Heat and Mass Transfer

Experiment No.1

To measure the temperature distribution along a linear

homogeneous bar for steady state condition experiment.
Introduction:

The apparatus comprises two heat-conducting specimens, a sectioned bar for the
examination of linear conduction and a disc for radial conduction. A console provides
electrical power to heaters in the specimens and digital readout of the temperature at
selected points along the heat-conducting paths. A stream of cold water provides a heat
sink at the end of the conducting path in each specimen.

Modes Of Heat Conduction:

Basic Modes Of Heat transfer for Conduction are

• Free Electrons (electron gas)

• Lattice Waves
• Magnetic Excitation
• Electromagnetic Radiation (internal Radiation)

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 1

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Free Electrons:

This mode of Heat depends upon material in metal we have excess of free electrons while
in gases free electrons are very less. So Free Electrons are responsible for heat flow
through metals. According to modern theory the Kinetic energy of electrons increase with
the increase of temperature and their velocity also increases so they move towards a region
of low kinetic energy.

Description Of Apparatus:

Brass sample is placed in an insulated capsule where there is cold brass present on one
side of sample and cold brass on other side. Electric heater is attached to hot brass for
heating and there water circulating around cold brass area for cooling. There are 9
thermistors placed at a distance of 10 mm for calculating value of temperature. On right
side we have switch to turn electric heater on or off then we have a controller to control
the amount of heat generated by electric heater in watts. And there is a switch to read the
temperature from different thermistors.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 2

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Linear Conduction Heat Transfer:

dx

dT

(Linear temperature distribution)

It is often necessary to evaluate the heat flow through a solid when the flow is not steady
e.g. through the wall of a furnace that is being heated or cooled. To calculate the heat flow
under these conditions it is necessary to find the temperature distribution through the solid
and how the distribution varies with. Using the equipment set-up already described, it is a
simple matter to monitor the temperature profile variation during either a heating or
cooling cycle thus facilitating the study of unsteady state conduction.

Fourier’s Law states that:

dT
Q  kA
dx

where,

Q = heat flow rate, [W]

k = thermal conductivity of the material,

A = cross-sectional area of the conduction, [m2]

dT = changes of temperature between 2 points, [K]

dx = changes of displacement between 2 points, [m]

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 3

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

From continuity the heat flow rate (Q) is the same for each section of the conductor. Also,
the thermal conductivity (k) is constant (assuming no change with average temperature of
the material).

Hence,

i.e. the temperature gradient is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area.

EQUIPMENT:

The equipment comprises two heat-conducting specimens, a multi-section bar for the
examination of linear conduction and a metal disc for radial conduction. A control panel
provides electrical and power digital for display heaters in the specimens as well as the
selector switch for data acquisition system.

A small flow of cooling water provides a heat sink at the end of the conducting path in
each specimen.

1
2

3 7
4

5
8
6
9
10

Unit Assembly for Heat Conduction Study Bench

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 4

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

• Control Panel
• Heater Power Indicator
• Heater Power Regulator
• Heater Power
• Temperature Indicator
• Temperature Selector
• Main Power Switch
• Temperature Sensors
• Radial Module
• Linear Module

Linear Module:

Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction is most simply demonstrated with the linear
conduction module. This comprises a heat input section fabricated from brass fitted with
an electrical heater. Three thermistor temperature sensors are installed at 10mm intervals
along the working section, which has a diameter of 25mm. A separate heat sink section
also of brass is cooled at one end by running water while its working section is also fitted
with thermistor temperature sensors at 10mm intervals.

The heat input section and the heat sink section may be clamped directly together to form
a continuous brass bar with temperature sensor at 10mm intervals, alternatively any one of
three intermediate sections can be fitted between these two.

The first of these is a 30mm length of the same material (brass) and is the same diameter
as the heat input and heat sink sections and is again fitted with thermistor sensors at 10mm
intervals. This section is clamped between the two basic sections forms a relatively long
uniform bar with nine regularly spaced temperature sensors.

The second center section, which may be fitted, is again brass and 30-mm long but has a
diameter of 13mm and is not fitted with temperature sensors. This section allows a study
of the effect of a reduction in the cross-section of the heat-conducting path.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 5

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

The third center section, which may be fitted, is of stainless steel and has the same
dimensions as the first brass section. No temperature sensors are fitted. This section allows
the study of the effect of a change in the material while maintaining a constant cross-
section.

The mating ends of the five sections are finely finished to promote good thermal contact
although heat- conducting compound may be smeared over the surfaces to reduce thermal
resistance. The heat-conducting properties of insulators may be found by simply inserting
a thin specimen between the heated and cooled metal sections. An example of such an
insulator is a piece of paper.

Heat losses from the linear module are reduced to a minimum by a heat-resistant casing
enclosing an air space around the module. The interchangeable center sections have their
own attached casing pieces, which fit with those of the heat input and heat sink sections.

The thermistor temperature sensors are connected to miniature plugs fitted to the casing
and connections from the sensors to the temperature input module are made via nine
sensor leads fitted with appropriate sockets. Therefore, temperature gradients can be
plotted.

Radial Module:

The radial conduction module comprises a brass disc 110mm diameter and 3mm thick
heated in the center by an electrical heater and cooled by cold water in a circumferential
copper tube. Thermistor temperature sensors are fitted to the center of the disc and at
10mm intervals along a radius there being six in all. Again, heat losses are minimized by
preserving an air gap around the disc with a heat-resistant casing. As in the linear module,
the thermistor connections are brought out to plugs in the casing to which six sensor leads
fitted with appropriate sockets may be connected to obtain the temperature.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 6

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Procedure:

1. Make sure that the main switch is initially off. Then Insert a brass conductor
(25mm diameter) section intermediate section into the linear module and clamp
together
2. Turn on the water supply and ensure that water is flowing from the free end of the
water pipe to drain. This should be checked at intervals
3. Turn the heater power control knob control panel to the fully anticlockwise
position and connect the sensors leads
4. Switch on the power supply and main switch, the digital readouts will be
illuminated
5. Turn the heater power and allow sufficient time for a steady state condition to be
achieved before recording the temperature at all nine sensor points and the input
power reading on the wattmeter (Q). After each change, sufficient time must be
allowed to achieve steady state conditions.
6. End of experiment

