Abbreviations Used
in the Figures
a, anal vein
A, anal vein, anal cell
ab, abdomen, opisthosoma
ac, accessory, lanceolate, or
subanal vein
Ac, anal crossing (A
branching posteriorly
from Cu, often called the
cubito-anal cross vein)
acc, accessory cell
acg, accessory gland
acg, accessory gland
ael, antennal elub
aelp, anteclypeus
acr, acrostichal bristles
aes, acrosternite
act, acrotergite
acv, anterior cross vein
adf, adfrontal area
aed, aedeagus
af, antennal fossa
agr, scrobe, groove in beak
for reception of antenna
al, anallobe
alp, anal loop
alu, alula
am, axillary muscle
an, antenodal cross vein
AN, alinotUm
anc, anal cleft
anes, antecostal suture
anp, anal plate
anr, anal ring
ans, anus
ant, antenna
ante, antecosta
antl, antennule
ao, dorsal aorta
The following list includes all the abbreviations used in the figures in Chap-
ters 3 through 35. The abbreviations used on wing drawings for the veins and
eells (using the Comstoek-Needham terminology) are not listed in the figure
legends, but are included in the following listo Subseript numerals are used to
designate branehes of the longitudinal veins. Sueh numerals are often used to
designa te the particular thorade segment on which a strueture is loeated
O, designating the prothorax; 2, the mesothorax; and 3, the metathorax). Sub-
seript numerals are oeeasionally used to designate the particular abdominal seg-
ment on which a sclerite is loeated.
aos, anterior oblique sulcus be, bursa copulatrix elm, calamistrum
on mesepisternum bcv, bridge cross vein elp, elypeus
ap, appendix bg, book gills elpl, elypellus
Ap, apical cell bk, beak, proboscis, cls, claval suture
apc, apical cross vein rostrum, or snout elt, claw tuft, clypeal
apd, apodeme bl, blastoderm tubercle
apo, apophysis bln, banksian line elv, claval vein
ar, arista bm, basal medial cell, cm, gastric caeca or caecum
are, arculus basement membrane en, colon
are, areolet bm-cu, basal mediocubital ena,cornea
aro, arolium cross vein enge, corneagenous cells
an, point of aniculation bms, basalar muscle cnu, eleavage nuclei
as, antennal sulcus, anterior bp, brood pouch colm, collum, tergite
spiracle br, brain or basal radial cell of the first body
ase, antennal sclerite brv, bridge vein segment
ask, antennal socket bt, breathing tube com, commissural trachea
asp, apical spur buc, buccula or bucca como, tritocerebral
aspr, anterior spiracle bv, basal vein commissure
at, alimentary tract bvn, brace vein cor, corim
ata, anterior tentorial arm covd, common oviduct
atb, anal tube e, costal vein cp, crop
atp, anterior tentorial pit C, costal vein, costal cell cph, prosoma or
au, auricle ca, corpus allatum cephalothorax
av, auxiliary vein cal, calypter or squama cpl, cortical cytoplasm
aw, anterior wart cb, corbicula cr, cercus, lateral caudal
awp, anterior no tal wing cbr, costal break filament, superior
process cc, crystalline cone appendage
ax, axilla cd, cardo crb, cribellum
AX, axillary cell cee, circumesophageal cre, cremaster
axc, axillary cell connective crl, crystalline lens
axcr, axillary cord cen, cenchri cm, cornicle
axs, axillary sclerite cg, cerebral ganglion cro, crochets
axv, axillary vein ch, chelicera crp, carapace
cho,chorion es, coronal suture
B, basal cell chp, cheliped esp, cusp of mandible,
ba, basalare el, clypeus, clavus caudal spiracle
BA, basal anal cell, basal cla, clasper cu, cubital vein
areole clc, movable spines or calcaria Cu, cubital vein
cual>anterior cubital cell
cuf,cubitalfork (fork of CuA)
cun, cuneus
cup, posterior cubital cell
Cup,posterior cubital vein
cut, cuticle
cva, clava
cvs, cervical sclerite
CVX, cervix
ex, coxa
exc, coxal cavity
exg, groove in coxa
exp, eoxopodite of
abdominal appendages
d, discoidal or intercostal
vein
D, diseal cell, or discoidal
eell
de, dorsocentral bristles
dcv,discal cross vein
dlm, dorsallongitudinal
muscle
dm, domelike layer of
euticle over nerve ending,
or discal medial cell
dm-cu, discal medio-cubital
cross vein
do, dorsal ostiole
dp, distal process of
sensory cell
DS],disjugal furrow
dta, dorsal tentorial arm
dtra, dorsal trachea
e, eye, compound eye
ee, eye eap
eet, eetoderm
ef, epigastrie furrow
eg, egg
ejd, ejaeulatory duct
el, elytron
emb, embolium
emp, empodium
en, endophallus
end, endocuticle, endoderm
endr, endodermal rudiments
enl, endite lobe
enp, endopodite
ep, epidermis
eper, epicranium
epg, epigynum
eph, epipharynx
epi, epicuticle
epm, epimeron
epp, epipleurite
epr, epistomal ridge
eps, epistemum
ept, epiproet, median caudal
filament, or inferior
appendage
es, epistomal su\cus
eso, esophagus
ex, exuvium
exl, exite lobe
exm, extensor muscle
exo, exocuticle
exp, exopodite
f, frenulum
fa, face
lb, frontal bristles
fc, food channel
fch, lilter chamber
fen, frontal ganglion
connectíve
re, facial fovea
fg, frontal ganglion
lib, libula
fl, flagellum
flb, flabellum
flm, flexor muscle
fm, femur
fmb, femoral bristles
fn, fang of chelicera
fob, fronto-orbital bristles
fon, fontanelle
for, foramen magnum
fr, frons
frl, frontallunule
fs, frontal suture
fu, sternal apophysis, furca
fun, funiculus or funicle
fv, frontal vitta
g, galea
gap, gonapophysis
ge, genal comb
gcl, germ cell
gex, gonocoxa
ge, gena
gen, male copulatory
apparatus
gf, genital forceps
gh, gland hair
gi, gills
gl, glossa
gle, gland cell
gld, duct of gland cell
gis, gland spines
glt, gland tubercle
gn, ganglion of ventral
nerve cord
gna, gnathochilarium
gon, gonangulum
gpl, gonoplacs
gr, gill remnants
gs, guiar suture
gst, gonostylus
gt, genal tooth
gu, gula
gvp, genovertical or orbital
plate
h, humeral eross vein
hal, haltere
hb, humeral bristles
hbr, hypostomal bridge
hc, humeral callus mdu, microduct
hcl, hypostigmatic or truss cell mdv, median vein
hd, head mem, membrane
hg, anterior portíon of the met, metasomatic segment
hindgut mf, medial fork (fork of
ho,hom MP2)
hp, humeral plate mg, midgut or mesenteron
hr, heart mh, movable hook or palp
hst, haustellum mi, median lobe
hv, humeral or recurrent vein mm, marginal macroduet
hyb, hypopleural bristles mn, mentum
hyp, hypopharynx, mo, mouth
intermediate stylet mp, mouthparts
hypl, hypopleuron Mp, posterior media
mpb, mesopleural bristles
iab, intra-alar bristles mpo, marginal 8-shaped
iap, interior appendage pore
(paraproct) ms, mesoderm
iar, interantennal ridge msd, mesoderm
ias, interantennal suture msl, mesostemallobe
iep, infraepistemum mspl, medial supplement
il, ileum mst, mental seta
ism, intersegmental mt, Malpighian tubule
membrane mts, metatarsus or lirst
it, intercalated triangle tarsal segment
ivb, inner vertical bristles mu, mucro
mv, marginal or radial
j, jugum vein
jl, jugallobe mx, maxilla, dorsal stylet
mxa, maxillary
I,leg articulatíon
L, length, lanceolate mxl, maxillary lobe
Iba, labial articulation mxn, maxillary nerve
Ibl, labellum mxp, maxillary palp
Ibm, labium, ventral stylet mxt, maxillary tentacle
Ibn, labial nerve
Ibr, labrum, rostrum n, notum
lbrn, labral nerve nb, notopleural bristles
le, lacinia ne, ventral nerve cord
let, layer of the cutícle nod,nodus
19, ligula, median lobe nll, pronotallobe
11,lamina lingualis npl, notopleuron
lo, lorum npls, notopleural suture
lp, labial palp nt, notaulus
Lp, lateral plate nu, nucleus
15, labial suture nv, neuron
1st, lateral setae
Itra, main longitudinal o,opening
tracheal trunk ob, oeellar bristles
obv, oblique vein
m, medial cross vein, mouth, oe, ocellus
or recurrent nerve oep, oeciput
M, medial vein, medial eell oepd, ocellar pedicel
ma, mandibular articulation oes, ocular suleus
MA, anterior media oeg, oecipital ganglion
MC, marginal eell og, optic ganglion
mcf, median eaudallilament op,operculum
mep, mieropyle opl, optie lobe
md, mandible opt, ocular point
MD, median eell orp, orbital plate
mdn, mandibular nerve os, oecipital suleus
mdp, median plate (of osm, osmeterium (seent
wing), middle plate (of gland)
embryo) ot, oeellar triangle
Continued on back endpaper
---

Borror and DeLong's

Introduction to the Study of Insects

Seventh Edition

UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
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595.7
1385
Borrorand DeLong's
2005EJ.2
Introduction
to the Studyof Insects

Seventh Edition

CharlesA. Triplehorn
The Ohio State University

Norman F.Johnson
The Ohio State University

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Preface

AnthatIntroduction to the Study oIInsects: this is the seventh edition of a textbook

has been widely used in entomology classes in North America over
more than 50 years. Its value has be en demonstrated by the fact that it retains
a prominent place on the bookshelves of professional entomologists, long after
their first exposure to insects in class. Because the book has been widely known
by the names of its first two authors, we are adding their names to the title. The
contributions of these two men, in both style and substance, will still be imme-
diately apparent to knowledgeable readers even though the formal authorship
has now passed on to subsequent generations. We have prepared this new edi-
tion in recognition of the important role the text has played in the education of
biologists of all specializations and in the hope that it can continue to play that
role in the future. NF] clearly recalls the nights and weekends spent at Cran-
berry Lake Biological Station in the Adirondack Mountains of New York, poring
over this book in theexcitement of new discoveries and with an ever-growing
appreciation for the diversity of insects. CAT, too, was greatly influenced by
Borror and DeLong, but in a more direct way. He took undergraduate courses
from both of them and quickly abandoned his original goals in herpetology
when exposed to "the wonderful world of insects" in a beginning entomology
course taught by Borror.
In this new edition we have concentrated our attention on the subject of
insect systematics. The most obvious changes in content are the addition of a
chapter for a newly described order, the Mantophasmatodea, and the subordi-
nation of the Homoptera into an enlarged concept of the order Hemiptera. Be-
yond that, though, the classification of nearly every order has be en modified,
sometimes substantially, to reflect new discoveries and scientific hypotheses.
The chapter on beetles has been updated considerably to reflect the changes in
our understanding of the diversity and phylogeny of Coleoptera. Many new
families have been added throughout the book, some reflecting revised classifi-
cations, but many the result of the discovery of new groups within the United
States and Canada, particularly from the New World tropics. These include the
families Platystictidae (üdonata), Mackenziellidae (Collembola), Mantoididae v
-~

vi Preface

(Mantodea), and Fauriellidae (Thysanoptera), to name just a few. Changes in

classifications also have been brought about by the widespread adoption of the
methods of phylogenetic systematics and their application to a new source of
information on insect relationships, molecular sequence data. Although these
new data will not help the beginning student to identify specimens, the results
of molecular analyses are beginning to substantively con tribute to the the de-
velopment of a robust and predictive classification. Thus, our best hypotheses
of the phylogeny of insects has changed rather drastically from the last edition,
incorporating molecular data. The most conspicuous change is the recognition
that the order Strepsiptera is most closely related to the true flies (Diptera),
rather than to the Coleoptera.
As we turn to focus our efforts on the issues of insect systematics and evo-
lution, a better appreciation for the magnitude of the diversity of life and Earth
as well as the immediate and long-term threats to that same diversity have be-
come important societal issues. lt is our hope that this text will continue to have
an important role to play in understanding and preserving this diversity for the
benefit of all.
Donald Joyce BOITorwas the senior author on the first six editions of this
book. He died before the last edition was printed. He was unsurpassed in his
ability to construct keys for the identification of insects and was constantly
modifying them to make certain that the user would arrive at the COITecttaxon.
His discussion of the various families, containing facts gleaned from the litera-
ture, is amazing, considering that it was done before computers were available.
Furthermore, the entire manuscripts were typed by BOIToron an old manual
typewriter. He was well-versed in Greek and Latin and also knew shorthand.
His influence was missed in preparation of this edition, and we hope that it
would have met with his approval.

C. A. T.
N. EJ.
Acknowledgments

W e are indebted to many individuals who contributed to this revision in

many ways, from criticisms and suggestions to the complete rewriting of
some of the chapters. Some are cited in individual chapters, but we take this op-
ponunity to list them here along with our sincere thanks: Roben Anderson,
Richard W Baumann, Brian Brown, George W Byers, Kenneth Christiansen,
Shawn M. Clark, Peter Cranston, Neal Evenhuis, Paul H. Freytag, Gary A. P.
Gibson, Ronald Hellenthal, Ronald W Hodges, Michael A. Ivie, David Kistner,
Michael Kosztarab, Kumar Krishna, Roben E. Lewis, Jeremy A. Miller, Edward
L. Mockford, John Morse, Luciana Musetti, Steve Nakahara, David Nickle,
Manuel Pescador, Norman D. Penny, Hans Pohl,Jerry Powell, Roger Price,John
E. Rawlins, Edward S. Ross, David Ruiter,James Slater, Manya Stoetzel, Catherine
A. Tauber, Maurice J. Tauber, Kenneth J. Tennessen, Darrell Ubick, Tatyana S.
Vshivkov, ThomasJ. Walker,James B. Whitfield, MichaelJ. Whiting. We would
like to thank Woodbridge A. Foster for his careful revision of Chapter 4, Be-
havior and Ecology.
We also gratefully acknowledge the services of Kathy Royer, Sue Ward, and
Bruce Leach for help with preparation of the manuscript and in locating refer-
ences. We accept the responsibility for all errors and cases in which the keys fail
to work, or taxa are omitted or misplaced. We hope that these are few and not
serious.

vii
-

Jable of Contents

1 InsectsandTheirWays 1
2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,and Developmentof Insects 5
3 Systematics, Classification,Nomenclature,
and Identification 52
4 Behaviorand Ecology 62
5 PhylumArthropoda 99
6 Hexapoda 152
7 TheEntognathousHexapods:Protura,
Collembola,Diplura 169
8 TheApterygoteInsects:MicrocoryphiaandThysanura 177
9 OrderEphemeroptera:Mayflies 181
10 OrderOdonata:Dragonfliesand Damselflies 193
11 OrderOrthoptera:Grasshoppers,Crickets,
and Katydids 209
12 OrderPhasmatodea: Walkingsticksand LeafInsects 227
13 OrderGrylloblattodea:RockCrawlers 230
14 OrderMantophasmatodea 232
15 OrderDermaptera:Earwigs 234
16 OrderPlecoptera:Stoneflies 239
17 OrderEmbiidina:Web-Spinners 247 ix
 -
x Contents

18 OrderZoraptera:Zorapterans,Angellnsects 250
19 OrderIsoptera:Termites 252
20 OrderMantodea:Mantids 260
21 OrderBlattodea:Cockroaches 263
22 OrderHemiptera:TrueBugs,Cicadas,Hoppers,Psyllids,
Whiteflies,Aphids,and ScaleInsects 268
23 OrderThysanoptera:
Thrips 333
24 OrderPsocoptera:Psocids 341
25 OrderPhthiraptera:Lice 356
26 OrderColeoptera:Beetles 365
27 OrderNeuroptera:Alderflies,Dobsonflies,Fishflies,
Snakeflies,Lacewings,Antlions,and Owlflies 469
28 OrderHymenoptera:Sawflies,ParasiticWasps,Ants,Wasps,
and Bees 481
29 OrderTrichoptera:Caddisflies 558
30 OrderLepidoptera:Butterfliesand Moths 571
31 OrderSiphonaptera:Fleas 648
32 OrderMecoptera:Scorpionfliesand Hangingflies 662
33 OrderStrepsiptera:Twisted-WingParasites 669
34 OrderDiptera:Flies 672
35 Collecting,Preserving,and StudyingInsects 745
Glossary 779
Credits 798
Index 805
 Insects and Their Ways
1
he science of taxonomy takes as its arbitrary start-
Ting point the publication of the 10th edition of
Linnaeus's Systema Naturae in 1758. More than two
centuries later, nearly one million species of insects
have been described and named. Biology in the 21st
century has changed in many fundamental ways, led
primarily by the revolution in molecular biology. Yet
the study of diversity of life on Earth has not faded
into the past. Rather, it has become reinvigorated by
advances in other sciences and in technology. We
continue to discover new species at an increasing
rate, even as habitat destruction by the growing hu-
man population brings the threat of extinction. In
2002, entomologists announced the discovery of a
new order of insects, the Mantophasmatodea, illus-
trating that our understanding of even the major
groups is imperfecto Our goal in writing this book is
to provide an introduction to the diversity of insects
and their relatives and a resource for identifying the
fauna of temperate North America. We thus hope to
encourage the study of these fascinating creatures so
that we all may better understand the world in which
we live.
lnsects are the dominant group of animals on
Earth today. They far outnumber all other terrestrial
animals, and they occur practically everywhere. Sev-
eral hundred thousand different kinds have been
described-three times as many as there are in the
rest of the animal kingdom-and some authorities be-
lieve the total number of different kinds may ap-
proach 30 million. More than a thousand kinds may
occur in a fair-sized backyard, and their populations
often number many millions per acre.
A great many insects are extremely valuable to hu-
mans, and society could not exist in its present form
without them. By their pollinating activities, they make
possible the production of many agricultural crops, in-
cluding many orchard fruits, nuts, clovers, vegetables,
and cotton; they provide us with honey, beeswax, silk,
and other products of commercial value; they serve as
food for many birds, fish, and other beneficial animals;
they perform valuable services as scavengers; they help
keep harmful animals and plants in check; they have
been useful in medicine and in scientific research; and
people in all walks of life look on them as interesting
animals. A few insects are harmful and cause enormous
losses each year in agricultural crops and stored prod-
ucts, and some insects transmit diseases that seriously
affect the health of humans and other animals.
Insects have lived on Earth for about 350 million
years, compared with less than 2 million for humans.
During this time, they have evolved in many directions
to become adapted to life in almost every type of habi-
tat (with the notable and puzzling exception of the sea)
and have developed many unusual, picturesque, and
even amazing features.
Compared with humans, insects are peculiarly
constructed animals. Humans might think of them as
inside out, because their skeleton is on the outside, or
upside down, because their nerve cord extends along
the lower side of the body and the heart lies above the
alimentary canal. They have no lungs, but breathe
through a number of tiny holes in the body wall-all
behind the head-and the air entering these holes is
distributed over the body and directly to the tissues
through a multitude of tiny branching tubes. The heart
and blood are unimportant in transporting oxygen to
the tissues. lnsects smell with their antennae, some
taste with their feet, and some hear with special organs
in the abdomen, front legs, or antennae. 1
 .". -
2 Chapter1 Insects andTheirWays
In an animal whose skeleton is on the outside of
the body, the mechanics of support and growth limit
the animal to a relatively small size. Most insects are
relatively small: Probably three fourths or more are less
than 6 mm in length. Their small size enables them
to live in places that would not be available to larger
animals.
Insects range in size from about 0.25 to 330 mm in
length and from about 0.5 to 300 mm in wingspread;
one fossil dragonfly had a wingspread of over 760 mm!
Some of the longest insects are very slender (the 330-
mm insect is a walking stick occurring in Borneo), but
some beetles have a body nearly as large as one's fist.
The largest insects in North America are some of the
moths, with wingspreads of about 150 mm, and the
walking stick, with a body length of about 150 mm.
The insects are the only invertebrates with wings,
and these wings have had an evolutionary origin dif-
ferent from that of the vertebrates. The wings of flying
vertebrates (birds, bats, and others) are modifications
of the forelimbs; those of insects are structures in addi-
tion to the paired "limbs," and might be likened to the
wings of the mythical horse Pegasus. With wings, in-
sects can leave a habitat when it be comes unsuitable;
adult aquatic insects, for example, have wings when
adult, and if their habitat dries up they can fly to an-
other habitat. Under similar adverse conditions, fish
and other aquatic forms usually perish.
Insects range in color from very drab to brilliant;
no other animals on Earth are more brilliantly colored
than some of the insects. Some insects, such as the
japanese beetle and the morpho butterfly are glittering
and iridescent, like living jewels. Their colors and
shapes have inspired artists for millennia.
Some insects have structures that are amazing
when we compare them to vertebrates. The bees and
wasps and some of the ants have their ovipositor, or
egg-Iaying organ, developed into a poison dagger
(sting) that serves as an excellent means of offense and
'j defense. Some ichneumonids have a hairlike ovipositor
100 mm long that can penetra te solid wood. Some
snout beetles have the front of the head drawn out into
a slender structure longer than the rest of the body,
with tiny jaws at the end. Some flies have their eyes sit-
,.
uated at the ends of long, slender stalks, which in one
South American species are as long as the wings. Some
of the stag beetles have jaws half as long as their bod-
ies and branched like the antlers of a stag. Certain in-
dividuals in some of the honey ants become so en-
gorged with food that their abdomens become greatly
distended. These serve as living storehouses of food,
which they regurgitate "on demand" to other ants in
the colony.
Insects are cold-blooded creatures. When the en-
vironmental temperature drops, their body tempera-
ture also drops, and their physiological processes slow
down. Many insects can withstand short periods of
freezing temperatures, and some can withstand long
periods of freezing or subfreezing temperatures. Some
insects survive these low temperatures by storing in
their tissues ethylene glycol, the same chemical that we
pour into our car radiators to protect them from freez-
ing during the winter.
Insect sense organs often seem peculiar compared
with those of humans and other vertebrates. Many in-
sects have two kinds of eye-two or three simple eyes
located on the upper part of the face and a pair of com-
pound eyes on the sides of the head. The compound
eyes are often very large, occupying most of the head,
and may consist of thousands of individual "eyes."
Some insects hear by means of eardrums, whereas oth-
ers hear by means of very sensitive hairs on the anten-
nae or elsewhere on the body. An insect that has
eardrums may have them on the sides of the body at
the base of the abdomen (grasshoppers) or on the front
legs below the "knee" (katydids and crickets).
The reproductive powers of insects are often
tremendous; most people do not realize just how great
they are. The capacity of any animal to build up its
numbers through reproduction depends on three char-
acteristics: the number of fertile eggs laid by each fe-
male (which in insects may vary from one to many
thousands), the length of a generation (which may
vary from a few days to several years), and the propor-
tion of each generation that is female and will produce
the next generation (in some insects there are no
males).
An example that might be cited to illustrate insects'
reproductive powers is Drosophila, the fruit fly that has
been studied by so many geneticists. These flies develop
rapidly and under ideal conditions may produce
25 generations in ayear. Each female will lay up to
100 eggs, of which about half will develop into males
and half into females. Suppose we start with a pair of
these flies and allow them to increase under ideal con-
ditions, with no checks on increase, for a single year-
with the original and each female laying 100 eggs before
she dies and each egg hatching, growing to maturity,
and reproducing again, at a 50:50 sex ratio. With 2 flies
in the first generation, there would be 100 in the sec-
ond, 5000 in the third, and so on, with the 25th gener-
ation consisting of about 1.192 X 1041flies. lf this many
flies were packed tightly together, 1000 to a cubic
inch, they would form a ball of flies 96,372,988 miles in
diameter-or a ball extending approximately from Earth
to the sun!
Throughout the animal kingdom, an egg usually
develops into a single individual. In humans and some
other animals one egg occasionally develops into two
individuals (that is, identical twins) or, on rare occa-

sions, three or four. Some insects carry this phenome-
non of polyembryony (more than one young from a
singleegg) much further; some platygastrid wasps have
as many as 18, some dryinid wasps have as many as 60,
and some encyrtid wasps have more than 1000 young
developing from a single egg. A few insects have an-
other unusual method of reproduction, paedogenesis
(reproduction by larvae). This occurs in the gall gnat
genus Miastor and the beetle genera Micromalthus,
Phengodes,and Thylodrias.
In the nature of their development and life cycle,
insectsron the gamut from very simple to complex and
evenamazing. Many insects undergo very little change
as they develop, with the young and adults having sim-
ilar habits and differing principally in size. Most in-
sects,in contrast, undergo in their development rather
remarkable changes, both in appearance and in habits.
Mostpeople are familiar with the metamorphosis of in-
sects and possibly think of it as commonplace, which,
as a matter of fact, it is. Consider the development of a
butterfly: An egg hatches into a wormlike caterpillar;
this caterpillar eats ravenously and every week or two
sheds its exoskeleton; after a time it becomes a pupa,
hanging from a leaf or branch; and finally a beautiful,
wingedbutterfly emerges. Most insects have a life cycle
like that of a butterfly; the eggs hatch into wormlike
larvae,which grow by periodically shedding their outer
exaskeleton (together with the linings of the foregut,
hindgut, and breathing tubes), finally transforming
into an inactive pupal stage from which the winged
adult emerges. A fly grows from a maggot; a beetle
growsfram a grub; and a bee, wasp, or ant grows from
a maggotlike larval stage. When these insects become
adult, they stop growing; a little fly (in the winged
stage)does not grow into a bigger one.
An insect with this sort of development (complete
metamorphosis) may live as a larva in a very different
type of place from that in which it lives as an adult.
One common household fly spends its larval life in
garbage or some other filth; another very similar fly
mayspend its larvallife eating the insides out of a grub
ar caterpillar. The june beetle that flies against the
screensat night spends its larvallife in the ground, and
the long-horned beetle seen on flowers spends its lar-
vallife in the wood of a tree or log.
Many insects have unusual features of structure,
physiology,or life cycle, but probably the most in ter-
esting things about insects are what they do. In many
instances the behavior of an insect seems to surpass in
intelligence the behavior of humans. Some insects give
the appearance of an amazing foresight, especially as
regards laying eggs with a view to the future needs of
the young. Insects have very varied food habits; they
have some interesting means of defense; many have
what might be considered fantastic strength (compared
InsectsandTheirWays 3
with that of vertebrates); and many have "invented"
things we may think of as strictly human accomplish-
ments. Some groups of insects have developed complex
and fascinating social behavior.
Insects feed on an almost endless variety of foods,
and they feed in many different ways. Thousands of
species feed on plants, and practically every kind of
plant (on land or in fresh water) is fed on by some kind
of insecto The plant feeders may feed on almost any
parl of the plant; caterpillars, leaf beetles, and leafhop-
pers feed on the leaves, aphids feed on the stems, white
grubs feed on the roots, certain weevil and moth larvae
feed on the fruits, and so on. These insects may feed on
the outside of the plant, or they may burrow into it.
Thousands of insects are carnivorous, feeding on other
animals; some are predators, and some are parasites.
Many insects that feed on vertebrates are blood suck-
ing; some of these, such as mosquitoes, lice, fleas, and
certain bugs, not only are annoying pests because of
their bites, but may serve as disease vectors. Some in-
sects feed on dead wood; others feed on stored foods of
all types; some feed on various fabrics; and many feed
on decaying materials.
The digger wasps have an interesting method of
preserving food collected and stored for their young.
These wasps dig burrows in the ground, provision
them with a certain type of prey (usually other insects
or spiders), and then lay their eggs (usually on the
body of the prey animal). If the prey animals were
killed before being put into the burrows, they would
dry up and be of little value as food by the time the
wasp eggs hatched. These prey animals are not killed;
they are stung and paralyzed, and thus "preserved" in
good condition for the young wasps when they hatch.
Insects often have interesting and effective means
of defense against intruders and enemies. Many "play
dead," either by dropping to the ground and remaining
motionless or by "freezing" in a characteristic position.
Others are masters of the art of camouflage, being so
colored that they blend with the background and are
very inconspicuous; some closely resemble objects in
their environment-dead leaves, twigs, thorns, or even
bird droppings. Some insects become concealed by cov-
ering themselves with debris. Others that do not have
any special means of defense very closely resemble an-
other that does, and presumably are afforded some
protection because of this resemblance. Many moths
have the hind wings (which at rest are generally con-
cealed beneath the front wings) brightly or strikingly
colored-sometimes with spots resembling the eyes of
a larger animal (for example, giant silkworm moths; see
Figure 30-76)-and when disturbed display these hind
wings; the effect may sometimes be enough to scare off
a potential intruder. Some of the sound-producing in-
sects (for example, cicadas, some beetles, and others)
~
4 Chapter 1 InsectsandTheirWays
produce a characteristic sound when attacked, and this
sound often scares off the attacker.
Many insects use a "chemical warfare" type of de-
fense. Some secrete foul-smelling substances when dis-
turbed; stink bugs, broad-headed bugs, lacewings, and
some beetles might well be called the skunks of the in-
sect world, because they have a very unpleasant odor.
A few of the insects using such defensive mechanisrns
can eject the substance as a spray, in some cases even
aiming it at an intruder. Some insects, such as the milk-
weed butterflies, ladybird beetles, and net-winged bee-
tles, apparently have distasteful or mildly toxic body
fluids, and predators avoid them.
Many insects inflict a painful bite when handled.
The bite may be simply asevere pinch by powerful
jaws, but the bites of mosquitoes, fleas, black-flies, as-
sassin bugs, and many others are much like hypoder-
mic injections; the irritation is caused by the saliva in-
jected at the time of the bite.
Other means of defense indude the stinging hairs
some caterpillars have (for example, the saddleback
caterpillar and the larva of the io moth), body fluids
that are irritating (for example, blister beetles), death
feigning (many beetles and some insects in other or-
ders), and warning displays, such as eyespots on the
wings (many moths and mantids) or other bizarre or
grotesque structures or patterns.
One of the most effective means of defense insects
possess is a sting, which is developed in the wasps,
bees, and some ants. The sting is a modified egg-Iaying
organ; hence only females sting. lt is located at the pos-
terior end of the body, so the "business" end of a sting-
ing insect is the rear.
Insects often perform feats of strength that seem
nearly impossible compared with those of human be-
ings. lt is not unusual for an insect to be able to lift 50
or more times its own weight, and researchers have
found that some beetles, when rigged with a special
harness, can lift more than 800 times their own weight.
If they were as strong as such beetles, ahuman could
lift some 60 tons, and an elephant could lift a fair-sized
building! When it comes to jumping, many insects put
our best Olympic athletes to shame. Many grasshop-
pers can easily jump a distance of 1 meter, which is
comparable to ahuman long-jumping the length of a
football field, and a flea jumping several inches up in
the air is comparable to ahuman jumping over a 30-
story building.
Many insects do things that we might consider
strictly an activity of civilized humans or a product of
our modern technology. Caddisfly larvae were probably
the first organisms to use nets to capture aquatic or-
ganisrns. Dragonfly nymphs, in their intake and expul-
sion of water to aerate the gills in the rectum, were
among the first to use jet propulsion. Honey bees were
air-conditioning their hives long before humans even
appeared on Earth. Hornets were the first animals to
make paper from wood pulpo Long before people began
making crude shelters, many insects were constructing
shelters of day, stone, or "logs" (Figure 29-8), and
some even induce plants to make shelters (galls) for
them. Long before the appearance of humans on Eanh,
the insects had "invented" cold light and chemical war-
fare and had solved many complex problems of aero-
dynamics and celestial navigation. Many insects have
elaborate communication systems, involving chemicals
(sex, alarm, trail-following, and other pheromones),
sound (cicadas, many Orthoptera, and others), behav-
ior (for example, honey bee dance "language"), light
(fireflies), and possibly other mechanisms.
These are only a few of the ways in which insects
have become adapted to life in the world about uso
Some of the detailed stories about these animals are
fantastic and almost incredible. In the following chap-
ters, we point out many of the interesting and often
unique features of insect biology-methods of repro-
duction, ways of obtaining food, techniques for de-
positing eggs, methods of rearing the young, and fea-
tures of life history-as well as the more technical
phases that deal with morphology and taxonomy.
-

2 The Anatomy, Physiology,

and Development of Insects

standing of insect anatomy necessary to use the rest of

Aknowledge of anatomy and physiology is essential
to an understanding of insects. It is also necessary
to havenames for structures in order to be able to talk
about them. The nomenclature of insect anatomy
shouldbe viewed as a language, a tool, that makes pre-
cise discussions about insects possible, and not as a
barrier to understanding. In fact, many of the terms
(for example, femur, trochanter, mandible) have analo-
gousmeaningsin the context of vertebrate anatomy.
Theterms that have special meanings in individual or-
dersare discussed in the appropriate chapters. In ad-
dition,all terms used are defined in the glossary at the
backof this book. Our primary purpose in this chap-
ter is to provide the student with the basic under-
the book.
Insects are more or less elongate and cylindrical in
form and are bilaterally symmetric; that is, the right
and left sides of the body are essentially alike. The body
is divided into a series of segments, the metameres, and
these are grouped into three distinct regions or tagmata
(singular, tagma): the head, thorax, and abdomen (Fig-
ure 2-1). The primary functions of the head are sen-
sory perception, neural integration, and food gather-
ing. The thorax is a locomotory tagma and bears the
legs and wings. The abdomen houses most of the vis-
ceral organs, including components of the digestive,
excretory, and reproductive systems.

ab
hd th A
~~/ , ept
/
/,," __ cr
/_-
ppt

I f
.......
,\
\1/ ovp
spr

Figure 2-1 General structure of an insectoab, abdomen; ant, antenna; cr, cercus; e,
compound eye; epm, epimeron; eps, epistemum; ept, epiproct; hd, head; Ibm, labium; md,
mandible; mp, mouthparts; mx, maxilla; n, nota of thorax; Ovp,ovipositor; pIs, pleural su-
ture; ppt, paraproct; spr, spiracles; t,_IO,terga; th, thorax; th¡, prothorax; thz, mesothorax;
th3,metathorax. (Modified from Snodgrass, 1935, Principies of Insect Morphology,
Comell University Press.) 5

6 Chapter 2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,and Developmentof Insects
The Body Wall
The skeleton of an animal supports and protects the
body, and transfers the forces generated by the contrac-
tion of muscles. One of the fundamental features of
arthropods is the development of hardened plates, or
sclerites, and their incorporation into the skeletal sys-
tem of the animal. This is usually called an exoskele-
ton, because the sclerites are part of the outer body
wall of the arthropod. In fact, however, arthropods also
have an extensive endoskeleton of supports, braces,
and ridges for the attachment of muscles. The charac-
teristics of the body wall also influence the way in
which substances such as water and oxygen move into
and out of the animal.
The integument of an insect consists of three prin-
cipal layers (Figure 2-2): a cellular layer, the epider-
mis; a thin acellular layer below the epidermis (that is,
toward the inside of the animal), the basement mem-
brane (or basal lamina); and another acellular layer,
outside of and secreted by the cells of the epidermis,
the cuticle.
The cuticle is a chemically complex layer, not only
differing in structure from one species to another but
epi
exo
end
pen
tmg trg
Figure2-2 Structure of the body wall (diagrammatic). bm, basement membrane; cut,
cuticle; end, endocuticle; ep, epidermis; epi, epicuticle; exo, exocuticle; glc, gland cell; gld,
duct of glandcell;Ict,layerof the cuticle;pcn,pore canal;se, seta;ss,setalsocket;tmg,
tormogen cell (which forms the setal socket); trg, trichogen cell (which forms the seta).
:::z:: -
even differing in its characteristics from one part of an
insect to another. It is made up of chains of a polysac-
charide, chitin, embedded in a protein matrix. Chitin
primarily consists of monomers of the sugar N-acetyl-
glucosamine (Figure 2-3). Individual chitin chains are
intertwined to form microfibrils, and these microfibrils
are often laid down in parallel in a layer called a lamina.
Chitin itseU is a very resistant substance, but it
does not make the cuticle hard. The hardness is de-
rived from modifications of the protein matrix in
which the microfibrils are embedded. The cuticle ini-
tially secreted by the epidermis, called procuticle, is
soft, pliant, pale in color, and somewhat expandable.
The formation of sclerites in this cuticle is the process
of hardening and darkening, or sclerotization. This re-
sults from the formation of cross bonds between pro-
tein chains in the outer portions of the procuticle. Such
sclerotized cuticle is called exocuticle (Figure 2-2, exo).
Below the exocuticle may be unsclerotized cuticle
called endocuticle (Figure 2-2, end). This pliant endo-
cuticle forms the "membranes" that connect sclerites
and can be resorbed into the body before molting.
Atop the endo- and exocuticle is a very thin, acel-
lular layer, the epicuticle (Figure 2-2, epi). This itseU
consists of layers: those generally present are cuticulin,
eut
let
seu
ep
bm
gle
 Abdomen 7

AMINO SUGAR
SUBUNIT
Acetylglucosamine

I'~O

NH
I
O=C
I
CH3

Figure 2-3 Chemical structure of chitin and its primary monomeric component,
N-acetylglucosamine. (From Arms and Camp 1987.)

a waxlayer, and a cement layer. The epicuticle contains
no chitin. The wax layer is very important to terrestrial
insects,because it serves as the primary mechanism to
limit the 1055of water across the body wall (both exo-
cuticle and endocuticle are permeable to water). As a
soliddecreases in size (as measured by volume, surface
area,or some linear dimension) the ratio of its surface-
areato volume, that is, the relative amount of surface area,
increases.Therefore, the loss of water across the body
surface is relatively much more important to a small
creaturethan to a large one. Many small terrestrial an-
imals,such as snails and isopods, do not have such a
protective wax layer, but these creatures usually live
only in regions of high relative humidity, which de-
creasesthe rate at which water is lost from their body.
The outermost cement layer is thought to protect the
waxbeneath from abrasion.
The sclerites of the body wall are often subdivided
bygroovesand crests, or may project into the body as in-
temalstruts. In general, an external groove marking an
infoldingof cuticle of the outer body wall is called a sul-
cus (plural, sulcO (Figure 2-4, su). The term suture,
alsovery widely used, refers to a line of fusion between
two formerly separated sclerites. The distinction is a
subtleone and often difficult or impossible to make sim-
ply by looking at the external structure of a specimen.
Therefore,in this book we generally use these terms
moreor less synonyrnously. The lines of inflection seen
extemally usually correspond to internal ridges, or
costae (Figure 2-4, cos). The internal costae may serve
as strengthening braces or as the sites of muscle attach-
ment.An external crest may be referred to as a costa or
carina (or any number of common English names such
as heel).Internal projections of cuticle are also referred
to as apodemes or apophyses (Figure 2-4, apo).
su .....
---'" "....
,
",
cut -_
ep E3
bm///
Figure 2-4 Diagram of external and internal features of
the body wall. apo, apophysis; bm, basement membrane;
COS,costa; cut, cuticle; ep, epidermis; su, sulcus or suture.
Abdomen
We begin our discussion of the three tagmata of insects
with the abdomen beca use in contrast to the head and
thorax, it is relatively simple in structure. Arthropods,
like vertebrates, are built on a basic ground plan of re-
peated body segments, or metameres. These are most
clearly visible in the abdomen. In general, the abdomen
of an insect is made up of a maximum of 11 metameres
(Figure 2-1, ab). Each metamere typically has a dorsal
sclerite, the tergum (plural, terga; Figure 2-1, t¡-tlO;
Figure 2-5A, t); a ventral sclerite, the sternum (plural,
stema; Figure 2-1, stn; Figure 2-5A, stn); and a mem-
branous lateral region, the pleuron (plural, pleura; fig-
ure 2-5A, plm). The openings to the respiratory sys-
tem, the spiracles (Figure 2-1, spr) , typically are
8 Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,and Development of Insects
ism
,
aet'"
acs.......
.....
I \
I I
I I
stn ism
A B
Figure 2-5 Structure of a typical abdominal segment (diagrammatic). A, Cross section;
B, Sagittal section. aes, acrosternite; aet, acrotergite; anes, antecostal suture; ante, ante-
costa; ism, intersegmental membrane; plm, pleural membrane; stn, sternum; t, tergum.
located in the pleuron. Terga and sterna may be subdi-
vided; these parts are referred to as tergites and ster-
nites. Sclerites in the pleural wall are called pleurites.
This segmentation of the abdomen differs from
that found in other nonarthropod protostomes such as
the segmented worms (Annelida). In these, the exter-
nally visible grooves in the body wall delimiting the
metameres serve as the points of attachment for the
dorsal and ventrallongitudinal muscles. In arthropods,
these muscles attach to internal costae, the antecostae,
which are located near, but not at, the anterior margins
of the terga and sterna (Figure 2-5B, ante). Externally,
the position of the antecosta is indicated by a groove,
the antecostal suture (Figure 2-5B, ancs). The region
of the tergum anterior to the antecostal sulcus is the
acrotergite (Figure 2-5B, act). The corresponding re-
gion of the sternum is the acrosternite (Figure 2-5B,
acs). The main dorsallongitudinal muscles extend be-
tween the antecostae of successive segments. Contrac-
tion of these muscles results in a telescoping, or retrac-
tion, of the abdominal segments. This body plan, in
which the externally visible segmentation does not
conform to the attachment of the longitudinal muscles,
is known as secondary segmentation.
The genitalia of insects are generally located on or
about abdominal segments 8 and 9. These segments
have a number of specializations associated with copu-
lation and oviposition; our discussion of them is there-
fore included in the section later on the reproductive
systems. Segments 1-7, anterior to the genitalia, are the
pregenital segments. In most adult winged insects,
,,
,
>-- ante
I
/
I
\
\ ,
anes stn
these segments have no appendages. In the primitively
wingless insects,l the orders Microcoryphia and Thysa-
nura, the ventral portion of a pregenital segment gen-
erally consists of a small medial sternum and two large
plates laterad of the sternum, the coxopodites (see Fig-
ure 8-1B, cxp and stn). The coxopodites are remnants
of the bases of the abdominal legs, and apically they
bear a musculated stylus (Figure 8-1A,B, sty). The styli
probably represent the apical portions of these legs (the
telopods), but they are not segmented as are the tho-
racic legs. The styli generally function as sensory or-
gans and also support the abdomen, much like the run-
ners of a sled. Mesal to the styli are one or sometimes
two pairs of eversible vesicles, which function in water
absorption. They are everted from the body by hydro-
static pressure and retracted by muscles. In many cases
the coxopodites and the sternum are fused into a sin-
gle composite sclerite, the coxosternum.
Pregenital abdominal appendages are present in
winged insects only in immature stages (with the ex-
ception of male Odonata). In embryos, the appendages
of the first abdominal segment, known as pleuropodia,
are present. These are glandular structures and are lost
before the insect hatches from the egg. The larvae of
some Neuroptera (Figure 27-6A-C) and Coleoptera
(Figures 26-19A,B, 26-21A) bear lateral styluslike
structures that have variously been interpreted as rep-
1 As we describe in Chapter 6, we are distinguishing between the
terms Hexapoda and Insecta, restricting the latter to refer to the
Pterygota, Thysanura, and Microcoryphia.
-
resentingleg rudiments, styli, or secondarily developed
gills. The nymphs of Ephemeroptera bear a series of
platelike gills along the upper lateral portions of the
body (Figure 9-2). Again, from just what structures
thesegills were derived and what their serial homologs
maybe on the thorax have been considerably debated.
The immature stages of a number of orders have
prolegson the pregenital segments. These are typically
Oeshy,short appendages that are important in walking
orcrawling (see, for example, Figures 30-3, prl; 30-74,
ventral,plg; and 28-37). Hinton (1955) concluded that
prolegshad evolved independently a number of times;
others,such as Kukalová-Peck (1983), interpret these
structures as modified abdominal legs, both homolo-
gousbetween orders and serially homologous with the
segmentedthoracic legs.
The postgenital segments are typically reduced in
insects. Among hexapods, the Protura are unique in
that theyhave 12 well-developedsegments in the ab-
domen (representing 11 metameres and an apical non-
metamerictelson). In general, the only indications of
an Ilth segment among insects are a dorsal sclerite, the
epiproct, and two lateral sclerites, the paraprocts (Fig-
ure 2-1, ept, ppt). Between them are inserted the ap-
pendages of the apical abdominal segment, the cerci
(singular, eereus). Typically the cerci are sensory or-
gans,but in some cases they are modified as organs of
defense(as in the forceps of Dermaptera, Figures 15-1
and 15-2) or may be specialized as accessory copula-
toryorgans. Very often the apical abdominal segments
AN
1
spr
\
, epp
hd \
\ \
Thorax 9
are highly reduced or normally retracted within the
body.
Thorax
The thorax is the locomotory tagma of the body, and it
bears the legs and wings. It is made up of three seg-
ments, the anterior prothorax, mesothorax, and poste-
rior metathorax (Figure 2-1, th¡-th3). Among insects,
a maximum of two pairs of spiracles open on the tho-
rax, one associated with the mesothorax, one with the
metathorax. The mesothoracic spiracle serves not only
that segment but also the prothorax and head. The
terga of the thorax are typically called nota (singular,
notum). Among present-day insects, wings are borne at
most on the mesothoracic and metathoracic segments;
these two segments are collectively called the
pterothorax to reflect this (pteron, Greek for "wing").
These segments have several modifications associated
with flight that are not shared with the prothorax.
The prothorax is connected to the head by a mem-
branous necklike region, the cervix (Figure 2-6, cvx).
Dorsallongitudinal muscles extend from the mesotho-
rax through the prothorax and insert on the head; the
pronotum has no antecosta. Movements of the head co-
ordinate with the rest of the body by one or two pairs
of cervical sclerites (Figure 2-6, cvs) that articulate
with the prothorax posteriorly and the head anteriorly.
Figure 2-6 Thoraxof Panorpa,
lateral view. AN, alinotum; evs, cer-
vical sclerite; evx, cervix; ex, coxa;
epm, epimeron; epp, epipleurite;
eps, episternum; hd, head; nI>
pronotum; pIs, pleural suture;
PN, postnotum; pwp, pleural wing
process; se!, scutellum; set, scutum;
spr, spiracle; stn, abdominal
sternum; t, abdominal tergum;
wb, base of wing. (Redrawn from
Ferris and Rees 1939.)
-- ..

10 Chapter 2 The Anatomy, Physiology, and Development of Insects

The system of seeondary segmentation just de-
seribed in referenee to the abdomen is modified in the
pterothorax lo aecommodate the flight musculature.
The dorsal longitudinal museles of the meso- and
metathorax are greatly enlarged and are involved in
depression (downward movement) of the wings (Fig-
ure 2-7B, dlm). As a eorollary, the sites of insertion of
these museles-that is, the anteeostae of the mesotho-
rax, metathorax, and first abdominal segments-are
also greatly enlarged and projeet downward within the
thorax and base of the abdomen. These enlarged ante-
eostae are called the first, second, and third phragmata
respeetively (singular, phragma; Figure 2-7B, ph¡-ph3).
Extemally, the mesonotum and metanotum are typi-
eally divided transversely by a sulcus that gives added
flexibility. The sulcus divides eaeh notum into an ante-
rior seutum (Figure 2-6, set2, set3) and a posterior
seutellum (Figure 2-6, sel2, sel3). In addition, the por-
tions of the notum bearing the seeond and third
phragma are often separated from the following seu-
tum from whieh they are derived, and moved forward,
sometimes even entirely fused with the selerites ante-
rior to them. These selerites bearing the seeond and
third phragmata are ealled postnota (Figures 2-6 and
2-7, PN2, PN3).
The lateral portion of the thorax in winged inseets
is very different from the abdomen in that typieally it is
strongly selerotized and relatively rigid. The origin of
these pleural selerites has been eonsiderably debated.
Some researehers have argued that these pleural seler-
ites evolved de novo and have no serial homologs in
other parts of the body. Many others postulate that the
pleural selerites represent the ineorporation of a basal
leg segment, the subeoxa, into the body wall. Finally,
others have suggested that, in essenee, both are eorrect
in that the thorade pleurites are eomposite in origino In
any case, the selerotized portion of the pleuron is di-
vided by a suture that extends from the base of the leg
to the base of the wing; this is the pleural suture (Fig-
ure 2-6, pis). This suture divides the pleuron into an
anterior episternum (Figure 2-6, eps¡-eps3) and a pos-
terior epimeron (Figure 2-6, epm¡-epm3). Aeeording to
the subeoxal theory of the origin of pleural selerites, the
pleurites originally eonsisted of a pair of ineomplete
rings above the base of the leg: an upper anapleurite
and a lower eatepleurite (the latter also ealled katepleu-
rite, eatapleurite, or eoxopleurite). Sueh selerites are vis-
ible in the primitively wingless hexapods and in a few
pterygotes. The eatepleurite articulates with the leg.
Thus the combination of the pleural suture and the two
rings of the subeoxa ean theoretically define four re-
gions of the pleuron: anepimeron, anepistemum,
eatepimeron, and eatepistemum (for an example, see
terminology of McAlpine et al. 1981 for the dipteran
thorax in Chapter 33). In addition to its dorsal articula-
tion with the eatepleurite, the leg articulates anteroven-
trally with a narrow selerite (often entirely fused with
the epistemum), the troehantin. The wing rests on the
pleural wing proeess (Figure 2-6, pwp), whieh forros
the dorsal apex of the pleural suture. Anterior lo the
pleural wing proeess is a small selerite, the basalare
(Figure 2-I2A,B, ba); posterior to the pleural wing pro-
eess is another selerite, the subalare (Figure 2-I2A, sb;
oeeasionally two small selerites are found here instead
of one). These selerites (sometimes eolleetively ealled
epipleurites) are attaehed lo the base of the wing and
serve as means of eontrolling the attitude of the wings
or may be direetly involved in wing movement.

h
n2 PN2ancs
, , n3
, PN3ancs
I I
i I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I I
I I I
,' /t,

II dlm I dl'm I
I
I
I , I
ph, ph2 ph3

A B

Figure 2-7 Endoskeleton of the thorax (diagrammatic). A, Cross section of a thoracic

segment; B, Longitudinal section of the thoradc dorsum. anes, antecostal suture; ex, coxa;
dlm, dorsallongitudinal muscles;fu, stemal apophyses or furca; n, notum; nI>pronotum;
n2>mesonotum; nJ, metanotum; ph, phragmata; pl, pleuron; plap, pleural apophyses;
PN2,mesopostnotum; PNJ, metapostnotum; tI>first abdominal tergum. (Redrawn from
Snodgrass 1935, PrincipIesoflnseet Morphology,1993, Comell University Press.)
~

Thorax 11

The external pleural suture corresponds to an in-
ternal costa, the pleural ridge. This ridge extends in-
ternallyon either side as a pair of pleural apophyses
(or pleural arms; Figure 2-7 A, plap). These pleural
apophyses are connected with a corresponding pair of
apophysesarising from the sternum (Figure 2-7 A, fu).
The two may be connected by muscle or tendon, or in
somecasesthey are fused together. The bases of the
sternalapophyses are often fused together, particularly
in species in which the legs are contiguous ventrally.
The apophyses then have a Y-shaped appearance, and
the structure is called the furca.
Legs
The thoracic legs of insects are sclerotized and subdi-
videdinto a number of segments. There are typically six
segments (Figure 2-8): the coxa (cx), the basal seg-
ment;the trochanter (tr), a small segment (occasionally
twosegments) following the coxa; the femur (fm), usu-
allythe first long segment of the leg; the tibia (tb), the
second long segment; the tarsus (ts), usually a series of
small subdivisions beyond the tibia; and the pretarsus
(ptar), consisting of the claws and various padlike or se-
talike structures at the apex of the tarsus. A true seg-
ment of an appendage (including the six just described)
is a subdivision with musculature inserted at its base.
The subdivisions of the tarsus, though commonly called
tarsal segments, are not true segments in this sense and
are more properly called subsegments or tarsomeres. The
pretarsus usually includes one or more padlike struc-
tures between or at the base of the claws. A pad or lobe
between the claws is usually called an arolium (Fig-
ure 2-8A,B, aro), and pads located at the base of the
claws are usually called pulvilli (Figure 2-8C, pul).
The movements of a leg depend on its musculature
and the nature of the joints between its segments. These
leg joints may be dicondylic, with two points of articu-
lation, or monocondylic, with a single point of articula-
tion (Figure 2-9). The movement at a dicondylic joint is
largely limited to the plane perpendicular to a line con-
necting the two points of articulation, whereas that at a

tb

fm

ptar -- D

Figure2-8 Leg structure in insects. A, Middle leg of a grasshopper (Melanoplus);

B, Last tarsal segment and pretarsus of Melanoplus;e, Last tarsal segment and pretarsus
of a robber fly; D, Front leg of a katydid (Scudderia). aro, arolium; ex, coxa; emp,
empodium;fm, femur; ptar, pretarsus; pul, pulvillus; tb, tibia; tel, tarsal claw; tr,
trochanter; ts, tarsus; tym, tympanum.
12 Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,
andDevelopmentof Insects

exm
I
I
, ,,- - ~~
I ''
I .~..::'::.::,.
."'
.,: ...... ' ,art2

sn
/ :;":':: ,,/
/ I
/ I
I I
art, flm

A B e

Figure2-9 Articular mechanisms in insect legs. A, A monocondylic joint; B, C, End

view and side view of a dicondylic joint. art, points of articulation; exm, extensor muscle;
Jlm, Ilexor muscle. (Redrawn from Snodgrass 1935, PrincipIes oIInsect Morphology, 1993,
Comell University Press.)

monocondylic joint (which is like a ball-and-socket
joint) can be more varied. The joints between the coxa
and body may be monocondylic. If it is dicondylic, the
axis of rotation is usually more or less vertical, and the
leg moves forward and backward (promotion and remo-
tion). The coxo-trochanteral, trochantero-femoral, and
femoro-tibial joints are usually dicondylic. The move-
ment between the coxa and trochanter and the femur
and tibia is dorsal and ventral (elevation and depression
of the leg). The tibio-tarsal joint is usually mono-
condylic, thus permitting more varied movements.
Wings
The wings of insects are outgrowths of the body wall
located dorsolaterally between the nota and pleura.
They arise as saclike outgrowths, but when fully devel-
oped are flattened and flaplike, and are strengthened by
a series of sclerotized veins. Among living insects, fully
developed and functional wings are usually present
only in the adult stage. The one exception is the pres-
ence of functional wings in the penultimate instar in
Ephemeroptera (the subimago). At most, two pairs of
wings are found in living insects, 10cated on the
mesothoracic and metathoracic segments. Most of the
muscles that move the wings are attached to sclerites in
ilie iliorade wa\\ railiet ilian to tne wings directly, and
the wing movements are ptoduced indirecuy by
changes in the shape of the thorax.
The wing veins are hollow structures that may
contain nerves' tracheae, and hemolymph (blood). The
paccem ol venation varies considerably among differenr
groups of insects. Urde is known abour rhe funcrional
significance of these differences, but the pattem of
wing venation is very useful as a means of identifica-
tion. Several venational terminologies have been devel-
oped, and the most widely used has been the Comstock-
Needham system (Cornstock and Needham 1898, 1899)
(see Figure 2-10). This system basically recognizes a
series of six major longitudinal wing veins (with their
abbreviations in parentheses): costa (C) at the leading
edge of the wing, followed by the subcosta (Sc), radius
(R), media (M), cubitus (Cu), and anal veins (A).
Each of these veins, with the exception of the costa,
may be branched. The subcosta may branch once. The
branches of the longitudinal veins are numbered from
anterior to posterior around the wing by means of sub-
script numerals: the two branches of the subcosta are
designated Sc¡ and SC2'The radius first gives off a pos-
terior branch, the radial sector (Rs), usually near the
base of the wing; the anterior branch of the radius is R¡;
the radial sector may fork twice, with four branches
reaching the wing margino The media may fork twice,
with four branches reaching the wing margino The cu-
bitus, according to the Comstock-Needham system,
forks once, the two branches being Cu¡ and CU2;ac-
cording to some other authorities, Cu. forks again dis-
tal1y,with the two branches being CUla and CU¡b' The
anal veins are typical1y unbranched and are usualIy
designated from anterior to posterior as the first anal
vein (11\), second anal vein (21\), and so on.
CTossveins connect the major longitudinal veins
and are usually named accordingly (for example, th!
medio-cubital crossvein, m-cu). Some crossveins havl
special names: two common examples are the humera
crossvein (h) and the sectorial crossvein (s).
The spaces in rhe wing membrane berween (he
veins are calIed celIs. CelIs may be open (extending to
 Thorax 13

Figure2-10 Generalized wing venation, according to Comstock; for a key to the letter-
ing, see accompanying textoIn some orders the vein here labeled Cu¡ is called Cu in the
Comstock-Needham system (and its branches Cu¡ and Cu2), and the remaining veins anal
veins.

thewing margin) or closed (completely surrounded by
veins).The cells are named according to the longitudi-
nal vein on the anterior side of the cell; for example,
the open cell between R2 and R3 is called the R2 cell.
Wheretwo cells separated by a crossvein would ordi-
narilyhave the same name, they are individually desig-
nated by number; for example, the medial crossvein
connectsM2 and M3 and divides the M2 cell into two
cells,the basal one is designated the first M2 cell and
the distal one the second M2 cell. Where a cell is bor-
deredanteriorly by a fused vein (for example, R2+3),it
is named after the posterior component of that fused
vein(cell R3). In some insects, certain cells may have
spedal names, for example, the triangles of the drag-
onfly wing and the discal cell of the Lepidoptera.
The wings of insects are attached to the thorax at
three points (see Figures 2-11 and 2-12): with the no-
tum at the anterior and posterior notal wing processes
(Figure 2-11, awp, pnwp), and ventrally at the pleural
wing process (Figure 2-12A, pwp). In addition, small
sclerites, the axillary sclerites (or pteralia) at the base
of the wing are important in translating the movements
of the thoracic sclerites into wing movements. Most
living insects (the Neoptera) have three axillary scler-
ites (Figure 2-11, axsCaxs3). Anteriorly the first axil-
lary articulates with the anterior no tal wing process,

mdp
/
/
E
=_ __R
- --M
- - -Cu Figure2-11 Diagram showing the articula-
tion of the wing with the thoradc notum.
=---1A am, axillary musc1es; awp, anterior notal wing
process; axcr, axillary cord; axs, axillary
- - -2A sc1erites 1-3; hp, humeral plate;jl, jugallobe;
mdp, median plates; n, notum; pnwp, posterior
- - -3A notal wing process; tg, tegula. The letters at
the right side of the figure indicate the veins.
\ (Redrawn from Snodgrass 1935, Principies of
\ InsectMorphology,1993,CornellUniversity
jl Press.)
---
-'ro - _'1111111ii181
14 Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,
andDevelopment
of Insects
the subcostal vein, and the second axillary. The second
axillary then artieulates with the first, the radial vein,
the pleural wing process, and the third axillary. The
third axillary articulates with the second, the anal
veins, and the posterior notal wing process. In the
Neoptera, a muscle (am) inserted on the third axillary
causes it to pivot about the posterior no tal wing pro-
cess and thereby to fold the wing over the back of the
insect. (Some groups of Neoptera, such as butterflies,
have lost this ability to flex the wings over the back.)
Two groups of winged insects, the Ephemeroptera and
Odonata, have not evolved this wing-flexing mecha-
nism, and their axillary sclerites are arranged in a pat-
tern different from that of the Neoptera. Some special-
ists classify these two orders (with a number of extinct
orders) together as the Paleoptera.
The Comstock-Needham system made great
strides in recognizing the homology in wing veins
among the orders and in reducing the number of
names associated with them. Kukalová-Peck (1978,
1983, 1985) and Riek and Kukalová-Peck (1984) have
proposed a reinterpretation of the origin and basic
structure of insect wings. The veins are interpreted to
consist of a series of paired blood channels that loop
from the base of the wing to the apex and back again.
The anterior vein in the loop protrudes from the dorsal
surface (a convex vein) and the posterior vein in the
loop protrudes from the ventral surface (a concave
vein). The fundamental venation in this interpretation
consists of eight major longitudinal vein systems: the
precosta, costa, subcosta, radius, media, cubitus, anal
vein, and jugal vein. The "vein" in the costal margin of
living insects is thus formed from the fusion of the pre-
costa, costa, and sometimes portions of the subcosta.
This interpretation has been applied to the orders
Ephemeroptera and Odonata, cases in whieh peculiar-
ities in venation and axillary structure had led some to
postulate that wings had evolved in insects more than
once (see Chapters 9 and 10).
Flight
Many insects have powers of flight that exceed those of
all other flying animals; they can steer accurately and
quiekly, hover, and go sideways or backward. Only the
hummingbirds rival insects in their ability to maneuver
on the wing.
Most insects have two pairs of wings, and the two
wings on each side may be overlapped at the base or
hooked together in some way so that they move to-
gether as one, or they may be capable of independent
movement. In many Odonata, the front and hind wings
move independently, and there is a phase difference in
the movements of the two pairs; that is, when one pair
is moving up, the other pair is moving down. In other
Odonata and in most Orthoptera, the phase difference
is less pronounced, with the front wings moving a lit-
tle ahead of the hind wings.
The forces needed to fly-lift, thrust, and attitude
control-are generated by the movement of the wings
through the air. These movements, in turn, are gener-
ated by the thoracic muscles pulling either directly on
the base of the wing (direct flight mechanism) or caus-
ing changes in the shape of the thorax, whieh in turn
are translated by the axillary sclerites into wing move-
ments (indirect flight mechanism). In most insects,
the primary flight muscles are indirect: the dorsal lon-
gitudinal muscles (Figure 2-12A,B, dlm) cause the no-
tum to bow, thereby raising the no tal wing processes in
relation to the pleural wing process, depressing the
wing. The antagonistie movement is generated by con-
tracting the tergosternal (dorsoventral or tergopleural)
(Figure 2-12B, tsm); these pull down on the notum,
drawing the no tal wing processes down in relation
to the pleural wing process, thereby elevating the wing.
In addition, muscles inserted on the basalare (Fig-
ure 2-12, bms) and subalare (Figure 2-12A, sbm) can
be involved in direct depression of the wing (by means
of their connection to the wing margin at XI and x2) or
may be important in controlling the angle at whieh the
wing moves through the air.
Flight, however, is not a simple matter of flapping
the wings up and down. In addition, the wings are
brought forward (promotion) and backward (remo-
tion), and twisted; that is, the leading edge is turned
downward (pronation) or the trailing edge is turned
downward (supination). The manner in whieh these
wing movements are produced involves a complex in-
tegration of the anatomical details of the attachment of
the wing to the thorax and the contraction of muscles.
The details are not completely known for any species,
and only in a few can we begin to say we understand
them at al!. In fact, it is clear that insects of different
sizes and shapes fly in different ways. A minute para-
sitie wasp of about 1 mm in length moves its wings dif-
ferently and has wings of a different shape from a house
fly's, for example, and the aerodynamies of its flight are
probably also quite different.
Head
The head of insects consists of a series of metameric
body segments, together specialized for food gathering
and manipulation, sensory perception, and neural inte-
gration. Exactly how many segments are in the head
has long been a matter of contention among morphol-
ogists, with the postulated number ranging from 3 to 7,
The head bears the eyes, antennae, and mouthparts. Its
-
Head 15

w....................

