Gas Turbine Book

Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine
MEGH PRASAD UPADHAYA

AME VIII Batch, Roll No: 5189
HAE&AS, Bangalore, India
Section I. Theory of Gas Turbine Engines
1.2. GENERAL
Section I covers the laws of physics and fundamentals pertaining to the theory of jet propulsion. The
gas turbine engines used to power Army aircraft are turbo-shaft powerplant. The energy produced
drives the power shaft. Energy is generated by burning the fuel-air mixture in the engine and
accelerating the gas tremendously. These high-velocity gases are directed through turbine wheels

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which convert the axial movement of the gas to a rotary motion. This rotary power is used to drive a
power-shaft, which drives a propeller or a rotor transmission.
1.3. LAWS OF MOTION
The theory of gas turbine engines is based on the laws and principles of physics discussed in the
subparagraphs that follow.

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Newton's First Law of Motion. The first law states that a body in a state of rest remains at rest, and
a body in motion tends to remain in motion at a constant speed and in a straight line, unless acted
upon by some external force.
Newton's Second Law of Motion. The second law states that an imbalance of forces on a body
produces or tends to produce acceleration in the direction of the greater force, and the acceleration is
directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
Newton's Third Law of Motion. The third law states that for every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction and the two are directed along the same straight line.

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Bernoulli's Principle. This principle states that if the velocity of a gas or liquid is increased its
pressure will decrease. The opposite is also true. If the velocity of a gas or liquid is decreased its
pressure will increase. This fact relates directly to the law of conservation of energy.
Einstein's Law of Conservation of Energy. This law states that the amount of energy in the
universe remains constant. It is not possible to create or destroy energy; however, it may be
transformed.
Boyle's Law. This law states that if the temperature of a confined gas is not changed, the pressure
will increase in direct relationship to a decrease in volume. The opposite is also true -- the pressure

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will decrease as the volume is increased. A simple demonstration of how this works may be made
with a toy balloon. If you squeeze the balloon, its volume is reduced, and the pressure of air inside
the balloon is increased. If you squeeze hard enough, the pressure will burst the balloon.

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Charles' Law. This law states that if a gas under constant pressure is so confined that it may expand,
an increase in the temperature will cause an increase in volume. If you hold the inflated balloon over
a stove, the increase in temperature will cause the air to expand and, if the heat is sufficiently great,
the balloon will burst. Thus, the heat of combustion expands the air available within the combustion
chamber of a gas turbine engine.
Pressure and Velocity. Air is normally thought of in relation to its temperature, pressure, and
volume. Within a gas turbine engine the air is put into motion so now another factor must be
considered, velocity. Consider a constant airflow through a duct. As long as the duct cross-sectional

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area remains unchanged, air will continue to flow at the same rate (disregard frictional loss). If the
cross-sectional area of the duct should become smaller (convergent area), the airflow must increase
velocity if it is to continue to flow the same number of pounds per second of airflow (Bernoulli's
Principle). In order to obtain the necessary velocity energy to accomplish this, the air must give up
some pressure and temperature energy (law of conservation of energy). The net result of flow
through this restriction would be a decrease in pressure and temperature and an increase in velocity.
The opposite would be true if air were to flow from a smaller into a larger duct (divergent area);
velocity would then decrease, and pressure and temperature would increase. The throat of an
automobile carburetor is a good example of the effect of airflow through a restriction (venturi); even

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on the hottest day the center portion of the carburetor feels cool. Convergent and divergent areas are
used throughout a gas turbine engine to control pressure and velocity of the air-gas stream as it flows
through the engine.

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1.4. THEORY OF JET PROPULSION
The principle of jet propulsion can be illustrated by a toy balloon. When inflated and the stem is
sealed, the pressure is exerted equally on all internal surfaces. Since the force of this internal pressure
is balanced there will be no tendency for the balloon to move.

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If the stem is released the balloon will move in a direction away from the escaping jet of air.
Although the flight of the balloon may appear erratic, it is at all times moving in a direction away
from the open stem.

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The balloon moves because of an unbalanced condition existing within it. The jet of air does not
have to push against the outside atmosphere; it would function better in a vacuum. When the stem
area of the balloon is released, a convergent nozzle is created. As the air flows through this area,
velocity is increased accompanied by a decrease in air pressure. In addition, an area of skin against
which the internal forces had been pushing is removed. On the opposite internal surface of the
balloon, an equal area of skin still remains. The higher internal pressure acting on this area moves the
balloon in a direction away from the open stem. The flight of the balloon will be of short duration,
though, because the air in the balloon is soon gone. If a source of pressurized air were provided, it
would be possible to sustain flight of the balloon.

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1.5. THEORY OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES
If the balloon were converted into a length of pipe, and at the forward end an air compressor
designed with blades somewhat like a fan were installed, this could provide a means to replenish the
air supply within the balloon.

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A source of power is now required to turn the compressor. To extend the volume of air, fuel and
ignition are introduced and combustion takes place. This greatly expands the volume of gas
available.

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In the path of the now rapidly expanding gases, another fan or turbine can be placed. As the gases
pass through the blades of the turbine, they cause it to rotate at high speed. By connecting the turbine
to the compressor, we have a mechanical means to rotate the compressor to replenish the air supply.
The gases still possessing energy are discharged to the atmosphere through a nozzle that accelerates
the gas stream. The reaction is thrust or movement of the tube away from the escaping gas stream.
We now have a simple turbojet engine.

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The turbojet engine is a high-speed, high-altitude powerplant. The Army, at present, has no
requirement for this type of engine. Because it is simple and easy to operate and maintain, however,
the Army does use the gas turbine engine. The simple turbojet engine has primarily one rotating unit,
the compressor/turbine assembly. The turbine extracts from the gas stream the energy necessary to
rotate the compressor. This furnishes the pressurized air to maintain the engine cycle. Burning the
fuel-air mixture provides the stream of hot expanding gas from which approximately 60 percent of
the energy is extracted to maintain the engine cycle. Of the total energy development, approximately
40 percent is available to develop useful thrust directly.

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If we had ten automobile engines that would equal the total shaft horsepower of a turbine engine, it
would take six of these engines to turn the compressor, and the other four would supply the power to
propel the aircraft. The amount of energy required to rotate the compressor may at first seem too
large; however, it should be remembered that the compressor is accelerating a heavy mass (weight)
of air towards the rear of the engine. In order to produce the gas stream, it was necessary to deliver
compressed air by a mechanical means to a burner zone. The compressor, being the first rotating
unit, is referred to as the N1 system.

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With a requirement for an engine that delivers rotational shaft power, the next step is to harness the
remaining gas stream energy with another turbine (free turbine). By connecting the turbine to a shaft,
rotational power can be delivered to drive an aircraft propeller, a helicopter rotor system, a generator,
a tank, an air cushion vehicle (ACV), or whatever is needed. The power shaft can extend from the
front, back, or from an external gearbox. All of these locations are in use on various types of Army
engines at present.
The following sketch shows a turbo-shaft engine with the power shaft extended out the front. The
bottom sketch shows the same engine with the power shaft extending out the back.

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The basic portion of the turbine engine, the gas producer, extracts approximately 60 percent of the
gas stream energy (temperature/pressure) to sustain the engine cycle. To develop rotational shaft
power, the remaining gas stream energy must drive another turbine. In Army engines today, a power
turbine that is free and independent of the gas producer system accomplishes this task. The power
turbine and shaft (N2 system) are not mechanically connected to the gas producer (N1 system). It is a
free turbine. The gas stream passing across the turbines is the only link between these two systems.
The free-turbine engine can operate over wide power ranges with a constant output-shaft speed.

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In operation, the gas producer (N1) system automatically varies its speed, thereby controlling the
intensity of the gas stream in relation to the load applied to the power (N2) shaft. This is
accomplished by a fuel metering system that senses engine requirements. The free turbine design has
revolutionized the methods of application of shaft turbine engines. Why a shaft turbine? Why is a
perfectly good jet engine used to drive a propeller? Because in the speed range that Army aircraft
operate, the propeller or helicopter rotor is more efficient. With a turbojet engine, power (thrust)
produced is roughly the difference between the velocity of the air entering the engine and the
velocity of the air exiting from the engine. Efficiency of the engine (power producer versus fuel
consumed) increases with speed until it is 100 percent efficient when the forward speed of the engine

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is equal to the rearward speed of the jet. It is this low efficiency at takeoff and at low cruising speed
(i.e., 400 mph) that makes the turbojet engine unsuitable for use in Army aircraft. The propeller does
not lack efficiency at low speed; the reverse is true, in that efficiency falls off at high speed. The
result is to harness the jet engine's gas stream energy to drive a propeller or helicopter rotor system,
thereby taking advantage of the best features of both.
Aircraft reciprocating engines operate on the four-stroke, five-event principle. Four strokes of the
piston, two up and two down, are required to provide one power impulse to the crankshaft. Five

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events take place during these four strokes: the intake, compression, ignition, power, and exhaust
events. These events must take place in the cylinder in the sequence given for the engine to operate.

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Although the gas turbine engine differs radically in construction from the conventional four-stroke,
five-event cycle reciprocating engine, both involve the same basic principle of operation. In the
piston (reciprocating) engine, the functions of intake, compression, ignition, combustion, and exhaust
all take place in the same cylinder and, therefore, each must completely occupy the chamber during
its respective part of the combustion cycle. In the gas turbine engine, a separate section is devoted to
each function, and all functions are performed at the same time without interruption.
1.6. SUMMARY

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The theory of gas turbine engine operation is based on the laws or principles of physics. The
principle of jet propulsion can be illustrated by a toy balloon. When the balloon is inflated and the
stem is unsealed the balloon will move in a direction away from the escaping jet of air. If the balloon
is converted into a length of pipe, and at the forward end an air compressor is installed to supply air
for combustion, and to expand the volume of air, fuel and ignition are introduced and combustion
takes place. Then, in the path of the expanding gases a turbine rotor is installed. As the gases pass
through the turbine blades, the turbine rotor is rotated at high speed. This turbine rotor is connected
to the compressor shaft, and we now have a means to rotate the compressor to replenish the air

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supply. The remaining gases are discharged to the atmosphere. The reaction of these gases is thrust,
or movement of the tube away from the escaping gases. This is a simple turbojet engine.