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 7

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Observations & Calculations:

Sr He Tem Temp Temp Temp Temp Temp Temp Temp Tem

no at perat eratur eratur eratur eratur eratur eratur eratur perat
ure e e e e e e e ure
𝑄̇ T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
1 10 54 53.3 51 49.7 47 44 34.7 34 33.6
2 15 68.6 68.1 64.5 62.3 55.3 46.2 37.2 35.4 34.6
3 20 80 76 70 68 65 42 40 35 34

Graph:

Temperature Distribution
90
80
Temperature at each node

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Distance between two nodes

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 8

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Comments:

• After turning on the apparatus wait for some time so that it becomes stable
otherwise it will alter our results.
• First the three thermistors show almost uniform decrease in temperature but fourth
thermistor shows a little higher reading from previous trend because air is present
between the two blocks which acts as a resistor to heat flow so temperature
decrease is not uniform along the length.
• The power supply was fluctuating about  0.1 W which may be the cause of
fluctuation in readings.
• Slope gets decreased when the temperature decreases and the heat flow also
decreases, so it is clear that at the start heat flow from the hot body is large and
with the passage of time it decreases.
• Before starting experiment firstly develop steady state otherwise temperature
values varies improperly and there will be abnormal behavior of the temperature
profile.
• There may be fault in the apparatus as the apparatus is too old.
• The heat flow rate does not remain actually constant for all values of T, it changes
somehow.
• Improper insulation would also lead to the difference due to heat loss.
• The two ends hot and cold are not properly matched.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 9

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Experiment No. 02

To investigate the Fourier’s law of conduction and measuring

the thermal conductivity of the material.
Introduction:

Conduction (heat transfer by diffusion) is the transport of energy from the more energetic
to the less energetic particles of a substance due to a temperature gradient, and the
physical mechanism is that of random atomic and molecular activity. For one-
dimensional, steady-state heat conduction in a plane wall with no heat generation,
temperature is a function of the x coordinate only and heat is transferred exclusively in
this direction. Thus, the temperature distribution for the heat conduction through plane
wall must be linear.

The Linear and Radial Heat Conduction Apparatus is designed for students to study the
principles of conduction heat transfer. The student is able to determine the relationship
between the rate of heat transfer and temperature gradient, the cross-sectional area and
length of the conducting path and thermal conductivity of the material.

Thermal conductivity:

In physics, thermal conductivity is the property of a material's ability to conduct heat. It

appears primarily in Fourier's Law for heat conduction. Thermal conductivity is
measured in watts per kelvin-meter (W-K_1-m_1, i.e. W/(Km) or in IP units
(Btuhr_1ft_1F_1, i.e. Btu/(hrft-F). Multiplied by a temperature difference (in kelvins, K)
and an area (in square meters, m ), and divided by a thickness (in meters, m), the thermal
conductivity predicts the rate of energy loss (in watts, W) through a piece of material. In
the window building industry "thermal conductivity" is expressed as the U-Factor which
measures the rate of heat transfer and tells you how well the window insulates.

Modes of Heat Transfer:

There are three basic modes of heat transfer: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 10

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Conduction:

"Conduction is the form of heat transfer that takes place within solids when one portion of
an object is heated. Energy is transferred from the heated area to the unheated area at a
rate dependent on the difference in temperature and the thermal conductivity (k) of the
material."

Convection:

"Convection is the transfer of heat energy by the movement of heated liquids or gases
from the source of heat to a cooler part of the environment.

Radiation:

"Radiation is the transfer of heat energy from a hot surface or gas, the radiator, to a cooler
material, the target, by electromagnetic waves without the need of an intervening medium.
Radiant energy can be transferred only by line of sight and will be reduced or blocked by
intervening materials."

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 11

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Heat Transfer:

The heat transfer rate (qx) by conduction through a plane wall is directly proportional to the cross
sectional area (A) and the temperature difference (T), whereas it is inversely proportional to the
wall thickness (x).

In a single plane wall, heat transfer through composite wall is also important. Such walls may
involve any number of series and parallel layers made of different materials. In the case of steady
state one-dimensional heat conduction with no heat generation, temperature profile through each
layer becomes linear. Heat transfer through composite systems is usually described by an overall
heat transfer coefficient. Simply, the overall heat transfer coefficient is related to the total thermal
resistance.

Unit Assembly:

The equipment comprises two heat-conducting specimens, a multi-section bar for the examination
of linear conduction and a metal disc for radial conduction. A control panel supplies electrical
power to the heaters and shows readings for all relevant measurements.

A small flow of cooling water provides a heat sink at the end of the conducting path in each
specimen.

1
7
2
3 8

4
9
5

(Unit Assembly for Heat Conduction Study Bench)

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 12
Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

• Control Panel Connectors

• Heater Power Indicator
• Heater Power Regulator
• Temperature Indicator
• Temperature Selector
• Thermocouple Connectors
• Thermocouples
• Radial Module

• Linear Module

Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction:

Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction is most simply demonstrated with the linear conduction
module. This comprises a heat input section fabricated from brass fitted with an electrical heater.
Three temperature sensors are installed at 10mm intervals along the working section, which has a
diameter of 25mm. A separate heat sink section also of brass is cooled at one end by running
water while its working section is also fitted with thermistor temperature sensors at 10mm
intervals.

The heat input section and the heat sink section may be clamped directly together to form a
continuous brass bar with temperature sensor at 10mm intervals, alternatively any one of three
intermediate sections can be fitted between these two.

Linear Module:

The first of these is a 30mm length of the same material (brass) and is the same diameter as the
heat input and heat sink sections and is again fitted with temperature sensors at 10mm intervals.
This section is clamped between the two basic sections forms a relatively long uniform bar with
nine regularly spaced temperature sensors.