AN

Figure2-12 Diagram of the wing muscles of an insectoA, Lateral view; B, Cross section
of a wing-bearing segmento am, axillary muscles; AN, alinotum; axs2and axs3,second and
third axillary sclerites; ba, basalare; bms, basalar muscles; ex, coxa; dlm, dorsallongitudi-
nal muscles; ph, phragma; pl, pleuron; pIs, pleural suture; PN, postnotum; pwp, pleural
wing process; sb, subalare; sbm, subalar muscles; tsm, tergostemal muscles; w, wing;
Xl and X2,connections between basalare and subalare and wing base. (Redrawn from
Snodgrass 1935, PrincipIesoflnsectMorphology,1993, Comell University Press.)

shapediffersquite widely between groups of insects,
but somelandmarks are consistently visible to enable
identificationof its component parts.
The head is divided by grooves into a number of
moreor less distinct sclerites (Figure 2-13). Typically
thereis a transverse sulcus extending across the lower
partof the face just above the base of the mouthparts;
the medial or anterior part of this sulcus is the episto-
mal sulcus (es), and the lateral portions above the
mandiblesand maxillae are the subgenal sulci (sgs).
The anterior portion of the head capsule, above the
epistomal sulcus and between the large compound
eyes,is the frons (fr). The anterior area below the epi-
stomalsulcus is the clypeus (clp). The area below the
eye,on the side of the head, and above the subgenal
su\cusis the gena (ge). The top of the head, between
the eyes, is the vertex (ver). In many, if not most in-
sects,the frons, vertex, and genae are general areas of
the head, and their edges are not clearly defined by
sulci.
The head is connected to the thorax by the mem-
branous cervix (cvx). The opening on the posterior
sideof the head is the occipital foramen (or foramen
magnum; for); through it ron the ventral nerve cord,
traeheae, the digestive system, muscles, so me times the
dorsal blood vessel, and so on. The most posterior line
of infleetion on the head eapsule outside of the occipi-
tal foramen is generally the postoccipital suture (pos).
This suture defines the limits of the posterior segment
of the head, the labial segment, named because it bears
ventrally the most posterior set of mouthparts, the la-
bium. The area behind the postoecipital suture is the
postocciput (po); the area on the side of the head an-
terior to this suture is the postgena (pg); and the dor-
sal portion of the head anterior to the suture is the oc-
ciput (oep). In so me cases an oecipital sulcus (os) is
present that defines the anterior limits of the oeciput
and postgenae (separating them fram the vertex and
genae), but this is far fram universally presento
The points on the head where the arms of the ten-
torium (a set of internal braces, see later) meet the
head wall are usually marked by pits or slits visible ex-
ternally. The anterior tentorial pits (atp) are at the lat-
eral ends of the epistomal sulcus; the posterior tentor-
ial pits (ptp) are at the lower ends of the postoecipital
suture.
--,--
16 Chapter 2 The Anatomy, Physiology, and Development of Insects
ver
I
I
ant
I
I
,'
I
I
-
___ fr--l
_ - sas
505----- ---
B an insect head. A, Anterior view;
In different insect groups the sulci and sclerites
just described may be absent, or they may be supple-
mented by others. The nomenclature usually makes
use of the landmarks mentioned; for example, the fron-
togenal sulci are lines of inflection separating the genae
from the frons. In many groups, however, the naming
of these parts follows the traditions taxonomists devel-
oped over the last century or more, and may not be
standardized.
The head is braced intemally by a group of
apophyses forming the tentorium (Figure 2-14). This
structure is usually H-shaped, X-shaped, or shaped like
the Greek letter 'ir (pO with the principal arms in a
more or less horizontal plane and extending from the
lower pan of the rear of the head to the face. The points
where the anterior arms of the tentorium (Figure 2-14,
ata) meet the face are marked extemally by the anterior
tentorial pits (atp). which are located at eitner end of
the epistomal sulcus between the frons and the
clypeus. The posterior arms of the tentorium meet the
head wall at the posterior tentorial pits (ptp) , which
--nlbm
Figure2-13 General structure of
B, Lateral view; C, Posterior view.
ant, antenna; as, antennal sulcus;
atp, anterior tentorial pit; e/p, clypeus;
es, coronal suture; evx, cervix; e, com-
pound eye; es, epistomal sulcus;for,
foramen magnum;fr, frons;fs, frontal
suture; ge, gena; Ibm, labium; Ibr,
labrum; md, mandible; mx, maxilla;
oe, ocelli; oep, occiput; oes, ocular
sulcus; os, occipital sulcus; p, palps;
pg, postgena; po, postocciput; pos,
postoccipital suture; ptp, posterior ten-
lOrial pit; sas, subantennal sulcus; sgs,
subgenal sulcus; sos, subocular sulcus;
ver, vertex. (Modified from Snodgrass
1935, PrincipIes of lnseet Morphology,
1993, Comell University Press.)
are located at the lower ends of the postoccipital su-
tures. These arms unite from side to side to form a ten-
torial bridge (Figure 2-14, ttb). Some insects have dor-
sal arms on the tentorium (dta) that extend to the
upper pan of the face near the antennal bases. The ten-
torium serves to brace the head capsule against the pull
of the powerful mandibular muscles, as the point of at-
tachment for muscles moving the head appendages,
and as protection for the subesophageal ganglion and
pharynx.
The head appendages of hexapods, starting poste-
riorly and moving forward, are (1) the labium (fig-
ure 2-13, lbm); (2) the maxillae (mx); (3) the mandibles
(md); (4) the labrum (lbr); and (5) the antennae (ant).
These are described in more detail later. These repre-
sent modified appendages, serially homologous to the
thoracic walking legs. In the ancestral condition, the
moutnparts are directed downward~ sucn a nead is
called hypognathous. In many predalOry and burrow-
ing species, the mouthparts are directed anteriorly, the
prognathous condition. FinallY' in some groups, espe-
-
Head 17

--po

_-ptp Figure2-14 Head of an insect with a section

of the head wall cut away to show the tentorium
(diagrammatic). ata, anterior tentorial arms;
atp, anterior tentorial pits; e/p, clypeus; dta,
dorsal tentorial arms; epr, epistomal ridge;
es, epistomal sulcus; ge, gena; Iba, labial articu-
lation; Ibr, labrum; ma, mandibular articulation;
mxa, maxillary articulation; ocp, occiput; po,
postocciput; por, postoccipital ridge; pos, post-
\ occipital suture; ptp, posterior tentorial pit; sgr,
\ subgenal ridge; sgs, subgenal sulcus; ttb, tentor-
\ ial bridge. (Redrawn from Snodgrass 1935, Prin-
\ cipIes oIInsect Morphology, 1993, Comell
atp
University Press.)

ciallythe Hemiptera, the mouthparts are directed pos-
teriorly; this is the opisthognathous condition (or,
when speaking of the beak of Hemiptera, the
opisthorhynchous condition).
The posterior surface of the head, between the
foramenand the labium, is membranous in most in-
sects,but in a few this region is sclerotized. This scler-
otizationmay be the result of the hypostomal areas
(areasbelow the subgenal sulci posterior to the mandi-
bles) extending ventrally and toward the midline to
formwhat is called a hypostomal bridge, or (particu-
larlyin prognathous insects) the result of the postoc-
cipitalsutures extending forward onto the ventral side
of the head, with a sclerite developing between these
suturesand the foramen. In the latter case the sclerite
iscalledthe gula (see Figure 26-4, gu) and the anterior
extensionsof the postoccipital sutures are called guIar
sutures. In some groups, the hypostomal bridge may
be "overgrown" by extensions of the postgenae, thus
creatinga postgenal bridge.
The number of segments making up the head is
notapparenrin the adult insect, as the head sulci rarely
coinicidewith the sutures between the original seg-
ments.Entomologists do not agree on the number of
segmentsin the insect head; the one area of consensus
is that the posterior three sets of mouthparts corre-
spond to appendages (serially homologous with the
thoracic legs) of three postoral (behind the mouth)
segments. The area anterior to the mouth bears the
compound eyes, ocelli, antennae, and labrum; the in-
terpretation of this region is a matter of contention,
and some of the hypotheses and the evidence in sup-
port of them are succinctly summarized by Rempel
(1975). Recent developmental and molecular studies
support the idea that both the labrum and antennae are
modified appendages associated with independent
head segments.
Antennae
The antennae are paired segmented appendages 10-
cated on the head, usually between or below the com-
pound eyes. The basal segment is called the scape
(Figure 2-15N, scp), the second segment the pedicel
(ped), and the remainder the flagellum (O). In insects
(the Pterygota and the apterous orders Thysanura and
Microcoryphia), the "segments" of the flagellum lack
intrinsic musculature and therefore are thought to rep-
resent subsegments of the apical, third true antennal
segmento These are often called flagellomeres to distin-
guish them from true musculated segments (although
this anatomical characteristic is widely recognized,
these subsegments are still often called segments). This
type of antenna is called an annulated antenna, refer-
--
18 Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,and Developmentof Insects

e
o
F

H
G

I
I
ar

~ K
L

ask

Figure 2-15 Types of antennae. A, Setaceous (dragonfly); B, Filiform (ground beetle);

C, Moniliform (wrinkled bark beetle); D, Clavate (darkling beetle); E, Clavate (ladybird
beetle); F, Capitate (sap beetle); G, Serrate (click beetle); H, Pectinate (fire-colored bee-
tle); 1, Plumose (male mosquito);], Aristate (syrphid fly); K, Stylate (snipe fly); l, Flabe1-
late (cedar beetle); M, lamellate Oune beetle); N, Geniculate (chalcid). Antennae such as
those in D-F, l, and M are also called clubbed. ar, arista; as, antennal sulcus; ase, anten-
nal sclerite; ask, antennal socket;jl, flagellum; ped, pedicel; sep, scape; sty, style.

ring to the subsegmentation of the flagellum. In the
orders Diplura and Collembola, more than the basal
three antennal segments are musculated; these are
calledsegmented antennae. An antenna arises from an
antennal socket that is membranous but is surrounded
by a ringlike antennal sclerite that often bears a small
process, the antennifer, on which the scape pivots.
Theantennae are primarily sensory in function and act
astactile organs, organs of smell, and in some cases or-
gansof hearing.
Insect antennae vary greatly in size and form and
areimportant in identification. The following terms are
usedto describe their shapes:
Setaceous-bristlelike, the segments becoming
more slender distally; for example, dragonfly
(Figure 2-I5A), damselfly, leafhopper.
Filiform-threadlike, the segments nearly uniform in
size and usually cylindrical; for example, ground
beetle (Figure 2-15B), tiger beetle.
Moniliform-like a string of beads, the segments simi-
lar in size and more or less spherical in shape; for
example, wrinkled bark beetle (Figure 2-15C).
Serrate~sawlike, the segments, particularly those
in the distal half or two thirds of the antenna,
more or less triangular; for example, click beetle
(Figure 2-15G).
Pectinate-comblike, most segments with long, slen-
der, lateral processes; for example, fire-colored
beetle (Figure 2-15H).
Clubbed-the segments increasing in diameter distally
(Figure2-15D-F,L,M). If the increase is gradual, the
condition may be termed clavate (Figure 2-15D,E).
Thisname is also used more or less synonyrnously
with the term clubbed. If the terminal segments are
rather suddenly enlarged, the condition is termed
capitate (Figure 2-15F). If the terminal segments
areexpanded laterally to form rounded or oval
platelikelobes, the condition is termed lamellate
(Figure2-15M). Where the terminal segments have
long,parallel-sided, sheetlike, or tonguelike lobes
extending laterally, the condition is termed flabel-
late (Figure 2-15L).
Geniculate-elbowed, with the first segment long and
the following segments small and arising at an an-
gle to the first; for example, stag beetle, ant, chal-
cid (Figure 2-15N).
Plumose-feathery, most segments with whorls of long
hair; for example, male mosquito (Figure 2-151).
Aristate-the last segment usually enlarged and bear-
ing a conspicuous dorsal bristle, the arista; for ex-
ample, housefly, syrphid fly (Figure 2-15J).
Stylate-the last segment bearing an elongate terminal
stylelike or fingerlike process, the style; for exam-
pIe, robber fly,snipe fly (Figure 2-15K).
Head 19
Mouthparts
Insect mouthparts typically consist of a labrum, a pair
each of mandibles and maxillae, a labium, and a hy-
popharynx. These structures are modified, some times
significantly, in different insect groups and are often
used in classification and identification. The type of
mouthparts an insect has determines how it feeds and
(in the case of most injurious species) what sort of
damage it does. We describe next the basic structure of
the mouthparts, followed by a few of the significant
modifications. Further information on the variations in
mouthpart structure can be found in the discussion of
individual insect orders.
MandibulateMouthparts
The most generalized condition of the mouthparts is
found in chewing insects, such as a cricket. These are
said to be "chewing" or "mandibulate" mouthparts be-
cause of the heavily sclerotized mandibles that move
transversely and are able to bite off and chew particles
of food. You can most easily see and study the mouth-
parts by removing them from a preserved specimen one
at a time and examining them under a microscope.
The labrum, or upper lip (Figure 2-13, lbr; fig-
ure 2-16E), is a broad, flaplike lobe located below the
clypeus on the anterior side of the head, in front of the
other mouthparts. Gn the posterior or ventral side of
the labrum may be a swollen area, the epipharynx.
The mandibles (Figure 2-13, md; Figure 2-16D)
are the paired, heavily sclerotized, unsegmented jaws
lying immediately behind the labrum. In the winged
insects and the order Thysanura, they articula te with
the head capsule at two points, one anterior and one
posterior, and move transversely (and therefore these
two taxa are classified together as the Dicondylia). The
mandibles of chewing insects may vary somewhat in
structure; in so me insects (including the cricket), they
bear both cutting and grinding ridges, whereas in oth-
ers (such as certain predaceous beetles) they are long
and sicklelike.
The maxillae (Figure 2-13, mx; Figure 2-16A) are
paired structures lying behind the mandibles; they are
segmented, and each maxilla bears a feelerlike organ,
the maxillary palp (mxp). The basal segment of the
maxilla is the cardo (cd, plural cardines); the second
segment is the stipes (stp, plural stipites). The palp is
borne on a lobe of the stipes called the palpifer (plC).
The stipes bears at its apex two processes: the lacinia
(lc), an elongate jawlike structure; and the galea (g), a
lobelike structure.
The labium, or lower lip (Figure 2-13, lbm; Fig-
ure 2-16C), is a single median structure (although it
is derived from two maxilla-like mouthparts fusing
along the midline) lying behind the maxillae. It is di-
vided by a transverse sulcus into two portions, a basal
20 Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,and Developmentof Insects
art:::
A smt, submentum; stp, stipes;
postmentum (pmt) and a distal prementum (prmt).
The postmentum may be divided into a basal submen-
tum (smt) and a distal mentum (mn). The prementum
bears a pair of labial palps (lp) and a group of apical
lobes that constitute the ligula (lg). The labial palps
are borne on lateral lobes of the prementum, called
palpigers (plg). The ligula consists of a pair of mesal
lobes, the glossae (gl), and a pair of laterallobes, the
paraglossae (pgl).
If the mandible and maxilla on one side of a spec-
imen are removed, the hypopharynx (Figure 2-16B,
hyp) becomes visible; this is a short, tonguelike struc-
ture located immediately in front of or above the la-
bium and between the maxillae. In most insects, the
ducts from the salivary glands open on or near the hy-
popharynx. Between the hypopharynx, mandibles, and
labrum lies the preoral food cavity, the cibarium, which
leads dorsally to the mouth.
Variations in Insect Mouthparts
Insect mouJhparts can be elassified into two general
types, mandibulate (chewing) and haustellate (suck-
ing). In mandibulate mouthparts, the mandibles move
transversely, that is, from side to side, and the insect is
usually able to bite off and chew its food. Insects with
haustellate mouthparts do not have mandibles of this
type and cannot chew food. Their mouthparts are in
the form of a somewhat elongated proboseis or beak
through which liquid food is sucked. The mandibles in
Figure 2-16 Mouthparts of a
cricket (Gryllus). A, Maxilla;
B, Median vertical section of the
head, showing relation of hy-
popharynx (hyp) to the other
parts (somewhat diagrammatic);
e, Labium; D, Mandible, showing
muscle attachments and points of
articulation; E, Labrum. art,
points of articulation of mandible;
ed, cardo; clp, clypeus;fr, frons;
g, galea; gl, glossa; hyp, hypophar-
ynx; Ibm, labium; Ibr, labrum;
le, ¡acinia; Ig, ligula; Ip, labial
palp; Is, labial suture; m, mouth;
md, mandible; mn, mentum;
mx, maxilla; mxp, maxillary palp;
pgl, paraglossa; phx, pharynx;
plf, palpifer; plg, palpiger; pmt,
postmentum; prmt, prementum;
ver, vertex.
E
haustellate mouthparts either are elongate and stylet-
like or are lacking.
The Mouthparts of Hemiptera. The beak in this order
(Figure 2-17) is elongate, usually segmented, and
arises from the front (Heteroptera) or rear (Auchenor-
rhyncha, Sternorrhyncha) of the head. The external
segmented structure of the beak is the labium which is
sheathlike and eneloses four piercing stylets: the two
mandibles and the two maxillae. The labrum is a short
lobe at the base of the beak on the anterior side, and
the hypopharynx is a short lobe within the base of the
beak. The labium does no piereing, but folds up as the
stylets enter the tissue fed on. The inner stylets in
the beak, the maxillae, fit together in such a way as to
form two channels, a food channel and a salivary chan-
nel. The palps are lacking.
The Mouthparts of the Diptera. The biting Diptera in
the suborder Nematocera and the Tabanomorpha in-
elude the mosquito es (Figm:e l=l8~sand flies,
punkies, black flies, horse flies, and snipe flies. Females
of these insects have six piereing stylets: the labrum,
the mandibles, the maxillae, and the hypopharynx; the
labium usually serves as a sheath for the stylets. The
stylets may be very slender and needlelike (mosqui-
toes) or broader and knifelike (the other groups). The
maxillary palps are well developed, but labial palps are
lacking (some dipterists regard the labellar lobes as
 Head 21

md--
hyp--

Figure2-18 Mouthparts of a mosquito. A, Head of

Aedes,lateralview;B, Crosssectionof proboseisof
Figure
2-17 Mouthparts of the large milkweed bug, Anopheles. ant, antenna; bk, proboseis; clp, clypeus; e,
fasciatus(Dalias).A, Lateralviewof the head
Oncopeltus compound eye;fe, food channel; hyp, hypopharynx; lbm,
showingbeak, with the labrum detched from front of labium; lbr, labrum; md, mandible; mx, maxilla; mxp,
beak; B, Cross section of stylets (somewhat diagram- maxillary palp; se, salivary channel. (B, Redrawn from
matic).ant, antenna; bk, beak; bue, buccula; e, compound Snodgrass, after Vogel1921.)
eye;fe,food channel;j,jugum; lbm, labium; lbr, labrum;
lo,lorum;md, mandible; mx, maxilla; oe, ocellus; se, sali-
varychannel;sty, stylets; ty, tylus.

labialpalps). The salívary channel is in the hypophar-

ynx, and the food channel is located between the
groovedlabrum and the hypopharynx (for example,
the mosquitoes) or between the labrum and the man-
dibles(for example, punkies and horse flies). The la- Ibr fe
\ I
I
bium does no piereing and folds up or back as the \ I
styletsenter the tissue pierced.
The Muscomorpha lack mandibles, and the maxil-
lae are represented by the palps (maxillary stylets are
usuallylacking). The proboseis consists of the labrum,
hypopharynx, and labium. There are two modifications
ofthe mouthparts in these flies: (a) a piereing type and
(b) a sponging or lapping type. A B
The Muscomorpha with piereing mouthparts in-
eludethe stable fly (Figure 2-19), tsetse fly, horn fly,
and louse flies. The prineipal piereing structure in Figure2-19 Mouthparts of the stable fly,Stomoxys eal-
theseflies is the labium; the labrum and hypopharynx citrans (L.). A, Anterior view of head; B, Cross section
areslender and styletlike and líe in a dorsal groove of through haustellum. bk, rostrum; clp, clypeus;fe, food
the labium. The labium terminates in a pair of small, channel; hst, haustellum; hyp, hypopharynx; lbl, label-
hard plates, the labella, which are armed with teeth. lum; lbm, labium; lbr, labrum; mxp, maxillary palp; se,
The salivary channel is in the hypopharynx, and the salivary channel. (Redrawn from various sources; some-
foodchannel is between the labrum and hypopharynx. what diagrammatic.)
- "
22 Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,and Developmentof Insects

The proboscis in the louse flies (Hippoboscidae) is
somewhat retracted into a pouch on the ventral side of
the head when not in use.
The remaining Diptera with sponging or lapping
mouthparts include the nonbiting species such as the
house fly (Figure 2-20), blow flies, and fruit flies. The
mouthpan structures are suspended from a conical
membranous projection of the lower pan of the head
called the rostrum. The maxillary palps arise at the dis-
tal end of the rostrum, and the pan of the proboscis be-
yond the palps is termed the haustellum. The labrum
and hypopharynx are slender and lie in an anterior
groove of the labium, which forms the bulk of the
haustellum. The salivary channel is in the hypophar-
ynx, and the food channellies between the labrum and
the hypopharynx. At the apex of the labium are the la-
bella, a pair of large, 50ft, ovallobes. The lower surface
of these lobes bears numerous transverse grooves that
serve as food channels. The proboscis can usually be
folded up against the lower side of the head or into a
cavity there. These flies lap up liquids; the food may be
already in liquid form, or it may first be liquefied by
salivary secretions of the fly.
The Mouthparts of Lepidoptera. The proboscis of adult
Lepidoptera (Figure 2-21) is usually long and coiled
and is formed of the two galeae of the maxillae; the food
channel is between the galeae. The labrum is a narrow
transverse band across the lower margin of the face, and
there are no mandibles and hypopharynx (except in the
Micropterigidae). The maxillary palps are usually small
or absent, but the labial palps are usually well devel-

Figure2-20 Mouthpans of the house Oy,

Musea domestica L. A, Anterior view of head;
B, Cross section through haustellum. bk, ros-
trum; clp, clypeus;fe, food channel; hst, haustel-
B lum; hyp, hypopharynx; Ibl, labellum; Ibm,
labium; Ibr, labrum; mxp, maxillary palp; se,
salivary channel. (Redrawn from Snodgrass
1935, Principies of Insect Morphology, 1993,
A Comell University Press.)

--prb
e
B

Figure2-21 Mouthparts of a moth. A, Lateral view of head; B, Anterior view of head;

C, Cross section through proboscis. ant, antenna; atp, anterior tentorial pit; e, compound
eye;fe, food channel;fr, frons; Ibr, labrum; Ip, labial palp; m.x,maxilla (galea); oe, ocellus;
pf, pilifer; prb, proboscis. (Redrawn from Snodgrass 1935, Principies of Inseet Morphology,
1993, Comell University Press.)
-
oped.Thereis no speeialsalivarychannel. This type of
mouthpart structure is sometimes called siphoning-
sucking,because there is usually no piereing and the in-
sect merely sucks or siphons liquids up through the
proboseis.Some moths in Southeast Asia and northem
Australia,however, use the proboseis to pierce the skins
of 50ftfruits and then siphon liquids from the tissues
undemeath. When used, the proboscis is uncoiled by
bloodpressure; it recoils by its own elastieity:
Insed Muscles
Ihe muscular system of an insect is comprised of from
severalhundred lO a few thousand individual muscles.
Allconsist of striated muscle cells, even those around
the alimentary canal and the heart. The skeletal mus-
des, which attach lO the body wall, move the various
parts of the body, including the appendages. The cell
membranesof the muscle and epidermis are interdigi-
tatedand interconnected by desmosomes; from the
desmosomes,microtubules run to the outer epidermal
cellmembrane, and from there attachment fibers run
through the cuticle to the epicuticle. The attachment
fibersare not broken down between the times when the
epidermisis separated from the old cuticle (apolysis)
andthe shedding of that cuticle (ecdysis; see section on
moltinglater). Thus the muscles remain attached to
the body wall, and the insect continues to be able to
moveduring the period when a new cuticle is being
formed.The locations of the points of attachment of
theskeletal muscles are sometimes useful in determin-
ingthe homologies of various body parts. The visceral
musdes, which surround the heart, the alimentary
canal,and the ducts of the reproductive system, pro-
duce the peristaltic movements that move materials
alongthese tracts. They usually consist of longitudinal
andcircular muscle fibers.
Ihe muscles moving the appendages are arranged
segmentally,generally in antagonistic pairs. Some ap-
pendageparts (for example, the galea and laeinia of the
maxillaeand the pretarsus) have only flexor muscles.
Thesestructures are usually extended by a combina-
tionof hemolymph pressure and the elastieity of the
cutide.Eachsegment of an appendagenormally has its
ownmuscles. The tarsal and flagellar "segments" do
nothave their own muscles and thus are not true seg-
ments.
lnsect muscles seem to us to be very strong: Many
insectscan lift 20 or more times their body weight, and
jumping insects can often jump distances equal to
manytimes their own length. These feats appear very
remarkablewhen compared to what humans can do;
theyare possible not because the muscles of insects are
inherently stronger, but because insects are smaller.
Digestive System 23
The power of a muscle varies with the size of its cross-
sectional area, or with the square of its width; what the
muscle moves (¡he mass of the body) varies with the
cube of the linear dimension. Thus as the body be-
comes smaller, the muscles become relatively more
powerful.
Insect muscles are often capable of extremely
rapid contraction. Wing stroke rates of a few hundred
per second are fairly common in insects, and rates up
to 1000 or more per second are known. In insects with
relatively slow wing-stroke rates and in most other
skeletal muscles, each muscle contraction is initiated
by a nerve impulse. Such muscles are called synchro-
nous or neurogenic muscles because of this one-to-one
correspondence between action potentials and muscle
contractions. In insects with higher wing-beat fre-
quencies, the muscles contract much more often than
the rate at which neural impulses reach them. The
rates of contraction in such asynchronous muscles
(found prineipally in flight muscles but sometimes in
other oscillating systems) depend on the characteris-
tics of the muscles themselves and the assoeiated
sclerites. Nerve impulses are necessary to initiate con-
tractions, but thereafter serve to generally maintain
the rate of contractions rather than to stimulate each
one individually:
That insect muscles may have such an extremely
rapid contraction frequency, which is sometimes main-
tained for a prolonged period, attests to the effieiency
of their metabolismo The tracheal system provides the
large volumes of oxygen needed for such metabolic
rates. In most insects, the tracheoles (across whose
walls gas exchange takes place) indent the cell mem-
branes of the muscles, thus minimizing the distance
across which diffusion of gases must take place. Insects
use a variety of fuels for flight. Carbohydrates are im-
portant for many speeies; in others, lipids are the pri-
mary fuels; in some flies (such as the tsetse), amino
acids form the substrate for generating the energy nec-
essary for flight.
Digestive System
Insects feed on almost every organic substance found
in nature, and their digestive systems exhibit consider-
able variation. The alimentary canal is a tube, usually
somewhat coiled, which extends from the mouth to the
anus (Figure 2-22). It is differentiated into three main
regions: the foregut, or stomodaeum; the midgut, or
mesenteron; and the hindgut, or proctodaeum. Both
the foregut and hindgut are derived from ectodermal
tissue and are lined intemally by a thin layer of cuticle,
the intima. This cuticle is shed at each molt along with
the outer exoskeleton.
 ;8: - ~

24 Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,and Developmentof Insects

cp

I
gn
I
nc
I
gn mg

Figure 2-22 Internal organs of a grasshopper, shown in longitudinal section (somewhat

diagrammatic). ans, anus; ao, dorsal aorta; be, bursa copulatrix; ea, corpus allatum; eee,
circumesophageal connective; eg, cerebral ganglion (part of the brain); em, gastric caeca;
en, colon; ep, crop; eg, eggs; eso, esophagus; gn, ganglia of ventral nerve cord; hr, heart;
hyp, hypopharynx; iI, ileum; lbm, labium; lbr, labrum; mg, midgut or mesenteron; mt,
Malpighian tubules; ne, ventral nerve cord; og, optic ganglion (part of the brain); ovd,
oviduct; ovp, ovipositor; ovt, ovarian tubules; phx, pharynx; ree, rectum; segn, subesopha-
geal ganglion; slg, salivary gland; sld, salivary duct; spth, spermatheca; vag, vagina.
(Redrawn from Robert Matheson: Entomologyfor Introductory Courses,Seeond Edition.
Comstock Publishing Company, Inc.)

Most insects have a pair of glands lying below the
anterior part of the alimentary canal (Figure 2-22,
slg). The ducts from these glands extend forward and
unite into a common duct that opens near the base of
the labium or hypopharynx. These labial glands (so
named because they open at the base of the labium)
generally function as salivary glands. There is often an
enlargement of the duct from each gland that serves
as a reservoir for the salivary secretion. The labial
glands in the larvae of Lepidoptera, Trichoptera, and
Hymenoptera secrete silk, which is used in making
cocoons and shelters and in food gathering by net-
spinning caddisflies.
The foregut is usually differentiated into a phar-
ynx (phx, immediately beyond the mouth), esophagus
(eso, a slender tube extending posteriorly from the
pharynx), crop (cp, an enlargement of the posterior
portion of the foregut), and proventriculus. At its pos-
terior end is the stomodaeal valve, which regulates the
passage of food between the foregut and midgut. In
some groups, such as cockroaches and termites, the
proventriculus may bear an armature of teeth inter-
nally; these are used to further crush the food before it
enters the midgut. The intima is secreted by the foregut
epithelium and is relatively impermeable. The intima
and epithelium are often longitudinally folded. Outside
of the epithelium is an inner layer of longitudinal mus-
cles and an outer layer of circular muscles. The longi-
tudinal muscles sometimes have insertions on the in-
tima. The anterior part of the foregut is provided with
dilator muscles, which have their origins on the walls
and apodemes of the head and thorax and their inser-
tions on the stomodaeal muscle layers, the epithelium,
or intima. These are best developed in the pharyngeal
region in sucking insects, where they make the phar-
ynx into a sucking pump. The crop is specialized for
the temporary storage of food. It may be a simple en-
largement of the foregut, or, as in mosquitoes and Lep-
idoptera, it may be a lateral diverticulum off the diges-
tive tract. Uttle or no digestion of food takes place in
the foregut.
The midgut (mg) is usually an elongate tube of
rather uniform diameter, sometimes differentiated into
two or more parts. It often bears diverticula, the gastric
caeca (cm), near its anterior end. The midgut is not
lined by cuticle. The epitheliallayer of the midgut is in-
volved both with the secretion of digestive enzymes
into the lumen and in the absorption of the products of
digestion into the body of the insect. Individual midgut
epithelial cells are generally rather short-lived and are
constantly being replaced. These dividing cells may be
scattered throughout the midgut, or may be concen-
trated as pockets of growth. Such areas are sometimes
visible from the lumen of the gut as invaginated crypts
and from the outer side as bulges (called nidi). The
midgut is the primary site of digestion and absorption
in the alimentary canal. In many species, the midgut
epithelium and the food are separated by a peritrophic
 Digestive System 25

membrane-a nonliving, permeable network of chitin
and protein that is secreted by the epithelium. The
function of the peritraphic membrane is unclear. It
mayserve to limit abrasion of the epithelium, to inhibit
the movement of pathogens fram the food to the in-
sect'stissues, or as a means of separating endo- and ec-
toperitrophic spaces within which digestive specializa-
tioncan occur.
The hindgut extends fram the pyloric valve,
which lies between the midgut and hindgut, to the
anus. Posteriorly it is supported by muscles extending
to the abdominal wall. The hindgut is generally differ-
entiatedinto at least two regions, the anterior intestine
and the posterior rectum (rec). The anterior intestine
maybe a simple tube, or it may be subdivided into an
anterior ileum (il) and a posterior colon (en). The
Malpighian tubules (mt), which are excretory organs
(seelater), arise at the anterior end of the hindgut, and
their contents empty into it. The hindgut is the final
site for resorption of water, salts, and any nutrients
framthe feces and urine. The rectum in several species
has large, thick rectal pads that are important in re-
moving water fram the feces.
The filter chamber is a modification of the ali-
mentary canal in which two normally distant parts are
held close together by connective tissue; it occurs in
many of the Hemiptera and varies somewhat in form
in different members of the order. The midgut in these
insects is differentiated into three regions: the first,
second, and third ventriculi. The first and second ven-
triculi are saclike structures immediately posterior to
the esophagus, and the third ventriculus is a slender
tube. Typically, the third ventriculus turns forward and
comes to lie close to the first ventriculus, often coiling
about it, where it is held in place by connective tissue.
This complex-the first ventriculus, the coiled third
ventriculus, and the connective tissue-forms the fil-
ter chamber (Figure 2-23). Beyond the filter chamber,
the alimentary canal continues backward, usually as a
slender tube, to enter the rectum. The Malpighian
tubules emerge either fram the filter chamber or just
beyond it.

fch

eso / eso

/ vnt
vnt

prct

rec rec
B

Figure2-23 The filter chamber of Hemiptera (diagrammatic). A, A simple type of filter

chamber, in which the two ends of the midgut (the first and third ventriculO are bound
together; B, The filter chamber of a scale insect (Leeanium); e, A filter chamber in which
the posterior pan of the midgut (the third ventriculus) coils about the anterior pan (the
first ventriculus), with the hindgut emerging from the anterior end. In A and B the junc-
tion of the midgut and hindgut (where the Malpighian tubules, which are not shown, en-
ter the alimentary tract) is in the filter chamber. eso, esophagus; feh, filter chamber; hg,
anterior portion of the hindgut; mt, Malpighian tubules; prct, proctodeum; ree, rectum;
vnt, ventriculus (1, first; 2, second; 3, third).
26 Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,
andDevelopmentof Insects
Many Hemiptera live on plant juices, which they
usually ingest in large quantities. Entomologists think
the filter chamber is a device that allows water from in-
gested sap to pass directly from the anterior portion of
the midgut to the hindgut, concentrating sap before di-
gestion in the posterior part of the midgut. This excess
fluid passes from the anus as honeydew. However, be-
cause honeydew is often rich in nutrients such as car-
bohydrates and amino acids, there is some doubt about
the exact function of the filter chamber.
Digestion is the process of changing food chemi-
cally and physically so that it can be absorbed and
nourish various parts of the body. This process may be-
gin even before the food is ingested but usually occurs
as the ingested materials pass through the digestive
tract. Solid foods are broken down by various mechan-
ical means (chiefly the mouthparts and proventricular
teeth), and all foods are subjected to a battery of en-
zymes as they pass through the digestive tract.
Insects feed on a great variety of living, dead, and
decomposing animals, plants, and fungi and on their
products. In some cases, liquids such as blood or plant
juices may constitute their entire food supply. The di-
gestive system varies considerably with the different
kinds of foods consumed. The food habits may even
vary greatly in a single species. Larvae and adults
usually have entirely different food habits and differ-
ent types of digestive systems. Some adults do not feed
at all.
Most insects take food into the body through the
mouth. Some larvae that live endoparasitically in a host
animal can absorb food through the surface of their
bodies from host tissues. Many insects have chewing
mandibles and maxillae that cut, crush, or macerate
food materials and force them into the pharynx. In
sucking insects, the pharynx functions as a pump that
brings liquid food through the beak into the esopha-
gus. Peristaltic action moves food is along the alimen-
tary canal.
Saliva is usually added to the food, either as it en-
ters the alimentary canal or before, as in the case of
many sucking insects that inject it into the fluids they
siphon up as foods. Saliva is generally produced by the
labial glands, and the labial glands of many insects also
produce amylase. In certain bees, these glands secrete
invertase, which is later taken into the body with nec-
tar. In bloodsucking insects such as mosquitoes, the
saliva generally contains no digestive enzymes but con-
tains a substance that prevents coagulation of the blood
and the consequent mechanical plugging of the food
channel. This saliva causes the irritation produced by
the bite of a bloodsucking insect.
Many insects eject digestive enzymes on food, and
partial digestion may occur before the food is ingested.
Flesh fly larvae discharge proteolytic enzymes onto
their food, and aphids inject amylase into the plant tis-
su es and thus digest starch in the food plant. Such ex-
traintestinal digestion is also found in the predaceous
larvae of antlions and predaceous diving beetles, and
bugs that feed on dry seeds.
Most chemical digestion of the food takes place
within the midgut. Some of the midgut epithelial cells
produce enzymes, and others absorb digested food.
Sometimes the same cells carry out secretion and ab-
sorption. Enzymes may be released into the lumen of
the midgut by the disintegration of the secretory cells
(holocrine secretion) or by the release of small
amounts of enzymes across the cell membrane (mero-
crine secretion).
Only a few species of insects produce enzymes
that digest cellulose, but some can use cellulose as food
as a result of symbiotic microorganisms present in their
digestive tracts. These microorganisms, usually bacte-
ria or flagellated protists, can digest the cellulose, and
the insects absorb the products of this digestion. Such
microorganisms are present in termites and many
wood-boring beetles and are often housed in special or-
gans connected to the gut.
The fat body is a large, often somewhat amor-
phous organ housed in the abdomen and thorax. In
many ways its function is analogous to that of the liver
among vertebrates. It serves as a food reservoir and is
an important site of intermediate metabolismo In some
species it is also important in storage excretion (see
page 27). The fat body is usually best developed in the
late nymphal or larval instars. By the end of meta mor-
phosis, it is often depleted. Some adult insects that do
not feed retain their fat body in adult life.
Excretory System
The primary excretory system of an insect consists of a
group of hollow tubes, the Malpighian tubules, which
arise as evaginations at the anterior end of the hindgut
(Figure 2-22, mt). These tubules vary in number from
one to more than several hundred, and their distal, free
ends are closed. These tubules function in removing ni-
trogenous wastes and in regulating, together with the
hindgut, the balance of water and various salts in the
hemolymph. Ions apparently are actively transponed
across the outer membrane of the tubule, generating an
osmotic flow of water into the lumen. Along with this
water a number of small solutes-amino acids, sugars,
and nitrogenous wastes-enter the tubule passively.
This primary urine is therefore an isosmotic solution
containing the small molecules present in the he-
molymph. Some of these solutes and the water may be
actively resorbed into the hemolymph in the basal por-
-
Figure
2-24 Stucture of uric acid.
tionsof the Malpighian tubules or in the hindgut. The
principal nitragenous waste is usually uric acid (Fig-
ure 2-24), a chemical that is relatively nontoxic (and
can therefore be tolerated in higher concentrations)
and insoluble in water (again, recall the water balance
problemsinherent to a small terrestrial organism).
In some insects, most notabIy many beetle and
moth larvae, the Malpighian tubules are bound very
dosely to the hindgut; these are called cryptone-
phridia. In species such as the mealworm, Tenebrio
molitorL., that live in conditions of high draught
stress,this arrangement of the tubules is apparently in-
volvedin extracting water fram the fecal pellets. The
mealworm,in fact, can extract water vapor fram the air
whenthe relative humidity exceeds 90%.
In addition to the Malpighian tubules, various in-
seetshave a range of methods of removing wastes or
toxicsubstances fram the hemolymph. One method is
to store chemicals, such as uric acid, more or less per-
manendywithin individual cells or tissues. This pra-
eessis known as storage excretion. Cockraaches store
urieacid in their fat body, and the white pigment in the
sealesof pierid butterflies derives from uric acid stored
within them. At the anterior end of the dorsal blood
vesselmay be a graup of cells, the pericardial cells, that
are important in absorbing and breaking down col-
loidalparticles in the hemolymph. In other cases, sim-
ilareeUsmay be widely distributed thraughout the he-
moeoel.
CirculatorySystem
Theprincipal function of the blood, or hemolymph, is
the transport of materials-nutrients, hormones,
wastes,and so forth. In most cases it plays a relatively
minorrole in the transport of oxygen and carbon dio x-
ideoThe hemolymph is also involved in osmoregula-
tion, the balance of salts and water in the body; this
function also involves other organs, particularly the
Malpighiantubules and the rectum. The hemolymph
has an important skeletal function-for example, in
molting,in the expansion of the wings after the last
Circulatory System 27
molt, and in the pratrusion of eversible structures such
as eversible vesicles and genitalia. It may also function
in the animal's internal defenses, in the phagocytic ac-
tion of hemocytes against invading micraorganisms, in
plugging wounds, and in walling off certain foreign
bodies such as endoparasites. Finally, the hemolymph
is also a storage tissue, serving as a reservoir for water
and such food materials as fat and carbohydrates.
The circulatory system of an insect is open. The
main (and often only) blood vessel is located dorsal to
the alimentary tract and extends thraugh the thorax
and abdomen (Figure 2-22). Elsewhere the hemo-
lymph flows unrestricted thraugh the body cavity Cthe
hemocoel). The posterior part of the dorsal blood ves-
sel, which is divided by valves into a series of cham-
bers, is the heart (hr), and the slender anterior part is
the aorta (ao). Extending fram the lower surface of the
heart to the lateral portions of the terga are pairs of
sheetlike muscle bands. These constitute a dorsal di-
aphragm more or less separating the region around the
heart (the pericardial sinus) from the main body cavity
(or perivisceral sinus, sometimes further divided into a
perivisceral sinus and a perineural sinus). The heart is
pravided with paired lateral openings called ostia, one
pair per heart chamber, thraugh which hemolymph en-
ters the heart. The number of ostia varies in different
insects. Some have as few as two pairs.
The hemolymph is usually a more or less clear
fluid in which are suspended a number of cells (the he-
mocytes). lt may be yellowish or greenish but is only
rarely red (as in some aquatic midge larvae and some
aquatic Hemiptera, owing to the exceptional presence
of hemoglobin). lt makes up fram 5% to 40% of the
body weight (usually about 25% or less).
The liquid part of the hemolymph (the plasma)
contains a great many dissolved substances (such
as salts, sugars, prateins, and hormones). These vary
considerably-in different insects and in the same in-
sect at different times. The plasma contains very little
oxygen; the transport of oxygen is the function of the
respiratory system and is decoupled fram the circula-
tory system.
The hemocytes vary considerably in number-
fram about 1000 to 100,000 per mm3-but average
about 50,000 per mm3. These cells vary greatly in
shape and function. Some circulate with the he-
molymph, and some adhere to the surface of tissues.
The functions of the various types of hemocytes are not
well known, but many are capable of phagocytosis.
They may ingest bacteria, and they play a rale in re-
moving dead cells and tissues during metamorphosis.
The hemolymph of different insects differs in clotting
ability; the hemocytes may migrate to wounds and
form a plug. Hemocytes often congrega te around for-
eign bodies such as parasitoids and parasites, forming
-. ..

28 Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,and Developmentof Insects

a sheath around them and walling them off from the

body tissues. Other than the action of these hemocytes,
insects have no immune system comparable to the an-
tibodies of vertebrates (thus facilitating tranplantation
experiments) .
Hemolymph is moved about by pulsations of the
heart and in other parts of the body, such as the base
of the legs and wings, by accessory pulsatile organs.
The heartbeat is a peristaltic wave that starts at the
posterior end of the dorsal blood vessel and moves for-
ward. Hemolymph enters the heart through the ostia,
which are closed during the systolic phase of the
heartbeat, and is pumped anteriorly. The rate of the
heartbeat varies greatly: Observed rates in different in-
sects range from 14 to about 160 beats per minute.
This rate increases during periods of increased activity.
The pulsations of the heart may be initiated within the
heart muscle (myogenic), or they may be under ner-
vous control (neurogenic). A reversal of the direction
of the peristaltic wave of contractions, thus moving
the hemolymph backward instead of forward, is not
unusual.
Very little pressure develops in the general flow of
hemolymph through the body. The hemolymph pres-
sure may sometimes be less than atmospheric pressure.
It can be increased by muscular contraction and com-
pression of the body wall or by dilation of the alimen-
tary canal (produced by swallowing air). This is how
pressure is developed to break out of the remainder of
the old exoskeleton at molting time and to inflate the
wings. Figure2-25 Diagram of a horizontal section of an in-
sect showing the arrangement of the principal tracheae.
ant, antenna; com, commissural trachea; dtra, dorsal tra-
chea; e, compound eye; 1,legs; Itra, main longitudinal tra-
Respiratory System cheal trunk; spr, spiracles; stra, spiracular trachea; vtra,
ventral tracheae.
Gas transport in insects is the function of the tracheal
system. The circulatory system of insects, unlike that
of vertebrates, usually plays only a minor role in this The spiracles are located laterally in the pleural
process. wall and vary in number from 1 to 10 pairs (some
The tracheal system (Figure 2-25) is a system of species have no functional spiracles). There is typically
cuticular tubes (the tracheae) that extemally open at a pair on the anterior margin of both the meso- and
the spiracles (spr) and intemally branch and extend metathorax, and a pair on each of the first eight (or
throughout the body. They terminate in very fine fewer) abdominal segments. They vary in size and
closed branches, called tracheoles, that permeate and shape and usually have some sort of valvelike closing
actually penetra te the living tissues (indenting but not device. These valves therefore play an important role in
actuaUy breaking through the cell membranes). The retaining body water.
tracheae are lined with a layer of cuticle, and in the In insects with an open tracheal system (that is,
larger branches this is thickened to form helical rings, with functional spiracles), air enters the body through
called taenidia, that simultaneously give the tracheae the spiracles, then passes through the tracheae to the
strength (against collapse) and flexibility (lo bend and tracheoles, and oxygen ultimately enters body cells by
twist). The tracheoles (also lined with cuticle) are diffusion. Carbon dioxide leaves the body in similar
minute intracellular tubes with thin walls, and they of- fashion. The spiracles may be partly or completely
ten contain fluido It is across the walls of the tracheoles closed for extended periods in some insects. Water los5
through the spiracles may be minimized in this way.
~~ts.~~hange.ac.tually takes. ~~!ce.

Insects generally have longitudinal tracheal trunks
(connectives, ltra) connecting the tracheae from adja-
centspiracles on the same side of the body and trans-
versecommissures (com) connecting the tracheae on
oppositesides of the body, so that the entire system is
interconnected. The movement of air through the tra-
chealsystem is by simple diffusion in many small in-
sects,but in most larger insects this movement is aug-
mentedby active ventilation, chiefly by the abdominal
muscles;the movements of the internal organs, or of
the legs and wings, may also aid ventilation. Where
ventilation occurs, air may move in and out of each
spiracle,but generally enters through the anterior spi-
raclesand leaves by the posterior ones. This flow of air
through the tracheal system is effected by controlling
which spiracles are open and when. Sections of the
maintracheal trunks are often dilated to form air sacs,
whichhelp in ventilation.
Closed tracheal systems have the spiracles perma-
nentlyclosed but have a network of tracheae just un-
der the integument, distributed either widely over the
bodyor particularly below certain surfaces (the gills).
Someaquatic and parasitic insects have closed systems.
In these species, gases enter and leave the body by dif-
fusionacross the body wall between the tracheae and
theexternal environment, and gases move through the
trachealsystem by diffusion.
A great many insects live in water; these get their
oxygenfrom one (rarely both) of two sources: the oxy-
gendissolved in the water or atmospheric oxygen. Gas
exchangein many small, soft-bodied aquatic nymphs
andlarvae (and possibly some adults) occurs by diffu-
sionthrough the body wall, usually into and out of a
trachealsystem. The body wall in some cases is un-
modifiedexcept perhaps for having a fairly rich tra-
cheal network just under the integument. In other
cases,there are special thin extensions of the body wall
thathave a rich tracheal supply and through which gas
exchangeoccurs. These structures, called tracheal gills,
comein a variety of shapes and may be located on dif-
ferentparts of the body. The gills in mayfly nymphs are
inthe form of leaflike structures on the sides of the first
sevenabdominal segments (Figure 9-2). In dragonfly
nymphs, they are folds in the rectum, and water is
movedinto and out of the rectum and over these folds.
In damselfly nymphs, the gills are three leaflike struc-
turesat the end of the abdomen as well as folds in the
reClUm(Figure lO-l). In stonefly nymphs, the gills are
fingerlike or branched structures located around the
basesof the legs or on the basal abdominal segments
(Figurel6-2B). Gas exchange may occur through the
generalbody surface of these insects, and in some cases
(suchas damselfly nymphs), the exchange through the
bodysurface may be more important than that through
the tracheal gills.
Respiratory System 29
Insects that live in water and get their oxygen from
atmospheric air do this in one of three general ways:
from air spaces in submerged parts of certain aquatic
plants, through spiracles placed at the water surface
(with the body of the insect submerged), or from a film
of air held somewhere on the surface of the body while
the insect is submerged. A few larvae (for example,
those of the beetle genus Donada and the mosquito
genus Mansonia) have their spiracles in spines at the
posterior end of the body, and these spines are inserted
into the air spaces of submerged aquatic plants. Many
aquatic insects (for example, waterscorpions, rattailed
maggots, and the larvae of culicine mosquitoes) have a
breathing tube at the posterior end of the body, which
is extended to the surface. Hydrophobic hairs around
the end of this tube enable the insect to hang from the
surface film, and they prevent water from entering the
breathing tube. Other aquatic insects (for example,
backswimmers and the larvae of anopheline mosqui-
toes) get air through posterior spiracles placed at the
water surface. These insects do not have an extended
breathing tube.
The insects that get their oxygen from atmo-
spheric air at the water surface do not spend all their
time at the surface. They can submerge and remain un-
derwater for a considerable period, getting oxygen
from an air store either inside or outside the body. The
air stores in the tracheae of a mosquito larva, for ex-
ample, enable the larva to remain underwater for a long
time.
Many aquatic bugs and beetles carry a thin film of
air somewhere on the body surface when they sub-
merge. This film is usually under the wings or on the
ventral side of the body. The air film acts like a physi-
cal gill, with dissolved oxygen in the water diffusing
into the bubble when the partial pressure of oxygen in
the film falls below that of the water. The insect may
get several times as much oxygen from this temporary
structure as was originally in it, because of gas ex-
changes between the air film and the surrounding wa-
ter. A few insects (for example, elmid beetles) have a
permanent layer of air around the body surface, held
there by a body covering of thick, fine, hydrophobic
hairs; such a layer is called a plastron. The air reser-
voirs of aquatic insects not only playa role in gas ex-
change but also may have a hydrostatic function (like
the swim bladder of fish). Two crescent-shaped air sacs in
Chaoborus larvae (Diptera: Chaoboridae, Figure 34-30A)
are apparently used to regulate this insect's specific
gravity: to hold it perfectly motionless or to enable it to
migrate up or down in the water column.
Parasitic insects that live inside the body of their
host get oxygen from the body fluids of the host by dif-
fusion through their integument, or (for example, in
tachinidflylarvaümtJ~mA"it)tcm)Af
BI~l'OTECA
-.-

30 Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,
andDevelopmentof Insects

tended to the body surface of the host or attach to one

of the host's tracheal trunks. ocpd
"'
" ao

Body Temperature
Insects are generally considered cold-blooded or poiki-
lothermic; that is, their body temperature rises and falls
~~
'/..,
with the environmental temperature. This is the case
with most insects, particularly if they are not very ac-
tive, but the action of the thoracic muscles in flight
usually raises the insect's temperature above that of the
environment. The cooling of a small object is fairly
rapid, and the body temperature of a small insect in
flight is very close to that of the environment. In in-
sects such as butterflies and grasshoppers, the body
temperature in flight may be 5°C or 10°C above the en-
vironmental temperature, and in insects such as moths
and bumble bees (which are insulated with scales or
hair), the metabolism during flight may raise the tem-
perature of the flight muscles 20°C or 30°C above the
environmental temperature.
With most flying insects, the temperature of the
'.....Ibn
flight muscles must be maintained above a certain
point to produce the power necessary for flight. Many
larger insects may actively increase the temperature of Figure2-26 Anterior part of the nervous system of a
their flight muscles before flight by a "shivering" or a grasshopper. ao, dorsal aorta; br¡, protocerebrurn; br2'
vibration of the wing muscles. deutocerebrum; br3,tritocerebrurn; ea, corpus allatUrn;
Honey bees remain in the hive during the winter, cee, circurnesophageal connective; comn, tritocerebral
but do not go into a state of dormancy at the onset of commissure; ep, crop;fen, frontal ganglion connective;fg,
cold weather (as most other insects do). When the frontal ganglion; Ibn, labial nerve; Ibm, labral nerve; mdn,
temperature gets down to about 14°C, they form a clus- rnandibular nerve; mxn, rnaxillary nerve; oeg, oCcipital
ter in the hive and, by the activity of their thoracic ganglion; oepd,ocellar pedicel; opl, optic lobe; phx, phar-
muscles, maintain the temperature of the cluster well ynx; m, recurrent nerve; segn, subesophageal ganglion; sld,
over 14°C (as high as 34°C to 36°C when they are rear- salivary duct; tnt, tentoriurn. (Redrawn frorn Snodgrass
ing brood). 1935, PrincipIesoflnsect Morphology, 1993, Comell
University Press.)

Nervous System by a commissure that passes under the esophagus

The central nervous system of an insect consists of a
brain in the head above the esophagus, a subesopha-
geal ganglion (Figure 2-26, segn) connected to the
brain by two nerves (the circumesophageal connectives,
cec) that extend around each side of the esophagus, and
a ventral nerve cord extending posteriorly from the sub-
esophageal ganglion. The brain consists of three pairs of
lobes, the protocerebrum (br.), deutocerebrum (br2),
and tritocerebrum (br3). The protocerebrum innervates
the compound eyes and ocelli, the deutocerebrum in-
nervates the antennae, and the tritocerebrum innervates
the labrum and foregut. The two lobes of the tritocere-
brum are separated by the esophagus and are connected
(comn). The ventral nerve cord (Figure 2-22, nc) is typi-
cally double and has segmental ganglia (Figure 2-22, gn).
Frequently some of these ganglia are fused, particularly
toward the end of the abdomen, resulting in fewer visi-
ble ganglia than segments.
The ganglia of the central nervous system (brain,
subesophageal ganglion, and segmental ganglia of the
central nerve cord) serve as the coordinating centers.
Each of these has a certain amount of autonomy; tha!
is, each may coordinate the impulses involved in activ-
ities in particular regions of the body. Activities involv-
ing the en tire body may be coordinated by impulses
from the brain, but many of these can occur with the
brain absent.
 Nervous System 31

SenseOrgans many (for example, butterflies, moths, and flies) have

Aninsect receives information about its environment
(including its own internal environment) through its
senseorgans. These organs are located mainly in the
bodywall, and most are microscopic in size. Each is
usuallyexcited only by a specific stimulus. Insects have
senseorgans receptive to chemical, mechanical, audi-
tory,and visual stimuli, and possibly such stimuli as
relativehumidity and temperature.
Chemical Senses
Chemoreceptors-those involved in the senses of taste
(gustation)and smell (olfaction)-are important parts
ofan insect's sensory system and are involved in many
Iypesof behavior. Feeding, mating, habitat selection,
and parasite-host relationships, for example, are often
directedby the insect's chemical senses:
Generally each sensillum consists of a group of
sensorycells whose distal processes form a bundle ex-
lendingto the body surface (Figure 2-27C). The end-
ings of the sensory processes are usually in a thin-
walled,peglike structure (scn). The peglike process
maybe sunk in a pit, or the sensory processes may end
in a thin cuticular plate set over a cavity in the cutic1e.
Insomecases the endings of the sensory processes may
liein a pit in the body wall and may not be covered by
cuticle.
Ihe organs of taste are located principally on the
mouthparts, but some insects (for example, ants, bees,
andwasps) also have taste organs on the antennae, and
taste organs on the tarsi.
The exact mechanism by which a particular sub-
stance initiates a nerve impulse in the sensory cells of
a chemoreceptor is not completely understood. The
substance may penetrate to the sensory cells and stim-
ulate them direct1y, or it may react with something in
the receptor to produce one or more other substances
that stimulate the sensory cells. In any event, an in-
sect's sensitivity to different substances varies; two very
similar chemicals (such as the dextro and levo forms of
a particular sugar) may be quite different in their stim-
ulating effect. Some scents (for example, the sex at-
tractant produced by a female) can be detected by one
sex (in this case, the male) but not by the other. The
sensitivity of chemoreceptors to some substances is
very high. Many insects can detect certain odors at very
low concentrations up to a few miles from their source.
Mechanical Senses
Insect sense organs sensitive to mechanical stimuli re-
act to touch, pressure, or vibration, and provide the
insect with information that may guide orientation,
general movements, feeding, flight from enemies, re-
production, and other activities. These sense organs are
of three principal types: hair sensilla, campaniform
sensilla, and scolopophorous organs.
The simplest type of tactile receptor is a hair sen-
sillum (Figures 2-27A and 2-28). A process from the
sensory neuron extends to the base of the seta, and
movements of the seta initiate impulses in the neuron.

dm
I dp
I I

- --cut- --

/
/ I \ / I
trg snc nv tro I \
nv bm
\
nv
A B e

Figure2-27 Insect sensilla. A, Hair sensillum; B, Campaniform sensillum; C, Chemo-

