tq
where
BX ps, tq upX ps, tq, tq.
Bs
If all stream lines start very far away from a body and ω Ñ 0, then Dω 0
on the stream line, so ω 0 (as a BC of u). One can think of a car as an
Dt
example.
4. If a fluid obeys Euler’s equations (i.e. inviscid), incompressibility and

ω 0, we call it ”ideal” (or ”dry”). If ω 0 we call the flow irrotational,
and in this case we have
u ∇Φ.
Since ∇ u 0 by incompressibility we have
∇2 Φ 0
and we have Dirichlet BCs.
5. Consider 2D flow to explain the equation for the vorticity. By last time
Dω
p B
ω ∇qu ω pu, v, 0q 0.
Dt Bz
Thus for 2D flow we have
Dω
Dt
0
so if we have vorticity ω at t 0, we can treat ω as a passive scalar field.
6. Can we calculate pressure? Consider the conservation of momentum with

irrotational flow (u ∇Φ). Assume Φ is known by solving the Laplace
equation. Then
ρ
Du
Dt
∇p ∇V.
Since
21
Bu ρpu ∇qu ρ
B ∇φ ρpp∇φq ∇q∇φ
ρ
Bt Bt
we have
∇pρ
Bφ ρ
p∇φq2 q ∇p ∇V
Bt 2
ñ ρ BBφt ρ 2
2
u p V Aptq
ñp Bφu2
V Aptq
ρ
Bt2
ρ
where Aptq is now an unknown function of time. It is called the generalized

Bernoulli principle. To see that we don’t care much about Aptq consider the
total fluid force applied by the fluid to any body pndS is unaffected by Aptq
³
since
» »
AptqndS Aptq
0 ndS
for any closed surface. Knowing the value of ppx0 , tq @t ¡ 0 for a point x0 in
the fluid the generalized Bernoulli is enough to calculate ppx, tq completely
since one can solve the Laplace equation for φ to get both φ, u and one knows
V.
• if we have any free surface this problem is resolved because we know p

on the surface.
• if there are no free surfaces then we cannot solve for Aptq. In this
case only ∇p shows up in Euler’s equations, and this is unaffected by
changing p to p Aptq.
If the flow is steady then the generalized Bernoulli principle becomes
V constant,
1 2
p ρu
2
which is the Bernoulli’s principle. We can look at dominant balance. If
p V 0
22
we just have the hydrostatic force balance. If the body force is not important
then
ρu const.
1 2
p
2
We can use this to explain e.g. the curving of base ball when spinning.
However the explanation of why plane flies by Bernoulli’s principle is wrong
because there is no reason why the air flows above and below the wing should
meet in the end. Also planes can fly up side down. Now consider a sphere
traveling at constant velocity. How much force must be applied to the sphere
to keep it moving at constant velocity? We want to solve the PDEs in the
rest frame of the sphere. Thus far from the sphere we have
u U ez
where U is the speed of the ball and z points to the direction that the ball
moves. Let the sphere radius be a. Fluid far from the ball has parallel stream
lines so the flow is irrotational. Thus
u U ez ∇φ
where ∇φ Ñ 0 as r Ñ 8, where r is in the spherical coordinate. On surface
of sphere by no through flow condition:
u n 0 ñ pU ∇φq er 0 on r a
ñ U cos θ BBφr 0 on r a.
Also
1 B 2 Bφ B psin θ Bφ q 0
∇2 φ 0 ñ pr Br q 1
r2 B r r2 sin θ B θ Bθ
since φ φpr, θq by symmetry.
4/20
Continuing last time, we want to solve the Laplace equation by the separation
of variables. See ”Field Theory Handbook” by Moon & Spencer. Define
23
φ RprqΘpθq.
To match the boundary condition we ansatz
φpr, θq f prq cos θ.

Hopefully we can solve for f from the equation. The equation reads
1 2 1 1
r 2
p r f q cos θ 2 cos θ
2f
r
0
ñ pr2f 1q1 2f 0.
Since this is equi-dimensional we can ansatz
f prq Brα .
Substitute into the equation to get
αpα 1q 2 0 ñ α 2, 1.
The term r cos θ should have zero coefficient since ∇φ 0 as r Ñ 8. By the
boundary condition on r a we have
2B
a3
U 0 ñ B 1 3
2
Ua .
How large a force must be applied on the sphere to keep it moving? To

answer this we have to know what is the force on the sphere from the fluid,
which due to the pressure is
»
F pndS.
r a
By the generalized Bernoulli principle
p Aptq ρu2 V ρu2

1 1
2 2
since it is time independent and we don’t consider other body force (also we
can ignore Aptq when calculating force as in the last class). Since u n 0
on r a by no through flow condition we only need to calculate pu eθ q2
because in this case
24
u2 pu er q2 pu eθ q2 pu eϕq2 pu eθ q2
by ϕ symmetry and the no through flow condition. Since u U ez ∇φ
we have
1 Bφ
u eθ U sin θ
32 U sin θ.
1
r Bθ
U sin θ U sin θ
2
Thus by the generalized Bernoulli’s principle
p ρU 2 sin2 θ.
9
8
Because we have symmetry we know that the force is in z-direction. Thus
» » »
F ez ppn ez qdS 9 2
p cos θdS U ρ cos θ sin2 θdS
r a r a 8 r a
» π
9π 2 2 4 π
9π 2 2
4
U ρa 3
sin θ cos θdθ 16
U ρa sin θ
0
0.
0
We should check the dimension by noting that U 2 ρ has the unit of the pres-
sure by the generalized Bernoulli’s principle and a2 has the unit of the area.
This is known as D’Alembert’s paradox, which states that a steadily moving
bodies in irrotational flow experience no force. This means that airplanes
don’t fly! That’s why we should introduce viscous forces. One can see that
effect by seeing the vortex flow after airplanes.
§5 Viscous forces
Take two parallel plates separated by fluid. One wants to investigate the
”stickiness” of the fluid. If we move the upper plate by a speed U then the
velocity profile of the fluid will be linear given that we move slow enough
with velocity U on top and 0 on the bottom. We need to apply a force in
the direction of U to keep the plate moving. Define the stress that needs to
be apply as
stress, τ force,
area, A
F
U
µ ,
h
25
where h is the distance between two plates. Also the constant of proportion-
ality is the same if one repeats the experiment with the same liquid, and the
constants are different between different fluids. We call µ the viscosity of the
fluid. What are the units of µ? By the defining equation
rµsr Uh s rτ s N m2 or P a
ñ rµs P a s.
For air µ 105 P a s, and for water 103 P a s. With this in mind we
revisit the conservation of momentum. Consider an arbitrary control volume
Ω. Then the equation reads
Rate of change of momentum Body forces surface forces

rate of momentum loss through BΩ.
Only the surface forces are different. Now we have
» »
surface forces pndS Tn dS,

BΩ BΩ
where we define a new vector field Tn s.t. the total viscous force (traction)
acting on an infinitesimal surface element pn, dS q is Tn dS. Also note that Tn
is dependent on the normal direction n as well as px, tq. We need to introduce
of the idea of a tensor to deal with Tn .
4/22
Viscosity for corn syrup or honey: 2 3 P a s.
Conservation of momentum in the presence of viscous stresses.
»
B pρuqdV »
ρupu nqdS
» » »
Ω Bt
pndS F dV Tn dS
BΩ BΩ Ω BΩ
where the last term is viscous force acting on B Ω. Tn is the stress (force/area)
exerted by fluid on the positive side of the element on fluid on the negative
side of the element. By Newton’s third law:
26
Tn Tn.
§5.2 Defining tensors
What is a vector (field)? F (could be F px, tq) can be represented as a column

of np 3q numbers. Define orthonormal basis tei ui1,...,n . Then F can be
represented by its coordinate components:
n
¸
F Fi ei .

i 1
To simplify sums like this, we introduce the summation convention: If an

index appears twice, then sum over that index. Thus
F Fiei.
This is invented by Einstein and it is said that Einstein said it was his greatest
achievement (a sense of humor!). What really makes F a vector is that we
can calculate its components w.r.t. any orthonormal basis, i.e. if we define a
new basis te1i u3i1 by rotating the original basis tei u3i1 . Bases are related by
a rotation matrix tLij u, where
Lij e1i ej .
What are the components of F in the new basis?
F Fj ej Fj1e1j .
Thus
Fi1 e1i F e1i ej Fj Lij Fj .

Define a vector by how it transforms under rotation. F is a vector having n
components Fi and under coordinate transformation
Fi1 Lij Fj .
Examples include u, ∇p, F . Define now a rank r tensor tensor A (with r
underlines) to be a set of nr numbers Ai1 ...ir , i1 , ..., ir 1, 2, ..., n that trans-
forms according to a generalization of the transforms for vectors. Let Ai1 ...ir
27
be components of A in tei u and A1i1 ...ir be those in te1i u. Then the transfor-
mation is
A1i1 ...ir Li j Li j Aj ...j ,

1 1 r r 1 r
e.g. if A is a rank 2 tensor:
A1ij Lik Ljl Akl LALT .

It is natural to express the components as a matrix. Example of rank 2
tensors are stress & rate of strain. A scalar is a rank 0 tensor, e.g. p, T, ....
We are interested in isotropic tensors. There are tensors whose coordinates
do not change under rotation, i.e.
A1i1 ...ir Ai ...i .