The second center section, which may be fitted, is again brass and 30mm long but has a diameter
of 13mm and is not fitted with temperature sensors. This section allows a study of the effect of a
reduction in the cross-section of the heat-conducting path.
University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 13
Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

The third center section, which may be fitted, is of stainless steel and has the same dimensions as
the first brass section. No temperature sensors are fitted. This section allows the study of the
effect of a change in the material while maintaining a constant cross-section.

The mating ends of the sections are finely finished to promote good thermal contact although
heat- conducting compound may be smeared over the surfaces to reduce thermal resistance. The
heat-conducting properties of insulators may be found by simply inserting a thin specimen
between the heated and cooled metal sections. An example of such an insulator is a piece of
paper.

Heat losses from the linear module are reduced to a minimum by a heat-resistant casing enclosing
an air space around the module. The interchangeable center sections have their own attached
casing pieces, which fit with those of the heat input and heat sink sections.

The temperature sensors come with miniature thermocouple plugs. There are to be connected to
the panel for temperature measurement readings. Therefore temperature gradients can be readily
plotted from rapidly acquired data on the computer.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 14

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Radial Module:

The radial conduction module comprises a brass disc 110mm diameter and 3mm thick heated in
the center by an electrical heater and cooled by cold water in a circumferential copper tube.
Temperature sensors are fitted to the center of the disc and at 10mm intervals along a radius there
being six in all. Again heat losses are minimized by preserving an air gap around the disc with a
heat-resistant casing. As in the linear module, the temperature sensors are to be connected to the
panel for temperature displays.

Control Panel:

Either of the heat-conduction modules may be connected to a control panel which allows the
heater input power to be set and the temperature at any of the sensors to be shown in °C on the
computer. Heater power is controlled by a variable autotransformer and displayed on a digital
indicator. Power outputs from 0 to 100 watts may be obtained.

Linear Conduction Heat Transfer:

dx

Q
dT

Linear temperature distribution

It is often necessary to evaluate the heat flow through a solid when the flow is not steady e.g.
through the wall of a furnace that is being heated or cooled. To calculate the heat flow under these
conditions it is necessary to find the temperature distribution through the solid and how the
distribution varies with. Using the equipment set-up already described, it is a simple matter to
monitor the temperature profile variation during either a heating or cooling cycle thus facilitating
the study of unsteady state conduction.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 15

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

kH kS kC
THS
THI

TCI

TCS
XH XS XC

Linear temperature distribution of different materials

From continuity the heat flow rate (Q) is the same for each section of the conductor. Also the
thermal conductivity (k) is constant (assuming no change with average temperature of the
material).

AC

AH AC
Q AC

XH XS XC

(Temperature distribution with various cross-sectional areas)

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 16

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction:

It states that,
“Flow of heat per unit are is proportional to the temperature difference per unit length.”

i.e.

𝑄̇ 𝑑𝑇
= −𝑘 ( )
𝐴 𝑑𝑥

By re-writing above relation,

𝑑𝑇
𝑄=
𝑑𝑥
𝑘𝐴

Where,

𝑑𝑥
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑘𝐴

Properties of “K”:

- It is a material property and a function of temperature.

- It may be different in different orientations.

Procedure:

1. Start the electric supply.

2. Adjust the temperature in the temperature indicator by means of rotating the knob for
compensation of temperature equal to room temperature. (Normally this is per
adjusted)
3. Give input to the heater by slowly rotating the dimmerstat .
4. Go on checking the temperature at some specified time interval say 5 minute and
continue this till a satisfactory steady state condition is reached.
5. Note the temperature reading.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 17

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Observations & Calculations

Sr He Tem Temp Temp Temp Temp Temp Temp Temp Tem

no at perat eratur eratur eratur eratur eratur eratur eratur perat
ure e e e e e e e ure
𝑄̇ T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
1 10 54 23.3 51 49.7 67 44 34.7 34 33.6
2 15 68.6 68.1 64.1 61.3 53.3 46.2 37.2 35.5 34.6
3 20 80 78 70 68 65 43 40 35 34

Graph:

Temperature Distribution
60
Temperature at eaach node

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Distance Between two nodes

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 18

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Comments:

• When assembling the sample between the two ends (hot and cold), the ends must be
properly matched in the housing. That might be the reason for inaccurate result.
• The temperature sensors should work properly and must be given suitable time to display
a stable reading.
• Some sensors were not working properly, so we insert approximate temperatures there.
• Higher temperature leads to higher errors.
• The apparatus require some time to stable.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 19

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Experiment No. 03

Study the conduction of heat along a composite bar and calculate

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient.
Apparatus:

• Heat conduction apparatus

• Stainless steel sample with thermistors

Theory:

Mathematical Derivation:

Let a solid bar with three sections of equal lengths made of brass, stainless steel and

brass again respectively:

Heat transfer through any material is given as,

𝑄̇ = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇 → (1)

Or,

∆𝑇
𝑄̇ =
1
𝑈𝐴

Where,

1
= Overall thermal Resistance
𝑈𝐴

U= Overall heat transfer coefficient

Let a solid bar with three sections of equal lengths made of brass, stainless steel and brass again
respectively.

Let,

TH = Temperature at the hot side (brass)

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 20

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

TS1 = Temperature at the hot side (steel)

TS2 = Temperature at the hot side (steel)

TC = Temperature at the hot side (brass)

Then, heat transfer 𝑄̇ across these sections is,

𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝑆1
𝑄̇ =
𝑅1

Thus,

𝑄̇ 𝑅1 = 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝑆1 → (𝑖)

Similarly,

𝑄̇ 𝑅2 = 𝑇𝑆1 − 𝑇𝑆2 → (𝑖𝑖)

𝑄̇ 𝑅3 = 𝑇𝑆2 − 𝑇𝐶 → (𝑖𝑖𝑖)

Adding (i),(ii),and (iii), we get:

𝑄̇ (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ) = 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶

𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶
𝑄̇ = → (2)
(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )

Comparing (1) and (2) for heat, we get:

1
𝑈= → (3)
𝐴(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )

From Fourier’s Law,

∆𝑇
𝑄̇ =
∆𝑥
𝑘𝐴

Where,

∆𝑥
𝑅= = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑘𝐴

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 21

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Thus, (3) gives,

1
𝑈 = ∆𝑥𝐵𝐻 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 → (4)
+ 𝑆𝑆+ 𝐵𝐶
𝐾𝐵𝐻 𝐾𝑆𝑆 𝐾𝐵𝐶

Data Acquisition:

Sr He Tem Temp Temp Temp Temp Temp Temp Temp Tem

no at perat eratur eratur eratur eratur eratur eratur eratur perat
ure e e e e e e e ure
𝑄̇ T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
1 5 44.6 44.5 43.2 33.1 32.7 30.7 30.1 29 29.9
2 20 51 50 48.2 40 35 33 30 29.8 29.7
3 25 65 62.8 61.7 44.7 39.2 35 30 20.4 30.1

Graph:

Temperature Distribution
50
45
temperature at each node

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Distance between two nodes

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 22

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Comments:

• The surfaces of the composite bars must match while assembly in the housing, otherwise
the heat transfer co-efficient might vary from expected value.
• Attach the sensors in a definite order all over the composite bar assembly. That might be
the reason of inaccurate outcomes.
• Conductive coefficient for material depends upon the temperature and does not remain
same for all materials.
• The overall heat coefficient can be calculated by considering resistance in series
combination.
• After turning on the apparatus wait for some time so that the apparatus becomes stable
otherwise it will affect our results
• It can be seen from graphs that the thermistors present after the layer of the air between
hot brass and sample steel and sample steel and cold brass show an increased value of
temperature because air act as a resistor to het conduction.
• The temperature profile’s trend remains almost same by varying the heat flow rate. Its
effect is just that the profile shifts up on the temperature axis.
• Temperature profile is steeper for the material whose conductivity is less i.e., for steel as
compared to brass.
• By increasing the power the temperature increases accordingly.
• Variations in Power supply alter the results.
• Fourier Law cannot be used here because we have composite material here.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 23

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Experiment No. 04

To investigate the effect of change in cross-sectional area on the

Temperature Profile along a Thermal Conductor.

Apparatus:
Heat conduction apparatus, Brass rods of different diameters are used.

Brass Brass Brass

25mm
(Heater) (Cooler)

13mm
Heater
Procedure:

• Switch on the apparatus

• Start from the cooling side that is open the coolant valve to avoid the overheating of the
equipment.
• Allow the system to reach stability and take readings corresponding to the specified
locations by adjusting the Nob to that position.
• Record the temperatures and also note the power of the heat source which is actually the
heat transfer rate.
• After taking the readings draw the graph of temp vs positions to determine the
temperature profile.
Theory:

Fourier’s Law states that the rate of heat transfer is proportional to the cross-sectional area normal
to the direction of heat flow. Since the outer surface is insulated, the heat flow rate qx is the same
for each section of the bar and since it is the same material, the thermal conductivity k is assumed
to be constant.
Where the subscripts h, s, and c denote the hot, sample, and cold segments of the bar,
respectively. In other words, the temperature gradient is inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area. In this experiment, the hot and cold segments will have the same cross-sectional
area, which will differ from that of the sample inserted in between the two segments.
Consider a bar of a certain length comprising of a hot region and a cold region made up of brass.
A steel cylinder is attached in between these regions having a different cross-section then the
whole bar.

Let,

QH = Heat transferred in the hot region

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 24

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

QSS = Heat transferred in the steel section

As the heat flow throughout the bar would be same, then according to Fourier’s Law:

𝑄̇𝐻 = 𝑄̇𝑆𝑆

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝐾𝐵 𝐴𝐵 ( ) = 𝐾𝐵 𝐴𝑆𝑆 ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝐻 𝑑𝑥 𝑆𝑆

𝑑𝑇
𝐴𝐵 ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑆𝑆 𝑚𝑠
= =
𝐴𝑆𝑆 (𝑑𝑇) 𝑚ℎ
𝑑𝑥 𝐻

Observations & Calculations

Sr He Tem Temp Temp Temp Temp Temp Temp Temp Tem

no at perat eratur eratur eratur eratur eratur eratur eratur perat
ure e e e e e e e ure
𝑄̇ T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
1 10 72.7 72.5 68.9 - - - 30.7 30 29.5
2 15 38.8 36.2 36 - - - 34.2 29.8 29
Graphs
Temperature Distribution
90
Temperature at each node

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Distance between two nodes

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 25

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Comments:

• Assembly of the various cross-section bars is the most important subject within housing
because heat transfer is taking place due to conduction which always requires a medium to
propagate heat. If the medium is disturbed, so will be the results.
• From the slope it is clear that at different point of graph hotter region have high transfer
rate than that of cooler region.
• Difference between theoretical and experimental results is due to the Heat loses to
surrounding by convection.
• Unstable temperature reading display
• Consistent use of the samples
• The sensor may not read exact value of temperature.
• Slope is increased at higher flow rates.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 26

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Experiment No. 05

To investigate the Temperature Profile and determination of rate of

Heat Transfer resulting from Radial Disc (steady state and one
dimensional case).
Theory:

Temperature Profile:

A thermal profile is a complex set of time-temperature data typically associated with the
measurements of temperatures in an oven.

Heat Transfer through cylinder wall:

For a radial disc, let’s consider a radial disc having external radius ro and temperature at the
external surface T0. For steady state and one dimensional case, we have (in terms of polar
coordinates for radial disc):

𝑑𝑇
=0
𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝑇
=0
𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝑇
≠0
𝑑𝑟

𝑞′ = 0

Thus, rate of heat transfer becomes,

𝑑𝑇
𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴 ( )
𝑑𝑟

Integrating the right side, we get,

𝑇0 𝑟0
𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴 ∫ 𝑑𝑇 ∫ 𝑑𝑟
𝑇1 𝑟1

Since surface area of disc,

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 27
Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿

Where L is the length of the disc and r is the radius of the disc at any point.