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In the turbojet engine, approximately 60 percent of the energy is extracted to rotate the compressor,
while the remaining 40 percent is used to develop thrust. In the turboshaft engine, the remaining
energy is used to drive a turbine rotor attached to a transmission or propeller. On a free-turbine
engine, the gas stream passing across the turbines is the only link between the two turbine rotors.
One turbine drives the compressor and the other turbine propels the aircraft. The free-turbine engine
is used in Army aircraft.

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The gas turbine engine differs radically in construction from the reciprocating engine in that the
turbine engine has a separate section for each function, while in the reciprocating engine all functions
are performed in the same cylinder.

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2. Principles of operation.

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2.1 GENERAL
This section covers the principles of turbine engine operation. The three classifications of turbine
engines are turbojet, turbo-shaft, and ramjet. The term "turbo" means "turbine." Therefore, a turbo-
shaft engine is one which delivers power through a shaft.
2.2 OTTO AND BRAYTON CYCLES
There is an element of similarity to both the reciprocating and jet engines, but the thermodynamic
cycle of each is different from the other. The reciprocating engine operates on the Otto cycle, a

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constant volume cycle, consisting of four distinct operations. These operations are performed
intermittently by a piston reciprocating in an enclosed cylinder. It is important to remember that the
piston in a reciprocating engine delivers power only during one of its four strokes.
The turbine engine operates on the Brayton cycle, a constant pressure cycle containing the same four
basic operations as the Otto cycle, but accomplishing them simultaneously and continuously so that
an uninterrupted flow of power from the engine results.
2.3 BRAYTON CYCLE OF OPERATION

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Ambient air is drawn into the inlet section by the rotating compressor. The compressor forces this
incoming air rearward and delivers it to the combustion chamber at a higher pressure than the air had
at the inlet. The compressed air is then mixed with fuel that is sprayed into the combustion chamber
by the fuel nozzles. The fuel and air mixture is then ignited by electrical igniter plugs similar to spark
plugs. This ignition system is only in operation during the starting sequence, and once started,
combustion is continuous and self-sustaining as long as the engine is supplied with the proper air-
fuel ratio. Only about 25 percent of the air is used for combustion. The remaining air is used for
internal cooling and pressurizing.

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The turbine engines in the Army inventory are of the free-power turbine design, as shown in figure
1.2. In this engine, nearly two-thirds of the energy produced by combustion is extracted by the gas
producer turbine to drive the compressor rotor. The power turbine extracts the remaining energy and
converts it to shaft horsepower (shp), which is used to drive the output shaft of the engine. The gas
then exits the engine through the exhaust section to the atmosphere. Army helicopters use a divergent
duct to eliminate the remaining thrust. The various kinds of exhaust ducting are discussed in detail
with the engine using that particular ducting.

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Figure1.2. Typical Free-Power Turbo-shaft Engine.
2.4 TURBOJET
The turbojet is the engine in most common use today in high-speed, high-altitude aircraft, not in
Army aircraft. With this engine, air is drawn in by a compressor which raises internal pressures many
times over atmospheric pressure. The compressed air then passes into a combustion chamber where it
is mixed with fuel to be ignited and burned. Burning the fuel-air mixture expands the gas, which is
accelerated out the rear as a high-velocity jet-stream. In the turbine section of the engine, the hot
expanded gas rotates a turbine wheel which furnishes power to keep the compressor going. The gas

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turbine engine operates on the principle of intake, compression, power, and exhaust, but unlike the
reciprocating engine, these events are continuous. Approximately two-thirds of the total energy
developed within the combustion chamber is absorbed by the turbine wheel to sustain operation of
the compressor. The remaining energy is discharged from the rear of the engine as a high velocity jet,
the reaction to which is thrust or forward movement of the engine. The turbojet is shown
schematically in figure 1.3.

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Figure 1.3. Axial-Flow Turbojet Engine.
2.5 TURBOPROP ENGINE AND TURBOSHAFT ENGINE
The turboprop engine and turbo-shaft engines, shown in figures 1.4 and 1.5, are of the same basic
type as the turbojet. Instead of ejecting high-velocity exhaust gases to obtain thrust, as in the turbojet,
a turbine rotor converts the energy of the expanding gases to rotational shaft power. A propeller or
helicopter transmission can be connected to the engine through reduction gearing. This energy may
be extracted by the same turbine rotor that drives the compressor, or it may be a free-power turbine
which is independent of the compressor turbine and only linked to it by the expanding gases.

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Figure 1.4. Axial-Flow Turboprop Engine.

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Figure 1.5. Centrifugal-Flow Turbojet Engine.
The free-power turbine is the type used in Army aircraft to harness the energy of the gases and
convert this energy to rotational shaft power. This feature of having a free-power turbine enables the
power output shaft to turn at a constant speed while the power producing capability of the engine can
be varied to accommodate the increased loads applied to the power output shaft. Turbine engines
may be further divided into three general groups, centrifugal-flow, axial-flow, and axial-centrifugal-
flow, depending upon the type of compressor. Figure 1.4 shows an axial-flow turboprop engine,

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figure 1.5 shows a centrifugal-flow turbojet engine, and figure 1.5a shows an axial-centrifugal-flow
compressor.

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Figure 1.5a. Axial-Centrifugal-Flow Compressor.
2.6 ADVANTAGES OF TURBINE ENGINES
Keeping in mind the basic theory of turbine engines, compare the advantages and disadvantages of
the turbine engine with the piston or reciprocating engine. The advantages are covered in the
subparagraphs below, and disadvantages are discussed in the next section.

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 Power-to-weight ratio. Turbine engines have a higher power-to-weight ratio than

reciprocating engines. An example of this is the T55-L-l11. It weighs approximately 650
pounds and delivers 3, 750 shaft horsepower. The power-to-weight ratio for this engine is
5.60 shp per pound, where the average reciprocating engine has a power-to-weight ratio of
approximately .67 shp per pound.
 Less maintenance. Maintenance per hour of operation is especially important in

military operations. Turbine engines require less maintenance per flying hour than
reciprocating engines generally do. As an aircraft maintenance officer, this advantage will

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appeal to you because of a greater aircraft availability and lower maintenance hour to flying
hour ratio. The turbine engine also has fewer moving parts than a reciprocating engine; this is
also an advantage over the reciprocating engine.
 Less drag. Because of the design, the turbine engine has a smaller frontal area than the
reciprocating engine. A reciprocating engine requires a large frontal area which causes a great
deal of drag on the aircraft. Turbine engines are more streamlined in design, causing less
drag. Figure 1.6 shows one of the two nacelles that contain reciprocating engines in the old
CH-37 cargo helicopter. Figure 1.7 shows the smaller frontal area of the turbine engines that

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power the CH-47 Chinook helicopter. Because of this, the engine nacelles are more
streamlined in design, causing less drag.

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Figure 1.6. Reciprocating Engine Nacelles on CH-37.

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Figure 1.7. Turbine Engine Nacelles on CH-47.

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 Cold weather starting. The turbine engine does not require any oil dilution or
preheating of the engine before starting. Also, once started, the reciprocating engine takes a
long time to warm up to operating temperatures, whereas the turbine engine starts readily and
is up to operating temperature immediately.
 Low oil consumption. The turbine engine, in general, has a lower rate of oil
consumption than the reciprocating engine. The turbine engine does not require the oil
reservoir capacity to be as large as the reciprocating engine's; because of this, a weight and
economy factor is an additional advantage.

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2.7 DISADVANTAGES OF TURBINE ENGINES
Just like everything else, along with the advantages or the good, we have to take the disadvantages or
the bad. This also holds true with the turbine engine. The disadvantages of the turbine engine are
discussed in the following subparagraphs.
 Foreign object damage. One of the major problems faced by the turbine engine is
foreign object damage (FOD). A turbine engine requires tremendous quantities of air. This air
is sucked into the engine at extremely high velocities, and it will draw up anything that comes
near the inlet area. The turbine engines used in Army aircraft are fitted with filters around the

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engine inlet to prevent foreign objects from entering the engine and damaging the compressor
vanes. However, even with this precaution, FOD is still a menace to turbine engine operation,
as shown in figure 1.8.

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Figure 1.8. Compressor Foreign Object Damage.


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 High temperatures. In the combustion chamber, the temperature is raised to about 3,

500° F. in the hottest part of the flame. Because this temperature is above the melting point of
most metals, proper cooling and flame dilution must be employed at all times to insure that
the engine is not damaged.
 Slow acceleration. The acceleration rate of a turbine engine is very slow in

comparison with that of a reciprocating engine. The pilot must be aware of the time lag in the
turbine engine acceleration between the instant when power is requested and when power is
available.

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 High fuel consumption. Turbine engines are very uneconomical when it comes to the
amount of fuel they consume. The Lycoming T53 turbine engine, for instance, uses
approximately 1.5 gallons per minute of fuel. Compare it to a reciprocating engine of
approximately the same horsepower which has a fuel consumption rate of 1 gallon per
minute.
 Cost. The initial cost of a turbine engine is very high when compared to the cost of a
reciprocating engine. For example the T53-L-13B engine costs about $63,000, and the cost of
a reciprocating engine of approximately the same horsepower is $20,000.

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2.8 SUMMARY
 The two turbine engines commonly in use today are the turbojet and turboshaft. The
turbine has surpassed the piston engine in design efficiency. The advantages of the gas
turbine are a high power-to-weight ratio, less maintenance, and low oil consumption. Because
of the small frontal area, turbines have less aerodynamic drag. The disadvantages are foreign
object damage to the compressor vanes, high operating temperatures, and high fuel
consumption. The turbine also has a slower acceleration rate. Because of the high operating
rpm, all rotating parts must be in perfect balance. The cost to manufacture a turbine is much
higher than that of a reciprocating engine. Aircraft designers have always been limited by the

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powerplants available for use on aircraft of new design. Their constant plea has been for
higher power, less weight, and a more compact design; the turbine engine has been the
answer to some, if not all, of their pleas.

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3. Major Engine Sections
3.1 GENERAL
Because of the many types of turbine engines, it is not possible to list all the major components and
have the list apply to all engines. Several components are common to most turbine engines, and
knowledge of these will be helpful in developing a further understanding of aviation gas turbine
engines. This section discusses the major engine sections individually.
3.2 ENGINE TERMINOLOGY


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Engine terminology must be explained at this point to enable you to understand the terms used in
discussing gas-turbine-engine operating theory explained in this course. Directional references are
shown in figure 1.9. Table I shows engine symbols and abbreviations commonly used.