1 r
Rank 0: All scalars are isotropic

Rank 1: 0 vector
Rank 2: For general n Aij δij is isotropic. If n 2 we know that

J 0 1
1 0
is isotropic.
Rank 3: The alternating tensor is isotropic, where is defined by
pi, j, kq p1, 2, 3q, p2, 3, 1q, p3, 1, 2q

$
& 1
ijk %
1 pi, j, kq p2, 1, 3q, p3, 2, 1q, p1, 3, 2q .
0 o.w.
Rank 4: (proof in Landau & Lench) The only isotropic tensors are δij δkl , δik δjl , δil δjk
and their linear combinations.
§5.3 The viscous stress tensor
Define
Sn Tn pn
to be all surface forces acting on B Ω. Claim:
Sn nσ
28
where σ is the rank 2 stress tensor. Pf. of claim: Consider conservation of

momentum for a tetrahedron with one point at the origin and other points on
the axes. We are interested in Sn at 0 for some specific n, and we make the
face of tetrahedron has normal n. Let the diameter be l. By the conservation
of momentum:
Rate of change of momentum Rate of loss of momentum

body force total surface force.
In the equation the LHS is Opl3 q, the first term of RHS is Opl2 q, the second
term of RHS is Opl3 q, and the last term of RHS is Opl2 q. We can neglect
Opl3 q term as l Ñ 0. We can see that the total surface force is
Sn dS Sex dSx Sey dSy Sez dSz

where dS is the area of the surface with normal n and dSx , dSy , dSz are the
areas of the surfaces with normal ex , ey , ez . With negligible error we
want to evaluate Sn , Sex , Sey , Sez at 0.
4/24
Consider the tetrahedron from the last time. The total surface force is
Sn dS Sex dSx Sey dSy Sez dSz

with all Sn , Sex , ... evaluated at the origin. We can see that

OpLdS q Sn dS OpLdS q

Sn dS
center of face 0
so we can approximate the force by that at the origin. Now we consider the
momentum loss, which is
ρupu nqdS ρuu ndS ρuu exdSx ρuu ey dSy ρuu ey dSz OpLdS q
»
ρuu ndS
BΩ
We can use the same trick and evaluate all u at the origin. However
29
ndS 0
BΩ
so the momentum fluxes do not show up in dominant balance of equation.
Now since Sx is the projection of S on yz-plane we have
dSx nxdS
and similarly for y, z-directions. Also by symmetry
Sex Se . x
Thus
dS pSn Sex nx Sey ny Sez nz q 0

so
Sn nσ
where
σ rSe Se Se sT .
x y z
We claim (and have to prove) that σ is a rank 2 tensor. To see this consider
how σ must transform under the coordinate rotation L define
Sn Siei Sj1 e1j , n ni ei n1j ej .

Now assume the components of σ are σij in tei u, σij1 in te1i u. Thus since
Sn n σ:
ni σij ej n1iσij1 e1j .

Now
n1i Lij nj ñ ni Lkin1k

since LT L1 for rotation matrix. Thus
Lki n1k σij ej n1iσij1 e1j .
Because
30
ej pej e1mqe1m Lmj e1m

we have
n1k Lki Lmj σij e1m n1iσij1 e1j n1iσim

1 e1 .
m
By taking the mth component
n1k Lki Lmj σij n1k σkm

1
1 L L σ q 0 @m 1, 2, 3.
ñ n1k pσkm ki mj ij
Since all the terms in the bracket does not depend on n1k we can take n as
an arbitrary vector. Thus
1 L L σ
σkm 0 @k, m 1, 2, 3.
ki mj ij
Thus we proved that σ is a rank 2 tensor. We call σ the stress tensor.
Now we turn back to the conservation of momentum. In an arbitrary control

volume Ω we have
B » »
ρuu ndS
» »
n σdS.
Bt Ω
ρudV
BΩ Ω
F dV
BΩ
Since Ω is arbitrary we have
B pρuq ∇ pρuuq F ∇σ
Bt
where
p∇ σqx BBx pσxxq BBy pσyxq BBz pσzxq, ....

Also we can write
∇σ BBσxij ej .
i
Thus (as before)
ρ
Du
Dt
F ∇ σ.
31
For an incompressible fluid we have 4 equations (Euler’s equation and ∇ u

0) but we have 12 unknowns if we are going to solve for σ. However σ should
be related to the rate of fluid shearing or deformation.
§5.4 ’Measuring’ fluid deformation
We can clearly see that u does not measure fluid deformation (imagine taking
a walk with a water bottle). Actually all rigid body motions pu U Ω xq
do not deform fluid. Thus we care about how nearby points move relative to
each other. Suppose two points start at x and x δx. Then rate of separation
is
upx δxq upxq pδx ∇qu.

We want to measure the relative rate of separation:
upx δxq upxq

}δx}
which can be given by ∇u, where
p∇uqij BBuxj
i
is a rank 2 tensor. Note that δx will change if the two points rotate around
each other, or are in rigid body rotation. To exclude rigid body rotations
write
∇u E A
where
21 p∇u p∇uqT q
E
is the symmetric part pEij Eji q and
A p∇u p∇uqT q
1
2
is the anti-symmetric part pAij Aji q. Claim: A measures rotation and E
measures deformation. Pf. of claim:
32
pδx ∇qu pδx Aq pδx E q.

We want to show that
δx A Ω δx
for

A32
Ω A13 .

A21
4/27
To estimate viscous stress we first observe that it does not depend on u since
if fluid moves together there’s no viscous stress. Also it does not depend on
rotation so we want to decompose ∇u. As in last time write
∇u E A
where A describes the local rotation of the fluid. Relative motion of particles
is
pδx ∇qu.
Calculate
δy p BBuyx BBuxy q

δz p BBuzx BBuxz q
δx A δxj Aji Buy Bux δz p BBuzy BBuyz q
1
δxp

Bx By
2

ωz δy ωy δz 1

21 2 ω δx,

where ω ∇ (ω represents the rate of rotation), i.e. δx A is a rigid body
rotation with velocity 12 ω. We can use the index notation to write
ωi ijk BBuxk
j
where is the permutation tensor. Then
33
r 12 ω δxsi 12 ijk ωj δxk 12 ijk jlm BBuxm δxk .

l
By that ijk jki and
jki jlm δkl δim δil δkm
we have
1 Bum δx 12 pδkl δim δil δkmq BBuxm δxk 12 BBxui δxk 12 BBuxk δxk
2
ijk jlm
B xl k l k i
δxk Aki rδx Asi.

To see why this is a rotation consider
dδx
dt
upx0 δxq upx0q δx ∇u
so the equation with the δx A part satisfy and ODE resulting in rotation.
Now write
E 31 trpE qI pE 31 trpE qI q
where the last part is called the deviatoric part. If we let 13 trpE q λ we have

λδx
δx ptrpE qI q λδy .
1
3
λδz
This part gives the radiation flow where inflow or outflow depends on λ 0
or λ ¡ 0. Let Ed be the deviatoric part of E. Then in some coordinate
system since trpEd q 0:

λ1
δx Ed δx λ2
pλ1 λ2 q
where λ1 , λ2 ¡ 0. Locally the flow is around a saddle point. They call this a
straining flow. Any velocity field can be locally decomposed in this way and
34
the symmetric part visibly introduces no rotational components.
Big Idea: Make viscous stress 9E. Writing the total viscous surface stress
as τ we get
τ σ pI 9 E.
Idea 1:
σ pI αE
which is almost true but might give you some trouble in compressible fluids.
Instead we can multiply the RHS by a rank 4 tensor! I.e.
σij pδij Aijkl Ekl .

Since the fluid has no preferred direction the rank 4 tensor A should be
isotropic (we have some cases where the fluid particles do have a preferred
direction). The only such tensor is
Aijkl α1δik δjl α2 δij δkl α3 δil δjk .

Thus
τij α1Eij α2 δij Ekk α3 Eji pα1 α3 qEij α2 trpE qδij .

By definition
Eij 21 p BBxui BBuxj q.

j i
Thus
Ekk BBuxk ∇ u
k
which is zero in incompressible fluid. Define α1 α3 2µ we have
τ 2µEd p 2µ
3
α2 qp∇ uqI
and we only have the first term in RHS for incompressible fluid. We call
2µ
3
α2 to be κ. Recall Cauchy’s equation
35
ρ
Du
Dt
∇σ F
∇ p2µEd κp∇ uqI pI q F.

If the fluid is incompressible then ∇ u 0 and
Ed E 12 p∇u p∇uqT q.
Then
ρ
Du
Dt
µ∇ p∇u p∇uqT q ∇p F.
Calculate
rµ∇ p∇uqT si µ BBx BBuxj µ BBx p∇ uq 0

j i i
by the incompressibility condition. Thus

Du
Dt
µ∇2u ∇p
ρ F
which is the Navier-Stokes equation.
4/29
Navier-Stokes equations for an incompressible fluid

Bu ρu ∇u ∇p µ∇2 u
ρ
Bt f
∇ u 0.
NB:
1. (a) The equations are hard to solve computationally because of the non-
linear advection.
(b) Incompressibility means that p needs to be solved for along with u, but
there is no explicit evolution equation for p. People use method of lines to
solve the equation. But we only get an ODE for u but not p, and we have an
36
algebraic relation on u. It means that we have to solve DAEs (differential-

algebraic equations) for pui , pi q.
2. Can we ever neglect terms in the momentum equation? Ignore for now
body force (or absorb it into pressure if the force in conservative, i.e. define
P p V where F ∇V ). Then
Du
ρ
Dt
∇P µ∇2 u.
Let L be a length scale, U be a velocity scale, T L

U
be a time scale. If we
then non-dimensionalize all of the variables by
u U u , x Lx , ....
Then we get
ρU 2 Du ∇ P µU 2
L Dt
L L2
∇ u .
We can compare the term (1) (term on LHS) and the term (3) (second term
on RHS). We call (1) the acceleration term, often called inertial force and
(3) the viscous stress term. Thus
p1q p ρUL q ρU L . Re
2
p3q p µU L
q
2
u
which is the Reynolds number. If Re 1 the viscous stresses dominate,
which is called the Stokes limit. For micro-organisms (small L) we often have
Re 1. If Re 1 the NS equations become
0 ∇p µ∇2 u
0 ∇ u.
In order to keep p (otherwise the system is over-determined) in the equation
we need
p p
µU
L
by balancing (2) (the first term in RHS above) and (3). Then
37
ρU 2 Du
∇ P
µU 2
L Dt
µU
L2 L2
∇ u