receptor. bm, basement membrane; cut, cuticle; dm, domelike layer of cuticle over nerve
ending; dp, distal process of sensory cell; ep, epidermis; nv, neuron; scn, sense cone; se,
seta; snc, sensory cell; trg, trichogen cell. (A, C, Redrawn from Snodgrass 1935, PrincipIes
of Insect MorphoIogy,1993, Comell University Press.)
-.-
32 Chapter2 The Anatomy.Physiology.and Developmentof Insects
.~.
- B
~~~.".
Figure2-28 Scanning electron microscope photographs of some insect sensilla. A, Sen-
silla on the antenna of an aphid, 1750x; B, Hair sensilla on the antenna of a clearwing
moth, 95 X; e, Hair sensilla on the antenna of a braconid, 500 x.
In a campaniforrn sensillum, the neuron ending lies just
under a domelike area of the cuticle (Figure 2-27B),
and distortion of this dome elicits a neuronal response.
Scolopophorous organs (also known as chordotonal or-
gans) are more complex sensilla that consist of a bun-
dle of sensory neurons whose dendrites are auached to
the body wall; they are sensitive to movements of the
body (including pressure and vibration). These organs,
which are widely distributed over the body, include the
subgenual organs (usually located within the proximal
end of the tibiae), ]ohnston's organ (in the second an-
tennal segment, sensitive to movements of the anten-
nal flagellum), and the tyrnpanal organs (involved in
hearing). Mechanical stimuli act by displacement. The
stimuli may come from outside the insect (for example,
touch and hearing) or from inside it (stimuli resulting
from position or movement). The mechanical stimuli
initiate a series of nerve impulses, the character of
which is deterrnined by the stimulus. In some cases,
the nerve impulses may be transmitted at frequencies
as high as several hundred per second.
The sense of touch in insects operates mainly
through hair sensilla (trichoid sensilla). The character
of the nerve impulses initiated is deterrnined by the
rate and direction of the hair deflection. This sense is
generally quite acute: Very liule hair deflection may be
necessary to initiate a series of neuronal impulses.
Many insects show a response to gravity, for ex-
ample, in the surfacing of aquatic insects and in the
vertical constructions (burrows in the ground, combs
in a beehive, and the like) some insects make. Insects
generally do not have organs of equilibrium compara-
..
- e
'-~~
\'~ "- \\;l~'" ~
\\\, 1. .
:'
_
ble to the statocysts of crustaceans, although air bub-
bles carried on the body surfaces by certain aquatic in-
sects when they submerge may act in a similar manner.
The forces of gravity and pressure generally are de-
tected by other means.
Many joints in insects have tactile setae that regis-
ter any movements, providing the insect with informa-
tion on the position of the joint (lhis is known as pro-
prioception). Pressure on the body wall, whether
produced by gravity or some other force, is usually de-
tected by campaniforrn sensilla. Pressure on the legs
may be detected by subgenual organs or by sensitive
setae on the tarsi.
An insect detects movements of the surrounding
medium (air or water currents) chiefly by tactile setae.
lt receives information on its own movements both by
mechanoreceptors and by visual cues. Movements of
air or water past an insect (whether the insect is sta-
tionary and the medium is moving, or the insect is
moving) are detected largely by the antennae or sen-
sory setae on the body. In the Diptera and Hy-
menoptera, the antennae seem the most important de-
tectors of such movements. In other insects, sensory
setae on the head or neck may be the most important
receptors. The halteres of the Diptera play an impor-
tant role in maintaining equilibrium in flight. They
move through an arc of nearly 180 degrees at rates of
up to several hundred times per second. Any change in
the insect's direction strains the cuticle beca use of the
gyroscopic property of the rapidly beating halteres and
is detected by the campaniforrn sensilla distributed on
the base of the haltere.
..
Hearing
Theability to detect sound (vibrations in the substrate
or in the surrounding medium) is developed in many
insects,and sound plays a role in many types of behav-
ior. Insects detect airborne sounds by means of two
types of sense organs, hair sensilla and tympanal or-
gansoThey detect vibrations in the substrate subgenual
organs.
Manyinsects apparently can detect sound, but en-
tomologistsdo not always know which sensilla are in-
volved.In some of the Diptera (for example, mosqui-
toes), however, entomologists know that the setae of
the antennae are involved in hearing (the sensilla being
]ohnston's organ in the second antennal segment).
Tympanal organs are scolopophorous organs in
which the sensory cells are attached to (or very near to)
tympanic membranes. The number of sensory cells in-
volvedranges from one or two (for example, in certain
moths) up to several hundred. The tympanic mem-
brane (or tympanum) is a very thin membrane with air
on both sides of it. Tympanal organs are present in cer-
tain Orthoptera, Hemiptera, and Lepidoptera. The
tympana of short-horned grasshoppers (Acrididae) are
located on the sides of the first abdominal segment.
Those of katydids (Tettigoniidae) and crickets (GryIli-
dae), when present, are located at the proximal end of
the front tibiae (Figure 2-8D, tym). The tympana of ci-
cadas are located on the first abdominal segment (Fig-
ure 22-45, tym). Moths may have tympana on the
metathorax or the base of the abdomen.
Vibrations in the substrate may be initiated in the
substrate directly or may be induced (through reso-
nance) by airborne sound vibration. The detection of
substrate vibration is mainly by subgenual organs. The
frequency range to which these organs are sensitive
varies in different insects, but is mainly between about
200 and 3000 Hz. Some insects (for example, bees)
may be largely insensitive to airborne sound but can
detect sound vibrations reaching them through the
substrate.
The sensory setae that detect airborne sound are
generally sensitive only to relatively low frequencies (a
few hundred Hertz or less; rarely, a few thousand).
Probably the most efficient auditory organs in insects
are the tympanal organs. These are often sensitive to
frequencies extending well into the ultrasonic range
(up to 100,000 Hz or more),2 but their discriminatory
ability is targeted to amplitude modulation rather than
to frequency modulation. An insect's response (its be-
havior and the nerve impulses initiated in the auditory
nerves) is not affected by differences in the frequencies
of the sound as long as these frequencies are within the
detectable range; an insect thus does not detect differ-
2 The upper limit of hearing in humans is generally about 15,000 Hz.
NervousSystem 33
ences (or changes) in the pitch of a sound, at least at
the higher frequencies. In contrast, tympanal organs
are very sensitive to amplitude modulation, that is, the
rhythmic features of the sound. These are the most im-
portant features of an insect's "song."
Vision
The primary visual organs of insects generally are of
two :ypes, the frontal ocelli (singular, ocellus) and the
many-faceted compound eyes.
Ocelli have a single corneal lens that is some-
what elevated or domelike; beneath this lens are two
cell layers, the corneagenous cells and the retina
(Figure 2-29A). The corneagenous cells, which se-
crete the cornea, are transparent. The light-sensitive
portion of insect photoreceptors consists of closely
packed microvilli on one side of the retinal cells
called the rhabdom. In the ocelli, the rhabdoms are in
the outer part of the retina. The basal portions of the
retinal cells are often pigmented. The ocelli appar-
ently do not form focused images (the light is fo-
cused below the retina); they seem to be organs sen-
sitive mainly to differences in light intensity.
The most complex light receptors in insects are
the compound or faceted eyes, which consist of many
(up to several thousand) individual units called om-
matidia (Figure 2-29C,D). Each ommatidium is an
elongate group of cells capped externally by a hexago-
nal corneallens. The corneallenses are usually convex
externally, forming the facets of the eye. Beneath this
corneal lens is usually a crystalline cone of four
Semper cells (Figure 2-29D, cc) surrounded by two
pigmented corneagenous cells (pgc), and beneath the
crystalline cane is a group of elongate sensory cells,
usually eight in number, surrounded by a sheath of epi-
derrnal pigment cells (pgc). The striated portions of the
sensory cells forrn a central or axial rhabdom (rh) in
the ommatidium.
The pigment surrounding an ommatidium (Fig-
ure 2-29D, pgc) generally extends far enough inward
so that the light reaching a rhabdom comes through
just the one ommatidium; the image the insects gets is
thus a mosaic, and such an eye is spoken of as an ap-
position eye. If the pigment is located more distally in
relation to the rhabdom, light from adjacent ommatidia
may reach a given rhabdom; this is a superposition eye.
In some insects that fIy both day and night, such as
moths, the migration of the pigment around an omma-
tidium operates somewhat like the iris of the human
eye: In bright light, the pigment migrates inward, sur-
rounding the rhabdom so that the only light reaching
the rhabdom is that coming through that ommatidium
(an apposition eye); in the dark, the pigment moves
outward, so that light from adjacent ommatidia can
also reach the rhabdom (a superposition eye). The time
 -- --

34 andDevelopmentof Insects
Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,

cna cna
I I
1 I
..-+---
I !

--- cc ---
/
/
pgc ¿ --
rh

snc

A B e D

Figure 2-29 Eye structure in insects (diagrammatic). A, Dorsal ocellus of an ant;

B, Lateral stemma of a caterpillar; C, Vertical section of part of a compound eye;
D, Ommatidium of a compound eye. bm, basement membrane; ee, crystalline cone; ena,
comea; enge, comeagenous cells; al, crystalline lens; cut, cuticle; ep, epidermis; pge,
pigment cells; ret, retina; rh, rhabdom; sne, sensory cells of retina. (B, C, Redrawn
from Snodgrass 1935, PrincipIesof Inseet Morphology,1993, Comell University Press;
D, Redrawn from Matheson 1951, Entomologyfor Introduetory Courses, 1947.)

required for this movement of the pigment varies in
different species. For the codling moth, it is fram 30 to
60 minutes.
Many immature insects (and some adults) lack
compound eyes, and in their place may be small groups
of visual organs similar to ocelli in external appearance
(Figure 2-29B). These are called stemmata (or some-
times lateral oeellí). These structures are quite varied in
their structure, but all appparently represent highly
modified compound eyes (see Paulus 1979). In most
larvae of Holometabola, the larval eyes degenerate dur-
ing metamorphosis and are replaced by new adult com-
pound eyes.
The flicker-fusion frequency in insects (the rate of
flicker at which the light appears continuous) is much
higher than in humans: 45 to 53 per second in humans
and up to 250 or more in insects. This higher rate
means that insects can perceive fonn even when in
rapid flight and that they are very sensitive to motion.
In some insects (for example, dragonflies), the omma-
tidia .of ope eye are oriented so that their axes intersect
with .thbse of the other eye,allowing steroscopic vi-
sion. If a dragonfly nymph is blinded in one eye, the
ny¡rtpli cannot judge the position of its prey very accu-
rately.
The range in wavelength to which insect eyes are
sensitive is fram about 2540 to 6000 Á, compared
with about 4500 to 7000 Á in humans. lnsects' visual
range is shifted to shorter wavelengths in comparison
to that of vertebrates. Many insects appear to be color
blind, but some can distinguish colors, including ul-
traviolet. The honey bee, for example, can distinguish
blue and yellow but cannot see red. Just how an insect
distinguishes different colors is not clear. There is ev-
idence it may result fram different retinal cells being
sensitive to light of different wavelengths. Some in-
sects (for example, the honey bee) are able to analyze
polarized light. Fram the pattern of polarization in a
small patch of sky, they can determine the position of
the sun. The head capsule of some weevils contains a
region that transmits only far-red and near-infrared
light. In the alfalfa weevil, Hypera postica, this ex-
traocular cutoff filter apparently works in conjunc-
tion with the compound eyes, enabling the insect to
use visual cues in locating and recognizing its host
planto
Other Sense Organs
lnsects usually have a well-developed temperature
sense. The sense organs involved are distributed over
the body but are more numerous on the antennae and
legs. Some insects also have a well-developed humidity
sense. The sensilla involved in these senses are quite
diverse in structure, and in many cases the relationship
between the observed structure and function is not
well understood (see Altner and Loftus 1985).

EndocrineSystem
Severalorgans in an insect are known to produce hor-
mones,the principal functions of which are the control
of the reproductive processes, molting, and metamor-
phosis. Chemicals similar to hormones of vertebrates,
includingandrogens, estrogens, and insulin, have been
detectedin insects, but their function is yet unknown.
The neurosecretory celIs in the brain are neurons
thatproduce one or more hormones that playa role in
growth, metamorphosis, and reproductive activities.
One of these, commonly calIed the brain honnone or
prothoracicotropichonnone (PTTH), plays an important
role in molting by stimulating a pair of glands in the
prothorax to produce the hormone ecdysone that
causes apolysis. Other hormones produced by the
brain may have other functions. For example, ento-
mologistsbelieve that a brain hormone plays a role in
caste determination in termites and in breaking dia-
pausein some insects.
Ecdysone (Figure 2-30A) initiates growth and de-
velopmentand causes apolysis. This hormone occurs
in all insects groups that have been studied, in crus-
taceans,and in arachnids, and it is probably the molt-
inghormone of alI arthropods. It also plays a role in the
differentiationof the ovarioles and accessory reproduc-
tiveglands in females and in several steps in the pro-
cessof egg production (oogenesis). Ecdysone, in fact,
is alsoproduced within the ovaries of insects.
Thecorpora alIata (Figure 2-26, ca) produce a hor-
monecalled the juvenile honnone üH) (Figure 2-30B),
theeffectof which is the inhibition of metamorphosis.
Various substances, particularly terpenes such as
famesol,show considerable juvenile hormonelike ac-
tivity.JH also has effects on other processes besides
the inhibition of metamorphosis. It is involved in
OH
HO
HO
o
A
o CH2-CH3
/ \ I I
CH3-CH2-C-CH- CH2-CH2- C=CH -CH2-CH2-C=CH
I I
CH3
B mones. A, Ecdysone; B,Juvenile hormone.
Reproductive Systems 35
vitelIogenesis, accessory reproductive gland activity,
pheromone production, and sexual behavior (see
Raabe 1986).
Substances chemicalIy related to ecdysone and ju-
venile hormone occur in certain plants and may pro-
tect the plants from feeding by insects. Chemical
analogs of ecdysone and juvenile hormone are being
studied to see whether they can function as new kinds
of insecticides.
Reproductive Systems
Internal Reproductive Systems
The internal reproductive system of the female (Fig-
ure 2-31A) consists of a pair of ovaries (ovy), a system
of ducts through which the eggs pass to the outside,
and associated glands. Each ovary generalIy consists of
a group of ovario les (ov1). These lead into the lateral
oviduct posteriorly (ovd) and unite anteriorly in a sus-
pensory ligament (51)that usualIy attaches to the body
walI or to the dorsal diaphragm. The number of ovari-
oles per ovary varies from 1 to 200 or more, but it is
usualIy in the range of 4 to 8. Oogonia (the primary
germ celIs) are located in the anterior apical portion of
the ovariole, the germarium. The oogonia undergo mi-
tosis, giving rise to the oocytes and trophocytes (or
nurse celIs; entomologists do not know what mecha-
nism determines which daughter celIs become oocytes
and which become trophocytes). Ovarioles in which
trophocytes are produced are calIed meroistic ovarioles;
no trophocytes are produced in panoistic ovario les.
The oocytes pass down through the ovario les, matur-
ing as they go. Thus the spatial sequence in the ovari-
ole reflects the temporal sequence of oocyte matura-
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
CH3
i3IBLIOTECA
2-30
COOCH3 Figure Structure of two insect hor-
l. --
...

36 Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,and Developmentof Insects

tion. The trophocytes may be connected to the oocyte
by cytoplasmic filaments and may remain in the ger-
marium (telotrophic ovario les) or pass down the ovar-
iole with each oocyte (in polytrophic ovario les). The
trophocytes are important in passing ribosomes and
RNA to the oocyte. An oocyte, the surrounding epithe-
lium, and trophocytes (in polytrophic ovario les) to-
gether form a folliele. Yolk proteins (vitellogenins) are
synthesized outside the ovariole and transported into
the oocyte by the follicular epithelium. In this region of
the ovariole Cthe vitellarium), the oocytes greatly in-
crease in size owing to the deposition of yolk Cthe pro-
cess of vitellogenesis). Yolk consists of protein bodies
(largely derived from hemolymph proteins), lipid
droplets, and glycogen. Many insects harbor microor-
ganisms in their bodies, and in some cases these may
get into the egg during its developmeOl, usually
through the folliele cells. The maturation divisions of
the oocyte may occur at about the end of vitellogenesis
or even after insemination, resulting in eggs with the
haploid number of chromosomes. In the lower portion
of the ovariole, a vitelline membrane forms around the
oocyte, and the follicular epithelium secretes the
chorion (or eggshell) around the mature oocyte.
In many insects, all or most of the oocytes mature
before any are laid, and the egg-swollen ovaries may
occupy a large part of the body cavity and may even
distend the abdomen. The two lateral oviducts usually
unite posteriorly to form a single common (or median)
oviduct, which enlarges posteriorly iOlo a genital
chamber or vagina. The vagina extends to the outside,
the opening being called either the ovipore (in reference
to the opening through which the eggs are laid) or
vulva (the copulatory opening). Because the vagina
usually also receives the male genitalia during copula-
tion, it is sometimes known as the bursa copulatrix. As-
sociated with the vagina are usually a saelike structure
called the spermatheca, in which spermatozoa are
stored, and often various accessory glands, which may
secrete adhesive material to fasten the eggs to some ob-

spt
I
I

A B

Figure 2-31 Reproductive systems of insects. A, Female reproductive system; B, Male

reproductive system. acg, accessory gland; aed, aedeagus; covd, common oviduct; ejd,
ejaculatory duct; ovd, oviduct; ovl, ovariole; ovy, ovary; sI, suspensory ligament; smv, sem-
inal vesicle; spt, sperm tube; spth, spermatheca; spthg, spermathecal gland; tst, testis; vag,
genital chamber or vagina; vd, vas deferens; ve, vas efferens. (Redrawn from Snodgrass
1935, PrincipIesoflnsect Morphology,1993, Comell University Press.)
-
ject orprovidematerialthat covers the eggmass with a
protectivecoating.
In many Lepidoptera (the Ditrysia), there are two
openings to the reproductive tract of the female. The
commonoviduct leads to the vagina and the ovipore to
the outside on segment 9. During copulation, however,
the male places his genitalia and deposits the sper-
matophore in a separate opening, the vulva, on seg-
ment8. The vulva leads to the bursa copulatrix, which
is connected to the vagina and thence to the sperma-
thecabya spermduct, through which the spermatozoa
mustmove.
Egg development is usually complete about the
timethe adult stage is reached, but in some cases it is
completed later. In those aphids in which the female
gives birth to living young parthenogenetically, the
eggsare matured and development begins before the
adultstage is reached. In the beetle genus Micromalthus,
the eggs are matured and begin their development
(withoutfertilization) in the ovaries of the larvae, and
arepassed to the outside (as either eggs or larva e) be-
forethe mother becomes an adult. In the cecidomyiid
genusMiastor, egg development is also completed in
the larval stage, but in this case the young larvae
(whichhave developed parthenogenetically) break out
of the ovaries inlo the body cavity and develop there.
Theyeventually rupture the cutiele of the mother larva
and escape to the outside. Reproduction by a preadult
stageis called paedogenesis.
Eggproduction appears to be controlled in many
insectsby one or more hormones from the corpora al-
lata,incIuding juvenile hormone (Figure 2-30B), that
act by controlling the initial stages of oogenesis and
yolkdeposition. Removal of the corpora allata prevents
nonnal egg formation, and their reimplantation (from
either a male or a female) induces ovarian activity
again.The corpora allata have nerve connections with
thebrain, and nerve impulses affect their activity. Re-
searchersalso believe that (at least in some cases) neu-
rosecretorycells in the brain may produce a hormone
thataffects the activity of the corpora allata. Many ex-
ternalfactors (for example, photoperiod and tempera-
ture)affect egg production, and these factors probably
actthroughthe corpora allata.
Thereproductive system of the male (Figure 2-31B)
issimilarin general arrangement to that of the female.
It consistsof a pair of gonads, the testes, ducts to the
outside,and accessory glands. Each testis (tst) con-
sistsof a group of sperm tubes (spt) or follieles sur-
rounded by a peritoneal sheath. Each sperm folliele
opensinto a short connecting tube, the vas efferens
(ve;plural, vasa efferentia), and these connect lo a
singlevas deferens (vd; plural, vasa deferentia) on
eachside of the animal. The two vasa deferentia usu-
allyunite posteriorly to form a median ejaculatory
Reproductive Systems 37
duct (ejd), which opens to the outside on a penis or an
aedeagus (aed). Some insects have an enlargement of
or a lateral diverticulum fram each vas deferens in
which spermatozoa are stored. These are called semi-
nal vesicles(smv). The accessory glands (acg) secrete
fluids that serve as a carrier for the spermatozoa or
that harden about them to form a sperm-containing
capsule, the spermatophore.
The sperm begin their development in the distal
(anterior) ends of the sperm follieles of the testes and
continue development as they pass toward the vas ef-
ferens. The processes of spermatogenesis (production
of haploid germ cells fram diploid spermatogonia) is
usually completed by the time the insect reaches the
adult stage or very shortly thereafter.
The spermatozoa of insects come in an almost be-
wildering variety of shapes and sizes, often differing
quite strikingly fram the typical tadpole-shaped cells
one thinks of (see jamieson 1987). One notable char-
acteristic is that the flagellum, or axoneme, is made up
of the typical 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules char-
acteristic of flagella and ciba, but in addition has an
outer ring of 9 single microtubules that are derived
from the ring of 9 doublets. This 9 + 9 + 2 arrange-
ment is characteristic of hexapods as a whole. In addi-
tion to the more familiar threadlike or tadpolelike cells,
some hexapods have spermatozoa with two flagella in-
stead of one, cells in which the axoneme is "encysted"
so that they are immobile, and, in some Protura, even
simple disk-shaped immobile cells. Among species of
Drosophila, the spermatozoa range in length from
about 55 ¡Lmto 15 mm (the total body length of the fa-
miliar D. melanogaster is less than 5 mm)!
External Genitalia
The external genitalia of most insects are generally
thought to be derived from appendages of abdominal
segments 8, 9, and possibly 10. The male genitalia are
primarily organs involved with copulation and the
transfer of sperm to the female. The female genitalia
are involved in depositing the eggs on or in a suitable
substrate. These structures are called external genitalia
even though they may be retracted within the apical
abdominal segments when not in use and are often (es-
pecially in the male) not visible without dissection.
The appendicular ovipositor of pterygote insects is
believed to have evolved from a structure similar to
that now found in the female genitalia in the Thysa-
nura (Figure 2-32A). This consists of an ovipositor,
which is formed fram the appendages (gonopods) of
segments 8 and 9. The first gonocoxa (the first valvifer,
from segment 8, gcx¡) articulates dorsally with tergum 8;
the second gonocoxa (second valvifer, from segment 9,
gcx2) articulates with tergum 9. Laterally, the gono-
-~
38 Chapter2 TheAnatomy.Physiology.and Developmentof Insects

atb

gpl

I gap,
I
I
,
A gcx,
B

Figure2-32 Ovipositor of insects. A, Ovipositor of Thysanura, ventral view; B, Ovipos-

itor of a leafhopper, lateral view with parts spread out; C, Secondary ovipositor of
Mecoptera, lateral view.atb, anal tube; gcx" first gonocoxa; gcx2,second gonocoxa; gap"
first gonapophysis; gap2,second gonapophysis; gpl, gonoplac; gst¡, first gonostylus; gst2,
second gonostylus. (A, C, Redrawn from Snodgrass 1935, Principies oIInsect Morphology,
1993, Comell University Press.)

coxae bear styli, the gonostyli; these are presumably
serial homologs of the styli on the pregenital segments
and thus represent the derived telopods of the primi-
tive abdominal appendages. Medially each gonocoxa
bears an elongate process known as a gonapophysis
(also called a valvula); the second gonapophyses (gap2,
segment 9) lie above the first gonapophyses (gapi, seg-
ment 8), and together these form the shaft of the
ovipositor (ovp). Coordination of the movement of
these four elongate structures is achieved by two mech-
anisms. First, the two gonapophyses on each side are
connected by a tongue-in-groove mechanism known as
an olistheter. In addition, a small scIerite on each side,
the gonangulum, articulates with the second gonocoxa
(from which it is derived), the first gonapophysis, and
tergum 9. Again, this interconnects the movements of
the first and second gonapophyses on each side.
In the pterygote insects that retain an appendicular
ovipositor, the first gonostylus is lost, and the second
gonocoxa is elongate (perhaps incorporating remnants
of the second gonostylus) to form a sheathlike outer
covering for the ovipositor shaft, the gonoplacs (also
known as the third valvulae, Figure 2-328, gpl). In most
insects, the gonoplacs serve both a protective and a sen-
sory function and are not involved in penetrating the
substrate in order to oviposit. In the Orthoptera, how-
ever, the gonoplacs are cutting or digging structures,
taking over the function of the second gonapophyses,
which are smaller and function as egg guides.
There are a number of modifications of this basic
appendicular ovipositor structure within the ptery-
gotes, but the most generalized condition is found in
some Odonata, Hemiptera (Auchenorrhyncha), Or-
thoptera, and Hymenoptera. In many Holometabola,
the appendicular components of the ovipositor are very
much smaller and are not involved in oviposition. In-
stead, the terminal abdominal segments form a tele-
scoping tube, called the pseudovipositor or oviscapt, which
the female extends when ovipositing (Figure 2-32C). In
some cases, such as tephritid flies, this type of oviposi-
tor bears apical cutting plates, enabling the female to
place her eggs deep within a suitable substrate.
The external genitalia of male insects show such
incredible diversity that it has been difficult for ento-
mologists to infer the primitive structures from which
they evolved and to homologize the parts in different
orders. The genitalia of the Thysanura and Microco-
ryphia are generally similar to that of the females,
but with an additional median penis derived from
segment 10 (Figure 2-33A). However, the mal e geni-
-
I
,/,
A B
Figure2-33 A, Male genitalia of Machilidae, ventral
view;B, External genitalia of pterygotes (diagrammatic).
ard,aedeagus; gap2' second gonapophysis; pmr, paramere;
phtr,phallotreme. (A, Redrawn from Snodgrass 1935,
PrincipIes01[nsectMorphology, 1993, Comell University
Press;B,Redrawnfrom Snodgrass 1951.)
taliaof silverfish and bristletails are not involved with
eopulation.In these insects as well as the entognathous
hexapods,sperm transfer is indirect: The male places
hisspermatophore or a sperm droplet on the substrate,
andthe female actively places it in her gonopore. The
penisof lepismatids is used to spin a silken web on
whichthespermatophore is placed.
Thereis considerable debate conceming the origin
. ofthemale genitalia in pterygotes. Some entomologists
eontendthat they are derived from the appendages of
segment9 alone, and some include both these ap-
pendagesand the penis of segment 10 (as seen in
maehiloidsand lepismatoids). Snodgrass (1957) held
thatthe genitalia are derived from outgrowths of ster-
num10. In very general terms, the genitalia consist of
outerclasping organs and a median intromittant organ
(Figure2-33B). The outer claspers, or parameres
(pmr),may arise from a common base, the gonobase or
basal ring (gb). The median intromittant organ is the
aedeagus(aed). The opening of the aedeagus through
whichthe spermatophore or the semen passes is the
phallotreme(phtr). In many species, the ejaculatory
duetisevertedthrough the phallotreme during copula-
lion;this eversible lining is called the endophallus. Such
diversityexists in the structure and nomenclature of
themale genitalia that it is beyond the scope of this
bookto describe them in more detail (see Tuxen 1970
foranorder-by-order account of genitalic structure and
thenomenclature used). This diversity of structure is
veryuseful in identifying many groups of insects at the
specieslevel; such identification usually requires dis-
seetionand mounting of the genitalia for closer study.
Development and Metamorphosis 39
Development and Metamorphosis
Sex Determination
The chromosomes of insects (as well as other animals)
usually occur in pairs, but in one sex the members of
one pair do not match or are represented by one chro-
mosome only. The chromosomes of this odd pair are
called sex chromosomes; those of the other pairs, auto-
somes. In most insects, the males has just one X (sex)
chromosome (and is called heterogametic) and the fe-
male has two (homogametic). The male condition is gen-
erally referred to as XO (if only one chromosome in this
pair is present) or XY Cthe y chromosome being differ-
ent in size or shape from the X chromosome), and the fe-
male as XX CtwoX chromosomes). One major exception
to this generalization is in the Lepidoptera; in most
species in this order, it is the female that is heteroga-
metic (the WZJZZ system, females are WZ, males ZZ).
The autosomes appear to contain genes for
"maleness," whíle the X chromosomes contain genes
for "femaleness." More accurately, it seems the sex is
determined by the balance between these two groups
of genes. With two autosomes of each pair and only
one X chromosome, the genes for maleness predomi-
nate and the animal becomes a maleo With two auto-
somes of each pair and two X chromosomes, the
genes for femaleness predominate and the animal be-
comes a female.
Sex is determined a httle differently in the Hy-
menoptera and a few other insects. In these insects, the
males are generally haploid (only very rarely diploid),
and the females are diploid. The males develop from
unfertilized eggs and the females develop from fertíl-
ized eggs (a type of parthenogenesis called arrheno-
toky). Just how a haploid condition produces a male
and a diploid condition produces a female is less well
understood, but geneticists beheve that sex in these in-
sects depends on a series of multiple alleles (Xa, Xb, Xc,
and so on): haploids and homozygous diploids (Xa/Xa,
Xb/Xb, Xc/Xc, and so on) are males, whíle heterozygous
diploids (Xa/Xb, Xc/Xd, and so on) only are females.
Parthenogenetic development producing females
occurs in many insects (this type is called thelytoky). In
some of these species, males are relatively rare or are
unknown. These insects usually have the XO or XY
male and XX female sex-determining mechanism,
which means that either the eggs faíl to undergo meio-
sis and are diploid or they do undergo meiosis and two
cleavage nuclei fuse to restore the diploid condition.
Some insects (for example, gall wasps and aphids) pro-
duce both males and females parthenogenetically (at
certain seasons). The production of a male apparently
involves the 1055of an X chromosome, and the pro-
duction of a female involves either a fusion of two

40 Chapter 2 The Anatomy, Physiology, and Development of Insects
cleavage nuclei to restore the diploid condition or
diploid eggs arising from tetraploid germ tissue.
Recent research has revealed the widespread pres-
ence of the bacterium Wohlbachia in a great diversity of
insects. In some cases, the bacterium kills embryos that
would develop into males.
Individual insects sometimes develop with aber-
rant sex characters. lndividuals having some male tis-
sues and some female tissues are called gynandro-
morphs; such individuals sometimes occur in the
Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera. In the Hymenoptera,
where the sex-determining mechanism is haploidy =
male and diploidy = female, a gynandromorph may
develop from a binucleate egg in which only one of the
nuclei is fertilized or may develop when an extra sperm
E
F
,
enters the egg and undergoes cleavage to produce hap-
loid (male) tissue in an otherwise female individual.
lndividuals with a sexual condition intermediate be-
tween maleness and femaleness are called intersexes.
These usually result from gene tic imbalance, particu-
lady in polyploids (for example, a triploid Drosophila
with an XXY sex chromosome content is an intersex
and is sterile).
Eggs
The eggs of different insects vary greatly in appearance
(Figures 2-34 through 2-36). Most eggs are spherical,
oval, or elongate (Figure 2-34B,C,G), but some are
barrel shaped (Figure 2-35), some are disk shaped, and
Figure 2-34 lnsect eggs. A, Fall army-
worm, Spodopterafrugiperda O. E. Smith);
B, Grape leaf-folder, Desmiafuneralis
(Hübner); C, Southern corn rootworm,
Diabroticaundecimpunctata howardi Barber;
D, Horse bot fly,Gasterophilusintestinalis
(De Geer); E, Snowy tree cricket, Oecanthus
fultoni Walker; F,Anopheles mosquito;
G, Seedcorn maggot, Hylemya platura
(Meigen); H, Culex mosquito, egg raft;
1, Lacewing, Chrysopa sp.;], Fall canker-
worm, Alsophila pometaria (Harris). (A-C,
1, courtesy of USDA;], courtesy of Ohio
Agricultural Research and Development
Center.)
 Development and Metamorphosis 41

.. $c::
u'"

- EQ)
E
c.
o

~ ,.
~
""
,. -.. a;>
'"
C>
"O
c::
'"
.<::
f:!
.( .J( '"
~
Q)
J( c::
-¡¡;
i:i
B
o§,
«
o
E
C>

Figure2-35 Eggs of a stink bug.

so on. The egg is covered with a shell that varies in

thickness,sculpturing, and color: Many eggs are pro-
videdwith characteristic ridges, spines, or other pro-
cesses,and some are brightly colored.
Most insect eggs are laid in a situation where they
areafforded some protection or where the young, on
hatching,will have suitable conditions for develop-
ment.Many insects enclose their eggs in some sort of
protectivematerial. Cockroaches, mantids, and other
insectsenclose their eggs in an egg case or capsule. The
tentcaterpillars cover their eggs with a shellaclike ma-
terial.The gypsy moth lays its eggs in a mass of its
bodyhairs. Grasshoppers, june beetles, and other in-
sectslay their eggs in the ground. Tree crickets insert
theireggsin plant tissues (Figure 2-34E). Most plant-
feedinginsects lay their eggs on the food plant of the
young.Insects whose immature stages are aquatic usu-
allylay their eggs in or near water, often attaching
themto objects in the water. Parasitic insects usually
laytheir eggs in or on the body of the host. Some
insectsdeposit their eggs singly, whereas others lay
their eggs in characteristic groups or masses (Fig-
ures2-34H,j, and 2-35). The number laid varies from
onein certain aphids to many thousands in some of the
socialinsects, but most insects lay from 50 to a few
hundredeggs.
Most insects are oviparous; that is, the young
hatchfram the eggs after they have been laido In a few
insects,the eggs develop within the body of the female,
andliving young are deposited. The extreme in this
caseis seen in the sheep ked, for example: The female
flyretainsthe egg and larva within her body for an ex-
tendedperiod of time. When parturition ("birth") 6-
nallyoccurs, the larva almost immediately burrows in
Figure2-36 Egg of a cIearwing moth (Sesiidae). A, Egg
of Podosesiasyringae (Harris), 50 X; B, Same, showing de-
tail of egg surface, 290 x. (Courtesy of the Ohio Agricul-
tural Research and Development Center.)
the ground and pupates. Thus the only active feeding
stage is the adult parasitic fly.
Embryonic Development
The egg of an insect is a cell with two outer coverings,
a thin vitelline membrane surrounding the cytoplasm
and an outer chorion. The chorion, which is the hard
outer shell of the egg, has a minute pore or set of pores
(the micropyle) at one end, through which sperm en-
ter the egg (Figure 2-37A). just inside the vitelline
membrane is a layer of cortical cytoplasm. The central
portion of the egg, inside the cortical cytoplasm, is
largely yolk.
Most insect eggs undergo what is termed superfi-
cial cleavage. The early cleavages involve only the nu-
cleus, giving rise to daughter nuclei scattered through
the cytoplasm (Figure 2-37B). Eventually these nuclei
migrate to the periphery of the egg (to the layer of cor-
tical cytoplasm). After nuclear migration, the periph-
-..

42 Chapter2 TheAnatomy.Physiology.and Developmentof Insects

mcp
I
I
I
cpl- -
nu, á1T!F.~~~
\.
\ 0:r~:.~~~~~.
.'. :",
,cho
;"
\-, .(...
~:";Ht~~{~;~j;:;\
~
o:.Y.. 0";:,('.'~:
. .'

?e: --vm bl
B .....
i}/¡
~;~I:'/}.

- -yc
.?¡t;;~ " cpl
::..:~.~.:::,

;.e~~~.:.

A
e

Figure2-37 A, Diagram of a typical insect egg; 8, Early cleavage; C, Peripheral blasto-

derm layer formed. bl, blastoderm; cho, chorion; cnu, cleavage nuclei; cpl, cortical cyto-
plasm; gel, germ cells; mcp, micropyle; nu, nucleus; vm, vitelline membrane; yc, yolk cells;
yo, yolk. (Redrawn from Snodgrass 1935, PrincipIesoflnsect Morphology. 1993, Comell
University Press.)

eral cytoplasm becomes subdivided into cells, usually
each with one nucleus, forming a celllayer, the blasto-
derm (Figure 2-37C, bl). This is the blastula stage.
Within the blastoderm, in the mass of yolk material,
are a few cells that do not take pan in forming the blas-
toderm; these consist mainly of yolk cells.
The blastoderm cells on the ventral side of the egg
enlarge and thicken, forming a germ band or ventral
plate that will eventually form the embryo. The re-
maining cells of the blastoderm become the serosa and
(later) the amnion. The germ band differentiates into a
median area or middle plate and two lateral areas, the
lateral plates (Figure 2-38A). The gastrula stage begins
when the mesoderm is formed from the middle in
one of three ways: by an invagination of this plate (fig-
ure 2-38B,C), by the lateral plates growing over it (Fig-
ure 2-38D,E), or by a proliferation of ceIls from its in-
ner surface (Figure 2-38F). CeIls proliferate from each
end of the mesoderm and eventuaIly grow around the
yolk. These cells represent the beginnings of the endo-
derm, and they form the lining of what wiIl be the
midgut of the insect (Figure 2-39). From the three
germ layers--ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm-
the various organs and tissues of the insect develop: the
ectoderm gives rise to the body waIl, tracheal system,
nervous system, Malpighian tubules, and anterior and
posterior ends of the alimentary tract; the mesoderm
gives rise to the muscular system, heart, and gonads;
the endoderm develops into the midgut.3
The alimentary tract is formed by invaginations
from each end of the embryo, which extend to and
unite with the primitive midgut (Figure 2-39). The an-
terior invagination becomes the foregut, the posterior
invagination becomes the hindgut, and the central part
(lined with endoderm) becomes the midgut. The cells
lining the foregut and hindgut are ectodermal in origin
and secrete cuticle.
Body segmentation becomes evident fairly early in
embryonic development, appearing first in the anterior
pan of the body. It involves ectoderm and mesoderm,
3Note that these embryonic tissues, in particular, the so-called endo-
derm, may not be homologous to that of deuterostomes.
...

Development and Metamorphosis 43

Figure2-38 Cross-section diagrams show-

ing mesoderm formation in insects. A, Germ
I
LP
- , -. L. -....ect band differentiated into middle and lateral
'mdp
A B e plates; B, C, Stages in mesoderm formation
by invagination of middle plate; D, E, Stages
in mesoderm formation by lateral plates
growing over middle plate; F, Mesoderm for-
mation by internal proliferation from middle
plate. bl, blastoderm; eet, ectoderm; mdp,
middle plate; LP, lateral plate; msd, meso-
, - ---., - -, "- derm. (Redrawn from Snodgrass 1935, Prin-
LP ciples of Inseet Morphology, 1993, Cornell
'mdp 'ect 'ect
O E F University Press.)

yo
but not endoderm, and is reflected in the segmental I
/
arrangement of the struetures developing from these
germlayers (nervous system, heart, tracheal system,
and appendages). The appendages appear soon after
segmentationbecomes evident. Typically, each segment
beginsto develop a pair of appendages, but most of
theseare resorbed and do not develop further.
Ihe molecular mechanisms governing the pattern
.,.,. f'..,<.? o c~ Q C)rJ o 0::..~
ofdevelopment in embryos is a particulariy active area
ofresearch.The initial orientation of the embryo is me- f.<jl)}.;/:r.:\?(H~;'{2}
diatedby proteins derived from maternal RNA in the
~~.<;>.o~)~)(?'¡?S-:(~ . ' endr
egg.Subsequently, a hierarchy of genes are transcribed B
thatdefine the segmentation pattern in the embryo. Of
particular interest are the homeobox genes, or HOX
genes.In the insects that have been studied, there are
eightHOXgenes. In Drosophila, these are alllocated on
chromosome3 and oceur in the order lab, pb, dfd, ser,
antp,ubx, abd-A and abd-B. These abbreviations stand e
std,
forlabial,proboscidea, deformed, sex combs reduced, an- "-
"-
tennapedia,ultrabithorax, abdomen-A, and abdomen-B.
These genesare differentiallyexpressed in the embryo,
bothinspaceand time, and are cruciaI to defining seg-
11'1o=='Io~'
mentsand in the subsequent differentiation of limbs.
Theymay well have further developmentaI roles that /
mo
o \mg
havenot yet been cleariy defined. The interest, from an
evolutionarypoint of view, arises beca use very similar
genesare found in distantly related phyla, implying an Figure2-39 Diagrams showing the formation of the ali-
ancientevolutionary origino Further, the expression of mentary canal. A, Early stage in which the endoderm is
thesegenes and their enhaneers have provided further represented by rudiments; B, C, Development of endo-
testsof hypotheses concerning the homology of struc- derm around yoIk; D, CompIetion of alimentary canal. ans,
tures,for example, the mandibles in Crustacea, Myri- anus; eet, ectoderm; mdr, endodermal rudiments; mg,
apoda,and Hexapoda. midgut; mo, mouth; ms, mesoderm; prct, proctodaeum; std,
At some time eariy in its development, the embryo stomodaeum or foregut;yo, yoIk. (Redrawn from Snodgrass
becomessurrounded by two membranes, an inner am- 1935, Principies of Insect Morphology, 1993, Cornell Uni-
nionand an outer serosa. Later it aequires a cuticular versity Press.)
.'f.~
44 Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,and Developmentof Insects
membrane secreted by the epidermis. The formation of
the amnion and serosa sometimes involves a reversal of
position of the embryo in the egg; the embryo turns taíl
first into the yolk, away from the blastoderm. This
turning carries part of the extraembryonic blastoderm
into the yolk, and when the turning is complete, the
opening into the embryonic cavity is closed. The ex-
traembryonic blastoderm thus forms a lining (the am-
nion) around the embryonic cavity, and the outer part
of the blastoderm, which surrounds the egg, becomes
the serosa. The embryo later returns to its original po-
sition on the ventral side of the egg. In other cases the
amnion and serosa are formed by folds of the blasto-
derm, which grow out from the edge of the germ band
and unite beneath it. These membranes usually disap-
pear before the embryo is ready to leave the egg. Cu-
ticular coverings of the embryo (sometimes called
pronymphal membranes) occur in insects with simple
metamorphosis and in a few with complete metamor-
phosis. These are shed, by a process akin to molting,
before or very shortly after hatching.
A young insect may escape from the egg in various
ways. Most insects with mandibulate mouthparts chew
their way out of the egg. Many insects have what are
called egg-bursters: spinelike, knifelike, or sawlike pro-
cesses on the dorsal side of the head-which are used
in breaking through the eggshell. The eggshell is some-
times broken along weakened lines, either by the wrig-
gling of the insect within or by the insect taking in air
and rupturing the shell by internal pressure. The
hatching from the egg is called eclosion.
Polyembryony is the development of two or more
embryos from a single egg. It occurs in some of the par-
asitic Hymenoptera and in the Strepsiptera. In the em-
bryonic development of such an insect, the dividing nu-
cleus forms cell clusters, each of which develops into an
embryo. The number of embryos that grow to maturity
in a given host depends on the relative sizes of the par-
asite larvae and the host. In some cases, there are more
parasite larvae than the food supply (the body contents
of the host) can support, and some of them die and may
be eaten by the surviving larvae. The number of young
from a single egg varies in Maaocentrus (Braconidae)
from 16 to 24, but in M. ancylivorus Rohwer only one
parasite larva leaves the host. In Platygaster (Platy-
gastridae) from 2 to 18 larvae develop from a single egg,
and in Aphelopus (Dryinidae) from 40 to 60 develop
from a single egg; in some of the Encyrtidae, more than
1500 young develop from a single egg.
Postembryonic Growth
Having an exoskeleton presents a problem as far as
growth is concerned. To function as an exoskeleton,
r." , the insect's body wall must be.relatively rigid, but if it
..!\'. ,¡P..' .'"
.
is rigid, it cannot expand very mucho Therefore, as the
insect grows or increases in size, the exoskeleton must
be periodically shed and replaced with a larger one.
The process of digesting portions of the old cuticle and
synthesizing the new cuticle is called molting (also
spelled moulting), which culminates in the shedding of
the old cuticle (ecdysis).
The molt involves not only the cuticle of the body
'vall but also the cuticular linings of the tracheae,
foregut, and hindgut and the endoskeletal structures.
The tracheal linings usually remain attached to the
body wall when it is shed. The linings of the foregut
and hindgut usually break up, and the pieces are
passed out through the anus. The tentorium usually
breaks into four pieces, which are withdrawn through
the tentorial pits during the molt. The cast skins, called
exuviae, often retain the shape of the insects from
which they were shed.
The initial stages in the molting cycle are triggered
by the release of PTTH (brain hormone) from neurose-
cretory cells in the brain. This stimulates the protho-
racic glands (also sometimes called the molting glands)
to release ecdysone into the hemolymph. Ecdysone, in
turn, stimulates the separation of the old cuticle from
the under1ying epidermis, a process known as apolysis.
The epidermis undergoes mitosis and grows in size; af-
ter this, the new cuticle is produced. Molting fluid se-
creted from the epidermal cells contains enzymes that
digest the old endocuticle (but do not affect the epicu-
ticle or exocuticle), and as a new cuticle is being de-
posited, the digestive products are resorbed into the
body. Once this new exoskeleton is complete, the in-
sect is ready to shed or break out of the old one. Ecdy-
sis is triggered by a molting hormone, and begins with
a splitting of the old cuticle along lines of weakness,
usually in the midline of the dorsal side of the thorax.
The rupturing force is pressure of the hemolymph (and
sometimes air or water), forced into the thorax by con-
traction of the abdominal muscles. This split in the
thorax grows, and the insect eventually wriggles its
way out of the old cuticle.
When it first emerges from the old cuticle, the in-
sect is pale in color, and its cuticle is 50ft. Within an
hour or two, the exocuticle begins to harden and
darken. During this brief period, the insect enlarges to
the size of that instar, usually by taking in air or water.
The wings (if present) are expanded by forcing he-
molymph into their veins. The alimentary tract often
serves as a reservoir of the air used in this expansion:
If the crop of a cockroach, for example, is punctured
with a needle, the insect does not expand but collapses;
if the wing tips of an emerging dragonfly are cut off,
hemolymph escapes from the cut end and the wings
faíl to expand. In addition to allowing the cuticle to ex-
pand, this period between ecdysis and hardening of the
~
cuticleallows insects that pupa te in the soil, for exam-
pIe,to crawl to the surface, there to expand the cuticle.
Insomespecies,researchershave identified a proteina-
ceoushormone, bursicon, that controls the process of
sclerotization.
Ihe number of molts varies among most insects
fram4 to 8, but some of the Odonata undergo 10 or 12
molts,and some of the Ephemeroptera may undergo as
manyas 28 molts. A few hexapods, such as the ento-
gnathousorders, silverfish, and bristletails, continue to
moltafter reaching the adult stage, but winged insects
neithermolt nor increase in size once the adult stage is
reached.(Mayfiies have a sexually immature winged
instarpreceding the adult, the subimago, that molts.)
Ihe stage of the insect between ecdyses is generally
calledan instar.The first instar is between hatching and
thefirstlarval or nymphal molt; the second instar is be-
tweenthe first and second molts; and so on. However,
thefull process of molting is not instantaneous. There
is a period of time, usually short, but sometimes very
long,between apolysis and ecdysis during which the
nextinstar of the insect is "hidden" within the old cuti-
eIe.Hinton (1971) suggested that the term instar be
usedto refer to period of time from one apolysis to the
next,and he proposed the term pharate instar to refer to
theinsectduring the time between apolysis and ecdysis.
Inmanycases this time period is sufficiently short that
littleconfusion arises concerning which event signals
the end of one instar and the beginning of the next.
However,in some, such as the cyclorrhaphous Diptera,
thedistinction is important. In these fiies, larval-pupal
apolysisis not followed by an immediate ecdysis. In-
stead,the last larval cuticle is hardened to form a sort of
cocoon withinwhich lies the pharate pupa. Full devel-
opmentof the pupa is followed by the pupal-adult
apolysis.The adult cuticle is then formed, and at that
pointecdysis occurs with the adult fiy shedding both
thelastlarval and pupal cuticle at the same time.
Ihe increase in size at each molt varies in different
speciesand in different body parts and can be infiu-
A B e D
Development and Metamorphosis 45
enced by a number of environmental conditions. In
many insects, however, the increase generally follows a
geometric progression. The increase in the width of the
larval head capsule in Lepidoptera, for example, is of-
ten a factor of 1.2 to 1.4 at each molt (Dyar's rule). In
species where the individual molts are not actually ob-
served, Dyar's rule can sometimes be applied to head
capsule measurements of a series of different-sized lar-
vae to estimate the number of instars.
Metamorphosis
Most insects change in form during postembryonic de-
velopment, and the different instars are not all alike.
This change is called metamorphosis. Some insects un-
dergo very little change in form, and the young and
adults are very similar except for size (Figures 2-40 and
2-41). In other cases the young and adults are quite dif-
ferent, in habits as well as in form (Figure 2-42).
There is quite a bit of variation in the metamor-
phosis occurring in different insect groups, but these
variations can be roughly grouped into two general
types: simple metamorphosis and complete metamor-
phosis. In simple metamorphosis, the wings (if any)
develop externally during the immature stages, and
there is ordinarily no quiescent stage preceding the last
molt (Figures 2-40 and 2-41). In complete metamor-
phosis, the wings (if any) develop internally during the
immature stages, and a quiescent or pupal stage nor-
mally precedes the last molt (Figure'2-42). The pupal
stage is quiescent in that the insect at this time ordi-
narily does not move around, but a very considerable
amount of change (lo the adult) is taking place in this
stage.
The changes during metamorphosis are accom-
plished by two processes, histolysis and histogenesis.
Histolysis is a process whereby larval structures break
down into material that can be used in developing
adult structures. Histogenesis is the process of devel-
oping the adult structures from the products of histol-
Figure 2-40 Stages in the
development of the straw-
berry aphid, Chaetosiphonfra-
gaefolii (CockereIl). A, First
instar; B, Second instar;
C, Third instar; D, Fourth
instar; E, Adult female.
(Courtesy of Baerg and
Arkansas AgriculturaI
Experiment Station.)
E
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA

9.
46 Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,and Developmentof Insects
..
~
e
D
E
F
Figure 2-41 Stages in the development of the grass bug, Arhyssus sidae (Fabricius).
A, Egg; B, First instar; C, Second instar; D, Third instar; E, Fourth instar; F, Fifth instar;
G, Adult female. (Courtesy of Readio 1928 and the Entomological Society of America.)
ysis. The chief source s of material for histogenesis are
the hemolymph, fat body, and histolyzed tissues such
as larval muscles. Ectodermal structures, such as wings
and legs, develop beneath the larval cuticle as epider-
mal thickenings called imaginal discs. These tissues re-
spond quite differently from other larval tissues to the
hormonal milieu of the insect. In the late larval instars,
these tissues are elaborated to form the adult struc-
tures, and when the insect pupates, they are everted
(hence one name for holometabolous insects, the En-
dopterygota, referring to the development of the wings
inside the body of the larva). Other organs may be re-
tained from the larva to the adult or may be completely
rebuilt from regenerative cells.
Simple Metamorphosis
The young of insects with this type of metamorphosis
are called nymphs' and are usually very similar to the
adults. If compound eyes are present in the adult, they
are present in the nymph. If the adults are winged, the
wings appear as budlike outgrowths in the eariy instars
(Figure 2-41) and increase in size only slightly up to
the last molt. After the last molt, the wings expand to
their full adult size. Simple metamorphosis occurs in
the hexapod orders 1 to 22 (see list, Chapter 6).
Differences in the kind and amount of change oc-
cur in the insects with simple metamorphosis, and
some entomologists recognize three types of metamor-
phosis in these insects: ametabolous, paurometabolous,
and hemimetabolous. Ametabolous insects (with "no"
metamorphosis) are wingless as adults, and the only ob-
vious difference between nymphs and adults is size.
This type of development occurs in the apterygote or-
4 In the European literature of entomology, the immature stages of all
insects are generallyreferred to as larvae.
,
G
ders (Protura, Collembola, Diplura, Microcoryphia, and
Thysanura) and in most wingless members of the other
orders with simple metamorphosis. In hemimetabolous
metamorphosis (with "incomplete" metamorphosis),
the nymphs are aquatic and gill-breathing and differ
considerably from the adults in appearance. This type of
development occurs in the Ephemeroptera, Odonata,
and Plecoptera, and the young of these insects are
sometimes called naiads. Paurometabolous insects
(with "gradual" metamorphosis) include the remaining
insects with simple metamorphosis. The adults are
winged; the nymphs and adults live in the same habitat;
and the principal changes during growth are in size,
body proportions, the development of the ocelli, and
occasionally the form of other structures.
Complete Metamorphosis
The immature and adult stages of insects that undergo
complete metamorphosis are usually quite different in
form, often live in different habitats, and have very dif-
ferent habits. The early instars are often more or less
wormlike, and the young in this stage are called larvae
(Figures 2-42 and 2-43). The different larval instars
are usually similar in form but differ in size. The wings,
when they are present in the adult, develop intemally
during the larval stage and are not everted until the end
of the last larval instar. Larvae generally have chewing
mouthparts, even in those orders in which the adults
have sucking mouthparts.
Following the last larval instar, the insect trans-
forms into a stage called the pupa (Figure 2-44). The
insect does not feed in this stage and is usually inac-
tive. Pupae are often covered by a cocoon or some
other protective material, and many insects pass the
winter in the pupal stage. The final molt occurs at the
end of the pupal stage, and the last stage is the adulto
..

Development and Metamorphosis 47

c;;¡;¡¡¡¡;;;;>
e
E

~
D

Figure2-42 Stages in the development of the sugarbeet root maggot, Tetanopsmyopae-

fonnis (Roder). A, Adult female; B, Adult male; C, Egg; D, Larva; E, Puparium (pupa in-
side). (From Knowlton 1937, used courtesy of the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station.)

f
1.0mm
L = 30 mm
1 B

o
L = 45 mm

Figure2-43 Insect larvae. A, Maggot or vermiform larva of Hylemya platura (Meigen)

(Diptera, Anthomyiidae); B, Grub or scarabaeiform larva of Phyllophaga rugosa
(Melsheimer) (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae); C, Elateriform larva of Cardiophorussp.
(Coleoptera, Elateridae); D, Elateriform larva of Alaus oculatus (L.) (Coleoptera,
Elateridae); E, Campodeiform larva of Attagenus megatoma (Fabricius) (Coleoptera,
Dermestidae); F,Vermiform larva of Cylasfonnicarius elegantulus (Summers) (Coleoptera,
Brentidae); G, Eruciform larva of Calima aethiops (Fabricius) (Hymenoptera, Tenthre-
dinidae). a, antenna; as, anterior spiracIe; L, length; ps, posterior spiracIe; sp, spiracIe.
(A, E-G, Courtesy of USDA;B-D, From Peterson, 1948, by permission.)

Ihe adult is usually pale in color when it first emerges
[ramthe pupa, and its wings are short, 50ft, and wrin-
kled.In a short time, from a few minutes to several
hoursor more, depending on the species, the wings ex-
pandand harden, the pigmentation develops, and the
insectis ready to go on its way. This type of metamor-
phosis,which occurs in orders 23 to 31, is often called
holometabolous (see list, Chapter 6), and these orders
are cIassified together as the HoIometaboIa.
Hypermetamorphosis is a type of complete meta-
morphosis in which the different larval instars are not
of the same type. The first instar is active and usually
campodeiform, and the subsequent larval instars are
vermiform or scarabaeiform (see definitions of these
"'-
,

48 Chapter2 TheAnatomy.Physiology.and Developmentof Insects

B E

Figure2-44 Insect pupae. A, Chrysalis of the sulphur butterfly, Co/ias eurytheme

Boisduval (Lepidoptera, Pieridae); B, Fall armyworm, Spodopterafrugiperda O. E. Smith)
(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae); C, Clover seed chalcid, Bruchophagusplatyptera (Walker)
(Hymenoptera, Eurytomidae); D, Sweetpotato weevil, Cylas fonnicarius degantulus
(Summers) (Coleoptera, Brentidae); E, Sawtoothed grain beetle, Oryzaephilus surinamen-
sis (L.) (Coleoptera, Silvanidae); F, Seedcorn maggot, Hylemya platura (Meigen) (Diptera,
Anthomyiidae). A and B are obtect pupae, C-E are exarate pupae, and F is a coarctate
pupa. (Courtesy ofUSDA.)

tenns later). Hypermetamorphosis occurs in parasitic
insects; the first instar seeks out the host and, once in
the host, molts into a less active type of larva. This type
of complete metamorphosis occurs in the Meloidae
(Figure 26-68) and Ripiphoridae (Coleoptera), the
Mantispidae (Neuroptera), the Strepsiptera, and a few
Diptera and Hymenoptera.
Intermediate Typesof Metamorphosis
Not all insects have a type of metamorphosis that can
be readily classified as simple or complete. Some have
a metamorphosis that is somewhat intennediate be-
tween these two types. Such metamorphosis is found
in thrips (Chapter 23), whiteflies (Chapter 22), and
male scale insects (Chapter 22). In fact, these groups
have gone far toward evolving complete metamorpho-
sis independently of the orders just discussed.
The first two instars of thrips (Thysanoptera) are
wingless and active and are usually called larvae. The
next two instars (the next three in the suborder Tubu-
lifera) are inactive, with external wings. The first of
these (the first two in Tubulifera) is calIed a prepupa,
and the last a pupa. The final instar is the adulto Ap-
parently at least some of the wing development is in-
ternal during the first two instars. This metamorphosis
resembles complete metamorphosis in that at least
some of the wing development is internal, and an inac-
tive, "pupal" stage precedes the adult. It is similar to
simple metamorphosis in that the early instars have
compound eyes, and external wing buds are present in
more than one preadult instar.
Whiteflies have five instars, the last of which is the
adulto The first instar is active and wingless, and the next
three instars are inactive, sessile, and scalelike, with the
wings developing internally. The fourth instar, calIed the
pupa, has external wings. The first three instars are usu-
alIy called larvae. The molt from the last larval instar to
the pupa takes place inside the last larval skin, which
forros the puparium. This metamorphosis is essentialIy
complete, although most other members of this order
(Hemiptera) have simple metamorphosis.
The males of scale insects have a type of meta-
morphosis that is very similar to that in whiteflies. The
first instar (Figure 22-63B), the "crawler," is active and
wingless, but the remaining preadult instars are sessile
and inactive. The last preadult instar, which has exter-
nal wings, is calIed the pupa. The development of
wings is at least partly interna!.
Control of Metamorphosis
The metamorphosis of insects is controlIed by three
honnones: PTTH (prothoracicotropic or brain hor-
mone), ecdysone, andJH (juvenile honnone). PTTH is
produced by neurosecretory cells in the brain and stim-
ulates the prothoracic glands (also known as the malt-
ing glands) to produce ecdysone, which induces apoly-
sis and promotes growth. JH is produced by celIs in the
corpora alIata and inhibits metamorphosis, thereby
promoting further larval or nymphal development. Re-
moving JH from a larva or nymph (by removing the
corpora alIata) causes the larva to pupa te and the
nymph to develop into an adult when ecdysone is pres-
ent. Injection of juvenile honnone into a pupa (in the
presence of ecdysone) will cause the pupa to develop
into a second pupa. Injecting JH into a last-instar
nymph or larva causes another nymphal or larval stage

tobe produced at the next molt. The corpora allata are
activeduring the early instars and usually cease secret-
ingJH in the last pre-adult instar. The absence of the
hormonein this instar results in metamorphosis.
The changes from instar to instar in insects with
simplemetamorphosis are generally relatively slight and
gradual,being most marked at the final molt to the
adult,but insects with complete metamorphosis show
considerablereorganization within the insect in the pu-
palstage.Some structures in the larva, such as the heart,
nervoussystem, and tracheal system, change very little
at metamorphosis. Other adult structures are present in
a rudimentary form in the larva and remain so during
successivelarval instars. Then, more or less suddenly,
theydevelop to their adult form in the pupal stage. Still
otheradult structures are not represented in the larva
andmust be developed at the time of metamorphosis.
Typesof Larvae
Thelarvae of insects that undergo complete metamor-
phosis differ considerably in form, and several types
havebeen recognized:
Eruciform-caterpillar-like (Figure 2-43G); body
cylindrical, the head well developed but with very
short antennae, and with both thoracic legs and
abdominal prolegs. This type occurs in the Lepi-
doptera, Mecoptera, and some Hymenoptera (sub-
order Symphyta).
Scarabaeiform-grublike (Figure 2-43B); usually
curved, the head well developed, with thoracic
legsbut without abdominal prolegs, and relatively
inactive and sluggish. This type occurs in certain
Coleoptera (for example, Scarabaeidae).
Campodeiform-resembling diplurans in the genus
Campodea (Figure 7-4A);body elongate and some-
what flattened, the cerci and antennae usually well
developed, the thoracic legs well developed, and
the larvae usually active. This type occurs in the
Neuroptera, Trichoptera, and many Coleoptera.
Elateriform-wirewormlike (Figure 2-43C,D); body
elongate,cylindrical, and hard-shelled, the legs
short, and the body bristles reduced. This type oc-
cursin certain Coleoptera (for example, Elateridae).
Vermiform-maggotlike (Figure 2-43A,F); body elon-
gateand wormlike, legless, and with or without a
well-developedhead. This type occurs in the
Diptera,Siphonaptera, most Hymenoptera (suborder
Apocrita),and some Coleoptera and Lepidoptera.
Types of Pupae
The pupae of insects with complete metamorphosis
vary,and five types may be recognized:
Obtect-with the appendages more or less glued to
the body (Figure 2-44A,B). This type occurs in the
Lepidoptera and some Diptera (suborder Nemato-
cera). The pupa in many Lepidoptera is covered by
Variations in LifeHistory 49
a silken cocoon formed by the larva before it molts
to the pupal stage.
Exarate-with the appendages free and not glued to
the body (Figure 2-44C-E). Such a pupa looks
much like a pale, mummified adult and is usually
not covered by a cocoon. This type occurs in most
insects with complete metamorphosis, except the
Diptera and Lepidoptera.
Coarctate-essentially like an exarate pupa, but re-
maining covered by the hardened cuticle of the
last larval instar, which is called a puparium (Fig-
ure 2-44F). This type occurs in the Diptera (sub-
order Brachycera).
Decticous-with the mandibles movably articulated
with the head. This type is also always exarate and
occurs in the Neuroptera, Trichoptera, and some
Lepidoptera.
Adecticous-with the mandibles immovably attached
to the head. This type of pupa is found in the re-
maining groups of holometabolous insects.
Variations in Life History
The length of a generation and the way it is fitted to the
different seasons vary quite a bit in different insects.
Most insects in temperate regions have what entomolo-
gists call a "heterodynamic life cycle"; that is, the adults
appear for a limited time during a particular season, and
some life stage passes the winter in a state of dormancy.
The overwintering stage may be the egg (for example,
most Orthoptera and Hemiptera), nymph (for example,
most Odonata and many Orthoptera), larva (for exam-
pIe, many Lepidoptera), or adult (for example, most
Hemiptera and many Coleoptera and Hymenoptera).
Many insects, particularly those living in the tropics,
have a homodynamic life cycle; that is, development is
continuous and there is no regular period of dormancy.
Most insects in the United States have a single gen-
eration ayear. Some require 2 or more years to complete
their life cycle, as is usually the case with large insects
occurring in the northem part of the country. Some of
the large beetles, dragonflies, and moths in the northem
states and Canada require 2 or 3 years to complete their
development. Probably the longest life cycle of any in-
sect is that of some of the periodical cicadas (Magicicada
spp.), which lasts 17 years (see Chapter 22).
Many insects have more than one generation a
year. In some cases, the number of generations in a
year is constant throughout the range of the species. In
other cases, the species may have more in the southem
part of its range. A few insects, usually rather small
species that can complete their life cycle in a few
weeks, have many generations ayear. Such insects con-
tinue to reproduce through the season as long as

50 Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,and Development of Insects
weather conditions are favorable. Insects of tropical
origin, such as those of the household and those which
attack stored products, may continue breeding
throughout the entire 12 months.
In many insects, development is arrested during a
specific stage of the annual cycle. This period of genet-
icaIly programmed (that is, predetermined) dormancy
is known as diapause, in contrast to periods of quies-
cence in response to adverse environmental conditions.
A period of winter dormancy in temperate or arctic re-
gions is often caIled hibemation, and a period of dor-
mancy during high temperatures is called aestivation.
Diapause in insects is geneticaIly controlled, and
both onset and termination may be induced by environ-
mental factors such as photoperiod or temperature. The
chief factor initiating diapause seems to be photoperiod
(day length). Studies of homworm larvae (Sphingidae)
have shown that aIl individuals that enter the soil for pu-
pation before a certain date wiIl complete their develop-
ment, emerge as moths, and reproduce, but individuals
entering the soil after this date go into diapause and do
not complete their development until the following
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--
3 Systematics, Classification,
Nomenclature, and Identification
Thecussion
theme of diversity inevitably dominates any dis-
of insects and their relatives. Not only is
there a large number ofindividual insects (lhe biomass
of ants in the tropics probably exceeds that of all verte-
brates combined), but there is an almost overwhelming
number of different kinds of insects. The study of the
diversity of organisms and of the reIationships between
them is the scientific fieId of systematics. This disci-
pline also includes the study of classification, the field
of taxonomy. Systematics forms the foundation on
which all other biological disciplines rest. The names
of organisms provide a key to the published literature
and enable us to communicate with one another. Clas-
sifications serve both as information retrieval systems
and, as they reflect the relationships among organisms,
provide predictions of the distribution of characteris-
tics among organisms.
The fundamental unit of systematics is the
species. Concepts of what a species is and how they
origina te are based largely on studies of vertebrates.
Extrapolation beyond them to other animals, especially
to fundamentally different organisms in other king-
doms, must be done with some careo Basically, most re-
searchers dealing with living animals define the species
to be a group of individuals or populations in nature
that (l) are capable of interbreeding and producing fer-
tile offspring, and (2) under natural conditions are re-
productiveIy isolated from (lhat is, ordinarily not in-
terbreeding with) other such groups. This is known as
the biologicalspeciesconceptoBecausethese criteria in-
volve characteristics of living organisms, they are diffi-
cult, sometimes perhaps impossible, to address directly.
Therefore, the first steps in systematics usually involve
attempts to infer the limits of a species (the extent of a
52 reproductive community) by observing the phenotypic
expression of that gene pool-to look for the smallest
set of phenotypic homogeneity while acknowledging
and incorporating known aspects of variability, such as
sexual dimorphism, developmental stages, seasonal
changes, geographic variation, and individual variabil-
ity. Hence researchers often must reIy on morphologi-
calor other characters to determine specific limits;
caution is needed, because there are "good" species
(groups reproductively isolated) that cannot be distin-
guished by morphological characters (known as sibling
species), and converseIy, within a single species there
may be a number of different forms.
The subspecies category is sometimes used to refer
to recognizable and geographically restricted popula-
tions of a species. Because different subspecies of a
given species are capable of interbreeding, the differ-
ences between them are usually not clear-cut but inter-
grading, particularly where adjacent subspecies come
in contact. This category has been misused, especially
in the early part of the 20th century, to refer to any dis-
tinguishable variant, often a color variant.
Systematics
Classifications of insects and their relatives form the
heart of this book. Classifications are tools that pro-
vide names for groups of species and serve as a short-
hand for communicating information about those
species. These instruments are utilitarian products
that emerge from systematics, the study of the diver-
sity and interrelationships of organisms. Although the
fieId is as old as any area of biological inquiry, it has
undergone a remarkable resurgence over the past two
...
decades.
This renaissance has been fueled by (1) theo-
reticaladvances in the nature and analysis of system-
aticdata; (2) the development of new sources of data
fromnuc\eic acid sequences; (3) the development of
powerfuland affordable computers with which to an-
alyzethese data; and (4) the grawth of the size and
scope of natural history collections. As a result, the
process that began approximately 50 years ago has
now transformed the systematics fram a field do mi-
natedby arcane facts and argument by authority, into
a science driven by data, explicit hypotheses, and
quantitativeanalysis. Nevertheless, systematics retains
theaesthetic appeal that comes fram the continual dis-
coveryof new, beautiful, sometimes bizarre, but al-
waysfascinatingforms of life.
The conceptual advances in systematics were first
coherently articulated by an entomologist, Willi
Hennig,a specialist on Diptera. Hennig published his
principiesin German (Hennig 1950), but after publi-
cationin English his ideas received much more atten-
tion(Hennig 1965,1966). He called this new appraach
phylogenetic systematics;today it is often referred to
simplyas phylogenetics or as cladistics. The ideas are
fairly straightforward. The characters of a species
arepassed down fram ancestor to descendant. Species,
in general, do not interbreed; therefore characteristics
in one species cannot be transferred to a different,
parallellineage. The appearance of new lineages, the
processof speciation, involves splitting an ancestral
speciesinto two (or possibly more) descendant species.
Ifa character changes, that is, becomes modified fram
itsancestralstate, then this new, derived character will
appearonly in the species in which it arase or in its
descendants.Therefore, the sequence of appearance of
lineagesthrough time can be reconstructed by docu-
mentingthe distribution of derived characters.
Asin any specialty, entomology has a fair amount
ofjargon that the student must understand. Derived
charactersare called apomorphies (even if the charac-
teris chemical, behavioral, or so on, and not morpho-
logicalat all). The ancestral characters are referred to
asplesiomorphies. Branches on the phylogenetic tree
arehypothesized on the basis of shared derived char-
acters among the species, called synapomorphies.
Suchgroupsare considered monophyletic (sometimes
calledholophyletic) graups and consist of an ancestral
speciesand all its descendants. Shared ancestral char-
actersare symplesiomorphies; graups defined on the
basisof symplesiomorphies are paraphyletic. Unnat-
uralgroups, such as a graup containing only insects
andmosses, are polyphyletic. This is an extreme ex-
ample,of course, but polyphyletic graups usually re-
sultfrom the misinterpretation of characters, such as
thinkingthat two structures are "the same" when in
factthey evolved independently in the species con-
Systematics 53
cerned. Thus the primary goal of phylogenetic system-
atics is the discovery of monophyletic graups.
These ideas that a structure found in two different
species is the same structure and that they share it be-
cause they inherited the structure fram their common
ancestor constitute the definition of a homologous
character. As you can see, the definitions of homolo-
gous characters and synapomorphies are equivalent.
Characters that are not homologous, but only seem so,
arise thraugh the evolutionary processes of conver-
gence, parallelism, and reversals. Convergence and
parallelism are the development of similar structures
independently in two different species. A reversal is a
character that "Iooks" like the ancestral condition,
usually the loss or reduction of so me feature. The ab-
sence of a structure may be due either to the fact that
the species (and its ancestors) never had it in the first
place, or to its subsequent loss. It is usually difficult, if
not impossible, to distinguish between these two hy-
potheses simply by studying the character itself. That
conclusion relies on considering all the evidence on the
phylogeny of the species.
How, then, can you determine if a character is an-
cestral or derived? First, we must divorce ourselves
fram the idea that in science we can actually determine
the truth of any statement. Rather, we form hypotheses
that are based on evidence and subject to testing. The
dominant means of hypothesizing character polarity,
whether it is ancestral or derived, is to look at the form
in which the character occurs in graups outside of our
group of interest. The species being studied constitute
the in-group; those species with which the characters
are being compared inorder to hypothesize their po-
larity make up the out-group. The state in which the
character is found in the out-group is hypothesized to
be the plesiomorphic condition. Thus the choice of
species lObe included in the out-graup is critical to the
analysis. Ultimately, out-group analysis is based on the
principIe of parsimony (see later discussion).
The hierarchical pattern of distribution of synapo-
morphies is represented as a treelike branching dia-
gram known as a cladogram (Figure 3-1). The two
groups of species that diverge at any node are sister
groups. A cladogram resembles many of the classical il-
lustrations of the "tree of life," but with an important
exception. Gn a cladogram, the units that are being
studied-often species, but the unit could be a group
of species as well-are shown only at the apex of the
diagram, at the ends of the branches. If a fossil species
is included, it is found at the end of a branch, just as
any living species would be. The internodes, then, do
not represent ancestral species. The order in which the
graups are listed (for example, from top to bottom in
Figure 3-1) is of no significance; the cladogram can be
ratated about any of its nodes. The meaning of a clado-
54 Chapter3 Systematics,Classification,Nomenclature,and Identification

E. zephyrus

H 5
6 I
O. canadensis
O. americanus

H I
4
4 I
C. dorsalis
C. ventralis
B. niger
H B. flavens
H A. longipes
A H A. curtipes

67 O. canadensis
1 I O. americanus
C. dorsalis
C. ventralis

B. niger
B. flavens
64 A. longipes
B 1 I A. curtipes

C. dorsalis
H
2 C. ventralis
8
t--t---t---t1 : B. niger
1 1 2 2 I 1
BIla,.n,
1 12 15 A. longlpes
e 1 1 A. curtipes

Figure 3-1 Samples of drawing conventions for depicting cladograms. A, Cladogram

with a standard length used for each branch. The numbers above each branch are the
number of synapomorphies defining it, the numbers below are decay indices, indicating
the minimum number of additional steps in a cladogram that did not include that
branch. B, Cladogram illustrating a polytomy (at the base), an area of the cladogram for
which either no evidence is available to resolve it into a series of dichotomous branches,
or for which the available data conflict. In this case the number above a branch is a boot-
strap value (in %), indicating the frequency with which that branch appears when the
data set is randomly resampled for characters; the number below the branch is a decay
index. C, A cladogram in which the synapormophies are indicated on the branches in
which they appear. The number above the branch represents the character, the number
below indicates which state the character exhibits. The different format of the cross-
hatch (either solid black or gray) is used here to indicate if the synapormorphy is unique
or if it also occurs elsewhere in the cladogram. None of the conventions shown is stan-
dardized, and the caption should always explain such details to the reader.

gramliesin the hierarchy illustrated by the branching
diagram.
Relationship, in the sense of phylogenetic system-
atíes,is defined as the relative recency of common an-
cestry.In other words, given three species-A, B, and
C-species A and B are more closely related if they
sharea more recent common ancestor with each other
thaneither does with C. If we assume that the animal
kingdomis monophyletic, that all animals share a com-
mon ancestor, then any pair of animals is related in
somesense. The critical issue is not if two species are
related,but how closely related they are. Thus any
meaningful phylogenetichypothesis must deal with at
Icastthree species.
In the simplest case of three taxa (species or
groupsof species), there are only three possible pat-
tems of relationship: either A+B are most closely re-
lated,MC, or B+C. With four terminal taxa (A to D)
the number of possible patterns increases to 15, with
fivetaxa there are 105 possible patterns; for ten taxa,
over34 million possibilities; and the number continues
togrowexponentially. What criteria are used to distin-
guishamong all these possibilities?
The most commonly used metric is the number of
"steps"on each tree. Each individual step represents
thechange in a character from the ancestral to derived
condition.These changes include the possible hypoth-
esisthat a character changes back to what appears to be
the ancestral sta te, that is, a character reversal. One
dominantmethod of analysis then applies the principIe
of parsimony to select the optimal cladogram. The
dadogram that has the fewest number of steps, the
shortestcladogram, is held to be the best explanation
of the data at hand. All other, longer cladograms re-
quireunnecessary hypotheses of character change. The
principIeof parsimony (Occam's razor) holds that the
bestexplanationfor a phenomenon is the simplest one
thataccounts for the observed data. This should not be
interpreted to mean that evolution proceeds by the
mastparsimonious path. We have clear evidence that
thatnotion would be false. Rather, parsimony simply
requiresus to have evidence to support hypotheses of
relationship. To do otherwise means that any clado-
gramthatappealed to a researcher could be claimed to
bethe "best" on grounds that had nothing to do with
science.
Phylogenetic analyses of sequence data often use a
differentoptimality criterio n by which to judge the
bestcladogram: maximum likelihood. This method re-
lieson specifying a model of base transformation; for
example,what is the probability of an adenine residue
changingto a thymine at a given position? The overall
likelihoodof a set of cladograms is calculated, and the
onewith the highest likelihood is given preference. Re-
cently,Bayesian analysis methods have begun to be de-
Systematics 55
veloped to find the most likely phylogenetic hypothe-
sis (cladogram) given the observed data and model of
base substitution.
Often the internodes of a cladogram are labeled
with information that indicates the support for the hy-
pothesis that it represents a monophyletic group. This
may be a listing of the apomorphic characters that de-
fine that section of the cladogram; also commonly
found are bootstrap support values or Bremer support
values. A bootstrap value represents the percentage of
times that grouping (or clade) appears when a large
number of subsets of the original data set are analyzed.
Some researchers think a high number (say, 98%) indi-
cates that the data strongly support the hypothesized
monophyletic group. Note, however, that this is not a
statistical test in the usual sense of the termo The hy-
pothesis, the proposed monophyletic group, is not re-
jected on the basis of this number. A Bremer support
value indicates the number of further steps that would
be added to the entire cladogram if the clade under
consideration were not included and its species were
placed in a different pattern. The significance of the ab-
solute value of such a number, then, depends on the to-
tallength of the cladogram, which, in turn, depends on
the number of taxa and characters.
The student will often see published cladograms
in which a node do es not give rise to two branches but
instead gives rise to three or more. This polytomy in-
dicates either that there are no data to support any one
of the possible sets of dichotomous possibilities at that
point, or that the data conflict so that no one possibil-
ity is more parsimonious (or likely) than another. Poly-
tomies are expressions ofignorance or ambiguity in the
underlying data. Although it is biologically reasonable
to believe that an ancestral species could give rise,
more or less simultaneously, to three or more daughter
species, the methodology of cladistics, and of science
in general, compels us to search for a completely di-
chotomously branching cladogram. To do otherwise
would be to actively ignore the phylogenetic signal that
do es exist in the data.
It is probably becoming clear at this point that cal-
culating the most parsimonious cladogram for a group
of any size requires the use of a computer and cladistic
software. Only in cases with a relatively small number
of species or an unambiguous data set is it possible to
arrive at the best answer manually. A number of
software packages are now available for these analyses;
two of the most popular are PAUP (Phylogenetic
Analysis Using Parsimony) and the WinClada package.
MacClade is a popular tool for visualizing and manip-
ulating data on cladograms. However, even with the
most powerful hardware and software some phylo-
genetic problems are inherently intractable. In many
cases, the analysis results in large numbers of equally
56 Chapter3 Systematics.Classification.Nomenclature.andIdentification
parsimonious trees. In such cases, authors often resort
to publication of consensus trees to depict at least the
components that all the solutions have in common.
Classifications
In a formal biological classification, species are
grouped into monophyletic groups. Such groups are
called taxa (sing., taxon). These taxa are arranged in a
hierarchical pattem. The most commonly used cate-
gories or levels in the system of zoological classifica-
tion are the following (listed from most inclusive to
least) :
Phylum
Subphylum
Class
Subclass
Order
Suborder
Superfamily
Family
Subfamily
Tribe
Genus
Subgenus
Species
Subspecies
In this scheme, the animal kingdom is divided into
a number of phyla (sing., phylum). Each phylum is di-
vided into classes, classes into orders, orders into fam-
ilies, families into genera (sing., genus), and genera
into species. Finer distinctions in the levels is afforded
by prefixes attached to these category names, such as
supeifamily or subgenus. This list provided is not com-
prehensive, but does illustrate the normal categories
that are used. The species is probably the only level
that can be assessed by objective criteria. A genus is
one or more species classified together in a mono-
phyletic group; a family is one or more genera; and so
on. Any scheme of classification that is developed for a
group of animals will be affected by the particular char-
acters used, the relative weight they are given, and how
they are analyzed. If different people use different char-
acters or a different "weighting" of a series of charac-
ters, they may arrive at different classifications.
A classification is derived from a phylogeny by
designating monophyletic groups for each category. Of
course, a dichotomous cladogram of n species will have
n -1 monophyletic groups. For a cladogram of any
size, particularly in insects where one order may have
more than 100,000 species, not all these groups are for-
mally named. The usual approach systematists take is
similar to the admonition in the Hippocratic oath to do
no harm, that is, to change the formal classification
where necessary to preserve the criterion of mono-
phyly, but to keep such changes to a minimum. There
is, obviously, a great deal of room here for individual
interpretation, and, as a result, several altemative clas-
sifications may be in use at any point in time, particu-
larly for popular groups (such as butterflies).
Many groupings of insects first recognized by early
systematists such as Fabricius and Latreille are still rec-
ognized today as valid monophyletic groups. Examples
include the Apocrita (Hymenoptera), Brachycera
(Diptera), Ditrysia (Lepidoptera), and Polyphaga
(Coleoptera). However, in traditional classifications
these taxa were often paired off in contrast with an-
other group, Symphyta versus Apocrita, Nematocera
versus Brachycera. These "sister" taxa often are not
true sisters in the phylogenetic sense, because they are
widely acknowledged to be paraphyletic groups. As
such, according to the principIes of phylogenetic sys-
tematics they should not be formally recognized. Ento-
mologists are, indeed, moving in that direction, but it
is a slow and gradual process. We have continued to in-
clude some of these groups in the classifications in
each chapter, partly beca use the names are so widely
used that it is important for the student to leam them.
However, in the long run classifications are based on
scientific hypotheses, and these hypotheses may be