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Figure 1.9. Directional References.

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Table I. Commonly Used Gas Turbine Engine Symbols and Abbreviations
 Directional references. Front or forward -- cold end of engine. Rear or aft -- hot end of
engine. Right and left -- determined by viewing the engine from the rear. Bottom --
determined by the location of the combustor drain valve. Top -- directly opposite, or 180
degrees from the combustor drain valve. These directional references hold true for most gas
turbine engines. On some the power shaft is at the end where the exhaust gas is expelled. An
engine of this design is the T73 installed on the CH-54 flying crane.

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 Engine station notation. The engine is divided into stations to designate temperature
(T) or pressure (P) measuring locations. Figure 1.10 shows a T53-L-13, labeling the engine
stations. Any time a number is placed after the letter T or P, it denotes a specific location in

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the engine.

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Example
 Engine speed notation. The rotational speed of the engine is represented by the capital
letter N. The first rotating mass, the gas producer has the symbol N1. Any time a number is
placed after the letter N it denotes a specific system on the gas turbine engine.
3.3 AIR INLET SECTION

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The amount of air required by a gas turbine engine is approximately

ten times that of a reciprocating engine. The air inlet is generally a
large, smooth aluminum or magnesium duct which must be
designed to conduct the air into the compressor with minimum
turbulence and restriction. The air inlet section may have a variety
of names according to the desire of the manufacturer. It may be
called the front frame and accessory section, the air inlet assembly,
the front bearing support and shroud assembly, or any other term
descriptive of its function. Usually, the outer shell of the front frame

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is joined to the center portion by braces that are often called struts. The anti-icing system directs
compressor discharge air into these struts. The temperature of this air prevents the formation of ice
that might prove damaging to the engine. Anti-icing systems are discussed further in the lesson
covering the engines they may be installed on.
3.4 COMPRESSOR SECTION
The compressor is the section of the engine that produces an increase in air pressure. It is made up of
rotating and stationary vane assemblies. The first stage compressor rotor blades accelerate the air
rearward into the first stage vane assemblies. The first stage vane assemblies slow the air down and

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direct it into the second stage compressor rotor blades. The second stage compressor rotor blades
accelerate the air rearward into the second stage vane assemblies, and so on through the compressor
rotor blades and vanes until air enters the diffuser section. The highest total air velocity is at the inlet
of the diffuser. As the air passes rearward through the diffuser, the velocity of the air decreases and
the static pressure increases. The highest static pressure is at the diffuser outlet.
The compressor rotor may be thought of as an air pump. The volume of air pumped by the
compressor rotor is basically proportional to the rotor rpm. However, air density, the weight of a
given volume of air, also varies this proportional relationship. The weight per unit volume of air is

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affected by temperature, compressor air inlet pressure, humidity, and ram air pressure*. If
compressor air inlet temperature is increased, air density is reduced. If compressor air inlet pressure
is increased, air density is increased. If humidity increases, air density is decreased. Humidity, by
comparison with temperature, and pressure changes, has a very small effect on density. With
increased forward speed, ram air pressure increases and air temperature and pressure increase.
*ram air pressure - free stream air pressure provided by the forward motion of the engine.
The following is an example of how air density affects compressor efficiency of the T62 gas turbine.
At 100 percent N1 rpm, the compressor rotor pumps approximately 40.9 cubic feet of air per second.

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At standard day static sea level conditions, 59° F outside air temperature and 29.92" Hg barometric
pressure, with 0 percent relative humidity and 0 ram air, air density is .07651 pound per cubic foot.
Under these conditions, 40.9 cubic feet per second times .07651 pound per cubic feet equals
approximately 3.13 pounds per second air flow through the engine. If the air density at the
compressor inlet is less than on a standard day, the weight of air flow per second through the engine
is less than 3.13 pounds per second. If N1 is less than 100 percent rpm on a standard day, the weight
of air flow per second through the engine will be less than 3. 13 due to decreased volume flow at
lower rpm. Because of this, N1 rpm varies with the power output. If output power is increased, N1

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rpm will increase and vice versa. Thus, the weight of air pumped by the compressor rotor is
determined by rpm and air density.
Compressor efficiency determines the power necessary to create the pressure rise of a given airflow,
and it affects the temperature change which takes place in the combustion chamber. Therefore, the
compressor is one of the most important components of the gas turbine engine because its efficient
operation is the key to overall engine performance. The following subparagraphs discuss the three
basic compressors used in gas turbine engines: the centrifugal-flow, the axial-flow, and axial-

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centrifugal-flow compressors. The axial-centrifugal-flow compressor is a combination of the other

two and operates with characteristics of both.
 Centrifugal-flow compressor. Figure 1.12 shows the basic components of a

centrifugal-flow compressor: rotor, stator, and compressor manifold.

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Figure 1.12. Typical Single-stage Centrifugal Compressor
As the impeller (rotor) revolves at high speed, air is drawn into the blades near the center.
Centrifugal force accelerates this air and causes it to move outward from the axis of rotation toward
the rim of the rotor where it is forced through the diffuser section at high velocity and high kinetic
energy. The pressure rise is produced by reducing the velocity of the air in the diffuser, thereby
converting velocity energy to pressure energy. The centrifugal compressor is capable of a relatively
high compression ratio per stage. This compressor is not used on larger engines because of size and
weight.

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Because of the high tip speed problem in this design, the centrifugal compressor finds its greatest use
on the smaller engines where simplicity, flexibility of operation, and ruggedness are the principal
requirements rather than small frontal area and ability to handle high airflows and pressures with low
loss of efficiency.
 Axial-flow compressor. The air is compressed, as the name implies, in a direction

parallel to the axis of the engine. The compressor is made of a series of rotating airfoils called
rotor blades, and a stationary set of airfoils called stator vanes. A stage consists of two rows

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of blades, one rotating and one stationary. The entire compressor is made up of a series of
alternating rotor and stator vane stages as shown in figure 1.13.

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Figure 1.13. Axial-flow Compressor.
Axial flow compressors have the advantage of being capable of very high compression ratios with
relatively high efficiencies; see figure 1.14. Because of the small frontal area created by this type of
compressor, it is ideal for installation on high-speed aircraft. Unfortunately, the delicate blading and
close tolerances, especially toward the rear of the compressor where the blades are smaller and more
numerous per stage, make this compressor highly susceptible to foreign-object damage. Because of
the close fits required for efficient air-pumping and higher compression ratios, this type of
compressor is very complex and very expensive to manufacture. For these reasons the axial-flow

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design finds its greatest application where required efficiency and output override the considerations
of cost, simplicity, and flexibility of operation. However, due to modern technology, the cost of the
small axial-flow compressor, used in Army aircraft, is coming down.

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Figure 1.14. Compressor Efficiencies and Pressure Ratios.


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 Axial-centrifugal-flow compressor. The axial-centrifugal-flow compressor, also called

the dual compressor, is a combination of the two types, using the same operating
characteristics. Figure 1.15 shows the compressor used in the T53 turbine engine. Most of the
gas turbine engines used in Army aircraft are of the dual compressor design. Usually it
consists of a five- or seven-stage axial-flow compressor and one centrifugal-flow compressor.
The dual compressors are mounted on the same shaft and turn in the same direction and at the
same speed. The centrifugal compressor is mounted aft of the axial compressor. The axial
compressor contains numerous air-foil-shaped blades and vanes that accomplish the task of
moving the air mass into the combustor at an elevated pressure.

94

95
Figure 1.15. Axial-Centrifugal-Flow Compressor.
As the air is drawn into the engine, its direction of flow is changed by the inlet guide vanes. The
angle of entry is established to ensure that the air flow onto the rotating compressor blades is within
the stall-free (angle of attack) range. Air pressure or velocity is not changed as a result of this action.
As the air passes from the trailing edge of the inlet guide vanes, its direction of flow is changed due
to the rotational effect of the compressor. This change of airflow direction is similar to the action that
takes place when a car is driven during a rain or snow storm. The rain or snow falling in a vertical
direction strikes the windshield at an angle due to the horizontal velocity of the car.

96
In conjunction with the change of airflow direction, the velocity of the air is increased. Passing
through the rotating compressor blades, the velocity is decreased, and a gain in pressure is obtained.
When leaving the trailing edge of the compressor blades, the velocity of the air mass is again
increased by the rotational effect of the compressor. The angle of entry on to the stationary stator
vanes results from this rotational effect as it did on the airflow onto the compressor.
Passing through the stationary stator vanes the air velocity is again decreased resulting in an increase
in pressure. The combined action of the rotor blades and stator vanes results in an increase in air
-pressure; combined they constitute one stage of compression. This action continues through all

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stages of the axial compressor. To retain this pressure buildup, the airflow is delivered, stage by
stage, into a continually narrowing airflow path. After passing from the last set of stator vanes the air
mass passes through exit guide vanes. These vanes direct the air onto the centrifugal impeller.
The centrifugal impeller increases the velocity of the air mass as it moves it in a radial direction.
 Compressor stall. Gas turbine engines are designed to avoid the pressure conditions
that allow engine surge to develop, but the possibility of surge still exists in engines that are
improperly adjusted or have been abused. Engine surge occurs any time the combustion
chamber pressure exceeds that in the diffuser, and it is identified by a popping sound which is

98
issued from the inlet. Because there is more than one

cause for surge, the resultant sound can range from a
single carburetor backfire pop to a machinegun sound.
Engine surge is caused by a stall on the airfoil surfaces of the

rotating blades or stationary vanes of the compressor. The stall
can occur on individual blades or vanes or, simultaneously, on

99
groups of them. To understand how this can induce engine surge, the causes and effects of stall on
any airfoil must be examined.
All airfoils are designed to provide lift by producing a lower pressure on the convex (suction) side of
the airfoil than on the concave (pressure) side. A characteristic of any airfoil is that lift increases with
an increasing angle of attack, but only up to a critical angle. Beyond this critical angle of attack, lift
falls off rapidly. This is due largely to the separation of the airflow from the suction surface of the
airfoil, as shown in the sketch. This phenomenon is known as stall. All pilots are familiar with this
condition and its consequences as it applies to the wing of an aircraft. The stall that takes place on

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the fixed or rotating blades of a compressor is the same as the stalling phenomenon of an aircraft
wing.
3.6 COMPRESSOR CONSTRUCTION
Centrifugal - flow compressors are usually made of titanium. The diffuser is generally manufactured
of a stainless steel alloy. A close fit is important between the compressor and its case to obtain
maximum compressor efficiency. Correct rotor assembly balancing is essential for safe operation
because of the high rpm. Balancing the rotor can be accomplished by removing metal from specified
areas of the compressor or by using balancing weights installed in holes in the hub of the compressor.