ñ Re Du ∇ P ∇2 u .
Dt
If Re ¡¡ 1 e.g. because U is large, then we might want to simplify to
ρ
Du
Dt
∇P
where P P ρU 2 , which is the Euler’s equation! The facts like D’Alembert’s
paradox indicates that this might be the wrong equation to look at. But the
boundary layer theorem developed in the first 20th century gives the insight
that we drop an order in space derivative, so the Euler’s equation is a singu-
lar limit of the NS equations. This is resolved by boundary layer theory.
3. What kind of BCs should we apply? On a moving body if local velocity

of body is U , then u U (not just u n U n), saying that the tangential
velocities must match. This is called the no-slip boundary condition. This
condition is not always true, e.g. when solving a droplet moving problem it
gives a singularity which has nothing to do with the reality.
Interface between 2 fluids: Consider again a pillbox across the two fluids.
The same argument as we used for Euler’s equation is (in absence of surface
tension)
nσ 0.
For Stoke’s limit we can show existence and uniqueness given these BCs.
§5.8 Exact solutions to rectilinear flow problems
A rectilinear flow is a flow for which u upx, y, tqez . Then
pu ∇qu u BBz u 0.
Also
∇u
Bu 0
Bz
38
so incompressibility is automatically satisfied.
Examples: (a) Couette problem: Consider there are two plates and the upper
plate is moving at velocity U0 ez where the z direction is parallel to two
plates. Also suppose two plates are distance h apart. We seek a solution
u upx, y qez , where y-direction is perpendicular to the plates. The x, y
components of NS equations read
0
Bp 0
Bx
0
Bp 0
By
ñ p ppzq.
Since the problem should be translationally invariant in the z direction we
can see that p should be a constant. We can also see it mathematically by
0
dp
µ∇2 u
dz
where the first term depends only on z and the last term only depends on
x, y, which means that
dz
dp
const.
Since we should have finite pressures at z 8 we conclude that dp

0. If
plates are very thick in the x-direction then u upy q. Thus
dz
d2 u
µ 0.
dy 2
By the no-slip boundary conditions up0q 0, uphq U0 we have
upy q
U0 y
.
h
We can justify our definition of viscous stress from here. What is viscous
stress on the surface y h? To calculate the force we need to calculate
n σ or n τ for viscous stress,
39
where n ey , i.e. the normal points into the fluid. We can calculate either
since the pressure does not do anything to the z-direction. The z component
of force is
pey σq ez σyz .
Recall that
pδij µp
Bui Buj q.
σij
B xj B xi
When i 2, j 3 we have
0 µp0
Bu q µ Bu
σyz
By By
which means that the total stress is
µUh 0
and the fluid pulls back the upper plate.
5/1
No class on May 6th (Wednesday) May 8th (Friday). The make up lecture
will be on May 6th (Tuesday) and May 12th (Tuesday) from 3pm to 4pm in
MS 5138. Office hour is moved from May 6th 1-2pm to May 5th 1-2pm.
Ex#2: Poiseuille’s flow
Consider a long pipe with a circular cross-section. We can consider e.g. a

syringe on the left end and an open end to the air on the right end. The
flow is created through the pipe by an applied pressure difference ∆p which
is larger in the negative (left) end than in the positive (right) end. How does
the flow in the pipe change with applied pressure? Let z points to the right
end of the pipe and r, θ be the other cylindrical coordinates. If the pipe is
very long, the flow should be translationally invariant. Also assume u k ez ,
which means that
u uprqez .
40
Let the radius of the pipe be a. Then the no-slip BC reads
upaq 0.
Since this is a rectilinear flow we get the incompressibility for free. The r-
component of N-S reads (though it gets a little complicated in cylindrical
coordinates)
0
Bp 0 ñ p ppz q.
Br
The z-components of N-S reads
0 pr q.
dp µ d du
dz r dr dr
dp
Since dz depends only on z and the Laplacian depends only on r we know
that they are both constant. If the pipe length is L then
dp
dz
L∆p .
Now we have to solve the ODE
p
µ d du
r q
r dr dr
∆p
L
r
du
dr
2µL
∆p 2
r A
u
∆p 2
r A log r B.
4µL
Since up0q is not infinite we know that A 0. Now by upaq 0 we have
u pa r2q.
∆p 2
4µL
We may want to relate the total amount of flow in pipe to ∆p L
. What is the
total amount of fluid passing through a cross-section of the pipe in unit time?
The flow rate is
» a » a 4
Q 2π pa2r r3qdr πa8µL
π∆p ∆p
urdr .
0 2µL 0
41
This is called the Hagen-Poiseuille law. What about force balance? Actually
the viscous force on the pipe wall balances the pressure force on the end.
Ex#3: Stokes’ First Problem
Consider a plate with normal ez which is large in x, y-directions. The fluid

fill the space z ¡ 0 When t 0 let the plate be at rest at z 0. At t 0
the plate is set into motion with velocity U0 ex . What is the flow field? By
the invariance in x, y-directions and that we move the plate in x-direction we
ansatz the velocity to have the form
u upz, tqex .
This is again a rectilinear flow and we get the incompressibility for free. The
y, z-components of N-S read
0
Bp , 0 Bp
By Bz
ñ p ppx, tq.
For the x-component since this is not a Stokes flow we have
Bu Bp B2u .
ρ
Bt Bx µ
Bz2
By the boundary condition we have
U0 t ¡ 0
"
up0, tq
0 t¤0
.
Since u is a function of z, t and p is a function of x, t we know that BBxp is a

function of t, which means that
p p0 ptq Aptqx.
We know that Aptq 0 because we are not applying a large pressure on the
ends of the system. Thus
Bu µ B2u .
ρ
Bt Bz2
Thus u satisfies a diffusion equation with diffusivity
42
ν.
µ .
ρ
Now we look for a similarity solution, i.e.
upz, tq B ptqf p q.
z
Lptq
Rule of thumb: If one has a problem without an obvious length scale one can
try the similarity solution (cf. Barenblatt’s book). To figure out B ptq, Lptq
we use the BC
B ptqf p0q up0, tq U0 @t ¡ 0

to get
B ptq U0 .
Balance the terms in equation to get (let L be the length scale in z-direction)
?
ρu
t
µu
L2
ñL νt.
Now we ansatz
upz, tq U0 f pη q
where
η ?zνt , ν . µρ .
The change of variable formulas read
B Bη B Bt B η B B
Bt Bt Bη Bt Bt 2t Bη Bt
B Bη B Bt B ?1 B .
Bz Bz Bη Bz Bt νt B η
5/4
Last time: We want to find solution of the form
upz, tq U0 f pη q, η ?zνt .
43
By the equation and change of variable we have

2
2tη f 1 νfνt
ñ η2 f 1 f 2.
The initial condition which corresponds to that up0, tq U0 is f p0q 1. Also
since the fluid very far from plate and the fluid at t 0 are at rest we have
f p8q 0. Now we want to solve
f2
η 1
f 0
2
by the method of integrating factors. So
» η
d 1 η2
pf e 4 q 0 ñ f pηq A e 4 ds
s2
B.
dη 0
We can interpret it by the error function
» x
erfpxq ?2π eu du.
2
0
Thus
f pη q Ãerfp q
η
B.
2
By the BCs we have
Ã U0 , B U0
since erfp0q 0, erfp8q 1. If we plot z versus upz, tq for fixed t we can see
an exponential decay in z. When t ¡ 0 is larger it decays more slowly. The
thickness of the boundary?layer (literally, has nothing to do with boundary
layer theory) scales with νt.
§6 Stokes Flow
Consider fluid flow around swimming/feeding micro-organism (e.g. bac-

terium). We can calculate Re for this organism. We have
L 1 µm, U 10 µm{s, ν 106m2{s

44
ñ Re 10 10106 10 105 1.
6 6
Thus the fluid flows for such organisms are dominated by viscosity and are
described by the Stoke’s equations
0 ∇p µ∇2 u F
∇ u 0.
NB:
(i) Equations are linear and instantaneous. If pu1 , p1 q, pu2 , p2 q are solutions
to the force-free Stokes’ equations, then pu1 u2 , p1 p2 q is also a solution.
(ii) Equations are reversible: If pu, pq solves the PDEs for some set of BCs
u U on B Ω, then pu, pq solves the same PDEs with BC u U on
BΩ. Videos on reversibility: a dye dot in silicon oil with different rotation
direction, why bacteria use helix flagellate to swim instead of a fin.
(iii) Knowing the rate of strain tensor E defines fluid velocity u uniquely up
to rigid body motion (even we throw out the vorticity!). Specifically, if u1 , u2
have the same rate of strain tensor E, then
u2 u1 U Ωx
for some constants U, Ω.
Suppose we know E and the velocity fluid at some point: u0 upx0 q. Given
any other point x1 can I calculate upx1 q? If we have ∇u we can certainly
recover upx1 q, i.e.
» x1 » x1
upx1 q u0 pdx ∇qu u0 dx pE Aq.
x0 x0
5/5
Lemma If two velocity fields u1 , u2 have the same rate of strain tensor E,
then u2 u1 is a rigidbody motion, i.e.
u2 u1 U Ω x.
45
pf. If strain tensor E is known, can we reconstruct u?

» x1
upx 1
q upx q 0
dx pE Aq
x0
where the integral is along any path joining x0 to x1 . Now consider the term
and use the change of variable X x1 x
» x1 » 0
rdx Asj dpx1i xi qAij
x0 x1 x0

» 0

» 0
BAij dX px1 x0qA

x1 x0
dXi Aij
x1 x0
Xk
BXk i i i ij xx
0
by the integration by parts. The latter one is the rotation term and we want
to write the first term in terms of E. Recall that (and by dX dx)
BAij BAij 1 B p Buj Bui q
B Xk B xk 2 B xk B xi B xj
12 BBx p BBxuj BBuxk q 12 BBx p BBxui BBuxk q BBx Ejk BBx Eik .
i k j j k i i j
Thus if I know E I can calculate upx1 q given upx0 q and Apx0 q. Thus if u1 , u2
have the same rate of strain field E, then for fixed x1 P Ω and any x2 P Ω:
u1 px2 qu2 px2 q u1 px1 qu2 px1 q px2x1qpA1px1qA2px1qq U Ωpx2 x1 q
where U u1 px1 q u2 px1 q and Ω is the rotation rate associated with A1 px1 q
.
A2 px1 q since it is still anti-symmetric, i.e.
Ω pω1px1q ω2px1qq.
1
2
Stokes equations
∇p ∇2 u F 0
∇u0
or
46
∇σ9 F 0 p1q
∇u0 p2q
where σ is the stress tensor. Consider any velocity field u satisfying ∇ u
0. Take u p1q and integrate over the fluid filled domain to get
»
pu p∇ σq u F qdV 0.
Ω
Now we want to use the divergence theorem. Recall that
»
B pqdV »
ni pqdS.
Ω B xi BΩ
To use the theorem write
u p∇ σ q uj
Bσij B puσ q ∇ pσ uq σ : p∇uq,
Bxi Bxi j ij
where B : C Bjk Ckj for rank 2 tensors (matrices). Thus the integral
equation becomes
» » »
n σ u dS F u dV σ : ∇u dV.
BΩ Ω Ω
This is called the principle of virtual work. The LHS represents the external
virtual work and the RHS represents the internal virtual work. Recall that
σ pI 2µE.
Thus
σ : ∇u p∇ u 2µE : ∇u .