changed or rejected as understanding of insect diver-
sity increases. Thus expect to see changes in those clas-
sifications reflecting the underlying scientific research,
and embrace the changes as indications of advances in
the understanding of insect diversity and relationships.
Nomenclature
Animals have two types of names, scientific and com-
mono Scientific names are used throughout the world,
and every known animal taxon has a scientific name
unique to it. Common names are vernacular names,
and they are often Iess precise than scientific names.
(Some common names are used for more than one
taxon, and a given animal taxon may have several.)
Many animals lack common names beca use they are
small or seldom encountered.
Scientific Nomenclature
The scientific naming of animals follows certain rules,
outlined in the IntemationaI Code of ZooIogicaI Nomen-
clature (ICZN 1999). Scientific names are latinized, but
they may be derived from any language or from the
names of people or places. Most names are derived
from Latin or Greek words and usually refer to some
characteristic of the animal or group named.

The names of graups above genus are latinized
nouns in the nominative (subject case) plural. The
namesof genera and subgenera are latinized nouns in
the nominative singular. Specific and subspecific
namesmay be adjectives (descriptors, or modifiers),
present or past participles (forms) of verbs (action
words),or nouns (names of things or places). Adjec-
tivesand participles must agree in gender (masculine,
feminine,or neuter) with the genus name, and nouns
are in either the nominative or the genitive (posses-
sive)case.
Thescientific name of a species is a binomen; that
is,it consists of two words: the genus name and a spe-
ciflcepithet. That of a subspecies is a trinomen: the
genusname, the specific epithet, and a subspecific epi-
thet.These names should be printed in italies (if writ-
tenor typewritten, italics can be indicated by underlin-
ing).Names of species and subspecies are sometimes
followedby the name ofthe author, the person who de-
scribedthe species or subspecies. Authors' names are
notitalicized.The appended author name is sometimes
importantin dealing with the systematics of a species or
in caseswhere the same name has been praposed for
twodifferent species (a case of homonyrny). In most
othercases, it is simply superfluous and adds nothing
morethana falsesense of authority to the person citing
thename. The names of genera and higher categories
alwaysbegin with a capital letter; species and sub-
speciesnames never do and generally are not cited
withoutthe name or abbreviation of the genus. If the
author'sname is in parentheses, it means that the
species(or subspecies, in the case of a subspecies name)
wasdescribed in some genus other than the one in
whichit is now placed. For example,
PapilioglaucusLinnaeusl-the tiger swallowtail.The
speciesglaucus was described by Linnaeus in the
genusPapilio.
Leptinotarsa
deeemlineata (Say)-the Colorado potato
beetle.The species deeemlineata was described by
ThomasSay in the genus Doryphora, and this
specieshas since been transferred to the genus
Leptinotarsa.
fumipennis(Burmeister)- The speciesfumipen-
Argia
niswas described by Hermann Burmeister in some
genusother than Argia and has subsequently been
transferred to the genus Argia. There are three
subspeciesof this species in the eastern United
States:a northern subspecies (violaeea) with clear
wingsand considerable violet coloration, a south-
em subspecies (fumipennis) with smoky wings and
considerable violet coloration, and a subspecies in
peninsular Florida (atra) with very dark wings
lThroughoutthis book Linnaeus is abbreviated "L."
Nomenclature 57
and dark brawnish (not violet) coloration. These
three subspecies are listed as Argia fumipennis vio-
laeea (Hagen), Argia fumipennis fumipennis
(Burmeister), and Argiafumipennis atra Gloyd.
Hagen's name in parentheses means violaeea was
described in a genus other than Argia, but there is
no way of knowing fram this name whether vio-
laeea was originally described as a species, as a
subspecies of fumipennis, or as a subspecies of
some other species. Gloyd's name without paren-
theses means atra was originally described in the
genus Argia, but there is no way of knowing fram
this name whether atra was originally described as
a species of Argia, as a subspecies of fumipennis, or
as a subspecies of another species of Argia. In fact,
Hagen originally described violacea as a species of
Agrion, and Gloyd originally described atra as a
subspecies of Argia fumipennis.
Some entomologists have used trinomials for what
they have called "varieties," for example, A-us b-us, varo
e-uso Other ranks may also be found, including form,
stirps, race, and so forth. Such names, if published be-
fore 1961, are assumed to be names of subspecies, in
which case the "var." in the name is drapped, or if they
are shown to designa te an individual variant, they are
considered "infrasubspecific" categories, which are not
covered by the Intemational Code of Zoological Nomen-
clature. Such names published after 1960 are considered
to designate individual variants ("infrasubspecific" cat-
egories), not covered by the mIes. The taxonomic cate-
gories just listed apply to populations and not to indi-
vidual variants such as color forros, sexual forros, and
seasonal forros.
A species referred to but not named is often desig-
nated simply by "sp." For example, "Gomphus sp."
refers to a species of Gomphus. More than one species
may be designated by "spp."; for example, "Gomphus
spp." refers to two or more species of Gomphus.
The names of categories fram tribe through super-
family have standardized endings and hence can always
be recognized as referring to a particular category. These
can be illustrated by some taxa of bees, as follows:
Superfamily names end in -oidea;for example,
Apoidea: the bees. Note that the names of some
genera and categories above the level of family can
have the same ending.
Family names end in -idae; for example, Apidae:
cuckoo bees, digger bees, carpenter bees, or-
chid bees, bumble bees, and honey bees.
Subfamily names end in -inae; for example,
Apinae: orchid bees, bumble bees, and
honey bees.
Tribe names end in -ini; for example, Apini,
honey bees.
-
58 Chapter3 Systematics.
Classification.
Nomenclature.
andIdentification
Types. Whenever a new taxon (from subspecies to su-
perfamily) is described, the describer is supposed to
designa te a type, which serves to anchor the name to a
taxonomic concepto The type of a species or subspecies
is a single specimen (rhe type, or holotype); the type of
a genus or subgenus is a species (the type species); and
the type of a taxon from tribe through superfamily is a
genus (the type genus). Names of taxa from tribe
through superfamily (see the previous examples) are
formed by adding the appropriate ending to the root of
the name of the type genus. For the type genus Apis in
the previous examples, the stem is Ap-. If a species is
divided into subspecies, the particular subspecies that
includes the holotype of the species has the same sub-
specific name as its specific name (for example, Argia
fumipennisfumipennis). Similarly, if a genus is divided
into subgenera, the subgenus that includes the type
species of the genus has the same subgenus name as
genus name-for example, Formica (Formica) ruja L.
(The name in parentheses is the subgenus.) As con-
cepts of the limits of species or other taxa are revised,
it is often necessary to refer to the available types (and
ultimately the holotypes of the relevant species) to de-
termine to which concepts of taxa of the systematist
the types belong, and, thus, to determine which name
or names are applicable to it. The significance of holo-
types has to do with nomenclature; they do not repre-
sent a "typical" member of a species.
Priority. The staning point of modem binomial zoolog-
ical nomenclature was the publication of 10th edition of
Unnaeus' Systema Naturae; the date is taken as 1January
1758. lt often happens that a panicular taxon is de-
scribed independently by two or more people, and hence
may have more than one name. In such cases the first
name used from 1758 on (if the describer has followed
certain roles) is the correct name, and any other names
become synonyrns and should no longer be used. A par-
ticular name is often used for a long time before someone
discovers that another name has priority over it.
Sometimes a person describing a new taxon gives
it a name that has previously been used for another
taxon; if those taxa involved are at the same taxonomic
level, the names are termed homonyms, and all but the
oldest must be discarded and the taxa renamed. There
cannot be two (or more) species or subspecies with the
same name in a given genus. There cannot be two (or
more) genera or subgenera in the animal kingdom with
the same name. Nor can there be two (or more) taxa in
the family group of categories (rribe through super-
family) with the same name (although the names of the
typical subdivisions will be the same except for their
endings). The fundamental role is that every animal
taxon must have a unique name.
Because of the large number of animal taxa and the
vast amount of zoological literature, errors in naming
(homonyrns and synonyrns) are not easy to discover.
As they are discovered, it becomes necessary to change
names, not only of genera and species, but also of fam-
ilies and even orders. The problems of priority in sci-
entific nomenclature are often very intricate, and it is
sometimes difficult to determine just what name is the
correct one. Name changes may also result from in-
creased knowledge. This added knowledge may indi-
~ate that groups should be split or combined, resulting
in name changes for some of the groups involved.
In cases where two or more names for a group
have been in fairly wide use, we have listed in this book
first what we believe to be the correct name and have
listed other names in parentheses.
Pronunciation
The pronunciation of some of the technical names and
terrns used in entomology may be found in a good dic-
tionary or glossary, but very few texts or references give
the pronunciation of the bulk of scientific names.
There are roles for the pronunciation of these names,
but few entomologists are familiar with them, and
many names are pronounced differently by different
people and in different countries. We have therefore in-
cluded some of the general roles by which technical
names and terms used in zoology are generally pro-
nounced in American English. We realize that not all
entomologists will agree with the pronunciation of
some names. There are two reasons for such disagree-
ment: (1) a given pronunciation, whether it follows the
roles or not, may become established through usage as
the "correct" pronunciation; and (2) the correct pro-
nunciation of many scientific names depends on the
derivation of the name and the vowel sound in the
source language, and it is difficult or impossible to de-
termine the derivation of some names. Hence there will
always be a question as to the correct pronunciation of
some scientific names.
The principal roles for the pronunciation of scien-
tific names and terms are outlined here:
Vowels. All vowels in scientific names are pro-
nounced. Vowels are generally either long or short, and
in the examples that follow a long vowel sound is indi-
cated by a grave accent O) and a short vowel sound by
an acute accent (O; for example, mate, mát, mete, mét,
bite, bU, rope, rót, cute, cút, by, symmetry. A vowel at the
end of a word has the long sound, except when it is an
-a; a final -a has the uh sound, as in idea. The vowel in
the final syllable of a word has the short sound, except
-es, which is pronounced ease.
Diphthongs. A diphthong consists of two vowels writ-
ten together and pronounced as a single vowel. The
diphthongs are ae (pronounced e, rarely é), oe (usually
pronounced e, rarely é), oi (pronounced as in oi/), eu
-
(pronouncedu), ei (pronounced 1), ai (pronounced a),
andau (pronounced as in August). The final -ae in fam-
ily and subfamily names is generally pronounced e.
Thecombination ii is pronounced as two syllables and
is thereforenot a diphthong.
Consonants. Ch has the k sound, except in words de-
rivedfram a language other than Greek. When e is fol-
lowedby ae, e, oe, i, or y, it has the soft (s) sound;
whenit is followed by a, o, oi, or u, it has the hard (k)
sound.When g is followed by ae, e, i, oe, or y, it has the
soft(j) sound; when it is followed by a, o, oi, or u, it
hasthe hard sound (as in go). In words beginning with
ps,pt, et, en, gn, or mn, the initial letter is not pro-
nounced,but when these letters appear together in the
middleof a word, the first letter is pronounced (for ex-
ample,the p is not pronounced in the word pteromorph,
but it is pronounced in the word Orthoptera). An x at
the beginning of a word is pronounced as z, but as ks
whenit appears elsewhere in a word. When a double e
is followedby e, i, or y, it is pronounced as ks.
Accent. The accented syllable is either the penult or
theantepenult (very long words may have a secondary
accenton a syllable near the beginning of the word).
Theprincipal roles governing the syllable accented and
thevowelsound (whether long or short) are as follows:
1. The accent is on the penultimate syllable in the
following cases:
a. When the name contains only two syllables; for
example,Apis, Bómbus.
b. When the penult contains a diphthong; for ex-
ample, Culicoides, Hermileuea, Lygaeus.
c. When the vowel in the penult is followed by x
or z; for example, Coríxa, Prodóxus, Agromyza,
Trioza.
d. When the vowel of the penult is long. Whether
the penult vowel is long or short often depends
on the derivation of the word and the vowel
sound in the source language. The vowel e in a
word derived from the Greek is long if the
vowel in the Greek word is eta (1J), but short if
it is epsilon (E); for example, in words derived
from the Greek fL1JPOc:J>, meaning thigh, the e is
long (Diapheromera, epimeron), whereas in
those derived from the Greek fLEpOIT, meaning
part, the e is short (Heterómera). Similarly, the
vowel o in a word derived from the Greek is
long if the vowel in the Greek word is omega
(w), but short if it is omicron (o); for example,
in words derived from the Greek ITWfLCX mean-
ing body, the o is long (Calosoma, Malaeosoma),
whereas in those derived from the Greek
<TTOfLCX, meaning mouth, it is short (Melanó-
stoma, Belóstoma, epístoma). The penult vowel
is long in subfamily names (for example,
Nomenclature 59
Sphecinae) and tribe names (for example,
Sphecini); in tribe names, the final i is also long.
2. In other cases the antepenult is accented.
Common Names of Inseds
Because there are so many species of insects, and be-
cause so many of them are very small or poorly known,
relatively few have common names. Those that do are
generally particularly showy insects or insects of eco-
nomic importance. American entomologists recognize
as "official" the common names in a list published
every few years by the Entomological Society of Amer-
ica, but this list do es not include all species of insects
(and other arthropods) to which common names have
be en applied. The common names used in this book
for individual species have be en taken from this list or
have been obtained from other sources.
Many common names of insects refer to groups such
as subfamilies, families, suborders, or orders, rather than
to individual species. The name bark beetle, for example,
refers to all species in the subfamily Scolytinae of the
family Curculionidae. The name leafbeetle applies gener-
ally to all species in the family Chrysomelidae. The name
beetle applies to all species in the order Coleoptera. The
name damselfly applies to the entire suborder Zygoptera,
of which there are hundreds of species.
Most common names of insects that consist of a
single word refer to entire orders (for example, beetle,
bug, eaddis, coekroaeh, and termite). Some (such as bee,
damselfly, grasshopper, and laeewing) refer to suborders
or groups of families. Onlya few (such as ants) refer to
families. Most common names applying to families
consist of two or more words, the last being the name
of the larger group, and the others descriptive (for ex-
ample, brown laeewings, dick beetle, soldier flies, and
small winter stoneflies).
The members of a group are often referred to by an
anglicized form of the group name. For example, insects
in the order Hymenoptera may be called hymenopterans;
the wasps in the superfamily Chalcidoidea are called
ehalcidoids; those in the Sphecidae are called sphecids;
and those in the subfamily Nyssoninae may be called
nyssonines. lt is a common practice to use such a form of
the family or subfamily name as a common name.
The names "fly" and "bug" are used for insects in
more than one order, and the way the names of these
insects are written may indicate the order to which the
insect belongs. For example, when a fly belongs to the
order Diptera, the "fly" of the name is written in this
book as a separate word (for example, blaek fly, horse
fly, and blow fly); when it belongs to another order, the
"fly" of the name is written together with the descrip-
tive word (for example, dragonfly, butterjly, and sawfly).
When a bug belongs to the order Hemiptera, the "bug"
of the name is written as a separate word (for example,
-.
60 Chapter3 Systematics, Classitication,
Nomenclature,
and Identitication
damsel bug, stink bug, and lace bug); when it belongs to
another order, the "bug" of the name is wriuen to-
gether with the descriptive word (for example, mealy-
bug, ladybug, junebug, and sowbug). Unfortunately, this
practice is not universally accepted.
The Identification of Insects
When someone encounters an insect, one of the first
questions askedis "What kind of insect is it?" (Or per-
haps that is the second question after "Will it bite
me?") One of the principal aims of the beginning stu-
dent in any field of biology is to become able to iden-
tify the organisms he or she is studying. The identifica-
tion of insects differs from the identification of other
types of organisms only in that it is likely to be some-
what more difficult, because there are more kinds of in-
sects than anything else.
Four things complicate the problem of insect iden-
tification. First, there are so many different species of
insects that the beginner may be discouraged about
ever becoming proficient in insect identification. Sec-
ond, most insects are small, and the identifying char-
acters are often difficult to see. Third, many insects are
poorIy known, and when they are finally identified,
you may have only a technical name (which you may
not understand) and liule biological information.
Fourth, many insects go through very different stages
in their life history, and you may come to know insects
in one stage of their life cycle and still know very liule
about those same insects in another stage.
There are about five ways in which a student may
identify an unknown insect: (1) by having it identified
by an expert, (2) by comparing it with labeled speci-
mens in a collection, (3) by comparing it with pictures,
(4) by comparing it with descriptions, (5) by using an
analytical key, or by a combination of two or more of
these procedures. Of these, obviously the first is the
simplest, but this method is not always available. Sim-
ilarIy, the second method may not always be available.
In addition, the use of a collection is of limited value if
you do not know the characteristics that distinguish
the species in a particular group. In the absence of an
expert or a labeled collection, the next best method is
usually to use a key. In the case of particularIy striking
or well-known insects, the identification can often be
made by the third method mentioned, but in many
groups this method is unsatisfactory. No book can il-
lustrate all kinds of insects and still sell for a price a
student can afford to pay. Where an unknown insect
cannot be definitely identified by means of illustra-
tions, the best procedure is to use an analytical key and
then to check the identificationby as many of the other
methods mentioned as possible. Identification from
pictures is often unsafe, beca use in many instances one
type of insect looks a great deallike another.
As a general rule, in this book identification is car-
ried only to family. To go much further usually requires
specialized knowledge and is beyond the scope of this
book. Identifying insects only to family reduces the num-
ber of names from many thousand to several hundred,
and of these probably only 200 or fewer are likely to be
encountered by the average student. We reduce the prob-
lem still further by being concemed largely with adults.
Thus insect identification becomes less formidable.
The Keys in This Book
Analytical keys are devices used to identify all sorts of
things, living as well as nonliving. Different keys may
be arranged somewhat differently, but all involve the
same general principIes. You run an insect (or other or-
ganism) through a key in steps. At each step you face
two (rarely more) altematives, one of which should
apply to the specimen at hand. In our keys either a
number or a name follows the altemative that best fits
the specimen. If there is a number, the next step is the
couplet with this number. Thus each step leads to an-
other step and its altematives until a name is reached.
The couplets of altematives in our keys are num-
bered 1 and 1', 2 and 2', and so on. In the first half of
each couplet after the first is a number in parentheses.
This is the number of the couplet from which that cou-
plet is reached, and it enables the student to work
backward in the key if a mistake is discovered. This
method of numbering also serves as a check on the ac-
curacy of the organization of the key. In a few large
keys, certain couplets may be reached from more than
one previous couplet, and this fact is indicated by two
or more numbers in parentheses.
The keys in this book have been prepared from
three principal sources: other published keys, descrip-
tions, and an examination of specimens of the groups
concemed. Many are taken largely from previously pub-
lished keys (generally with some changes in wording or
organization), but some represent a new approach. Our
aim with each key has been to prepare something that
is workable for practically every species (or specimen)
in the groups covered. Most of these keys have been
tested by student use over a number of years. In many
of the insect orders (particularIy the larger ones), some
groups key out in more than one place. This is the case
in two types of situations: (1) where there is significant
variation within the group, and (2) with borderline
cases where the specimen seems to fit both altematives
of a couplet. In the latter situation, a specimen should
key out correctly from either altemative. Although our
intent is that these keys will work for every specimen,
...
werealizethat species or specimens in many groups are
erraticin their characters. We have sought to include as
manyas possible of these atypical forms in our keys,
buta fewmay not key out correctly. We believe our keys
shouldwork for 95% or more of the insects of the con-
tinentalUnited States and Canada. We believe the user
ofour keys is more likely to reach an impasse beca use
ofan inability to see or interpret a character than be-
causeof a discrepancy in the key.
When a determination is reached in the key, check
thespecimen against any illustrations or descriptions
available.If these do not fit the specimen, then either a
mistakehas been made somewhere or the specimen is
onethat will not work out correctly in the key. In the
[atterevent, save the specimen until you can show it to
anexpert.It may be something rare or unusual.
Success in running an insect through a key de-
pendslargely on understanding the characters used. In
manycasesin this book, the key characters are illus-
trated.Often several characters are given in each alter-
native.In case one character cannot be seen or inter-
preted,use the other characters. If at any point in the
keyyou cannot decide which way to go, try following
upboth alternatives and then check further with illus-
trationsand descriptions when you reach a name.
A great many families of insects are very unlikely
tobeencountered by the general collector beca use they
containsmall or minute forms that may be overlooked,
becausethey are quite rare, or because they have a very
restrictedgeographic range. Such families are indicated
in most of our keys by an asterisk, and couplets con-
tainingsuch groups can often be skipped by the begin-
ningstudent.
Measurements in this book are given in metric
units.Tables for converting these to English units fol-
lowthe table of contents.
References
Borror,D. J. 1960. Dictionary of Word Roots and Combining
Forms. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield, 134 pp.
Brown,R. W 1978. Composition of Scientific Words. Wash-
ington, DC: Smithsonian lnstitution Press, 882 pp.
Crowson, R. A. 1970. Classification and Biology. New York:
Atherton Press, 350 pp.
Eldredge,N., andJ. Cracraft. 1980. Phylogenetic Patterns and
the Evolutionary Process: Method and Theory in Com-
parative Biology. New York: Columbia University Press,
349 pp.
Hennig,W 1950. Grundzüge einer Theorie der phylogenetis-
chen Systematik. Berlín: Deutscher Zentralverlag.
Hennig,W 1965. Phylogenetic systematics. Annu. Rev. Ento-
mal. 10:97-116.
Hennig,W 1966. Phylogenetic Systematics. Urbana: Univer-
sity of lllinois Press, 263 pp.
Geographic(overageof ThisBook 61
Analytical keys are made for people who do not
know the identity of a specimen they have. Once a
specimen has be en identified with a key, subsequent
identifications of this same insect may often be based
on such characters as general appearance, size, shape,
and color, without reference to minute characters.
lt will be apparent very early during your work in
identifying insects that you need a good binocular mi-
croscope to see many characters of the insect. Most
insects, once you know what to look for, can be iden-
tified with a good hand lens (magnification about
lOX).
The mere identification and naming of insects
should not be the student's final objective in insect
study. There is much more of interest in insects than
just identifying them. Go further, and learn some-
thing of the habits, distribution, and importance of
insects.
Geographic Coverage of This Book
The taxonomic treatment in this book of the various
insect orders and the other groups of arthropods ap-
plies to the fauna of North America north of Mexico. A
few insects in other parts of the world are mentioned,
but the characters given for each group (and the keys)
apply to North American species and may not apply to
all other species occurring outside of North America.
The terms North America and North American refer to
that portion of the continent north of Mexico. Where
the geographic range of a group in North America is
more or less limited, information on this range is given.
Groups for which there is no information on range are
widely distributed in North America.
lnternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.
2000. International Code of Zoological Nomenclature,
4th ed. London: The International Trust for Zoological
Nomenclature 1999,306 pp.
Mayr, E., and P. D. Ashlock. 1991. PrincipIes of Systematic
Zoology, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 475 pp.
Schuh, R. T. 2000. Biological Systematics: PrincipIes and Ap-
plícations. Ithaca, NY: Comstock Publíshing Associates,
Cornell University Press, 236 pp.
Stoetzel, M. B. 1989. Common Names of Insects &: Related
Organisms 1989. College Park, MD: Entomological Soci-
ety of America, 199 pp.
Wiley, E. O. 1981. Phylogenetics: The Theory and Practice of
Phylogenetic Systematics. New York: Wiley, 439 pp.
Winston,j. E. 1999. Describing Species: Practical Taxonomic
Procedure for Biologists. New York: Columbia University
Press, 518 pp.
- ;;----
4 Behavior and Ecology1
Thewhatimportance of insects is detennined largely by
they do. The accounts of various insect groups
in this book saya good deal about their behaviors and
natural histories. In this chapter we discuss and illus-
trate general principIes of insect behavior and ecology
and draw together the kinds of activities common to
insects in general.
Properties of Behavior
A common misconception is that compared to verte-
brates, insects have simple and limited behavioral
repertoires, because insects are constrained by small
nervous systems and short lives. Yet, like other ani-
mals, insects are not predictabIe automatons. They do
not remain inert until provoked by particular stimuli to
perform specific acts, and when stimulated to respond
in a characteristic way, they are not limited to a rigid
preprogrammed set of movements. Instead, much of
insect behavior is outwardly spontaneous and can ad-
just to particular circumstances. The jobs insects carry
out during their lives are the result of a complex in ter-
play between environmental stimuli, internal sta te, and
experience, and the way their activities are organized
often is exceedingly complex.
Composition and Pattern
The basic unit of insect behavior is the reflex: One kind
of receptor, when stimulated, causes a specific group of
muscles to contract, outwardly visible as a body move-
ment. Yet even the simplest behaviors following this
62 'This chapter was contributed by Woodbridge A. Foster.
I~h;'" ,~,,~, ..~..' ,
t:.Jl\\t~~ ;",.~",'-"J;~ ': (~:
stimulus-response rule engage large suites of reflexes,
involving dozens or hundreds of sensory receptors and
muscle sets. These combined reflexes result in a coor-
dinated group of movements that perfonn some useful
element of behavior. An example is food chewing,
which consists of coordinated movements among man-
dibles, maxillae, hypopharynx, and other structures
that handle and shred food after it is bitten off but be-
fore it is swallowed. The stimulus that triggers a par-
ticular complex of movements is often called a re/easer.
The resulting behavior, once initiated, is exactly the
same each time it is perfonned; that is, it is stereotypic
and is called a fixed-action pattem. Most motor pat-
terns, however, vary according to stimulus input, both
when they are initiated and while they are being per-
fonned. Thus, even though the end result is the same,
the insect's behavior is adjusted to meet the precise cir-
cumstances of the situation. These modal-action pat-
tems are less stereotypic, because they constantly adapt
to changes in body position relative to external objects.
Thus insects walk or fly according to a very specific se-
quence of leg or wing movements, operated by a cen-
tral pattem generator, but they continuously make fine
adjustments in these movements to stay on course over
rough terrain or in air turbulence. Even nest building,
which is a complicated process and may be interrupted
by the need to gather more nest material or to feed or
rest, is a modal-action pattern in the broad sense. Piece
by piece, the insect adds nest material where it is
needed most, adjusts for damage, and works around
natural obstacles. However, the insect adds material to
the nest in a species-specific way, and completed nests
of a species are nearly identical.
Orientation is the ability of an insect to be guided
by local external circumstances. Technically, it is the
modification of body position or movement with re-
jIIIII
spectto somevariation in the distribution of environ-
mentalstimuli. Even behavior patterns that start spon-
taneously,such as the search for food or a mate, never-
theless typically are guided by the arrangement of
variousvisual, chemical, or mechanical stimuli. In-
sects'oriented movements are categorized as either ki-
"esesor taxes. Kineses are simply changes in the speed
oflocomotionor rate of turning as an insect moves and
encountersan increased or decreased stimulus in ten-
sity,withoutregardto the direction, source, or gradient
ofthe stimulus. Kineses have the effect, through ran-
dommovements, ofbringing the insect into a favorable
zoneor away from an unfavorable one. For example,
an insectexhibiting positive klinokinesis with respect
to temperature makes more turns as it encounters in-
creasinglyfavorable temperatures, so it tends to remain
inzonesof optimal temperature. Taxes, in contrast, are
positionsand movements with respect 10 the source,
direction,or gradient of a stimulus (for example,
chemotaxis,phototaxis). Different mechanisms may be
involved.Insects can move up or down a stimulus gra-
dient(towardor away from its source) by balancing the
stimulion the right and left, either by turning alter-
natelyright and left or by sampling both sides simulta-
neously(klinotaxis and tropotaxis, respectively), or by
maintaininga "fix" on the source itse!f Ctelotaxis). They
alsocan use te!otaxis to maintain themse!ves at a fixed
anglefrom the stimulus source (menotaxis). This al-
lowsthemto remain right side up with respect to sky-
lightor gravity and to walk or fly in a straight line
throughvaried landscape, using the sun or moon as a
fixedframe of reference-essentially as a compass.
Thesebasic kinds of orientation mechanisms, applied
toproblemssuch as nest building in a difficult spot, al-
lowan insect to behave effective!y in a complex and
changingworld, even when the guided behavior is en-
tirelyindependent of experience.
When insects locate food and mates through vi-
sion,sound, or chemicals, accurate orientation is es-
sentia\.They typically use tropo taxis or telotaxis 10 ori-
ent toward attractive sounds and visual objects at a
distance.At close range they follow gradients of a
chemical,temperature, or humidity by employing
klinotaxisor tropotaxis. However, the need for flying
insectsto locate a distant source of volatile chemicals
presentsa special problem. It is impossible for them to
geta fix on the source by scanning the environment,
andstimulusgradients are lost beyond a few centime-
tersfromthe source, as chemicals waft downwind in
dilute,meandering swirls and filaments. Instead, they
orientupwind (positive anemotaxis) in the presence of
pulsesofthe stimulating odor, guided in their forward
progressby the passage of objects on the ground be-
neaththem.This behavior has the effect of bringing
themverycloseto the odor's source. If the odor stimu-
Propertiesof Behavior 63
lus is lost, the insect ceases to fly upwind and makes er-
ratic turns or reverts to a crosswind or downwind
searching flight. In moths, males progressing upwind
in the presence of female sex pheromone automatically
zigzag across the odor plume continuously, making it
more difficult to lose the scent altogether.
Some kinds of orientation remain enigma tic. The
migration of monarch butterflies is noteworthy because
they trave! thousands of kilometers between the north-
ern reaches of their distribution and very localized
southern overwintering sites. The slow northward mi-
gration involves up 10 three successive generations of
butterflies. Thus all adults that overwintered are dead
by the time the population reaches its northern limit
during the summer, and those that fly back to the
overwintering site in the south have never been there
before. Research evidence indicates that they use a
time-compensated sun compass, and perhaps also geo-
magnetic cues, to guide them toward the correct longi-
tude and latitude. If this is correct, it suggests that the
monarch butterflies have an innate sense of what those
coordinates should be, which vary considerably be-
tween eastern and western populations.
Behavior Modification
All behavioral abilities of an insect are inherited, but
they are not invariably expressed, even under identical
environmental conditions. Insects respond to certain
stimuli or perform particular behaviors only when in-
ternal organs, hemolymph chemistry, and the nervous
system itseU are in particular states. The state of re-
sponsiveness, or motivational state, regulates the ex-
pression of even the most rudimentary and stereotypic
instincts. Even learning, the ability of an insect to mod-
ify its behavior adaptively, following experience with
particular external stimuli and their consequences, is
an innate capacity.
Motivation: A variety of internal factors influence an
insect's motivational state.
Rhythms: Nearly all insects go through cycles of
activity and inactivity, the most common type being the
24-hour die! (daily) cycle. During its active phase, the
insect may become active spontaneously and conduct
searches for one or more necessities: mates, food,
oviposition sites, or shelter. Also, at this time it is re-
sponsive to particular stimuli that it ignores when in-
active. These die! rhythms are maintained by an inter-
nal clock, which is repeatedly set by the periods of dark
and light. When an insect is artificially deprived of the
natural time-setting light-dark transitions at regular
intervals, the rhythm continues but drifts away from
the 24-hour period, giving rise to the term circadian
rhythm (around a day).
UNNERSIDADDECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
64 Chapter4 Behaviorand Ecology
Inhibitory Feedback: An insect's state of respon-
siveness changes when particular behaviors cause a
temporary physiological change. After eating food, an
insect's threshold of response to food stimuli rises, so
that it requires stronger stimuli before it wiIl taste or
ingest more. If it has ingested enough, it wiIl not re-
spond to stimuli of any strength. A classic example is
the tarsolabeIlar reflex of the blow fly.When its crop is
empty, if it tastes sugar with its front tarsi the fly ex-
tends its proboseis. When the crop contains a substan-
tial sugar meal, nerves from foregut stretch receptors
block the reflex. The time it takes for the fly to become
motivated again (that is, has a lower threshold of the
tarsolabeIlar reflex) is simply a function of crop volume
and the rate at which the crop empties, which in turn
depends on how fast absorbed sugar is depleted from
the hemolymph. Some changes are the result of cyclic
internal processes. For example, female insects do not
exhibit oviposition behaviors until they have a batch of
eggs ready to be laido
Long- Term Physiological Changes: Other be-
havioral changes are long-Iasting or permanent. These
often are the result of development and maturation. Af-
ter the final molt, adult insects do not immediately ex-
press sexual or other reproductive behaviors, but
hormone-induced nervous or other internal changes
lead to their expression and may last a lifetime. Juve-
nile hormone-a misnomer in these cases--often is the
mediator. For example, juvenile hormone causes adult
female mosquito es lO become sexuaIly receptive, and
after mating and insemination they immediately be-
come unreceptive to further sexual advances by males.
First mechanical stimuli from copulation and insemi-
nation, then chemical stimuli from the male's semen,
abolish her receptivity for a long period or a lifetime.
The tendency to migrate or to enter diapause (dis-
cussed later in this chapter) may occur only early in
adult life, only when the insect is crowded during de-
velopment, or only when photoperiod shortens and
temperatures begin to drop. Complete metamorphosis
is an extreme example of developmentally altered be-
havior. Larval and adult forms of the same individual
are often so different, both morphologically and eco-
logically, that they act like different speeies with en-
tirely different behavioral repertoires.
Learning: Insect learning generally is the experience-
induced modification of instinctive behavior patterns,
rather than formation of new behavior patterns. Learn-
ing differs from instinct mainly in that it involves prop-
erties of the nervous system that permit useful modifi-
cations in behavior, but the distinctions among
motivational change, sensory adaptation, and true
learning are not always obvious. Even in clear cases of
learning, there exists a continuous range between pre-
programmed and modified behaviors, so four cate-
gories of behavior are useful (based on Alcock 1979):
(l) closed instincts, the fixed programs, such as
courtship sequences; (2) open instincts, in which feed-
back from experience alters the program, such as im-
proved nectar-collecting effieiency or ignoring sudden
movements (habituation); (3) restricted learning, in
which limited stimuli alter behavior in a preeise way,
such as attaching new meanings to stimuli (classical
conditioning); and (4) flexible learning, in which an ex-
perience can lead to a wide range of changes in the
behavior pattern, such as familiarity with unique land-
scapes (exploration or latent learning) and reinforce-
ment of modified behavior (operant conditioning). The
ability to achieve any of these acts, and the constraints
placed on them, have a genetic basis. Modification by
learning is most valuable to species that live where in-
formation is reliable for extended periods within the
lifetime of the insect, but not reliable over many gen-
erations or over the population's entire range. Informa-
tion that remains reliable need not be learned and can
be committed to rigid stimulus-response programming.
Thus, with instinct, short-lived insects get it right the
first time.
Insects are capable of most types of learning
known to animals. The first three, here, are well estab-
lished: (1) Habituation is a diminished response to a
stimulus after repeated exposures with no relevant
consequences or assoeiations. An example from nature
is the ability of male wasps to learn to avoid being
tricked into "mating" with orchid flowers that crudely
mimic female wasps in appearance and odor. In captiv-
ity, insects usually habituate to startling noises, move-
ments, and handling. (2) Associative learning takes two
major forms: (a) In classical conditioning, a previously
neutral stimulus, when paired with a favorable or un-
favorable stimulus that normaIly causes a speeific re-
sponse, becomes a conditioned stimulus, elieiting the
response by itself (the new stimulus becomes associ-
ated with the old stimulus because of its effect). For ex-
ample, a honey bee, instinctively attracted to a blue
flower that has a neutral odor, obtains nectar and sub-
sequently is attracted to that odor when the blue color
is absent. A variation of this is preimaginal conditioning,
in which a neutral stimulus that an immature insect
encounters while feeding on a suitable food, such as an
unusual host plant, becomes the stimulus that, after
metamorphosis, the adult female chooses for oviposi-
tion. This is similar to imprinting, weIl known in birds
that become attached to the appearance of their par-
ents, but imprinting has a narrow sensitive period soon
after hatching and occurs without an assoeiated favor-
able or unfavorable stimulus. (b) Operant conditioning
is a particular act, followed by a positive or negative
consequence that reinforces either performing or the
..
refrainingfrom that act (the act becomes associated
withits consequence); a particular variant of this is
sometimesknown as "trial-and-error learning." For ex-
ample,ants can learn how to make the appropriate left
andright turns in a maze, without the help of a trail
pheromone,if the reward is to reach their nest at the
endof the maze. (3) In latent leaming, an insect be-
comesfamiliar with the relationships among various
neutralstimuli, even though these stimuli have no im-
mediatepositive or negative consequences. It is also
cal\edexploratory leaming. A classic example is the
abilityof digger wasps to memorize the configuration
oflandmarks around their hidden nests so they can
findthemmuch later (Figure 4-1). (4) In insight leam-
ing,the animal combines information from several
leamingexperiences and applies it to a situation never
beforeencountered. Whether insects are capable of this
veryadvanced form of learning is controversial. They
areclearlycapable of computations based on a multi-
tudeof sense data, so there is no a priori reason why
theycannot process learned information from several
sourcesand use it to meet new circumstances. The best
evidencefor cognition of this sort comes from tests of
theability of honey bees to form mental maps. Some
experimentsindicate that bees can figure out the most
I
Figure 4-1 FemalediggerwaspAmmophila(Spheci-
clae)at the entrance to its underground nest. Initially, she
becomesfamiliar with its position while digging. When
aboutto leave, she hides the nest by filling the opening
withsand grains evenly with the ground's surface. As she
fiiesaway,she updates her memory of its position rela-
tiveto surrounding landmarks, so that she can find it
when she returns.
Properties of Behavior 65
direct route home or to a feeding station, from places
they have never been before. This requires that a bee
learn the position of distant landmarks relative to one
another and then interpolate the correct direction to its
destination when it views the landmarks from a unique
perspective.
Temporal Structure of Behavior
Insects and other animals generally can do only one
thing at a time, and their various behaviors are not per-
formed in some haphazard sequence, although often
there is an element of randomness in the probabilistic
ordering of different activities. Instead, they are guided
by sets of rules that are assumed to maximize repro-
ductive success over the long run. From a study of
these rules, a basic principIe emerges: Different behav-
iors compete with one another and are mutually in-
hibitory, and at any given time one of them is domi-
nant. Dominant or subordinate status is a property of
the behavior's causal system, which is based on two
things: the insect's internal causal state (or motiva-
tional state) and its external stimulus situation. Thus,
whatever an insect "decides" to do (with no implica-
tion that learning-based cognition is involved) reflects
the dominant status of one of the causal systems. A
change in behavior may occur in four instances: (1) In
competition, a formerIy inactive behavior system be-
comes active beca use of either internal changes or
changes in external stimuli, causing a rise in its domi-
nance status, that is, increased tendency to perform or
lowered threshold for expression. (2) In chaining, per-
formance of the dominant behavior causes feedback
that reduces its status, allowing dominance and ex-
pression of a behavior previously subdominant and
therefore inhibited. Fixed chains are deterministic, and
at the finest level they may be caused by (a) sequential
releasers (as in the case of appetitive sequences, see
later discussion in this chapter), in which each behav-
ior leads to an encounter with the next releaser; (b) in-
terlocking releasers, in which each behavior causes the
next releaser (for example, the queen butterfly
courtship, in which male and female interact in a chain
of alternating behaviors); and (c) inflexibly linked se-
quences, in which one behavior follows inexorably after
another, regardless of feedback (for example, the series
of elements in some male courtship displays). The al-
ternative to fixed chains are Markov chains, in which
individual behaviors follow one another in a proba-
bilis tic manner, according to what behaviors preceded
it and how long ago each one occurred, a pattern that
occurs often in insect grooming movements. (3) In an-
tagonistic induction, an insect prevented by circum-
stances from performing a behavior is more likely to
perform it when the opportunity occurs. For example,
~..
66 Chapter4 Behaviorand Ecology
aphids that are prevented from l1ying because of wind
willl1y sooner than aphids not exposed to wind. (4) In
temporary switching, insects express competing behav-
iors randomly or according to a time-sharing method
that operates independently of dominance.
Conceptual models have been developed to help
people understand the organization of these underly-
ing roles. The simplest one with broad application to
insects was developed by European ethologists in the
mid-I900s and assumes that behavioral control is
strictly hierarchical. At the top of the hierarchy are the
most basic alternative causal systems (or "centers"),
such as reproduction, feeding, and migration. Within
each basic system are levels of competing subsystems
and sub-subsystems, each subordinate to the level
above it, sharing common causal factors and a common
goal but controlling finer elements of the behavior. For
example, in the reproductive mode an insect may per-
form mating, nesting, oviposition, or food gathering
for offspring, but only one task at a time. A male in the
mating mode may engage in territoriality or mate pur-
suit, but not both simultaneously. The mate-pursuit
system controls behaviors that lead progressively to-
ward the final sequence: courtship, mate acceptance,
mounting, copulation, and insemination. At each level
the competing behaviors are under the control of a par-
ticular system. The insect's readiness, tendency, or re-
sponsiveness (states giving rise to the unfortunate con-
cept of "drive") for each behavior is an outcome of
internal and external stimuli and central excitatory
state. According to this hierarchical hypothesis, the ex-
pression of the behavior controlled by each system at
each level is blocked until its postulated innate release
mechanism receives a particular stimulus, its releaser,
which often is a simple "sign stimulus" or "token stim-
ulus." Between successive steps in this hierarchy, ap-
petitive behavior is expressed, in which oriented move-
ments bring the insect to the next releaser. When the
goal has been reached and the very stereotypic consum-
matory act is performed, feedback to the system re-
duces its motivational status, relative to other behavior
subcategories, and one of those others becomes domi-
nant.
Hierarchical models have been greatly expanded,
and therefore complicated, to account for feedback
loops and the proba bilis tic nature of behavioral expres-
sion. However, as models become progressively more
comprehensive, they lose their heuristic value, and hy-
potheses about particular insects become difficult to
formula te. Alternatives to hierarchical models have
been used chiel1y to test and explain one specific ma-
neuver, sequence, or choice between two alternatives,
rather than to offer guidelines for understanding the
organization of an insect's entire behavioral repertoire.
One of these approaches is control system models (cy-
bernetic models), which borrow heavily from engi-
neering and use 110wdiagrams, electrical schematics,
and computer-like notations. These more closely rep-
resent nervous systems, are more l1exible (they can eas-
ily depict both hierarchical and weblike arrangements
of behaviors), and minimize the number of assump-
tions required. They are formed from basic conceptual
patterns of control, such as chains, meshes, and posi-
tive and negative feedback loops. For example, they
have been used to explain the mechanism by which a
praying mantis can strike with its fore legs in the cor-
rect direction toward prey, even though its head moves
independently of its thorax and can be held at different
angles. A broader approach employs optimality theory,
the general evolutionary assumption that animals eval-
uate their causal-sta te variables and tend to make deci-
sions that minimize costs and maxirnize gain according
to some criterion. This type of rnodeling can incorpo-
rate probabilistic roles and take a variety of mathemat-
ical forrns. The dynamic stochastic modeling method,
widely used in behavioral ecology, relies heavily on
computer analysis to predict sequences of decisions.
The simple ethological model can account for
many aspects of an insect's behavioral organization,
such as spontaneous behavior, the shifting dominance
of different behaviors, and sequences that lead to a
goal. A famous example of an appetitive sequence is
predation by the bee-wolf Philanthus, a digger wasp
that specializes in catching honey bees to provision its
nests. lt starts when the wasp l1ies from 110wer to
110wer,searching for a bee. When it sees a moving ob-
ject, the visual stirnulus releases the behavior of hover-
ing downwind of the object. If bee odor is perceived,
that releases seizing the bee. And if tactile stimuli (ei-
ther mechanical or chemical) are beelike, then stinging
behavior is released. Thus the goal is achieved through
a series of behaviors, each of which prepares the inseCl
for encounter with the next releaser. A similar series is
performed by beetles locating host plants for oviposi-
tion, mosquitoes locating vertebrate animals for blood
feeding, and male moths locating pheromone-releasing
fernales in order to mate. In the Philanthus case, re-
searchers can assume that stinging the prey is the con-
summatory act, which lowers the motivation to collecl
prey, so one of the competing behaviors connected
with reproduction now becomes dominant, probably
oviposition, a sequence involving taking the prey to a
nest and laying an egg on it. This process also has been
studied in detail. A case made famous by]. Henri Fabre
is Sphex,a wasp that digs a nest in the ground, then
finds and stings a grasshopper and brings it to the nest
entrance. The wasp uncovers the entrance, makes an
inspection visit of the tunnel that terminates in a cham-
ber, then returns to the surface. She grasps the prey by
its antennae, pulls it down into the chamber, lays an
-
Properties of Behavior 67

eggon it, then exits the tunnel, covers the entrance,
andleaves.Aside from raising the question of whether
preycapture and nest provisioning is one or two ap-
petitivesequences,the Sphcxstudy is revealingbecause
it tested some of the limits of flexibility in the se-
quence.lf the prey is moved a few centimeters away
fromthe nest entrance while the wasp is making her
inspectionvisit, when she comes to the surface she
drags thepreyback to the entrance and makes another
an inspection. Lack of feedback from the previous in-
spection makes her incapable of improvising in this
rare circumstance.
The complexity of the en tire repertoire of nesting
behavior and its hierarchical organization is epito-
mized in some digger wasp species (Figure 4-2). Am-
mophila adriaansei females can maintain several nests
at the same time, in various stages of founding and pro-
gressive provisioning with caterpillars. Experiments

.~
inspectionvisit. She will do this repeatedly, indicating have demonstrated that, for each nest serviced, there
a tightlink between bringing the prey and conducting are three levels of subsystems within the reproductive

~
t ~~ I
r I
I
M 111 ... I

"1 INSPECTING H_O_".W' ¡

EGO LAYU.G
I
UIUNG I
.ICAVATlNO I
CAAAYINOSANO ~_J
FOUNOING

HAACHINO CLUOS
TUTINO CLUOS
,.XINO CLUOS
ITA ,NO

SUACHINO "AIY
""'AOACHINO

PROVISIONING ~ r-T.ITtNG
UIZINQ
ITlIIOINO

"UIICH, NO

FINAL CLOSING
A.AYINO
AITAIIV'NO
:TOA'NO

!TIltO
DEFENDING HASlltO
!.!A!!!!IJi
SI.II".IIO

Figure4-2 Hierarchical control of nest provisioning in the digger wasp Ammophila adri-
aansei (Sphecidae). Nesting behavior is pan of the reproductive behavioral system (Rp),
which competes with the maintenance system (Mt). Several nests (a, b, e, d, e) are in
memory (M) at one time, but during a phase of activity on a nest, attention is not diverted
to other nests. Phases 1, U, and III are characterized by the amount of food (caterpillars)
required, and they utilize different combinations of subsystems and sub-subsystems.
Founding occurs only in Phase 1and Final CIosing only in Phase IlI. Each phase begins
with lnspecting. An evaluation of the presence of a larva, its size, and the amount of food
remaining determines, by heterogeneous summation (HS), which of the three phases wiIl
occur. If no larva is present, or if a phase is completed, the wasp scans (S) its memory and
redirects attention to the oldest uncompleted nest. If none needs funher provisioning at
the time, a new one is founded and its position learned (L) during digging.
68 Chapter4 Behaviorand Ecology
"system." The first level consists of three phases, each
with its own motivational state and each beginning
with an inspection visit prior to foraging for one or
more larvae: Phase 1, one caterpillar stored, foIlowed
by oviposition; Phase 2, one to two more caterpillars
provided to young larva; Phase 3, five to seven cater-
pillars added and nest closed for final time. Within
each phase are four subsystems (founding, provision-
ing, final closing, and defending), founding occurring
only in Phase 1, final closing only in Phase 3. And the
four subsystems, plus inspecting, are expressed in one
or more still finer subsystems: digging, closing, hunt-
ing, and transporting. Each of these consists of two to
six distinct behaviors, such as the appetitive sequence
of events involved in hunting just described. During
the inspection visit, the status of the larva or remaining
prey determines the total amount of provisioning that
wiIl be done before the next phase commences. In be-
tween two phases for one nest, a phase is performed for
one or even two other nests. particularly remarkable is
the conclusion that the motivational state of each sys-
tem persists independently for each of several nests be-
ing cared for simultaneously, each with its own memo-
rized location. Furthermore, the wasp juggles these
reproductive activities with competing maintenance
activities, such as feeding, grooming, sun basking, and
sleeping.
Life History Strategies
Time and Energy Budgets: The lives of insects, at the
broadest level, are organized to produce the greatest
number of successful, mature offspring. This number
defines an insect's fitness. There are many ways to max-
imize fitness, but they aIl involve economizing time
and energy, the common currencies of life. Time and
energy budgets are shaped, evolutionarily, according to
the principIes of stringency and aIlocation. This means
that the budgets are geared to fit the worst conditions
an insect might encounter and that time and energy are
aIlocated among survival and reproductive activities so
as to maximize fitness. Each sex of an insect species
typicaIly aIlocates a certain portion of its time carrying
out several necessary activities, such as feeding, nest
making, mating, grooming, and quiescence. Quies-
cence serves to avoid natural enemies, inimical
weather, or stressful times of day, while important in-
ternal activities continue, such as food digestion. The
energy obtained by feeding is likewise budgeted among
several activities that compete for energy use, such as
metabolic activity, formation of sperm or eggs, locomo-
tion, and behaviors for obtaining specific nu,trients
finding mates, and defense. The best budgets are those
that lead to the largest numbers of offspring and be-
come propagated through natural selection. Thus we
assume that the way insects organize and distribute
their behaviors is roughly optimized for a particular in-
sect niche. Using this kind of thinking, we can divide
insects into the time minimizers, which are favored by
spending the least time gathering food but the most
time defending it (for example, territorial ants or bury-
ing beetles), and the energy maximizers, which gain an
advantage by spending most of the time available gath-
ering food until it is nearly gone, then dispersing to
find more (for example, blow flies that develop in car-
casses). These extremes in a continuum of time budget
strategies fit various modes of insect life in different
kinds of environments. In some ways they correspond
to the oversimplified life history dichotomy based on
reproductive strategies: r-strategists produce huge
numbers of cheaply made eggs, but eggs and immature
stages suffer massive mortality (for example, floodwa-
ter mosquitoes); K-strategists invest large amounts of
time and energy on relatively few eggs and offspring,
whose survival rates are high (for example, tsetse flies).
The r-strategists grow quickly and are good colonizers
of unexploited resources, whereas the K-strategists
grow slowly but are successful against competitors and
natural enemies.
Conditional Strategies: In the course of a life cycle, an
insect shifts between two broad phases, each with its
own set ofbehaviors and priorities: vegetative, in which
the immature insect is committed primarily to feeding,
growth and storage of food, and reproductive, in which
the adult insect is devoted primarily to dispersal and
reproduction. In addition, three tactical alternatives
may occur in either phase: active, migrating, and dor-
manto These are induced by particular environmental
conditions. Active insects carry on their vegetative or
reproductive functions because conditions allow it.
Both the ability to migrate and the ability to be come
dormant allow insects to exploit temporary resources.
Dormancy occurs when the insect remains in place but
endures inimical conditions, such as winter, dry sea-
son, or unpredictable drought, when growth and re-
production are impossible. Insects may behave in par-
ticular ways to prepare for dormancy but are otherwise
inactive. During dormancy the insect reduces its meta-
bolic rate and exists in one of two distinctive physio-
logical states: quiescence or diapause (see Chapter 2).
Migratory Behavior: Like dormancy, migration often
occurs because of inimical conditions, but in this case
the insect escapes in space instead of time, by moving
to a better environment. These migrations may be ei-
ther round trips or one-way trips, and unlike migratory
birds, the round trip may be achieved by members of
two separa te generations. Well-known migrations ac-
commodate either the seasonal deterioration of an in-
sect's resources or the shrinkage or overexploitation of
...
resources.The famous monarch butterfly, Danaus plex-
ippus(L.), migration is a seasonal round trip between
northernNorth America, including southern Canada,
andits more mild southern reaches. In this migration,
dormancyplays an integral part. Ihe southward-flying
butterfliesare in a state of reproductive diapause dur-
ingtheir approximately 3,300-km (2,000-mile) jour-
ney,although they continue to feed on nectar. In their
mainoverwintering habitats in coastal California and
centralMexico, they are usually torpid but will fly and
drinkwater on warm days. Only in the spring, when
theystart the northward journey, do they become re-
productivelyactive, breeding on milkweed plants. Up
10 three generations are passed during this more
leisurelyspring migration. Many other insects that mi-
grateseasonally simply die out at the end of their
northernmigration as winter approaches, rather than
retumingsouth. Quite different are the migrations of
thenotorious locusts, such as the desert locust, Schis-
tacerca gregaria(Forskal), which are species of grass-
hoppers(Acrididae) capable of developmental dimor-
phism.They perform a one-way trip with no diapause,
noparticulardestination, no periodicity, and no finish-
ingtime.The root of migration is a shrinking suitable
habitat,which causes crowding, and mutual stimula-
tionofgrasshoppers leads 10 their transformation from
a solitaryphaseto a gregarious phase. The complete
transfonnationtakes up to three generations, and the
gregariouslocusts are strikingly colored and behave
quitedifIerentlyfrom solitary ones. The gregarious forms
remaina cohesive unit, even when their swarms num-
berin the tens of billions and cover up 10 1,000 km2.
Theymay travel across continents, eating plants and
reproducingas they go. If unchecked, they eventually
arecarriedby wind to regions where rain is falling and
forageis growing over wide areas, so they become dis-
persedand revert to the inconspicuous solitary phase.
Locustmigrations, known throughout all history, are
stilla serious problem in Africa and the Middle East.
Locustsalso occur in China, South America, and Aus-
tralia.The species that plagued the North American
plainsin the 18005 is now extinct. Like locusts, when
aphidsbecome too crowded on a plant they begin de-
velopingwings and migrate to new plants, also a one-
waytrip. The emigration of some aphids has a round-
trip aspect, because they migrate from a spring
host-plantspecies to a summer one, the shift being
causedby a physiological change in the spring plant.
Theaphids return to the spring host species the fol-
lowingyear. Tropical army ant (for example, Eciton)
coloniesmake impressive daily raids from a central
bivouac but are nomads on a perpetual one-way trip.
Duringtheir nomadic phase,the entire bivouac, queen
andall,must be moved daily while the larvae are grow-
ing,because these carnivores are continually depleting
Properties of Behavior 69
their local resources, mainly insect prey. During their
statary phase, the bivouac remains in one place, and
daily foraging parties extend in all directions for many
days. Migration also occurs for reasons other than re-
source deterioration. Some insects make a round trip
between two different kinds of resources that are spa-
tially separated, or simply make a one-way dispersal to
colonize new areas. Saltmarsh mosquitoes, such as
Aedestaeniorhynchus (Wiedemann), which hatch and
develop in synchrony after an exceptionally high tide,
do both: They go on a spectacular postemergence exo-
dus that results in dispersal, and once they settle, the fe-
males translocate between two habitats during each re-
productive cycle: Ihey often find their blood meals
inland but must return to the saltmarsh to lay their
eggs. Ihe swarming dispersal of newly emerged winged
termites is an example of a purely colonizing migration.
The Genetic Basis of Behavior
Both instincts themselves and the ability to modify
them through learning have a genetic basis. A great
many insect behavioral traits are demonstrably herita-
ble, as shown by the methods of classic genetics, such
as hybridization and backcrossing, mutation, and arti-
ficial selection. Entomologists have explored traits' 10-
calized expression in the insect body through the use
of sexual mosaics (gynandromorphs) and biochemical
analysis, and have demonstrated their molecular basis
through genome manipulation. Identifying heritable
units that underlie behavior has been difficult. Ihis is
partly because behavior itself is not easily fractionated
into single elements, each caused by the expression of
one or a few genes. Unlike color or so me morphologi-
cal features, which may be expressed through a unitary
developmental process, behavior requires the partici-
pation of sensory receptors, nervous circuitry, appro-
priate neurochemical states, and a system of muscles to
move body parts. A small difference in the genes that
control any of these components can result in a differ-
ence in behavior. Research indicates that even in cases
where a genetically based difference between two in-
sects can be traced to a specific difference in neural cir-
cuitry or neurochemistry, that difference usually is the
result of many genes having multiple effects; that is,
the trait is polygenic and the genes have pleiotropic ef-
fects. Among the traits studied in greatest detail are
cricket calls, honey bee food hoarding, honey bee hy-
gienic behavior, and a variety of behaviors in the fly
Drosophila: geotaxis, larval foraging, odor learning, cir-
cadian activity rhythms, sex recognition, and courtship
songs. The hygienic behavior of worker honey bees in
colonies that are resistant to foulbrood bacteria was
found, by backcrossing experiments, to consist of two
separa te acts, uncapping cells of infected larvae and re-
70 Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology
moving infected larvae from the hive. These behaviors
assort independently, and analysis indicates that prob-
ably at least three genes are involved.
In some behaviors, researchers have discovered
simple one-gene control. In the case of larval foraging,
two behavioral tYpesof DrosophilamelanogasterMacquan
have been identified: rovers, which wander around on
their food, and sitters, which travellittle. These differ-
ent types occur naturally, each one being favored by
different food conditions. Hybrids between rovers and
sitters produce offspring in a 3:1 rover-sitter ratio, sug-
gesting that foraging is controlled by a single gene
(dg2) and that the sitter trait is recessive. The two be-
havioral types have been mapped to a single locus on a
chromosome. Apparently differences in the gene (that
is, its nudeotide sequences in the DNA) result in dif-
ferences in the way RNA splicing occurs, giving rise to
different kinds and amounts of the enzyme protein ki-
nase. Protein kinase affects the excitability of nerve
cell5, which probably causes food receptors or foraging-
movement neurons to Cire more rapidly. Experimen-
tal transfer of dg2 DNA from rovers to sitters causes sit-
ters to behave like rovers. In the case of circadian-dock
genetics, researchers have found mutant Drosophila
strains that differ from the normal 24-hour rhythm of
activity by having 28-hour or 19-hour cydes or no cy-
des at all. Each mutant differs only at the per locus and
only by a single pair of nudeotides among a large
group that codes for a particular protein that differs by
a single amino acid. The per locus also is responsible
for very specific tonal features of the male Drosophila
courtship song that are important to the female for
species recognition and mating speed. These features
have been traced to a very small part of the gene. The
species-specific songs of D. melanogaster and D. simu-
lans Sturtevant apparently derive from a difference of
only four amino acids in the protein translated from the
relevant region of the gene. However, the entire male
courtship ritual involves a series of female-oriented and
female-behavior-dependent movements: facing, tap-
ping, cirding, wing-extending, licking, and mounting.
These must involve many other loci, all contributing to
properties of the nervous system that allow this se-
quence to unfold.
Because behavioral traits, like morphological and
molecular ones, are heritable and shared among related
taxa, they are used as tool5 in insect systematics. De-
spite a reputation for evolutionary flexibility, behav-
ioral characters show approximately the same range,
from stability to volatility, as morphological ones. Nest
building and courtship displays have been particularly
useful, beca use they are rich in complexity, providing
many different traits that can be measured or catego-
rized, independently of one another. Nesting offers the
additional advantage of leaving behind, in nest archi-
tecture, a permanent record of behavior that can be
gathered and stored, even from fossils. Independently
of their use in understanding relationships, behavioral
characters can be applied to phylogenetic reconstruc-
tions based on morphological and molecular data.
From them, researchers can infer the evolution of be-
havior by its appearance and modification among vari-
ous groups in the evolutionary tree. Similarly, the ob-
servation of polymorphic behaviors within one
recognized species has led to the discovery of distinct
but cryptic species within what then becomes recog-
nized as a species complex.
Behaviorallnteractions between
Conspecifics
Mating
SexualEncounter: The vast majority of insect species
are sexually dioecious, occurring as either female or
male, and most engage in mating, even those whose
females have the option of parthenogenesis (see Chap-
ter 2). Mating presents the problem of finding a recep-
tive member of the opposite sex, and insects have two
solutions. (1) In sexual aggregation, individuals that
need to mate convene in special sites, often at certain
times of the day or night, during the mating season.
These sites may be species-specific places of emer-
gence, feeding, or oviposition, or distinctive land-
marks. The aggregations typically have an operational
sex ratio strongly skewed toward males, beca use much
of a male's fitness depends on his ability to obtain
mates, whereas a female's fitness is distributed more
broadly among activities connected with feeding and
nesting, and she may have less to gain from multiple
matings. Because of their intense competition, the
males of many species establish territories that they de-
fend against other males. The territories can have ac-
tual value to females for feeding or oviposition, as in
the case of dragonflies, or they may be leks, symbolic
territories that have no intrinsic value but are sought
by females and therefore are prized by males and de-
fended by those with the best competitive ability-for
example, Hawaiian Drosophila on plant leaves. High-
density sexual aggregations over landmarks usually are
aerial, the males forming a seething mating swarm that
makes establishment of a territory virtually impossible.
In that case, competition is based on a male's ability to
loca te a female quickly as she approaches or enters the
swarm, to seize her, and to deny other males access to
her before the couple departs. Male-biased mating
swarms are typical of many ants and small nematocer-
ous Diptera, such as gnats, midges, and mosquitoes.
 Behaviorallnteractions between Conspecifics 71

(2)In sexualattraction, one sex of a speciesmay broad-

casta visual, chemical, or auditory signal indicating ~4 . ... ...
that the signalerwants to mate, and members of the 3
oppositesex use the signal to find its source. To pre- 2 Á
eludeuseless hybrid matings, these signals must be 1 .
speciesspecific for a given area and season. Visual sig-
nalsare transmitted in the flashing colors of butterflies'
~5 ~d~~IIII~
J:4
wingsin sunlight and in the blinking lights of fireflies' ~3
photicorgans. In common firefly species, both males "'02
andfemalesproduce light, the flying mal e giving a pe-
gu 1
O)
riodic,species-specific calling flash, and the sedentary
~7
female answeringwith a flash from the ground. In this O)a
case,it is the female that attracts the male, by answer- 0.5
ingeachof his calls after a prescribed interval, allow-
inghimto locate her. Malesof some Pteroptyx species,
bestknown in Southeast Asia, gather together in trees
~4
°3
~2 :C
,g1
1I 1I
~
alongthe banks of rivers and flash in unison. This
combinedeffort is thought to be effective in attracting .S: 8
>'7
flyingfemales over long distances; at close range, indi- ga
vidualattraction still is necessary.Males of some tree 0)5
g.4
cricketand katydid species seem to do the same thing, ~ 3
bysynchronizing their calling songs. The best known u-2
auditory attractants are produced by cicadas and 1
variousOrthoptera, such as crickets and katydids (Fig- 7
ure4-3). Cicada males buzz by rapidly vibrating two 6
membranes(tymbals) within chambers of the first ab- 5
4
dominalsegment. The much quieter leafhoppers and 3
planthoppersalso use tymbals. Most orthopteran males
relyon wing stridulation. A scraper on one wing rubs
21 -e
í
O.O 0.5' 1.0' 1.5' 2.0'
alonga ridgedfile on the other, causing the wings to vi- Time in Seconds
brate.Some grasshoppers stridulate by rubbing their
legsagainsttheir foldedwings. For typical chemicalat-
traction,as in moths, females release a volatile sex
Figure4-3 Audiospectrographsof someinsect sounds.
pheromone,which is distinct for each species (even the A, Four chirps of the caIling song of a fieIdcricket, Gryl-
isomermust be correct) and often is a mixture of two
lus sp.; B, A portion of the caIling song of the tree
ormorechemicals in a specific ratio. Sex pheromones cricket, Oecanthus nigricomis Walker; e, Two 2-puIse
canelicitreactions in males many kilometers from the
songs of the northem true katydid, Pterophylla camellifo-
female caller.As a general rule, males emit attractants lia (Fabricius); D, StriduIation sounds produced by the
thatarerisky or energetically costly, such as sound, and sawyer beetle, Monochamus notatus (Drury) Ctheinsect il-
females emitattractants that are safeand cheap, such as lustrated in Figure 26-75); E, A part of the caUingsong
pheromones.Risky attractants are those that predators of the cicadaTibicenchloromera(WaIker).Frequency
andparasites can use to locate the sendero is shown here in kilohertz (or kilocydes per second);
4 kHz is approximateIy the pitch of the top note of a
Courtship:Once males and females have encountered piano.
other,they may proceed directly to copulation or
each
mayfirst engage in various rituals, collectively known
ascourtship.Although both sexesmay play active roles,
involvingtwo-way communication, usually the male male's body (so-called aphrodisiac), large and edible
conducts most of the overt performances and appears extensions of spermatophores, or the body of the male
lobeseeking acceptance. Obversely, typically it is the himself. In the last instance, including the widely pub-
femalethat rejects a potential partner. These rituals in- licized cases of praying mantises and black widow spi-
elude leg and wing displays (Figure 4-4), dances and ders, the male usually attempts to escape with his liCe
songs, the use of silken traps and guides, and various after inseminating the female, and the frequency of
feedingdevices. Feeding includes items of food (nup- sexual cannibalism in nature is disputed. But at least in
tialgifts),such as prey, secretions from glands on the the Australian red-back spider, the male clearly offers
,P.!'
72 Chapter4 Behaviorand Ecology
/ istics, such as ability to obtain food and resist parasites.
/'
~ se, but his ability to obtain prey. Often the mate-choice
.E
~ males with exceptionally eIaborate appearances and
Figure 4-4 Courtship of the neo tropical mosquito Sa-
bethes cyaneus (Fabricius), which is iridescent blue and
silver. Mating consists of three phases: precoupling, su-
perficial genital coupling, and full copulation. Within
these phases, the male performs a series of courting
stages with overt movements that involve extensive use
of the midlegs, which on both sexes have "paddles." The
stages always occur in this order: free-Iegwaving, swing-
ing, waving, and waggling. If the female is receptive, she
lowers her abdomen during the swinging stage (shown
here), making genital coupling possible. Full copulation
occurs right after waving, and it is during the waggling
stage that insemination occurs.
himself to be eaten. The male gains from self-sacrifice
by contributing to the development of eggs in her
body, which may become fertilized by his sperm.
Courtship seems to have a number of purposes.
Among arthropods with indirect insemination, such as
scorpions, some springtails, and silverfish, a dance fa-
cilitates the transfer of the spermatophore from male to
substrate, then to female. Among predators, such as
jumping spiders, a male's signals are thought to inhibit
the female's inclination to kill. Courtship interchanges
also may allow the female to communicate to the male
whether she is receptive, which benefits both sexes by
precluding time-wasting, strenuous, and potentially
damaging attempts by the male to copulate. The two
most common explanations for courtship are species
isolation and individual mate choice. If courtship dis-
plays are species specific, a female that discriminates
among them can avoid mating with males of other
species, and thus can avoid laying nonfertile eggs or
producing aberrant offspring. Furthermore, if the fe-
male can discrimina te among male performances
within her species, she also has the opportunity to ac-
cept or reject particular individuals, according to how
fit they seem. Most evidence comes from studies in
which females choose large males over small ones. Per-
haps body size is among the most important messages
being communicated during visual displays, but
Drosophila research demonstrates that females also se-
lect males according to their courtship sounds. Insect
body symmetry also is important. Any courtship fea-
tllres may be indicators of underlying fitness character-
Hangingfly femaIes (Mecoptera: Bittacidae) accept
more sperm from males that present them with larger
gifts of prey, which may indica te not only his size, per
pathway appears to have Ied to the sexual selection for
performances that have little to do with a male's health
or vigor, but rather confer mainly his ability to sire sons
that aIso are stimuIating to females. Furthermore, fe-
males that choose such stimulating males are more
likely to produce daughters that are stimulated by such
males. The combined effect is "run-away sexual selec-
tion." An altemative to courtship is male-male fight-
ing, which provides for sexual selection of a different
nature. If a female attracts more than one male at a
time, she does not necessarily choose among them. In-
stead, a fight ensues, and the female accepts the win-
ner. Intrasexual selection for fighting ability has re-
sulted in conspicuous horns and large mandibles on
male beetles. They serve as weapons against each other,
rather than as devices to defend against enemies or to
impress females, and probably are detrimental to all as-
pects of life other than fighting for mates.
Copulation: Copulation and/or insemination are the
end result of a successful mating. In some apterygote
insects, including many Collembola, not only is spenn
transfer indirect, but the male may place sper-
matophores on the substrate and never encounter the
female that picks them up. Yet various forms of non-
contact and contact courtship also occur in Collem-
bola. Even copulation, which involves direct transfer of
sperm from male to female, may not occur between
genitalia but rather between genitalia and some other
structures on the opposite partner. This extragenital in-
semination is the rule in spiders, in which the pedipalps
of males are modified into secondary intromittent or-
ganso A male deposits sperm in these small appendages
prior to mating and during copulation introduces them
into the female's genital opening. A similar arrange-
ment occurs in Odonata. In this case, the male deposits
sperm in an organ at the base of his abdomen so that at
the time of mating, he clasps the neck of the female
with his primary genitalia at the tip of the abdomen,
and she curves her abdomen ventrally forward to clasp

hissecondary genitalia and receive sperm. This strange
configurationis the frequently observed "wheel posi-
!ion" of dragonflies and damselflies. In bed bugs
(Hemiptera:Cimicidae) and some relatives, it is the fe-
malethat has a secondary sexual structure: a cleft and
associatedorgan (spermalege) in the cuticle on the
ventralside of her abdomen, which the male pierces
withhis strong, hooked aedeagus. The injected sperm
mustmigrate posteriorly to reach her reproductive
tract.Ihe vast majority of insects mate by genital cou-
pling,in which female and male genitalia become
lockedtogether while a spermatophore or free semen is
transferredto the female. The emire process may last
onlya few seconds or may go on for hours, during
whichtime the male may continue with courtship
movements.Female genitalia tend to be uncompli-
cated,whereas those of males exhibit a diversity of
structuresthat vary widely among species. Some of
theseare devices for clinging 10 the female (for exam-
pIe,claspers) or for transferring sperm, but many oth-
ershaveno known function. A long-held view is that
elaborate male genitalia fit perfectly only into females
ofthesame species, so that species isolation is assured,
knownas the lock-and-keyhypothesis.A more recent
explanationis that in most insects, these structures,
likecourtship itseU, stimulate females in specific ways
sothat she may choose to accept or use more sperm
framsomemales than others. These phenomena, re-
ferredto as copulatorycourtship or internal courtship,
areused in cryptic female choice. This hypothesis
wouldexplain why species with polygamous females
alsohave males with more elaborate genitalia, the re-
sultofsexual selection.
Mating Systems: The multitude of insect mating sys-
temsamong insects appears related to the wide species
differencesin the scarcity and distribution of their re-
sourcesand thus to the likelihood of encountering the
oppositesex, but the evolutionary origins of these sys-
temsis not always clear. Monogyny (having one female
mate)tends to be high when females are thinly distrib-
utedor males are excessively abundant. Some monogy-
nousmales guard their mates to prevent cuckoldry,
suchaslovebugs(Diptera: Bibionidae),which prevent
heraccessto other males by remaining in copula for a
longperiodoOthers assist females with parental care of
offspring,such as Nicrophorus burying beetles (Silphi-
dae) andLethrusdung beetles (Scarabaeidae).Polygyny
iscommonwhen there is a low male operational sex ra-
tio.When females are concentrated in patches, males
attemptto monopolize them by defending them
either
againstother males (for example, yellow dung flies,
Scathophaga) (Figure 4-5) or by defending territories
thatcontain resources a female needs (dragonflies).
Whenfemale monopoly is unlikely, because the females
Behaviorallnteractions between Conspecifics 73
Figure4-5 Postcopulatory mate-guarding during
oviposition by the yellow dung fiy,Scathophaga sterco-
raria (L.). The polyandrous females oviposit only in
fresh ungulate dung, and the larger males aggregate there
lO mate with them. A gravid female copulates with the
first male quick enough to catch her, usually in vegeta-
tion close to the dung, then they uncouple genitalia and
she proceeds to oviposit on the dung while the male
stands over her, fending off sexually aggressive males. If
there is a takeover, the female is inseminated by the new
maleoAbout 80% of her eggs are fertilized by the male
currently guarding her. Thus, the male assures his pater-
nity by protecting the female, and guarding serves both
sexes by making oviposition possible.
or their resources are not concentrated, males typically
either establish leks (buuerflies) or form massive mat-
ing assemblages (mosquitoes) at landmarks. In the lat-
ter, no courtship or female choice is evident. From the
female point of view, monandry (having one mate) is
advantageous, especially if life is short and mating in-
volves time, energy, or risk. But polyandry provides
sperm replenishment, allows access to a male's re-
sources and services (nuptial gifts, access to defended
food or oviposition sites, protection from aggressive
males), and allows the female to diversify the patemity
of her offspring or possibly to select sperm from among
several matings. The conflict between the best interests
of males and females derives from the fact that sperm
are numerous and cheap, eggs fewer and expensive.
This reasoning leads to the explanation for females'
more limited sexual activity, higher mate selectivity, and
extensive investment in parental careo Males lose liule
by making mating mistakes and usually can gain greater
fitness by inseminating more mates rather than by help-
ing to rear the offspring of one mate, especially if his pa-
temity is not assured. By extension, the asymmetry be-

74 Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology
tween the sex roles also explains why males perfonn
most courtship displays, take the risks, do the fighting,
defend territories, and protect the females they mate
With. There are a few exceptions to this general sex-role
rule. Among giant water bugs (Belostomatidae), females
of some species lay their eggs on the males' backs, and
. the males give the eggs special care until after hatching.
A male wiIl not let a female lay eggs on his back unless
she first lets him inseminate her, assuring his patemity
of the offspring. Females of other giant water bug
species lay their eggs on emergeOl vegetation, and the
male guards them there. Another female may attempt to
kill the eggs and become his mate, so that he wiIl guard
her eggs instead. Monnon cricket females court males,
whose mating services are exceptionally valuable be-
cause the males produce large, edible spennatophores.
A male weighs courting females (by assessing their heCt)
and mates with the heaviest one. Heavier females pro-
duce more eggs, so his choice results in a greater num-
ber of offspring sired by him.
Nesting and Parental Care
Insect parents exhibit a broad spectrum of care for their
offspring. Some show none at aIl, such as stick insects
that simply drop eggs to the ground beneath the vege-
tation they are feeding on. But the majority of solitary
insects do things that improve an offspring's chance of
survival. UsuaIly the female alone does this, but in
some cases the male-female mated pair coopera te. The
most elementary form of care is oviposition-site selec-
tion. Females of plant- and animal-feeding species with
narrow host ranges seek hosts on which their larvae
wiIl thrive. So do insects that develop in very specific
aquatic habitats. Beyond this, some females remain
with the eggs, guarding them from natural enemies or
physical damage until the eggs hatch, or until some-
time later. A further step is taken by insects that create
a nest to protect the eggs and immatures, a nest that
may be as simple as a hole in the ground or a curled
leaf. Others construct elabora te structures and carry
out necessary maiOlenance. Still others provide the im-
matures with food, either just once or repeatedly as the
offspring develop (progressive provisioning). For ex-
ample, burying beetles work as mated pairs to lower a
smaIl, dead bird or mammal iOlo a cavity in the ground
and to prepare it as a cuplike nest in which the larvae
develop, first feeding them mouth-to-mouth and later
aIlowing them to devour the cup itself. Among solitary
wasps that huOl prey for their offspring, a range of
species perform various numbers of steps in nest build-
ing and prey preparation and provisioning. The most
advanced fonns stay with their offspring, feeding and
defending them and cleaning the nest until they are
mature and can fend for themselves.
,.
Social Systems
Insects that fonn cooperative units have two large ad-
vantages over insects that live alone: (1) They are quick
to discover and monopolize resources, by communi-
cating the location of food, mounting mass attacks on
invaders, and maintaining territories to exclude com-
petitors. (2) They can build large nests rapidly, which
protects them and their offspring against natural ene-
mies, harsh weather, and stressful environments, and
their close association aIlows easy transmission of mu-
tualistic organisms.
The rudiments of advanced sociality among
groups of arthropods are evident in paren tal careo In a
convenient classification, presocial insects are divided
iOlo those that are subsocial, rearing their offspring
alone, and those that are parasocial, sharing their rear-
ing with other parents of the same generation. These
presocial arthropods include members of many insect