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On some engines where the compressor and turbine wheel are balanced as a unit, special bolts and
nuts having slight variations in weight are used.
Axial-flow compressors are constructed of many different materials, depending upon the load and
temperature under which the unit must operate. The rotor blades are generally cast of stainless-steel
alloy. Some manufacturers use molybdenum coated titanium blades to dampen vibrations on some
stages of rotor blades. The clearance between the rotor blades and the outer case is most important.
Some companies coat the inner surface of the compressor case with a soft material that can be worn
away by the blades as they expand because of the heat generated from compressing the air. This type

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of compressor uses the "wear-fit" method to form its own clearance between the compressor case and
the rotor blade tip.
Methods of attaching the blade to the disk or hub vary between manufacturers, with the majority
using some variation of the dove-tail method to hold the rotor blades to the disk. Various other
methods are used to anchor the blades in place. Some blades do not have a tight fit in the disk, but
rather are seated by centrifugal force during engine operation. By allowing the blades to move,
vibrational stress is reduced during start and shutdown. Stator vanes, shown in figure 1.16, can be
either solid or hollow construction, and are connected together at their tips by a shroud. This

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shrouding serves two purposes. First, it provides support, and second, it provides the necessary air
seal between rotating and stationary parts. Most manufacturers use the split compressor cases, while
some others favor a weldment, forming a continuous case. The advantages of the split case lie in the
fact that the compressor and stator blades are readily available to inspection. The one-piece case
offers simplicity and strength because it is one piece; in most instances, it is a principal structural
part of the engine and is usually made of cast aluminum, magnesium, or steel. Figures 1.16 and 1.17
show shrouded compressor stators in both the split case and the one-piece case.

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105
Figure 1.16. Shrouded Compressor Stators.

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107
Figure 1.17. One-Piece Compressor Case.
3.7 COMBUSTION SECTION
Today, three basic combustion chambers are in use. They are the annular combustion chamber, the
can type, and the combination of the two called the can-annular. Variations of these basic systems are
used in a number of engines. The three systems are discussed individually in the following
subparagraphs. The most commonly used gas turbine engine in Army aircraft is the annular reverse-
Row type. The combustion section contains the combustion chambers, igniter plugs, and fuel nozzles

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or vaporizing tubes. It is designed to burn a fuel-air mixture and deliver the combusted gases to the
turbine at a temperature which will not exceed the allowable limit at the turbine inlet.
Fuel is introduced at the front end of the burner in a highly atomized spray from the fuel nozzles.
Combustion air flows in around the fuel nozzle and mixes with the fuel to form a correct fuel-air
mixture. This is called primary air and represents approximately 25 percent of total air taken into the
engine. The fuel-air mixture which is to be burned is a ratio of 15 parts of air to 1 part of fuel by
weight. The remaining 75 percent of the air is used to form an air blanket around the burning gases
and to lower the temperature. This temperature may reach as high as 3500° F. By using 75 percent of

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the air for cooling, the temperature operating range can be brought down to about half, so the turbine
section will not be destroyed by excessive heat. The air used for burning is called primary air- and
that for cooling is secondary air. The secondary air is controlled and directed by holes and louvers in
the combustion chamber liner.
Igniter plugs function only during starting, being cut out of the circuit as soon as combustion is self-
supporting. On engine shutdown, or, if the engine fails to start, the combustion chamber drain valve,
a pressure-actuated valve, automatically drains any remaining unburned fuel from the combustion
chamber. All combustion chambers contain the same basic elements: a casing or outer shell, a

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perforated inner liner or flame tube, fuel nozzles, and some means of initial ignition. The combustion
chamber must be of light construction and is designed to burn fuel completely in a high velocity
airstream. The combustion chamber liner is an extremely critical engine part because of the high
temperatures of the flame. The liner is usually constructed of welded high-nickel steel. The most
severe operating periods in combustion chambers are encountered in the engine idling and maximum
rpm ranges. Sustained operation under these conditions must be avoided to prevent combustion
chamber liner failure.

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 The annular-type combustion chamber shown in figure 1.18 is used in engines of the
axial-centrifugal-flow compressor design. The annular combustion chamber permits building
an engine of a small and compact design. Instead of individual combustion chambers, the
primary compressed air is introduced into an annular space formed by a chamber liner around
the turbine assembly. A space is left between the outer liner wall and the combustion chamber
housing to permit the flow of secondary cooling air from the compressor. Primary air is
mixed with the fuel for combustion. Secondary (cooling) air reduces the temperature of the
hot gases entering the turbine to the proper level by forming a blanket of cool air around
these hot gases.

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1. ANNULAR TYPE COMBUSTION CHAMBER LINER

2. COMBUSTION CHAMBER HOUSING ASSEMBLY
Figure 1.18. Annular-type Combustion Chamber.
The annular combustion chamber offers the advantages of a larger combustion volume per unit of
exposed area and material weight, a smaller exposed area resulting in lower pressure losses through
the unit, and less weight and complete pressure equalization.
 The can-type combustion chamber is one made up of individual combustion

chambers. This type of combustion chamber is so arranged that air from the compressor

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enters each individual chamber through the adapter. Each individual chamber is composed of
two cylindrical tubes, the combustion chamber liner and the outer combustion chamber,
shown in figure 1.19. Combustion takes place within the liner. Airflow into the combustion
area is controlled by small louvers located in the inner dome, and by round holes and
elongated louvers along the length of the liner. Airflow into the combustion area is controlled
by small louvers located in the inner dome, and by round holes elongated louvers along the
length of the liner.

115

116
Figure 1.19. Can-type Combustion Chamber (Cutaway).
Through these openings flows the air that is used in combustion and cooling. This air also prevents
carbon deposits from forming on the inside of the liner. This is important, because carbon deposits
can block critical air passages and disrupt airflow along the liner walls causing high metal
temperatures and short burner life.
Ignition is accomplished during the starting cycle. The igniter plug is located in the combustion liner
adjacent to the start fuel nozzle. The Army can-type engine employs a single can-type combustor.

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 Can-annular combustion chamber. This combustion chamber uses characteristics of

both annular and can-type combustion chambers. The can-annular combustion chamber
consists of an outer shell, with a number of individual cylindrical liners mounted about the
engine axis as shown in figure 1.20. The combustion chambers are completely surrounded by
the airflow that enters the liners through various holes and louvers. This air is mixed with fuel
which has been sprayed under pressure from the fuel nozzles. The fuel-air mixture is ignited
by igniter plugs, and the flame is then carried through the crossover tubes to the remaining
liners. The inner casing assembly is both a support and a heat shield; also, oil lines run
through it.

118

119
Figure 1.20. Can-Annular Combustion Chamber.
3.8 TURBINE SECTION
A portion of the kinetic energy of the expanding gases is extracted by the turbine section, and this
energy is transformed into shaft horsepower which is used to drive the compressor and accessories.
In turboprop and Turboshaft engines, additional turbine rotors are designed to extract all of the
energy possible from the remaining gases to drive a power-shaft.

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 Types of turbines. Gas turbine manufacturers have concentrated on the axial-flow

turbine shown in figure 1.21. This turbine is used in all gas-turbine-powered aircraft in the
Army today. However, some manufacturers are building engines with a radial inflow turbine,
illustrated in figure 1.22. The radial inflow turbine has the advantage of ruggedness and
simplicity, and it is relatively inexpensive and easy to manufacture when compared to the
axial-flow turbine. The radial flow turbine is similar in design and construction to the
centrifugal-flow compressor described in paragraph 1.19a. Radial turbine wheels used for
small engines are well suited for a higher range of specific speeds and work at relatively high
efficiency.

121

122
Figure 1.21. Axial-flow Turbine Rotor.

123

124
Figure 1.22. Radial Inflow Turbine.
The axial-flow turbine consists of two main elements, a set of stationary vanes followed by a turbine
rotor. Axial-flow turbines may be of the single-rotor or multiple-rotor type. A stage consists of two
main components: a turbine nozzle and a turbine rotor or wheel, as shown in figure 1.21. Turbine
blades are of two basic types, the impulse and the reaction. Modern aircraft gas turbines use blades
that have both impulse and reaction sections, as shown in figure 1.23.

125

126
Figure 1.23. Impulse-Reaction Turbine Blade.
The stationary part of the turbine assembly consists of a row of contoured vanes set at a
predetermined angle to form a series of small nozzles which direct the gases onto the blades of the
turbine rotor. For this reason, the stationary vane assembly is usually called the turbine nozzle, and
the vanes are called nozzle guide vanes.
 Single-rotor turbine. Some gas turbine engines use a single-rotor turbine, with the
power developed by one rotor. This arrangement is used on engines where low weight and

127
compactness are necessary. A single-rotor, single-stage turbine engine is shown in figure 1.24,
and a multiple-rotor, multiple-stage turbine engine is shown in figure 1.25.

128

129
Figure 1.24. Single-rotor,Single-stage Turbine.

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131
Figure 1.25. Multiple-rotor,Multiple-stage Turbine.
 Multiple-rotor turbine. In the multiple-rotor turbine the power is developed by two or

more rotors. As a general rule, multiple-rotor turbines increase the total power generated in a
unit of small diameter. Generally the turbines used in Army aircraft engines have multiple
rotors. Figure 1.26 illustrates a multistage, multiple-rotor turbine assembly.

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133
Figure 1.26. Multirotor - Multistage Turbine.
3.9 TURBINE CONSTRUCTION
The turbine rotor is one of the most highly stressed parts in the engine. It operates at a temperature of
approximately 1,700° F. Because of the high rotational speeds, over 40,000 rpm for the smaller
engines, the turbine rotor is under severe centrifugal loads. Consequently, the turbine disk is made of
specially alloyed steel, usually containing large percentages of chromium, nickel, and cobalt. The
turbine rotor assembly is made of two main parts, the disk and blades.