The first term on the RHS is zero since u is divergence free. To deal with
the second term write
∇u E A .
Consider
E : A Eij Aij Eij Aij EjiAij E : A

47
by the symmetry of E and the anti-symmetry of A . Thus this term vanishes.

So
» » »
n σ u dS F u 2µE : E dV
BΩ Ω Ω

where E is the rate of strain tensor for u . Corollaries: Given a domain Ω
with 2 kinds of disjoint boundaries B Ωu on which u is specified, and B Ωσ on
which n σ is specified, which satisfy
BΩ BΩu Y BΩσ , BΩu X BΩσ φ.

Then there is at most one solution pu, pq to the Stokes’ equations on Ω sat-
isfying all BCs.
pf. Assume otherwise, i.e. Dpu1, p1q, pu2, p2q that both satisfy all of the BCs
and the equations. Define
δu u2 u1 , u δu.
Now by the equation
µ∇2 u1 ∇p1 F 0
µ∇2 u2 ∇p2 F 0
ñ µ∇2δu ∇δp 0.
Thus the principle of virtual work reads
» »
n δσ δudS 2µδE δEdV.

BΩ Ω
Note that the LHS vanishes by the BC and the RHS is non-negative (to be
continued).
5/11
HW2 will be posed and is due on May 27 (Wed). Makeup lecture is at 3pm
in MS 5138 tomorrow.
48
Properties of Stokes flow
(b) Uniqueness of solutions: If pu1 , p1 q, pu2 , p2 q satisfy the Stokes’ equations

with the same body force F and the same BCs, then u1 u2 .
pf. We defined the difference in flow by
δu u2 u1 .
We were able to show from the weak form that
» »
2µ n δσ δudS.
δE : δEdV
Ω BΩ
Since on B Ωu u is specified ñ δu 0, and that on B Ωσ n σ is specified
ñ n δσ 0 we know that the RHS is zero. Now
¸
δE : δE δEij δEij pδEij q2 ¥ 0,
i,j
since E is symmetric. Thus we know that δE 0 a.e.. If δE then δu u2 u1

is a rigid body motion. Provided that there are 3 distinct points in B Ωu we
can eliminate the rigid body motion since δu|BΩu 0.
The reason to care more about uniqueness than existence is that often we
construct solution explicitly, which is the way it is useful. The uniqueness
tells us that it is valid since it is the only solution. Also the proof tells us
why N-S equations are different from the Euler equation.
(c) The quantity

»
2µ E : EdV
Ω
will be shown in the homework to represent the rate of viscous dissipation
within the fluid.
For the conservation of energy in the N-S equations we have
rate of change of k.e. flux of k.e. out of BΩ
49
rate of working of body forces rate of working of surface forces
rate of energy dissipation
» » » » »
d 1 2
ρu dV ρu undS
1 2
F udV nσ udS 2µ E : EdV.
dt Ω 2 BΩ 2 Ω BΩ Ω
The last term is like a friction and causes the fluid to heat up.
(d) Let pu, pq be the solution to the force-free Stokes’ equations within Ω
with u U px, tq on the boundary B Ω. If ũ is any vector field that satisfies
∇ ũ 0 and ũ U px, tq on B Ω, then
» »
2µ E : EdV ¤ 2µ Ẽ : ẼdV
Ω Ω
with equality iff u ũ, where Ẽ 21 p∇ũ p∇ũqT q. This means that the so-
lution u is the minimally dissipative incompressible vector field that satisfies
the BCs.
pf. Let δu u ũ. We can’t apply the principle of virtual work (PVW)
immediately since ũ does not satisfy the equations. Then if δE E Ẽ
»
2µ δE : δEdV ¥ 0.
However
pẼ E q : pẼ E q Ẽ : Ẽ E : E 2E : pE Ẽ q.
δE : δE
Now recall the PVW: if pu, pq satisfies the Stokes’ equations and u is any
incompressible vector field. Then
» » »
n σ u dS F u dV 2µ E : E .
BΩ Ω Ω
Now let E E Ẽ, u u ũ. By the setting we have

50
u BΩ 0, F 0.

Thus
»
2µ E : pE Ẽ qdV 0.
Ω
Back to the previous result we have
» » »
0¤ δE : δEdV Ẽ : Ẽ E : E 2E : pE Ẽ qqdV Ẽ : Ẽ E : E.
Ω Ω Ω
Thus
» »
2µ Ẽ : ẼdV ¥ 2µ E : EdV.
Ω Ω
If the equality holds then
»
δE : δEdV 0 ñ δE 0 a.e.
Ω
which means that u ũ by the lemma that E determines the velocity u.
We can use this method to construct approximate solutions to the Stokes

equations (HW2).
(e) Lorentz reciprocal theorem: let pu, pq be a solution to the Stokes’ equation
with body force F , and pû, p̂q also be a solution to the Stokes equation with
body force F̂ in the same domain Ω. By letting u û in PVW
» » »
2µ E : ÊdV n σ ûdS F ûdV.

Ω BΩ Ω
If instead let u û, u u we have
» » »
2µ E : ÊdV n σ̂ udS F̂ udV.

Ω BΩ Ω
Thus
» » » »
n σ ûdS F ûdV n σ̂ udS F̂ udV

BΩ Ω BΩ Ω
51
which is the Lorentz reciprocal theorem.
5/12
Recall that in Euler equation we have
∇2 φ A
for irrotational flow u ∇φ.
§7 Techniques for solving Stokes’ equations
p1q µ∇2 u ∇p 0
p2q ∇ u 0.
Now we want to get rid of p. Take curl of p we have by the communitivity
of ∇2 and ∇ we have
µ∇2 p∇ uq 0 ñ ∇2 ω 0,
i.e. ω is a harmonic function. If we cansolve the Laplace equation for ω
we can reconstruct u. But BCs on u do not easily translate into BCs on ω.
However if u is 2D (i.e. u upx, y qex v px, y qey ) (and also can do something
similar if u is axis-symmetric) we can consider ∇ u 0. This is equivalent
to saying that D some function ψ px, y q with
u
Bψ , v Bψ .
By Bx
It’s easy to check that if u has the form it satisfies the equation. To see
that u satisfying the equation has the form we can construct ψ by setting
ψ p0q 0 and for x px, y q:
» x
ψ px, y q pudy vdxq.
0
If we can show that ψ is well-defined then ψ is the function we want. This
is the case iff the integrand is an exact differential, i.e.
52
dψ udy vdx.
One can prove by the Green’s formula that the integral on closed curves
is zero in simply connected domain, but ψ can be defined for connected
domains. dψ is an exact differential iff
Bpvq Bu ,
By Bx
i.e. ∇ u 0. ψ is called the stream function of the flow. ψ can be viewed
as the Hamiltonian in the sense of 266A.
Properties of ψ: (a) for 2D flow ω p0, 0, ωq and

ω px, y q
Bv Bu ∇2ψ.
Bx By
(b) if moreover u satisfies the Stokes’ equations then
∇2 ω 0 ô ∇2p∇2ψq 0 ô ∇4ψ 0,
i.e. ψ is a biharmonic function.
(c) Consider any 2 points x1 , x2 connected by any path x X psq parame-

terized by arc-length s. How much fluid flows across this path? I.e. If n is
the normal to the path, what is
» x2
Qpx2 , x1 q u ndS?
x1
Recall if t dX p dX , dY q is the tangent vector, then the normal vector is

p dYds , dX q
ds ds ds
ds
. Thus
» x2
Qpx2 , x1 q pu dY qds
dX
v
x1 ds ds
p BBψy dY Bψ dX qds
» x2
ds Bx ds
x1
» x2
d
ds
pψpX psqqqds ψpx2q ψpx1q
x1
53
(the limits in the integrals should be s1 , s2 with X ps1 q x1 , X ps2 q x2 ).

Thus the differences of psi measure the fluxes between points (ψ is an exam-
ple of the flux functions).
(d) Lines on which ψ is constant are streamlines of the flow. Recall that a
streamline is a curve that is everywhere parallel to u. To see this we want
to show equivalently that u is perpendicular to the normal of the curve of
constant ψ. calculate
u ∇ψ p BBψy , BBψx q p BBψx , BBψy q 0.

We can see that it is a consequence of (c) since no flux can cross the curve
of constant ψ by (c). Thus u is everywhere tangent to the curve.
Can we impose BC on ψ in order to make (b) useful? Assume we have BCs

on u only (u U on B Ω). Then
uU ô p BBψy , BBψx q U,

i.e. we get BCs on ψ directly. In addition if the moving boundaries are rigid
bodies that are translating, then in the frame of rest of the body (i.e. in frame
u1 u U ) there is no flux through any curve lying on the body surface (we
don’t have to consider additional acceleration term since we don’t have the
inertia terms). Thus ψ is constant on the surface by (c), i.e.
t ∇ψ 0
on the surface. Also by the no-slip flow BC the tangential component of u
is also zero on the surface. Suppose x1 is on the surface and x2 x1 dn,
where dn is a normal vector with small length. Then
ψ px2 q ψ px1 q pn ∇qψdn.

however if u has zero tangent on the surface than
» x2
u nds Opdn2 q
x1
so we must have n ∇ψ 0 on the surface. Now let’s apply all of this in-
formation (also example on HW2). Consider flow in a wedge with angle 2α
54
with a rotating roller inside. Next time we will work on this example by the
biharmonic equation. The fluid will have a surprising flow pattern.
5/13
Suppose we have a 2D flow with non-zero Re over an object that has some
corners. What does flow look like near corners? If the object has an corner
with degree more that π one imagines that the flow will follow the shape of
the corner, which is wrong! Near the corner we can calculate a different Re
because the length of the whole body should not affect the flow. We can
use the distance r from the corner as the length scale. Thus the Reynolds
number near the corner is
Re
Ur
.
ν
Thus for all points sufficiently close to the corner Re 1 and the flow
obeys the Stokes’ equations. One can use the same idea for a flat surface but
one may not get interesting phenomena. Thus let’s solve Stokes’ equations
in the edge as in the last class. Consider a wedge with angle 2α and a roller
in it. Let x be the symmetry axis and y be the perpendicular axis. Also we
can consider the polar coordinates. The BCs read
u 0 on θ α.
Assume the flow is symmetric, i.e. if
u ur pr, θqer uθ pr, θqeθ

then
ur pr, θq ur pr, θq, uθ pr, θq uθ pr, θq.