Thus,

2𝜋𝑘𝐿(𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑄̇ = 𝑟 → (1)
𝑙𝑛 (𝑟𝑜 )
1

From (1),

(𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑒 = 𝑟
𝑙𝑛 (𝑟𝑜 )
1

Procedure:

1. Switch on the apparatus

2. Start from the cooling side that is open the coolant valve to avoid the overheating of the
equipment.
3. Allow the system to reach stability and take readings corresponding to the specified
locations by adjusting the Nob to that position.
4. Record the temperatures and also note the power of the heat source which is actually the
heat transfer rate.
5. After taking the readings draw the graph of temp vs positions to determine the temperature
profile.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 28

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Observation and calculation:

Sr He Tem Temp Temp Temp Temp Temp

no at perat eratur eratur eratur eratur eratur
ure e e e e e
𝑄̇ T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9
1 10 35.8 34.8 33.2 31.9 31.2 30.6
2 15 38.8 36.2 34.5 32.1 29.8 29.8

Graph:

Temperature Distribution
37
Temperature at each node

36
35
34
33
32
31
30
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Distance between two nodes

Comments:

• This approach can be used to determine the critical thickness.

• The trend followed by the temperature profile differs from that of ideal profile. This is due
to:
▪ Malfunctioning temperature sensors
▪ Unstable temperature readings acquisition
• The thermostat was out of order so technically we have values of temperature to plot
graph.
University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 29
Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

• There may have variation in specimen i-e it may have not been a perfect cylinder.
• Although the temperature for higher q should be higher but lower values of T for high q
shows enough time was not given to sample to achieve steady state.
• The experiment shows that the heat transfer in the radial direction decreases exponentially
as the distance from the centre increases. The results are quite obvious from the graphical
figure.
• The heat transfer is governed by the Fourier’s law and is dependent on the conductivity of
the material and the temperature gradient with respect to the radius.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 30

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Experiment No. 06

To demonstrate the relationship between power input and surface

temperature in free convection.
Introduction:

A heated surface dissipates heat primarily through a process called convection. Heat is also
dissipated by conduction and radiation, however these effects are not considered in this
experiment. Air in contact with the hot surface is heated by the surface and rises due to a
reduction in density. The heated air is replaced by cooler air which is in turn heated by the
surface and rises. This process is called free convection.
The hotter the temperature of the surface, the greater the convective currents and the more heat
(power) will be dissipated.
If more power is supplied to a surface, the temperature of the surface must rise to dissipate this
power.
When analyzing convection heat transfer coefficients, three dimension-less values must be
acquired. To determine what numerous constants are the initial conditions must be known so
tables can be utilized.
Equipment set-up:

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 31

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Nusselt Number:

ℎ𝑐 𝐷
𝑁𝑢 = 𝐾

Prandtl Number:

𝐶𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = ,
𝐾

Brushoff Number:

𝐷 2 𝜌2 𝑔(∆𝑇)
𝐺𝑟 = 𝜇2

Reynolds number, for internal flow, is obtained by the following equation:

𝜌𝑈𝐷
𝑅𝑒𝐷 = 𝜇

These equations are crucial to calculate to determine what type of flow exists in the system. In
order to use the correct heat transfer equation the type of flow must be known to be laminar or
turbulent.
Types of Convection observed:

Forced convection occurs when the fluid flows across the boundary of an object, with the
movement caused by external forces. Heat transfer coefficient for the forced convection depends
on the relationship between Nusselt number, Prandtl number and the Grashoff number acquired
for free convection. The relationship is expressed in the following equation:

ℎ𝑐 𝐷 𝐷𝐺 𝑚
= 𝛼 ( ) 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑐𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝐾 𝜇

Free convection occurs when the fluid is allowed to flow by means of buoyancy forces. This
convection method occurs when the temperature differences exist between the two ends of the
air. When the end part touching the hot object contacts the object, the fluid becomes warmer and
University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 32
Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

less dense. The air moves up and the colder air moves in to replace the warmer air. The
combination of the variables in order to obtain the heat transfer coefficient for the free
convection process is:

𝑁𝑢 = 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑃𝑟 𝑥 𝐺𝑟)

Heat transfer in condensation, because a phase change is involved, requires complex analysis.
Condensation takes place when vapor is cooled down. Once this occurs, heat is transferred in a
fundamentally different manner than when heat is added or taken away from a fluid without such
phase change. When vapor is condensed, it lets go of considerable amounts of energy. The
condensed fluid becomes a barrier, in the form of a liquid film which either completely or
partially covers the cooler surface. If the drainage of the fluid is done from vertical or inclined
surface, the drainage will be naturally faster than a horizontal surface. The film will be thinner. If
the vertical height is great, the accumulation of condensate fluid at the lower portion of the
surface will thicken the film and make the lower portion less effective than the upper
transmitting heat.

In order to acquire an even more accurate result, the heat transfer that occurs when heat is
released during the condensation of the vapor must also be taken into account. This value can be
easily calculated by obtaining the latent heat of vaporization value. Nevertheless, as the
condensate is cooled below Tsat, the equation must be modified to:

h*fg  h fg  0.68C pl (Tsat  Ts )

Setting up all equations together, the combination of the rate of heat transfer and the heat transfer
coefficient formulas, the following equation is obtained.
.
Qconden  hAs (Tsat  Ts )  mh*fg

Once every value has been obtained, the heat transfer coefficient for the free and forced
convection heat transfer processes can be obtained.
The theoretical value for the free convection is expressed as:
.25
 k 3  2 h fg 
h  C 
 Do   T 

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 33

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

The theoretical value for the forced convection is expressed as:

.8
k   VDi 
hC   Pr .4
Di   

In order to determine the heat transferred amount, two equations are needed. The equations will
take into account the gains and losses in the system. The first equation needed is the heat
transferred from the steam, which is expressed as follows:
QSteam  VSteam h fg 

The second equation needed is the heat transfer that occurs in the water. The equation is
expressed in the following manner:

QWater  WWater  Cp  TWater 

Therefore, in order to acquire the total amount of heat transferred, the two equations must be
combined. The total amount of heat transferred is expressed in the following manner:

QLosses  QSteam  QWater

In order to find the heat transfer coefficient, the transfer heat amount must be obtained. Further,
the resistance must be taken into account. The resistance value will give us the rate at which the
heat is being transferred, which will symbolize the overall heat transfer coefficient.
Heat Flow Through a pipe
Forced convection
𝑘 𝜌𝑉𝐷 .8 𝑐𝜇 .4
ℎ=∁ ( ) ( )
𝑑 𝜇 𝑘

Natural Convection
𝑘 𝐿3 𝜌2 𝛽∆𝑇𝑔 𝑐𝜇 𝑛
ℎ = ∁ [( )( )]
𝐿 𝜇2 𝑘

Condensing Steam
𝑘 3 𝜌2 ℎ𝑓𝑔 .25
ℎ = ∁[ ]
𝐷𝜇∆𝑇

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 34

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Methodology & Experimental System:

The equipment used for this experiment is basically one piece equipment which includes
different components. An electric boiler is the driving force of the experiment. The boiler is set
to a constant output (1100 watts) and as a result it heats the water and turns it into steam. This
steam is fed into a condensing tower. This tower is comprised of a closed jacket and a central
single aluminum tube. Cooling water passes upward though the inside of this condenser tube,
causing the steam to condense on the outside surface. Steam also condenses on the inside surface
of the jacket as heat escapes out into the room. A boiler supply tank is used to provide and
maintain a constant level in the boiler this insures that the mass within the system remains
constant during the experiment (glass tube). Cooling water is provided by reservoir that allows
the experiment to be performed with either free or forced convection. All the copper-constantan
(type T) thermocouples are monitored using a high impedance millivoltmeter. Tube wall and
shell wall condensates are collected separately from drain tubes provided, and cooling water flow
through the condenser tube is collected in the weigh tank mounted on the scale.
When performing the experiment many water levels needed to remain constant in the system.
The group members were given different responsibilities such as, maintaining the glass tube

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 35

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

water height, maintaining reservoir height (forced/free setting), as well as keeping track of the
start and finish water levels.

Conclusion.
The steam condensed on the outer surface of the inner tube as well as the inner surface of the
outer tube. This was the primary mode of heat transfer in the experiment. The empirically
calculated results varied by roughly 25% when compared to the experimentally calculated
results. This can be attributed to the experimental methods. The experiment had its downfalls
that could have poorly affected our results and therefore, our calculations. The measurement
system of filling up beakers seemed fairly unreliable. Since the trials were 30 minutes long often
times the beakers would become full and require emptying, in which water was not being caught
and mass was lost. In addition, there was pressure accumulating inside of the cylinder itself that
was not accounted for. This pressure was assumed to be atmospheric when in reality it was
probably higher.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 36

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Experiment No. 07

To demonstrate the relationship between power input and surface

temperature in forced convection.
Introduction:

Convection is heat energy transfers between a solid and a fluid when there is a temperature
difference between the fluid and the solid. Generally, convection heat transfer cannot be ignored
when there is a significant fluid motion around the solid. On the other hand, convection is said to
be the flow of heat through a bulk, macroscopic movement of matter from a hot region to a cool
region, as opposed to the microscopic transfer of heat between atoms involved with conduction.
There are two types of convection. The first one is natural convection. Theoretically, natural
convection happens when the temperature of the solid due to an external field such as fluid
buoyancy can induce a fluid motion. It is a strong function of the temperature difference between
the solid and the fluid. Besides that, when the blowing air over the solid by using external
devices such as fans and pumps can also generate a fluid motion. This is known as forced
convection.
This report is going to discuss about forced convection only. In forced convection, the fluid has a
nonzero streaming motion in the far field away from the body surface, caused perhaps by a pump
or fan or other driving force independent of the presence of the body. Two major examples are
duct flows and bodies immersed in a uniform stream. Since fluid velocities are forced and may
be large, heat transfer via forced convection will usually be significantly larger than that in
natural convection.

Heating a pot of water on a stove is a good example of the transfer of heat by convection. When
the stove is first turned on heat is transferred first by conduction between the elements through
the bottom of the pot to the water. However, eventually the water starts bubbling - these bubbles
are actually local regions of hot water rising to the surface, thereby transferring heat from the hot
water at the bottom to the cooler water at the top by convection. At the same time, the cooler,
more dense water at the top will sink to the bottom, where it is subsequently heated.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 37

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

The movement of heat by gas molecules.

Theory:

In free convection the heat transfer rate from the surface is limited by the small movements of air
generated by this heat. More heat is transferred if the air velocity is increased over the heated
surface. This process of assisting the movement of air over the heated surface is called Forced
Convection. So a heated surface experiencing forced convection will have a lower surface
temperature than that of the same surface in free convection, for the same power input.

Heat transfer from an object can be improved by increasing the surface area in contact with the
coolant i.e air by adding fins or pins normal to the surface. From the Newton’s Law of Cooling,
the convection heat transfer rate is:

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 38

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

The illustration of experimental equipment.

Where;

𝑄̇ = Power input

h = convection heat transfer coefficient

As = area of plate

Ts = heater temperature

T∞ = air temperature

For this experiment, we use finned plate and pinned plate to compare the effect of heat transfer
by each plates under the same conditions of power and flow.

To calculate the area for finned plate and pinned plate used, we use the equation shown below:

𝐴𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 9 × 𝐿𝑤 + 𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒

𝜋𝐷𝐿
𝐴𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 17 × + 𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
2

Discussion:

In this experiment, we were asked to determine the use of fin (extended surface) in order to
improve the heat transfer in forced convection. The experiment was conducted, and all data is
jotted and tabulated in a form of a graph. By comparing the graph between pinned surface and
finned surface, I found that the pinned surface is having a larger slope compared to finned
surface. This means that finned surface is having smaller convection heat transfer coefficient, h,
rather than pinned surface.

There are few factors that needed to be considered in order to improve the heat transfer in forced
convection for finned surface. First is the temperature difference between two fluids. Second is
the heat transfer coefficient between the fluid and the tube wall. Third is the surface area which
the fluid is exposed to. After performing some calculations, we obtained that the finned surface
University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 39
Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

has larger surface (cross sectional) area compared to pinned surface. As the heat transfer
coefficient of the fluid inside the tube is several times larger than the fluid outside the tube, the
overall heat transfer rate can be improved by increasing the outside surface of the tube. Although
the temperature difference between the temperature surface and ambient temperature is small,
the result still gives a small convection coefficient because the effect of large area.