orders and also crustaceans and spiders. Each subcate-
gory has gradations that end in eusociality. Eusocial in-
sects traditionally meet three criteria: Their groups
contain overlapping generations, perfonn cooperative
brood care, and have a caste of nonreproductives, the
"sterile caste." Within the subsocial category of preso-
ciality are primitive forros that lack complete overlap of
generations, intennediate fonns whose generations
overlap, and advanced fonns in which the offspring re-
main with the group and share in caring for further off-
spring, including their own. Within the parasocial
group, which consists primarily of bees, are primitive
species in which females nest together, either gregari-
ously (separate nest entrances) or communally (a
shared nest entrance). Tent caterpillars and webwonns
(both Lepidoptera) sometimes are considered commu-
nal, because they build, expand, and repair their pro-
tective nest together and cooperate on foraging expedi-
tions. Nevertheless, the group consists only of
immatures and thus does not involve parental careo A
more advanced parasocial fonn is quasisociality, in
which communal nesters coopera te in providing brood
careo Still more advanced is semisociality, in which the
cooperatively brooding adults include some nonrepro-
ductives. Yet this group abandons the nest before the
emergence of the next generation, and those offspring
start new nests elsewhere. Primitively eusocial insects
meet aIl three criteria but there is only one relatively
undifferentiated sterile caste, the workers. Progres-
sively more advanced eusocials show more differentia-
tion among colony members, including large differ-
ences in fonn and behavior between reproductives and
workers. Colonies of advanced termites may contain
several kinds of worker and soldier castes, and ad-
vanced ant societies have multiple worker subcastes,
including the large majors, the soldiers, medias that do
..
most
of the foraging, and tiny minors that never leave
thenest.
Insectsknown to meet the three conventional cri-
teriaofeusociality are found only in the orders Isoptera
(termites),Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, and ants), and
perhapsColeoptera (beetles). All termites and all ants
(Formicidae)are eusocial. Among the wasps, eusocials
occurin some Vespidae (all Vespinae, some Polistinae)
andonespecies of Sphecidae. Among the bees, they oc-
curin some Halictidae (some Augochlorini and some
Halictiniwithin the Halictinae), and some Apidae
(someCeratini within the Xylocopinae, all Apinae).
Amongthe beetles, one species of ambrosia beetle
(Curculionidae:Platypodinae) seems to meet the euso-
cial criteria. One noninsect arthropod is eusocial:
Synalpheus pistol shrimp (Decapoda: Alpheidae),
whose colonieslivein sponges. Amongvertebrates, the
onlyclearlyeusocial animals are the naked mole rats
(Rodentia:Bathyergidae), whose underground soci-
etiesroughly parallel those of termites, except that the
ratsmayhave several reproductive males ("kings").
The preceding scheme of presocial and eusocial
insectsis not entirely neat. Aphids, which usually seem
obliviousto one another on a plant stem, in some cases
releasean alarm pheromone when attacked, causing
othersin the group to save themselves by dropping off
the plant (Figure 4-6). Communal caterpillars live
muchlike a society as they develop, but they cannot
reproduce, and adults are solitary. Australian gall
thrips,which live as family groups of multiple genera-
tionsinside plant galls, have an anatomically distinct
soldiercaste, as do some advanced eusocial insects, but
Figure4-6 A, A damseI bug, Nabís americoferus Carayon, attacking the aphid
Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris), and the aphid secreting cornicle droplets in response to the
attack. B, Secreted droplets on the tips of the cornicles of the aphid Acyrthosiphon solani
(Kaltenback) .
Behaviorallnteractions between Conspecifics 75
the flightless soldiers are not sterile. And cottonwood
gall aphids do have a sterile female soldier caste to de-
fend the all-female family in the gall, but there is no co-
operative brood careo Brood care is a necessity chiefly
of holometabolous insects that have larva e unable to
feed themselves. Furthermore, members of a sterile
caste of many eusocial insects are not permanently
sterile but may assume reproductive duties if needed
(as discussed later in this chapter). Delayed reproduc-
tion of adults, overlapping generations, and coopera-
tive brood care are not uncommon in groups of other
kinds of animals, including birds and mammals, so the
demarcation between presociality and eusociality can
be blurred. Yet these other animals lack fixed morpho-
logical caste distinctions, so they can be considered
primitively eusocial at best. Despite its imperfections,
. the social classification provides a useful tool for un-
derstanding how advanced sociality in insects may
have arisen. Living examples of degrees of subsociality
and parasociality demonstrate alternate routes to euso-
ciality from different directions. A third, the polygynous
family route, proposed for some Hymenoptera and per-
haps applicable to spiders as well, combines features of
each, progressing from intermedia te or advanced sub-
sociality to quasisociality as females from different gen-
erations cooperatively tend their brood.
Entomologists have used three basic ideas to explain
the emergence of societies, particularly to address the
evolutionarily counterintuitive origin of self-sacrificing
sterile castes by natural selection: (l) In mutualistíc
aggregation, group living and reciprocal altruism bene-
fits all members, especially under certain environmen-
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76 Chapter4 Behaviorand Ecology
tal conditions; only one or a few reproduce, yet all
have a chance to become reproductive at some time.
(2) In parental manipulation, the reproductive individ-
ual (the queen) controls the nutrition of her helpless
larvae, so by restricting their food, she diminishes or
eliminates their reproductive capacity. (3) In kin selec-
tion, members of the group are closely related, so non-
reproductive members gain inclusive fitness (genetic
propagation) from the success of their reproductive rel-
atives. The third idea offers an attractive explanation
for the fact that eusocial, female-dominated societies
have evolved at least 12 times among Hymenoptera,
which all have an uncommon method of sex determi-
nation: Males develop from unfertilized eggs and are
haploid; the females develop from fertilized eggs and
are diploid. Because of this arrangement, hymenopter-
ans have pedigrees in which, on average, full sisters are
more closely related to each other (0.75) than to their
own female offspring (0.5) or their brothers (0.25).
This means that a female hymenopteran can indirectly
propaga te her genes quite efficiently by self-sacrifice
that directly or indirectly benefits her reproductive sis-
terso However, this one type of selective pressure favor-
ing altruism does not account for eusociality in insects
in which both sexes are diploid, notably termites. Re-
searchers have suggested a similar inclusive fitness
mechanism for termites, the result of alternating peri-
ods of inbreeding and outbreeding, as well as several
ecological factors. Even in Hymenoptera, it is plausible
that all three proposed mechanisms have been in-
volved. One researcher has proposed that these three
mechanisms be integrated into an appealing scenario
consisting of five stages: colony mutualism, gambling
for reproduction, parental manipulation, kin recogni-
tion and selection, and the superorganism. In the final
superorganism stage, the colony may be thought of as
the unit of selection, a single organism whose sterile
castes are merely cellular extensions of the queen's
body and whose new reproductives are her gametes. A
major difference, however, is that the individuals
within an insect colony are not genetically identical,
which reveals itself occasionally in conflicts of interest.
For example, a honey bee queen mates multiple times,
so her worker offspring come from different fathers
and are not all related by 0.75. Workers with the same
father (full sisters) cooperate with each other better
than with half-sisters.
Social Communication
Members of insect societies communicate by volatile
pheromones, contact stimulation (both pheromonal
and mechanical), and sound. The messages that act as
releasers of behavior communicate alarm, attraction
and assembly, recruitment, and recognition. Those that
~~.~" '4' "'\ ~."" i '.Í"
('..'''''\q/~~ =)n~3i:f. !
~.¡ ',:itf] ..
A'I~_I
1
act as primers, most of them pheromones, either stim-
ulate or inhibit development into a particular caste or
prevent particular behaviors from being expressed.
Primer pheromones commonly are transmitted during
trophallaxis, the exchange of food and secretions, or
during grooming. Mouth-to-mouth trophallaxis is typ-
ical of Hymenoptera, whereas termites transfer many
materials through their feces, and communication is
therefore anus-to-mouth trophallaxis. The best under-
stood recruitment systems are trail making in ants and
dancing in honey bees (discussed later). Contact chem-
icals are important in allowing a worker to identify the
stages and castes of its nestmates and to recognize dead
nestmates. In addition, the ability to recognize nest-
mates in general is universal among social insects. The
characteristic odor of each colony is carried on the in-
sect and appears to involve both genetic and environ-
mental factors. An individual entering another nest,
even if of the same species, generally is attacked.
Social insects often work together to accomplish
extraordinary tasks that suggest planning and insight.
Honey bees are recruited to the best sources of nectar,
shape the cells of their wax combs into structurally
ideal hexagons, and thermoregulate their hives; ants
take the shortest routes to food, make flanking move-
ments during raids, and build neat walls of uniform
thickness to seal the nest; termites build underground
arches that meet in the middle; weaver ants coopera-
tively pullleaves together so that others, holding silk-
producing larvae, can bind them (discussed later). You
might infer that all these activities require either un-
derstanding of the larger goals or an exceedingly com-
plex system of communication, entailing explicit in-
structions from a leader or detailed information passed
back and forth among individual members. Yet a close
examination of individuals engaged in cooperative ac-
tivities often reveals afine level of disorder and appar-
ent chaos. Effectiveness emerges at a higher, statistical
level, through mass action. Studies indica te that even
the most clever and efficient activities are performed by
individual workers following very simple behavioral
rules, through a process of self-organization. Commu-
nication simply meshes the behaviors in particular
ways to make this possible.
Comparison between Termites
and Eusocial Hymenoptera
The eusocial societies of termites and hymenopterans
are fundamentally different because only the latter
have complete metamorphosis and are female domi-
nated. The developmental instars of termites are func-
tionally similar to the adults. After one or two molts,
termites can fend for themselves, and in one form or
another both sexes of immatures do most of the work
 Behaviorallnteractions between Conspecifics 77

ofthe colony. Typically, termites have a single repro-

ductivepair, a king and a queen. Hymenopterans, in
contrast,have helpless larvae that usually contribute
liuleor nothing to the colony, so various forms of fe-
maleadults do all the work. Adult males also con-
tributenothing and are present only during mating pe-
riods.Asa general rule, there is a single reproductive,
thequeen.
Mosttermites are pale or white, whereas ants tend
tobeyellow,red, brown, or black, and have a narrow
constrictionat the base of the abdomen. Yet termites
and many ant species share superficial similarities,
suchas having colonies that last for years, royalty that
shedtheir wings, workers that never have wings, sol-
dierforms,and a readily visible reproductive exodus
swarm.Their nests often are constructed of "carton"
(madeof dead plant materials, feces, or soil) or are 10-
catedin protected cavities in tree trunks, logs, or un-
derground.These similarities give rise to the termite
misnomer"white ants."

Termite Societies

Termitecolonies may be completely underground, in

earthenmounds that rise above ground, on or inside
deadwood (human habitations included), or high in
livingtrees, depending on the species (Figure 4-7).
They function for years, sometimes decades. All
speciesneed dead plant material as food. Their ability
tousethis food effectively depends on a mutualistic re-
lationshipwith internal bacteria or protists, or with
culturedfungí. The nest consists of chambers and tun-
nelsformedfrom mud, plant material, and fecal pellets.
Thespecific chambers are dedicated to housing the
kingandqueen (royal chamber), the brood, plant ma-
terial,or a fungus garden. The tunnels serve as con-
duitsbetween chambers or as heat chimneys and air
circulators.Even on open surfaces, such as tree
branchesor the side of a house, termites typically
travelin covered passageways. The various body forms
in a typical colony fall into two categories: nonfixed
(astesandfixed castes. Nonfixed castes are develop-
mentalstages,that is, nymphs (but called larvae, pseud-
crgatcs,presoldiers, and nymphs, depending on devel-
opmentalstate), that serve as unfixed workers and
eventuallycan molt into one of the fixed castes (work-
ers,soldiers,primary reproductives, or supplementary
reproductives).Members of fixed castes molt no fur-
ther.Workers and soldiers may be viewed either as de-
velopmentallyarrested immatures or as sterile adults.
Theworkersare devoted to constructing and repairing
thenest,nursing larvae, feeding the royal pair, and for-
agingforplant matter. Soldiers protect the colony by
attackinginvaders. Their modified heads are used ei-
ther to grasp enemies in their large mandibles
Figure4-7 Visible portion of subterranean-based Cu-
bitermes termite colony in equatorial Africa. The archi-
tecture apparently is designed to shed water during the
heavy rains, yet allow exhaust of stale air and intake of
fresh air, by convection.
(mandibulate soldiers) or to squirt them with noxious
or sticky substances from a gland on the front of the
head (nasute soldiers). In some species, the soldiers
can do both. Lower (primitive) termites lack a fixed
worker caste, and all stages and castes are divided
equally between females and males. Some advanced
termites may have two or more kinds of fixed worker
and soldier castes, each consisting of males or females
only. Colonies of some termite species often contain
more than one reproductive female, especially when
the colony is large and diffuse.
New termite colonies are founded when bra-
chypterous nymphs (that is, nymphs with externally vis-
ible wing buds) in mature colonies molt by the thou-
sands into alates (winged adults that are future primary
reproductives) and leave the nest at the same time as

UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
-
78 Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology

those in other colonies in the area. These exodus

swarms occur typically during the onset of a warm or
wet season, triggered by a heavy rain. After a period of
weak flight, the alates land on the ground, males locate
females by a female pheromone, both shed their wings,
and the pair crawling in tandem quickly loca te a site
for a new nest. The newly established primary repro-
ductives (king and queen) begin to rear offspring, but
it may take several years before their own colony can
produce alates. In the meantime, larvae are developing
into pseudergates (unfixed workers that can remain
uncommitted to a fixed caste), presoldiers and soldiers,
brachypterous nymphs, or supplementary reproduc-
tives, depending on the needs of the colony. In well-
defined colonies of primitive termites and many
advanced ones, a supplementary reproductive with func-
tional gonads appears only if the queen or king dies,
the replacement having molted from an older larva,
pseudergate, or nymph. Otherwise, separa te primer
(development-controlling) pheromones from the king
and queen are passed via their feces to all members of
the colony by their anal-oral communication system,
preventing unfixed termites of each sex from taking
over reproductive duties. If substitution accidentally
occurs, or if several supplementary reproductives ap-
pear at once, a contact pheromone from the oldest re-
productive causes workers to kill the others. An in-
Figure4-8 Nest of the paper wasp Polistesexclamans
(Viereck), with nearly identical foundress (queen), sub-
hibilOry primer-pheromone system apparently also
ordinate foundresses, and workers. Centrally located nest
keeps soldiers at a small but constant proportion of the
cells with white caps contain pupae; open cells closer to
total number of colony members.
the periphery are uncapped and contain growing larvae.
In one cell, an unhatched egg is visible.
Paper Wasp Societies
Paper wasps build their nests from a mixture of wood
fibers and saliva, pressed by their mandibles into thin lack functional ovaries. They collect wood fibers, ex-
sheets of paper that make up both the general nest pand the nest, forage for nectar, meat (prey or carrion),
structure and the comb of hexagonal cells in which and water, and defend the nest against intruders, using
they rear their brood (Figure 4-8). These cells typically a venomous sting. There is some tendency among
are inverted, so the larva growing in each is oriented workers to specialize in certain tasks, but they are ca-
head-downward. In common Polistes wasps of North pable of doing any of them. The helpless larvae con-
America, a single comb is attached to the underside of tribute lO the colony only by supplying nutrients lO the
an overhanging substrate (commonly the eaves of adults by traphallaxis.
houses in residential areas) by one or more pedicels. In New colonies are founded by inseminated females
yellow jackets and hornets (for example, genera Vespa, destined to be queens. In temperate climates, these
Vespula, Dolichovespula) and also many tropical paper foundress wasps overwinter in sheltered sites, either in
wasps, many combs are attached one below the other, a cluster (Polistes) or in isolation (for example,
and all combs together are enclosed within severallay- Vespula). In the spring they start new nests (old nests
ers of paper, perforated by an opening for adult wasps are rarely used) by themselves. Vespula foundresses al-
to pass in and out. These enveloped, multitiered nests ways perform all foraging, construction, egg laying,
may be attached to tree limbs or overhangs or be situ- feeding, and defending duties until the first workers
ated in rock piles or underground with a tunnellead- emerge as adults. Polistes foundresses sometimes are
ing to the surface. During most of the season of nest joined by one or two females fram the same generation,
growth, the colony consists of a queen and numerous which assume the rank of subordinate foundress with
slightly smaller female workers. The queen spends nonfunctioning ovaries and perform the tasks of work-
most of her time at the nest, laying eggs. The workers ers. If at any time the foundress dies, one of the subor-

dinates will rejuvenate her own reproductive system
andbecome the new queen. During colony growth, fer-
tilized eggs are laid in worker cells and receive only
moderate amounts of food. Near the end of the season,
the queen begins laying unfertilized eggs, which de-
velop into males, and fertilized eggs in cells slightly
larger than those of workers (in the case of Vespula),
which develop into foundress daughters. The latter re-
ceive more food than workers and become larger
adults. Males await foundress daughters near nests or
potential overwintering sites, but all males are dead by
the time foundress daughters are safely sequestered. In
subtropical and tropical regions, paper wasps may have
many foundresses and maintain nests for much longer
periods of time, with periodic queen replacement and
seasonalproduction of reproductives for dispersal.
Ant Societies
Ant species form nests in a wide variety of sites: deep
under ground, beneath rocks, inside old logs, inside
hollowbranches, inside chambers provided by mutual-
istic plants (se e discussion of myrmecophytes later in
this chapter), and high in trees. Some construct their
nests of carton, others from living materials, such as
the leaf nests of weaver ants (Oecophylla), which are
held together by silk, from larvae, that workers manip-
ulate in a stitching action, just prior to forming co-
COOllS. The nomadic army ants (such as Eciton) and sa-
fari or driver ants (such as Dorylus) form a temporary
nest from the interlocking bodies of living workers.
Nests of solid construction may have tunnels and
chambers devoted to the queen, brood, food, or fungus
gardens. A typical growing colony has one wingless
queen and numerous wingless female workers. Some
ant species, especially those with large and dispersed
colonies, may have secondary reproductives (worker-
queen intermediates that lay eggs) or multiple queens.
Workersmay be all of one type or may be divided mor-
phologically into several subcastes with different func-
tions: Minors are small and often remain within the
nest, cleaning and tending to the brood; medias are of
intermediate size and do most of the foraging; majors
Coftenreferred to as soldiers) are large-bodied, with ex-
ceptionally large heads and mandibles, and defend the
nestor columns of foraging workers. In the case of no-
madic ants, majors also guard the procession of all
colonymembers (many carrying a larva) as they move
to a new bivouac. The foods of ants are extremely di-
verse.Harvester species collect seeds and store them in
chambers. Honeydew collectors are closely associated
with honeydew-producing Hemiptera (discussed
later), in some cases storing the fluid underground
within the bodies of designated workers (honeypot
ants). Carnivores may be either generalist or specialist
Behaviorallnteractions between Conspecifics 79
predators, capturing mainly arthropods. Fungus gar-
deners (¡he leafcutter ants, tribe Attini) cut fresh leaves
and petals from shrubs and trees and place them in
chambers where fungus is cultured (see later). Slave
makers specialize in raiding or taking over the nests of
other ant species and using the labor of the conquered
workers. Nest parasites maintain their entire colonies
within the nests of other ant species, often lacking a
worker caste altogether and depending on the host for
defense and food. Most kinds of foraging ants use trail
pheromones to lead other foragers to a source of food.
A forager that has found food leaves a trail on the sub-
strate as she returns directly to the nest (having used
the sun compass to keep track of her position relative
to the nest), then recruits other ants to follow the trail.
Each ant that finds the food adds to the trail on her re-
turn, but when all food has been removed the trail no
longer is reinforced and soon disappears.
Colonies of ants typically start like those of paper
wasps: periodic production and dispersal of a new gen-
eration of reproductives. At a particular season winged
adults of both sexes leave the colony, the males form
aerial mating swarms that females enter to find a mate.
Inseminated females, destined to be come queens, shed
their wings and find a site to establish a colony on their
own. A queen begins by laying eggs and feeding the lar-
vae from her metabolic stores to develop a generation
of workers. As the worker base expands, the colony be-
comes self-maintaining by foraging for food, feeding
the larvae, and leaving the queen to egg production.
After several years, the colony is sufficiently large that
winged males and reproductive females are produced
and exodus flights occur. Another type of colony for-
mation, seen in army ants, is division of the parent
colony into two groups, one with the old queen and
one with a few new, uninseminated female reproduc-
tives. All but one are removed from the new colony and
allowed to die. The remaining new queen is insemi-
nated by males from her own or other colonies. Con-
trol of female caste generally is pheromonal-nutritional.
The queen produces a pheromone that prevents work-
ers from feeding female larva e a royal diet until the
time of winged exodus approaches, when she also lays
unfertilized eggs that will be fed a male diet. Larval di-
ets that allow development of various female subcastes
are determined by the needs of the colony, also pre-
sumed to be mediated by pheromones.
Honey Bee Society
Honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies have been as-
sisted or maintained by humans for thousands of years,
to obtain their stored honey or pro mote their pollinat-
ing abilities, which are extremely important to agricul-
ture. Consequently they are the most intensively stud-
80 Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology
ied and best understood of the social insects. In nature,
nests are established in rock and tree cavities that have
a narrow opening. In cultivation, colonies are main-
tained in baskets or wooden boxes (referred to as hives)
with similar features. The nest consists of a series of
parallel combs, differing from those of paper wasps in
that the combs are made of wax and are vertical, so that
the cells are horizontal and occur on both sides of the
combo Furthermore, the cells are used not only for
rearing brood but also for storing honey (concentrated
flower nectar) and pollen. In addition, the combs serve
as platforms where workers exchange food and infor-
mation. The colony consists of one winged queen, a
few hundred winged males (drones), and many thou-
sands of smaller winged female workers. The queen is
entirely dedicated to producing eggs and laying them
in cells. Drones are present only during the reproduc-
tive season, contribute nothing to the colony, and serve
to mate with new queens from other colonies. Workers
generally follow a sequence of tasks and associated
gland activity: (l) cleaning cells; (2) feeding larvae
salivary secretions (known as bee milk or royal jelly)
and pollen mixed with honey (bee bread); (3) building
cells, using wax from their abdominal wax glands;
(4) storing pollen and honey, which has been taken
from incoming foragers; (5) guarding the colony, by re-
maining near the entrance and attacking intruders with
a suicidal sting; and finally (6) foraging, which in-
ocludes collecting nectar, pollen, resins, and water, up to
8 km from the nest (Figure 4-9).
Communication among workers includes the re-
lease of an alarm pheromone from the sting apparatus,
Figure4-9 Foraging worker honey bee, Apis me/lifera,
gathering nectar and pollen froro a flower.
which remains in the intruder and attracts other work-
ers to the site of the sting and induces further stinging.
An assembly pheromone, released by a forager after re-
turning from a successful expedition, causes other for-
agers to gather around to obtain information about the
food source. Much of this information is transmitted
during a dance, which has components suggesting
symbolic language. The dance language differs slightly
among different races of honey bee. The following di-
alect applies to the Carniolan race of northern Europe:
When food is less than 20 meters from nest, the forager
performs a round dance, in which it walks in an almost
complete circle, alternating between clockwise and
counterclockwise directions. This pattern indicates
that the source is nearby, its richness is indicated by the
duration and vigor (vibrations) of the dance, and its
odor is imparted by the dancer. Between 20 and 80 me-
ters, a transitional sickle dance is performed, which
contains elements of the waggle dance. Foragers do a
perfect waggle dance when food is more than 80 m
away. It consists of alternating left and right semicir-
cles, with a straight waggle run in between, in which
the bee vigorously wags its abdomen from side to side
while walking forward. Richness and odor of the food
source are transmitted as in the round dance. The ap-
proximate distance to the food is indicated by the du-
ration of the waggle run, and consequently the number
of waggles in it and number of waggle runs per unit of
time. The direction to the food is indicated by the an-
gle between the direction of the waggle run and the
vertically upward direction. This angle represents the
angle between the food source and the sun's azimuth,
which is the sun's coordinate on the horizon. The
dance occurs within an almost completely dark nest on
a vertical surface, so recruited workers detect its geo-
metric features entirely by mechanical stimuli coming
from the dancing bee, which they follow during the
course of her dance, and from their sense of gravity.
The most abstract feature of this communication is the
representation of the real sun's azimuth on a horizontal
landscape by the direction "up" on a vertical dancing
platform.
New honey bee colonies are founded when a large
one divides into two parts. The process starts when
workers start building queen cells, large cells that hang
vertically off the face of ordinary honeycomb, and rear-
ing future queens in them. Typically, the old queen
leaves with about half the workers in a prime swarm, a
mass of bees that comes to rest on a tree branch or
other aerial site. By using the surface of this cluster of
bees, permanent nest-site foragers employ the waggle
dance to recruit each other to cavities that might be
suitable, and those dances reporting the best site grad-
ually recruit more workers until a critical mass agrees.
Then they allleave together with the queen to relocate
-
in the chosen cavity. Meanwhile, at the old nest, the
firstnew female reproductive to emerge destroys the
otherqueen ce11s.If two emerge at about the same
time,they fight to the death, using their venomous
stings,so that only one remains as queen. This repro-
ductivefemale then goes on a mating flight (nuptial
flight)to a location high in the air where drones are ac-
tive.She attracts them with a pheromone and mates
with10-15 in succession, a process that tears the gen-
italiaoff the abdomen of each male and causes his
death.When fi11edwith a lifetime's supply of sperm,
sheretums to the nest to begin laying eggs lo replenish
thestockof workers. In temperate climates, swarming
occursin late spring and may involve two or three af-
terswanns,fo11owingthe prime swarm. An afterswarm
consistsof another large proportion of workers and the
newqueen, who wil\ be replaced by a subsequent
queenstill developing.
Female caste control is pheromonal-nutritional.
Asin other hymenopterans, drones are derived from
unfertilizedeggs, which the queen lays in moderately
largecellsnear the corners of the combs. Workers de-
velopfram fenilized eggs in sma11ce11s,identical lo
thoseused to store food, typica11yin the central pan of
thecomboThey are fed royal je11y (nurse bee saliva)
duringthe first three days of development, then a
steadydiet of bee bread. Future queens, in contrast, are
fedlargeamounts of royal je11y throughout larvallife.
Iftheresident queen dies, workers hastily build queen
cellsand transfer diploid eggs from worker brood ce11s
tothequeen ce11s,so that new queens can be reared.
(Inthe capensis race, workers, lacking sperm, never-
thelesscan produce diploid eggs on their own.) The
nursebees decide which diet to give a larva by assess-
ingits development and the kind of ce11it is develop-
ingin.Ultimately, it is the queen who controls caste, by
releasingan inhibitory mandibular-gland pheromone
("queensubstance") that is passed through the colony
andpreventsworkers from building queen ce11s.Ento-
rnologists think that during swarming season either the
colonyhas grown so large that the pheromone becomes
toadilute to be effective or that the queen herself re-
duces itsproduction, so new female reproductives can
beproduced.
Associations
Community
Arthropodsin general are major players in a11biotic
communities.In the marine environment, crustaceans
havelargeroles, whereas on land and in freshwater, in-
sectsare dominant but are virtua11y absent in marine
cornmunities.Exceptions are a few insect species on
theocean'ssurfaces and along marine beaches and the
CommunityAssociations 81
intertidal zone. Green plants are the universal produc-
ers of organic materials, using energy derived from the
sun. Phytophagous (herbivorous) arthropods feed on
plants to obtain these materials and are thus primary
consumers. Zoophagous anhropods are secondary, ter-
tiary, or quaternary consumers, feeding at so me more
distant link in the food chain, either on animals that
feed on plants or on animals that feed on other ani-
mals. Detritivores feed on dead matter at any of several
trophic links, further using the organic materials there.
Some insect detritivores are omnivorous, feeding op-
portunistica11y on living plant or animal tissue as we11.
At each step in the transfer of food from consumed to
consumer, roughly 90% of the energy contained in the
food is lost. Thus the total amount of biomass among
primary consumers is large, but at the top of this
trophic pyramid the biomass is sma11. This means the
environment sustains a greater mass of herbivores
(grasshoppers and buffalo) than carnivores (lice and
eagles). Actual relations among members in a commu-
nity do not form a simple pyramid based on a few food
chains. Rather, they usua11y form a food web, with each
species either eating or being eaten by several other
species (Figure 4-10). This is beca use in every feeding
category, species vary along a continuum of food pref-
erences, from extreme generalists lo extreme special-
ists. Furthermore, not a11 relationships involve just
eating and being eaten. The exact nature of the rela-
tionship between one insect species and other organ-
isms, whether based on food and or another vital
resource, defines its ecological role¡ or niche. By con-
vention, in mutualism both organisms bepefit from the
relationship. In commensalism, one benefits and the
other is unaffected. In parasitism, the sma11 organism
(the parasite) benefits and the large one (the host) is
weakened. In predation, the large organism (the preda-
tor) benefits and the sma11one (the prey) is killed. Be-
tween parasitism and predation, there are pathogens
(bacteria, protozoa, nematodes, fungí) and parasitoids
(insects), which are sma11parasites that seriously harm
or gradua11y kill the larger host. The term symbiosis is
reserved for the physica11y close and long-lived rela-
tionships observed in mutualism, commensalism, and
parasitismo
Microbial Relationships
Mutualists: A variety of microbes assist insects nu-
tritiona11y, living in close association with them or in-
terna11y. In return, the insect provides a home, a
source of food, and a mechanism for transmission to
other insects. Many wood-eating termites, and also
wood-eating cockroaches, harbor colonies of fiagel-
late protists and bacteria in a special chamber in the
anterior hindgut. These microbes break down ce11u-
82 Chapter4 Behaviorand Ecology

TERTlARY Parasites
CONSUMERS

1
SECONDARY
CONSUMERS

PRIMARY
CONSUMERS

PRIMARY
PRODUCERS

Figure 4-10 Major feeding links within a community in one English woodland, illus-
trating the general nature of food webs and the integral roles of insects in them. Tortrix is
a moth, Cyzenis is a tachinid fly,Philonthus is a staphylinid beetle, and Abax and Feronia
are carabid beetles.

lose, which is otherwise indigestible. They are passed
to newly hatched termites by the fecal-oral transmis-
sion route used also in communieation. Similarly,
wax moths, whieh live in honey bee colonies and eat
the wax of their honey combs, contain bacteria that
digest the wax. Other insects maintain colonies of
bacteria that provide vital nutrients, such as vita-
mins. These bacteria may be maintained in gut crypts
or intracellularly in mycetocytes, which form a spe-
cial structure, the mycetome. For example, insects
that feed on vertebrate blood during their entire life
cyde (kissing bugs, bed bugs, lice, tsetse flies) obtain
insufficient B-vitamins from the blood, but the bacte-
ria in their guts or mycetomes provide these vita-
mins. The bacteria are passed to new generations via
eggs or feces.
Some termites and ants grow mutualistie fungi in
gardens as a source of food, and in return the insects
provide the fungi with a substrate for growth and
with transmission mechanisms. Advanced termites
(Macrotermitinae) grow Tennitomyces fungi in special
chambers on combs of fecal pellets containing plant
fibers. The termites eat both combs and fungus, whieh
contain cellulases allowing digestion. Leafcutter ants
(Attini) grow various basidiomycete fungi on a mulch
of freshly cut leaves and flowers and eat the swollen
tips (gongylidia) of the hyphae. The ants also keep the
mutualistie fungus from being destroyed by a parasitie
fungus. In both kinds of fungus-growing insects, new
reproductives that leave the parent colony carry the
fungus with them, to seed a new garden. Some bark
beetles (Scolytinae) and ambrosia beetles (Platypodi-
nae) also cultiva te fungi (Ascomycetes and Fungi Im-
perfecti) in their tunnels beneath tree bark and eat spe-
cial growth forms.
Pathogens and Parasites: Insects are attacked by a
wide variety of mieroorganisms, induding viruses,
rickettsiae, spirochetes, eubacteria, protists, and fungí.
Insects also are infected by flukes, tapeworms, round-
worms, hairworms, thorny-headed worms, and para-
sitie insects (se e discussion later). Most of these infec-
tions result in death of the host insect and form the
basis of several kinds of successful biologieal control of
insect pests.
Arthropod Vectorsof Pathogensand Parasites: Arthro-
pods often serve as vectors, transmitting pathogens and
internal parasites to vertebrates or to plants. The most
important vectors of human and livestock diseases are
mosquitoes and ticks. Some pathogens are transmitted
accidentally or incidentally, having no biologieal rela-
tionship with the arthropod (mechanical transmission),
for example, a variety of viruses and bacteria carried by
house flies and cockroaches. In doser vector-pathogen

relationships(biological transmission), which are obli-
galeandfairlyspecies specific, the parasite completes its
tXtrinsic cycle in the vector, by multiplying (propaga-
tive),multiplyingand transforming (cyclopropagative),
or only Iransforming and growing (cyclodevelopmen-
tal).Propagativepathogens include viruses, rickettsiae,
spirocheles,and eubacteria. Cyclopropagative patho-
gensinelude sporozoan and fIagellate protists. Cyclo-
developmentalparasites include fIukes, tapeworms,
roundworms,and thorny-headed worms. Many of
¡hesecause serious diseases in humans and livestock,
affectinghundreds of millions of people. On a global
basis,among the most noteworthy livestock and pet
diseases(and their vectors) are babesiosis (ticks), thei-
leriasis(ticks), nagana (tsetse flies), equine encephali-
lis (mosquitoes), and dog heartworm (mosquitoes).
Amongthe most infamous human diseases are malaria
(mosquitoes),river blindness (black fIies), elephantia-
sis(mosquitoes), encephalitis (mosquitoes), Lyme dis-
ease(ticks), spotted fever (ticks), dengue (mosqui-
toes),epidemic typhus (lice), relapsing fever (lice and
ticks),Chagas disease (kissing bugs), yellow fever
(mosquitoes),sleeping sickness (tsetse fIies), leishma-
niasis(sand flies), and plague (fIeas). Most arthropod
veclorsare blood feeders (discussed later), offering the
palhogenor parasite an easy way to pass between ver-
¡ebraleand invertebrate hosts without exposure to the
outsideenvironment, but there are many variations in
¡heexact manner of host inoculation. These include
venebrateautoinoculation with the crushed vector or
itsfecesor inadvertent ingestion of the infected arthro-
podo Within the vertebrate, the pathogen completes its
intrinsiccycleand then is infectious to the arthropod
again.Ihis alternation between hosts is called horizon-
talIransmission.By contrast, some propagative patho-
gensalsoare transmitted from generation to generation
ofarthropodby transovarian transmission, that is, ver-
ticaltransmission. This helps maintain the chain of in-
fectionin the face of vertebrate immunity and condi-
tionswhen horizontal transmission is impossible, as
during winter.
Whenreferring to arthropods that act as vectors of
plan!pathogens, plant pathologists speak of nonpersis-
tentandpersistent pathogens, instead of mechanical
andbiologicaltransmission, but the meanings are sim-
ilar.Viruses,phytoplasmas, spiroplasmas, and bacteria
arecommonand economically important pathogens of
plantsthat multiply in their insect vectors. Fungi are
typicallycarried mechanically.Most vectors are thrips,
aphids,leafhoppers, planthoppers, and similar insects
thalpierce plant tissue with haustellate mouthparts,
bUIseveral kinds ofbeetles also transmit important dis-
easeorganisms. Among the well-known vector-borne
diseasesof crops (and their vectors) are sugarcane mo-
saic(aphids), cucumber mosaic (aphids), wound tu-
CommunityAssociations 83
mor (leafhoppers), sugar beet curly top (leafhoppers),
aster yellows (leafhoppers), corn stunt (leafhoppers),
rice stunt (planthoppers), tomato spotted wilt (lhrips),
cotton leaf curl (whitefIies), cucurbit wilt (cucumber
beetles), and Dutch elm disease (bark beetles).
Plant Relationships
Pollination: The best known of the mutualistic
plant-insect relationships is cross-pollination of an-
giosperms by insects that visit fIowers. This service is
much more efficient than windborne pollination and is
thought to have brought the angiosperms to plant
dominance, as well as to diversify the insects associated
with them. The most speciose orders of insects-
Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, and Lepidoptera-
also are those that do most of the pollinating. Basically,
the insects transfer pollen between plants by picking
up pollen from anthers of one fIower and depositing it
on stigmas of another. In most cases, this activity is
purely incidental on the part of the insect. The primary
incentive for insects is food provided in the fIower:
nectar, a secreted solution of sugars with a variable
amino acid component, and excess pollen, a valuable
source of protein and lipid. This reciprocity has led to
a variety of special features of both pollinators and
plants. Insects have body modifications for handling
the pollen and storing the nectar, and behavioral re-
finements that help them quickly loca te and exploit
sources of nectar and pollen: ability to learn and dis-
criminate among colors and scents, an accurate time
sense, fIower constancy on each foraging expedition,
and a tendency to specialize on just one kind of plant
(monolexy). These insect behavioral characteristics are
promoted by, and benefit, the plants. Plants, in con-
trast, have evolved features that assist the insect in 10-
cating the nectar and that at the same time facilitate
pollen transfer: fragrance, colorful petals, nectar guides
(petal arrangements and markings), landing platforrns,
reliable and synchronous fIowering times and nectar
fIows, mechanical pollen-transfer devices, temporary
insect traps, and defenses against nectar robbers. Blue
and yellow fIowers tend to be visited by bees, orange
and red fIowers by butterfIies, and white fIowers by
moths or generalist short-tongued pollinators, such as
flies and beetles. Flowers often promote monolexy by
secreting nectar into a corolla that can be reached only
by an insect with an exceptionally long proboscis.
Some plant-pollinator relationships are particulairIy
close, involving insect development within the fIower.
In the case of the yucca moth (Prodoxidae: Tegitecula),
the female gathers a pollen ball in her tentacles (pre-
hensile palps) on one fIower, then fIies to another, lays
her eggs in its ovary, then places the pollen ball on the
fIower's stigma so that seeds will develop, some to be
84 Chapter4 Behaviorand Ecology
eaten by the moth's larvae. Fig wasps (Agaonidae) are
even more complex. Both sexes of wasp develop in the
ovaries of modified female (neuter) flowers of fig trees
(Ficus) within the fig's "fmit" (the syconium, a large re-
ceptacle lined with flowers). The wingless males come
out first and mate with females while they are inside
their cocoons. A female leaves the fmit while it is in the
male flowering phase, so that she picks up pollen. She
then finds a fmit that is in the female phase and polli-
nates normal female flowers while ovipositing on the
neuter ones. The normal, fertilized flowers develop
seeds. In some species of figs, predominantly male, fe-
male, or neuter types of fmit occur at different times of
year. Commercial Smyma figs lack wasps and must be
pollinated by wasps from "goat figs" that growers place
in the orchards, in order for the fruit to develop its
thick, edible flesh.
Not all flower visiting and pollination is mutualis-
tic. Nectar-robbing bumble bees that cannot reach the
nectar of specialized flowers with their mouthparts cut
into the side of the corolla to take the nectar without
contacting anthers or stigmas. Nectar thieves merely
take accessible nectar but lack the appropriate equip-
ment or behavior to transfer pollen. In the reverse sit-
uation, plants employ deception to achieve pollination
without providing the insect with anything in retum.
Flowers that release odors similar to rotting flesh or ex-
crement attract saprophagous flies and beetles, which
pick up or deposit polI en while wandering around on
the flower. Blow flies that are attracted to the star
flower (Stapelia) even lay their eggs at the center of the
flower, where the hatched larvae die. Many of these
flowers are brown or purple, and the dead-animal effect
may be enhanced by simulated hairs. Ground orchids
in Europe (Ophrys) and Australia (Drakonorchis)
loosely resemble female Hymenoptera visually and also
produce pheromone-mimicking volatile chemicals and
tactile stimulation that target particular bee and wasp
species. This mimicry is sufficient to cause males to
make repeated attempts to copulate with a succession
of flowers, in the process transferring sticky pollen
packets.
Myrmecophytes: Arthropods have a variety of mutual-
istic relationships with plants that do not involve pol-
lination. Some are relatively simple, such as the plant
providing a fleshy attachment (elaiosome) to its seeds,
to make them more attractive to ants, which will dis-
perse and bury them in the process of harvesting. This
is called myrmecochory. Many plants collect rainwater
in their leafaxils or other stmctures, providing a spe-
cialized habitat for aquatic insects. In retum, the in-
sects process the organic matter that falls into these
phytotelmata, making nutrients more quickly available
to the host planto Insectivorous pitcher plants and their
Figure 4-11 Two ants drinking nectar from an ex-
trafloral nectary on an Inga tree. These ants attack in-
sects that land on nearby leaves.
mosquito and fly larvae fall into this category. Still oth-
ers create tiny shelters (domatia) for predaceous mites,
or have glands (extrafloral nectaries) that provide
sugar for parasitoid wasps and ants that patrol the
plant and disturb or attack plant-feeding insects (Fig-
ure 4-11). Myrmecophytes, or ant plants, provide shel-
ter, food, or both, to the ants, in retum for protection,
and have a fairly species-specific and interdependent
relationship with them. The best known of these is the
bull's hom acacia, a small tree in the Neotropics that
provides both food and shelter for one Pseudomyrmex
ant colony. The ants, including queen and larvae, are
housed in large, hollow, twin thoms that are scattered
over the branches and twigs. Sugar is provided from
extrafloral nectaries at the base of leaf petioles, and
protein and fat are derived from Beltian bodies, pellet-
like extensions of the leaflets that the ants pick and
carry to the thoms for colony distribution. For their
part, the ants act as ferocious body guards, biting and
stinging both insects and vertebrates that come into
contact with the tree. They also prevent competing
plants from growing around the base of the tree. An en-
tirely different kind of relationship occurs between
Philidris ants and bulbous epiphytes (Rubiaceae:
Myrmecodia and Hydnophytum) that grow on small
trees in nutrient-poor sandy soils of Southeast Asia.
The pseudobulb has rootlets clinging to the host tree
and has a single twig of leaves. It is riddled with cav-
ems that house the ants and provide them with cavities
for depositing refuse, which consists mainly of remains
of the ant's insect prey and of dead ants. The linings of

these cavities appear able to absorb the nitrogenous
nutrients from this waste. The ants forage widely and
are ineffective in defending either the host tree or the
epiphyte against herbivores.
Herbivores: Very few terrestrial or freshwater plants
are not fed on by insects. Together, phytophagous in-
sectsmake up almost half of all insect species. Both tis-
sue feeders and sap suckers may be considered para-
sites, grazers, or predators, depending on the duration
and outcome of the relationship between plant and in-
sect. A single insect that attacks seeds (such as seed
bugs, seed weevils) always kills the embryo, and some
kinds of stem borers do sufficient damage to the main
stalk that an entire plant dies. However, typical grazers
(such as leaf, stem, and root eaters with chewing
mouthparts) and parasites (such as leaf raspers,
leafminers, leaf skeletonizers, and phloem or xylem
drinkers with piercing-sucking mouthparts) only
weaken the plant or even stimulate new growth, unless
theyoccur in tremendous numbers, as locusts do. Even
when gypsy moth caterpillars completely defoliate a
tree,new leaves are produced later the same year or fol-
lowing year. Tiny phloem-feeding aphids, ectoparasites
equivalent to the blood-feeding lice of mammals, often
havean imperceptible impact on the plant's health. Yet
heavyinfestations of aphids, scale insects, froghoppers,
leafhoppers, and various piercing-sucking bugs can
cause significant wilting, spotting, browning, fruit
drop, and leaf curling, and can precipita te death of the
plant. Similarly, endoparasites such as leafminers,
stem-borers, and gall-makers can have either marginal
effects or serious ones. Stem-borers usually kill the
stemin which they develop, thus retarding growth, and
bark-boring and wood-boring beetles can weaken trees
sufficiently that they die from infection by microbial
pathogens. Gall-makers seldom threaten a plant's life,
but by applying their secretions they create conspicu-
ous and sometimes disfiguring swellings on the plant.
The secretions subvert the plant's own developmental
program to produce a distinctive plant structure in
which one or more insects can feed and grow to matu-
rity.Most of these are made by gall wasps (most Cynip-
idae) and gall midges (Diptera: most Cecidomyiidae).
Gallsalso are made by other Hymenoptera (so me chal-
cidoids, braconids, and tenthredinids), other Diptera
(some tephritids and agromyzids), Hemiptera (some
aphids, psyllids, and coccids), Coleoptera (some wee-
vils,cerambycids, and buprestids), Lepidoptera (some
gelechiids), and Acari (some mites).
Plant feeders range widely in host specificity but
are conveniently divided into generalists (polypha-
gous) and specialists (oligophagous and monopha-
gous).In general, the grazers that chew leaves, flowers,
and fruit have the broadest tastes (such as japanese
CommunityAssociations 85
beetles, corn-ear worrns, gypsy moths), and the para-
sites, especially the endoparasites, are the most host
specific (such as leafminers, gall-makers). Yet, many
species with leaf-chewing larvae have be come dedi-
cated to particular kinds of plants containing toxic sub-
stances or other defenses that only a specialized insect
can overcome (such as monarch butterflies, pipevine
swallowtails, zebra butterflies). Herbivores make host
choices during the appetitive sequence that leads from
a general search to successive and overlapping re-
sponses to volatiles, visual appearance, taste, and ini-
tial ingestion or oviposition. The behaviors often are
elicited by chemical "sign stimuli," kairomones and
phagostimulants that are associated only with the fam-
ily, genus, or species of plant that the insect is adapted
to feed on. Specialists have host-detecting equipment
and digestive and metabolic systerns dedicated to the
particular host, giving them a competitive advantage
over generalists or allowing them to eat plants from
which generalists are excluded altogether. A further ad-
vantage is that the host-plant poisons can be incorpo-
rated into the insects' bodies, giving them protection
from their own predators. Generalists, however, have
more food options, making it relatively easy to locate a
host plant and providing a large resource base for their
populations. Also, their evolutionary fates are not tied
to the success of one or a few species of plant.
Plant defenses against phytophagous insects fall
into anatomical, chemical, developmental, behavioral,
and mutualistic defense categories. Anatomical quali-
ties include (l) visual devices such as unattractive col-
ors and low reflectance, divergent leaf shapes within a
genus (making it harder to learn and recognize suitable
hosts), and visual mimicry of inedible plants; (2) me-
chanical and structural devices such as thick and fi-
brous tissues, spines, hooks, and hairs (trichomes),
and sticky sap as a wound response; (3) small seeds
that make searching and feeding inefficient. Chemicals
include repellents, distasteful substances, natural in-
secticides, digestive enzyme inhibitors, antimetabo-
lites, and growth regulators (hormone mimics). These
properties are produced by various alkaloids, ter-
penoids, phenolics, proteins, gIycosides, and cyanides.
Developmental defenses include seed tactics that make
seeds and seedlings an unreliable food source: wide
dispersal, erratic production, and unpredictable germi-
nation or long dormancy. Another developmental de-
fense connects the rate of growth to chemical and
structural defenses in one of two strategies. According
to the plant apparency hypothesis, plants tend to be ei-
ther (l) inapparent (fast growing, herbaceous, annual,
with edible parts available for short periods and with
highly toxic substances produced in low concentra-
tions) and are fed on by specialist insects, or (2) ap-
parent (slowly growing, woody, perennial, with tough
86 Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology
but edible tissues available for long periods and with
substances of low toxicity but high concentration,
making digestion difficult and slow) and are fed on by
generalists. Behavioral defenses consist of diel rhythms
of movement or responses to insect attack that make
further attack difficult. These include collapsing leaves
and petioles and enhanced production of toxic sub-
stances both at the site of injury and throughout
healthy tissues. Mutualistic defenses are provided by
insects that are natural enemies of herbivores. Ex-
trafloral nectaries encourage ants and parasitoid wasps
to remain around the plants and attack or infect herbi-
vores. In the case of some myrmecophytes, this
arrangement is a deeply involved interdependency (as
discussed earlier). Other plants, when injured by phy-
tophagous insects, release volatile compounds that at-
tract parasitoid wasps. These natural enemies inject
eggs into the herbivores, and the parasitoids' larvae in-
flict a slow death.
Insectivorous Plants: A few plants have turned the ta-
bles on insects by eating them. These insectivores typ-
ically live in nitrogen-poor soils, such as sandy or clay
soils and acid bogs, and the prey are biodegraded to re-
lease elementary nitrogenous compounds. The plants
derive energy from photosynthesis and are not carniv-
orous heterotrophs. Active traps, such as the Venus fly-
trap (Dionaea), have specialized leaf devices that
quickly snap shut to trap small arthropods when trig-
gered by sensitive hairs. In the case of the aquatic blad-
derwort (Vtrícularía), the prey is sucked into a cham-
ber. Semiactive traps, such as sundews (Drosera),
flycatchers (Byblis), and butterwort (Pinguicula), have
sticky tentacles or hairs on their leaves to trap the in-
sect, then gradually enfold it to form a digestive cupo
Passive traps, such as pitcher plants (Sarracenia, Ne-
penthes, and so forth) and cobra lilies (Darlingtonia),
have leaves modified into vessels of water surrounded
by downward-pointing hairs and spines that make es-
cape nearly impossible. Most of these plants have ei-
ther visually or chemically attractive features, and
some bear nectaries that encourage insects to feed near
the trap's entrance. Digestion is aided by enzymes, but
at least in pitcher plants bacterial degradation of the
drowned insect is equally important.
Animal Relationships
Mutualists: Ants have two well-known trophobiotic
relationships, one with various stenorrhynchans
(Hemiptera) that produce honeydew and one with but-
terfly caterpillars (Lycaenidae) that produce a glandu-
lar secretion. In the case of aphids and scale insects, the
basic arrangement is that these plant suckers defecate
honeydew (excess phloem sap, rich in sugars and
amino acids), and the ants protect them. However,
some associations are more involved. Aphids may re-
tain their honeydew until an ant solicits it or have spe-
cial structures for holding the droplet rather than dis-
charging it. Others have grasping devices to cling to the
ants when disturbed, or they may reproduce vivipa-
rously throughout the year, so that clones of them are
constantly producing large amounts of honeydew.
Ants, for their part, solicit honeydew; carry aphid eggs
int.J the ant nest for the winter; select appropriate food
plants and carry the aphids to them; apply substances
similar to juvenile hormone to the aphids, to prevent
them from developing wings; respond to an aphid
alarm pheromone by searching for possible enemies;
build shelters on the plant to house scale insects; and
carry scale insects on nuptial flights in order to estab-
lish them in new colonies. Lycaenid caterpillars pro-
vide a special substance from a dorsal gland on the ab-
domen. Ants covet the secretion and provide
protection in return. When disturbed, the caterpillars
emit a sound that attracts the ants, and within the ant
nest the caterpillars are nurtured and protected. Hu-
mans and honey bees also have a long history of food-
for-care mutualism, although it is not interdependem
and is cultural rather than genetic.
Commensals:A large assortment of insects gain by liv-
ing in close association with other animals, doing little
or no harm by their presence. Typically they live in the
animal's nest and are known collectively as inquilines.
In addition to accessing shelter and protection, they eat
the host's waste, other inquilines, or the host's food
supplies, the latter causing a very slight drain on re-
sources and thus crossing the line into social para-
sitism. A few species of domestic cockroaches and their
human hosts fall into this category. Termites and ants
provide an ancient habitat for many specialized in-
quilines, termed termitophiles and myrmecophiles, re-
spectively. These fall into three categories: (1) Synec-
thrans are attacked by the hosts but can escape
or protect themselves; they scavenge food or waste.
(2) Synoeketes are ignored by the host beca use they
move quickly or do not appear foreign; they generally
scavenge food or waste but also sometimes kill and ea!
host immatures. (3) Symphiles are accepted by the hos!
as members of the colony; they may be fed, carried, and
groomed by the host. Symphiles share various charac-
teristics that suit them to this role: They secrete ap-
peasement substances that the hosts find attractive and
palatable; they have chemical, tactile, or visual resem-
blances to the host (Wasmannian mimicry), or they
have a sheltering cara pace that prevents hosts from
contacting vulnerable parts; they exhibit morphologi-
cal regression, including flightlessness and reduction
or loss of eyes and appendages; and they use the chem-
ical and behavioral communication systems of the
...

CommunityAssociations 87

host,includingalarm, attraction, mutual grooming, 50-
licitation
of food, and traíl following.
Parasites:Arthropodsparasitize a wide variety of ani-
mals,including other arthropods. Typical ectoparasites
suckthehemolymph or blood of their hosts, either re-
mainingon the host continuously (that is, symbioti-
cally)(such as lice, host fleas, and some mites) or vis-
itingit only periodically (such as kissing bugs, nest
Oeas,mosquitoes, and horse flies) (Figure 4-12). The
closelyadapted ones have a number of characteristics
suitedto \ife on another animal, induding the reduc-
tionor elimination of wings, legs, and eyes; special
clinging and attachment devices; and body flattening.
Periodic blood feeders share behavioral and physiolog-
icalfeatures,induding special receptors for locating
hosts,sneakiness, painless biting, antihemostatic and
anticoagulant properties of the saliva, and presence of
mutualistic bacteria (discussed earlier). Endoparasites,
suchas strepsipterans parasitic in insects and scabies
mites orbot fliesin vertebrate animals, also have dis-
tinctive traits that allow them to find, enter, and live
withinthehost. The so-called human bot fly,or tórsalo,
whose larvadevelops in the skin of mammals and large
birds,is a large, free-living adult. To avoid disturbing
itshostduring oviposition, it lays its eggs on mosqui-
toes or small domestic flies. When these carriers land
on the skin, the larvae immediately hatch and burrow
in. Endoparasites obtain oxygen by tapping into the
host's tracheal system (in the case of insect hosts) or
maintaining a hole in the host's skin where the spira-
des can be exposed to air. Stomach bot-fly larvae of
horses circumvent this necessity by using hemoglobin
cells to store oxygen that comes as occasional air bub-
bles with the horse's food. As with plant feeders, animal
parasites find their hosts in a series of oriented maneu-
vers, starting with a general search and ending in land-
ing, probing, and feeding. Periodic blood feeders use
chemical stimuli (kairomones such as fatty acids from
skin bacteria and carbon dioxide from breath) to locate
mammals at a distance, to which are added visual
stimuli when the host is doser, heat and humidity at
very dose range, and skin chemicals on contact. Host-
specific sign stimuli, perceived by the parasite during
these steps, are critical in the decision to continue the
attack or desisto Parasites tend to be relatively host spe-
cific, the periodic ones least so, the continuously ec-
toparasitic species much more so, and the endopara-
sites most of all.
Important variations on the parasite theme are
parasitoids (often referred to simply as parasites),
whose larvae first are parasites on or inside an appar-

A
-- lB
.j'" a.
..¡:
..;
:s: Jj ...;
:s:

Figure4-12 Periodic blood feeders of vertebrate animals. A, Human bed bug feeding.
This species (Cimex lectularius) lives within human habitations. All members of the fam-
ily Cimicidae are wingless blood feeders throughout life and most live in the roosts and
nestsof bats and birds. B,Asiantiger mosquitofeeding.This species,Aedesalbopictus
(Skuse), often lives near human dwellings, but not in them, and occurs mainly in rural
or wooded areas. All adult members of the family Culicidae have wings, and the females
of most species feed on blood. Their larvae are mostly free-living detritivores.
88 Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology
ently healthy insect host but gradually eat more and
more of the host's internal organs until it becomes
moribund and dies. Essentially the same thing happens
when a solitary hunting wasp paralyzes its prey, uses it
to provision a nest, and lays an egg on it, although in
that case the host immediately ceases to function nor-
mally. Parasitoid insects typically are small and lay
their egg(s) in the host where they find it. They tend to
be very host and stage specific, developing, for exam-
pIe, only in the eggs of a particular moth, or only in the
parasitoids that develop in those moth eggs (that is,
hyperparasitoids). The latter are exceedingly small. But
as a group parasitoids attack a wide variety of insects,
ineluding many pests, and therefore are use fuI in bio-
logical control. Females may lay many eggs in a single
host, so that a large family develops in it. Among some
of the parasitic hymenopterans (e.g., Braconidae) are
females that lay only a single egg in the host, but the
egg undergoes polyembryony, resulting in numerous
larvae. Parasitoids may pupate within the host if it
dries out by the time they are mature. Typically they
exit the host and pupate on its cutiele or nearby (Fig-
ure 4-13). Parasitoids are most common among
Diptera and Hymenoptera. Tachinids are the most im-
portant fly parasitoids; others inelude sarcophagids,
pyrgotids, pipunculids, acrocerids, and bombyliids.
Hymenopteran parasitoids inelude many hundreds of
species in the Ichneumonoidea, Chalcidoidea, Procto-
Figure4-13 Tobacco homworm, Manduca sexta (L.)
(Sphingidae), in final stage of parasitization by the para-
sitoid Cotesia (Braconidae). The larvae have completed
deve10pment within the caterpillar, then exited to spin
cocoons in which they pupate. Some have already
emerged as adults, and some cocoons have dropped off,
leaving black spots at the point where the larva had bur-
rowed out. This brood of parasitoids typically results
from a single egg that has been inserted into the caterpil-
lar and undergone polyembryony, creating a family of
identical offspring.
tmpoidea, Platygastroidea Chrysidoidea, and Vespoidea.
Rhipiphorid beetles, which undergo hypermetamor-
phosis, are parasitoids during the second phase of their
larval lives. The Strepsiptera also are hypermetamor-
phic but do not kill their hosts. Instead, they often ster-
ilize them or turn them into intersexes, so in one sense
they are parasitoids, beca use they can kill the host's re-
productive potential.
Predators: Predatory arthropods inelude most orders
of Arachnida, all üdonata and Mantodea, and nearly all
Neuroptera. A great many Hemiptera, Coleoptera, and
Diptera also are predators. Like the parasitoids, they
prey on a variety of small animals, but mostly other
arthropods, so they are said to be entomophagous. Preda-
tors with chewing mouthparts eat most or all of their
prey; those with piercing-sucking mouthparts pierce the
prey's cutiele, inject a lytic saliva to liquefy the tissues,
and suck out the resulting soup (Figure 4-14). Like
plant feeders and animal parasites, there are generalists
and specialists, but in this case the reasons for special-
ization are less often physiological and have more to do
with habitats, competition, methods of hunting, and
special techniques of prey capture. Most species of
dragonflies, assassin bugs, mantids, and many kinds of
army ants and driver ants eat diverse types of prey that
occur within the habitats they frequent. By contrast, dif-
ferent genera of digger wasps (Sphecidae: Sphecinae)
specialize in spiders, cockroaches, grasshoppers, katy-
dids, tree crickets, tme crickets, plant-dwelling cater-
pillars, or soil-dwelling caterpillars. There are two basic
approaches to prey capture: (1) Hunting is most efficient
if the prey are sedentary, slow moving, or are most
abundant in locations where a predator cannot wait (for
example, in mid-air). The predator moves though like1y
habitats, increasing its chances of encountering the
prey. (2) Awaiting and stalking work well when the prey
are mobile and likely to pass by. The predator remains
in one place until prey is detected, then stalks it ancl/or
grasps it.
Equipment that assists predatory arthropods in
seizing prey inelude raptorial fore legs, often with
spines or sticky setae, and raptorial mouthparts, such
as the extensible labium of odonate naiads and the
long, curved mandibles of diving beetle larvae and
tiger beetles. Insects with a venomous bite or sting
(spiders, scorpions, antlions, female hymenopterans)
can paralyze the prey with a single, well-placed injec-
tion, making them easier to handle. Beaded lacewing
larvae (Berothidae) subdue their prey with a chemical
ejected from the anus. Hunting wasps do their hunting
primarily to provision nests for their larvae, and the
paralyzed prey forms a living meal when the larva is
ready to eat. Some of the sit-and-wait predators have
devices that improve their catch: traps, lures, or a
 CommunityAssociations 89

Figure4-15 White crab spider (Thomisidae) feeding

on a syrphid fly it has captured at the flower. Predators
with this ambush tactic often blend well with the flowers
on which they wait, either to avoid detection by poten-
tial prey or to avoid detection by their own predators.
B

look like flowers themselves. lt is not clear if this con-

cealment or disguise facilitates prey capture or pre-
vents predation by the predators' own enemies. Insect-
generated lures include bright lights (Waitomo
.:g worms, larvae of mycetophilid larva e that live in caves
~ in New Zealand and attract insects to their sticky-
<!:i stranded webs), flashing lights (female Photuris fire-
--, flies that attract Photinus males to their deaths by mim-
icking the answering signal of a receptive Photinus
Figure4-14 A, Robber fly (Asilidae) feeding on moth. female), and attractive chemicals (bolas spiders that
Robber!lies typically await prey fram perches, then fly mimic female moths by releasing moth sex
out to seize them in mid-air. The proboseis is inserted pheromones and snaring male moths that come within
into the prey, lytic saliva is injected, and then digested range of their sticky bolas). The last two examples ex-
tissuesare withdrawn as liquido The proboseis also can hibit the tactic known as aggressive mimicry.
be used as a defensive weapon. B, Flower fly larva (Syr- Arthropods are prey for many vertebrate animals.
phidae) feeding on an aphid. Because aphids tend to be They form much of the diet of freshwater fish, am-
sedentary,they are easily seized by predators, including phibians, reptiles (notably lizards and small snakes),
those that have smaller bodies. many groups of birds (such as flycatchers, bee eaters,
warblers, creepers, woodpeckers), and some mammals
(notably shrews, small bats, and anteaters). Even ver-
tebrates that do not specialize in arthropods make
combinationof the two. Traps include the sticky aer- them an important part of the diet during the breeding
ialwebsof spiders, the aquatic nets of some caddisfly season (for example, hummingbirds, squirrel mon-
larvae,and the sand pits of antlion (Myrmeleontidae) keys) or include them as a minor constituent of their
andwormlion (Vermileonidae) larvae. Lures include omnivorous diets (for example, field mice, chim-
fiowers,which attract insect prey to within striking panzees, humans). Predation pressure on arthropod
distance of predators that wait on or behind the populations has led to a spectacular array of protective
fiower.Crab spiders and ambush bugs apply this tech- measures directed primarily against vertebrate preda-
nique.Often they are the same color as the flower torso These may be classified as follows: (l) Defense and
wherethey wait (Figure 4-15), and some mantids offense discourage an attack by resisting, threatening,
90 Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology

~c:
'"
U
e'"
E
c.
o
Q;
>
'"
CI
"C
c:
'"
-5
1;;
~
'"
a:
Figure4-16 Eye spot on owl butterfly Caligo (Satyridae: JiI!'
.- ~
:;
Brassolinae). Eye spots occur on many kinds of insects. .:1
Experiments demonstrate that vertebrate animals are ~o
frightened by them, probably because of their resemblance
B :¡:
o
to the eyes of large predators, such as owls and cats.

Figure4-17 Mimicry of a yellow jacket (B) by a elear-

or injuring a predator. The devices may be mechanical,
chemical, or visual, may involve mutualistic defenders,
such as pugnacious ants (discussed earlier), and may
be used actively, passively, or both. Active mechanical
defenses inelude biting, spiking, stinging, and frighten-
ing sounds; passive defenses inelude spines, hairiness,
and thick, hard cutieles. Chemically defended insects
deploy allomones, ineluding noxious, painful, and poi-
sonous substances that are actively ejected from the
body or injected by sting into the victim's body, or are
deployed passively within the insect or available in
needlelike spines that penetrate the predator on con-
tact. Visual defenses inelude frightening or threatening
appearance (sudden movements, startle displays, flash
colors, eyespot exposure, predator simulation = defen-
sive mimicry) (Figure 4-16), aposematism (warning
colors, lights, and sounds that are combined with
chemical or mechanical defenses that the predator
learns), and Müllerian mimicry (warning signals
shared among several distasteful species, which serve
as both models and mimics of each other, providing
mutual protection). Aposematic insects typically use
bold colors, such as red, orange, yellow, or white, pre-
sented as stripes, spots, bars, and rings on a contrast-
wing moth (Parathene sp.)(A).
ing dark background. These patterns are easily learned
and easily seen. The insects enhance the patterns' ef-
fectiveness by behaving ostentatiously (for example,
being exposed openly, walking and flying slowly, wav-
ing conspicuous body parts) and forming aggregations.
Familiar Müllerian mimics are the warning-colored
and aggressive vespid wasps, which share yellow-and-
black markings. Tropical Müllerian "rings" inelude a
host of slow-flying, long-winged butterflies and moths
that share a common orange-yellow-black color pat-
tern and behavior. Some members of such rings are not
distasteful and therefore are Batesian, rather than Mül-
lerian, mimics. (2) Disguise involves appearing to be
something else, so the attack is not initiated. This in-
eludes the following: (a) Batesian mimicry, in which an
unprotected mimic resembles a distasteful species-
the model-with which the predator has had an un-
pleasant experience. Batesian mimic-model systems are
ubiquitous, most commonly seen among various flies,
beetles, and moths (Figure 4-17) that mimic wasps
 CommunityAssociations 91

and bees. This tactic includes insects whose body parts

resemble a separa te insecto A widely cited North Amer-
ican Batesian mimic is the viceroy (Figure 4-18), a
usually edible butterfIy that closely resembles the
monarch, a butterfly whose body contains poisonous
cardiac glycosides derived from milkweed on which
the larva feeds. A variation on Batesian mimicry is the
resemblance of an edible mimic to a model that the
A predator learns is difficult to catch. Thus, some weevils
closely resemble sarcophagid fIies. (b) Wasmannian
mimicry, in which symphiles resemble their carnivo-
;;; rous, defensive social hosts (discussed earlier) and
] thereby prevent host attack. Symphiles that travel out-
g side the nest with their hosts frequently function as
~ Batesian mimics, too. (c) In object resemblance, the in-
~
C> sect looks like an inanimate and inedible object, such
-g as a rock, stick, leaf (Figure 4-19) , or feces (Figure 4-20).
~ (d) In thanatosis, the insect feigns death. (3) In con-
~ cealment, the insect seems not to be there. This ap-
~ proach includes background resemblance, counter-
! shading (= obliterative shading: body appears fIat,
.§, rather than solid and three-dimensional), shadow elim-
~ ination (body appears joined to substrate), disruptive
¡§ coloration (body outline is obliterated), natural cam-
oufIage (body covered with natural materials, such as
tree bark, living lichens, the remains of an insect's prey,
Figure
4-18 An example of mimicry in butterflies.
or its own feces), and hiding in an unexposed place;
A,Theviceroy, Basilarchia archippus (Cramer); B, The
insects can hide under physical objects or in nests
monarch,Danaus plexippus (L.).
or cases of their own construction. Open conceal-
ment works best when the insect remains motionless.

A B

~
~
<i
:;:

Figure4-19 Katydids (Tettigoniidae) that resemble (A) diseased or dying leaf,

(B) completely dead leaL Oetails of this disguise include designs that suggest the
presence of a leaf midrib and methods for concealing the presence of legs.
92 Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology
A unanticipated direction; and confusion, the use of
B cur in many orders but are found chiefiy in the Acari,
Figure4-20 Bird-feces resemblance: Insects using this
disguise depend on a composite of brown and white col-
ors, typical of bird feces. A, Moth openly exposed on a
leaf at rest, resembling bird feces. The elongate scales ex-
tend laterally, giving the impression of splatter. B, Swal-
lowtail butterfly larva. Its glossy cuticle gives the impres-
sion of wet bird feces. Its second line of protection, when
disturbed, is to extend the two-pronged glandular hom
(the osmeterium) behind its head, which releases a nox-
ious vapor.
(4) Escapeandevasioninvolvebeing hard to capture, so
the predator cannot complete the attack. This method
occurs in two forms: (a) In jleeing the predator cannot
maintain pursuit or achieve capture, such as fast escape
(by running, jumping, swimming, flying, dropping),
evasive maneuvers, and detachable body parts. (b) In
disorientation various deceptive structures or behaviors
cause the predator to desist from attack or fail to com-
plete the attack. This includes dejlection, the use of
conspicuous marks, a false head, and autotomy (drop-
ping a body pan), to direct the predator's attention to-
ward expendable items while the prey escapes in an
strange shapes and movements (predator does not rec-
ognize it as prey) and swarming (predator has difficulty
concentrating on one individual).
There are two things to keep in mind about the
preceding antipredator-device categories: First, not all
cases fall neatIy into a single category, but rather com-
bine aspects of two or more tactics. Second, many spe-
cific instances of disguise, concealment, warning, and
so on have been inferred from their appearance to the
human eye and have yet to be tested experimentally.
Yet, so far, all carefully reasoned inferences have been
confirmed by experimentation.
Detritivores
A large proponion of anhropod species feed on dead
and decaying plants and animals, recycling them into
living biomass. These saprophagous anhropods oc-
Blattodea, Isoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera. They all
have chewing, rasping, or chelate mouthparts. Most
specialize either in plant or animal materials, partIy
beca use ovipositing aduIts locate them by very differ-
ent means but also because different digestive mech-
anisms are employed. Technically, most detritivores
do not feed exclusively on dead material itseU but
feed instead on a mixture that includes bacteria,
fungi, nematodes, and other minute organisms that
occur with dead tissue and share in its breakdown.
The detritus community also includes predators and
parasites that feed on the detritivores. What makes
saprophagous insects especially imponant, ecologi-
cally, is that they are relatively large and mobile, dis-
persing large amounts of detritus by working it into
the soil, carrying it to scattered locations, or com-
pleting their life cycles in it so that the next genera-
tion fiies away.
Plant detritivores live chiefiy in the immediate
vicinity of standing crops of plants, such as forests,
grasslands, and ponds, where the dead material accu-
mulates on the ground or in aquatic sediments. A large
part of the soil microfauna of the world consists of var-
ious mites, millipedes, springtails, and beetIes that feed
on finely divided plant material and its associated mi-
croorganisms. More obvious on the forest floor are
fallen leaves, branches, and tree trunks, which also
suppon a diversity of arthropods and hasten their con-

versioninto soil. Even recently killed trees that are still
standing attract specialists whose larvae develop
withinthe wood. By processing the larger components
of plants, large arthropods make plant matter more
readilyavailable to microscopic arthropods, to mi-
erobes,and ultimately to the root systems of living
plantsas mineral nutrients.
Animaldetritivores form a much smaller part of
mostcommunities, because much less animal material
isavailablefor degradation. Some arthropods, such as
adultseorpionflies, specialize in the dead bodies of
otherarthropods, but the most obvious ones process
the dead bodies of medium-sized and large verte-
brates.In its early stages of decay, a carcass is so rich
inorganicnutrients and is so easily digested, that sar-
eophagous(= flesh-eating or carrion-feeding) insects
engagein intense scramble competition. The most
quiekand efficient of these are the blow flies and flesh
fiies,which in warm, humid weather can reduce a
largecorpse to a skeleton in a few days. Gravid females
startlayingeggs in an animal's orifices within an hour
ofits death, and the eggs hatch in less than a day (or
aredeposited as ready-to-feed larvae, in the case of
fieshflies).When the hundreds or thousands of fly lar-
vae(maggots)have matured, they crawl away and pu-
pateunderground nearby. Other carrion feeders spe-
cializein small birds and rodents. A mated pair of
bUlyingbeetles lowers the carcass into the ground and
eonvertsinto an edible nest for its young (as discussed
earlier).
Dung-feeding (coprophagous) arthropods are,
eeologicalIy,either plant or animal detritivores, de-
pendingon the diet of the animal producing the feces.
lnsectstend to specialize in the dung of kinds of dif-
ferentkinds of animals, beca use the size and consis-
teneyof the dung pile determines its shape and vol-
umeand therefore how quickly it will dry out. Dung
beetles(Scarabaeidae), as a group, are able to use the
greatest variation in dung-pile sizes, beca use some
speciesdevelop within the dung in situ, but others
quiekly gather the dung into packets or balls and
lowerit into tunnels beneath the pile or roll it away,lO
provisiontheir underground nests. Yet different dung
beetlespecies focus on dung from herbivorous mam-
malsof different sizes. larval development of flies oc-
eurs within the dung pile itself, so relatively large
dungpiles, such as the "cow pats" produced by large
ungulates, form the best breeding medium. One im-
portantconsequence of. this situation was that intro-
ducing cattle to Australia also introduced a huge
soureeof dung, which the native kangaroo-dung bee-
des could not handle, but which was ideal for bush
fiiesand buffalo flies. Importation of African dung
beetlesthat disintegrate cow pats have helped bring
pestfly populations under control.
InsectImpactin Biotic Communitiesand Ecosystems 93
Animal carcasses and dung piles are "fugitive habi-
tats," environments with resources that quickly dissi-
pateo During the period of utility, they are invaded by
successive but overlapping waves of insects that deal
effectively with certain stages in the degradation and
drying process and with each other. A cow pat in North
America often is invaded first by horn flies and face
flies, whose females oviposit on it immediately after the
feces drop to the ground. Yellow dung flies, sepsids,
and ulidiid flies come, then leave, at various stages as it
cools and a crust forms. These are followed by scarab
and hydrophilid beetles, and by staphylinid beetles that
either feed on the eggs of other insects or parasitize de-
veloping fly larvae. Soldier flies show up still later. By
the time the cowpat is stiff and only moist in the mid-
dIe, it is occupied primarily by the larvae and pupae of
slow-growing fly and scarab-beetle larvae, each devel-
oping in zones of the cow pat that differ in physical
characteristics (crust, center, base). Arthropod succes-
sion in carcasses follows a similar pattern, typically
with blow flies appearing first, beetles later. In late
stages of decay, the carcass community may consist
mainly of dermestid beetles and moths that eat dried
skin and ligaments. The exact species composition and
rate of change depend not only on the geographic 10-
cality but also on the exact habitat (carcasses transform
very differently in sun and shade), weather, and season.
Knowledge of the pattern and speed of faunal succes-
sion in a carcass can be critical to forensic investiga-
torso From data on the arthropod species and their
stages in a corpse when it is discovered, it is possible to
estimate the postmortem interval and thus the time of
death.
Insect Impact in Biotic Communities
and Ecosystems
Insed Diversity
Insects are vitally important members of biotic com-
munities for two reasons: There are so many of them,
and there are so many different kinds. The average
abundance of any one species is simply a function of
how small it is, how large its resource base is, and how
many enemies exploit it. But insects are unusual
among organisrns in their abundance of species. Ac-
cording to conventional ecological theory, each species
occupies a unique niche, a unique way of living that it
performs better than any other species and that is de-
fined by where it lives and what it consumes. In some
communities insect species are so tightly packed that
they have extensively overlapping niches, resulting in
 1

94 Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology

PREDATORS

/
c¡~

l;~
~ T'"S
~h :)

~.~
.

}<
T
. PARAS1rlDS

-"...

.~/ ~:~~//
;00

'~D ~
PIT FEEDERS

..
STRIPFEEDERS

"T

COLLARD FOUAGE
/
SAP FEEDERS
59 SPECIES

Figure4-21 Food web on a single plant, illustrating the presence of three guilds of
plant-feeding insects: 18 species of pit feeders, 17 species of strip feeders, and 59 species
of sap feeders. The parasitoids and predators of these insects, not numbered, also form
guilds.

competition, but partitioning and environmental insta-
bility prevent the exclusion of one competitor by an-
other. Thus we find many insect guilds, groups of in-
sect species that use the same food source but do so in
slightly different ways (Figure 4-21). The fact that over
half of all described species of organisms, and about
three quarters of all animal species, are insects suggests
they are exceptional in their ability to assume a myriad
of unique lifestyles.
There appear to be four interconnected reasons for
this diversity, all directly or indirectly resulting in a
high speciation-to-extinction ratio: (1) Exoskeleton:
This is the strongest and most efficient skeleton Cor
small-bodied animals. In addition to giving body sup-
port, external protection, and opportunities for evolv-
ing a wide variety of hard tools for handling food and
other materials, it provides leverage for long ap-
pendages, allowing elevated body support and quick
movements, and it offers resistance to desiccation.
These features allowed arthropods to become the firsl
animals to invade land, along with vascular plants, so
a vast variety of potential niches were available 10
them, and they could diversify along with the plants.
(2) Small size: More niches are available to small-bodied

animals, because many kinds of food and space are
available only in small quantities and limited sizes.
Smallanimals also have shorter generation times, al-
lowing rapid evolution and adaptation to new condi-
tions.And small animals have a large surface-to-volume
ratio,which has beneficial consequences: (a) proximity
of organs to each other, which allows use of simple
circulatoryand respiratory systems; (b) greater muscle
strengthin relation to size, which allows thinner limbs;
and (c) greater air resistance, which allows greater
wingand body 10ft, facilitating airborne dispersal and
evolution of powered flight. However, a large surface
areais disadvantageous beca use desiccation and heat
1055are more rapid. (3) Wings: The greater mobility
provided by flight allows animals to exploit widely
scattered resources, which form distinct niches. Fur-
thermore, it allows them to colonize new areas rapidly,
reducing the likelihood of extinction and providing
opportunities for genetic isolation and species forma-
tion. (4) Complete metamorphosis: Transformation of
the body from one kind of animal to another has the
followingconsequences: (a) a temporary resource that
isonlypart of a unique niche can be exploited without
having to sustain all active stages; (b) more unique
nichesare available, because the "compound niche" of
the two different active forms (larva and adult) is, as a
whole,another niche, reducing competition with over-
lapping species and avoiding competitive exclusion
even by species that occupy only one niche or the
other; (c) individuals escape from natural enemies by
disappearingfrom one of the microhabitats before ene-
miesbecome too numerous; (d) specialization in either
growthand storage (the larva) or dispersal and repro-
duction (the adult) results in increased efficiency of
eachstage. The fact that most insect species occur in
orderswith complete metamorphosis suggests that this
featureis exceptionally important.
Population
Size and Its Control
Thenumbers of individuals in an insect population is
determinedfirst by the size of the entire community in
whichthey can exist, their biotope. Beyond that, their
densityis controlled by an array of exogenous and en-
dogenous factors affecting reproduction, death, and
migration rates. Exogenous factors are principally
[ood, space, natural enemies (predators, parasites,
pathogens),and weather. The first three vary in their
intensityaccording to how dense the population is,
and are termed density-dependent factors, responsible
for regulating the density within somewhat narrow
bounds around the species' equilibrium density.
Weather-relatedfactors, in contrast, usually are density-
independent,having an effect proportional to insect
InsectImpactin Biotic Communitiesand Ecosystems 95
numbers. The latter are responsible for wide and
erra tic population fluctuations. The endogenous fac-
tors are all density dependent, including changes in
disease-inducing stress levels, social interactions, emi-
gration rates, and gene pool composition. The density-
dependent/independent distinction is a useful concept,
but insect populations often are controlled by a com-
plex interplay of weather-related biotic factors, so that
equilibrium densities are superimposed on erratic or