Introduce a stream function
ux BBψy , uy BBψx pu ∇Kψq.

In plane polar coordinates
ur 1r BBψθ , uθ BBψr .
55
Then our BCs become

Bψ 0, B ψ 0 α.
Bθ Br on θ
Since ψ is defined only upon a constant we can assume ψ 0 on θ α. By
the symmetry of u we have
ψ pr, θq ψ pr, θq.

The Stokes’ equations read
∇4 ψ 0 @α θ α
with BCs
ψ 0 θ α
Bψ 0 α.
Bθ θ
Also we have to match the flow outside of the corner. We can look for the
solutions with just these BCs now. We have two ideas leading to the same
solutions. Idea 1: Use the dimensional analysis (self-similar function of the
second kind), i.e.
ψ pr, θq rβ f pθq.
Idea 2: Guess a separable solution
ψ pr, θq RprqΘpθq
and this will work if Rprq rβ . Now we substitute the ansatz into the
equation. Recall that
1 B B 1 B2 2 β
∇4 rβ f pθq p∇2 q2 rβ f pθq p pr q qrf 0
r Br Br r2 B θ2
∇2 prβ 2 pβ 2 f f 2 qq 0.
To simplify the equation define
β 2f f2 F pθq.
56
Then
ppβ 2q2F F 2 qrβ 4 0

ñ F pθq A cospβ 2qθ
since F is even by the symmetry of ψ. Thus
β 2f f2 A cospβ 2qθ
ñ f pθq B cos βθ a cospβ 2qθ
being the combination of the homogeneous and the inhomogeneous parts. a
depends on A but A is arbitrary so we may as well say that a is arbitrary.
By f pαq 0 we have
a cospβ 2qα B cos βα 0.

By f 1 pαq 0 we have
apβ 2q sinpβ 2qα Bβ sin βα 0.

If we want non-trivial a, B we need that the determinant is zero, i.e.
β cospβ 2qα sinpβαq pβ 2q cos βα sinpβ 2qα.

By the trigonometric formulas we have
pβ 1q sin 2α sin 2pβ 1qα 0

and this is an e-value equation for β. Now quote some results from Moffatt
1963 on the CCLE page:
(i) There is a countably infinite number of e-values β.
(ii) If α À 77o , then all e-values are complex, so if α À 77o then we need to
interpret ψ rβ f pθq as ψ <prβ f pθqq.
We can satisfy any BC away from r 0 through a linear combination of the

e-functions
57
ψn rβ fnpθq.
n
Thus we can write

¸
ψ pr, θq an rβn fn pθq.
P
n N
As r Ñ 0 ψ pr, θq is dominated by the e-function having the smallest real

part. Let’s calculate uθ at θ 0:
uθ pr, 0q β1 a1 rβ1 1 fn p0q β1 a1 fn p0qrβ1 1 .

Let β1 1 λ iµ. Then
rβ1 1 rλriµ rλpcospµ ln rq i sinpµ ln rqq.

Thus the sign of u eθ alternates as r Ñ 0! In the computer one can see that
there are infinitely many eddies in the corner!
5/15
In last time if we look at flow flowing in the corner rather than a rotating roller
as the boundary condition, then there are infinitely many anti-symmetric ed-
dies in the wedge.
§8.2 Papkonch-Neubar potentials
Consider the Stokes’ equation in 3D
µ∇2 u ∇p 0.
Let’s define a function π s.t.
p µ∇2 π.
We can find it by e.g.
ppx1 q 3 1
»
π pxq
1
4π }x x1} d x .
Then the Stokes’ equation becomes
58
∇2 pu ∇π q 0,
i.e. there is some harmonic function A with
u ∇π 2A.
We also need ∇ u 0, i.e.
∇ p∇π 2Aq 0
ñ ∇2π 2∇ A.
Since A is harmonic a Particular Integral (particular solution) of the equation
can be
πP I x A.
To check this write
BBx2 pxj Aj q
2
∇2 π P I
i
2 BBxxj BBAx j xj
B2Aj
B xi B xi
i i
2 BBAx j 2∇ A
j
since A is harmonic. We can write the general solution as
π πP I πhomog
where ∇2 πhomog 0. We can also read this backwards, and observe that if
πhomog and Aare any pair of harmonic functions then
u ∇πhomog ∇px Aq 2A
and
p 2µ∇ A
59
which solve the Stokes’ equation. The difficulty with these potentials is that
is hard to boil down the BCS for them. The representation of pu, pq by P N
potentials pA, πhomog q (usually called pA, χq) is not unique. We can impose
the gauge condition as
πhomog 21 x E 8 x
for some second rank constant tensor E 8 (for proof see Landau & Lench).
Then
u E 8 x,
indicating the flow far from the region we care. What are the harmonic vector
fields A? Look for solutions to ∇2 A 0 except potentially at x 0. Recall
that in 3D
Φ1 φ 1r
Φ2 ∇φ rx3
since BBxri xr
i
by r2 xj xj . We can keep going to get
Φ 3 ∇Φ2 ∇p rx3 q ∇x
r 3
∇p 3 qx
r
1
rI3 3
xx
r5
.
We can calculate this by
r∇p rx3 qsij BBx p xr3j q BBxxj p r13 q xj

B p1q
B xi r 3
i i
δrij3 3 xr4j BBxr δrij3 3xri5xj .

j
We can deep generating by
Φ4 ∇pΦ3q
and so on. In general we can generate solutions Φn which are n 1 tensors.
Actually they are the spherical harmonics. Any solution to ∇2 B 0 where
60
B is a rank m tensor, and B Ñ 0 as r Ñ 8 can be written as a linear

combination of the Φn , e.g. we can write for vector A (rank 1 tensor)
A a1 Φ1 a2 Φ2 A2 Φ2 a3 Φ3 A3 : Φ3
where a’s are vectors, A2 is a rank 2 tensor and A3 is a rank 3 tensor.
The rule is to generate a rank m tensor for each φn we can multiply by a
rank n pm 1q and a rank n pm 1q tensor except for the case that
n pm 1q 0.
NB: We can construct a complete set of harmonic functions from the Φn by
Φn r2n 1
Φpn 1q
which goes to infinity as r Ñ 8.
What problem does Φ1 1r solve? If A ar for some constant vector a and
πhomog 0, then
ax
p 2µ∇ A 2µa ∇p q
1
2µ 3
r r
and
xa
u ∇px Aq 2A ∇p
r
q 2a
r
xpxr3 aq ar .
5/18
No class on Friday (5/22). Extra office hour (2-3 in MS 7911) and class (3-4
MS 5138) on Tuesday (5/26).
Papkovich-Neubar potentials require 2 harmonic functions
Πhomog 12 x E 8 x, A,
in terms of which
u ∇Πhomog 2A ∇px Aq, p 2µ∇ A.

We have see last time how to construct harmonic functions except at the
origin. If we let
61
A aΦ1
a
r
we will have
a px aqx ax
u p q ap q , p 2µ 3 .
I xx
r r 3 r r 3 r
It’s good to check the dimension when doing vector calculus. We know that
A looks like 1r so ∇px Aq should also looks like 1r , which is the case since x
has the same dimension with r. What Stokes flow problem does this velocity
field solve?
µ∇2 u ∇p 0 except at x 0.
We could guess that there is a singularity at x 0. Recall that Stokes
equation can be written alternatively as
∇σ 0
where
σ 2µE pI
is the stress tensor. Thus the equation now reads
∇σ 0 except at x 0.
Integrating the equation over any volume Ω enclosing the origin will tell us
if there is δ pxq on RHS. In this case we have
(i)
σ µ ur rµ2
because E ∇u ur , or
σ p rµ2
so it doesn’t matter which term to use. Then
» »
∇ σdV n σdS constant

Ω BΩ
62
if Ω is a sphere with R Ó 0 since |Ω| R2 .
(ii) By
»
δ prqdV 1
one can formally write
δ prq
1
.
r3
Thus the dimensional analysis on Stokes equation
1
r3
∇p µ∇2u
reads
ñ p r12 , u 1r .
We are now convinced that
µ∇2 u ∇p bδ pxq
∇ u 0,
i.e. we have a Green’s function solution with unknown body force b (imagine
a point body force in the Stokes equation). Need to evaluate the integral
»
n σdV.
Ω enclosing 0
Calculate
∇pa xq x
∇u ∇p
1
r
q a
r3
pa xrq3∇ x pa xq∇p r13 q x
ax pa xqI 3pa xqxx
xa
r3
r3
r3 r5
.
One should be careful about the order. In this calculation one follows the
rule that the index for the derivative is always in the front. However we see
63
that the first two terms combine to an anti-symmetric tensor so it vanishes

in E. Thus
E pa r 3xqI 3
pa xqxx
r5
and
σ 2µE pI 2µ pa r 3xqI 6µ

pa xqxx
r5
2µ
pa xqI 6µ pa xqxx .
r3 r5
Since we know the presence of a delta function we can let Ω be a ball with
radius R. Thus
b
»
n σdS 6µ
»
pa xqx dS 6µa »
xxdS.
BΩ BΩ R4 R4 BΩ
Since the integral is an isotropic tensor we have
»
xxdS λI
BBR
since I is the only rank 2 isotropic tensor. To get λ one can do the integrals
on the diagonal or take the trace of both sides, which gives
»
4
R2 dS 3λ ñ R2 4πR2 3λ ñ λ 4πR .
B BR 3
Thus
»
4
b 4 6µa p I q 8πµa.
6µa 4πR
xxdS
R BBR R 4 3
Thus the velocity field associated with a point force with strength b is
u p q b.
1 I xx
8πµ r r3
The idea of integral method approximates moving bodies by collection of
point forces with unknown strength. One solves for b in the scheme. This is
called the Stokeslet solution, also written as
u Gpxq b Gpx, 0q b
64
where G is a rank 2 tensor. If there is a Stokeslet at x0 the flow at x is

written as
upxq Gpx, x0 q b
where
Gpx, x0 q p
I px x0qpx x0q q 1 .
}x x0} }x x0}3 8πµ
5/20
Reminder: No class on Friday (5/22) and make up lecture/office hour as

written in 5/18 note.
NB: We can approximate particles by Stokeslets (see next section).
§8.2 Flow around a sphere
Consider a sphere with radius a traveling at velocity U . What force needs

to be applied to the sphere to maintain its motion? We’ll work on the rest
frame of the sphere. Let u be the velocity in the object moving frame and u1
be the velocity in the object rest frame. Then
u U. u1
From the BCs we have u Ñ 0 as r Ñ 8 and that u U on the sphere
surface. We can solve the problem by
(i) Using stream functions (see Batchelor’s book).