134
Nozzle vanes may be either cast or forged. Some vanes are made hollow to allow cooling air to flow
through them. All nozzle assemblies are made of very high-strength steel that withstands the direct
impact of the hot gases flowing from the combustion chamber.
The turbine blades are attached to the disk by using the "fir tree" design, shown in figure 1.27, to
allow for expansion between the disk and the blade while holding the blade firmly to the disk against
centrifugal loads. The blade is kept from moving axially either by rivets or special locking devices.
Turbine rotors are of the open-tip type as shown in figure 1.27, or the shroud type as shown in figure
1.28.

135
Figure 1.28. Turbine Blade "Fir Tree Root"

MEGH PRASAD UPADHAYA Shroud.

136
The shroud acts to prevent gas losses over the blade tip and excessive blade vibrations. Distortion
under severe loads tends to twist the blade toward low pitch, and the shroud helps to reduce this
tendency. The shrouded blade has an aerodynamic advantage in that thinner blades can be used with
the support of the shroud. Shrouding, however, requires that the turbine run cooler or at reduced rpm
because of the extra mass at the tip.
Blades are forged or cast from alloy steel and machined and carefully inspected before being
certified for use. Manufacturers stamp a "moment weight" number on the blade to retain rotor

137
balance when replacement is necessary. Turbine blade maintenance and replacement are covered in a
separate lesson.
3.10 EXHAUST SECTION
The hot gases are exhausted overboard through the exhaust diffuser section. Internally, this section
supports the power turbine and aft portion of the power-shaft. The exhaust diffuser is composed of an
inner and outer housing, separated by hollow struts across the exhaust passage. The inner housing is
capped by either a tail-cone or a cover plate which provides a chamber for cooling the power-shaft
bearing. A typical exhaust diffuser section is shown in figure 1.29.

138

139
Figure 1.29. Exhaust Diffuser Section.
Turboshaft engines used in helicopters do not develop thrust by use of the exhaust duct. If thrust
were developed by the engine exhaust gas, it would be impossible to maintain a stationary hover;
therefore, helicopters use divergent ducts. These ducts reduce gas velocity and dissipate any thrust
remaining in the exhaust gases. On fixed wing aircraft, the exhaust duct may be the convergent type,
which accelerates the remaining gases to produce thrust which adds additional shaft horsepower to
the engine rating. The combined thrust and shaft horsepower is called equivalent shaft horsepower
(ESHP).

140

141
Figure 1.30. Divergent Exhaust Duct.
3.11 SUMMARY
The gas turbine engine has five major sections: inlet, compressor, combustion, turbine, and exhaust.
Engine terminology includes directional references, engine stations, and model designations.
Gas turbine engine construction is not limited to one type of compressor. The compressor may be
either centrifugal or axial or a combination of the two. Compressors are made in single or multiple
stage assemblies.

142
Three basic types of combustion chambers are in use: the annular, can, or a combination of the two
called can-annular or cannular.
Gas turbine engines may use either an axial-flow turbine or a radial-inflow turbine. The turbine
section may have a single- or multiple-stage turbine. The hot exhaust gases are exhausted overboard
through the exhaust section. Exhaust ducts used on helicopters are divergent. The ducts used on
fixed-wing aircraft may be of the convergent type.

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144

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4. Fuel System and Components
4.1 INTRODUCTION

146
This chapter introduces the fundamental systems and accessories of the gas turbine engine. Each one
of these systems must be present to have an operating turbine engine. Section I describes the fuel
system and related components that are necessary for proper fuel metering to the engine.
The second section discusses the theory and components of the lubricating system. Oil is the
lifeblood of any engine. If the oil supply to the bearings should cease, within a matter of seconds the
lubricating films would break down and cause scoring, seizing, and burning of the vital moving
parts.

147
The third section tells of the ignition system used in the gas turbine engines and of various cockpit
instruments used to measure engine performance.
4.2 GENERAL
The fuel system consists of the fuel control, speed governors, fuel pumps, starting fuel
nozzles, main fuel system flow divider, main fuel manifold, and vaporizing tubes or nozzles.
Fuel is conducted between these components by flexible or rigid lines. The fuel system must

148
supply clean, accurately metered fuel to the combustion chambers. All fuel systems have
basically the same components; how these specific units do their jobs differs radically from
one engine to another. Some systems incorporate features that are not necessary to the
metering of fuel, such as fuel and oil heat exchangers, use of fuel pressure to operate variable
inlet guide vanes, and compressor bleed mechanisms. It is the purpose of this section to
illustrate typical fuel systems so that the reader may obtain some idea of the route of fuel and
location of the components that make up the system.

149
4.3 FUEL CONTROLS
The principles and operation of fuel controls used on current engines are discussed in this paragraph.
Depending upon the type of engine and the performance expected of it, fuel controls may range from
simple valves to automatic computing controls containing hundreds of intricate parts.
Strictly speaking, a pilot of a gas-turbine-powered aircraft does not directly control his engine. His
command over the engine corresponds to that of the captain of a ship who obtains engine response
by relaying orders to an engineer below deck who, in turn, moves the throttle of the engine. But
before he moves the throttle, he monitors certain operating pressures, temperatures, and rpm that are

150
not apparent to the captain. The engineering officer then refers to a chart and computes a fuel flow or
throttle change which will not allow the engine to exceed its operating limitations. If you think of the
pilot as the captain of the ship, then think of the automatic controls as the engineer. They, too,
monitor operating pressures, temperatures, and rpm, and make the necessary fuel and throttle
adjustments.
Fuel controls can be divided into two basic groups: hydromechanical, and electronic. There are as
many variations in controls as there are engines. Although each type of fuel control has its particular
advantage, most controls in use today are hydromechanical. Some fuel controls are extremely

151
complex devices composed of speed governors, servo systems, valves, metering systems, and
sensing pickups.
This section limits discussion mainly to fuel control theory of the hydromechanical type. A fuel
control in the simplest form consists of a plain metering valve to regulate fuel flow to the engine. A
hydromechanical fuel control consists of the following main components, but it is not limited to only
these.
1. Pump to pressurize fuel.

152
2. Governors to control rpm.
3. Relief valves to protect the control.
4. Manual control systems (emergency control system).
5. Fuel shutoff valve.
Most modern fuel control units meter the flow of fuel by keeping the pressure drop or difference
across the metering valve a constant value, while varying the orifice of the metering valve. Another

153
way to control fuel is to keep the valve orifice a constant size and vary the pressure acting upon the
fluid. The operation of a gas turbine requires that a number of variable conditions be given careful
thought to provide for safe, efficient operation. Among these are engine rpm, acceleration, exhaust
gas temperature (EGT), compressor inlet temperature, compressor discharge pressure, and throttle or
power control setting. All these conditions affect or are affected by fuel flow, which is increased only
to the point where the limiting temperature is reached. As the engine accelerates and airflow through
the engine increases, more fuel is added. If turbine inlet temperature were the only engine limitation,
a temperature pickup sensing this temperature could be used. However, it is also necessary to avoid
the operating range that would cause a compressor surge and stall. Because more than one factor

154
limits engine operation, it is necessary to schedule the accelerating fuel in accordance with a
combination of these factors. Because turbine engine compressors are susceptible to surges and
stalls, a control with a longer acceleration time is used than is needed for a reciprocating engine. This
acceleration time is known as a "lag," and the pilot must be aware of the time it takes the engine to
accelerate and give him the power change he requires. Compressor discharge pressure or burner
pressure is commonly used as the variable for these controls, since they vary both with engine speed
and inlet air temperature. By evaluating these variable conditions, a fair indication of the amount of
fuel which can be burned without exceeding engine limitations is obtained.

155
Two fuel control systems are discussed in the following subparagraphs.
 Automatic control system. The amount of fuel required to run the engine at rated rpm
varies with the inlet air temperature and pressure. For example, it requires less fuel to run the
engine on a hot day than on a cold day. To relieve the pilot of the necessity of resetting the
power lever to compensate for changes in outside air temperature and pressure, a speed
governor is used. A simple speed governor consists of flyweights balanced by a spring. When
the engine is running unloaded, at rated speed, the metering valve is open only far enough to
supply the small amount of fuel required. If a load is applied to the engine, the speed

156
decreases. This decrease in rpm causes the flyweights to move in under the force of the spring
tension and the fuel valve to open wider and admit more fuel. With the additional fuel, the
engine picks up speed again, and, as the rated speed is reached, the flyweights move the fuel
valve in the closing direction until the proper steady-state fuel flow is reached.
 Manual (emergency) control system. When the governor control switch in the cockpit
is moved from the automatic position to the manual (emergency), a valve is actuated in the
fuel control, and fuel is redirected to the manual system metering valve. The throttle in a
helicopter is of the motorcycle twist-grip type. When the governor is in the automatic

157
position the throttle is rolled full open and left there, with the fuel control making all fuel-
flow changes automatically. If the automatic fuel control fails, the pilot switches to the
emergency mode and takes manual control of the throttle, which is mechanically linked to the
manual metering valve. The manual throttle control has no compensation for altitude or
temperature, and it has no protection against an engine overspeed.
Keep in mind that so far the discussion has been on principles of operation, and any specific fuel
control may differ.

158

159
Figure 2.2
4.4 FUEL PUMP
Main fuel pressure pumps for gas turbine engines generally have one or two gear-type, positive-
displacement, high-pressure elements. Each of these elements discharges fuel through a check valve
to a common discharge port. Thus, if one element fails, the remaining element continues to supply
sufficient fuel for engine operation. On some engines, the fuel pump is built in to the fuel control.
However, on other engines the fuel pump may be a separate component.

160

161
4.5 STARTING-FUEL SYSTEM
Fuel flows through an external line from the fuel control to the starting-fuel solenoid. During
the starting sequence, the pilot actuates the start-fuel solenoid switch in the cockpit. The
solenoid actuates the valve to the open position, then fuel flows through an external line to
the start-fuel manifold. The start-fuel nozzles are attached to the manifold; the number of
nozzles varies according to engine design. The nozzles introduce atomized fuel in the
combustion chamber during the starting sequence. After the engine has attained a specified

162
speed, the main fuel starts to flow automatically. After the engine is running on the main fuel
system, the start fuel system is shut off. A starting fuel system is shown in Figure 2.3.