seasonal changes caused by changing physical condi-
tions. In other words, an insect may have several equi-
librium densities, depending on the weather, and if the
effects of weather change often enough, population
regulation is almost completely obscured. Some insect
populations may never reach the point where reduced
resources and increasing predation prevent further
population growth. In others, fluctuations are caused
by density-dependent factors that have effects extend-
ing long beyond the immediate causes (for example,
desert locusts, as mentioned earlier) or are the result of
environmental feedback that works over time scales of
many years (many forest Lepidoptera). Therefore, an
intimate knowledge of natural population control may
be necessary before insect outbreaks can be predicted
with any reliability.
ArtificialControl: The principies that determine popu-
lation density in nature can be applied by humans to the
judicious control of insect pests. Pest control is not ap-
propriate, economically, unless pests are dense enough
to reduce the value of some product or resource more
than it costs to prevent that reduction. The breakeven
point, the pest density at which the gain in value from
control is equal to the cost of that control, is the eco-
nomic injury leve!, or EIL. For insects that are largely
density dependent, the relationship between the EIL
and the equilibrium density determines whether mea-
sures should ever be taken against them. Some pests
cause relatively minor damage to crops, livestock, or
human health, rarely exceeding their EILs, because
their equilibrium densities are low, thanks to natural
enemies or restricted breeding sites. Others may cause
extensive damage but still rarely exceed their EILs. This
occurs if control is very expensive, the product has a
low value, or it is tolerant to high damage so the eco-
nomic 1055is small. However, when pests surpass a cer-
tain lower level Cthe economic threshold) indicating that
they soon will exceed the EIL, control measures should
be implemented immediately in order to take effect by
the time the EIL is reached. Aside from environmental
concerns, the decision to control pests in agricultural
systems has an exclusively economic basis. The deci-
sion to control insects of medical importance is compli-
cated by the need to consider not only losses in human
96 Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology

FILAMENTOUS
ALGAE

DlATOMS

Figure4-22 Simple freshwater aquatic food web, showing the pivotal roles of insects
at the primary- and secondary-consumer trophic leve\s.

productivity and costs of treatment, but also the
amount of suffering caused. A knowledge of what de-
termines the natural equilibrium density may be crucial
to effective time management. For example, the appli-
cation of pesticides may temporarily elimina te natural
enemies of the pest, not just the pest, causing its rapid
rebound and biotic re/ease. In this reaction, the pest den-
sity soars until it finds a new, higher equilibrium posi-
tion, causing more damage and requiring more frequent
application of insecticides. This situation, which is
costly and can lead to insecticide resistance more
quickly, is known as the "pesticide treadmill.» For both
density-independent and density-dependent pests, know-
ing how weather-related factors and biotic factors com-
bine to determine population growth and depression
help entomologists anticipa te conditions when the EIL
wiIl be exceeded. The ideal goal is to find low-impact
ways to alter a pest's environment so that the EIL is
never reached and insecticides are unnecessary.
Insed Roles in Food Chains and Webs
Insects and other arthropods are major constituents of
trophic pyramids because of the sheer mass of num-
bers in populations of each species at aIl consumer
leve\s. In every case studied, insects eat and incorpo-
--
rate far more energy than vertebrate animals in the
same communities. In fields in North America, more
than three quarters of the energy flow from plants
passes through populations of a few species of Or-
thoptera, dwarfing the importance of birds and mice.
In terms of living biomass, just the ants of the world,
a single family consisting of about 11,000 species,
weigh as much as the 6 billion humans of the world.
In the Amazon rain forest, ants and termites make up
about one third of the biomass of all animals, from
mites to tapirs, and the dry weight of ants there is four
times as great as the dry weight of allland vertebrates
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 5 PhylumArthropoda1
Arthropods
e are concerned in this book principally with in-
Wsects,but it is appropriate to point out the place of
theinsectsin the animal kingdom and to include at
leasta briefaccount of the animals most closely related
toandsometimes confused with the insects.
Theinsects belong to the phylum Arthropoda, the
principalcharacters of which are as follows:
1.Thebody segmented, the segments usually
groupedin two or three rather distinct regions
2. Paired,segmented appendages (from which the
phylumgets its name)
3. Bilateralsymmetry
4. Achitinous exoskeleton, which is periodically
shedand renewed as the animal grows
5. Atubular alimentary canal, with mouth and anus
6. Anopen circulatory system, the only blood vessel
usuallybeing a tubular structure dorsal to the ali-
mentarycanal with lateral openings in the abdom-
inalregion
7. Thebody cavity a blood cavity or hemocoel, the
coe\omreduced
8. Thenervous system consisting of an anterior gan-
glionor brain located above the alimentary canal,
a pairof connectives extending from the brain
aroundthe alimentary canal, and paired ganglion-
atednerve cords located below the alimentary
canal
9. Striatedskeletal muscles
10.Excretionusually by means of tubes (rhe
Malpighiantubules) that empty into the alimen-
tarycanal, the excreted materials passing to the
outsideby way of the anus
IAnhropoda:arthro,joint or segment; poda, [oot or appendage.
11. Respiration by means of gills, or tracheae and spi-
racles
12. No cilia or nephridia
13. The sexes nearly always separate
The position of the Arthropoda within the animal
kingdom and, indeed, even the reality of the arthro-
pods as a monophyletic group are subjects of active re-
search and controversy. The most serious challenge to
the hypothesis of arthropod monophyly began in the
1940s and 1950s (see, for example, Tiegs and Manton
1958) and reached its pinnacle with the publication of
The Arthropoda by Sidnie Manton in 1977. The essence
of this position is that the detailed study of arthropod
functional morphology reveals a tremendous amount
of diversity, not only in structure, but in the way in
which those structures actually work. Manton's own
studies dealt largely with mandibular and locomotory
mechanisms, and this work was supplemented by
other research in embryonic development (Anderson
1973). The structures of modern arthropods are closely
integrated and coordinated to forrn a complex, func-
tional whole, and they were interpreted to be so dis-
tinctive between the major groups that no interrnediate
between them could be conceived that, in turn, could
have been functional in the common ancestor. As a re-
sult, these features must have evolved independently in
the groups that we call arthropods. Manton proposed
and strongly defended the idea that those groups tradi-
tionally placed within Arthropoda had, in fact, inde-
pendently evolved those characteristics listed at the be-
ginning of this section and, therefore, that the
Arthropoda are polyphyletic. This position has been
defended recently by Fryer (1997).
The weakness in this argument, of course, is that
it addresses the weaknesses in evidence for monophyly 99

100 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
but doesnot propose a testable alternative hypothesis.
To adequatelydemonstrate that a hypothesis of mono-
phyly is false (that the Arthropoda are not mono-
phyletic), it is necessaryto provide evidence showing
that one or more "arthropod" taxa are more closely re-
lated to a nonarthropod group. No such evidence has
been offered. Today,most workers accept that the evi-
dence available is most parsimoniously explained by
the hypothesis that the Arthropoda are, indeed, mono-
phyletic.
Traditionally, researchershave held arthropods to
be most closely related to the Annelida and the Ony-
chophora. The Annelida, which include the segmented
worms (earthworms, marine worms, and leeches) dif-
fer from the arthropods in lacking segmented ap-
pendages,a chitinous exoskeleton, and a tracheal sys-
temoThey havea closedcirculatory system;the skeletal
muscles are not striated; and excretion is by means of
ciliated tubes called nephridia. Someinsect larvae lack
appendages and superficially resemble annelids. They
can be recognized as insects by their internal organiza-
tion (different types of circulatory and excretory sys-
tems and the presence oEtracheae). The Onychophora
resemble the arthropods in having (1) segmentation
(the body is indistinctly segmented, the segmentation
being indicated by the legs, which are unsegmented
but bear claws at their apex), (2) a chitinous exoskele-
ton that is periodically shed and renewed, (3) a tra-
cheal system, and (4) an open circulatory system. They
resemble the annelids in having nephridia and unstri-
ated skeletal muscles. The Onychophora are wormlike
or sluglike animals, varying in length up to several cen-
timeters. They occur only in the southern hemisphere,
where they live in moist situations.
Recent molecular studies, however, have com-
pletely changed the perspective on animal relationships
(Aguinaldo et al. 1997 and many following works). In
the resulting classification, the Arthropoda are grouped
together with the Nematoda and a few other small
phyla into the Ecdysozoa. This huge group of animals
was recognized by similarities in the sequences of ribo-
somal DNA, but apparently are all characterized by a
cuticle that is periodically molted (hence the name: ec-
dysis, escape from; zoon, animal). Several subsequent
studies, incorporating data from other sources, have
confirmed this resulto The segmented worms are now
placed together in another huge group of protostome
animals, the Lophotrochozoa, that includes not only
the Annelida, but the Mollusca, Platyhelminthes, and
Rotifera. There is, as yet, no consensus on the position
of the Onychophora, although most researchers agree
they should not be classified within the Arthropoda.
This classification is not unequivocally accepted, and
the entire subject is a focus of current research.
JI
Classification of the Arthropoda
There are differences of opinion regarding the relation-
ships of the various arthropod groups and the taxo-
nomic level at which they should be recognized. A
number of different taxonomic arrangements of these
groups have been proposed. We follow here the classifi-
cation of Barnes (1987) and recognize four major
groups within the arthropods as subphyla; this arrange-
ment is as follows (with synonyrns in parentheses):
Phylum Arthropoda-arthropods
Subphylum Trilobita-trilobites (fossils only)
Subphylum Chelicerata
Class Merostomata-horseshoe crabs
(Xiphosura) and the fossil eurypterids
(Eurypterida)
Class Arachnida-arachnids
Class Pycnogonida-sea spiders
Subphylum Crustacea-crustaceans
Class Cephalocarida
Class Branchiopoda
Class Ostracoda
Class Copepoda
Class Mystacocarida
Class Remipedia
Class Tantulocarida
Class Branchiura
Class Cirripedia
Class Malacostraca
Subphylum Atelocerata
Class Diplopoda-millipedes
Class Chilopoda-centipedes
Class Pauropoda-pauropods
Class Symphyla-symphylans
Class Hexapoda (Insecta)-hexapods
Three phyla sometimes included in the Arthro-
poda are the Onychophora, Tardigrada, and Pentasto-
mida (= Linguatulida). The Onychophora are some-
what intermediate between the Annelida and the
Arthropoda (as noted previously), but the other two
groups are somewhat degenera te morphologically (for
example, they lack circulatory and excretory organs).
The preceding arrangement of the arthropod
groups is based primarily on the character of the ap-
pendages (partially the jaws and legs) and the nature of
the body regions. The trilobites, crustaceans, and Ate-
locerata have a pair of antennae (usually two pairs in
the crustaceans), whereas the chelicerates lack anten-
nae. The endite lobes at the base of certain appendages
(the gnathobase) function as jaws in the trilobites, che-
licerates, and crustaceans, whereas (according to
Manton 1964, 1977) the Myriapoda and Hexapoda bite

exl
A B
Figure5-1 Some major variations in arthropod appendages. A, Generalized; B, Trilobite;
C, Crustacean. enl, endite lobe; enp, endopodite; exl, exite lobe; exp, exopodite.
withthe tips of the mandibles. However, recent studies
ofthe expression of the gene distal-less in arthropod
mouthpartsindicate that the mandible of hexapods is
alsognathobasicin nature.
Arthropod appendages are subject to a great deal
of variation but are basically seven-segmented (Fig-
ure5-l). The basal one or two segments sometimes
bearmesal(endite) or lateral (exite) lobes or processes.
Ihese lobes or processes frequently have important
functionsand sometimes have special names. The en-
ditelobes of certain appendages usually have a chew-
ingfunction in the trilobites, chelicerates, and crus-
taceans,and an exite lobe of the basal segment often
functionsas a gill in the trilobites and crustaceans. In
the crustaceans, the second segment usually bears a
well-developed exite lobe, which is generally seg-
mentedand is sometimes as large as or larger than the
restof the appendage, giving the appendage a forked
appearance.Such an appendage is spoken of as bira-
mous.The exite lobe of the second segment is called
theexopodite,and the rest of the appendage the en-
dopodite (Figure5-IC).
SubphylumTrilobita2
Ihe trilobites lived during the Paleozoic era (see Table
8-2), but were most abundant during the Cambrian
andOrdovician periods. These animals were somewhat
elongateand flattened, with three rather distinct longi-
Classification of the Arthropoda 101
e
tudinal divisions of the body. (The lateral divisions
were extensions over the bases of the legs.) Trilobites
had a pair of antennae, with the remaining appendages
similar and leglike (Figure 5-IB). The anterior part of
the body (the preoral region and the first three postoral
segments) was covered with a carapace. The legs had
an exite lobe or epipodite of the basal segment; this
bore a series of lamellae and apparently functioned as a
gill (lhese animals were marine). The endite lobes of
the anterior legs apparently functioned as jaws.
Subphylum Chelicerata3
Animals belonging to the subphylum Chelicerata lack
antennae and typically have six pairs of appendages.
The first pair are the chelicerae, and the rest are leglike.
Endite lobes of the pedipalps (lhe second pair of ap-
pendages in the arachnids), or the leglike appendages
in the horseshoe crabs, function as jaws. The body of a
chelicerate usually has two distinct divisions, an ante-
rior region called the prosoma (or cephalothorax) and a
posterior region called the opisthosoma (or abdomen).
The prosoma bears the chelicerae and the leglike ap-
pendages. The genital ducts open to the outside near
the anterior end of the opisthosoma. Most chelicerates
'Trilobita: tri, three; lobita, lobed (referring to the three longitudinal
divisions of the body).
3Chelicerata: with chelicerae.
102 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda

have an extra leg segment, the patella, between the fe-

mur and the tibia. The legs are generally uniramous;
that is, there is no exite or exopodite.

Class Merostomata4

Subclass Eurypteridas: The Eurypterida lived during

the Paleozoic era, from the Cambrian to the Carbonif-
erous periods. They were aquatic and somewhat simi-
lar to the present-day Xiphosura, and some reached a A
length of more than 2 meters. The prosoma bore a pair
of chelicerae, five pairs of leglike appendages, and a
pair each of simple and compound eyes; the opistho-
soma was 12-segmented, with platelike appendages
concealing gills on the first 5 segments, and the telson
was either spinelike or lobelike.
Subclass Xiphosura6-horseshoe crabs or king crabs:
The horseshoe crabs are marine forms and are quite
common along the Atlantic Coast from Maine to the
Gulf of Mexico. They live in the shallow water and
along sandy or muddy shores where they spawn. They
feed chiefly on marine worms. Horseshoe crabs are eas-
ily recognized by their characteristic oval shell and
long, spinelike tail (Figure 5-2).

Class Arachnida-Arachnids7
B
The Arachnida constitute by far the largest and most
important class of the Chelicerata (about 65,000 de-
scribed species, with about 8,000 in North America),
and a person studying insects will probably encounter
more of them than of any other noninsect group of
arthropods. Its members occur almost everywhere, of- Figure 5-2 A horseshoe crab, Limulus sp. (subclass
ten in considerable numbers.
Xiphosura). A, Dorsolateral view; B, Ventral view. bg,
Most authorities recognize 11 major groups of book gills; ch, chelicera.
arachnids (all represented in North America), but not
all agree on the names to use for these groups or the
taxonomic level they represent. We call these groups
ordcrs (some would call them subclasscs) and arrange Schizomida (Tartarides, Schizopeltida, Colopyga,
Pedipalpida in part)-short-tailed whipscorpions
them as follows (with other names and arrangements
in parentheses): Amblypygi (Amblypygida, Phrynides, Phryneida,
Scorpiones (Scorpionides, Scorpionida)-scorpions Phrynichida, Pedipalpida in part)-tailless
whipscorpions, whipspiders
Palpigradi (Palpigrada, Palpigradida, Microthely-
phonida)-micro whipscorpions Araneae (Araneida)-spiders

Uropygi (Thelyphonida, Holopeltidia, Pedipalpida in Ricinulei (Ricinuleida, Meridogastra, Podogonata,

part)-whipscorpions Rhinogastra)-ricinuleids
Opiliones (Phalangida, including Cyphophthalmi)-
harvestmen
Acari (Acarina, Acarida)-mites and ticks
4Merostomata: mero, part; stomata, mouth.
'Eurypterida: eury, broad; pterida, wing or fin. Pseudoscorpiones (Pseudoscorpionida, Chernetes,
.Xiphosura: xipho, sword; ura, tail. Chelonethida)-pseudoscorpions
7 Arachnida: from the Greek, meaning a spider. Solifugae (Solpugida)-windscorpions
 Keyto the Ordersof Arachnida 103

Keyto the Orders of Arachnida

l. Opisthosoma (abdomen) unsegmented or, if segmented, with spinnerets

posteriorly on ventral side (Figures 5-5 and 5-8, ALS,PLS,PMS) 2
1', Opisthosoma distinctly segmented, without spinnerets 3
2(1). Opisthosoma petiolate (Figures 5-5 and 5-9 through 5-13) Araneae p.105
2'. Opisthosoma not petiolate, but broadly joined to prosoma (Figures 5-15
through 5-22) Acari p.129
3(1'). Opisthosoma with a tail-like prolongation that is either thick and
terminating in a sting (Figure 5-3) or slender and more or less whiplike
(Figure 5-4A,B); mostly tropical 4
3'. Opisthosoma without a tail-like prolongation or with a very short
leaflike appendage 7
4(3). Opisthosoma ending in a sting (Figure 5-3); first pair of legs not greatly
elongated; second ventral segment of opisthosoma with a pair of comblike
organs Scorpiones p. 104
4', Opisthosoma not ending in a sting; first pair of legs longer than other
pairs (Figure 5-4A,B); second ventral segment of opisthosoma without
comblike organs 5
5(4'). Pedipalps slender, similar to legs (Figure 5-4A); minute forms, 5 mm
or less in length Palpigradi p.104
5'. Pedipalps usually much stouter than any of the legs (Figure 5-4B);
mostly larger forms 6
6(5'). With two median eyes on a tUbercle anteriorly and a group of three eyes
on each lateral margin; taillong, filiform, and many-segmented; pedipalps
nearly straight or curved mesad, extending forward, and moving laterally
(Figure 5-4B); body blackish, more than 50 mm in length Uropygi p.104
6'. Eyeslacking;tail short, one- to four-segmented;pedipalpsarchingupward,
forward, and downward and moving vertically; body yellowish or
brownish, less than 8 mm in length Schizomida p.105
7(3'), Pedipalps chelate (pincerlike) (Figure 5-23); body more or less oval,
fiattened, usually less than 5 mm in length Pseudoscorpiones p.135
7'. Pedipalps raptorial or leglike, but not chelate; body not particularly
fiattened; size variable 8
8(7'). Chelicerae very large, usually about as long as prosoma, and extending
forward, and body slightly narrowed in middle (Figure 5-4C); color pale
yellow to brownish; length 20 to 30 mm; mostly nocturnal desert forms
occurring in western United States Solifugae p.135
8'. Without the preceding combination of characters 9
9(8'). First pair of legs very long, with long tarsi; opisthosoma constricted at
base; mainly tropical 10
9'. First legs similar to the others and (except in the Opiliones) not usually
long; opisthosoma not particularly constricted at base 11
10(9). Prosoma longer than wide, lateral margins nearly parallel, and with a
transverse membranous suture in caudal third; opisthosoma with a very
short terminalappendage;length 5-8 mm (see also couplet 6') Schizomida p.105
lO'. Prosoma wider than long, lateral margins rounded or arched, and without
a transverse suture; opisthosoma without a terminal appendage; length
variable, up lOabout 50 mm Amblypygi p.105

104 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
11(9'). Orange-red to brown arachnids, about 3 mm in length, with broad flap
at anterior end of prosoma concealing chelicerae; legs not unusually
long, animal somewhat mitelike or ticklike in appearance; recorded
from Rio Grande Valley of Texas
11'. Size and color variable, but without broad flap at anterior end of
prosoma covering chelicerae; legs variable in length, often very long
and slender (Figure 5-14); widely distributed
ORDERScorpionesB-Scorpions:The scorpions are
well-known animals that occur in the southern and
western parts of the United States. They are fair-sized
arachnids, varying in length up to about 125 mm. The
opisthosoma is broadly joined to the prosoma and is dif-
ferentiated into two portions, a broad seven-segmented
mesosoma and a much narrower five-segmented poste-
rior metasoma that terminates in a sting (Figure 5-3).
The prosoma bears a pair of eyes near the midline and
two to five along the lateral margin on each side. The
pedipalps are long and chelate. On the ventral side of the
second opisthosomal segment is a pair of comblike
structures, the pectines.
Scorpions are largely nocturnal and during the day
remain concealed in protected places. When a scorpion
runs, the pedipalps are held outstretched and forward,
and the posterior end of the opisthosoma is usually
curved upward. Scorpions feed on insects and spiders,
which they catch with their pedipalps and sometimes
8Scorpiones: from the Latin. meaning a scorpion.
Figure5-3 A scorpion, 2X.
..
,
Ricinulei p.128
Opiliones p.129
sting. The young are born alive and, for a time after
birth, ride about on the mother's back. Scorpions grow
slowly, and some species require several years to reach
maturity. The function of the pectines is not known,
but they are believed to be tactile organs.
The effect of a scorpion sting depends primarily
on the species of scorpion involved. The sting of most
species is painful and usually accompanied by local
swelling and discoloration, but it is not dangerous. Of
the 40-odd species of scorpions in the United States,
only one-Centruroides sculpturatus Ewing-is very
venomous, and its sting may be fatal. This species is
slender and rarely exceeds 65 mm in length. It varies in
color from almost entirely yellowish to yellowish-
brown with two irregular black stripes down the back.
There is a slight dorsal protuberance at the base of the
sting. As far as is known, this species occurs only in
Arizona.
Scorpions do not ordinarily attack people but will
sting quickly if disturbed. In areas where scorpions oc-
cur, be careful in picking up boards, stones, and simi-
lar objects, and brush off, rather than swat, a scorpion
found crawling on your body.
ORDER Palpigradi9-Micro Whipscorpions: These
are tiny arachnids, 5 mm or less in length, somewhat
spider-like in appearance but with a long segmented
tail (Figure 5-4A). The pedipalps are leglike, and the
first pair of legs is the longest. These animals usually
live under stones or in the soil. This group is repre-
sented in the United States by three species in Texas
and California.
ORDER UropygPO-Whipscorpions: The whipscor-
pions are mainly tropical and, in the United States, oc-
cur only in the South. They are elongate and slightly
flattened, with a slender, segmented tail about as long
as the body, and powerful pedipalps (Figure 5-4B); the
maximum body length is about 80 mm, and the total
length including the tail may be 150 mm or more. They
.Palpigradi: palpi, palp or feder; gradi, walk (referring to the leglike
character of the pedipalps).
IOUropygi: uro, tail; pygi, rump (referring to the whiplike tail).

A B
Figure5-4 Arachnids. A, A micro whipscorpion (Order Palpigradi); B, A whipscor-
pion (Order Uropygi); C, A windscorpion (Order Solifugae). (Courtesy of the Institute of
Acarology.)
look somewhat like scorpions but have a very slender
"tail" and no sting. The first pair of legs is slender and
used as feelers; only the three hind pairs of legs are
used in walking. When disturbed, these animals emit
(or spray, up to 0.5 meter) a substance with a vinegar-
like odor from glands at the base of the tail, and hence
they are often called vinegaroons (or vinegarones)
Whipscorpions are nocturnal and predaceous. They are
generally found under logs or burrowing in the sand.
The eggs are carried in a membranous sac under the
opisthosoma, and the young ride around on the back of
the female for a time after they hatch. The whipscor-
pion most likely to be encountered in the southern
states is Mastigoproctus giganteus (Lucas), which oc-
curs in Florida and the Southwest; it has a body length
of 40 to 80 mm and is the largest species in the order.
aRDERSchizomida"-Short-TailedWhipscorpions:
These animals are somewhat similar to the Uropygi but
much smaller and more slender. In addition, the termi-
nal appendage is not long and whiplike; the pedipalps
arch upward and forward and move vertically; and
there is a transverse suture on the prosoma. The first
legs are slender and are not used for walking. The
fourth legs are modified for jumping, and in the field
these animals superficially resemble small crickets.
There are no venom glands or eyes. The eight species
ofSchizomida in the United States occur in Florida and
California. Trithyreus pentapeltis (Cook), which occurs
IlSchizomida:
schizo, split (referring to the transverse suture on the
prosoma).
Keyto the Ordersof Arachnida 105
e
in California, is yellowish- to reddish-brown in color
and 4.5 to 7.5 mm in length; it lives under rocks and in
leaf litter in the desert regions of southern California.
A Florida species, Schizomus floridanus Muma, is 3.0 to
3.3 mm in length and pale yellowish in color; it lives in
crevices in bark and in organic debris, from the Miami
. area south into the Keys.
aRDER Amblypygj12-Tailless Whipscorpions or
Whipspiders: These arachnids are somewhat spiderlike
in appearance, but the opisthosoma is distinctly seg-
mented and, although narrowed at the base, is not peti-
olate. There are no spinnerets; the pedipalps are large,
powerful, and spiny (and are used in capturing prey);
and the first legs are very long and whiplike. The pro-
soma is wider than long and has rounded sides. There
are no venom glands. The few North American species
vary in length from about 10 to 55 mm and occur
chiefly in the southern states. They are found under
bark or stones (usually scurrying sideways when dis-
turbed) and sometimes enter houses.
aRDER Araneae13-Spiders: Spiders are a large, dis-
tinct, and widespread group with more than 3,700 de-
scribed species in North America and more than
38,000 worldwide. The earliest evidence of spiders
comes from a 380-million-year-old Devonian fossil
(Shear et al. 1989). Spiders occur in many types of
habitats and are often very abundant. Typical nondesert
12Amblypygi: ambly, blunt; pygi, rump.
13Araneae: from the Latin, meaning a spider. This section was writ-
ten by Jeremy A. Miller and Oarrell Ubick.

106 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
habitats may support up to 800 spiders per square me-
ter. Point estimates of spider diversity range from 20
species per hectare in the temperate zone to more than
600 species per hectare in tropical forests (Coddington
and Colwell 2001).
Unique derived characters that define spiders in-
elude cheliceral venom glands (tost in the family Ulo-
boridae), abdominal spinnerets, and the modification
of the male pedipalps into sperm transfer organs.
MedicallyImportantSpiders. Although spider bites are
widely feared, few species are dangerous to humans.
Brown reeluse spiders and their relatives (13 North
American species ineluding 2 exotics, genus Loxosceles,
family Sicariidae) and black widow spiders (5 North
American species, genus Latrodectus, family Theridi-
idae) are the most medically important spiders in the
United States.
Loxosceles (Figures 5-91, 5-10) lives mostly in the
Midwest and Southwest. A species introduced from Eu-
rope has been found on the eastern seaboard and else-
where in the United States, but the venom of this
species is relatively mild (Gertsch and Ennick 1983).
Brown reeluse venom causes a small, dry, irregular
necrotic lesion that heals very slowly. Contrary to pop-
ular belief, brown reeluse bites cannot be conelusively
diagnosed from the wound. Serious medical condi-
tions, ineluding Lyme disease, chemical burn, and an-
thrax infection, have been misdiagnosed as brown
reeluse bites, delaying proper treatment (Osterhoudt et
al. 2002, Sandlin 2002). It is not uncommon for such
misdiagnoses to occur outside the range of the brown
reeluse spider (Vetter and Barger 2002, Vetter and Bush
2002).
Latrodectus (Figure 5-HA) is widespread in the
United States. Black widow venom is a neurotoxin.
Typical symptoms of envenomation inelude swelling of
the lymphatic nodes, profuse sweating, rigidity of the
abdominal museles, facial contortions, and hyperten-
sion. Antivenin is readily available to counteract the ef-
fects of Latrodectus envenomation. No deaths have
been attributed to widow bites in the United States
since the 1940s.
Neither Loxosceles nor Latrodectus species known
from North America are aggressive. Unlike groups such
as fieas, ticks, biting fiies, and bed bugs, spiders do not
take blood meals from humans and do not normally
bite humans except in self-defense.
Two other spiders have been implicated in causing
minor necrotic lesions. Both are introduced from Eu-
rope. Tegenaria agrestis (Walckenaer) (family Age-
lenidae) is found in the Pacific Northwest; Cheiracan-
thium mildei Koch (family Miturgidae) is now
widespread in human structures in North America.
..
Two other species in North America, Cheiracanthium
inclusum (Hertz) (family Miturgidae) and Argiope au-
rantia Lucas (family Araneidae) are reported to have a
mild neurotoxic venom. Despite their imposing ap-
pearance, North American tarantulas (family Thera-
phosidae) have relatively innocuous venoms. However,
they are capable of releasing a eloud of urticating hairs
that can cause discomfort in the mucous membranes of
mammals.
Silk. The ability to produce silk has evolved indepen-
dently in several arthropod lineages. However, spiders
are the only group to use silk throughout their lives
(Coddington and Colwe1l2001). In addition to its con-
spicuous use as a snare to trap prey, silk is used to line
burrows, construct retreats and molting chambers,
make sperm webs, protect developing eggs, and serve
as a dragline. Complex snares, ineluding orb webs, in-
corporate several distinct types of silk. Some spiders
periodically eat their web and are capable of rapidly re-
cyeling most of the protein into fresh silk (Peakall
1971). Some spiders, especially small species and im-
mature individuals, use silk for a form of airborne
travel called ballooning. To balloon, the spider elimbs to
a high point and releases silk into the air. When the
drag on the silk exceeds the spider's mass, the spider
releases itself into the air.
Silk is a protein fiber produced in glands that
terminate in spigots on the abdominal spinnerets (Fig-
ures 5-6, 5-8). In the gland, silk is a water-soluble liq-
uid protein soup. As the silk is spun, it passes through
an acid bath (Vollrath and Knight 2001). The acid
hardens the silk by causing the molecules to reorient.
Complementary regions of the silk molecule align and
bond together in multilayered stacks, forming protein
crystals. These crystals are interspersed in a matrix of
loosely arranged amino acids. The protein crystals give
the silk its strength, and the loose matrix provides elas-
ticity (Gosline et al. 1986).
The physical properties of silk are remarkable.
Tensile strength is the greatest stress a material will tol-
erate before failure. Silk is stronger than most natural
materials and is about half as strong as steel. However,
silk is extremely extensible: It can tolera te substantial
distortion (strain) before failure. The product of stress
to strain is expressed as toughness and is the total
amount of energy a material will absorb before failure.
Silk has extremely high toughness; steel tolerates very
little distortion in shape, and so is not a very tough ma-
terial (Figure 5-5).
Anatomy. The body of a spider is divided into two re-
gions, the cephalothorax and the abdomen (Figure 5-6).
The abdomen, usually soft and unselerotized, is at-
tached to the cephalothorax by a narrow pedicel. The
r Keyto the Ordersof Arachnida 107

2 cephalothorax bears the eyes, mouthparts, legs, pedi-

Steel palps, and stomach. The abdomen contains the pri-
N mary reproductive structures, respiratory system, in-
I
E testine, anus, silk glands, and spinnerets.
z The cephalothorax is covered dorsally by the cara-
'"o Frame silk
~
pace and ventrally by the sternum. Anterior to the ster-
X num is a small sclerite called the labium, which may be
fused to the sternum. Spiders primitively have eight
simple eyes, but some taxa have fewer eyes. Eye num-
ber and arrangement is important in identifying spi-
ders. The area between the anterior eye and the edge of
0.1 0.2 0.3 the carapace is the clypeus.
The first pair of appendages is called the che-
Strain= A length licerae. Chelicerae have two segmems, a base and a
initiallength fango The opening for the poison gland is located near
the tip of the fango The base may be quite robusto The
base may receive the fang in a furrow, which is usually
Figure5-5 Structural properties of silk compared to lined with rows of teeth. In some families, the che-
othermaterials(FromGoslineet al. 1986). liceral bases may be fused by a membranous lamella

Figure 5-6 Structural characteristics of spiders. A, Dorsal view (generalized); B, Ven-

tral view, araneomorph; e, Ventral view, mygalomorph.
108 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda

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B MT
G

~CN
TA
/

F
D
--- --- . -,::::-"--
~,- , -<~..'''. ~--,,:::. :::. -,--
- i\"""m_~"'I.\\\U\\"_'"
--':~ -CT
\ H
SC
E

Figure5-7 Legs, chelicerae, and male palp characters of spiders. A, First leg of Mime-
tus puritanus Chamberlin (Mimetidae); B, Fourth metatarsus of Achaearanea tepidariorum
(c. L. Koch) (Theridiidae); C, Fourth tarsus and metatarsus of Callobius deces
(Chamberline and Ivie) (Amaurobiidae); D, Tarsus of Araneus diadematus Clerck
(Araneidae); E, Tarsus of Tibellus oblongus (Keyserling) (Philodromidae); F, Trilobe
membrane between metatarsus and tarsus of Heteropodavenatoria (L.) (Sparassidae);
G, Stridulatory striae on lateral face of chelicera, Mermessus dentiger; H, Chelicera of
Araneus diadematus showing condyle on proximolateral parto 1, Male palp of a haplogyne
spider, Latrodectus rec/usaGertsch and Mulaik (Sicariidae); J, Palp of an entelegyne male,
Mermessus dentiger O. Pickard-Cambridge (Linyphiidae). CA, calamistrum; CB, ventral
comb of setae; Cl, claws; CN, condyle; CT, claw tufts; CY, cymbium; MT, metatarsus;
P, paracymbium, SC, scopula; SS, stridulatory striae; TA, tarsus; TM, trilobe membrane,
TR, trichobothrium.

(Figure 5-9F,I). The basal segment of the chelicera
sometimes bears a small rounded lateral prominence
(¡hecondyle) at its base (Figure 5-7H, CN). Some spi-
dershave a series of filelike ridges on the lateral surface
of the chelicerae (Figure 5-7G, SS). Spiders may use a
plectrum on the pedipalp to stridulate against these
ridges.
Ihe second pair of appendages is the pedipalps.
The pedipalps are somewhat leglike, except that they
lacka metatarsus and have only one terminal claw (lost
in some spiders). The basal segment, the endite, is en-
largedand forms part of the oral cavity. The anterior
marginof the endite usually has a serrula for cutting
into prey. The labium lies between the two endites.
Adult male spiders have their pedipalps (or simply
palpus)modified into sperm transfer organs. The form
of the male palpal organ is extremely variable and is
criticalin spider taxonomy (Figures 5-7I,J). Minimally,
the palpal organ consists of a bulb containing a sperm
duct and a terminal embolus. The bulb is attached to
the palpal tarsus, which is called the cymbium (Fig-
ure 5-7J, CY). The cymbium may be ventrally exca-
vated, partially enclosing the palpal bulbo A para-
cymbium is an appendage arising from the cymbium
(Figure5-7J, P). The testes are located in the abdomen.
Thereis no connection between the testes and the pedi-
palps. Instead, sperm is extruded from the epigastric
furrow.A sperm web is typically spun to receive the
spenn. 10 transfer the sperm, the spider inserts his em-
bolus into the sperm droplet and draws the fluid into
the palpal organ, probably by capillary action. During
copulation, the male transfers his sperm to the female
byinserting the embolus into the female genitalia.
Ihe four pairs of ambulatory legs, numbered I-IV
from front to back, have seven segments (coxa,
trochanter, femur, patella, tibia, metatarsus, and tar-
sus), and each leg bears two or three terminal claws.
Twoclaws are paired; the third, if present, is smaller
and set between them. The tip of the tarsus may have
numerous setae, the claw tuft, which may obscure the
claws(Figure 5-7E, CT). Usually claw tufts are present
only in two-clawed spiders, but there are exceptions
(noted later). In some spiders, the ventral part of the
tarsus(and sometimes the metatarsus) is covered with
a verydense field of modified hairs, the scopula (Fig-
ure S-7E, SC). This structure may allow spiders to
walkon smooth vertical surfaces. Various leg segments
mayhave trichobothria (Figure 5-7C, TR). These long,
straighthairs are sensitive to air currents. The position
andnumber of trichobothria can be a useful taxonomic
character.
Near the anterior end of the abdomen on the ven-
tralsideis a transverse groove called the epigastric fur-
row,which at its midpoint bears the gonopore. The fe-
malestores sperm received from males in spermathecae
Keyto the Ordersof Arachnida 109
just anterior to this furrow. She fertilizes her eggs just
before exuding them through the epigastric furrow.
On the anterolateral portion of the epigastric fur-
row are the anterior respiratory organs, the book lungs
(rarely lost or modified in some families). The book
lungs consist of alternating layers of sheetlike air pock-
ets and hemolymph-filled (blood-filled) lamellae. The
air- and hemolymph-filled regions are incredibly thin,
which facilitates gas exchange. Primitively, spiders had
a second pair of book lungs immediately posterior to
the anterior pair. In most spiders, the posterior respira-
tory organs are modified into a tracheal system. The
tracheal system opens to the environment via the tra-
cheal spiracle, which may be a pair of ventrolateral slits
or a single ventral slit. The single tracheal spiracle usu-
ally lies just anterior to the spinnerets, but in so me spi-
der taxa is closer to the epigastric furrow.
The spinnerets are usually on the posterior part of
the abdomen (Figure 5-8). Extant spiders have no
more than six functional spinnerets: the anterior lat-
eral, posterior median, and posterior lateral pairs. The
anterior median spinnerets are not functional in any
living spider. However, a platelike spinning organ
called the cribellum (Figure 5-8A, CR) is believed to
be derived from the anterior median spinnerets. The
cribellum is lost in many araneomorph spiders, but a
vestige called the colulus may remain (Figure 5-8B-E).
Posterior to the spinnerets is the anal tubercle (Fig-
ure 5-6A,C). This structure is usually quite small but
is enlarged and modified in oecobiids.
Reproduction andDevelopment. The two sexes of spi-
ders often differ considerably in size, the female being
larger and heavier, and the male being smaller but with
relatively long legs. Mating is often preceded by elabo-
rate courtship, which may involve a variety of body or
pedipalp movements or stridulation. In some cases, the
male may present the female with a dead insect or
other nuptial gift before mating. Males usually do not
live long after mating.
Fertilized eggs are deposited in a silk saco These
sacs vary in their construction. They may be suspended
in a web, deposited in some sheltered location, or car-
ried about by the female. The number of eggs in a sac
varies between 1 and over 2,000. The eggs usually
hatch soon after they are laid, but if the eggs are laid in
the autumn the young spiders may remain in the sac
until the following spring.
Spiders undergo very little metamorphosis during
their development. When hatched, they usually look
like miniature adults but without developed genitalia.
If legs are lost during development, they can usually be
regenerated (Vollrath 1991). The point at which legs
usually break off can be a useful taxonomic character.
Spiders generally molt from 3 to 15 times during their
 ti

110 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda

Figure 5-8 Abdominal characters of spiders. A, Spinnerets of Callobius deces

(Chamberlin and Ivie) (Amaurobiidae); B, Spinnerets of Agelenopsisoregonensis
Chamberline and Ivie (Agelenidae); C, Spinnerets of Cheiracanthium meldei L. Koch
(Miturgidae); D, Spinnerets of Clubiona obesa Hentz (Clubionidae); E, Spinnerets of Sco-
tophaeus blackwalli (Thorell) (Gnaphosidae). ALS, anterior lateral spinnerets; ca, colu-
lus; CR, cribellum; PLS, posterior lateral spinneret; PMS, posterior median spinneret.

growth to maturity; males typically undergo fewer
molts than females. Female mygalomorphs and filista-
tids continue to molt once or twice a year as long as
they live. Most spiders live 1 or 2 years, but mygalo-
morphs often take several years to mature, and some
females may live as long as 20 years.
Ecology. AIIspiders are predaceous and feed mainly on
insects. Some spiders may occasionally feed on small
vertebrates. The prey is usually killed or disabled by the
poison injected into it by the spider bite. Different spi-
ders capture their prey in different ways. The wolf spi-
ders and jumping spiders actively forage and pounce on
their prey. Many crab spiders are sit-and-wait predators,
waiting for their prey on flowers and feeding on visiting
pollinators. Many spiders capture their prey in webs. A
few spiders are kleptoparasites, living in the webs of
other spiders and stealing prey from the host's web. A
small number of spider species have some degree of so-
cial organization. Social spiders may cooperate to build
webs of several cubic meters and feed communally on
the large prey items they subdue.
Spiders play an important role in nearly all terres-
trial ecosysterns. They are generally quite numerous,
and their predation impact keeps in check the numbers
of many other animals, particularly insects. They are, in
tum, preyed on by various other animals, particularly
wasps. There is growing evidence that spiders can keep
populations of pest insects in check in agroecosysterns
(Wise 1993, Riechert 1999). Conventional integrated
pest management prograrns tend to rely on predators
and parasitoids that attack specific pest species, but
dense populations of generalist predators, including spi-
ders, can effectively limit some pest populations. How-

ever,broad-spectrum insecticides can be more effective
in killing spiders than they are in killing the pests being
targeted.Agricultural practices that encourage increases
inspider density can greatly decrease the need for chem-
ical insecticides without 1055 in crop yield (Riechert
1999). Fear of spiders (arachnophobia) is one of the
rnostcommon phobias is Western culture. However, spi-
dersperform a service by destroying noxious insects and
do not damage household items. As pointed out earlier,
the venomous nature of spiders is generally greatly ex-
aggerated.Most spiders do not bite if handled carefully.
Classification
of Spiders
Spidersare divided into two suborders: Mesothelae and
Opisthothelae. The Mesothelae are currently restricted
to southeastern Asia andJapan. These relict taxa retain
rnany features of primitive spiders, such as abdominal
segmentation and ventral spinnerets. The vast majority
of spiders belongs to the suborder Opisthothelae,
which itself is divided into two infraorders, Mygalo-
rnorphae and Araneomorphae. Both occur in North
America. A few basal mygalomorphs have vestiges of
abdominal segmentation in the form of abbreviated ter-
gites. A sclerotized scutum covering pan of the ab-
domen is found sporadically among araneomorph spi-
der taxa and is not derived from primitive abdominal
segmentation. Mesothele and mygalomorph spiders
have chelicerae oriented so that the fangs are more or
lessparallel (Figure 5-6C); araneomorph spiders usu-
allyhave opposing fangs (Figure 5-6B) , although some
taxahave secondarily modified chelicerae. Mesotheles,
rnygalomorphs, and the most basal groups of araneo-
rnorph spiders have two pairs of book lungs. In North
America, only hypochilids among the araneomorphs
retain the posterior pair of book lungs. In most arane-
omorph spiders, the posterior pair of book lungs is
rnodified into a tracheal system (Figure 5-6B). Sec-
ondary modifications of the respiratory system occur in
some derived groups of araneomorph spiders.
Individual species can produce up to seven dis-
tinct types of silk, each with a specialized function,
such as dragline production, egg sac construction, and
both the adhesive and nonadhesive parts of a web.
Basalaraneomorph spiders produce adhesive silk from
a platelike cribellum just anterior to the spinnerets
(Figure 5-8A, CR). The cribellum is covered in tiny
spigots. Cribellate silk consists of hundreds of very
fine, dry silk fibers around a few thicker core fibers.
The physical basis of stickiness in cribellate silk is not
wellunderstood, but the adhesive force is proponional
to the surface area contact between the silk and the ob-
ject being held (Opell 1994). Cribellate silk is combed
Classificationof Spiders 111
out from the cribellum using tq.e calamistrum, a group
of specialized, curved setae on the metatarsus of the
founh leg (Figure 5-7C, CA), which may be a single
row of setae, two rows, or an oblong field. Mature male
cribellate spiders lose the ability to make cribellate silk
and typically retain only a vestige of the cribellum and
calamistrum. The cribellum and calamistrum have
be en lost numerous times in spider evolution. A well-
known example of ecribellate sticky silk comes from
araneoid spiders, the ecribellate orb-weavers and their
descendents. Araneoid sticky silk consists of a pair of
core lines dotted with sticky droplets. Adult male spi-
ders rarely spin prey-capture webs and sometimes lose
the ability to produce sticky silk.
Spider taxonomy is based heavily on characters of
the genitalia. For this reason, juvenile spiders are usually
impossible to identify to species unless they are found
associated with adults or unless the local fauna is very
well known. Determining whether a spider is an adult
can be difficult for the beginner. Adult female spiders
usually have a sclerotized plate called an epigynum (Fig-
ure 5-6B) located near the epigastric furrow between
the anterior respiratory organs (the genital region). In
some spiders (for example, lycosids), a rudimentary,
nonfunctional plate may be visible during late-stage ju-
venile development. Female spiders sometimes lack an
external sclerotized plate and can be easily confused
with juveniles. In such spiders, adult females differ by
the presence of dense hairs in the genital region; hairs in
the genital region are undifferentiated in juveniles. All
adult female spiders have a set of spermathacae, which
can be examined by carefully dissecting the integument
anterior to the epigastric furrow. Few student collections
will contain many species where the female lacks and
epigynum. Adult male spiders always have the distal
segments of the pedipalp modified. Late-stage juvenile
males may have a swollen palpal tarsus, indicating that
the palpal organ is developing inside.
Infraorder Mygalomorphae
Antrodiaetidae-folding-door spiders
Atypidae-purse-web spiders
Mecicobothriidae
Dipluridae
Ctenizidae
Cyrtaucheniidae
Nemesiidae
Theraphosidae-tarantulas
Infraorder Araneomorphae
Hypochilidae-Iampshade spiders
Haplogynae
Filistatidae
Caponiidae
Dysderidae
Segestriidae
112 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda

Oonopidae Hahniidae
Pholcidae-cellar spiders Agelenidae
Diguetidae Cybaeidae
Plectreuridae Desidae
Ochyroceratidae Amphinectidae
Leptonetidae Amaurobiidae
Telemidae Tengellidae
Sicariidae Zorocratidae
Scytodidae-spitting spiders Superfamily Lycosoidea
Entelegynae Ctenidae-wandering spiders
Eresoidea Zoropsidae
Oecobiidae Miturgidae
Hersiliidae Oxyopidae-Iynx spiders
Orbiculariae Pisauridae-nursery-web and fishing
Uloboridae-hackled-band orb-weavers spiders
Deinopidae-ogre-faced spiders Trechaleidae
Araneidae Lycosidae-wolf spiders
Tetragnathidae Clade Dionycha
Theridiosomatidae Clubionidae
Symphytognathidae Anyphaenidae
Anapidae Corinnidae
Mysmenidae Liocranidae
Mimetidae-pirate spiders Zoridae
Theridiidae-cobweb spiders Gnaphosidae
Nesticidae Prodidomidae
Linyphiidae Homalonychidae
Pimoidae Selenopidae
Titanoecidae Sparassidae-giant crab spiders
RTA Clade Philodromidae
Dictynidae Thomisidae
Zodariidae Salticidae-jumping spiders

Keyto SpiderFamiliesof NorthAmerica

This key is adapted from D. Ubick, in preparation, Key to Nearctic Spider Families. In D. Ubick, P. Paquin, P. E.
Cushing, and V. Roth (Eds.), Spiders of North America: A Guide to Genera (available in ]anuary 2005 from the
American Arachnological Society). The following abbreviations are used in the key. Eyes: AER = anterior eye row;
PER = posterior eye row; AME = anterior median eyes; ALE = anterior lateral eyes; PME = posterior median eyes;
PLE = posterior lateral eyes; LE = lateral eyes. Spinnerets: AMS = anterior median spinnerets; ALS = anterior lat-
eral spinnerets; PMS = posterior median spinnerets; PLS = posterior lateral spinnerets. Measurements: L = length;
W = width; PT/C is the ratio of the patella+tibia length divided by carapace length. The term procurved refers to
a line in which the ends are anterior to the center of the line; a recurved line has the ends posterior to the middle.

1. Chelicerae paraxial, fangs parallel (Figure S-6C); with 2 pairs of book

lungs (Figure S-6C); never with cribellum or colulus; with 8 eyes; legs
stout (PT/C < 2) (Mygalomorphae) 2
1'. Chelicerae diaxial, fangs opposing each other or oblique (Figure S-6B);
usually with at most I pair of book lungs (Figure S-6B), if with 2 pairs of
book lungs then with cribellum (Figure S-8A) and slender legs
(PT/C = 3 to S); cribellum or colulus may be present; with 8 or fewer
eyes; leg thickness variable (Araneomorphae) 11
2(1). Abdomen with 1-3 tergites; anal tubercle separated from spinnerets 3
--

Key
to SpiderFamiliesof NorthAmerica 113

2/. Abdomen without tergites; anal tubercle adjaeent to spinnerets 5

3(2). Endites long, % width of sternum; labium and sternum fused; thorade
furrow (Figure 5-6A) quadrangular or suboval; eastern United States Atypidae p.120
3'. Endites short, at most 1(2width of sternum; labium and sternum
separated by a suture, groove, or at least a depression; thorade furrow
longitudinal or rounded and pidike; widespread 4
4(3'). Distal segment of PLS slender, at least 5 X as long as basal width,
tapering to a point, flexible, pseudosegmented; Washington lO
California, Arizona Mecicobothriidae p.120
4/. Distal segment of PLS slOuter, about 3X as long as wide, neither flexible
nor pseudosegmented; widespread in distribution Antrodiaetidae p.120
5(2/). Tarsi with 2 claws and claw tufts (Figure 5-7E). Florida to southwestern
United States Theraphosidae p.122
5/. Tarsi with 3 claws, laeking claw tufts (Figure 5-7D). widespread in
distribution 6
6(5/). PLS long, at least 1(2earapaee length, and slender, length of distal
segment > 2X width 7
6/. PLS short, at most 1/2earapaee length, and stout, length of distal
segment < 2X width 8
7(6). Endites with euspules (Figure 5-6C); ehelieeral inner surfaee with row
of 4-7 short, blaek, rodlike setae; thorade furrow transverse; PLS 1(2to
%X earapaee length; size 16-23 mm; living in open burrows;
California Nemesiidae(Calisoga) p.122
7/. Endites laeking euspules; ehelieeral inner surfaee without row of blaek,
rodlike setae; thorade furrow pitlike or longitudinal; PLS at least
V.X earapaee length; size 2.5-17 mm; living in silken tubes or on
sheet webs; British Columbia to Oregon, Arizona to Texas,
North Carolina, Tennessee Dipluridae p.120
8(6'). Abdomen posteriorly truneated, sclerotized, with longitudinal grooves; Ctenizidae
southeastern United States (Cyclocosmia) p. 120
8'. Abdomen unmodified, posteriorly rounded, not sclerotized, and
without grooves 9
9(8/). Females with a dense seopula on tarsus 1 (Figure 5-7E); ehelieeral
promargin toothed, retromargin of ehelieera with row of short, stout, Cyrtaucheniidae
rounded tubercles; Texas (Eucteniza) p.122
9'. Males or females with tarsus llaeking seopula, but with lateral spines;
if tarsus 1with a weak seopula and laeking spines, then retromargin of
chelicera without teeth (but may have a few denticles); widespread in
distribution 10
10(9/). Both promargin and retromargin of ehelieera toothed; thorade furrow
strongly proeurved; anterior tarsi and metatarsi of female with lateral
rows of short, thornlike spines Ctenizidae(inpart) p.120
10'. Only promargin of ehelieera toothed; thoraeic furrow varying from
strongly proeurved to straight; anterior tarsi and metatarsi of female Cyrtaucheniidae
with few spines, these usually long and slender (in part) p.122
ll(l'). Cribellum (Figure 5-8B-E) and ealamistrum absent 12
ll'. Cribellum (Figure 5-8A) and ealamistrum (Figure 5-7C) present 14
12(1l). With 8 eyes 13
12/. With fewer than 8 eyes 27
114 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda

13(12). Tarsi 3-clawed, scopulae and claw tufts absent (Figure S-7D); mostly
web builders; if legs are slender and relatively delicate, assume tarsi are
3-clawed 51
13'. Tarsi 2-clawed, usually with scopulae and claw tufts (Figure S-7E);
if claw tufts are present, assume tarsi are 2-clawed 81
14(11'). With 2 pairs of book lungs (Figure S-6C) Hypochilidae
(Hypochilus) p.122
14'. With 1 pair of book lungs (Figure S-6B) 15
15(14'). With fewer than 8 eyes; cribellum entire 16
15'. With 8 eyes; cribellum entire or divided 17
16(15). With 4 eyes; leg I greatly enlarged; south Texas Uloboridae
(Miagrammopes) p.124
16'. With 6 eyes; leg I not enlarged; widespread in distribution Dictynidae(Lathys) p.126
17(15'). PME huge, several times the diameter of remaining eyes (Figure S-9G) Deinopidae(Deinopis) p.124
17'. PME not so enlarged 18
18(17'). Eyes clustered on central mound, occupying < 1(2width of cephalon 19
18'. Eyes spread across carapace, occupying > 1/2width of cephalon 20
19(18). Anal tubercle enlarged and fringed with long setae; chelicerae free;
entelegyne (epigynum present) Oecobiidae(Oecobius) p.124
19'. Anal tubercle not so modified; chelicerae fused; haplogyne (epigynum
absent) Filistatidae p.122
20(18'). Anterior tibia with at least 4 pairs of ventral spines 21
20'. Anterior tibia with fewer ventral spines 22
21(20). Anterior tibia with 4-5 pairs of ventral spines; PER straight to
weakly procurved; tarsi U-IV with 2 claws; body unicolorous; Zorocratidae
Arizona to Texas (Zorocrates) p.127
21'. Anterior tibia with 6-7 pairs of ventral spines; PER recurved; all tarsi
with 2 claws; body patterned; California (introduced) Zoropsidae(Zoropsis) p.127
22(20'). Calamistrum extends over more than half the length of metatarsus IV 23
22'. Calamistrum extends over no more than half the length of metatarsus IV 25
23(22). Femora U-IV with rows of long trichobothria; metatarsus IV dorsally
concave and with ventral row of short spines extending to tip of tarsus;
cribellum entire Uloboridae(in part) p.124
23'. Femora U-IV without rows of long trichobothria; metatarsus IV not so
modified and without ventral row of short spines; cribellum divided or
entire 24
24(23'). Endites converging apically; cribellum usually entire; legs usually without
spines Dictynidae(in part) p.126
24'. Endites parallel; cribellum divided; legs with spines Titanoecidae
(Titanoeca) p.126
25(22'). Cheliceral margins with 5 to 7 stout teeth; male palpus with embolus
threadlike, enclosed in membranous conductor; California, Texas Amphinectidae
to Florida (Metaltella) p.126
25'. Cheliceralmarginsusuallywith no more than 4 teeth, if more, then
teeth small and slender; male palpus with embolus variable; widespread
in distribution 26
26(25'). AME 1.4X largerthan ALE;malepalpuswith emboluslong and
sigmoid, enclosed in membranous conductor Desidae(Badumna) p.126
 Keyto SpiderFamiliesof NorthAmerica 115

26'. AME at most 1.2X larger than ALE; male palpus with embolus usually
short and stout, iflong, then arcuate, never enc10sed in conductor Amaurobiidae(in part) p.126
27(12'). Eyes complete1y lacking (but may have small eye spots) 28
27'. At least 2 eyes present 34
28(27). Anterior tibia with 2-3 pairs of ventral spines 29
28'. Anterior tibia with few scattered ventral spines or none 30
29(28). ALScontiguous, longer than PLS Cybaeidae
(in part) p.126
29'. ALSslightly separated, shorter than PLS Dictynidae(in part) p.126
30(28'). Male palp with exposed bulb (Figure 5-71), female lacking epigynum
(haplogynes) 31
30'. Male palp with bulb enc10sed by cymbium (Figure 5-7J), female with
epigynum (ente1egynes) 32
31(30). Abdomen with anterodorsal sc1erotized ridge; with a pair of tracheal
spirac1es between epigastric furrow and spinnerets; colulus pentagonal,
wider than ALS;California Telemidae
(Usofila) p.123
31'. Abdomen without anterodorsal sc1erotized ridge; with one tracheal
spirac1e near spinnerets; colulus not so modified; Texas, Georgia leptonetidae(in part) p.123
32(30'). Tarsus IV lacking ventral comb; retromargin of che1icera toothed;
chelicera usually with stridulatory file on outer face (Figure 5-7G);
leg break at patella-tibia joint Linyphiidae(in part) p.126
32'. Tarsus IV with ventral comb of serrated setae (Figure 5-7B); retromargin
of chelicera edentate or with small dentic1es; che1icera without
stridulatory file; leg break at coxa-femur joint 33
33(32'). Retromargin of chelicera edentate, lacking both teeth and dentic1es; Theridiidae
male palp with inconscpicuous paracymbium; southern Arizona (Thymoites) p.125
33'. Retromargin of chelicera with small dentic1es; male palp with large
retrolateral paracymbium; California, Texas, Appalachian Mountains Nesticidae(in part) p.126
34(27'). Two eyes present Caponiidae(in part) p.122
34'. More than 2 eyes present 35
35(34'). Four eyes present 36
35'. Six eyes present 37
36(35). Two eyes pigmented; size 0.6 mm; litter spiders; Florida Symphytognathidae
(Anapistula) p.125
36'. All eyes unpigmented; size 3.6 mm; cave spiders; Tennessee Nesticidae(Nesticus) p.126
37(35'). Male palp with exposed bulb, not enc10sed by cymbium (Figure 5-71);
female lacking epigynum, but may have some sc1erotization at epigastric
area (haplogynes) 38
37'. Male palp with bulb partially enc10sed by cymbium (Figure 5-7J) ,
female with epigynum (ente1egynes) 48
38(37). Chelicerae fused at base (Figure 5-9F) 39
38'. Che1iceraenot fused at base, can be moved apart (Figure 5-9E) 42
39(38). Eyes in 2 triads Pholcidae(in part) p.123
39'. Eyes in 3 dyads (Figure 5-9G) 40
40(39'). Carapace strongly convex (Scytodes) p.123
Scytodidae
40'. Carapace fiat 41
41(40'). PER strongly recurved; carapace pear-shaped (Figure 5-91) Sicariidae(Loxosceles)p.123
41'. PER slightly recurved; carapace oval Diguetidae(Oiguetia) p.123
r ..

116 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda

42(38'), Size >5 mm; tracheal spiracles paired, conspicuous, located near book
lung openings (Figure 5-9H) 43
42', Size < 5 mm; tracheal spiracles inconspicuous, if paired, then not near
book lungs 44
43(42), Tarsi with 2 claws; leg 1IInot anteriorly directed Dysderidae(Dysdera) p.122
43'. Tarsi with 3 claws; leg 1IIanteriorly directed Segestriidae p.123
44(42'). Abdomen with sclerotized ridge on anterior dorsal surface Telemidae(Usofí/a) p.123
44'. Abdomen without sclerotized ridge 45
45(44'). Abdomen with 1 or 2 scuta Oonopidae(in part) p.123
45'. Abdomen without scuta 46
46(45'). Legs relatively long (PT/C > 1.5); PME usually posteriorly displaced
from LE, if eyes contiguous then occupying less than '/2 cephalon width Leptonetidae
(in part) p.123
46'. Legs shorter (PT/C "" 1); eyes in transverse arrangement, if contiguous
then occupying more than 1/2cephalon width 47
47(46'). Eyes in compact group; if in transverse row, then femur IV enlarged;
colulus absent; widespread in distribution Oonopidae(in part) p.123
47'. Eyes in transverse row; femur IV not enlarged; colulus large, broad; Ochyroceratidae p.123
southem Florida (Theotíma)
48(37'). Tibia I with 2 to 3 pairs of ventral spines 49
48'. Tibia I with fewer ventral spines 50
49(48). ALS contiguous, longer than PLS; eyes small, widely separated Cybaeidae p. 126
(Cybaeozyga)
49', ALSslightly separated, shorter than PLS; eyes larger, in two triads of
contiguous eyes Dictynidae(in part) p.126
50(48'). Tarsus IV with ventral comb of serrated bristles (Figure 5-7B); male
palpus with large, rigid basal paracymbium Nesticidae(in part) p.126
. 50'. Tarsus IV without ventral comb; male palpus with smaller basal
paracymbium flexibly attached by membrane (Figure 5-7]) Linyphiidae(in part) p.126
51(13). Male palpus with bulb exposed, not enveloped by cymbium
(Figure 5-71); female without epigynum (haplogynes) 52
51'. Male palpus with bulb partially enveloped by cymbium (Figure 5-7]);
female with epigynum (entelegynes) 55
52(51). Eyes contiguous with AME surrounded by the others Caponiidae(Ca/ponía) p.122
52'. Eyes not so arranged 53
53(52'). Eyes in 3 groups, with AME forming a dyad and the others 2 triads
(Figure 5-9F); chelicerae fused at base (Figure 5-9F) Pholcidae(in part) p.123
53'. Eyes in 2 transverse rows; chelicerae fused or not 54
54(53'). Chelicerae fused at base; endites converging apically Plectreuridae p.123
54'. Chelicerae not fused; endites parallel (in part) p.125
Tetragnathidae
55(51'). Chelicerae fused at base (Figure 5-9F); eyes in 3 groups with AME
forming a dyad and the others 2 triads (Figure 5-9F); legs long and
slender, PT/C > 1.6, with flexible tarsi (Note: Although pholcids are
haplogynes, some have complex genitalia and may be mistaken for
entelegynes) Pholcidae(in part) p.123
55'. Chelicerae not fused; eyes not so arranged; legs usually shorter with
rigid tarsi 56
56(55'). Tarsi with at most a single trichobothrium 57
56'. Tarsi with 2 or more trichobothria (Figure 5-7C) 67
 Keyto SpiderFamiliesof NorthAmerica 117

57(56). PLS with long apical segment, about as long as abdomen; eyes clustered
on a mound at center of cephalon; Texas, Florida Hersiliidae(Tama) p.124
57/, PLS shorter; eye arrangement different; widespread in distribution 58
58(57). Anterior tibiae and metatarsi with prolateral row of curved spines in
serrated series (Figure 5-7 A) Mimetidae p.125
58/. Anterior legs without such spines 59
59(58'). Tarsus IV with ventral comb of serrated bristles (sometimes not distinct,
lacking in Argyrodes) (Figure 5-7B); legs usually lacking spines;
chelicerae usually with basal extension; epigynum without scape 60
59/, Tarsus IV without ventral comb; legs with spines; chelicerae lacking
basal extension; epigynum sometimes with scape 61
60(59). Labium with anterior margin thickened; endites parallel; male palpus
with large basal paracymbium Nesticidae(in part) p.126
60', Labium with anterior margin unmodified; endites converging apically;
male palpus with paracymbium inconspicuous or represented by an
apical or ectal (outer) notch Theridiidae(in part) p.125
61(59/). Tarsi as long as or longer than metatarsi; tiny spiders, < 2 mm 62
61'. Tarsi shorter than metatarsi; size usually > 2 mm 63
62(61). Pedicel originating from opening on posterior slope of carapace;
male abdomen with scutum; male metatarsus 1without clasping spur; Anapidae
female without palpi (Gertschanapis) p.125
62'. Pedicel origin below edge of carapace; male abdomen without scutum;
male metatarsus 1 usually with clasping spur; female with palpi Mysmenidae p.125
63(61'). Sternum with a pair of pits at labial margin; tibia IV with long Theridiosomatidae
trichobothria; legs stout; size < 2.5 mm ( Theridiosoma) p.125
63'. Sternum without such pits; tibia IV without long trichobothria;
legs variable; size usually larger 64
64(63'). Clypeus higher than 4 diameters of AME; chelicerae usually with
stridulatory file on lateral surface, lacking condyle (Figure 5-7G);
legs weakly spined; tarsi cylindrical; leg break at patella-tibia joint;
sheet web builders 65
64/. Clypeus lower than 3 diameters of AME; chelicerae without stridulatory
file, usually with condyle (Figure 5-7H); legs with strong spines;
tarsi tapering distally; no leg break at patella-tibia joint; orb web builders 66
65(64). Male cymbium with integral retrolateral paracymbium; cymbium usuaUy
with a retromedian process armed with spines or cuspules; female
epigynum forming stout, tonguelike projection with apical openings;
size > 5 mm Pimoidae(Pimoa) p.126
65/. Male cymbium with retrolateral paracymbium attached by membrane
(Figure 5-7)); cymbium usually lacking retromedian process, if present
lacks spines or cuspules; female epigynum variable; size usually < 5 mm Linyphiidae(in part) p.126
66(64'). Endites square or rectangular; epigynum usually 3-dimensional,
usually with scape, a central fingerlike projection, fIat in Hypsosinga,
Mastophora, and Zygiella; palpal tibia cup-shaped with irregular distal
margin (except in Zygidla); builders of vertical orb webs Araneidae p.125
66'. Endites elongate, widest at distal edge; epigynum absent or a fIat plate
with at most a swelling (Meta) or pointed (Metleucauge);palpal tibia Tetragnathidae
conical; builders of horizontal orb webs (except Nephila) (in part) p.125
 ,

118 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda

67(56'). Tarsal and metatarsal trichobothria in dorsal row, increasing in length

distally (Figure 5-7C); at least anterior trochanters not notched 68
67'. Tarsal and metatarsal trichobothria in 2 irregular rows; all trochanters
with shallow to deep notches 78
68(67). ALS enlarged, others reduced; clypeus high; endites strongly converging,
lacking serrula Zodariidae p.126
68'. ALSat most only slightly larger than the others; endites not strongly
converging; serrula present 69
69(68'). Colulus large and broad, occupying at least half the width of the
spinning area 70
69'. Colulus width less than 1/2of the spinning area 71
70(69). Distribution: southern Florida Desidae(Paratheuma) p.126
70'. Distribution: southern California Dictynidae(Saltonia) p.126
71(69'). Spinnerets arranged in transverse row; tracheal spiracle positioned
well anterior of spinnerets Hahniidae(in part) p.126
71'. Spinneret arrangement not so modified; tracheal spiracle near spinnerets 72
72(71'). Legs with plumose hairs; both eye rows strongly procurved, straight in
Tegenaria,which has distinctive sternum markings Agelenidae p.126
72'. Legs lacking plumose hairs; eye rows straight; sternum typically 1 color 73
73(72'). ALScontiguous or nearly so, thicker and usually longer than PLS Cybaeidae
(in part) p.126
73'. ALSdistinctly separated, shorter than PLS 74
74(73'). Anterior tibia with 4 or more pairs of ventral spines Hahniidae(in part) p.126
74'. Anterior tibia with 3 or fewer pairs of ventral spines 75
75(74'). Retromargin of chelicera with 2-5 equal-sized teeth, no denticles 76
75'. Retromargin of chelicera with both teeth and denticles or with more
than 5 teeth 77
76(75). Size > 5 mm Amaurobiidae(in part) p.126
76'. Size < 5 mm Hahniidae(in part) p.126
77(75'). Legs long and slender, PT/C > 1.25; male palp with apically produced Hahniidae
cymbium (Calymmaria) p.126
77'. Legs shorter and stouter, PT/C < 1; male palp with unmodified cymbium Dictynidae(in part) p.126
78(67'). Tarsi long and flexible Trechaleidae
(Trechalea) p.127
78'. Tarsi not flexible 79
79(78'). Clypeus high; AME small, others larger, forming hexagon (PER
procurved) (Fígure 5-9A); cheliceral margins with at most a single tooth;
trochanters with shallow notches Oxyopidae p.127
79'. Clypeus low; PER recurved; chelicerae strongly toothed; trochanters
deeply notched 80
80(79'). PER strongly recurved with PLE posterior to PME so that eyes appear
as 3 rows (Fígure 5-9C); male palp lacking retrolateral tibial apophysís Lycosidae p.127
80'. PER not as strongly recurved, PLE lateral to PME (Figure 5-9D); male
palp with retrolateral tibial apophysis Pisauridae p.127
81(13'). Legs laterigrade: extending laterally from the body and twisted so that
the morphologically pro lateral surface of the anterior legs ís functionally
dorsal (Figure5-11 C) 82
81'. Legs prograde: anterior pair directed forward, posterior pair backward
(Figure 5-lID) 85
--

Keyto SpiderFamiliesof NorthAmerica 119

82(81). Anterior legs thicker and longer than posterior ones (Figure 5-11C);
tarsi lacking scopulae; chelicerae lacking teeth (except Isaloides) Thomisidae p.128
82'. Anterior legs not so enlarged, although leg II may be significantly longer
than the others; tarsi with scopulae; chelicerae with teeth or denticles 83
83(82'). Smaller spiders (size < 10 mm); cheliceral retromargin lacking teeth (in part) p.128
Philodromidae
83'. Larger spiders (size usually > 10 mm); cheliceral retromargin with teeth
or denticles 84
84(83'). Metatarsi with dorsoapical trilobed membrane permitting hyperextension
of tarsi (Figure 5-7F); tarsi with thick claw tufts; cheliceral retromargin
with teeth; trochanters with deep notches, if not notched, then cheliceral
retromargin with denticles, not teeth (Pseudosparianthis);southwestern
United States and Florida Sparasiidae
(in part) p.128
84'. Metatarsi lacking dorsoapical trilobed membrane; tarsi lacking claw
tufts, but tarsal scopulae apically produced and may give the impression
of tufts; cheliceral retromargin with teeth; trochanters with shallow
notches; Arizona, New Mexico (Lauricius) p.126
Tengellidae
85(81'). AME greatly enlarged, PER on lateral edge of carapace; carapace
anteriorlytruncate,facenearlyvertical(Figure 5-9B) Salticidae p.128
85'. Eyes and carapace not so modified 86
86(85'). PER strongly recurved, eyes appear as 3 rows with anterior edge of PLE
at or behind the posterior edge of PME 87
86'. PER variable, but not strongly recurved 90
87(86). Anterior tibia with at least 5 pairs of strong ventral spines 88
87'. Anterior tibia with fewer ventral spines 89
88(87). AER strongly recurved with ALE small and contiguous with PME and
PLE; size > 6 mm Ctenidae p.128
88'. AER straight to slightly recurved; size < 6 mm Zoridae(Zara) p.128
89(87'). Carapace narrow, longer than wide; grass spiders; widespread in Philodromidae
distribution (Tibellus) p.128
89'. Carapace broad, as long as wide; ground spiders; southern California to Homalonychidae
Arizona (Homalonychus) p.128
90(86'). Tracheal spiracle at middle of abdomen; claw tufts of broad,
lamelliform setae Anyphaenidae p.128
90'. Tracheal spiracle near spinnerets; claw tufts of normal setae 91
91(90'). ALScylindrical, noticeably separated (may appear contiguous in Micaria
and some Orodrassus) (Figure 5-8B); PME usually modified, either
elliptical, oval or triangular; cheliceral margins usually weakly toothed,
with only denticles, or lacking armature, sometimes keeled or with
only 2-3 teeth; endites usually with distinct oblique median depression
(not conspicuous in Callilepis); claw tufts always present 92
91', ALSconical, contiguous at base (Figure 5-8A, C); PME usually round,
if oval then anterior tibiae with 5-6 pairs of ventral spines; cheliceral
margins strongly toothed; endites nearly parallel, often widened distally,
usually lacking transverse median depression (if so, then anterior tibiae
with 5-6 pairs of ventral spines); claw tufts present or absent 93
92(91). PER straight or recurved, rarely procurved (Scopoides);ALSwith
few moderately elongated spigots; tarsal claws and at least cheliceral
promargin toothed Gnaphosidae
(in part) p.128
92'. PERstronglyprocurved;ALSwith numerousconspicuouslyelongated
spigots; tarsal claws and cheliceral margins lacking teeth (in part) p.128
Prodidomidae
 120 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda

93(91'). PLSdistinctly 2-segmented, distal segment conical (Figure 5-8A) Miturgidae p.127
93'. PLS l-segmented or, if 2-segmented, distal segment rounded 94

94(93'). Legs lacking spines, but anterior tibiae with ventral cusps Corinnidae (Trachelinae) p. 128
94'. Legs with spines 95
95(94'). Anterior tibiae with more than 4 pairs of ventral spines 96
95'. Anterior tibiae with fewer than 4 pairs of ventral spines 98
96(95). Margin of stemum with triangular processes pointing toward ,:oxae Corinnidae(Corinninae,
(precoxal triangles); trochanters with at most shallow notches Phrurolithinae) p. 128
96'. Precoxal triangles absent; trochanters deeply notched 97
97(96'). Size > 5 mm; tarsi not pseudosegmented Tengellidae(in part) p. 126
97'. Size < 4 mm; tarsi pseudosegmented, posterior ones bent Liocranidae(Apostenus)p. 128
98(95'). Abdomen of adults with scutum, covering entire abdomen of male and Corinnidae
only anterior portion of female (Castianeirinae) p. 128
98'. Abdomen of adult without scutum 99
99(98'). Endites concave ectally; precoxal triangles present (see couplet 96) Clubionidae p. 127
99'. Endites straight or convex ectally; precoxal triangles usually absent,
present in Hesperocranum,which has a distinctive dense brush of paired
ventral bristles on anterior tibiae and metatarsi Liocranidae (in part) p. 128

Infraorder Mygalomorphae
These are the tarantulas and their allies. These spiders
have large and powerful chelicerae with the fangs
parallel to each other and two pairs of book lungs (Fig-
ure 5-6C). Females are long-lived and molt after sex-
ual maturity. Most species are large (5-34 mm), heavy-
bodied, and stout-Iegged. Many species are burrowers;
some dose their burrows with a trapdoor or silk collar.
This group is largely tropical, but 138 species occur in
North America. Most of these occur in the South and
Southwest, but a few occur as far north as Massachu-
setts and southeastern Alaska.
Family Antrodiaetidae-Folding-Door Spiders:
Members of this group have one to three dorsal ab-
dominal tergites, some separation between the labium
and the sternum, and a longitudinal or pitlike thoracic
furrow. The burrows of these spiders are dosed with a
pair of flexible, silken doors (Antrodiaetus) or with a
single thin door (Aliatypus), or remain open on a tur-
ret (Atypoides). They are medium-sized mygalomorphs
(6-16 mm) with 25 species widely distributed in North
America.
Family Atypidae-Purse-Web Spiders: These mod-
erately large spiders (8-30 mm) have one dorsal ab-
dominal tergite, sometimes enlarged into a scutum in
males. The sternum and labium are fused, and the tho-
racic furrow is transverse. These spiders build silken
~'.tI'! . ¡ubesthat may líe hO~W1tá\ly on the ground or extend
ft{" . up the base of a tree. The tUbesare camouflagedwith
debris. If an insect comes in contact with the tube, the
spider may bite through, grab the insect, and pull it
through the tube. Eight species occur in the eastern
United States, extending as far north as Wisconsin and
New England.
Family Mecicobothriidae:Members of this group
have one or two dorsal abdominal tergites; long, flexi-
ble, posterior spinnerets; a longitudinal thoracic fur-
row; and separation between the sternum and labium.
They build webs consisting of sheets and tubes under
debris. They are small to medium-sized mygalomorphs
(4-18 mm) with six species known from western
North America.
Family Dipluridae: Members of this group lack ab-
dominal tergites and have very long posterior spin-
nerets. They may build a sheet web with a funnel, or a
silk tube. This family indudes the Appalachian species
MicrohexuramontivagaCrosby and Bishop, which is on
the endangered species list because of habitat destruc-
tion associated with the invasive balsam woolly adelgid
(Hemiptera: Adelgidae). At 4 mm, Microhexura monti-
vaga is the smallest mygalomorph in North America.
Five species are known from North America.
Family Ctenizidae:Spiders in the families Ctenizidae
and Cytraucheniidae are trapdoor spiders, construct-
ing tunnels in the ground that are dosed by a door
hinged with silk. The door fits snugly and is usually
well camouflaged. The tunnels may be simple or
branched, and may even contain side chambers that are
 Keyto SpiderFamiliesof NorthAmerica 121

Figure5-9 A-G, 1,Eyearrangementsof spiders;H, Ventralview.A, Peucetiaviridans

(Hentz) (Oxyopidae); B, Salticus scenicus (Clerck) (Salticidae); C, Rabidosa rabida
(Walckenaer) (Lycosidae); D, Pisaurina sp. (Pisauridae); E, Ozyptila pacifica Banks
(Thomisidae); F, Pho/cusphalangioides (Fuesslin) (Pholcidae); G, Deinopis:&inosaMarx
(Deinopi~ae); ,H, ?ysdera crocataC. L. ~och (Dysderidae); 1, Loxosce/esrevNJVfRSIDAD DE CA' ...".
n..
and Mulalk (SlCarudae). TR, tracheal splracle.
B IB ,l .r . ,-""",A
, 122 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
closed off from the main tunnel by hinged doors. These
spiders can often be observed at night positioned at the
entrance of a slightly opened door. When they detect
prey passing close by, they rush out, capture the prey,
and take it down into the tunnel. Ctenizids are distin-
gUished by rows of short, stout spines on the first and
second tarsi and metatarsi, and by the presence of a
strongly procurved thoracic furrow. There are 15
species in the southern and western United States, in-
cluding two members of the genus Cyelocosmia, which
has the posterior part of the abdomen strongly trun-
cated and covered in a heavily sclerotized disco When
the spider is inverted, the abdomen fits tightly against
the walls of the burrow, forming a false bottom.
Family Cyrtaucheniidae: These trapdoor spiders
(see preceding entry) have a transverse or slightly
procurved thoracic furrow. Only the promargin of the
chelicerae is toothed, although the retromargin may
have a row of low, rounded tubercles. There are 17
species in the southern and western United States.
Family Nemesiidae:These spiders construct an
open burrow that lacks a trapdoor. They are distin-
guished by a row of 4-7 stout setae on the upper inner
surface of the chelicerae. There are five species in
California.
Family Theraphosidae- Tarantulas:These distinc-
tive, conspicuously hairy, two-clawed spiders are
among the largest u.s. species (8-34 mm). They build
open burrows, although these may be closed during
the day by a thin sheet web or plugged with soil in the
winter. Despite their reputation, the venom of North
American tarantulas is not dangerous. However, they
can produce clouds of urticating hairs by rubbing their
abdomen with their hind legs. These hairs can irritate
the mucous membranes of mammals, such as the eyes
and respiratory passages. There are 57 species in the
southwestern United States.
Infraorder Araneomorphae
This group contains the vast bulk of spider diversity.
They differ from the Mygalomorphae in having
the chelicerae hinged at the base to move in and out,
rather than up and down as in mygalomorphs.
They also have the fangs articulated so that they op-
pose each other, rather than moving in parallel (Fig-
ure 5-6B). The Araneomorphae are also united by the
origin of the cribellum (Figure 5-8A), a specialized
spinning organ apparently modified from the anterior
median spinnerets. Most spiders have three functional
pairs of spinnerets, although some mesotheles have
nonfunctional remnants of this fourth pair. The
cribellum has been lost multiple times in spider evo-
lution. The Araneomorphae exclusive of Hypochili-
dae (and so me of its non-North American relatives)
forms the Araneoclada, which is united by the modi-
fication of the posterior pair of book lungs into a sys-
tem of tracheae.
Family Hypochilidae-LampshadeSpiders: These
cribellate, long-legged spiders are the only araneo-
morphs that retain the second pair of book lungs. The
cribellum is undivided. North American species sit at
the center of a circular mesh web, usually built on rock
walls or the underside of overhanging ledges, often
along streams. They are moderately large (8-12 mm),
spindly spiders. There are 10 North American species
in the Appalachians and Southwest.
Clade Haplogynae
The term haplogyne condition refers to the female re-
productive system in which sperm is deposited and ex-
pelled via the same passages (contrast with Entelegy-
nae). This condition is primitive for spiders, being
found in mesotheles, mygalomorphs, and hypochilids.
However, the grouping of the Haplogynae is supported
as monophyletic by other lines of evidence, including
the fusion of parts of the male palp to form a pyriform
bulb (Figure 5-71) and details of the spinnerets
(Platnick et al. 1991). The Haplogynae include the
next 13 families listed.
Family Filistatidae:These small to medium-sized
spiders (3-15 mm) have the eight eyes tightly grouped
on a rounded hump, a nearly horizontal clypeus, weak
chelicerae fused medially, spinnerets and anal tubercle
advanced from the posterior part of the abdomen to a
ventral position, and a divided cribellum. They are the
only araneomorph spiders in which the female molts
after sexual maturity. They build sheet webs with radi-
ating lines and a central funnel-shaped retreat. There
are seven species in the southern and western United
States.
Family Caponiidae: This family includes our only
two-eyed spiders, although the number of eyes is vari-
able. The lateral face of the chelicera has a stridulatory
file. These small spiders (2-6 mm) lack book lungs,
having the anterior and posterior respiratory organs
modified into tracheae. Eight species are described
from the southwestern United States. They live in litter
and under stones.
Family Dysderidae: This family is represented in the
United States by one introduced species, Dysdera crocata
C. L. Koch. This two-clawed, ecribellate species has six
eyes arranged in a tight cluster and very large, distally
projecting chelicerae. The coxae of the two anterior
pairs of legs are longer and thinner than those of the two
posterior pairs (Figure 5-9H). They can be further dis-
tinguished from other spider families except Segestriidae
and Oonopidae by having paired tracheal openings 10-
cated just posterior to the book lungs (Figure 5-9H).
These spiders live under bark or stones, where they con-
struct a silken retreat and prey on isopods.

FamilySegestriidae:These three-clawed,ecribellate
spidershave six eyes arranged in three dyads. They are
distinguished by having the third pair of legs directed
anteriorly. The tracheal system is as in dysderids.
Segistriids are widespread in the United States, with
seven described species.
Family Oonopidae: Tiny 0.5-3 mm) ecribellate,
two-clawed spiders with six eyes arranged in a tight
group. Many species have large sclerotized plates in
various configurations covering parts of the abdomen.
The tracheal system is as in dysderids. These spiders
can be found in leaf litter or buildings; some species are
saltatory.There are 24 North American species, mostly
in the southem United States.
Family Pholcidae-Cellar Spiders: Small to medium-
sized (1.5-9 mm) ecribellate, three-clawed spiders
with fused chelicerae, six or eight eyes (Figure 5-9F) ,
and very long, thin legs with tarsi subdivided into
many pseudosegments. Unlike most haplogynes, the
female genital regio n may be covered by a sclerotized
"epigynum," as in most entelegyne spiders. However,
the ducts of pholcid genitalia are haplogyne. Pholcids
build irregular webs and may vibrate their webs when
disturbed. Eggs are carried in the chelicerae loosely
bound with silk. Pholcids are common in basements,
garages,and other such unimproved structures. Thirty-
four species are represented in North America.
Family Diguetidae: Small to medium-sized (4-
10 mm) ecribellate, three-clawed spiders with six
eyes arranged in three dyads, long thin legs, and first
tarsus of the male subdivided into many pseudoseg-
ments. The chelicerae are fused medially with a flexi-
ble membrane; the outer surface has a stridulatory
file. A pair of tracheal spiracles are located anterior to
the spinnerets about one third the distance to the epi-
gastric furrow. These spiders live in silken tubes at-
tached to a series of overlapping silken disks that are
arranged like shingles on a roof and attached to vege-
tation. There are seven species in the southwestern
United States.
Family Plectreuridae: Medium-sized (5.5-12 mm)
ecribellate, three-clawed spiders with eight eyes. The
chelicerae are as in diguetids. These spiders construct
silk tubes with silk radiating out at the entrance and
are often found in hot, arid habitats. There are 16
species in the southwestem United States.
Family Ochyroceratidae:Tiny (1-2 mm), ecribellate,
six-eyed, three-clawed spiders with long, thin legs.
These spiders resemble pholcids but lack pseudoseg-
mented tarsi. The chelicerae are free, although a me-
dian lamella is presento These spiders have a distinctive
purplish coloration. One species is found in Florida.
Family Leptonetidae: Tiny (1-3 mm), three-clawed
spiders that may be six-eyed, four-eyed, or blindo Most
six-eyed species have a posterior dyad set apart from an
anterior row of four eyes. There are 34 species, mostly
Key to Spider Families of North America 123
in the southem United States. Some live in caves; oth-
ers are associated with rocks and leaf litter.
FamilyTelemidae: Tiny (1-2 mm) three-clawed spi-
ders that may be six-eyed or blindo Legs are long and
thin. The book lungs are modified into an anterior set
of tracheae. The abdomen has a distinctive sclerotized
"zigzag" above the pedicel. There are four species in
westem North America, usually associated either with
caves or damp leaf litter. .
Family Sicariidae:Small to medium-sized (5-12 mni.~
two-clawed spiders with six eyes arranged in three
widely separated dyads (Figure 5-91). The chelicerae are
fused basally; the lateral face has coarse stridulatory
striae. The legs are relatively long and slender. This fam-
ily is represented in North America by the genus Lox-
oseeles, which includes the brown recluse (Figure 5-10).
Loxoseeles contains some of the most poisonous species
found in North America. Nevertheless, as mentioned,
the frequency of envenomation has been exaggerated.
Thirteen species of Loxoseeles can be found in the Mid-
west, Southwest, and Atlantic seaboard.
Family Scytodidae-Spitting Spiders: Small (3.5-
5.5 mm), three-clawed spiders with six eyes arranged in
three widely separated dyads, carapace domed in pro-
file, highest posteriorly. The chelicerae are weak and
fused basally. The legs are long and slender. These slow-
moving spiders do not construct snares, but capture
their prey by spitting out a mucilaginous substance that
engulfs the prey and fastens it to the substrate. There
are five North American species.
Clade Entelegynae
The term entelegyne condition refers to the female gen-
italia, which has separate ducts for the reception and
expulsion of sperrn. Entelegyne spiders usually have
Figure5-10 Brown recluse spider, Loxosee/es recluse
Gertsch and Mulaik. (Courtesy of U.5. Public Health
Service).
124 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
the female genitalia covered by a sclerotized plate, the
epigynum. The origin of the entelegyne condition is
synapomorphic for a large group of spiders, but rever-
sal to the "haplogyne" condition has occurred several
times. Entelegyne spiders usually have a very compli-
cated male pedipalp, featuring inflatable sacs and nu-
merous sclerites. Prior to copulation, the sacs may fill
with hemolyrnph, radically altering the configuration
of the palpal bulbo The following spiders all belong to
the Entelegynae.
Clade Eresoidea
This small group of spiders is mostly tropical and con-
tains some social species. lt includes cribellate and
ecribellate spiders in three families, two of which are
represented in North America.
Family Oecobiidae: This familyof tiny 0-4.5 mm)
three-clawed spiders is distinguished by its enlarged,
jointed anal tubercle fringed with long curved hairs.
Four eyes are well developed, four are degenera te.
North American species have a divided cribellum, al-
though other family members are ecribellate. This fam-
ily is widely distributed and is often found in houses.
There are eight North American species.
A e
D Station.)
Family Hersiliidae:These flat, ecribellate three-
clawed spiders are easily distinguished by their ex-
tremely long, tapered posterior spinnerets, with the dis-
tal segment about as long as the abdomen. Two species
are, rarely, collected in southern Texas and Florida.
Clade Orbiculariae
This large group of three-clawed spiders includes the
orb-weavers (Figure 5-llB) and their descendents.
The Uloboridae and Deinopidae have an undivided
cribellum and comprise the Deinopoidea; the 11 re-
maining families are ecribellate and belong to the Ara-
neoidea. Many araneoids have a paracyrnbium attached
to the retrolateral part of the cymbium (Figure 5-7J);
this structure is of taxonomic importance.
Family Uloboridae-Hackled-BandOrb-Weavers: This
four- or eight-eyed family lacks poison glands and builds
a complete or reduced orb web. The family of small to
medium-sized spiders (2-6 mm) is widespread in North
America, with 14 species.
Family Deinopidae-Ogre-Faced Spiders: These