(ii) Using Papkovich-Neubar potentials.
To use method (ii) we need to find A. Using spherical harmonics we can

write A as
A ãΦ1 bΦ2 c Φ2 d Φ3 ...

for some coefficients ã, d being vectors, b being a scalar, and c being a rank 2
tensor. We must build the coefficients out of our geometric information, i.e.
from a, U . So
65
ã αU
for some α that could depend on a. b depends on either a or U U . But A
needs to be linear in U , meaning that scaling U or rotating U should result
in corresponding changes in A, and neither of the guess satisfies it, so b 0.
For c the only way to make a rank 2 tensor is
c 9U U,
which is not linear in U so it does not work. Finally for d we use the same
reasoning for ã to see that
d βU.
Thus we have
A p Ir 3xx q.
αU
βU
r3 r5
To calculate u write
αU x
u ∇p
r
2β Ur3 x q 2A
αpU xqx pU xqx 2A
αU
r
r3
2β
U
r3
6β
r5
αU α
pU xqx 4βU 12β pU xqx .
r r3 r3 r5
Now we apply BC that u U for r a, which implies
U p 4β qU
α
a a3
p aα3 12β
a5
qpU xqx 0
since we want to eliminate the term with vector x for not interfering with
the U component. Thus
αa 4β
a3
1
66
aα3 12β
a3
0
3
ñ α 34 a, β 16
a
.
Thus
a3 a3
u Up q p q p q
3a 3 a
U x x
4r 4r3 4 r3 r5
in the object moving frame (u1 is the velocity in the object rest frame). Now
we want to calculate the force on the sphere. To simplify the calculation let
the object be Ω B p0, aq and a big ball B p0, Rq containing B p0, aq. Then
» » »
n σdS n σdS ∇ σdV 0

BΩ B BR BR Baz
since ∇ σ 0 is the Stokes’ equation. Thus we can only care about Op 1r q
components of u since other components either grow or decay as R Ñ 8, i.e.
only Stokeslet contributes to the force on sphere, which we already calculated!
The Op 1r q components of u reads
Ua p q.
3 I xx
4 r r3
Thus the total force is
8πµ p U aq 6πµaU,
3
4
i.e. a force 6πµaU needs to be applied on the sphere to maintain its motion.
One can estimate the diffusion constant by
D 6πµa
kB T
,
which is the Boltzmann Einstein relation.
Slender body theory
We want to consider moving a flagellum to model micro organism swimming.

Thus we need a theory not on balls but on slender body.
67
5/26
HW2 discussion
3(a): Consider two particles under gravity. Suppose they drift together. Now
consider the reversed problem by reversing the direction of the gravity. Then
by the reversibility of the Stokes’ problem the particles should drift apart.
However if one looks at the problem it is just the same problem as before, so
they also have to drift together, a contradiction.
3(c): The initial conditions from the paper does not work! They are sup-
posed to have chaotic behavior, and since the equations come from the Stokes’
equations, the trajectories are reversible!
5(b): Ansatz
u upx, y qez .
Since BBzp is a constant we can write
µ∇2 u G
with
u 0 on x a, y a.
We can write the solutions as a sum of particular integral (specific solution)
and a homogeneous part, i.e.
u uP I uhomog
with
∇2 uhomog .
We can write
u pa y2q
1G 2
uhomog .
2µ
To satisfy the boundary conditions we need
68
uhomog 0 on y a, uhomog 12 Gµ pa2 y2q on x a.
We want to look for a separable solution (it has to be symmetric so we don’t

use sinh,sin. Also we choose cosh associated with x because we want to
match the BC.)
¸
uhomog an cosh λn x cos λn y.
n
To satisfy BCs at y a we need

λn nπ
2a
n P 2Z 1.
Now we have to choose an s.t.

¸
an cosh λn a cospλn y 21 Gµ pa2 y2q.
n
If we cannot do this can we still get some analytic expression? Yes, we

can ansatz a form of solution and choose the constants that minimize the
dissipation! Ansatz
u Apa2 x2 qpa2 y 2 q.
However if we try to minimize the term Ω D we will get A 0. But recall
³
that the principle of the minimization of dissipation only works when u is

specified on the boundaries. When there are BC where the force is specified
we have the minimize
» » » »
2µ E:E n σ u 2µ E : E ∆p un
Ω BΩT Ω
z 0
in this problem. Thus we can get A by the minimization! This will give us
an approximation (like finite element method) to the flow.
Micro-swimmers
Bacteria & archaea swim with rigid helical tails that rotate like corkscrews.
Also sperm & protists, fungi etc have flexible beating tails. Some algae have
two flagella that are used to perform breaststrokes. To explain the swimming
69
we introduce the slender-body theory. Let λ be the length (or wavelength) of

the flagella and a be the radius. The assumption of the slender-body theory
is
λ ¡¡ 2a.
One can do it by considering many stokeslets on the boundary and use the
Green functions. However it turns out the right order of accuracy is the
replace the stokeslets with strength Fpsq distributed along the center line
x Xpsq. Need to calculate Fpsq. If points at x Xpsq have velocity upsq,
then
» l
upsq Gpxpsq, xps1 qq Fps1 qds1 .
l
It seems that it leads to a singular integral. However we care about velocity
on the boundary so it is of distance a away from the center. Now consider
the integral near s. Since F should not change much around s we have
Fps1 q Fpsq.
We can not to it to G, but instead we have
Xpsq Xps1 q psq ps s1 q ppsqps s1 q

dX
ds
since G only depends on the difference, where ppsq is the tangent vector.
The distance to the boundary is
ps s1q2.
a
a2
Thus
Fpsq ps s1q2ppsqppsq sds1.

» l
upsq r I
ps s1q2 pa2 ps s1q2q
a
l
3
8πµ a2 2
5/27
Micro-organism swimming movies
70
Common features: Thin long objects (flagella) and waves propagating on

flagella.
Recall from last time
Fpsq l ps s1q2ppsqppsq qds1.

»
upsq p I
ps s1q2 rps s1q2 a2s
a
8πmu l a2
3
2
Although we approximate the integral by letting s1 s but we don’t change

the limits of the integral, which is justified by the asymptotic analysis. The
first term of the integral is
ls pl sq2 2 log l

a
a2
logp
pl sq pl sq2
a
a2 a
by that l ¡¡ a so l s, l s ¡¡ a. The asymptotic expression for the second
term is
2ppsqppsq log .
l
a
Thus
Fpsq
upsq pI ppsqppsqq log .
l
4πµ a
Note that
pI ppsqppsqqpI ppsqppsqq I
1
2
since |ppsq| 1. Thus we can solve for F by
Fpsq p2I ppsqppsqq upsq.

2πµ
log al
”Biofluid dynamics” by Lighthill. Now consider a cylinder. It can basically
move parallel to its symmetric axis (with velocity uk ) or perpendicular to it
(with velocity uK ). Plug in uk into the formula we get
Fk log
2πµ
l
uk
a
71
FK log
4πµ
l K
u
a
because uk ppsq |uk | and uK ppsq 0. Our swimming experience comes
from swimming pool, where one pushes the water back to get momentum.
However there is no momentum term in the Stokes’ equations. Thus we
have to think differently.Consider a flagellum passing a wave rightward with
velocity V when the head is held fixed. What is the swimming velocity U?
Note that V, U are of opposite direction. It’s hard to choose a reference
frame since even if one holds the head of the organism the flagellum still
moves. Lighthill chose a good reference frame moving rightward with V in
which the wave form is stationary. This reference frame is non-inertial but
it does not have pseudo force since there is no inertial force in the Stokes’
equation. Since the velocity of the fluid is U when the head is held fixed,
in this frame the velocity of the fluid is V U. Also the flagellum is sliding
with tangential speed c. If the equation of the flagellum in this frame is
pX ps ctq, Y ps ctq, Z ps ctqq with s being the arc-length, then the tangent
vector is (we define X 1 ¡ 0)
ppsq pX 1 ps ctq, Y 1 ps ctq, Z 1 ps ctqq.

Thus the tangential component of velocity is
pV U qX 1ps ctq c
and the normal component is
pV Uq 1 X 1 ps ctq2 .
a
For convenience define
Fk ζkuk
FK ζKuK.
5/29
Consider the micro-organism from last time. The velocity of the fluid near
the flagellum has two components: V U and a tangential speed c. The
total force in x direction (to the right) from element at s is
72
ζk ppV U qX 1 cqX 1 ζK pV U qp1 X 12q

since V U is in x-direction so the projection on the tangential direction
(right is positive) is pV U qX 1 , and one multiplies the same component to
project back. Also we used that X 12 Y 12 1. Thus the total force is
» L
F ζk ppV U qX 1 cqX 1 ζK pV U qp1 X 12qds
0
where L is the total length of the flagellum. We can write the force F as
F ζk LpV UqxX 12 y cζk xX 1 yL ζK pV UqLp1 xX 12 yq

where
»
xy 1
L
ds.
Consider two cases:
(i) Suppose that the flagellum is not attached to anything (hopefully not
indicating anything about male psychology) and no external forces act upon
the flagellum. In this case F 0.
(ii) If on the other hand the swimer does have a head of a sphere of radius
R. Then
F 6πRµU 0.
We will consider case (ii) since it does not make a big difference. Then
p1 xX 12yqp ζζ 1q K
U
ζ k
.
V ζ
p1 xX 12yq xX 12y 6πRµ
K
k ζ L k
However we can relate c, V by geometric relation
cxX 1 y V.
We can see that xX 12 y 1 and 1 only if the flagellum is straight. We can
see that the quantity
ζK .
ζk
γ
73
is important for the swimming because if γ 1 then there is no swimming.