163

164
4.6 MAIN FUEL SYSTEM
Main fuel is delivered from the fuel control to the main fuel manifold assembly by external lines.
The main fuel manifold delivers fuel to the fuel nozzles, which may be of the single or dual orifice

165
injector type, designed to introduce the fuel into the combustion chamber. Some earlier engines use
fuel vaporizer tubes in place of the more efficient fuel nozzles.
4.7 FUEL NOZZLES
On most gas turbine engines, fuel is introduced into the combustion chamber through a fuel nozzle
that creates a highly atomized and accurately shaped spray of fuel suitable for rapid mixing and
combustion. Most engines use either the simplex or the duplex nozzle. The exception to this is the
Lycoming T53-L-11 engine which uses vaporizer tubes in place of fuel nozzles. Each type of nozzle
is discussed in the following subparagraphs.

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 Simplex nozzle. Figure 2.4 illustrates a typical simplex nozzle; as its name implies, it
is simpler in design than the duplex nozzle. Its big disadvantage lies in the fact that a single
orifice cannot provide a satisfactory spray pattern with the changes in fuel pressure.

167

168
Figure 2.4. Simplex Fuel Nozzle.
 Duplex nozzle. Because the fuel-flow divider and the duplex nozzle work hand in
hand, the description of these units is combined. The chief advantage of the duplex nozzle is
its ability to provide good fuel atomization and proper spray pattern at all fuel pressures. For
the duplex nozzle to work, there must be a fuel-flow divider to separate the fuel into low
(primary) and high (secondary) pressure supplies. Single-entry duplex nozzles have an
internal flow divider and require only a single fuel manifold, while, as shown in figure 2.5,
dual-entry fuel nozzles require a double fuel manifold. The flow divider, whether self-

169
contained in each nozzle, or installed separately with the manifold, is usually a spring-loaded
valve set to open at a specific fuel pressure. When the pressure is below this value, the flow
divider directs fuel to the primary manifold. Pressures above this value cause the valve to
open and fuel is allowed to flow in both manifolds. A fuel flow divider is shown in figure 2.6.

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171
Figure 2.5. Dual Entry Duplex Nozzle.

172

173
Figure 2.6. Fuel Flow Divider.
In addition, an air shroud surrounding the nozzle, as shown in figure 2.7, cools the nozzle tip and
improves combustion by retarding the accumulation of carbon deposits on the face. The shroud also
helps to contain the flame in the center of the liner.

174
Figure 2.7. Air Shroud.

175
A word of caution; extreme care must be taken when cleaning or handling the nozzles, since even the
acid on the fingers may corrode and produce a spray pattern which is out of tolerance.
 Vaporizing tube. Engines such as the Lycoming T53-L-11 use vaporizing tubes
instead of injector nozzles. The vaporizing tube is a T-shaped, ceramic-coated pipe, whose
exit faces upstream to the airflow. Figure 2.8 shows a vaporizing tube that is used on the T53-
L-ll.

176

177
Figure 2.8. Vaporizing Tube.
4.8 FUEL FILTERS
Gas turbine engines may have several fuel filters installed at various points throughout the systems,
one fuel filter before the fuel pump and one on the high-pressure side after the pump. In most cases
the filter includes a relief valve set to open at a specified differential pressure (PSID) between inlet
and outlet pressure. This gives the fuel a bypass if the filter becomes clogged from contamination.

178
More than one kind of filter is used on turbine engines. A paper cartridge filter is usually used on the
low-pressure side of the pump. It uses a replaceable paper element, shown in figure 2.9, capable of
filtering out particles larger than 100 microns, or about the diameter of human hair.

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180
Figure 2.9. Paper Cartridge Fuel Filter.
A cylindrical screen filter is generally used where the fuel pressure is low. The filter is constructed of
stainless steel wire mesh cloth and is capable of filtering out particles larger than 40 microns. Such a
filter, shown in figure 2.10, may be cleaned, preferably ultrasonically, and reused.

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182
Figure 2.10. Cylindrical Screen Filter.
In addition to the main line filters, other filtering elements may be located in the fuel tanks, fuel
control, fuel nozzles, and just about any other place fuel is routed.
4.9 PRESSURIZING AND DRAIN DUMP VALVES
Until sufficient pressure is attained in the fuel control to compute the fuel flow schedules, flow to the
main fuel nozzle is prevented by the pressurizing and drain dump valve. This valve also drains the

183
fuel manifold at engine shutdown to prevent post-shutdown fires, and it traps fuel in the upstream
portion of the system to keep the fuel control primed to permit faster starts.
All manufacturers install a combustion chamber drain valve in the combustion section. During
normal engine operation this valve is closed. The drain valve is located at the lowest part of the
combustion chamber. When the combustion pressure in the chamber drops below a specified
minimum, usually a few pounds per square inch, this valve opens and drains any fuel remaining after
a false or aborted start. The fuel drained from this valve is dumped overboard.
4.10 FUEL OIL-COOLER


184
Some turbine engines use a fuel oil-cooler or heat exchanger to cool the lubricating oil. This unit is
discussed under the lubrication system because its prime function is to help cool the oil. It consists of
a cylindrical oil chamber surrounded by a jacket through which the fuel passes. Heat from the oil is
transferred to the fuel via conduction*. Figure 2.11 shows a typical fuel oil-cooler.

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186
Figure 2.11. Fuel Oil-Cooler.
4.11 SUMMARY
The fuel system must supply clean, accurately metered fuel to the combustion chamber. Most turbine
engine fuel systems have the same components: fuel control, pressure pumps, fuel flow divider,
manifold, and atomizers. There are two types of fuel controls: hydromechanical and electronic.
Engine-driven fuel pumps are high-pressure, positive-displacement, gear type pumps, and the fuel
nozzles are either simplex or duplex. However, some engines use vaporizer tubes in place of fuel
nozzles. Some gas turbine engines use a fuel oil-cooler to cool the oil.

187

188
5. Lubrication

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5.1 GENERAL
During the first few years of gas turbine experience, lightweight, petroleum-base oil was suitable for
gas turbines as well as other types of engines. Most of the early engines used lubricating oil
conforming to MIL-O-6081A, Grade 1010. Engines requiring an extremely light oil were operated
on MIL-O-3519, Grade 1005. These were conventional petroleum oils of high quality and light
weight which met the requirements of all the older engines.
Because of the continuous demand for greater power, gas turbine engines have been designed to
operate at higher temperatures and pressure ratios. Some gas turbine engine oil temperatures

190
encountered are considerably above the flash point of the petroleum oils. Because of this, a high
temperature lubricant had to be developed. The oil used in all Army gas turbine engines is MIL-L-
23699, or MIL-L-7808. These are synthetic lubricants which have wide operating ranges and load
carrying capabilities. The MIL-L-7808 is used in engines operating below -25° F. OAT, and MIL-L-
23699 is used when temperatures are above -25° F. This section discusses the various components
that make up a typical lubricating system.
5.2 LUBRICATING SYSTEMS

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Lubricating systems for modern gas-turbine engines are relatively simple in design and operation,
but their function is of vital importance. The principal purposes of the lubricating system are to
clean, reduce friction, and to cool the bearing surfaces. The main units of the typical system are the
reservoir or oil tank, the pressure pump, scavenger pumps, filters, oil cooler, and spray oil jets.
5.3 OIL TANKS
Most gas turbine engines are of the dry-sump type, meaning the on is stored separately from the
engine, or the tank may be attached to a structural part of the engine. Usually constructed of welded
aluminum or steel, it can contain a venting system, a deaerator (baffles) to separate air from the oil.

192
Some systems use an oil level transmitter to indicate quantity, where others have a dipstick or visual
sight gage.
5.4 PRESSURE PUMPS
Oil pumps for turbine engines are usually of the positive-displacement gear type, with a relief valve
to prevent excessive pressure. A modified gear-type pump is called the "gerotor pump."
The gear-type pump consists of a driving and driven gear. The pump is driven from the engine
accessory section and causes the oil to pass around the outside of the gears in pockets formed by the

193
gear teeth and the pump casing. The pressure developed is proportional to engine rpm up to the point
where the pressure relief valve opens and limits the pressure output of the pump.
The gerotor pump has two moving parts, an inner toothed element meshing with an outer toothed
element. The inner element has one less tooth than the outer, and the missing tooth provides a
chamber to move the fluid from the intake to the discharge port. Both elements are mounted
eccentrically to each other, the inner one mounted on the shaft and the outer one meshed with it.
Figure 2.13 is a picture of the gerotor pump, showing both inner and outer toothed elements.

194
Figure 2.13. Gerotor Booster Pump.
5.5 SCAVENGE PUMPS

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Although much larger in total capacity, scavenge pumps are usually constructed in the same manner
as pressure pumps. Engines are generally provided with several scavenge pumps to drain oil from
various parts of the engine. Often such a pump shares the same housing as the pressure pump. These
pumps are used to draw the oil from the sumps at the bearings, accessory gearbox housings, and
other drainage points and return the oil back to the tank.
5.6 FILTERS
Three basic oil filters or strainers are made: cartridge, screen-disk, and screen. These filters are the
same design as the filters used in the fuel system, as covered in paragraph 2.8. The main objective of

196
a filter is to remove all foreign particles from the lubricant without creating excessive back pressure
against the pumps. Filters are usually provided with bypass valves to permit the flow of oil in case
the filter becomes clogged.
5.7 OIL COOLER
Oil coolers for aviation gas-turbine engines are either simple oil radiators with air cooling or the kind
that uses fuel as the cooling medium. The latter type of unit is used on the Lycoming T55 engine.
The fuel oil-cooling unit is a heat exchanger which transfers the heat in the oil to the fuel flowing to
the fuel nozzles. Since the fuel flow through the cooler is much greater than the oil flow, the fuel is

197
able to absorb a considerable amount of heat from the oil, thereby reducing the size and weight of the
cooler. The fuel oil-cooler is shown in figure 2.11. An air cooler is shown in figure 2.14.

198

199
Figure 2.14. Air Oil Cooler.
5.8 SPRAY OIL JETS
The lubrication method most generally used is known as a calibrated system, where oil is specifically
controlled by a calibrated orifice which provides the proper oil flow at all engine operating speeds.
The oil is supplied from the oil pressure pump through tubing and internal passageways to the spray
jets, where the oil is sprayed on the bearing surfaces.
5.9 SUMMARY

200
Gas turbine engine oil systems perform three major functions. They clean and reduce friction, and
they cool and dissipate heat. They also clean the engine interior through the use of oil filters and
strainers. Because much of the aircraft powerplant consists of moving parts, lubricants are needed to
overcome friction caused by one metal surface sliding or rolling over another. Friction causes heating
of parts, excessive wearing, and useless expenditure of horsepower. Lubricating systems used in gas
turbine engines have oil tanks, pressure pumps, scavenger pumps, filter, oil coolers, and spray oil
jets. The system most widely used on turbine engines is the dry sump lubrication system which uses
a separate or external oil tank, located near the engine.