night-active spiders are easily recognized by their ex-
tremely large posterior median eyes (Figure 5-9G).
They have an elongate body (12-17 mm) and long,
Figure5-11 A, Black
widow spider, Latrodectus
sp. (Theridiidae), female
hanging from its web;
B, A garden spider, Argiope
aurantia Lucas; C, A crab
spider, Misumenops sp.
(Thomisidae); D, Ajump-
ing spider, Phidippus audax
(Hentz) (Salticidae).
(A, Courtesy of Utah
Agricultural Experiment

slender legs. They build a modified orb web, which
theyhold in their first two pairs of legs and cast like a
netto capture prey. There is one species in the south-
eastemUnited States.
FamilyAraneidae:This is a diverse family,nearly all
ofwhichconstruct an orb web. Included in this group
arethe distinctive day-active spiny orb-weavers of the
generaGasteracantha and Micrathena, the garden spi-
dersofthe genus Argiope, and the Bolas spiders (genus
Mastophora).Bolas spiders have abandoned the orb
web;theyuseaggressivechemicalmimicry to lure male
moths,which they disable by striking them with a
globuleof sticky silk swung on the end of a line. There
are 164 araneid species widely distributed in North
Ameriea.
FamilyTetragnathidae:This family of orb-weavers
includesNephila clavipes (L.), which builds a golden
orb web that may be a meter in diameter. Female
Nephila are very large (22-26 mm), but the males are
muehsmaller (6-8 mm) and may be overlooked by
colleetors.Nephila can be common in the southern
states.Nephila and most araneids build vertical orb
webs;the remaining tetragnathids typically build hori-
zontalorb webs. Members of the genus Tetragnatha
oftenbuild webs over water. These spiders are long-
bodiedwith very long and protruding chelicerae, espe-
ciallyin the males. There are 43 tetragnathid species
widelydistributed in North America.
FamilyTheridiosomatidae: These tiny (1-2.5 mm)
orb-weaversare recognized by the presence of a pair of
pitson the anterior part of the sternum adjacent to the
!abium,by their truncated sternum, and long tri-
chobothriaon tibiae III and IV.In our genus, the spider
sitsat the center of a vertical orb pulled into a cone by
athreademanating from the hubo There are two species
ineastemNorth America.
FamilySymphytognathidae: Symphytognathiclsand
anapidsboth build small horizontal orb webs. These
webs aredistinctivebecause the spider builds a second
seriesof radii after the sticky spiral is laid down. As a
result,the spiral threads to not change direction at
everyradius, as they do in all other orb webs. Symphy-
tognathidwebs differ from anapid webs in having
manymore of these secondary radii, and by the
absenceof any radii outside the plane of the web
(Eberhard1982, 1986; Coddington 1986). Symphyto-
gnathidsare distinguished by the basal fusion of their
chelicerae,the absence of the female pedipalp (shared
withAnapidae), the modification of the book lungs
intotraeheae,and the loss of the posterior tracheal sys-
temoThere is one tiny (0.5 mm) four-eyed species in
Florida.
FamilyAnapidae:Anapids are distinguished fram
otherspiders by the presence of a spur arising from just
abovethe oral cavity behind and between the che-
Keyto SpiderFamiliesof NorthAmerica 125
licerae. The U.s. anapid species is a tiny (1-1.3 mm)
eight-eyed spider found in Oregon and California. The
book lungs are modified into tracheae, and the poste-
rior tracheal system is lost (variable within the family).
The abdomen of the male has a dorsal scutum; the fe-
male has the dorsal surface of the abdomen coriaceous
and lacks a pedipalp.
Family Mysmenidae:These are minute (0.5-2 mm)
eight-eyed spiders with 50ft abdomens. Females have a
pedlpalp. In most of our species, the male has a clasp-
ing spur on metatarsus I. The natural history of this
group is diverse. Some build horizontal webs similar to
those of anapids; others build a "three-dimensional"
orb web, with radii not restricted to a single plane
(Eberhard 1982, 1986; Coddington 1986); still others
have abandoned web building to live as kleptoparasites
in the webs of other spiders. Five species are wide-
spread in North America.
Family Mimetidae-Pirate Spiders: Mimetids are
characterized by a distinctive pattern of prolateral
macrasetae on the first and second pair of legs (Fig-
ure 5-7 A). These setae are arranged in a repeating
pattern with each series containing several sequen-
tially longer setae. Mimetids are araneophagous, ag-
gressive mimics that typically invade the webs of
other spiders. In the web, mimetid locomotion is typ-
ically very slow and characterized by frequent pauses.
The mimetid then jerks or plucks the web, apparently
imitating either a struggling insect or a courting maleo
When the victim moves close enough, the mimetid
delivers a lethal bite of fast-acting venom (Bristowe
1958). The higher-Ievel classification of mimetids is
controversial.
Family Theridiidae-Cobweb Spiders: The follow-
ing four families have abandoned the orb web in favor
of a mesh sheet or three-dimensional cobweb. Theridi-
ids typically build cobwebs, although some have
adopted a kleptoparasitic lifestyle. They are usually
eight-eyed (rarely six-eyed or blind) with a high
clypeus; they may have a stridulatory organ above the
pedicel between the carapace and abdomen. Theridiids
usually have a comb of serrated setae on the fourth tar-
sus (Figure 5-7B). The tarsal comb is used to wrap
prey in silk before envenomation. They rarely have
teeth on the retrolateral margin of the chelicerae; teeth
on the promargin occur but are also rare. The para-
cymbium, if present, is fused to the retrodistal part of
the cymbium; the palpal tibia never has apophyses.
The colulus is reduced or absent in some theridiids.
This family includes the widow spiders (Latrodectus;
Figure S-HA), known for their potent venom (see ear-
lier section on medically important spiders). AIso rep-
resented among the 250 or so North American
theridiid species are social spiders (Anelosimus) and
kleptoparasites (Argyrodes).
126 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
Family Nesticidae: Nesticids may have eight, six, or
four eyes or lack them altogether. They are typically
pale in color and many species are associated with
caves. Nesticids share several characteristics with
theridiids, including a comb on tarsus IV; nesticids
have a well-developed colulus. Males are readily distin-
guished from theridiids by presence of a conspicuous
paracymbium fused to the retrobasal part of the cym-
bium. There are 37 species in North America, mostly
endemic to the Appalachian region.
Familylinyphiidae: Linyphiidsare the most species-
rich spider family in North America (>800 species).
Whereas some species build conspicuous sheet or
dome-shaped webs, most species are tiny (1-3 mm) and
live in leaf litter. The males of some species have bizarre
head modifications that are associated with mating.
Linyphiids are typically eight-eyed spiders (rarely six-
eyed or blind) with a high clypeus, stridulatory striae
on the lateral face of the chelicerae (Figure 5-7G), and
a tendency for legs to break at the patella-tibia joint.
The male palp features a small, often hooklike para-
cymbium attached to the retrobasal part of the cym-
bium by a membrane (Figure 5-7J). The palpal tibia
may or may not have one or more apophyses.
Family Pimoidae: These spiders resemblelinyphiids
but are larger than most of those species (4.5-10.5 mm).
They share with linyphiids a high clypeus, stridulatory
striae, and leg breakage at the patella-tibia joint; theyare
best separated from them by details of the genitalia.
The pimoid paracymbium is fused to the retrobasal
part of the cymbium; the palpal tibia never has an
apophysis. Thirteen species are represented in western
North America.
The remaining spiders all belong to a large clade of
spiders that, along with some non-North American
groups, is the sister group to the Orbiculariae. This group
does not have a formal taxonomic name at this time. Re-
lationships among the taxa within this clade are not all
well defined, but some distinctive groups are noted.
FamilyTitanoecidae: Smallto medium-sizedspiders
(3.5-8 mm) with a well-developed, divided cribellum.
These spiders sometimes have short, inconspicuous
tarsal trichobothria. Males have ventral rows of short
macrosetae on metatarsi and tibiae I and Il, reduced in
females. Four species are widespread in North America.
RTA (retrolateral tibial apophysis) clade
This large group of spiders all have a retrolateral
apophysis on the male palpal tibia and have tri-
chobothria on the tarsi, usually increasing in length
distally (Figure 5-7 C). Some families have two rows of
trichobothria or an irregular cluster; others have the
trichobothria secondarily reduced or lost. Lycosids
have lost the retrolateral tibial apophysis.
Family Dictynidae:Dictynids are eight-eyed (occa-
sionally six-eyed or blind), three-clawed spiders. The
family includes both cribellate and ecribellate mem-
bers; when present, the cribellum is usually entire, but
occasionally is divided. Some dictynids have lost the
tarsal trichobothria. There are over 280 North Ameri-
can species.
Family Zodariidae:These three-clawed, ecribellate
spiders are distinguished by the absence of serrula on
the distal margin of the endites, and by the reduction
or absence of the posterior lateral and posterior median
spinnerets. There are five North American species.
Family Hahniidae:Hahniids are ecribellate, three-
clawed, sheet web builders. Many North American
hahniids are easily distinguished by the configuration
of the spinnerets in a transverse row and the advanced
position of the tracheal spiracle. Other hahniids lack
these characters, but are distinguished by rows of ven-
tral spines on metatarsus and tibia 1, by the presence of
an undivided colulus, and the absence of plumose
hairs.
Family Agelenidae: These three-clawed spiders are
characterized by the presence of a divided colulus (Fig-
ure 5-8B). They typically have feathery hairs on the ab-
domen, elongated posterior spinnerets, and build a
funnel web. Their webs can be quite numerous and
conspicuous. There are 89 North American species.
Family Cybaeidae: These three-clawed spiders have
contiguous anterior spinnerets that are longer than the
posterior spinnerets and a more or less transverse, en-
tire colulus. There are 44 North American species.
Family Desidae:These three-clawed spiders are
characterized by their greatly enlarged, distally project-
ing chelicerae. We have only two species in North
America. Paratheuma is a three-clawed, ecribellate spi-
der with widely separated anterior spinnerets. It is as-
sociated with intertidal habitats in coastal Florida. Bad-
umna has a divided cribellum and is introduced to
California.
Family Amphinectidae: These three-clawed spiders
have a divided cribellum and 5-7 strong teeth on both
cheliceral margins. The male palpus has a filiform em-
bolus enclosed in a membranous conductor. One
species is introduced to California and the Gulf coastal
region.
Family Amaurobiidae:Amaurobiids are three-
clawed, cribellate or ecribellate spiders. They may
build large sheet webs, or live in silk tubes with only a
few lines radiating from the opening. There are 124
North American species.
Family Tengellidae:North American species are
ecribellate spiders with two or three claws, claw tufts,
and two rows of tarsal trichobothria. There are 23
North American species, including several associated
with caves.

Family Zorocratidae: These large (5-13 mm) spi-
ders have a large, divided cribellum, scopulate tarsi,
and two rows of tarsal trichobothria. Tarsus 1has three
claws; other tarsi have third claw absent. The che-
licerae have lateral stridulatory striae. There are five
speciesin the southwestern United States.
Supeñamily Lycosoidea
The Lycosoidea includes the seven families listed
next. The primitive condition for this group is that of
a cribellate web builder. With the exception of one
Iycosid in the southeastern United States and an in-
troduced species of zoropsid, all North American
members of this group are ecribellate wandering
hunters. This group is united by specializations of
the eyes and characteristics of the male genitalia.
Most members have three tarsal claws, but there are
exceptions.
FamilyCtenidae-Wandering Spiders: These medium
to large (6.5-30) spiders are recognized by their eye
arrangement in which tiny anterior lateral eyes are al-
most contiguous with both the posterior median and
posterior lateral eyes. They have two claws and claw
tufts; scopulae vary from absent to dense and extend-
ing onto the metatarsi. Tarsal trichobothria are scat-
tered, not in a defined row. This group is chiefly trop-
ical; seven species occur in the southern United
States.
Family Zoropsidae: These two-clawed spiders have
6-7 pairs of ventral spines on the anterior tibiae; a
calamistrum consisting of an oval patch, rather than
one or two rows of setae; and a divided cribellum. A
single species has be en introduced to California.
Family Miturgidae: These ecribellate, two-clawed
spiders have dense scopulae and claw tufts. The poste-
rior spinnerets are distinctly two-segmented and the
distalsegment is conical (Figure 5-8A). The absence of
a thoracic furrow is indicative of Cheiracanthium, a mi-
turgid genus of minor medical importance. There are
10species in North America.
Family Oxyopidae-Lynx Spiders: These three-
clawed spiders can be recognized by the eye arrange-
ment, with the anterior lateral and posterior pairs of
eyesforming a hexagon, and the anterior median eyes
below the anterior laterals (Figure 5-9A). The ab-
domen often tapers to a point posteriorly, the legs have
many long macrosetae, and the tarsi have two rows of
trichobothria; some are a distinctive bright green. Most
Iynxspiders forage over foliage and ambush their prey;
others sit and wait on limbs or twigs. Members of the
genus Oxyopes are strong jumpers. North American
species do not construct a web or retreat, although
web-building species can be found in the tropics. Eigh-
teenspecies occur in North America.
Keyto SpiderFamiliesof NorthAmerica 127
Family Pisauridae-Nursery-Web and Fishing Spi-
ders: These medium to large (6.5-31 mm) spiders re-
semble wolf spiders, but differ in the eye arrangement:
The anterior eye row is variable, usually smaller than
the posteriors; the posterior row is strongly recurved,
with the eyes subequal in size (Figure 5-9D). The egg
sac is carried by the female under her cephalothorax,
held there by the chelicerae and pedipalps. Before the
eggs hatch, the female attaches the sac to a plant,
builds a web around it, and stands guard nearby.
Pisaurids forage for their prey and build webs only for
their young. Some spiders in this group, particularly
the fishing spiders of the genus Dolomedes, are quite
large. Dolomedes live near water; they may walk over
the surface of the water or dive beneath it to feed on
aquatic insects and sometimes small fish. There are 13
species in North America.
Family Trechaleidae: Large (14-16 mm), flattened,
fast-moving, three-clawed spiders with long, flexible
tarsi. There is one species in the Arizona, found near
permanent streams in xeric regions. Females may carry
a disc-shaped egg case attached to the spinnerets.
Family Lycosidae-Wolf Spiders: Lycosids are dis-
tinctive three-clawed spiders recognized by their eye
pattern: anterior eyes small in a more or less straight
row; posterior median eyes very large, posterior lateral
eyes smaller, positioned well behind the posterior me-
dians (Figure 5-9C). The male palp lacks a tibial
apophysis. Most North American species are foragers,
except Sosippus,which constructs a sheet web with a
funnel-shaped retreat. The egg sac is carried by the fe-
male, attached to her spinnerets. When the young
hatch, they are carried for a time on the back of the fe-
maleo Lycosids are widely distributed, with over 250
species in North America. They occur in many differ-
ent habitats and are often quite common.
Clade Dionycha
The Dionycha include the 13 families listed next. This
is a large group of two-clawed, eight-eyed (North Amer-
ican fauna), ecribellate spiders; it is probably not mono-
phyletic. Unless otherwise noted, they have scopulae
(at least on tarsi 1 and ll, often on the metatarsi also)
and claw tufts. All North American representatives for-
age without a web, although this does not hold true
worldwide. Sparassidae, Selenopidae, Philodromidae,
and Thomisidae are crab spiders with laterigrade legs
(Figure 5-100; the remaining families have the typical
prograde orientation. Laterigrade legs are rotated so
that the morphologically pro lateral surface is dorsal.
Family Clubionidae: These small to medium
(2.5-10.5 mm) spiders have dense claw tufts and thin
scopulae. They are usually pale yellow or light gray.
Clubionids typically spend the day in silk tube retreats

128 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
and forage for prey at night. There are 61 species in
North America.
Family Anyphaenidae:These spiders resemble clu-
bionids, but have the tracheal spiracle advanced at least
half way between the spinnerets and the epigastric fur-
row, and the hairs of the claw tufts are somewhat flat-
tened. Tarsus and metatarsus I and Il have sparse scop-
ulae. Their behavior is similar to clubionids, retreating
to silk tubes by day and foraging at night. There are 39
species in North America.
Family Corinnidae:The legs usually have numerous
ventral macrosetae (absent in Trachelas), dense claw
tufts, and sparse scopulae. The abdomen often has scler-
otized plates. Some species are ant mimics. North Amer-
ica has 122 species..
Family Liocranidae:These spiders typically lack
paired ventral macrosetae on tibiae and metatarsi I and
Il; scopulae and claw tufts are absent or very thin. The
abdomen often has iridescent setae or one or more
scuta. There are eight species in North America.
Family Zoridae:These small to medium-size (2.5-
7 mm) spiders have the anterior eye row nearly straight
and the posterior eye row strongly recurved. The tibiae
have 6-8 pairs of overlapping macrosetae. There are
two species in North America.
Family Gnaphosidae: These spiders have the poste-
rior median eyes flattened and irregularly shaped. The
anterior spinnerets are cylindrical, sclerotized, and sep-
arated by at least their width (Figure 5-8B). The en-
dites usually have an oblique depression on the ventral
surface. These spiders are usually dark, but some have
light markings on the abdomen. The males sometimes
have a dorsal scutum. Unlike prodidomids, gnaphosids
have teeth on the tarsal claws and at least the promar-
gin of the chelicerae toothed. These spiders are typi-
cally active at night. Over 250 species are in North
America.
Family Prodidomidae:These spiders are closely re-
lated to gnaphodids, but are distinguished in having
the posterior eye row strongly procurved, both che-
liceral and tarsal claw teeth are absent, and by details
of the spinnerets. Two species live in the southern
United States.
Family Homalonychidae:Moderately large (6.5-
9 mm) spiders with strongly converging endites; they
lack serrula on the anterior margin of the endites, teeth
on the tarsal claws, and a colulus. Juveniles and adult
females are usually covered with fine soil, which ad-
heres to modified setae, providing effective camouflage.
There are two species in the southwestern United
States.
Family Selenopidae:These spiders have the one
pair of posterior eyes advanced so that the anterior eye
row appears to include six eyes; the posterior eye row
includes two relatively large, widely spaced eyes. They
1
are flattened, nocturnal, fast-moving, two-clawed spi-
ders that lack a colulus. There are six species in the
southern United States.
Family Sparassida~iant Crab Spiders:These large
spiders 00-25 mm) are distinguished by a unique
trilobed membrane on the dorsoapical part of the
metatarsi (Figure 5-7F). Eleven species are generally con-
fined to the southern United States, but are sometimes
found in the North associated with shipments ofbananas.
Family Philodromidae:These somewhat flattened
spiders have dense scopulae and claw tufts. The eyes
are usually subequal in size and not on tubercles. Teeth
are present on the promargin of the chelicerae, absent
from the retromargin. The legs are either subequal in
length, or leg Il is much longer than the others. There
are nearly 100 species in North America.
FamilyThomisidae: Thesesomewhatflattenedspiders
lack scopulae and claw tufts. The lateral eyes are often
larger than medians and positioned on tubercles (Fig-
ure 5-9E) The chelicerae are almost always without
teeth, or have both margins toothed. Legs I and Il are
longer and thicker than legs III and IV (Figure 5-11C).
One common species in this group is the goldenrod spi-
der, Misumena vatia (Clerk), which is white or yellow
with a red band on either side of the abdomen. This spi-
der is a sit-and-wait predator, often occupying a flower
and attacking pollinators. This spider can change color,
over a period of a few days, depending on the color of the
flower. There are over 140 species of thomisids in North
America.
Family Salticidae-Jumping Spiders: These stout-
bodied, short-Iegged spiders have a distinctive eye pat-
tern, with the anterior median eyes by far the largest
(Figures 5-9B, 5-11D). The body is rather hairy and is
often brightly colored or iridescent. Some species are
antlike in appearance. Jumping spiders forage for prey
in the daytime. They approach their prey slowly, and
then suddenly leap onto it. They can jump many times
their own body length. Before jumping, they attach a
silk thread dragline, which they can use to climb back
to their starting position. Salticids are the world's most
diverse spider family, with over 330 representatives in
North America.
Order Ricinulei14-Ricinuleids
This is a small group of rare tropical arachnids. They
are somewhat ticklike in appearance, and one of their
distinctive features is a movable flap at the anterior end
of the prosoma that extends over the chelicerae. The
tarsi of the third pair of legs in the male are modified as
copulatory organs. One species, Cryptocellus dorotheae
14Ricinulei: Rícin, a kind of mite or tick; uleí, small (a diminutive
suflix).
 Keyto SpiderFamiliesof NorthAmerica 129

Gertsch and Mulaik, has been reported from the Rio

GrandeValley of Texas. This arachnid is about 3 mm in
length,is orange-red to brown in color, and occurs un-
der objects on the ground. Some tropical species are
larger(up to about 15 mm in length), and the majority
havebeen taken in caves.

Order Opiliones15-Harvestmen,
Daddy-Longlegs
Ihese arachnids have the body rounded or oval, with the
prosomaand opisthosoma broadly joined. There are usu-
alIytwo eyes, generally located on each side of a median
elevation.Scent glands are present, their ducts opening
to the outside above the first or second coxae. These
glandssecret a peculiar-smelling fluid when the animal is
disturbed. Most species are predaceous or feed on dead
animalsor plant juices. The eggs are laid on the ground
in the fall and hatch in the spring. Most species live ayear
or two. This order is divided into three suborders, the
Cyphophthalmi, the Laniatores, and the Palpatores.
SuborderCyphophthalmi-Mite Harvestmen
Ihese are small, short-legged, mitelike forms, 3 mm in
lengthor less, which differ from the other two suborders
in having the scent glands opening on short conical pro-
cesses.The eyes, if present, are far apart and indistinct.
Ihis group is represented in the United States by four Figure 5-12 A harvestman or daddy-longlegs (Order
species,which occur in the Southwest and the Far West. Opiliones). A, Lateral view; B, Anterior view. eh, che-
SuborderLaniatores licera; 1,front leg; De,eyes or ocelli; pdp, pedipalp. The
Ihis group is mainly tropical, but more than 60 species harvestmen typically have two eyes located on a tubercle,
and the chelicerae are clawlike, as shown in B.
occur in the southern and western states, many of them
in caves. These differ from the Palpatores in having the
tarsi on the third and fourth legs with two or three million more are still undescribed. The body is usually
claws (or one claw with three teeth). The pedipalps are oval, with little (Figures 5-13,5-14) or no (Figures 5-15
largeand robust, and their tarsi are armed with a strong through 5-20) differentiation of the two body regions.
claw.The legs are not unusually long. Newly hatched young, called larvae, have only three
SuborderPalpatores-Daddy-Longlegs pairs of legs (Figures 5-17B, 5-20A) and acquire the
Ihis group includes the harvestmen commonly called fourth pair after the first molt. A few mites have fewer
daddy-longlegs, which have very long and slender legs than three pairs of legs (Figure 5-18). The instars be-
(Figure5-12A). About 150 species occur in North Amer- tween larva and adult are called nymphs.
ica.These forms have the second pair of legs the longest, The Acari occur in practically all habitats in which
and the tarsi of alllegs have just one claw. The pedipalps any animal is found and rival the insects in their varia-
are smaller, their tarsi having a weak claw or none. Four tions in habits and life histories. This group includes
families of this suborder occur in North America, but both aquatic and terrestrial forms, and the aquatic
most U.5. species belong to the Phalangidae. forms occur in both fresh and salt water. icari are abun-
dant in soil and organic debris, where they usually out-
Order Acari16-Mites and Ticks number other arthropods. Many are parasitic, at least
during part of their life cycle, and both vertebrates and
Ihe Acari constitute a very large group of small to invertebrates (including insects) serve as hosts. Most
minute animals. More than 30,000 have been de-
of the parasitic forms are external parasites of their
scribed, and it has be en estimated that perhaps half a hosts. Many of the free-living forms are predaceous,
and some of these prey on undesirable arthropods.
"Opiliones: from the Latin, meaning a shepherd. Many are scavengers and help break down forest liuer.
"Acari: from the Greek, meaning a mite. Many are plant feeders, and some of these harm crops.
-
130 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
Some of the parasitic forms are pests of humans and
other animals, causing damage by their feeding and
sometimes serving as vectors of disease. This group is
of considerable biological and economic importance.
The groups of Acari have been variously arranged
by different authorities; we follow here the arrange-
ment ofBarnes (1987), but call the three major groups
of Acari "groups" rather than orders. This arrangement
(with other spellings, names, or arrangements in
parentheses) is as follows:
Order Acari-mites and ticks
Group I. Opilioacariformes (Opilioacarida, Noto-
stigmata; Parasitiformes in part)
Group 11.Parasitiformes
Suborder Holothyrina (Holothyrida, Tetrastig-
mata)
Suborder Mesostigmata (Gamasida)
Suborder Ixodida (Ixodides, Metastigmata)-
ticks
A B
Figure5-13 A female opilioacariform mite. A, Dorsal view; B, Ventral view. (From
Johnston 1968, redrawn by van der Hammen.)
Group IlI. Acariformes
Suborder Prostigmata (Trombidiformes,
Actinedida)
Suborder Astigmata (Sarcoptiformes,
Acaridida)
Suborder Oribatida (Oribatei, Cryptostigmata)
Groupl. Opilioacariformes
The members of this group (Figure 5-13) are elongate
and somewhat leathery, and have the abdomen seg-
mented. They are brightly colored and are superficially
similar to some of the harvestmen (Opiliones). They
are usually found under stones or in debris, and are
omnivorous or predatory. The U.s. species occur in the
Southwest.
Group11.Parasitiformes
These are medium-sized to large mites that have an un-
segmented abdomen, and the tracheal system has ven-
trolateral spiracles.
 Keyto SpiderFamiliesof NorthAmerica 131

Figure5-14 The American dog tick, Dennacentor variabilis (5ay) (Ixodidae). A, Larva;
B, Nymph; e, Adult (unengorged). (Courtesy of U5DA.)

SUBORDER Holothyrina:The members of this group

are fair-sized (2-7 mm in length), rounded or oval
mites that occur in Australia, New Guinea, New
Zealand, some islands in the Indian Ocean, and in the
American tropies. They are found under stones or in
decaying vegetation and are predaceous.
SUBORDER Mesostigmata:This is the largest subor-
der of the Parasitiformes and includes predaceous,
scavenging, and parasitie forms. The majority are free-
living and predaceous and are usually the dominant
mites in leaf litter, humus, and soil. The parasitic mites
in this group attack birds, bats, small mammals,
snakes, insec15, and rarely humans. One parasitic
species, the chicken mite, Dennanyssus gallinae (De
Geer), is a serious pest of poultry. lt hides during the
day and attacks poultry and sucks their blood at night.
Ihis species also causes a dermatitis in humans.
SUBORDER Ixodida-Ticks:Twofamiliesof ticks oc-
cur in North America, the Ixodidae or hard ticks and the
Argasidaeor 50ft ticks. Ticks are larger than most other
Acariand are parasitic, feeding on the blood of mammals,
birds,and reptiles. Those attacking humans are annoying
pests,and some species serve as disease vectors. Ticks are
the most important vectors of disease to domestic ani-
malsand second only to mosquitoes as vectors of disease
to humankind. Certain ticks, especially engorging fe-
males feeding on the neck or near the base of the skull of
their host, inject a venom that produces a paralysis; the
paralysismay be fatal if the tick is not removed. The most
important tick-bome diseases are Rocky Mountain spot-
ted fever, relapsing fever, Lyme disease, tularemia, Texas
cattle fever, and Colorado tick fever.
Ticks lay their eggs in various places, but not on
the host; the young seek out a host after hatching. Most
species have a three-host life cycle: the larva feeds
A B
Figure5-15 The fowl tick, Argas persicus (Oken),
adult female (Argasidae). A, Dorsal view; B, Ventral view.
(Courtesy of U5DA.)
upon one host, drops off, and mol15; the nymph on a
second; and the adult on a third. The hard ticks take
only one blood meal in each of their three instars. They
remain on the host for several days while feeding, but
usually drop off to molt. The 50ft ticks generally hide
in crevices during the day and feed on their hos15 at
night; each instar may feed several times. The hard
ticks ordinarily have two or three hos15 during their de-
velopment, whereas the 50ft ticks may have many
hos15. The cattle tick that transmi15 Texas cattle fever
feeds on the same host individual during all three in-
stars, and the protist that causes the disease is trans-
mitted transovarially, that is, through the eggs to the
tiek's offspring. The hard ticks (Figure 5-14) possess a
hard dorsal plate called the scutum, and they have the
mouthpar15 protruding anteriorly and visible from
above. The 50ft ticks (Figure 5-15) lack a scutum and
132 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda

are soft-bodied, and the mouthparts are ventrally 10-
cated and are not visible from above.
Group 11I.Acariformes
These are small mites that have the abdomen unseg-
mented, and the spiracles are near the mouth parts or
absent (Figure 5-16).
SUBORDERProstigmata:This is a large group
whose members vary considerably in habits. Some are
free-living (in litter, moss, or water) and vary in food
habits; some are parasitic; and some are parasitic as lar-
vae but predaceous as adults. This group includes the
spider mites, gall mites, water mites, harvest mites,
feather mites, and others.
The spider mites (Tetranychidae) are plant feed-
ers, and some species do serious damage to orchard
trees, field crops, and greenhouse plants. They feed on
the foliage or fruits and attack a variety of plants. They
are widely distributed, multivoltine, and sometimes oc-
cur in tremendous numbers. The eggs are laid on the
plant and, during the warm days of summer, hatch in 4
or 5 days. There are fOUTinstars (Figure 5-17), and
growth from egg to adult usually requires about three
weeks. Most species overwinter in the egg stage. The
immature instars are usually yellowish or pale in color,
and the adults are yellowish or greenish. (These ani-
mals are sometimes called red mites, but they are sel-
dom red.) Sex in these mites is determined by the fer-
tilization of the egg. Males develop from unfertilized
eggs, and females from fertilized eggs.
The gall mites (Eriophyoidea) are elongate and
wormlike and have only two pairs oflegs (Figure 5-18).
A few species form small, pouchlike galls on leaves, but
the majority feeds on leaves without forming galls and
produces a rusting of the leaves. Some attack buds, and
one forms the conspicuous witches' -broom twig gall on

OPISTHOSOMA

r - - - - - - - - - _1_ - - - - - - - - - - -,
I I
I I
I I
I
I
,
I
I
I Figure 5-16 A generalized
acariform mite. A, Anterior
view; B, Lateral view.
ch, socket of chelicera;
L__,__~L r ~ ex, coxa; DS], disjugal fur-
GNATHOSOMA PODOSOMA row; Jm, femur; p, socket
L ,
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __J
PROSOMA
of palp; ptar, pretarsus;
ptl, genu or patella; tb, tibia;
L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __~ tr, trochanter; ts, tarsus.
B (Courtesy of Johnston.)
 Keyto SpiderFamiliesof NorthAmerica 133

larvae are parasitic on aquatic insects, and most

nymphs and adults are predaceous. Water mites are

o
A
small, round-bodied, usually brightly colored (red or
green), and often quite common in ponds. They crawl
on the bottom and on aquatic vegetation and lay their
eggs on the undersides of leaves or on aquatic animals
(mainly freshwater mussels). Water mi te larvae

B
ti e D E
(mostly in the genus Arrenurus) are often abundant on
the bodies of dragonflies and damselflies. They crawl
from the nymph to the adult when the latter emerges
and may remain there for a couple of weeks, feeding on
the body fluids of the insect and eventually dropping
off and developing into adults (if they happen to get
into a suitable habitat).
Figure5-17 The fourspotted spider mite, Tetranychus The harvest mites (also called chiggersor redbugs)
canadensis(McGregor). A, Egg; B, First instar or larva; (Trombiculidae) are ectoparasites of vertebrates in the
e, Secondinstar, or protonymph; D, Third instar, or larval stage, whereas the nymphs and adults are free-
deutonymph; E, Fourth instar, adult female. (Courtesy of living and predaceous on small arthropods and arthro-
USDA,after McGregor and McDunough.) pod eggs. Harvest mites lay their eggs among vegeta-
tion. Gn hatching, the larvae crawl over the vegetation
and attach to a passing host. They insert their mouth-
hackberry. Many gall mites are serious pests of orchard parts into the outer layer of the skin, and their saliva
trees or other cultivated plants. partly digests the tissues beneath. The larvae remain on
The water mites (Hydrachnidia, with 45 families the host for a few days, feeding on tissue fluid and di-
in nine superfamilies) include a number of common gested cellular material, and then drop off. These mites
and widely distributed freshwater species and a few are small (Figure 5-19A) and are seldom noticed. Their
marine forms. A few species occur in hot springs. The bites, however, are quite irritating, and the itching per-
sists for some time after the mites have left. Gn people,
these mites seem to prefer areas where the clothing is
tight. A person going into an area infested with chig-
gers can avoid being attacked by using a good repel-
lent, such as dimethyl phthallate or diethyl toluamide.
This material can be put on the clothing, or the cloth-
ing can be impregnated with it. A good material to re-
duce the itching caused by chiggers is tincture of ben-
zyl benzoate. In Asia, the Southwest Pacific, and
Australia, certain harvest mites serve as vectors of
scrub typhus, or tsutsugamushi disease. This disease
caused more than 7,000 casualties in the V.s. armed
forces during World War n.
The feather mites 09 families, in the superfamilies
Analgoidea, Pterolichoidea, and Freyanoidea) consti-
tute a large group whose members occur on the feath-
ers or skin or (rarely) in the respiratory system ofbirds.
Many are found on particular feathers or feather areas
of their hosts. They are seldom of economic impor-
tance, although they often occur in considerable num-
bers on poultry or avian pets. They appear to be scav-
engers, feeding on feather fragments and oily
secretions on the feathers. Some of those occurring on
aquatic birds feed on diatoms.
The Tarsonemidae is a large family of mites that
Figure5-18 A gall mite, PhyllocoptesvariabilisHodgkiss, includes species associated with insects or plants, and
a species attacking sugar maple; 460 X . A, Dorsal view; some cause human dermatitis. Some species live in the
B, Ventral view. (Redrawn fram Hodgkiss 1930.) galleries of bark beetles, where they feed on the bark
 JI

134 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda

A B

Figure5-19 A, A chigger, the larva of Eutrombiculaalfreddugesi(Oudemans), 215x;

B, An oribatid mite (family Euphthiracaridae). (A, Redrawn from a US Public Health Ser-
vice release; B, Courtesy of the lnstitute of Acarology).

beetle eggs. They are carried from gallery to gallery on

the bodies of the beetles. Species in the genus Acarapis
occur on the bodies of honey bees. Acarapis woodi
(Rennie) causes what is known as lsle of Wight disease
in honey bees. A few species (Tarsonemus and other
genera) have been implicated in cases of human der-
matitis.
SUBORDER Astigmata:The mites in this group are
mostly terrestrial and nonpredatory. Some are parasitic,
and a few of the parasitic forms are important pests of
people and animals. The most important mites in this
group are probably those that infest stored foods and
those that cause dermatitis in humans and animals.
The Acaroidea are principally scavengers, occur-
ring in animal nests, stored foods, and plant tissues.
Figure5-20 The sheep scab mite, Psoroptesovis
Those occurring in stored foods (cereals, dried meats,
(Hering), female. A, Dorsal view; B, Ventral view.
cheese, and the like) not only damage or contaminate (Courtesy of USDA.)
these materials, but they may get on people and cause
a dermatitis called grocers itch or millers itch.
The most important mites in this suborder that SUBORDEROribatida: This is a large group of
cause dermatitis in humans and animals are in the fam- small mites (0.2-1.3 mm) that vary considerably in
ilies Psoroptidae and Sarcoptidae. The Psoroptidae in- formo Some superficially resemble small beetles (Fig-
elude the mange mites, which attack various animals ure 5-20B) and are called beetle mites. Some species
(Figure 5-20), and the Sarcoptidae inelude the itch or have winglike lateral extensions of the notum. In a few
scab mites. These mites burrow into the skin and cause cases these extensions, called pteromorphs, are hinged,
severe irritation, and the resulting scratching often contain "veins," and are provided with museles. Orib-
causes additional injury or leads to secondary infec- atid mites are found in leaf litter, under bark and
tion. One of the best treatments for scabies (infection stones, and in the soil. They are mainly scavengers.
by these mites) is the application of a solution of ben- They make up a large percentage of the soil fauna and
zyl benzoate. Species of Dermatophagoides (Pyroglyphi- are important in breaking down organic matter and
dae) are common inhabitants of houses and have been promoting soil fertility. Some species of Oribatuloidea
have been found to serve as the intermedia te hosts of
_J<f:~d jn housedust allergi:e~~:

A B
Figure5-21 Pseudoscorpions. A, Dactylochelifer copiosusHoff; B, Larca granulata
(Banks); C, Pselaphochernesparvus Hoff. (Courtesy of Hoff and Illinois Natural History
Survey.)
certain tapeworms that infest sheep, cattle, and other
ruminants.
Order Pseudoscorpiones17-Pseudoscorpions
The pseudoscorpions are small arachnids, seldom
more than 5 mm in length. They resemble true scorpi-
ons in having large chelate pedipalps, but the opistho-
somais short and oval, there is no sting (Figure 5-21),
and the body is quite flato The pseudoscorpions differ
fram most other arachnids in lacking a patellar seg-
mentin the legs. Eyes may be present or absent; if pres-
ent, there are two or four, located at the anterior end of
the prosoma.
The Pseudoscorpiones are a fair-sized group,
with about 200 speeies in North America, and its
members are common animals. They live under bark
and stones, in leaf litter and moss, between the boards
of buildings, and in similar situations. They some-
times cling to and are carried about by large insects.
They feed chiefly on small insects, which they catch
with their pedipalps. Most speeies have venom glands
that open on the pedipalps. These animals have silk
glands, the ducts from which open on the che-
licerae.18The silk is used in making a cocoon in
which the animal overwinters.
ORDERSolifugaeI9-Windscorpions: This is a fair-
sized group of arachnids (about 120 speeies in North
America) whose members occur chiefly in the arid or
desert regions of the West (one speeies occurs in
17Pseudoscorpiones: pseudo, false; scorpiones, scorpion.
¡'Another name given 10 this order, Chelonethida, refers
ture: chelo, claw; neth, spin.
¡'Solifugae: sol, sun; fugae, flee (referring to the nocturnal
these animals)
Keyto SpiderFamiliesof NorthAmerica 135
e
Florida). They are called by a variety of names: wind-
scorpions (they run "like the wind"), sunscorpions, sun-
spiders, and camelspiders. They are 20-30 mm in
length, are usually pale colored and somewhat hairy,
and the body is slightly constricted in the middle (Fig-
ure 5-4C). One of their most distinctive features is
their very large chelicerae (often as long as the pro-
soma), giving them a very feroeious appearance. They
may bite, but they do not have venom glands. The
males have a flagellum on the chelicera. The fourth legs
bear, on the ventral side of the coxae and trochanters,
five short, broad, T-shaped structures (attached by the
base of the T) called racket organs or malleoli, which are
probably sensory in function.
Windscorpions are largely nocturnal, hiding dur-
ing the day under objects or in burrows. They are fast-
running and predaceous, sometimes even capturing
small lizards. The pedipalps and first legs are used as
feelers, and these animals run on the last three pairs of
legs. Two families occur in the United States, the Am-
motrechidae (first legs without claws, and anterior
edge of prosoma rounded or pointed) and the Eremo-
batidae (first legs with one or two claws, and anterior
edge of prosoma straight).
Class Pycnogonida20-Sea Spiders
The pycnogonids are marine, spiderlike forms with
long legs. They are occasionally found under stones
near the low-tide mark, but usually occur in deep wa-
ter. They are predaceous and have a sucking proboseis.
The body consists prineipally of prosoma; the opistho-
soma is very small. The sea spiders vary in length from
to this fea-
habits of 20Pycnogonida: pycno, thick or dense; gonida, offspring (referring to
the eggs).
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAI
136 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
one to several centimeters. Uttle is known of their
habits, because they are uncommon.
Collecting and Preserving Chelicerates
To obtain a large collection of chelicerates, one needs
primarily to collect in as many different types of habi-
tats as possible. Chelicerates are frequently very abun-
dant, often as abundant as insects or more so. The gen-
eral collector of insects is likely to encounter more
spiders and mites than any other types of chelicerates;
therefore, the following suggestions are concerned pri-
marily with these groups.
Chelicerates occur in a great variety of situations
and can often be collected with the same techniques
and equipment used in collecting insects. Many can be
taken by sweeping vegetation with an insect net. Many
can be obtained with beating equipment, that is, using
a sheet or beating umbrella beneath a tree or bush and
beating the bush to knock off the specimens. The
ground forms can be found running on the ground or
under stones, boards, bark, or other objects. Many can
be found in the angles of buildings and similar pro-
tected places. Many of the smaller forms can be found
in debris, soillitter, or moss and are best collected by
means of sifting equipment such as a Berlese funnel
(Figure 35-5) or a screen sieve or by means of pitfall
traps. Many are aquatic or semiaquatic and can be col-
lected in marshy areas with aerial collecting equipment
or in water with aquatic equipment. The parasitic
species (various mites and ticks) usually must be
looked for on their hosts.
Many chelicerates are nocturnal, and collecting at
night may prove more successful than collecting dur-
ing the day. Very few are attracted to lights, but they
can be spotted at night with a flashlight or a headlamp.
The eyes of many spiders reflect light, and with a little
experience and a light, you can locate many spiders at
night. Scorpions are fluorescent and can be collected at
night with a portable ultraviolet light to make them
visible.
Chelicerates should be preserved in fluids rather
than on pins or points. Many forms, such as the spi-
ders, are very soft-bodied and shrivel when dry. They
are usually preserved in 70 to 80% alcohol. There
should be plenty of alcohol in the bottle in relation to
the specimen, and it is often desirable to change the al-
cohol after the first few days. Many workers preserve
mites in Oudeman's fluid, which consists of 87 parts of
70% alcohol, 5 parts of glycerine, and 8 parts of glacial
acetic acid. The chief advantage of this fluid is that the
mites die with their appendages extended so that sub-
sequent examination is easier. Alcohol is not suitable
for preserving gall mites. Such mites are best collected
by wrapping infested plant parts in 50ft tissue paper
and allowing them to dry. This dried material can be
kept indefinitely, and the mites may be recovered for
study by warming the dried material in Kiefer's solu-
tion (50 grams of resorcinal, 20 grams of diglycolic
acid, 25 milliliters of glycerol, enough iodine to pro-
duce the desired color, and about 10 milliliters of wa-
ter). Specialislf on mites prefer specimens in fluid,
rather than mounted on permanent microscopic slides,
so that all aspects and structure can be studied.
Chelicerates can be collected by means of a net,
forceps, vial, or small brush, or by hand. For biting or
stinging forms, it is safer to use some method other
than collecting them with the fingers. Specimens col-
lected with a net can be transferred directly to a vial of
alcohol, or collected in an empty vial and later trans-
ferred to alcohol. Because some species are quite active,
it is some times preferable to put them first into a
cyanide bottle and transfer them to alcohol after they
have been stunned and are quiet. Specimens collected
from the ground or debris may be picked up with for-
ceps or coaxed into a bottle; the smaller specimens
(found in any situation) may be picked up with a small
brush moistened with alcohol.
Spider webs that are flat and not too large can be
collected and preserved between two pieces of glass.
One piece of glass is pressed against the web (which
will usually stick to the glass beca use of the viscous
material on some of the silk strands), and then the
other piece of glass is applied to the first. It is often de-
sirable to have the two pieces of glass separated by thin
strips of paper araund the edge of the glass. Once the
web is between the two pieces of glass, bind the glass
edges together with binding tape. Spider webs are best
photographed when covered with moisture (dew or
fog) or dust. They can often be photographed dry if il-
luminated fram the side and photographed against a
dark background.
Subphylum CrustaceaZ1-Crustaceans
The crustaceans are a large and varied group of arthro-
pods, with more than 44,000 known species. Most of
them are marine, but many occur in fresh water, and a
few are terrestrial. In addition to the larger and more
familiar types, such as lobsters, crayfish, (Figure 5-22)
crabs, and shrimp, a multitude of small to minute
aquatic forms are very important in aquatic food webs.
The appendages and body regions vary greatly in this
group, but typically there are two pairs of antennae, the
functional jaws consist of endite lobes of the gnathal (jaw)
appendages, and many of the appendages are biramous. A
2lCrustacea: from the Latin, referring to the crustlike exoskeleton
possessed by many of these animals.

chp
I
1
I
,,
__
--1
biramousappendage bears a process at its base (arising
fromthe second segment of the appendage) that is more
or lessleglike, giving the appendage a two-branched ap-
pearance(Figure 5-1 C). There may be an exite lobe on
thebasalsegment, as in trilobites, and in some cases this
functionsas a gil!. There are differences in this group in
thenature of the body regions. Sometimes there are two
fairlydistinct (and nearly equal-sized) body regions, the
cephalothoraxand the abdomen, with the cephalothorax
bearing the antennae, gnathal appendages, and legs.
Sometimesthe abdominal appendages occupy only a
smallportion of the total body length. There is typically a
terminaltelson. The cephalothorax in many crustaceans
iscoveredby a shieldlike portion on the body wall called
the carapace.The abdomen lacks paired appendages ex-
ceptin the Malacostraca.
The smaller crustaceans, particularly those in the
Branchiopoda, Copepoda, and Ostracoda, are abundant
in both salt and fresh water. The chief importance of
mostspecies is that they are food for larger animals and
thus are an important pan in the food webs leading to
fishand other larger aquatic animals. A few species are
parasitic on fish and other animals, and the bamacles
are often a nuisance when they encrust pilings, boat
bottoms, and other surfaces. Many of the small crus-
taceanscan be easily maintained in indoor aquaria and
arefrequently reared as food for other aquatic animals.
ClassBranchiopoda22
Most members of class Branchiopoda occur in fresh
water. Males are uncommon in many species, and
parthenogensis is a common mode of reproduction.
Both unisexual (parthenogenic) and bisexual repro-
duction occur in many species, and the factors control-
lingthe production of males are not well understood.
"Branchiopoda: branchio, gill; poda, foot or appendage
Collecting and PreservingChelicerates 137
I Figure5-22 A crayfish (Cambarus sp.),
I
natural size. ab, abdomen; ant, antenna;
I ¡
I 1
/
1 antl, antennule; chp, cheliped; crp, cara-
' ',1/11/ 11 pace; e, eye; 1,legs (including cheliped);
sw, swimmerets; ur, uropod.
There are differences of opinion regarding the clas-
sification of these crustaceans, but four fairly distinct
groups are usually recognized, the Anostraca, Noto-
straca, Conchostraca, and Cladocera. The first two of
these are sometimes placed in a group called the Phyl-
lopoda, and the last two are sometimes called the
Diplostraca.
The Anostraca,23 or fairy shrimps (Figure 5-23A),
have an elongated and distinctly segmented body, with-
out a carapace and with 11 pairs of swimming legs, and
the eyes are on stalks. The fairy shrimps are often abun-
dant in temporary pools. The Notostraca,24 or tadpole
shrimps, have an oval convex carapace covering the an-
terior part of the body, 35 to 71 pairs of thoracic ap-
pendages, and two long, filamentous caudal ap-
pendages. These animals range in size from about 10 to
50 mm and live only in the westem states. The Con-
chostraca,25 or clam shrimps, have the body somewhat
flattened laterally and entirely enclosed in a bivalved
carapace and have 10 to 32 pairs of legs. Most species
are 10 mm in length or less. The Cladocera,26 or water
fleas (Figure 5-24A), have a bivalved carapace, but the
head is not enclosed in the carapace. There are four to
six pairs of thoracic legs. The water fleas are 0.2 to 3.0 mm
in length and are very common in freshwater pools.
Three groups of small crustaceans living in fresh wa-
ter have a bivalved carapace, and observers are likely to
confuse these groups. The Ostracoda (Figure 5-24B,C)
and Conchostraca have the body completely enclosed in
the carapace, whereas in the Cladocera (Figure 5-24A)
the head is outside the carapace. The Ostracoda have
only three pairs of thoracic legs; the Conchostraca have
10 to 32 pairs.
23 Anostraca:an, without; ostraca,shell.
HNotostraca; not, back; ostraca, shell.
"Conchostraca: conch, shell or shellfish; ostraca, shell.
'6Cladocera: dado, branch; cera, hom (referring to the antennae).
138 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda

Figure5-23 Crustaceans. A, A fairy shrimp, Eubranchipus (subclass Branchiopoda, or-

der Anostraca), 6X; B, A female copepod, Cyclops sp., 50X, with two egg sacs at poste-
rior end of body.

B e
Figure5-24 Crustaceans. A, A
water flea or cladoceran, Daphnia
sp., 25x; B, An ostracod, Cypri-
dopsis sp., lateral view; C, Same,
but with left valve of carapace re-
moved. ans, anus; ant, antenna;
antl, antennule; at, alimentary
tract; bp, brood pouch; cm, cae-
cum; e, compound eye;fu, furca;
hr, heart; 1, first and second tho-
racic legs; Ibr, labrum; md, mandi-
ble; mx, maxilla; pa, postabdomen;
sh, bivalved shell; thap, thoradc
appendages; y, developing young.
(C, Modified from Kesling.)

ClassCopepoda27
Someof the copepods are free-swimming, and others are
parasiticon fish. The parasitic forms are often peculiar
in body fono and quite unlike the free-swimming forms
in generalappearance. This group includes both marine
andfreshwater forms. The female of most copepods car-
riesher eggs in two egg sacs located laterally near the
endof the abdomen (Figure 5-23B). The parasitic cope-
pods,often called fish lice, live on the gills or the skin or
burrow ioto the flesh of their host. When numerous,
theymayseriously injure the host. Some species serve as
intermediatehosts of certain human parasites for exam-
pie, the fish tapeworm, Diphyllobothnum latum (L.).
ClassOstracoda28
Theostracodshave a bivalved carapace that can be closed
bya muscle, and when the valves are closed the animal
lookslike a miniatureclam (Figure5-24B,C).When the
valvesof the carapaceare open, the appendagesare pro-
trudedand propel the animal through the water. Many
speciesare parthenogenic. Most of the ostracods are ma-
rine,but there are also many common freshwater species.
ClassCirripedia29
Thebest-known members of the class Cirripedia29 are
the bamacles, the adults of which live attached to
rocks,pilings, seaweeds,boats, or marine animals, and
whichare enclosed in a calcareous shell. A few species
areparasitic, usually on crabs or mollusks. Most mem-
17Copepoda:cope, oar; poda, foot or appendage.
"Ostracoda: from the Greek, meaning shel\-like (referring to the
clarnlikecharacter of the carapace).
"Cirripedia: cirri, a cur\ of hair; pedía, foot or appendage.
Collectingand PreservingChelicerates 139
bers of this group are hermaphroditic; that is, each in-
dividual has both male and female organs. Some bar-
nacles, such as the goose barnacle (Figure 5-25A), at-
tach the shell to some object by a stalk. Others, such as
the rock barnacle (Figure 5-25B), are sessile and do
not have stalks.
The Smaller Crustacean Classes
lncluded in the smaller crustaceans are the classes
Cephalocarida,30 Mystacocarida,31 Branchiura,32 Tantu-
locarida,33 and Remipedia.34 The nine known species of
Cephalocarida are marine bottom-dwelling forms that
often occur in very deep water. The Mystacocarida are
minute (mostly about 0.5 mm in length) marine forms
living in the intertidal zone. Nine species of these have
been described. The Branchiura are ectoparasites on
the skin or in the gill cavities of fish (both marine and
freshwater fish). About 130 species are known. The
Tantulocarida (four known species) are ectoparasites
of deep-water crustaceans. The Remipedia (eight
known species) have a long and wormlike body, and
live in island caves connected to the sea.
Class Malacostraca35
The Malacostraca, the largest of the crustacean classes,
includes the larger and better known forms, such as the
lobsters, crayfish, crabs, and shrimps. They differ from
30Cephalocarida: cephalo, head; carida, a shrimp.
3lMystacocarida: mystaco, mustache; carida, a shrimp.
32Branchiura: branchí, gill; ura, tail.
33Tantulocarida: tantula, little; carida, a shrimp.
34Remipedia: remí, an oar; pedía, foot or appendage.
35Malacostraca: malac, 50ft; ostraca, shell.
Figure5-25 Bamades. A, A goosebamade,
Lepassp., 3X; B, A rock bamade, Balanussp., 2X.
The basalstalk or pedunde of the goosebamacleis
B at the animal's posterior end; the biramous ap-
pendages protruding from the shell at the top of
the figure are the posterior thoracic legs; a second
small individual is shown attached to the first.

140 Chapter 5 PhylumArthropoda
the preceding classes (sometimes called the Ento-
mostraca) in having appendages (swimmerets or
pleopods) on the abdomen. There are typically 19 pairs
of appendages, the first 13 being cephalothoracic and
the last 6 abdominal. The leglike appendages on the
cephalothorax are often chelate. This class contains
some 13 orders. Only the more common ones can be
mentioned here.
ORDER Amphipoda:36The body of an amphipod is
elongate and more or less compressed; there is no cara-
pace; and seven (rarely six) of the thoracic segments
are distinct and bear leglike appendages. The abdomi-
nal segments are often more or less fused, and hence
the six or seven thoracic segments make up most of the
body length (Figure 5-26). This group contains both
marine and freshwater forms. Many of them, such as
the beach fleas (Figure 5-26B), live on the beach under
stones or in decaying vegetation. Most amphipods are
scavengers. Some tropical species are common on the
floor of moist forests.
ORDERIsopoda:37The isopods are similar to the
amphipods in lacking a carapace, but are dorsoven-
trally flattened. The last seven thoracic segments are
distinct and bear leglike appendages. The abdominal
segments are more or less fused, and hence the thoracic
segments (with their seven pairs of legs) make up most
of the body length (Figure 5-27). The anterior abdom-
inal appendages of the aquatic forms usually bear gills.
The terminal abdominal appendages are often enlarged
and feelerlike. The isopods are small (most are less
than 20 mm in length), and most are marine, but some
live in fresh water and some are terrestrial. The marine
3<>Amphipoda:amphi, on both sides, double; poda, foot or appendage.
"Isopoda: iso, equal; poda, foot or appendage.
e Survey; C, After Smith.)
1
forms generally live under stones or among seaweed,
where they are scavengers or omnivores, but a few are
wood-boring (apparendy feeding chiefly on the fungi
in the wood), and some are parasitic on fish or other
crustaceans. The most common isopods away from the
ocean are the sowbugs or woodlice-blackish, gray, or
brownish animals usually found under stones, boards,
or bark. Some sowbugs (often called pillbugs) can roll
into a ball. In some areas sowbugs are important pests
of cultivated plants.
ORDER Stomatopoda38-Mantis Shrimps: These are
predaceous marine forms, mosdy 5 to 36 cm in
length, with the body dorsoventrally flattened. There
are three pairs of legs, in front of which are five pairs
of maxillipeds, the second of which is very large and
chelate. A small cara pace covers the body in front of
the legs, and the abdomen is a litde wider than the
carapace. The mantis shrimps are often brighdy co\-
ored: green, blue, red, or patterned. This group is
principally tropical. U.5. species occur chiefly along
the southern coasts.
ORDER Decapoda:39This order contains the largest
and probably the best known of the crustaceans, the
lobsters, crayfish (Figure 5-22), crabs (Figure 5-28),
and shrimps. The cara pace of a decapod covers the en-
tire thorax. Five pairs of the cephalothoracic ap-
pendages are leglike, and the first pair of these usually
bears a large claw. The abdomen may be well developed
Clobsters and crayfish) or much reduced (crabs). This
is a very important group, beca use many of its mem-
bers are used as food, and their collection and distri-
bution underpin a large coastal industry.
3.Stomatopoda: stomato, mouth; poda, foot or appendage.
39Decapoda: deca, ten; poda, foot or appendage.
Figure 5-26 Amphipods.
A, A common freshwater scud,
Dikerogammarusfasciatus (Say),
10-15 mm in length; B, A sand
flea or beach flea, Orchestia agilis
Smith, abundant underneath sea-
weed along the coast near the high
tide mark; C, A common freshwa-
ter scud, Hyalella knickerbockeri
(Bate), about 7 mm in length;
D, A sea scud, Gammarus annula-
tus Smith, a common coastal form,
about 15 mm in length. (Courtesy
of Kunkel and the Connecticut
State Geology and Natural History
 Collectingand PreservingCrustacea 141

A B e

Figure 5-27 Isopods. A, Oniscus asellus L., a common sowbug; B, Asellus communis
Say,a common freshwater isopod; C, Cylisticus convexus (DeGeer), a pillbug capable of
rolling itself into a ball. (Courtesy of the Connecticut State Geology and Natural History
Survey. A, C, Courtesy of Kunkel 1918, after Paulmier; B, Courtesy of Kunkell918,
after Smith.)

Figure5-28 A green crab, Carcinides

sp., P/2X.

Collectingand Preserving Crustacea
Theaquatic crustaceans must be collected with various
typesof aquatic collecting equipmenl. Most can be col-
lected by a dip nel. A white enamel dipper is the best
meansof collecting many of the smaller forms. The dip-
per is simply dipped into the water, and any small ani-
malsin the dipper can be easily seen. Forms so collected
canbe removed by means of an eye dropper or (if fairly
large)by forceps. The smaller forms in ponds, lakes, and
the ocean are often collected in afine-mesh plankton net,
towed by a boato Many larger forms are collected by traps.
Such traps (or "pots") are the standard means of collect-
ing lobsters and crabs. The shore-dwelling and terrestrial
forms can be collected by hand or forceps or possibly (for
example, beach fleas) with an aerial insect neto Handle
the larger forms with well-developed claws with care, be-
cause the claw can inflict serious injury. The safest way to
pick up a large crayfish or lobster is from above, grasping
the animal at the back of the carapace.
To obtain a variety of Crustacea, collect in a vllri-
ety of places. When collecting in water, investiga te
142 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
every possible aquatic niche. Some crustaceans are
free-swimming; some burrow in bottom mud; some
live under stones; and many are found on aquatic veg-
etation. The shore-dwelling forms are usually under
stones, debris, or decaying vegetation along the shore.
Preserve crustaceans in fIuids (for example, 70 to
95% alcohol). Most smaller forms must be mounted on
microscope slides for detailed study. Some of the
smaller Malacostraca can be preserved dry (for exam-
pIe, pinned), but specimens preserved in fIuid are more
satisfactory for study.
Subphylum Atelocerata40
The members of this subphylum have a single pair of
antennae and uniramous (unbranched) appendages.
According to Manton (1977), the mandibles of these
species differ from those of Crustacea in that the entire
appendage makes up the functional portion of the
mandible (and not only the basal portion). She placed
the groups included here (following) together with the
Onychophora as the phylum Uniramia (concluding
that the Arthropoda is a polyphyletic taxon). We be-
lieve this position has not been adequately supported.
In terms of her conclusion regarding the structure of
the mandible, both Crustacea and Hexapoda have sim-
ilar expression patterns of the gene distal-less, falsifying
the hypothesis that one (the crustacean mandible) is
gnathobasic, whereas the other represents the entire
appendage of the mandibular segment. Further, Manton's
conclusion requires evidence that one or more taxa
now classified as arthropods are more closely related to
a nonarthropod group. Until such evidence is available,
we continue to treat the Arthropoda as a monophyletic
unit and do not consider the onychophorans to be
arthropods.
Other than Onychophora, the Atelocerata includes
the Myriapoda and Hexapoda. Recent molecular stud-
"'Atelocerata: ate/os, defective; keras, horn; referring to the fact that the
second antennae are present in these taxa only as embryonic rudiments.
ies have done little to alleviate the considerable uncer-
tainty concerning the interrelationships among Crus-
tacea, Myriapoda, and Hexapoda. Some researchers
suggest that the myriapods are a polyphyletic or para-
phyletic group; others that hexapods are most closely
related to a subset of crustaceans (and, therefore, that
Crustacea is paraphyletic).
Class Diplopoda41-Millipedes. The millipedes are
elongatt:, wormlike animals with many legs (Fig-
ure 5-29). Most millipedes have 30 or more pairs of
legs, and most body segments bear 2 pairs. The body
is cylindrical or slightly fIattened, and the antennae
are short and usually seven-segmented. The external
openings of the reproductive system are located at
the anterior end of the body, between the second and
third pairs of legs. One or both pairs of legs on the
seventh segment of the male are usually modified
into gonopods, which function in copulation. Com-
pound eyes are usually present. The first tergum be-
hind the head is usually large and is called the collum
(Figure 5-30A).
The head in most millipedes is convex above,
with a large epistomal area, and fIat beneath. The
bases of the mandibles form a part of the side of the
head. Beneath the mandibles, and forming the fIat
ventral surface of the head, is a characteristic liplike
structure called the gnathochilarium (Figure 5-30B,
gna). The gnathochilarium is usually divided by su-
tures into several areas: a median more or less trian-
gular plate, the mentum (mn); two laterallobes, the
stipites (stp); two median distal plates, the laminae
linguales (1l); and usually a median transverse basal
sclerite, the prebasalare (pbs), and two smalllatero-
basal sclerites, the cardines (cd). The size and shape
of these areas differ among groups of millipedes, and
the gnathochilarium often provides characters by
which the groups are recognized.
ilDiplopoda: diplo, two; poda, foot or appendage (referring to the
fact that most body segments bear two pairs of legs).
Figure5-29 A common millipede, Nar-
ceus sp. (order Spirobolida), P/2x.
 Keyto the Ordersof Diplopoda 143

material, but some attack living plants and sometimes

B There are a number of arrangements of orders and
Figure
5-30 Head structure in a millipede (Nareeus,
orderSpirobolida). A, Lateral view of head; B, Gnatho-
chilarium.ant, antenna; ed, cardo; eolm, collum, tergite
ofthe first body segment; e, eye; gna, gnathochilarium;
1,firstleg; lbr, labrum; 11,lamina lingualis; md, mandible;
mn,mentum; pbs, prebasilare; stn, sternum of first body
segment;stp, stipes.
Millipedes are usually found in damp places: un-
der leaves, in moss, under stones or boards, in rotting
wood, or in the soil. Many species can give off an ill-
smellingfluid through openings along the sides of the
body.This fluid is some times strong enough to kill in-
sectsthat are placed in ajar with the millipede, and it
hasbeen shown (in some cases at least) to contain hy-
drogen cyanide. Millipedes do not bite people. Most
millipedes are scavengers and feed on decaying plant
do serious damage in greenhouses and gardens, and a
few are predaceous. These animals overwinter as adults
in protected situations and lay their eggs during the
summer. Some construct nestlike cavities in the soil in
which they deposit their eggs; others lay their eggs in
damp places without constructing any sort of nest. The
eggs are usually white and hatch within a few weeks.
Newly hatched millipedes have only three pairs of legs.
The remaining legs are added in subsequent molts.
families in this group. We follow the arrangement of
Chamberlin and Hoffman (1958), which is outlined
here (with alterna te names or arrangements in paren-
theses):
Subclass pselaphognatha (Pencillata)
Order Polyxenida
Subclass Chilognatha
Superorder Pentazonia (Opisthandria)
Order Glomerida (Oniscomorpha)
Superorder Helminthomorpha (Olognatha,
Eugnatha)
Order Polydesmida (Proterospermophora)
Order Chordeumida (Chordeumatida,
Nematophora)
Order Julida (Opisthospermophora in part)
Order Spirobolida (Opisthospermophora
in part)
Order Spirostreptida (Opisthospermophora
in part)
Order Cambalida (Opisthospermophora
in part)
Superorder Colobognatha
Order Polyzoniida
Order Platydesmida

Keyto the Ordersof Diplopoda

1. Adults with 13 pairs of legs; integument soft; body hairs forming long
lateral tufts; 2-4 mm in length Polyxenida p.144
l' Adults with 28 or more pairs of legs; integument strongly sclerotized;
body hairs not forming long tufts; larger millipedes 2
2(1'). Body with 14-16 segments and with 11-13 tergites; male gonopods at
caudal end of body, modified from last 2 pairs of legs; southern and
western United States Glomerida p. 144
2' Body with 18 or more segments; male gonopods modified from legs on
seventh segment 3
3(2'). Head small, often concealed, the mandibles much reduced; 8 pairs of
legs anterior to the male gonopods 4
3'. Head and mandibles of normal size; 7 pairs of legs anterior to the
male gonopods 5
 1

144 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda

4(3). Tergites with median groove; gnathochilarium with most of the typical
parts; usually pink in color Platydesmida p.145
4'. Tergites without median groove; gnathochilarium consisting of a single
plate or several indistinctly defined plates; usually cream colored Polyzoniida p.145
5(3'). Body with 18-22 segments; eyes absent; body more or less flattened,
with lateral carinae Polydesmida p.144
S'. Body usually with 26 or more segments; eyes usually present; body
usually cylindrical or nearly so, and only rarely (soIJ'leChordeumida)
with lateral carinae 6
6(5'). Terminal segment of body with 1-3 pairs of setae-bearing papillae;
lateral carinae sometimes present; collum not overlapping head;
sternites not fused with pleurotergites; body with 26-30 segments Chordeumida p. 145
6'. Terminal segment without such papillae; lateral carinae absent; collum
large, hoodlike, usually overlapping head; sternites usually fused with
pleurotergites; usually 40 or more body segments 7
7(6'). Stipites of gnathochilarium broadly contiguous along midline behind
laminae linguales Julida p.145
7'. Stipites of gnathochilarium not contiguous, but widely separated by
mentum and laminae linguales (Figure s-30B) 8
8(7'). Fifth segment with 2 pairs of legs; third segment open ventrally;
fourth and following segments closed 9
8'. Fifth segment with 1 pair of legs; third segment closed ventrally Spirobolida p.145
9(8). Laminae linguales completely separated by mentum; both anterior and
posterior pairs of gonopods present and functional, posterior pair
usuallywith long fiagella;no legson segment4 Cambalida p.145
9'. Laminae linguales usually not separated by mentum; posterior pair of
gonopods rudimentary or absent, anterior pair elaborate; 1 pair of legs
each on segments 1-4 Spirostreptida p.145

ORDER polyxenida:42 These millipedes are minute
(2-4 mm in length) and soft-bodied, with the body
very bristly. The group is a small one (five North Amer-
ican species), and its members are widely distributed
but are not common. They are usually found under
bark or in liuer. The order contains a single genus,
Polyxenus, in the family Polyxenidae.
ORDER Glomeridao-PiII Millipedes: These milli-
pedes are so caIled because they can roIl themselves
into a ball. They are short and wide and resemble
isopods, but have more than seven pairs of legs. Males
have the gonopods at the posterior end of the body and
cIasperlike. The appendages of the seventh segment are
not modified. These millipedes occur in the southeast-
ern states and in California. U.s. species are small
"Polyxenida: poly, many;xenida,stranger or guest.
+3Glomerida: from the Latin. meaning a ball of yaro (referring to the
way these animals roll themse\ves into a ball).
(8 mm or less in length), but some tropical species,
when rolled up, are nearly as big as golf balls.
ORDER Polydesmida:44The polydesmids are rather
flauened millipedes, with the body keeled laterally and
the eyes much reduced or absent. The tergites are di-
vided by a transverse suture, a liule anterior to the
middle of the segment, into an anterior prozonite and
a posterior metazonite. The metazonite is extended lat-
eraIly as a broad lobe. The first and last two body seg-
ments are legless; segments 2 to 4 each have a single
pair of legs; and the remaining segments each bear two
pairs of legs. The anterior pair of legs on the seventh
segment of the male is modified into gonopods. The
diplosomites (those segments bearing two pairs of
legs) are continuously scIerotized rings. There are no
sutures between tergites, pleurites, and sternites.
"Polydesmida: po/y, many; desmida,bands.

Ihis is a large group, with about 250 North Amer-
icanspecies. Many are brightly colored, and most of
themhavescent glands. Oxidusgracilis(Koch), a dark
brownto black millipede, 19-22 mm in length and
2.0-2.5rnrn wide, is a common pest in greenhouses.
Ihis order is divided into 10 families, and its members
occurthroughout the United States.
ORDER Chordeumida:45 Thesemillipedeshave 26-30
segments,and the terminal tergite bears one to three
pairsof hair-tipped papillae (spinnerets). The body is
usuallycylindrical. The head is broad and free and not
overlappedby the collum. One or both pairs of legs on
theseventh segment of the male may be modified into
gonopods.This relatively large group has about 170
speciesin North America. A few are predaceous.
Ihree suborders of Chordeumida occur in the
UnitedStates. The suborder Chordeumidea, with nine
families(some classifications place these millipedes in
a single family, the Craspedosomatidae), are small
(mostly4-15 mm in length), soft-bodied millipedes
with no keels on the metazonites and without scent
glands; they are not very common. The suborder
Lysiopetalidea, with one family, the Lysiopetalidae
(= Callipodidae), contains larger millipedes, which are
usuallykeeled. These millipedes can coil the body into
a spiral. The secretions of the scent glands are milky
whiteand very odoriferous. The suborder Striariidea,
withone family (the Striariidae), have no scent glands,
theanal segment three-lobed, and a high middorsal ca-
rina on the metazonite. These millipedes are mostly
southern and westem in distribution.
ORDER Julida:46This order and the next three are by
some authorities combined into a single order, the
Opisthospermophora. These four groups have a cylin-
dricalbody, with 40 or more segments. The collum is
largeand hoodlike and overlaps the head. Either both
pairs of legs on the seventh segment of the male are
modified into gonopods or one pair is absent. Scent
glandsare presento The diplosomites are not differenti-
ated into prozonite and metazonite. The millipedes in
theorder Julida have the stipites of the gnathochilarium
broadlycontiguous along the midline behind the lami-
nae linguales. Segment 3 and the terminal segment are
legless;segments 1, 2, and 4 have one pair of legs each;
and the remaining segments have two pairs of legs each.
Morethan a hundred species of julids occur in North
America,and some reach a length of about 90 mm.
ORDERSpirobolida:47 The millipedes in this order
differ from the Julida in having the stipites of the
gnathochilarium separated (Figure 5-30B) and from
the following two orders in having one pair oflegs each
"Chordeumida: from the Greek, meaning a sausage.
<6Julida:from the Greek, meaning a eentipede.
"Spirobolida: spiro, spiral; bolida, throw.
Class Chilopoda-Centipedes 145
on segments 1 to 5. This group contains about 35
North American species, including some of the largest.
Narceus americanus (Beauvois), which is dark brown
and narrowly ringed with red, may reach a length of
100 mm (Figure 5-29).
ORDER Spirostreptida:48The members of this order
have one pair of legs each on segments 1-4, and the
posterior pair of gonopods on the seventh segment of
the male is rudimentary or absent. The stipites of the
gnathochilarium are separated, but the lamina e lin-
guales are usually contiguous. This group is principally
tropical, but three species occur in the Southwest.
ORDER Cambalida:49 These millipedes are very
similar to the Spirostreptida, but have the laminae lin-
guales separated by the mentum, both pairs of legs on
the seventh segment of the male modified into
gonopods, and there are no legs on the fourth seg-
mento The collum is quite large, and most species have
prominent longitudinal ridges on the body. One
species in this order, Camba la annulata (Say) , is
known to be predaceous.
SUPERORDER Colobognatha.50 The members of this
group have a small head and suctorial mouthparts, and
the body is somewhat flattened, with 30 to 60 seg-
ments. The first pair of legs on the seventh segment of
the male is not modified into gonopods. This super-
order contains two orders, the Platydesmida5t and
Polyzoniida,52 which may be separated by the charac-
ters given in the key. These orders are represented in
the United States by one and two families, respectively.
Polyzonium bivirgatum (Wood), which reaches a length
of about 20 mm, occurs in rotten wood.
Class Chilopoda53-Centipedes
The centipedes are elongate, flattened animals with 15
or more pairs oflegs (Figure 5-31). Each body segment
bears a single pair of legs. The last two pairs are di-
rected backward and often differ in form from the other
pairs. The antennae consist of 14 or more segments.
The genital openings are at the posterior end of the
body, usually on the next to last segment. Eyes may be
present or absent; if present, they usually consist of
numerous ommatidia. The head bears a pair of mandi-
bles and two pairs of maxillae. The second pair of max-
'.Spirostreptida:spiro, spiral; streptida,twisted.
"'Cambalida: derivation unknown.
5OColobognatha: colobo, shortened; gnatha, jaws.
"Platydesmida: platy, fiat; desmida, bands.
52Polyzoniida: poly, many; zoniida, belt or girdle.
"Chilopoda: chilo, lip; poda, foot or appendage (referring to the faet
that the poison jaws are modified legs).
 ,

146 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda

A e

Figure5-32 Head of centipede (Scolopendra, order

Figure5-31 Centipedes. A, A large centipede,
Scolopendromorpha), ventral view. ant, antenna; mx"
Scolopendraobscura Newport, about 1(.natural size; B, A
first maxilla; mx2, second maxilla; pj, poison jaw or toxi-
house centipede, Scutigera coleoptrata (L.), about 1/2nat-
cognath, a modified lego
ural size; C, A small centipede, Lithobius erythrocephalus
Koch, about natural size. (Courtesy of USDA.)

illae may be somewhat leglike in form or short with
basal segments of the two maxillae fused together. The
appendages of the first body segment behind the head
are clawlike and function as poisonjaws (Figure 5-32).
Centipedes are found in a variety of places, but
usually live in a protected situation such as in the soil,
under bark, or in rotten logs. They are very active,
fast-running animals and are predaceous. They feed on
insects, spiders, and other small animals. All cen-
tipedes paralyze their prey with poison jaws. The
smaller centipedes of the North are harmless to peo-
pIe, but the larger ones of the South and the tropics
can inflict a painful bite. Centipedes overwinter as
adults in protected situations and lay their eggs during
summer. The eggs are usually sticky and become cov-
ered with soil, and are deposited singly. In so me
species the mal e may eat the egg before the female can
cover it with soil.
Some centipedes produce silk, which is used in
mating. The male makes a small web in which he de-
posits a package of sperm, and this package is then
picked up by the female.

Keyto the Ordersof Chilopoda

1. Adults with 15 pairs of legs, newly hatched young with 7 pairs

(subclass Anamorpha) 2
l' Adults and newly hatched young with 21 or more pairs of legs
(subclass Epimorpha) 3
2(1). Spiracles unpaired, 7 in number, located on middorsalline near
posterior margin of tergites; antennae long and many-segmented;
legs long (Figure 5-31B); eyes compound Scutigeromorpha p. 147
2' Spiracles paired and located laterally; each leg-bearing segment with
a separate tergite; antennae and legs re1ative1yshort (Figure 5-31C);
eyes not compound, but consisting of single facets or groups of facets,
or absent Lithobiomorpha p.147
 Keyto the Ordersof Chilopoda 147

3(1'). Antennae with 17 or more segments; 21-23 pairs of legs; eyes usually
4 or more facets on each side Scolopendromorpha p.147
3' Antennae 14-segmented; 29 or more pairs of legs; eyes absent Geophilomorpha p. 147

ORDERScutigeromorpha:54 This group includes the some may reach a length of 100 mm or more. They
common house centipede, Scutigera coleoptrata (L.) usually live in soil, rotten logs, or in debris. When dis-
(Figure5-31B), which is found throughout the eastem turbed, they curl up and give off a secretion that seems
UnitedStates and Canada. Its natural habitat is under to repel potential predators. The five families in this
logsand similar places, but it frequently enters houses, order in the United States are separated by characters
whereit feeds on flies, spiders, and the like. In houses of the mandibles.
it often frequents the vicinity of sinks and drains. lt is
harmlessto people. This order contains the single fam- ClassPauropoda58
ilyScutigeridae.
ORDERLithobiomorpha55-StoneCentipedes: These Pauropods are minute, usually whitish myriapods,
1.0-1.5 mm in length. The antennae bear three apical
are short-legged, usually brown centipedes with 15
branches. The nine pairs of legs are not grouped in
pairsoflegs in the adults (Figure 5-31C). They vary in
double pairs as in the millipedes. The small head is
lengthfrom about 4 to 45 mm. Some members of this
so me times covered by the tergal plate of the first body
order are quite common, usually occurring under
segment (Figure 5-33A). The genital ducts open near
stones or logs, under bark, and in similar situations.
the anterior end of the body. Pauropods occur under
When disturbed, they sometimes use their posterior
stones, in leaf litter, and in similar places.
legsto throw droplets of a sticky material at their at-
tacker.This order contains two families, the Henicopi-
s.Pauropoda: pauro, small; poda, fool or appendage.
dae (4-11 mm in length, the legs without strong
spines,and the eyes consisting of a single facet each or
absent) and the Lithobiidae (10-45 mm in length, at
leastsome legs with strong spines, and the eyes usually
consistingof many facets).
ORDERScolopendromorpha:56 This group is princi-
pallytropical and, in the United States, occurs mainly
in the southem states. The scolopendrids include the
largest North American centipedes, which reach a
lengthof about 150 mm (Figure 5-31A). Some tropical
speciesmay be a half a meter or more in length. Many
scolopendrids are greenish or yellowish in color. These
arethe most venomous centipedes in our area; the bite
ofthe larger species is quite painful, and they can also
pinchwith their last pair of legs. Two families occur in
this order in the United States, the Scolopendridae
(eacheye with four facets) and the Cryptopidae (each
eyewith one facet).
ORDERGeophilomorpha57-SoilCentipedes: The
members of this order are slender, with 29 or more
pairsof short legs and large poison jaws, and are usu-
allywhitish or yellowish. Most species are small, but
B
"Sculigeromorpha: scuti, shield; gero, bear or carry; morpha, formo
"Lilhobiomorpha: lilho, stone; bio, \ife (Lithobius is a genus of cen-
tipede); morpha, formo Figure5-33 A, A pauropod, Pauropus sp., 95X; B, A
"Scolopendromorpha: scolopendro, centipede (Scolopendra is a genus symphylan, Scolopendrellasp., 16X. (A, Redrawn from
o[ centipede); morpha, formo Lubbock 1867; B, Redrawn from Comstock 1933, after
"Geophilomorpha: geo, earth; philo, loving; morpha, formo Latzel.)

148 Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
Class Symphyla59
The symphylans are slender, whitish myriapods, 1-8 mm
in length, with 15-22 (usually 15) body segments and
10-12 pairs of legs (Figure 5-33B). The antennae are
slender and many-segmented, and the head is well de-
veloped and distinct. The genital openings are located
near the anterior end of the body. Symphylans live in
humus soil, under stones, in decaying wood, and in
other damp situations. The garden symphylan,
Scutigerella immaculata (Newport), feeds on the roots
of plants and is sometimes a pest of vegetable crops, of
the seedlings of broad-Ieaf trees, and in greenhouses.
Collecting and Preserving Myriapods
Myriapods may be killed in a cyanide botde, but such
specimens often become coiled or distorted. These
5.Symphyla: from the Greek, meaning growing together.
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Bonamo. 1989. A Devonian spinneret: Early evidence of
spiders and silk use. Science 246:479-481.
Stahnke,H. L. 1974. Revision and keys to the higher categories
ofVejovidae (Scorpionida).J. Arachn. 1(2):107-141.
Thorp, R. W, and W D. Woodson. 1976. The BIack Widow
Spider. New York: Dover.
Tuttle,D. M., and E. W Baker. 1968. Spider Mites of South-
westem United States and Revisions of the Family Tetrany-
chidae. Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 150 pp.
Ubick,D., and N. 1. Platnick. 1991. On Hesperocranum, a new
spider genus from westem North America (Araneae, Li-
ocranidae). Amer. Mus. Nov. 3019:1-12.
Vetter,R. S., and D. K. Barger. 2002. An infestation of 2,055
brown rec\use spiders (Araneae: Sicariidae) and no en-
venomations in a Kansas home: Implications for bite di-
agnoses in nonendemic areas. J. Med. Entomol. 39:
948-951.
Vener,R. S., and S. P. Bush. 2002. Reports of presumptive
brown rec\use spider bites reinforce improbable diagnosis
in regions of North America where the spider is not en-
demic. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35:442-445.
References 151
Vollrath, F. 1991. Leg regeneration in web spiders and its im-
plications for orb weaver phylogeny. Bull. Brit. Arachnol.
Soc.8:177-184.
Vollrath, F.and D. P.Knight. 2001. Liquid crystalline spinning
of spider silk. Nature 410:541-548.
Weygoldt, P. 1969. The Biology of Pseudoscorpions. Cam-
bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 145 pp.
The Crustacea
Crowder, W. 1931. Between the Tides. New York: Dodd,
Mead, 461 pp.
Edmondson, W T. (Ed.). 1959. Fresh Water Biology. New
York: Wiley, 1248 pp.
Green, J. 1961. A Biology of the Crustacea. Chicago: Quad-
rangle Books, 180 pp.
Klots, E. B. 1966. The New Book of Freshwater Life. New
York: Putnam's, 398 pp.
Kunkel, B. W 1918. The Arthrostraca of Connecticut. Bull.
Conn. Geol. Nat. Hist. Surv. 26:1-261.
Miner, R. W 1950. Field Book of Seashore Life. New York:
Putnam's, 888 pp.
Pennak, R. W 1978. Fresh-Water Invertebrates of the United
States, 2nd ed.. New York: Wiley Interscience, 803 pp.
Willoughby, L. G. 1976. Freshwater Biology. New York: Pica
Press, 168 pp.
The Myriapods
Bailey, J. W 1928. The Chilopoda of New York State, with
Notes on the Diplopoda. N. Y. State Mus. Bull. 276:5-50.
Chamberlin, R. v., and R. L. Hoffman. 1958. Checklist of the
millipedes of North America. U.s. Nad. Mus. Bull.
212:1-236.
Comstock,J. H. 1933. An introduction to entomology. Ithaca,
NY: The Comstock Publishing Co., Inc., 1044 pp.
Eason, E. H. 1964. Centipedes of the British Isles. London:
Frederick Wame, 294 pp.
Johnson, B. M. 1954. The millipedes ofMichigan. Papo Mich.
Acad. Sci. 39(1953):241-252.
Keeton, W T. 1960. A taxonomic stUdy of the millipede fam-
ily Spirobolidae (Diplopoda, Spirobolida). Mem. Ento-
rno!. Soco Amer. No. 17, 146 pp.
Shear, W A. 1972. Studies in the millipede order Chordeu-
mida (Diplopoda): A revision of the family Cleidogo-
nidae and a rec\assification of the order Chordeumida in
the New World. Bull. Mus. Comp. lo o!. Harvard
144(4):151-352.
 6 Hexapoda1
Charactersof the Hexapoda
he distinguishing characters of the Hexapoda may be
Tlisted briefly as follows (Wheeler et al. 2001): maxil-
lary plate present (that is, with buccal cavity closed by
second maxillae = labium); body divided into a distinct
head, thorax, and abdomen; thorax with three pairs of
legs; legs composed of six segments (coxa, trochanter, fe-
mur, tibia, tarsus, pretarsus); abdomen consisting of 11
segments; "knee" formed by the femoral-tibial joint; sec-
ond maxillae fused to form the labium; epimorphic seg-
mental growth; ommatidia with two primary pigment
cells; trochantin present; arolium present. Many of these
characters are attributed to the "ground plan" of Hexa-
poda, although researchers think a number of species
later lost them. For quick identification, the hexapods
can be recognized by the combination of the following:
1. Body with three distinct regions: head, thorax,
and abdomen
2. One pair of antennae (rarely no antennae)
3. One pair of mandibles
4. One pair of maxillae
5. A hypopharynx
6. A labium
7. Three pairs of legs, one on each thoracic segment
(a few insects are legless, and some larvae have
additionalleglike appendages-such as prolegs-
on the abdominal segments)
8. The gonopore (rarely two gonopores) on the pos-
terior portion of the abdomen
152 1Hexapoda:hexa,six; poda,rool.
TJ¡~ ~ 11!i"~ ';!.
~~~..l~j~..;r.( :~
9. No locomotor appendages on the abdomen of
the adult (except in some primitive hexapods);
abdominal appendages, if present, located at
the apex of the abdomen and consisting of a
pair of cerci, an epiproct, and a pair of
paraprocts
Classification of the Hexapoda
The class Hexapoda historically has been divided into
orders primarily on the basis of the structure of the
wings and mouthparts, and type of metamorphosis.
Entomologists differ regarding the limits of some or-
ders and their names. A few of the groups we treat as a
single order some authorities divide into two or more,
and some authorities combine into a single taxon two
groups we recognize as separate orders. A few groups
that we treat as orders of hexapods (the entognathous
orders) some consider to be separa te classes of arthro-
pods. A synopsis of the orders of hexapods, as recog-
nized in this book, is given in the following outline.
Other names or arrangements are given in parentheses.
Data on the sizes of the various orders are given in
Table 6-1.
1. Protura (Myrientomata)-proturans
2. Collembola (Oligentomata)-springtails
3. Diplura (Entognatha, Entotrophi,
Aptera)-diplurans
Insecta
4. Microcoryphia (Archaeognatha; Thysanura, Ecto-
gnatha, and Ectotrophi in part)-bristletails
 Classificationof the Hexapoda 153