We can write the expression in terms of γ as
γ pγ1 p1γqp1 1qxxX

12 yq
U
V X 12 y 1
1 1
1 .
p qp x
γ 1 1 X 12 yq
Thus when γ ¡ 1 is larger the swimming is faster. We observed that very
different micro-swimmers all have long thin flagella. It is because that γ 2
is the largest known drag anisotropy, which is that for a long thin flagella. It
basically says that there is little force when travelling tangentially and large
force when travelling perpendicularly. Numerically one can find that the γ
for a disk is around 1.5. Another observation is that backwards propagating
waves (V in positive x direction) propels the swimmer forwards (U in nega-
tive x direction) provided γ ¡ 1. Some swimmers seem to violate this rule.
The flagella for these swimmers are covered in mastigonemes (hairs). It is
thought that this makes γ 1 since now moving tangentially to the original
flagellum is harder than moving perpendicularly.
We can calculate the most efficient swimmer. The efficiency measure is

Work done in moving rigid version of swimmer at speed U
.
Work that swimmer is doing
This is less than 1 because swimming must spend more work than being
moved by experimentalists. Typically figure is 0.05. The work that swimmer
does is
»
ζk rpV U qX 1 cs2 ζK pV U q2p1 X 12qds 6πRµU 2 .
The work of dragging it is to set V, c 0 in the expression above. An optimal

swimmer has X 1 cos 40 . Nature can achieves it by making a helix like in
bacteria. The measured angle for bacteria is 30 . How do we interpret it?
6/1
§8 Thin-Film Flow
Consider a journal bearing, which is a way of moving heavy objects around

with fluid lubrication. Consider a trapezoidal-like bearing with a negative
74
slope bottom above a line with the floor moving rightward (x-direction) with
velocity U . Let the left height be h1 and right height in h2 with h1 ¡ h2 and
length L. Let hpxq be the height of the bottom. The Reynolds number is
Re
UL
.
ν
Assume also that h1 L and h1 h2 . If components of velocity field are
u and w, then how do u, w scale? Assume u U . By the incompressibility
Bw Bu ñ w U ñ w p h1 qU.
Bz Bx h1 L L
If
1,
. h1
L
then w U . Now non-dimensionalize all variables by
u u U, w wU, x xL, z zh1, p p0 p1 p

where p1 is the dimensional part of p. Then by the incompressibility
U B u U B w B u Bw 0.
L B x h1 B z
0 ñ B x Bz
By the x-component of momentum equation
U 2 B u U 2 B u
pL1 BBxp µU 2 B 2 u B2u q

ρ
L B x
u ρ
L
w
Bz h21
p Bx2 Bz2
h21 ρU L B u B u p1 h21 B p B2u 2B u
2
p qpu Bx
L2 µ
w
Bz q µU L Bx Bz2
B x 2 .
Note that the scaling for LHS is 2 Re. Thus we can neglect it even if we
don’t know Re a priori. Also we can neglect the RHS term with 2 . Now
we want to know the scaling of p. Dropping the *’s the z-component of the
momentum equation reads
ρU 2 B w B w q p1 B p B2w q
L
pu Bx w
Bx h1 B z h21
p
µU 2
Bz2
3 Repu
Bw Bw
w q
p1 h1 B p
p
B2w B2w
2 2 q.
Bx Bz µU B z Bz2 Bx
75
Provided 2 Re 1 we can neglect inertial terms in both components of the

momentum equation. To get a dominant balance we observe that although
1 h1 B p p1 h21 B p
BBzw2 BBzu2 , we have pµU Bz ¡¡ µU L Bx . There are two possible dominant
2 2
balances. Idea 1: If the 1.z, 2.z (first and second terms in z-component
equation) are balanced, then
p1 µU
h

.
1
So 1.x 2
2.x so
B2u 0 ñ u U p1 z q
Bz2 hpxq
where z hpxq is the bottom of the bearing. Idea 2: If 1.x 2.x, then
p1 µUh2L
1
and
1.z 1 ñ BBzp 0 ñ p ppxq.

Thus
dp B 2 u
dx B z 2
0
with BCs u 1 when z 0 and u 0 when z h. Thus
upz q 1 z pz hq.
z 1 dp
h 2 dx
How do we calculate the pressure gradient? How do we calculate w? We can
use the incompressibility equation where w is not of order op1q! Write
Bw Bu
Bz Bx
with BCs w 0 on z 0, w 0 on z h. However there might be no way
for a first order equation to satisfy two constraints. Despite of this we should
not be worried (as is Prof.Roper). If we use Idea 1 then integration gives

» z
Bu B pz z2 q z2 Bh
w
0 Bx Bx 2h 2h2 B x
76
which is not consistent with the BCs. Thus Idea 1 is not correct. On the
other hand with Idea 2 w 0 on z h can be used to determine dxdp
. Now we
reformulate it to solve the problem. We showed that it is useful to calculate
the flux
» h
q
.
udz.
0
Then
q h2 121 dx
dp 3
h.
Thus w 0 at z h implies
0 w z h

B » h
udx
dq
Bx 0 dx
.
This means that the total flux through any of the surface is conserved. Thus
dp
dx
h62 12q
h3
.
We still have to know what q is.
6/3
Recall from the Idea 2 last time (non-dimensional variables)
0
Bp
Bz
0
Bp B2u
Bx µ
Bz2
Bu Bw .
Bx Bz
By the equation derived last time
dp
dx
6µU
h2
12µq
h3
,
where q is the flux across any fixed surface. We still need to calculate q. To
solve for p (q equivalently) we need to know the pressure BCs. Under many
77
conditions we can assume the same value of p at both sides of the bearing.
Eg #1: The fluid on either side of the bearing is at atmospheric pressure

p pa .
Eg #2: The body is completely immersed in fluid (air) we can look at fluid
flowing above the body and balancing ∇p, µ∆u to get
∆p
µU
.
L
In last class we showed that pressure differences within gap scale like p1
µU L
h2
. Thus the dimensions ratio is
∆p
p1
2.
So we can neglect the pressure difference.
Thus
» L » L
rps 0 6µU
L
x 0
1
h2
dx 12µq
1
h3
dx
0 0
so
³L
1
q 1 0
U³
2 L
h2
1
dx
.
0 h3 dx
If we define
h1 h2
α
L
and let hpxq be linear we have
dx
dh
α
and
1
h1 U h1h2
qU
h1 h1 h2 .
h1 2
1
h21 2
2
So by integrating BBxp (pp0q ppLq p0 )
78
6µU ph1 hpxqqphpxq h2 q

ppxq p0
α ph1 h2qhpxq2 .
Since we have h2 in the top and h3 in the bottom we can see that as h Ñ
0, p Ò 8, i.e. there is a very large upward force on the body. Although p
becomes very large don’t take p Ò 8 literally because when the length is too
small the atomic forces take place and we cannot use fluid mechanics. To
estimate the total force on body we have the estimate
nσ pn 2µnE.

Now
nE
Bw U
Bz L
while p µU
h
. So the pressure is dominant in the expressions. Thus the total
upward normal force on body is
h1 h2
» L
FN pp p0qdx 6µU
α 2
plog
h1
h
2p
h h
qq.
0 2 1 2
The tangential force on the body is
Bu dx 2µU p 3ph1 h2q log h1 q.

» L
FT
0 Bz α ph1 h2 q
µ
h2
When building a journal bearing we want FT ¡¡ FN since we want to move
it easily when having large upward force. Note that
FN
FT
1
α
.
Thus small α means large left for small tangential force.
Reynolds equation for a spreading droplet
Let z hpx, tq be the profile of a droplet on your kitchen floor. We want

to know how fast it spreads. The droplet is thin, meaning that the width L
is larger than its height. Thus we can use the lubrication theory to predict
spreading rate. We have from the setting
79
1 ñ w u.
h
L
By the similar dimensional analysis we know that we can neglect inertial
terms and x-derivative term to get
B
0 ρg µ 2
p B 2
w
Bz Bz
0
Bp µ B2u .
Bx Bz2
To find a dominant balance first notice that we should keep ρg term since it
is why the droplet spreads. If µ BBzw2 ¡¡ BBzp we have
2
p
µU
h
and
Bp µU µU µ B2u .
Bx hL L2 Bz2
This means that the pressure does not show up anywhere, which is not good.
Thus we keep BBzp and get
p ρg ph z q pa
because p pa on z h. Substitute into the second equation to get
ρg BBhx µ BBzu2 0.
2
By no-slip BC on u
u 0 on z 0.
By the dynamic boundary condition
nσ pan ñ p pa, µ BBuz 0 on z h.

By the equation and the BCs we have
ρg B h
upx, z, tq z pz 2hq.
2µ B x
80
6/5
Office hours on Monday (noon-1) and Wednesday (1-2)
Evaluation of instruction
Last time from incompressibility

Bw Bu
Bz Bx
we deduced
ρg B h
u z pz 2hq.
2µ B x
Define the flow over the vertical lines
q px, tq
» h
ρgh
3
Bh .
3µ B x
udz
0
By the conservation of mass (with constant ρ)

B phpx, tqδxq qpxq qpx δxq
Bt
ñ BBht BBxq
ñ BBht 3µ
ρg B 3 B h
Bx ph Bx q 0
which is the Reynolds’ equation. From 266C we are supposed to be pro-
grammed to see that there is a similarity solution
hpx, tq H ptqf pη q, η lpxtq .