201
The two kinds of pumps are pressure pumps and scavenge pumps, the first to put oil into the system,
and the second to collect oil from the system. Filters remove foreign matter from the oil, and either a
fuel oil-cooler or an air cooler takes the heat out of it. Oil is sprayed on the bearing surface by spray
jets.

202
6. Ignition System and Engine Instrumentation
6.1 GENERAL

203
Gas turbine ignition systems fall into three general types: first, the induction type, that produces high
tension voltage by conventional induction coils; second, the capacitor type that causes ignition by
means of high energy and very high temperature sparks produced by a condenser discharge; and a
third type of ignition system, not widely adopted, that uses a glow plug.
Most ignition systems used on Army aircraft are of the high-energy capacitor type. This system has
been accepted for gas turbine engines because it produces high voltage and an exceptionally hot
spark, and the high voltage covers a large area.

204
The tachometer is one of the cockpit instruments described briefly in this section. Others are
indicating systems for torque, engine oil pressure, engine oil temperature, exhaust gas temperature,
and fuel pressure.
6.2 IGNITION UNIT
Usually, gas turbine engines are equipped with two or more igniter plugs; however, the smaller
engines like the T63 have only one igniter plug, sometimes called the spark plug. Igniter plugs serve
a purpose similar to the spark plug in a reciprocating engine, although operation of the ignition
system and the igniter plugs is necessary only for a short period during the engine starting cycle. On

205
many installations, ignition is initiated simultaneously with the starter. The ignition cycle takes place
several times per second and continues to operate as long as the ignition switch is on.
The term "high energy" is used in the section to describe the capacitor type of ignition system.
However, the amount of energy produced is very small. The intense spark is obtained by expending a
small amount of electric energy in a very short time. Energy is the capacity for doing work. It can be
expressed as the product of the electrical power and time. Gas turbine ignition systems are rated in
joules. The joule is also an expression of electric energy, being equal to the amount of energy
expended in one second by an electric current of one ampere through a resistance of one ohm. All

206
other factors being equal, the temperature of the spark is determined by the power level reached. A
high-temperature spark can result from increasing the energy level, or by shortening the duration of
the spark. Increasing the energy level requires a heavier, more bulky ignition unit, since the energy
delivered to the spark plug is only about 30 to 40 percent of the total energy stored in the capacitor.
Also the higher the current flow, the higher the erosion rate on the igniter plug electrodes.
Furthermore, much of the spark would be wasted, because ignition takes place in a matter of
microseconds. In a capacitor discharge ignition system, most of the total energy available to the
igniter plugs is dissipated in 10 to 100 microseconds, with up to 80, 000 watts with a spark duration
of 50 microseconds. Figure 2.15 shows a wiring schematic of a typical ignition unit.

207

208
Figure 2.15. Wiring Schematic of Typical Ignition Unit.
WARNING: When working around the ignition unit of the engine, disconnect the input lead
to the ignition exciter unit. Remove the igniter plugs from the combustion
chamber and ground them to the engine. You do this to dissipate any charge
that might be left in the exciter unit.
Some ignition exciter units contain a very small amount of radioactive

material (cesium-barium 137) and normally require no handling precautions.

209
However, severely damaged units that have been broken open must be handled
with forceps or gloves and disposed of in accordance with AR 755-15.
6.3 IGNITERS
Gas turbine igniters come in many sizes and shapes depending upon the duty they will be subjected
to. The electrodes of the plugs used with high-energy ignition systems must be able to accommodate

210
a current of much higher energy than the electrodes of conventional spark plugs are capable of
handling. Although the high-energy current causes more rapid igniter-electrode erosion than that
encountered in reciprocating-engine spark plugs, this is not a major disadvantage, because of the
relatively short time that the ignition system is in operation. Most igniter plugs used in turbine
engines are of the annular-gap type, shown in figure 2.16.

211
Figure 2.16. Annular Gap Igniter Plug.

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The annular-gap igniter plug protrudes slightly into the combustion chamber liner to provide an
effective spark. Another type of igniter is the constrained-gap plug which does not closely follow the
face of the plug; instead it tends to jump in an arc which carries it beyond the face of the chamber
liner. Because the constrained-gap plug does not have to protrude into the liner, the electrode
operates at a cooler temperature than that of the annular-gap plug.
6.4 INTERNAL COOLING SYSTEM
The intense heat generated when combustion takes place means that all internal combustion engines
must be cooled by some means. Air-cooled reciprocating engines are cooled by air passing over fins

213
attached to the cylinders. Liquid-cooled engines, as in an automobile, use a liquid coolant that passes
through jackets surrounding the cylinders. In a reciprocating engine, combustion takes place only
during every fourth stroke of a four-cycle engine. However, in a gas turbine engine, where the
burning process is continuous, nearly all the cooling air must pass through the inside of the engine. If
only enough air were admitted to the engine to provide combustion, internal temperatures would
increase to more than 4,000° F. Because of this, the amount of air admitted to the engine is in excess
of the amount required for combustion only; indeed, about 75 percent of the air is used for cooling
and 25 percent for combustion. This large surplus of air (secondary air) cools the hot expanding
gases just before they enter the turbines. In some engines, internal air is bled from the engine

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compressor section and is vented through passages to the bearings and other parts of the engine. This
air is then vented into the exhaust stream.
6.5 ENGINE INSTRUMENTATION
Engine performance is monitored by instruments mounted on the instrument panel in the cockpit.
1. Tachometer system. The tachometer gives the pilot a continuous indication of engine
rpm. A variety of systems or a combination of systems may be used on gas turbine engines.
Gas producer or gas generator tachometers, turbine and rotor tachometers, and N1 and N2

215
tachometers are some of the tachometer systems used. The system may consist of dual
indicators, registering rpm for multiengine aircraft, registering engine and rotor rpm for
rotary-wing aircraft, or engine and propeller rpm for fixed-wing aircraft. A typical tachometer
indicator is driven by a tachometer-generator. The generator supplies power at a frequency
proportional to the driven speed which drives the synchronous motors in the indicator.
2. Torquemeter indicating system. Sometimes called a torque pressure indicating system,

the typical torquemeter indicating system is a pressure indicator for continuous readings of

216
engine output-shaft torque. It is powered by an electrical transmitter mounted on the engine

inlet section.
3. Engine oil pressure indicating system. A typical engine oil pressure indicating system
gives continuous readings of engine oil pump pressure in psi to the indicator, by means of an
electrical transmitter mounted on the engine inlet section. The transmitter is connected to the
28-volt ac electrical system, and by a hose to a pressure tap on the engine oil filter housing.
4. Engine oil temperature indicating system. In a typical engine oil temperature

indicating system, the indicator is electrically connected to the 28-volt dc system. An

217
electrical resistance type thermo-bulb installed in the engine oil pump housing measures
temperatures of the oil entering that unit. The temperature readings are transmitted to the
indicator in degrees centigrade.
5. Exhaust gas temperature indicating system. The indicator in a typical exhaust gas
temperature indicating system operates on electrical potential from an engine thermocouple
harness with probes mounted in the aft section of the engine exhaust diffuser. The
thermocouple is a device which converts heat into electricity. The exhaust gas temperature
indicator (thermocouple thermometer indicator) is actually a sensitive mili-voltmeter,

218
calibrated in degrees centigrade. Its D'Arsonval movement is activated by an electrical force

generated by its related thermocouple. The indicator circuit is entirely independent of any
other electrical power source, and includes a coil resistor which provides a means of systems
calibration.
6. Fuel pressure indicating system. A typical fuel pressure indicating system gives
continuous readings of fuel pressure (psi) in the main fuel supply line from the boost pumps
in the tanks, by means of an electrical transmitter. The transmitter is connected to a tap on the

219
valve manifold where all the fuel supply lines join to deliver fuel to the engine through the
fuel control inlet hose. Electricity is supplied to the transmitter by the 28-volt ac system.
6.6 SUMMARY
The three types of ignition systems used on turbine engines are induction, capacitor discharge, and
glow plug. The most common ignition system used on Army aircraft is the capacitor discharge. The
induction and capacitor systems use a spark producing plug to ignite the fuel air mixture.

220
Because of the high operating temperatures of turbine engines, an internal cooling system is used.
Cooling air forms a blanket of air around the combustion chamber.
Instrumentation consists of tachometers, torque-meters, and pressure and temperature gages for
monitoring engine performance.

221
7. Testing, Inspection and Maintenance
7.1 ENGINE MAINTENANCE PRECAUTIONS

222
Personnel performing maintenance on gas turbine engines must observe the precautions stated in the
applicable engine manual. Disregarding these warnings and precautionary measures can result in
serious injury, illness, or death. The following subparagraphs discuss some of the precautions that
must be taken while performing engine maintenance.
a. Use of lubricating oil. Prolonged contact with lubricating oil may cause a skin rash. Skin and
clothing that come in contact with lubricating oil must be thoroughly washed immediately. Saturated
clothing should be removed without delay. Areas in which lubricating oil is used must be ventilated

223
to keep mist and fumes to a minimum. Because lubricating oil can soften some paint, oil spilled on
painted surfaces must be promptly and thoroughly washed off.
b. Cadmium plated tools. Be sure tools used on engine are not cadmium plated. The cadmium
plating on tools chips off, and oil contaminated with cadmium chips can cause magnesium parts to
deteriorate.
c. Handling of parts. When handling combustion chamber internal parts that have been exposed
to fuels containing tetraethyl lead compounds, be sure that the poisonous lead-oxide residue is not
inhaled or taken into the body through cuts or other external openings. If accidental exposure occurs,

224
flush the affected area thoroughly with clear water and obtain immediate medical attention. Gloves
and a face mask should be worn at all times when handling parts contaminated by lead oxide. hi
addition bearings must be handled with special care. Gloves must be worn to prevent skin oil and
acid from etching the bearing surface.
d. Marking on high-temperature materials. Using marking materials such as a common lead

pencil on metals subject to high temperatures can cause the metal parts to crack. Approved marking
materials are specified in the applicable engine manual. Only these marking materials are authorized
for use.