For pinned surface, according to its sample calculation, it gave a smaller cross-sectional area
compared to finned surface. Although the temperature difference between the ambient
temperature and surface temperature is larger than finned surface, the result of coefficient of
convection still gives a small value. It is because, the major effect of coefficient of convection
are cross section area of pinned surface.

Conclusion:

The objective of this experiment is to determine the use of fin (extended surface) in order to
improve the heat transfer in forced convection. In conclusion, the heat transfer in force
convection can be improved by using a finned surface compared to pinned surface. This is due to
the larger cross-sectional area that is exposed to air. There are several factors that we need to
take in order to improve the heat transfer in force convection which are first, the temperature
difference between the two fluids. Second, the heat transfer coefficient between each of the
fluids and the tube wall and lastly, the surface area to which each fluid is exposed. Therefore, we
can say that the objectives are achieved, and this experiment is conducted successfully.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 40

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Experiment No. 08

To demonstrate the use of extended surfaces to improve heat

transfer from the surface.
Introduction:

Extended surfaces have fins attached to the primary surface on one side of a two-fluid or a
multifluid heat exchanger. Fins can be of a variety of geometry—plain, wavy or interrupted—
and can be attached to the inside, outside or to both sides of circular, flat or oval tubes, or parting
sheets. Pins are primarily used to increase the surface area (when the heat transfer coefficient on
that fluid side is relatively low) and consequently to increase the total rate of heat transfer. In
addition, enhanced fin geometries also increase the heat transfer coefficient compared to that for
a plain fin. Fins may also be used on the high heat transfer coefficient fluid side in a heat
exchanger primarily for structural strength (for example, for high pressure water flow through a
flat tube) or to provide a thorough mixing of a highly-viscous liquid (such as for laminar oil flow
in a flat or a round tube). Fins are attached to the primary surface by brazing, soldering, welding,
adhesive bonding or mechanical expansion, or extruded or integrally connected to tubes. Major
categories of extended surface heat exchangers are Tube-fin Tube.

Fin efficiency and extended surface efficiency:

The concept of fin efficiency accounts for the reduction in temperature potential between the fin
and the ambient fluid due to conduction along the fin and convection from or to the fin surface,
depending on fin cooling or heating situation. The fin temperature effectiveness or fin
efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual heat transfer rate through the fin base divided by
the maximum possible heat transfer rate through the fin base, which can be obtained if the entire
fin is at base temperature (i.e., its material thermal conductivity is infinite).

Heat transfer and flow friction characteristics:

Accurate and reliable surface heat transfer and flow friction characteristics are key input for
exchanger heat transfer and pressure drop analyses, or the rating and sizing problems.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 41

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Analytical solutions:

Analytical solutions for developed and developing velocity/temperature profiles in constant

cross-section noncircular flow passages are important for extended surface (plate-fin) heat
exchangers. Fully developed laminar flow solutions are applicable to highly compact plate-fin
exchangers with plain uninterrupted fins, developing laminar flow solutions to interrupted-fin
geometries, and turbulent flow solutions to not-so-compact extended surfaces.
Experimental correlations

Analytical results presented in the preceding section are useful for well-defined constant cross-
sectional extended surfaces with essentially unidirectional flows. Flows encountered in enhanced
extended surfaces are generally very complex, having flow separation, reattachment,
recirculation and vortices. Such flows significantly affect Nu and f for specific exchanger
surfaces. Since no analytical or accurate numerical solutions are available, the information is
derived experimentally. Kays and London (1984) and Webb (1994) have compiled most of the
experimental results reported in open literature. Empirical correlations for some important
extended surfaces are summarized.

Plate-fin extended surfaces:

Offset Strip Fins:

This is one of the most widely used, enhanced fin geometries in aircraft, cryogenics and many
other industries that do not require mass production. This surface has one of the highest heat
transfer performance relative to the. friction factor.

Louver Fins:

Louver or multicover fins are extensively used in the auto industry due to their mass production
manufacturability and hence, lower cost. It has generally higher j and f factors than those of the
offset strip-fin geometry; also, the increase in the friction factors is usually higher than the
increase in the j factors. However, the exchanger can be designed for higher heat transfer and the
same pressure drop compared with offset strip-fins by a proper selection of exchanger frontal

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 42

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

area, depth and fin density. Published literature on and correlations for louver fins have been
summarized by Webb (1994) and Cowell (1995) while flow and heat transfer phenomena have
been discussed by Cowell (1995). Because of the lack of systematic studies on modern louver fin
geometries in the open literature, no correlation can be recommended for design purposes.

Tube-fin extended surfaces:

Two major types of tube-fin extended surfaces are: a) individually-finned tubes, and b) flat fins
(also sometimes referred to as plate fins) with or without enhancements/ interruptions on an array
of tubes.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 43

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Individually-Finned Tubes.

This fin geometry, helically-wrapped (or extruded) circular fins on a circular tube is commonly
used in process and waste heat recovery industries.

Theory:

Heat transfer from an object can be improved by increasing the surface area in contact with the
air. In practice it may be difficult to increase the size of the body to suit. In these circumstances
the surface area in contact with the air may be increased by adding fins or pins normal to the
surface. These features are called extended surfaces. A typical example is the use of fins on the
cylinder and head of an air-cooled petrol engine. The effect of extended surfaces can be
demonstrated by comparing finned and pinned surfaces with a flat plate under the same
conditions of power input and airflow.
Conclusions.

The subject of extended surface heat transfer is very extensive and is difficult to condense in a
few pages. This attempt to summarize some important typical results, both analytical and
experimental, is but an introduction to the subject. Key references are provided below for further
exploration of the subject.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 44

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Experiment No. 9

To determine the working principal of concentric tube heat

exchanger operating under the condition of parallel flow.