The dimensional analysis reads
ρg H 4 H3
H
t
µ l2
ñ l2
ρg
µt
.
Conservation of mass reads
81
» pq
L t
hpx, tqdx A ñ H ptqlptq A
Lptq
since lptq Lptq. Thus
2
H5 Aρgµt
and
A3 ρgt 1
lptq p q5 .
µ
We can see after solving hpx, tq that Lptq η0 lptq. From this we can con-
struct and solve a second order ODE for f (Note). We can observe the form
of lptq to see the dependence of spreading speed on various variables.
Surface tension
What’s the energy we get by gluing two square fluid pieces together. We
have experimentally
kT V 1eV
where V is the potential energy one gets by gluing them together. The LHS
is the thermal energy and kT ¥ V means that thermal disturb can break
the fluid, which is not the case. Consider a cuboid with nx , ny , nz cubes of
fluid in x, y, z directions. The energy of droplet is (calculating the number
of contacting squares)
pnx 1qny nz pV q nxpny 1qnz pV q nx ny pnz 1qpV q

3nxny nz pV q pnxny ny nz nx nz qpV q
3 aΩ3 pV q
1VΣ
2 a2
where a is the side length of a cube, Ω is the volume of the cuboid, and Σ is
the surface area of the cuboid. The first term is same for all droplets having
the same size. However the second term changes with the surface area of the
droplet. Thus a droplet of fluid has a surface energy
82
γΣ
where
V
.
2a2
We already know that a 3Å and we have an estimate for V . Thus
20mN {m ¤ γ ¤ 1000mN {m
where
rγ s energy
area
force
length
.
Consider a disk with radius R on the surface of a fluid (with e.g. air above).
Then the energy of the disk is
E γπR2.
If we expand the radius of the disk by δR we have
δE 2γπRδR.
If the total inward force acting at edge is F , then
F δR δE ñ F 2πRγ.
Thus the force per length of perimeter is
F
2πR
γ.
Thus γ can be interpreted as the force per length on the edge of an element
on the water surface. Now consider a water strider. Why does it not sink?
First observe it is heavier than water so it doesn’t float. Consider a leg in a
water (Note). If the θ is the angle between the outward tangent and the y
axis the force per unit length of leg is
2γ cos θ
so the total force is
83
2Lγ cos θ
where L is the length of the leg. To see how this force act on a droplet
consider a droplet of radius R. Consider virtually stretching the sphere by
δR. The energy is
E 4πR2γ
so the change of surface energy is
8πRδRγ.
δE
The work done against pressure is pdV p4πR2 δR., where p is the pressure
on the boundary of the droplet created by the surface tension. Thus
p
2γ
R
which is called the Young-Laplace law. Consider a straw connecting two
bubbles with radii R1 , R2 , R1 ¡ R2 with bubble 1 on the left side. Since the
pressure is larger for the smaller bubble the air goes leftward and the small
bubble goes away. This is important for foams in industry. Now consider
another example with a straw in your drink in pizza hut. We can observe
that the fluid surface in the straw is higher due to a pressure difference of
pa and pa ∆pcapillary , and the fluid in the straw has a curved-up shape (Note).
84

272B Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

272B Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

272B notes, Spring 2015 Shyr-Shea Chang

Instructor: Marcus Roper.

Fungi and spores.

Feeding: birds (in LA) turn to make upward vorticity to feed.

Network: Fungi network, leaf network (damage routing).

Getting around: How do water striders climb?

Getting around: How do bacteria climb up a glass surface?

§1 Properties of a fluid (liquid or gas)

We want to consider the fluid as a continuum. The fluid is made up of

• temperature (not showing up much in class), defined

have zero on RHS and non-zero on LHS).

Pressure (force by which fluid resists changes in density)

u: average velocity of molecules. Velocity of molecule:

Fields we care: (iv) Force density, defined by

body force acting on fluids contained in Ω pressure force acting over B Ω  0.

BΩ can be broken up with infinitesimal elements ndS with pressure force

f px, tqdV pndS  0.

f px, tqdV ∇pdV  0.

What is the force on the iceberg?

ppanqdS  pa p∇1qdV  0.

Now we want to calculate

ρgzn dS  ρg ∇zdV  ρgez dV  ρg|Ωs|ez

§3 Inviscid fluid flow

Consider a fluid in motion, with velocity field u, density ρ, pressure p, and

Conservation of mass: Take an arbitrary control volume Ω with boundary

(i) Split Ω into ”infinitesimal” elements dV .

(ii) Mass of one element is ρpx, tqdV .

Since we do not concern nuclear reactions in this course we know that

volume  surface area height  dS puδtq n.

rate of which mass flows through element

 amount of mass flow in time δt

Conservation of momentum: Consider rate of change of the momentum of

 surface forces rate at which momentum is lost through BΩ.

Difference between this statement and statement of hydrostatic force balance:

1. Total momentum contained in Ω may change with time.

p1q  pndS, p2q  f dV.

p3q  ρupu nqdS.

where uu  tui uj ui,j 1 is a 9-component tensor (can think of the index as in

matrix but it’s not a matrix). We can see that

pB q B pρuq ∇ pρuuq  ∇p

Compared to the conservation of mass equation

where ρ0 , p0 are reference density and pressure, and γ  C Cp

the fluid (see homework 1). We can write

U  10m{s, c  330m{s ñ M a  0.03

Last time we mentioned that if Ma 1 then we claim that we can treat ρ

we can see the dimensionless form is

pB q Bu ρpu ∇qu  ∇p

x  xptq, x1  upxptq, tq.

x1 pt ∆tq  upxpt ∆tq, t ∆tq.

xpt ∆tq  xptq ∆tupxptq, tq Op∆t2 q

x1 pt∆ tq  upxptq, tq pu ∇qu∆t BBut ∆t Op∆t2 q

upx q  upx, tq pδ ∇qu Bu

θpxpt ∆tq, t ∆tq θpxptq, tq

 θ px ∆x, t ∆tq θpx, tq

where ∆x  x1 ptq∆t Op∆t2 q is given by the Taylor’s expansion. We call Dθ

? on the moving object dS

ñ uz BBht ux BBhx uy BBhy  0 at z  h,

mass acceleration  surface forces body forces momentum fluxes.

0  surface forces momentum fluxes.

ρ1 u1 pu1 nqdS ρ2 u2 pu2 nqdS p2 ndS p1 ndS  0.

ρ1 pu1 nq2 ρ2 pu2 nq2 p2 p1  0.

(2) By the definition of curl

p0, 0q Ñ puxp0, 0q∆t, uy p0, 0q∆tq

p0, 0q Ñ pu∆t, v∆tq

body force acting on fluids contained in Ω pressure force acting over B Ω 0.

f px, tqdV pndS 0.

f px, tqdV ∇pdV 0.

ppanqdS pa p∇1qdV 0.

ρgzn dS ρg ∇zdV ρgez dV ρg|Ωs|ez

volume surface area height dS puδtq n.

amount of mass flow in time δt

surface forces rate at which momentum is lost through BΩ.

p1q pndS, p2q f dV.

p3q ρupu nqdS.

where uu tui uj ui,j 1 is a 9-component tensor (can think of the index as in

pB q B pρuq ∇ pρuuq ∇p

where ρ0 , p0 are reference density and pressure, and γ C Cp

U 10m{s, c 330m{s ñ M a 0.03

pB q Bu ρpu ∇qu ∇p

x xptq, x1 upxptq, tq.

x1 pt ∆tq upxpt ∆tq, t ∆tq.

xpt ∆tq xptq ∆tupxptq, tq Op∆t2 q

x1 pt∆ tq upxptq, tq pu ∇qu∆t BBut ∆t Op∆t2 q

upx q upx, tq pδ ∇qu Bu

θ px ∆x, t ∆tq θpx, tq

where ∆x x1 ptq∆t Op∆t2 q is given by the Taylor’s expansion. We call Dθ

ñ uz BBht ux BBhx uy BBhy 0 at z h,

mass acceleration surface forces body forces momentum fluxes.

0 surface forces momentum fluxes.

ρ1 u1 pu1 nqdS ρ2 u2 pu2 nqdS p2 ndS p1 ndS 0.

ρ1 pu1 nq2 ρ2 pu2 nq2 p2 p1 0.

uω u p∇ uq ∇p 21 u2q pu ∇qu.

∇ p b cq p ∇ cq b pc ∇qb p∇ bqc pb ∇qc

∇ p u ω q p ∇ ω qu pω ∇qu p∇ uqω pu ∇qω.

φpr, θq f prq cos θ.

p Aptq ρu2 V ρu2

Rate of change of momentum Body forces surface forces

surface forces pndS Tn dS,

Fi1 e1i F e1i ej Fj Lij Fj .

A1i1 ...ir Li j Li j Aj ...j ,

A1ij Lik Ljl Akl LALT .

A1i1 ...ir Ai ...i .

pi, j, kq p1, 2, 3q, p2, 3, 1q, p3, 1, 2q

Rate of change of momentum Rate of loss of momentum

dS pSn Sex nx Sey ny Sez nz q 0

Sn Siei Sj1 e1j , n ni ei n1j ej .

ni σij ej n1iσij1 e1j .

n1i Lij nj ñ ni Lkin1k

ej pej e1mqe1m Lmj e1m

n1k Lki Lmj σij e1m n1iσij1 e1j n1iσim

n1k Lki Lmj σij n1k σkm

p∇ σqx BBx pσxxq BBy pσyxq BBz pσzxq, ....

For an incompressible fluid we have 4 equations (Euler’s equation and ∇ u

upx δxq upxq pδx ∇qu.

is the symmetric part pEij Eji q and

pδx ∇qu pδx Aq pδx E q.

where is the permutation tensor. Then

r 12 ω δxsi 12 ijk ωj δxk 12 ijk jlm BBuxm δxk .

δxk Aki rδx Asi.

σij pδij Aijkl Ekl .

Aijkl α1δik δjl α2 δij δkl α3 δil δjk .

τij α1Eij α2 δij Ekk α3 Eji pα1 α3 qEij α2 trpE qδij .

Eij 21 p BBxui BBuxj q.

∇ p2µEd κp∇ uqI pI q F.

rµ∇ p∇uqT si µ BBx BBuxj µ BBx p∇ uq 0

Let L be a length scale, U be a velocity scale, T L

A rectilinear flow is a flow for which u upx, y, tqez . Then

Since we should have finite pressures at z 8 we conclude that dp