225
e. Performing maintenance while engine is operating. Maintenance personnel must use caution
when performing maintenance on operating engines. Because of the high temperature and velocity of
the exhaust gases, personnel must stay clear of exhaust areas. Turbine intake areas are also a hazard.
Large jet engines have been known to suck men into the engine. The smaller turbine engines in Army
aircraft are capable of picking up small objects that are close to the intake. Anyone working around
turbine engines should remove headgear and loose articles such as pens and pencils from shirt
pockets. Figure 3.6 shows the exhaust-blast area of an OV-1 aircraft, to be avoided when the engine
is running.

226
7.2 MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES
It is important to see that the engine compartment is kept as clean as possible because the high-
velocity airflow through the engine will draw any foreign objects into the compressor. All loose
parts, such as safety wire, cotter pin clippings, and nuts and bolts should be removed immediately.
Tubing and lines should be checked for security, nicks, chafing, dents, and leaks.
Inspection and maintenance of gas-turbine engines are somewhat easier than those of reciprocating
engines because the gas turbines stay cleaner. Besides, the first several stages of most compressors

227
can be inspected for FOD by using a strong light. Also, the last two turbine stages are readily opened
for inspection of heat damage.
The oil system is checked on the daily inspection for proper oil level. However, when adding oil,
different types should not be mixed. In the past the Army has used MIL-L-7808 lubricating oil in
turbine engines. Because of the higher operating temperatures encountered in the current gas turbine
engines, a new oil has been developed. Military Specification No. MIL-L-23699 uses a new
synthetic base and new additive combination to cope with the more severe operating conditions and

228
higher temperature ratings. When changing from MIL-L-7808 to MIL-L-23699 lubricating oil, check
the engine TM for proper procedures.
7.3 CLEANING ENGINE ASSEMBLY
The exterior of the engine, and its attached components, can be cleaned with a suitable cleaning
solvent, such as P-D-680. If the solvent is sprayed on the engine with compressed air, care must be
taken to avoid forcing dirt, solvent, or moisture into engine openings and electrical connections. The
primary purpose of cleaning is to remove contaminants that might conceal minor cracks and defects
which if not detected could eventually lead to failure. Under normal circumstances, engine

229
components are cleaned only as necessary to perform required inspection and repair. After using
alternate or emergency fuels, cleaning internal hot-end parts may be required to remove lead oxide
deposits. These deposits, if not removed, are detrimental to engine life and performance. The choice
of any particular cleaning agent or process depends upon the engine part to be cleaned and the
contaminants to be removed.
Take particular care in selecting a cleaning method to ensure that anodizing or di-chromating is not
removed from the surfaces. Do not use caustics on aluminum, magnesium, ceramic-coated,
aluminized, painted, nitrated, or carbonized parts. In most cases the engine manual prescribes the

230
approved cleaning procedure to be used. Most engine parts may be cleaned by using the following
methods.
a. Vapor degreasing. Used only on unpainted metal parts or aluminum-painted steel parts, vapor
degreasing using heated trichloroethylene, type II, or perchloroethylene, specification No. O-T-634,
removes oil, grease, and sludge. The hot vapor condenses on metal surfaces, liquefies, and carries
away the oil, grease, and sludge. Parts may be flushed while held in the vapor. To prevent corrosion,
the parts should not be removed from solvent vapors until they have reached the temperature of the
vapor.

231
b. Solvent immersion. In another cleaning method, the parts are immersed in Carbon Removing
Compound MIL-C-19853, to remove carbon, gum, grease, and other surface contaminants. This
method is used on steel and stainless steel parts. Parts with painted finishes should not be cleaned by
this method, because the carbon cleaning compound attacks the paint.
c. Vapor blasting. An abrasive method used to clean combustor parts, vapor blasting must not be
used on ceramic, magnesium, painted, or aluminum surfaces. Be sure that metal is not removed
during cleaning and that cooling slot, holes, ridges, and overlap areas do not become clogged with
blasting grit.

232
d. Dry-cleaning solvent. All metal parts may be cleaned with dry-cleaning solvent, P-D-680 Type
I. This method is suitable for removing heavy oil and grease deposits from most parts, including
flexible hoses and carbon seals. Dry-cleaning solvent leaves an oily film that protects steel parts from
corrosion for a short time.
7.4 CLEANING COMPRESSOR ROTOR BLADES
When a particular engine's performance decreases to or below the point specified in the applicable
TM, and the EGT increases steadily during normal operation, the compressor rotor blades need
cleaning. Compressor rotor blades should also be cleaned whenever the engine has been operating in

233
areas where the air is salt laden, or when the engine has been subjected to contamination with fire
extinguishing agent residue (chloro-bromo-methane and soda ash). Cleaning can be accomplished
while the engine is installed in the aircraft.
Before cleaning any engine the applicable engine technical manual must be consulted for the proper
procedures to follow. On some engines, temperature and pressure lines must be disconnected and
capped to prevent solvent and water from entering.
The following is the preferred method for cleaning the compressor on the T53-L-13. Refer to figure
3.7 as you read the following steps in the cleaning method.

234
7.5 OVERHAUL AND REPAIR
The time between overhauls (TBO) varies considerably between different engines. The TBO is
established by the Army and the engine manufacturer who take into account the kind of operation
and use expected for the engine, also the environment it will be operating in. As a specific model
engine builds up operating time, it is inspected for signs of wear and impending failure of parts. If
the engine is wearing well, the TBO is extended. The large improvement of TBO has been
accomplished mainly through improvements in engine design, metallurgy, manufacturing, overhaul,
inspection, and maintenance procedures. The use to which the engine is put is especially important in

235
determining the TBO. For example, if the mission the aircraft is designed for calls for frequent starts
and stops, or for power changes as in a helicopter, the resultant rapid temperature changes will
shorten the allowed TBO. The following paragraphs cover disassembly, assembly, and repair
procedures.
a. Disassembly. Engine disassembly can be accomplished on a vertical or horizontal disassembly

stand as shown in figure 3.8. Some engines can be disassembled either horizontally or vertically,
while others have to be done in only one position. After the engine is disassembled, the major
components and section assembly are mounted on individual stands. To disassemble an engine,

236
instructions in the TM must be followed, and a large number of special tools is required. A set of
these tools may cost as much as the engine.
b. Assembly. Engine assembly also follows instruction in the TM; it is done on the same stand as
disassembly. During assembly, care must be taken to prevent dirt and other foreign materials from
entering the engine. The procedures and use of special tools as outlined in the maintenance manual
must be followed to minimize possible injury to the mechanic and damage to the engine.

237
c. Repair. All engine parts must be repaired using methods approved by the engine TM. Figure
3.9 shows an illustration of typical repair limits for compressor rotor blades on the Lycoming T53
series engines.
7.6 STORAGE AND PRESERVATION
The degree of preservation is determined by the anticipated length of time an engine is expected to
be inactive. The three categories of storage are:

238
a. Flyable storage. An engine that will not be operated for a period of at least 72 hours, nor more
than 14 days, must be preserved and maintained with all components and systems in an operable
condition. On the third day, the engine must be run-up or motored with the starter. If the engine is
only motored on the third day, it must be run up on the seventh.
b. Temporary storage. An engine that will not be operated for over 14 days, but less than 45 days,
must be placed in temporary storage. Engines normally falling in this category are those undergoing
minor repair or modification, awaiting assignment or disposition, being held in operational reserve,
or any other condition which requires idleness for a period not to exceed 45 days.

239
c. Extended storage. An engine that will be inactive for more than 45 days, but not exceeding 180
days, must be preserved and maintained in extended storage. Usually, this includes those engines
undergoing major repair or modification, those declared surplus and awaiting final disposition, or
any other circumstance that would warrant idleness for 45 to 180 days.
NOTE
Permanent storage is a depot level function.
7.8 ENGINE PRESERVATION


240
All preservation procedures require that any accumulation of dirt be removed from the engine with
dry cleaning solvent. Under usual conditions, it will not be necessary to clean the entire external
surface of the engine. If necessary, perspiration residues can be removed from close tolerance bare
metal surfaces by wiping with a clean cloth dampened in fingerprint remover before cleaning with
solvent.
CAUTION

241
To prevent oil contamination, never mix synthetic-base oils with mineral-base oils. Synthetic-base
lubricating oil is required for the engine. Only a synthetic-base corrosion preventive oil can be used
to spray the compressor for corrosion prevention.
7.9 TURBINE ENGINE TROUBLESHOOTING
Engine malfunctions can be recognized and diagnosed by comparing actual engine instrument
reading with normal readings. To aid maintenance personnel in engine troubleshooting, the engine
technical manual has troubleshooting charts to analyze, isolate, and correct engine malfunctions.
Proper utilization of the troubleshooting charts will save time, provide a logical method of isolating

242
the causes of malfunctions, and eliminate the unnecessary replacement of parts. Figure 3.11 explains
how to use the troubleshooting charts.
7.10 SUMMARY
Gas turbine engines are run in test cells to ensure quality control before they are shipped to the user
for installation in aircraft. The test cell is equipped with instruments to monitor engine performance.
Engine vibration tests can be performed with the engine in the test cell or installed in the aircraft.
Vibration tests are required after any maintenance on rotating parts or when excessive engine

243
vibration is suspected. A jetcal analyzer is used to check the accuracy of the egt system and to
calibrate it.
There are two kinds of engine inspections, scheduled and special. Scheduled inspections are required
whenever any of the operating limits have been exceeded.
Under the Army Spectrometric Oil Analysis Program (ASOAP) oil samples are analyzed for metal
content, to prevent in-flight engine failures.

244
Personnel performing maintenance on gas turbine engines should observe the precautions stated in
the engine manual to avoid serious personnel injury or engine damage. All engine cleaning, both
internal and external, should be performed in accordance with the appropriate engine manual. In
most cases the engine manual prescribes the approved cleaning procedure to be used. Most engine
parts may be cleaned by the vapor degreasing, solvent immersion, or vapor blasting methods.
The TBO of a gas turbine engine depends upon such things as operating environment, mission to be
performed, and how will the engine wear as flight time is built up.

245
Maintenance function assignments are determined by the maintenance allocation chart found in the
aircraft -20 manual. Three categories of engine storage are used. The decision as to which category
of storage is to be used depends upon the length of time the engine will be inactive.

246

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Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine

MEGH PRASAD UPADHAYA

Section I. Theory of Gas Turbine Engines

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1.3. LAWS OF MOTION

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1.4. THEORY OF JET PROPULSION

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1.5. THEORY OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES

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