Cold Water Out

Hot Water

Cold Water In

Apparatus:

Parallel Flow shell and tube type heat exchanger.

Theory:

Heat exchanger is a device that is used to transfer heat between two fluids. The heat exchanger
has main application in thermal power plant and engines. A shell and tube heat exchanger has
two concentric tubes the inner tube contains the hot fluid whereas the outer tube has cold fluid
flowing in it. The heat exchange takes place from hot fluid to cold fluid and this heat exchange is
governed mainly by conduction.

A double pipe heat exchanger can be operated in parallel flow mode as shown in the diagram at
the left. Similarly, a shell and tube heat exchanger can be operated in approximately parallel flow
by having both fluids enter at one end and exit at the other end. With parallel flow the
temperature difference between the two fluids is large at the entrance end, but it becomes small
at the exit end as the two fluid temperatures approach each other. The overall measure of heat
transfers driving force, the log mean temperature difference is greater for counter flow, so the
University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 45
Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

heat exchanger surface area requirement will be larger than for a counter flow heat exchanger
with the same inlet and outlet temperatures for the hot and the cold fluid.

As we know,

𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴 ∆𝑇

For the parallel flow heat exchanger shown the heat transfer is given by,

𝑑𝑞 = −𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑇ℎ = 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑇𝑐

The heat transfer is also given as,

𝑑𝑞 = 𝑈(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 )𝑑𝐴

−𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑇ℎ =
𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ

𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑇𝑐 =
𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐

1 1
𝑑𝑇ℎ − 𝑑𝑇𝑐 = 𝑑(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 ) = −𝑑𝑞( − )
𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐

Putting the value of dq from previous equation,

𝑑𝑇ℎ − 𝑑𝑇𝑐 1 1
= −𝑈 ( − ) 𝑑𝐴
𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐

𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 1 1
𝑙𝑛 = −𝑈𝐴 ( − )
𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐

𝑞
𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ =
𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇ℎ2

𝑞
𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 =
𝑇𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑐1

Putting these values in the above equation,

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 46

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

(𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 ) − (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴
(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐2 )
ln ( ℎ2 )
(𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

Comparing this equation with the general equation of heat transfer that is written above,

(𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 ) − (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

∆𝑇 =
(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐2 )
ln ( ℎ2 )
(𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

Area = 0.67 m2

(𝑇ℎ2 −𝑇𝑐2 )−(𝑇ℎ1 −𝑇𝑐1 ) (48−40)−(52−30)

LMTD = (𝑇 −𝑇 ) = (48−40) = 13.84
ln( ℎ2 𝑐2 ) 𝑙𝑛
52−30)
(𝑇ℎ1 −𝑇𝑐1 )

𝑄̇ 616
U = 𝐴∗𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = = 664.9 W/m2.K
0.067∗13.84

𝜌𝑐𝑉∆𝑇𝑐 1000∗1.33𝑥10−5∗10
ɳ=𝜌 = = 90.59
ℎ𝑉∆𝑇ℎ 1000∗3.67𝑥10−5∗4

Observations and calculations:

Vc Vh Tc(in) Tc(mean) Tc(out) Th(in) Th(mean) Th(out)

L/min L/min °C °C °C °C °C °C
0.8 2.2 30 34 40 52 48 48

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 47

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Graph:

Temperature vs Area
60

50

40
Temperature

30

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Length

Comments:

The experiment shows that as the water flows from inlet towards the outlet, the cold water gains
heat from hot water, if enough time or length is supplied to the water to flow both the lines of hot
and cold water should meet at a point but this doesn’t happens because the exchanger cannot be
100 percent efficient.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 48

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Experiment No. 10

To determine the working principal of concentric tube heat

exchanger operating under the condition of counter flow.

Cold Water Out

Hot Water

Cold Water In

Apparatus:

Counter Flow shell and tube type heat exchanger.

Theory:

Heat exchanger is a device that is used to transfer heat between two fluids. The heat exchanger
has main application in thermal power plant and engines. A shell and tube heat exchanger has
two concentric tubes the inner tube contains the hot fluid whereas the outer tube has cold fluid
flowing in it. The heat exchange takes place from hot fluid to cold fluid and this heat exchange is
governed mainly by conduction.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 49

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

As we know,

𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴 ∆𝑇

For the parallel flow heat exchanger shown the heat transfer is given by,

𝑑𝑞 = −𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑇ℎ = 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑇𝑐

The heat transfer is also given as,

𝑑𝑞 = 𝑈(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 )𝑑𝐴

−𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑇ℎ =
𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ

𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑇𝑐 =
𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐

1 1
𝑑𝑇ℎ − 𝑑𝑇𝑐 = 𝑑(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 ) = −𝑑𝑞( − )
𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐

Putting the value of dq from previous equation,

𝑑𝑇ℎ − 𝑑𝑇𝑐 1 1
= −𝑈 ( − ) 𝑑𝐴
𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐

𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 1 1
𝑙𝑛 = −𝑈𝐴 ( − )
𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 50

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

𝑞
𝑚ℎ 𝑐ℎ =
𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇ℎ2

𝑞
𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 =
𝑇𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑐1

Putting these values in the above equation,

(𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 ) − (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴
(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐2 )
ln ( ℎ2 )
(𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

Comparing this equation with the general equation of heat transfer that is written above,

(𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 ) − (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

∆𝑇 =
(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐2 )
ln ( ℎ2 )
(𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

Area = 0.67 m2

Observations and calculations:

Vc Vh Tc(in) Tc(mean) Tc(out) Th(in) Th(mean) Th(out)

L/min L/min °C °C °C °C °C °C
1.5 3 33 34 39 53 48 49

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 51

Department Of Mechanical Engineering
Heat and Mass Transfer

Graph:

Temperature vs Area

60

50
Temperature

40

30

20

10

0
0 5 10 Length
15 20 25 30

Comments:

The temperature drops and rise in counter flow exchanger should be more drastic as compared to
the parallel flow heat exchanger. This fact is obvious from the graph.

University Of Engineering And Technology Lahore 52

Department Of Mechanical Engineering