Table6-1 Relative Size of the Insect Orders

Number of Species
Familiesin America
Order North Americaa Australiab World Estimates' North of Mexicod

Protura 73 30 500 3
Collembola 812 1,630 >6,000 12
Diplura 125 31 800 4
Microcoryphia 24 7 350 2
Thysanura 20 28 370 3
Ephemeroptera 599 84 2,000 21
Odonata 435 302 5,000 11
Orthoptera 1,210 2,827 >20,000 16
Phasmatodea 33 150 > 2,500 4
Grylloblattodea 10 - 25 1
Mantophasmatodea - - 3
Dermaptera 23 63 1,800 6
Plecoptera 622 196 2,000 9
Embiidina 11 65 <200 3
Zoraptera 2 - 30 1
Isoptera 44 348 > 2,300 4
Mantodea 30 162 1,800 2
Blattodea 67 428 <4,000 5
Hemiptera 11,298 5,650 35,000 90
Thysanoptera 695 422 4,500 7
Psocoptera 264 299 >3,000 28
Phthiraptera 941 255 >3,000 18
Coleoptera 24,085 28,200 > 300,000 128
Neuroptera 400 649 5,500 15
Hymenoptera 20,372 14,781 115,000 74
Trichoptera 1,415 478 >7,000 26
Lepidoptera 11,673 20,816 150,000 84
Siphonaptera 314 88 2,380 8
Mecoptera 83 27 500 5
Strepsiptera 91 159 550 5
Diptera 19,782 7,786 > 150,000 103
Total 95,553 78,175 826,108 698

'FromR.w. Poole and P. Gentili (Eds.), 1996, Nomina Insecta Nearctica: A checklist of the insects of North America, 4 vols. (Rockville, MD: En-
lomological Infortnation Services).
'From CSIRO (Ed.), 1991, The insects of Australia: A textbook for students and research workers, 2 vols (Carlton, Victoria, Australia: Me!-
boume University Press).

'Taken from numerous sources; the numbers are large!y estimates based both on the number of described species and the number of species
thought to remain undescribed and undiscovered.
'As used in this tex!.

5. Thysanura(Ectognatha, Ectotrophi, 9. Phasmatodea (Phasmida, Phasmatida, Phas-

Zygentoma)-silverfish, firebrats matoptera, Cheleutoptera; Orthoptera in part)-
Pterygota-winged and secondarily wingless insects walkingsticks and timemas
6. Ephemeroptera (Ephemerida, Plectoptera)- 10. Grylloblattaria (Grylloblattodea,
mayflies Notoptera)-rock crawlers
7. Odonata-dragonflies and damselflies 11. Mantophasmatodea
8. Orthoptera (Saltatoria, including Grylloptera)- 12. Dermaptera (Euplexoptera)-earwigs
grasshoppers and crickets 13. Plecoptera-stoneflies

UNIVERSIDAD DECALDAf
BI 1:"
'[¡, ,,- . ~9J"
"-
,

154 Chapter6 Hexapoda

14. Embiidina (Embioptera)-webspinners 26. Trichoptera-caddisflies

15. Zoraptera-zorapterans
16. Isoptera (Dictyoptera, Dictuoptera in part)-
termites
17. Mantodea (Orthoptera, Dictyoptera,
Dictuoptera in part)-mantids
18. Blattodea (Blattaria; Orthoptera, Dictyoptera,
Dictuoptera in part)-cockroaches
19. Hemiptera (Heteroptera, Homoptera)-bugs,
cicadas, hoppers, psyllids, whiteflies, aphids,
and scale insects
20. Thysanoptera (Physapoda)-thrips
21. Psocoptera (Corrodentia)-psocids
22. Phthiraptera (Mallophaga, Anoplura,
Siphunculata)-lice
23. Coleoptera-beetles
24. Neuroptera (including Megaloptera and
Raphidiodea)-alderflies, dobsonflies,
fishflies, snakeflies, lacewings, antlions,
and owIflies
25. Hymenoptera-sawflies, ichneumonids,
chalcidoids, ants, wasps, and bees
27. Lepidoptera (including Zeugloptera)-
butterflies and moths
28. Siphonaptera-fleas
29. Mecoptera (including Neomecoptera)-
scorpionflies
30. Strepsiptera (Coleoptera in part)-
twisted-wing parasites
31. Diptera-flies
Phylogeny of the Hexapoda
The hexapods are both a very old and a highly spe-
ciose group. Their evolutionary history and the devel-
opment of hypotheses of their phylogeny have long
been subjects of study. The data that form the basis of
such work are the same for hexapods as for any other
group: the comparative study of characters ofboth fos-
sils (Table 6-2) and present-day species. The diversity,
however, leads to a narrowing of the expertise of those

Jable 6-2 An Outline of the Fossil Record

Millions
of Years
Era Ago' Periods Formsof life

Pleistocene First human

Pliocene
Miocene Age of mammals and flowering plants; rise of modern insect
Cenozoic 70 Tertiary Oligocene genera; insects in amber
Eocene
Paleocene
135 Cretaceous Age of reptiles; first flowering
Mesozoic 180 Jurassic First birds plams; most modern orders of
225 Triassic First mammals insects; extinction of fossil
insect orders
270 Permian Rise of most modern insect orders; extinction of many fossil
orders
350 Carboniferous First winged insects (in several orders, most now extinct;
some very large insects in this period); appearance of primi-
tive reptiles
Paleozoic 400 Devonian First hexapods (springtails); first land vertebrates (amphib-
ians); age of fish
440 Silurian First land animals (scorpions and millipedes); rise of fish
500 Ordovician First vertebrates (ostracoderrns)
600 Cambrian First arthropods (trilobites, xiphosurans, and branchiopods)
Precambrian Primitive invertebrates

'From the beginning of ¡he periodo


who study hexapods and makes it difficult to recog-
nize homologies across such a wide range of species.
In recent years the widespread adoption of the princi-
pIes of phylogenetic systematics, the emergence of
molecular data as a new source of characters, the de-
velopment of computer technologies and software,
and the continued discovery of new taxa has led to a
resurgence in interest in the study of phylogeny, par-
ticularly in the elassical "problems" that have long in-
terested systematists. The discussion that follows is
basedon the recent combined morphological and mo-
leeular analyses of Wheeler et al. (2001). This paper
should be consulted for details of the synapomorphic
eharaeters for the higher taxa.
The fossil record for Precambrian time is quite
seanty,but by the Cambrian period marine arthropods
were present, consisting of trilobites, crustaceans,
and xiphosurans. The first terrestrial arthropods-
scorpions, spiders, and millipedes-appeared later, in
the Silurian period, and the first hexapods appeared
in the Devonian. Relatively few fossils are known from
theDevonian, but many are known from the Carbonif-
erousand later periods.
The hexapods are believed to have arisen from
a myriapod-like ancestor that had paired leglike ap-
pendages on each body segment. The change to the
hexapodous condition involved the development
ofa head, modification of the three segments behind
the head as locomotory segments, and a loss or
reduetion of most of the appendages on the remain-
ing body segments. The first hexapods were un-
doubtedly wingless and, therefore, are sometimes
ealledapterygotes.
The Protura, Diplura, and Collembola are very dis-
tinetgroups that were traditionally elassified as insects.
Many authorities now place them in three separate
classes, some coneluding that the characteristics of
"hexapods" evolved at least four times independently
(for example, see Manton 1977). Others reject that
conclusion but agree with the elassification, in so do-
ingemphasizing the differences with the true insects.
Thesethree elasses are primitively wingless and have
thelateral portions of the head prolonged and fused to
thelabium to form a pouch, thus enveloping the man-
diblesand maxillae. This latter characteristic gives rise
tothe name of a taxon sometimes used to contain the
threeorders, the Entognatha. There is, as yet, no con-
sensuson the pattern of relationships among these or-
ders.The Protura and Collembola are often recognized
asa monophyletic group, the Ellipura. The monophyly
ofthe Diplura is disputed. These orders represent early
offshootsof the hexapod line. The oldest known hexa-
podfossils (from the Devonian) are elearly identifiable
asCollembola.
Phylogenyof the Hexapoda 155
The other two primitively wingless orders are the
Microcoryphia and Thysanura, also known as Ar-
chaeognatha and Zygentoma respectively. These crea-
tures, as well as the winged insects, usually have ex-
posed mouthparts (hence the name Ectognatha).
Kristensen (1981) suggested restricting the word "in-
sects" 10refer to these ectognathous species and leav-
ing hexapodsto inelude both the entognathous orders
and Ectognatha. Thus the terms "insect" and "hexapod"
are not synonyrnous, and the more general word hexa-
pod would refer to the fundamental characteristic of
the species ineluded, that is, having six thoracic legs.
We use the terms in that sense in this book.
Two major lines developed within the winged in-
sects, or Pterygota: the Paleoptera and the Neoptera;
these two groups differ (among other ways) in their
ability to flex their wings: the Paleoptera cannot flex
their wings over the abdomen,2 whereas the Neoptera
can. This wing flexion is effected by rotating the third
axillary selerite about the posterior notal wing process
(see Chapter 2). Several orders of Paleoptera were pres-
ent in the late Paleozoic, but only the Ephemeroptera
and Odonata have survived. The issue of whether the
Paleoptera is a monophyletic group is still not defini-
tively settled (see Wheeler et al. 2001; Hovmóller,
Pape, and Kallerjó 2002).
The relationships among the orders of Neoptera
are far from elear. There are several orders, generally re-
ferred to as the orthopteroid orders, that generally are
characterized by simple metamorphosis, mandibulate
mouthparts, a large anal lobe in the hind wing, cerci,
and numerous Malpighian tubules. They inelude the
present orders Orthoptera, Phasmatodea, Grylloblattaria,
Mantophasmatodea, Mantodea, Blattaria, Isoptera,
Derrnaptera, and Embiidina. Some authorities elassify
these together as the taxon polyneoptera. Among these,
the Grylloblattaria and Mantophasmatodea are wing-
less. The Embiidina do not have a large anallobe in the
hind wing, and it is uncertain whether this characteris-
tic represents a secondary development. The position of
the order Plecoptera is debated. They are sometimes
placed within the Polyneoptera and sometimes sepa-
rated by themselves in the group Paurometabola (or Pli-
coneoptera). Wheeler et al. (2001) partition these or-
ders rather differently: they provide evidence for a
monophyletic group composed of the Orthoptera, Phas-
mida, Grylloblattaria, and Derrnaptera; another con-
taining the Blattaria, Mantodea, Isoptera, and Zo-
raptera; and a third for the sister group relationship
between Plecoptera and Embiidina. The Zoraptera are
2 An exception is the extinct order Diaphanaplerodea. These inseclS
could fIex Ihe wings by a mechanism different from thal of Ihe
Neoptera (Kukalová-Peck 1991).
156 Chapter6 Hexapoda

Collembola often classifiedwith the Paraneoptera (see later) on the

basis of the reduced number of Malpighian tubules and
Protura abdominal ganglia. The combined analysis groups this
order with the so-called Dictyoptera (Mantodea, Blat-
Diplura
taria, and lsoptera) on the basis of several morphologi-
Microcoryphia
cal characters that are convergent in other orders, but
also on the basis of a number of unambiguous molecu-
Thysanura
lar characters.
The hemipteroid groups (sometimes classified as
Ephemeroptera the Paraneoptera)-Hemiptera, Thysanoptera, Pso-
coptera, and Phthiraptera-are characterized by simple
metamorphosis, modification of the maxillary laciniae
Odonata Orthoptera into stylets, absence of a large anal lobe in the hind
wing and the venation somewhat reduced, no cerci,
Phasmatodea four Malpighian tubules, and biflagellate spermatozoa.
Complete metamorphosis appeared with the com-
mon ancestor of the remaining nine orders, the
Holometabola or Endopterygota. The basal relation-
Grylloblattodea ships among these orders are unsettled, but three ma-
jor lines are usually recognized: (l) the Hymenoptera;
Mantophasmatodea
(2) the neuropteroids: the Neuroptera and Coleoptera;
Dermaptera
and (3) the panorpoids: the Lepidoptera, Trichoptera,
Mecoptera, Siphonaptera, Strepsiptera, and Diptera.
Plecoptera
The position of the Strepsiptera is a matter of some
controversy. Typically they have been placed next to, or
Embiidina even within the Coleoptera. One of the most obvious
characters supporting such a relationship is postero-
Zoraptera motorism, that is, the use of only the hind wings for
Isoptera flying. Recent molecular analyses and follow-up mor-
phological studies place the group as the sister to the
Mantodea troe flies, Diptera (Whiting et al. 1997, Whiting 1998,
Wheeler et al. 2001). Carmean and Crespi (1995) have
argued that this is an artifact of phylogenetic analysis
Blattodea techniques, but the fact remains that the distribution of
Hemiptera
character states is now most simply reflected by hy-
pothesizing that flies and Strepsiptera are each other's
Thysanoptera closest relatives.
These concepts of the phylogeny of the insect or-
Psocoptera
ders are summarized in the diagram in Figure 6-1,
which also shows the sequence in which the orders are
treated in this book.
Phthiraptera
Coleoptera

Neuroptera
Hymenoptera
Trichoptera

Lepidoptera

Siphonaptera

Mecoptera

Strepsiptera
Figure6-1 Phylogeny of the hexapod orders (after
Diptera Wheeler et al. 200l).
--

Keyto the Ordersof Hexapods 157

Keyto the Ordersof Hexapods

Ihis key includes adults, nymphs, and larvae. The portion of the key covering nymphs
andlarvae should work for most specimens, but some very young or highly specialized
forrnsmay not key out correctly. The habitat is sometimes an important character in key-
ing out larvae. Groups marked with an asterisk (*) are unlikely to be encountered by the
generalcollector.

1. With well-developedwings (adults) 2

l' Winglessor with wings vestigialor rudimentary (nymphs, larvae,and
someadults) 28
2(1). Wings membranous,not hardenedor leathery 3
2'. Front wings hardenedor leathery,at leastat base(Figure 6-2); hind
wings, if present, usually membranous 23
3(2). With only 1 pair of wings 4
3' With 2 pairs of wings 10
4(3). Body grasshopper-like; pronotum extending back over abdomen and
pointed apically; hind legs enlarged (Figures 6-2A and 11-9) (pygmy
grasshoppers, family Tetrigidae) Orthoptera p. 209
4' Body not grasshopper-like; pronotum not as in preceding item; hind
legs not so enlarged 5
5(4'). Antennae with at least 1 segment bearing a long lateral process;
front wings minute, hind wings fanlike (Figure 33-1A-D); minute
insects (male twisted-wing parasites) Strepsiptera
* p.669
5'. Not exactly fitting the preceding description 6

Figure6-2 lnsects with front wings thickened and hind wings membranous. A, A
pygmy grasshopper (Orthoptera); B, A band-winged grasshopper (Orthoptera); C, A stink
bug (Hemiptera); D, An earwig (Dermaptera); E, A dung beetle (Coleoptera). (A, C, and
E courtesyof Illinois NaturalHistorySurvey;B, courtesyof USDA;D, courtesyof
Knowlton and the Utah AgriculturalExperimentStation.)
158 Chapter6 Hexapoda

6(5'). Abdomen with 1-3 threadlike or styletlike caudal filaments; mouthparts

vestigial 7
6'. Abdomen without threadlike or styletlike caudal filaments; mouthparts
nearly always well deve1oped, mandibulate or haustellate (Figure 6-3) 8
7(6). Antennae long and conspicuous; abdomen terminating in long style
(rare1y 2 styles); wings with single forked vein (Figure 22-63A);
halteres present, usually terminating in hooklike bristle; minute insects,
usually less than 5 mm in length (male scale insects) Hemiptera* p.268
7'. Antennae short, bristlelike, inconspicuous; abdomen with two or three
threadlike caudal filaments; wings with numerous veins and cells;
halteres absent; usually over 5 mm in length (mayflies) Ephemeroptera p.181
8(6'). Tarsi nearly always 5-segmented; mouthparts haustellate; hind wings
reduced to halteres (Figure 6-4A, hal) (flies) Diptera p.672
8'. Tarsi 2- or 3-segmented; mouthparts variable; hind wings reduced or
absent, not haltere-like 9
9(8'). Mouthparts mandibulate (some psocids) Psocoptera
* p.341
9'. Mouthparts haustellate (some planthoppers and a few leafhoppers) Hemiptera p. 268

Figure6-3 Lateral view of anterior part

of body of A, A lygaeid bug (Hemiptera:
Heteroptera) and B, A froghopper
(Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha). ant,
antenna; bk, beak; ex, front coxa; e,
compound eye; 1,legs; nj, pronotum;
De,ocellus; th¡_J'thoracic segments;
w, front wing.

Figure 6-4 A, A dance fly

(Diptera); B, A butterfly (Lepi-
doptera), with a section of the
wing enlarged to show the scales.
hal, haltere.
 Keyto the Ordersof Hexapods 159

Figure6-5 A, A thrips
(Thysanoptera); B, A stonefly
(Plecoptera). (A, Courtesy of
Illinois Natural History Survey;
A B, Courtesy of USDA.)

10(3'). Wings largely or entirely covered with scales; mouthparts usually in

form of coiled proboseis; antennae many-segmented (Figure 6-4B)
(butterflies and moths) Lepidoptera p.571
10'. Wings not covered with scales; mouthparts not in form of coiled
proboseis; antennae variable 11
11(10'). Wings long and narrow, veinless or with only 1 or 2 veins, fringed with
long hairs (Figure 6-SA); tarsi 1- or 2-segmented, last segment swollen;
minute insects, usually less than 5 mm in length (thrips) Thysanoptera p. 333
11'. Wings not as in preceding entry, or ir wings are somewhat linear,
then tarsi have more than 2 segments 12
12(11'). Front wings relatively large, usually triangular; hind wings small,
usually rounded; wings at rest held together above body; wings usually
with many veins and cells; antennae short, bristlelike, inconspicuous;
abdomen with 2 or 3 threadlike caudal filaments (Figure 6-6); delicate,
soft-bodied insects (mayflies) Ephemeroptera p.181
12'. Not exactly fitting the preceding description 13
13(12'). Tarsi S-segmented 14
13'. Tarsi with 4 or fewer segments 17
14(13). Front wings noticeably hairy; mouthparts usually much reduced except
for palps; antennae generally as long as body or longer; rather
soft-bodied insects (caddisflies) Trichoptera p. 558
14'. Front wings not hairy, at most with microscopic hairs; mandibles well
developed; antennae shorter than body 15
15(14'). Rather hard-bodied, wasplike insects, abdomen often constricted at
base; hind wings smaller than front wings, with fewer veins; front wings
with 20 or fewer cells (sawflies, ichneumonids, chalcidoids, ants, wasps,
and bees) Hymenoptera p.481

Figure6-6 A mayfly (Ephemeroptera). (Courtesy

of Illinois Natural History Survey.)
160 Chapter6 Hexapoda

Figure6-7 A, Front wing of a

scorpionfly (Mecoptera); B, Front
A B wing of a lacewing (Neuroptera).

15'. Soft-bodied insects, not wasplike, abdomen not constricted at base;

hind wings about same size as front wings and usually with about as
many veins; front wings often with more than 20 cells 16
16(15'). Costal area of front wing nearly always with numerous crossveins
(Figure 6-7B), or if not (Coniopterygidae, Figure 27-3A), then hind
wings shorter than front wings; mouthparts not prolonged ventrally
into beak (fishflies, dobsonflies, lacewings, and antlions) Neuroptera p.469
16'. Costal area of front wings with not more than 2 or 3 crossveins
(Figure 6-7 A); mouthparts prolonged ventrally to form beaklike
structure (Figures 32-1A and 32-2) (scorpionflies) Mecoptera p.662
17(13'). Hind wings as long as front wings and of same shape or wider at base;
wings at rest held above the body or outstretched (never held flat over
abdomen); wings with many veins and cells; antennae short, bristlelike,
inconspicuous; abdomen long, slender (Figure 6-8); tarsi 3-segmented;
length 20-85 mm (dragonflies and damselflies) Odonata p.193
17'. Not exactly fitting the preceding description 18
18(17'). Mouthparts haustellate Hemiptera p. 268
18'. Mouthparts mandibulate 19
19(18'). Tarsi 4-segmented; front and hind wings similar in size, shape, venation
(Figure 19-1); cerci minute or absent (termites) Isoptera p. 252
19'. Tarsi with 3 or fewer segments; hind wings usually shorter than front
wings; cerci present or absent 20
20(19'). Hind wings with anal area nearly always enlarged and forming a lobe,
which is folded fanwise at rest; venation varying from normal to very
dense, the front wings usually with several crossveins between Cu¡ and
M and between Cu¡ and CU2(Figure 6-SB); cerci present, often fairly
long; mostly 10 mm or more in length; nymphs aquatic, adults usually
found near water (stoneflies) Plecoptera p. 239

A
Figure6-8 Odonata. A, A
dragonfly; B, A damselfly.
(Courtesy of Kennedy and the
U.s. National Museum.)
 Keyto the Ordersof Hexapods 161

20/. Hind wings without enlarged anal area and not folded at rest, with no
extra erossveins; eerci present (but short) or absent; mostly 10 mm in
length or less; nymphs not aquatie, adults not neeessarily near water 21
21(20'). Tarsi 3-segmented, basal segment of front tarsi enlarged (Figure 17-1)
(webspinners) Embiidina* p.247
21', Tarsi 2- or 3-segmented, basal segment of front tarsi not enlarged 23
22(21/). Cerci present; tarsi 2-segmented; wing venation redueed (Figure 18-1A);
antennae moniliform and 9-segmented Zoraptera
* p.250
22'. Cerci absent; tarsi 2- or 3-segmented; wing venation not partieularly
redueed (Figures 24-4 and 24-7); antennae not moniliform, usually
long and hairlike, with 13 or more segments (Figure 24-8) (psocids) Psocoptera p.341
23(2/). Mouthparts haustellate, beak elongate and usually segmented
(Figure 6-3) Hemiptera p. 268
23', Mouthparts mandibulate 24
24(23/). Abdomen with foreepslike eerci (Figure 6-2D); front wings short,
leaving most of abdomen exposed; tarsi 3-segmented (earwigs) Dermaptera p. 234
24'. Abdomen without foreepslike eerci, or if so, then front wings eover
most of abdomen; tarsi variable 25
25(24'). Front wings without veins, usually meeting in straight line down middle
of baek; antennae generally with 11 or fewer segments; hind wings
narrow, usually longer than front wings when unfolded, with few veins
(Figure 6-2E) (beetles) Coleoptera p. 365
25'. Front wings with veins, either held rooflike over abdomen or
overlapping over abdomen when at rest; antennae generally with
more than 12 segments; hind wings broad, usually shorter than front
wings, with many veins (Figure 11-8), usually folded fanwise at rest 26
26(25/). Tarsi with 4 or fewer segments; usually jumping inseets, with hind
femora more or less enlarged (Figures ll-l, 11-6 through 1l-10,
11-l2, 11-14 through 11-18) (grasshoppers and eriekets) Orthoptera p. 209
26'. Tarsi 5-segmented; running or walking inseets, with hind femora not
particularly enlarged (Figures 20-1 and 21-3) 27
27(26'). Prothorax mueh longer than mesothorax; front legs modified for
grasping prey (Figure 20-1) (mantids) Mantodea p. 260
27/. Prothorax not greatly lengthened; front legs not modified for grasping
prey (Figure 20-3) (eoekroaehes) Blattodea p. 263
28(1'). Body usually inseetlike, with segmented legs and usually also antennae
(adults, nymphs, and some larvae) 29
28'. Body more or less wormlike, body regions (exeept possibly head) not
well differentiated, segmented thoracie legs absent; antennae present or
absent (larvae and some adults) 75
29(28), Front wings present but rudimentary; hind wings absent or represented
by halteres; tarsi nearly always 5-segmented (some flies) Diptera* p.672
29/. Wings entirely absent, or with 4 rudimentary wings and no halteres;
tarsi variable 30
30(29/), Antennae absent; length 1.5 mm or less (Figure 7-1); usually oeeurring
in soil or leaf litter (proturans) Protura* p.169
30/. Antennae usually present (sometimes small); size and habitat variable 31
31(30'). Eetoparasites of birds, mammals, or honey bees and usually found on host;
body more or less leathery, usually flattened dorsoventrally or laterally 32
162 Chapter6 Hexapoda

31'. Free-living (not ectoparasitic), terrestrial or aquatic 35

32(31). Tarsi 5-segmented; antennae short, usually concealed in grooves on
head; mouthparts haustellate 33
32'. Tarsi with fewer than 5 segments; antennae, mouthparts variable 34
33(32). Body flattened laterally; usually jumping insects, with relatively long
legs (Figure 6-9A) (fleas) Siphonaptera p. 648.
33'. Body flattened dorsoventrally; not jumping insects, legs usually short
(louse flies, bat flies, and bee lice) Diptera* p.672
34(32'). Antennae distinctly longer than head; tarsi 3-segmented (bed bugs and
bat bugs) Hemiptera p.268
34'. Antennae not longer than head; tarsi l-segmented (lice) Phthiraptera p. 356
35(31'). Mouthparts haustellate, with conical or elongate beak enclosing stylets 36
35'. Mouthparts mandibulate (sometimes concealed in head), not beaklike 39
36(35). Tarsi 5-segmented; maxillary or labial palps present 37
36'. Tarsi with 4 or fewer segments; palps small or absent 38
37(36). Body covered with scales; beak usually in form of a coiled tube;
antennae long and many-segmented (wingless moths) Lepidoptera p.571
37'. Body not covered with scales; beak not coiled; antennae variable,
but often short, with 3 or fewer segments (wingless flies) Diptera* p.672
38(36'). Mouthparts in form of cone located basally on ventral side of head;
palps present but short; body elongate, usually less than 5 mm in
length; antennae about as long as head and prothorax combined, not
bristlelike, 4- to 9-segmented; tarsi 1- or 2-segmented, often without
claws Cthrips) Thysanoptera p. 333
38'. Mouthparts in form of an elongate segmented beak; palps absent;
other characters variable Hemiptera p.268
39(35'). Abdomen distinctly constricted at base; antennae often elbowed; tarsi
5-segmented; hard-bodied, antlike insects (ants and wingless wasps) Hymenoptera p.481

A B D

Figure6-9 Wingless hexapods. A, Human flea (Siphonaptera); B, Springtail

(Collembola); C, Psocid (Psocoptera); D, Firebrat (Thysanura). (A and C, Courtesy
of USDA;B, Courtesy of Folsom and the U.5. National Museum; D, Courtesy of Illinois
Natural History Survey.)
 Keyto the Orders of Hexapods 163

39'. Abdomen not particularly constricted at base; antennae not elbowed;

tarsi variable 40
40(39'). Abdomen with 3 long, threadlike caudal filaments and with stylelike
appendages on some abdominal segments (Figure 6-9D); mouthparts
mandibulate, but often more or less retracted into head; body nearly
always covered with scales; terrestrial (silverfish, bristletails) 41
40'. Abdomen with only 2 threadlike caudal filaments or none; if with
3 (mayfly nymphs), then aquatic; other characters variable 42
41(40). Compound eyes large, usually contiguous; body somewhat cylindrical,
with thorax arched; ocelli present; middle and hind coxae nearly always
with styli; abdominal styli on segments 2-9 (Figure 8-1) Microcoryphia p.177
41'. Compound eyes small and widely separated, or absent; body somewhat
Oattened dorsoventrally, thorax not arched; ocelli present or absent;
middle and hind coxae without styli; abdominal segments 1-6 usually
without styli Thysanura p.179
42(40'). Aquatic, often with tracheal gills 43
42'. Terrestrial, without tracheal gills 50
43(42). Nymphs; compound eyes and usually wing pads present 44
43'. Larvae; compound eyes and wing pads absent 46
44(43). Labium prehensile, folded under head at rest, and when extended much
longer than head (Figures 10-1G, 10-3, and 10-11B) (dragonOyand
damselOy nymphs) Odonata p.193
44'. Labium normal, not as in preceding entry 45
45(44'). With 3 caudal filaments; tarsi with 1 claw; gills located on lateral
margins of abdominal terga, usually leaflike or platelike (Figure 9-2)
(mayOy nymphs) Ephemeroptera p.181
45'. With 2 caudal filaments; tarsi with 2 claws; gills (rarely absent) more or
less fingerlike, usually located on underside of thorax (Figures 16-2B
and 16-3) (stoneOy nymphs) Plecoptera p. 239
46(43'). With 5 pairs of prolegs on ventral side of abdominal segments, the
prolegs with tiny hooks (crochets) (aquatic caterpillars) Lepidoptera
* p. 571
46'. Abdominal segments without prolegs or with terminal pair only 47
47(46'). Mouthparts consisting of 2 slender and elongate structures, longer than
head; antennae long and slender, at least one third as long as body;
tarsi with 1 claw (Figure 27-6D); living in freshwater sponges (larvae
of Sisyridae) Neuroptera p. 469
47'. Mouthparts, usually also antennae, short, not as in preceding entry 48
48(47'). Tarsi with 2 claws; abdomen with long slender lateral processes and a
long slender terminal process (Sialidae, Figure 27-6C) or with slender
lateral processes and a pair of hooklike structures apically (Corydalidae,
Figure 27-6A,B) (fishOyand alderOy larvae) Neuroptera p. 469
48'. Tarsi with 1 or 2 claws;if with 2, then abdomennot as in preceding
entry 49
49(48'). Abdomen with pair of hooks, usually on anal prolegs, at posterior end
and without long lateral processes (but sometimes with fingerlike gills);
tarsi with 1 claw; usually living in cases (caddisOy larvae) Trichoptera p. 558
49'. Abdomen with 4 hooks at posterior end (Figure 26-19A) or none,
with or without long lateral processes (Figures 26-19 and 26-21);
tarsi with 1 or 2 claws; not living in cases (beetle larvae) Coleoptera p. 365
164 Chapter6 Hexapoda

50(42'). Mouthparts usuaUy withdrawn into head and not apparent; abdomen
with stylelike appendages on some segments or with {orked appendage
near end of abdomen; usually less than 7 mm in length 51
50'. Mouthparts usually distinct, mandibulate or haustellate; abdomen
without appendages such as described in preceding entry; size variable 52
51(50). Antennae long, many-segmented; abdomen with at least 9 segments,
with stylelike appendages on ventral side of some segments; without
forked appendage near end of abdomen, but with well-developed cerci
(Figure 7-4) (diplurans) Diplura* p.174
51'. Antennae short, usually with 4 or fewer segments; abdomen with 6 or
fewer segments, usually with forked appendage near posterior end
(Figure 6-9B) (springtails) Collembola p.170
52(50'). Body larviform, thorax and abdomen not differentiated; compound eyes
present (larviform female beetles) Coleoptera* p.365
52'. Body variable in shape, if larviform, then without compound eyes 53
53(52'). Compound eyes usually present; body shape variable, but usually not
wormlike; wing pads often present (adults and nymphs) 54
53'. Compound eyes and wing pads absent; body usually worrnlike in shape
(larvae) 66
54(53). Tarsi 5-segmented 55
54'. Tarsi with 4 or fewer segments 60
55(54). Mouthparts prolonged ventrally into snoutlike structure (Figure 32-6);
body more or less cylindrical, usually less than 15 mm in length
(wingless scorpionflies) Mecoptera* p.662
55'. Mouthparts not as in preceding entry; body shape and size variable 56
56(55'). Antennae 5-segmented; Texas (some female twisted-wing parasites) Strepsiptera
* p.669
56'. Antennae with more than 5 segments; widely distributed 57
57(56'). Cerci l-segmented; body and legs very slender (Figure 12-1, 14-1) 58
57'. Cerci with 8 or more segments; body shape variable 59
58(57). Head prognathous; widely distributed Phasmatodea p.227
58'. Head hypognathous; known only from Africa Mantophasmatodea* p.232
59(57'). Body flattened and oval, head more or less concealed from above by
pronotum (Figure 21-3); ocelli usually present; widely distributed
(cockroaches) Blattodea p.263
59'. Body elongate and cylindrical, head not concealed from above by
pronotum; ocelli absent; U.s. Northwest and westem Canada (rock
crawlers) Grylloblattodea
* p.230
60(54'). Cerci forcepslike; tarsi 3-segmented 61
60'. Cerci absent or, if present, not forcepslike; tarsi variable 62
61(60). Antennae more than half as long as body; cerci short; westem
United States (timemas) Phasmatodea* p.227
61'. Antennae usually less than half as long as body; cerci long (Figure 6-2D);
widely distributed (earwigs) Dermaptera p. 234
62(60'). Tarsi 3-segmented, basal segment of front tarsi enlarged (Figure 17-1)
(webspinners) Embiidina* p. 247
62'. Tarsi 2- to 4-segmented, basal segment of front tarsi not enlarged 63
 Keyto the Ordersof Hexapods 165

63(62'). Grasshopper-like insects, with hind legs enlarged and fitted for jumping;
length usually over 15 mm (grasshoppers) Orthoptera p. 209
63', Not grasshopper-like, hind legs usually not as above; length less than
lOmm 64
64(63'). Tarsi 4-segmented; pale, soft-bodied, wood- or ground-inhabiting
insects (termites) Isoptera p.252
64'. Tarsi 2- or 3-segmented; color and habits variable 65
65(64'). Cerci present, l-segmemed, terminating in long bristle; antennae
9-segmemed, moniliform (Figure 18-1B-D); compound eyes and ocelli
absent; tarsi 2-segmemed (zorapterans) Zoraptera
* p.250
65', Cerci absent; antennae with 13 or more segments, usually hairlike
(Figure 6-9C); compound eyes and 3 ocelli usually presem; tarsi 2- or
3-segmented (psocids) Psocoptera p.341
66(53'). Ventral prolegs present on 2 or more abdominal segmems
(Figures 32-lB and 30-3) 67
66'. Abdominal prolegs absent or on terminal segment only 69
67(66). With 5 pairs of prolegs (on abdominal segments 3-6 and 10) or fewer,
prolegs with tiny hooks (crochets); several (usually 6) stemmata on
each side of head (caterpillars, butterfly and moth larvae) Lepidoptera p.571
67'. With 6 or more pairs of abdominal prolegs, prolegs without crochets;
number of stemmata variable 68
68(67'). Seven or more stemmata on each side of head; prolegs on segments 1-8
or 3-8, usually inconspicuous, pointed structures (Figure 32-1B)
(scorpionfly larvae) Mecoptera* p.662
68'. One stemma on each side of head; prolegs fleshy, not pointed, usually
on abdominal segments 2-8 and 10, sometimes on 2-7 or 2-6 and 10
(Figure 28-37) (sawfly larvae) Hymenoptera p.481
69(66'). Mandible and maxilla on each side united to form sucking jaw that is
often long (Figures 27-9B and 27-11); tarsi with 2 claws; labrum absem
or fused with head capsule; maxillary palps absent (Planipennia: larvae
of lacewings and antlions) Neuroptera p. 469
69'. Mandibles and maxillae not as in preceding emry; tarsi with 1 or 2 claws;
labrum and maxillary palps usually present 70
70(69'). Head and mouthparts directed forward (prognathous), head about as
long along midvemralline as along middorsalline, usually cylindrical
or somewhat flattened 71
70'. Head and mouthparts directed ventrally (hypognathous), head much
longer along middorsalline than along midventralline and usually
rounded 73
71(70). Tarsi with 1 claw (some beetle larvae) Coleoptera p.365
71'. Tarsi with 2 claws 72
72(71'). Distinct labrum and clypeus present (Raphidioptera: snakefly larvae) Neuroptera p.469
72'. Labrum absent or fused with head capsule (most Adephaga: beetle larvae) Coleoptera p.365
73(70'). From legs distinctly smaller than other pairs; middle and hind legs
projecting laterally much more than front legs; small group of stemmata
(usually 3) on each side of head behind bases of antennae; tarsal claws
absem; length less than 5 mm; usually found in moss (larvae of Boreidae) Mecoptera
* p.662
73'. Legs not as in preceding entry, front and middle legs about the same
size and position; stemmata variable; tarsi with 1-3 claws; size and
habitat variable 74
 166 Chapter6 Hexapoda

74(73/). Tarsi with 1 or 2 claws; abdomen usually without caudal filaments;

antennae variable (beetle larvae) Coleoptera p.365
74/. Tarsi usually with 3 claws; abdomen with 2 caudal filaments about
one third as long as body (Figure 33-1F); antennae usually short,
3-segmented (triungulin larvae of some beetles (Meloidae) and Coleoptera *
twisted-wing parasites) and Strepsiptera * p.365
75(28/). Aquatic (fly larvae) Diptera p.672
75'. Not aquatic, but terrestrial or parasitic 76
76(75'). Sessile, plant feeding; body covered by a scale or waxy material;
mouthparts haustellate, long and threadlike (female scale insects) Hemiptera p.268
76'. Not exactly fitting the preceding description 77
77(76'). Head and thorax more or less fused, abdominal segmentation indistinct
(Figure 33-1G); internal parasites of other insects (female twisted-wing
parasites) Strepsiptera * p.669
77'. Head not fused with thorax, body segmentation distinct; habitat variable 78
78(77'). Head distinct, sclerotized, usually pigmented and exserted 79
78/. Head indistinct, incompletely or not at all sclerotized, sometimes
retracted into thorax 86
79(78). Head and mouthparts directed forward (prognathous), head about as
long along midventralline as along middorsalline, usually cylindrical
or somewhat flattened 80
79'. Head and mouthparts directed ventrally (hypognathous), head much
longer along middorsalline than along midventralline and usually
rounded 83
80(79). Terminal abdominal segment with a pair of short, pointed processes;
severallong setae on each body segment (flea larvae) Siphonaptera
* p.648
80'. Not exactly fitting the description in the preceding entry 81
81(80/). Labium with protruding spinneret; antennae arising from membranous
area at bases of mandibles; mandibles well developed, opposable; body
usually more or less flattened; ventral prolegs usually with crochets;
mostly leafminers in leaves, bark, or fruits (moth larvae) Lepidoptera p.571
81/. Labium without spinneret; antennae, if present, arising from head
capsule; prolegs without crochets 82
82(81'). Mouthparts distinctly mandibulate, with opposable mandibles; spiracles
usually present on thorax and 8 abdominal segments; body shape
variable (beetle larvae) Coleoptera p.365
82'. Mouthparts as in preceding entry or with mouth hooks more or less
parallel and moving vertically; spiracles variable, but usually not as in
preceding entry; body elongate (fly larvae) Diptera p.672
83(79/). Abdominal segments usually with 1 or more longitudinal folds laterally
or lateroventrally; body C-shaped, scarabaeiform (Figure 26-31); 1 pair
of spiracles on thorax, usually 8 pairs on abdomen (white grubs: beetle
larvae) Coleoptera p.365
83/. Abdominal segments without longitudinal folds, or if such folds present,
then spiracles not as in preceding entry 84
84(83'). Head with adfrontal areas (Figure 30-3, adf); labium with projecting
spinneret; antennae, if present, arising from membranous area at base
of mandibles; often 1 or more (usually 6) stemmata on each side of head;
ventral prolegs, if present, with crochets (moth larvae) Lepidoptera p.571

..
 References 167

84'. Head without adfrontal areas; labium without spinneret; antennae and
stemmata not as in preceding entry; prolegs, if present, without crochets 85
85(84'). Mandibles not heavily sclerotized and not brushlike; spiracles usually
present on thorax and most abdominal segments, posterior pair not
enlarged; larvae occurring in plant tissues, as parasites, or in cells
constructed by adults (Apocrita) Hymenoptera p.481
85'. Mandibles usually brushlike; spiracles usually not as in preceding
entry-if present in several abdominal segments, posterior pair much
larger than others; occurring in wet places, in plant tbsues, or as
internal parasites (fly larvae, mostly Nematocera) Diptera p. 672
86(78'). Mouthparts of normal mandibulate type, with opposable mandibles and
maxillae; antennae usually present (beetle larvae) Coleoptera p. 365
86'. Mouthparts reduced or modified, with only mandibles opposable, or
with parallel mouth hooks present; antennae usually absent 87
87(86'). Body behind "head" (first body segment) consisting of 13 segments;
full-grown larvae usually with sclerotized ventral plate ("breast bone")
located ventrally behind head (larvae of Cecidomyiidae) Diptera p.672
87'. Body consisting of fewer segments; no "breast bone" 88
88(87'). Mouthparts consisting of 1 or 2 (if 2, then parallel, not opposable)
median, dark-colored, decurved mouth hooks (maggots; larvae of
Muscomorpha) Diptera p.672
88'. Mandibles opposable, but sometimes reduced, without mouth hooks
as described in preceding entry (larvae of Apocrita) Hymenoptera p.481

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Swan, L. A., and C. S. Papp. 1972. The Common Insects of
North America. New York: Harper &: Row, 750 pp.
Usinger, R. L. (Ed.). 1956. Aquatic Insects of California, with
Keys to North American Genera and California Species.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 508 pp.
Wheeler, W c., M. Whiting, Q. D. Wheeler, and J. M.
Carpenter. 2001. The phylogeny of the extant hexapod
orders. Cladistics 17: 113-169.
Whiting, M. E 1998. Phylogenetic position of the Strep-
siptera: Review of molecular and morphological evi-
dence. Int. J. Insect Morphol. Embryol. 27:53-60.
Whiting, M. E, J. M. Carpenter, Q. D. Wheeler, and W C.
Wheeler. 1997. The Strepsiptera problem: Phylogeny of
the holometabolous insect orders inferred from 185 and
285 ribosomal DNA sequences and morphology. Syst.
Biol. 46:1-68.
 7 The Entognathous Hexapods:
Protura,Collembola,
andDiplura

T hesethree orders and the two considered in Chapter 8

are all primitively wingless hexapods with simple
Order Collembola-springtails
Poduridae
metamorphosis;some of the pterygotes also lack wings, Hypogastruridae
but their wingless condition is secondary, because they Onychiuridae
arederived from winged ancestors. Isotomidae
The three orders treated in this chapter are Entomobryidae
grouped together as the Entognatha because the Neelidae
mouthparts are more or less withdrawn into the head. Sminthuridae
Thelateral portions of the head capsule are extended Mackenziellidae
ventrally, fusing with the sides of the labium and Tomoceridae
labrum to form a pouch within which the mandibles Cyphoderidae
andmaxillae are concealed. In addition, in these orders Oncopoduridae
thesegments of the antennal flagellum (when present) Paronellidae
are musculated, the tarsi are one-segmented; com- Order Diplura (Entotrophi)-diplurans
poundeyes are either absent or the ommatidia reduced Campodeidae
in number (eight or less); and the tentorium is rudi- Procampodeidae
mentary. Anajapygidae
Manton (1977) concluded that each of these three
japygidae (Iapygidae)
groups evolved the hexapodous condition indepen-
dently and that each should be treated as a separa te
class.We follow here the conclusions of Boudreaux
(1979)and the nomenclature suggestions of Kristensen Order Protura1-Proturans
(1981)and group them as the Entognatha. As such, they
arethe sister group of the insects (which includes the The proturans are minute whitish hexapods, 0.6 to
Microcoryphia, Thysanura, and Pterygota). Together the 1.5 mm in length. The head is somewhat conical, and
Entognatha and Insecta make up the Hexapoda. there are no eyes or antennae (Figure 7-1). The mouth-
There are other differences of opinion regarding parts do not bite, but are apparently used to scrape off
thetaxonomic status of these groups and the names to food particles that are then mixed with saliva and sucked
begiven them. Our arrangement is outlined as follows, into the mouth. The first pair of legs is principally sen-
withsynonyms and other arrangements in parentheses. sory in function and is carried in an elevated position
OrderProtura (Myrientomata)-proturans like antennae. The tarsi are one-segmented. Styli are pres-
Eosentomidae ent on the first three abdominal segments. On hatching
Protentomidae (including Hesperentomidae)
Acerentomidae 'Protura: prot, first; ura, tail. UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDII
BIBLIOTE.CA
170 Chapter7 TheEntognathous
Hexapods

from the egg, the proturan abdomen consists of 9 seg-
ments. At each of the next three molts, segments are
added anterior to the apical ponion (the telson), so that
the adult abdomen appears to have 12 segments (11
metameric segments and the apical telson).
These hexapods live in moist soil or humus, in lea!
mold, under bark, and in decomposing logs. They feed
on decomposing organic matter and fungal spores.
They are found worldwide, and approximately 200
species are known at present.

Keyto the Familiesof Protura

1. Tracheae present, thorax with 2 pairs of spiracles; abdominal
appendages 2-segmented, with a terminal vesicle Eosemtomidae p.170
l' Tracheae and spiracles absent; abdominal appendages on segment 3,
l-segmented, appendages with or without terminal vesicle 2
2(1'). At least 2 pairs of abdominal appendages with terminal vesicle; most
abdominal segments with single, transverse row of dorsal setae Protentomidae p.170
2' Only first pair of abdominal appendages with terminal vesicle; most
abdominal segments with 2 transverse rows of dorsal setae Acerentomidae p.170

The Eosentomidae contain eight North American
species, all belonging to the genus Eosentomon. The
Protentomidae include three rather rare North Ameri-
can species, one recorded from Maryland, one from
lowa, and a third from California. The Acerentomidae
are a widely distributed group, with eight Nonh Amer-
ican species.
Order Collembola2.3-Springtails
The common name "springtail" is derived from the
forked structure or furcula that propels these minUle
hexapods through the air. Many Collembola (almost all
Onychiuridae, many Hypogastruridae, and some Isoto-
midae) lack a furcula. The furcula arises on the ventral
side of the fourth abdominal segment and, when al
rest, is folded forward beneath the abdomen and held
in place by a clasplike appendage on the third abdom-
inal segment called the retinaculum. When disturbed
the animal jumps by extending the furcula downward
and backward. A springtail 3 to 6 mm in length may be
able to leap 75 to 100 mm. A large number of species,
especially those dwelling in soil, have reduced or 10-
tally atrophied spring mechanisms.
Many collembolans have up to eight ommatidia 00
each side of the head, whereas others have the omma-
tidia reduced or are totally blindo Mouthparts vary
enormously, but generally are somewhat elongate aod
always concealed within the head. Although some
species are carnivores or fluid feeders, most species
feed on decaying vegetable material and fungi and have

Figure7-1 Dorsal view of a proturan, Filientomon bar- 'Collembola: col!, glue; embola, a boll or wedge (referring to the col-
. beri barberi (Ewing). (Courtesy of Ewing and the Ento- lophore).
mological Society of America.) 'This section edited by Kenneth Christiansen.
 Keyto the Familiesof Collembola 171

mandibles with welI developed molar plates. Others
are fluid feeders and have styletlike mouthparts. The
antennae are short, normalIy with four segments. The
tarsi are one-segmented and fused with the tibiae.
Ihese hexapods have a tubelike appendage, the col-
lophore, on the ventral side of the first abdominal seg-
ment;a bilobed, eversible vesicle may be protruded at
its apex. OriginalIy entomologists believed the col-
lophore enabled the animal to cling to the surface on
whichit walked (hence the order name), but they now
know this structure plays a role in water uptake and
excretion.
Springtails, although very common and abundant,
areseldom observed beca use of their smalI size (0.25 to
6 mm) and habit of living in concealed situations. Most
species live in the soil or in such habitats as leaf litter,
under bark, in decaying logs, and in fungi. Some
species may be found on the surface of freshwater
pools or along seashores; some occur on vegetation;
and a few live in termite and ant nests, caves, or snow
fields and glaciers. Springtail populations are often
very large: up to 100,000/m) of surface soil, or literalIy
millions per hectare.
Most soil-inhabiting springtails feed on decaying
plant material, fungi, and bacteria. Others feed on
arthropod feces, polIen, algae, and other materials. A
few species may occasionalIy cause damage in gardens,
greenhouses, or mushroom celIars.

Keyto the Families of Collembola

Ihis key is adapted from Christiansen and Bellinger (1998).

1. Abdominal segments 2-4 separated by dorsal sutures, or furcula

rudimentary 2
l' At least abdominal segments 2-4 fused dorsally; all furcal segments
distinct 10
2(1). First thoracic segment distinct, visible dorsally, with dorsal setae 3
2'. First thoracic segment without dorsal setae and often not visible dorsally 5
3(2). Dens of furcula more than 3 times as long as manubrium, with distal
rings of granules Poduridae p.172
3'. Dens absent or relatively short and not ringed 4
4(3'). Pseudocelli present at least on base of antenna or dorsum of abdominal
segment S Onychiuridae p.172
4' Pseudocelli absent Hypogastruridae p.172
5(2'). Muero of furcula hairy; antennal segment 4 shorter than 3; body with
scales Tomoceridae p.174
5'. Muero with 1-2 setae at most; antennal segment 4 at least as long as 3;
body scales present or absent 6
6(5'). Dens with dentate spines; muero length about equal to or greater than
length of dens Oncopoduridae p.174
6' Spines of dens simple (rarely) or absent; muero usually much shorter
than dens 7
7(6'). Postantennal organ (PAO) present or absent (in 3 species), usually
smooth or unilaterally ciliate; scales absent Isotomidae p.172
7' Postantennal organ (PAO) absent; some setae multilaterally ciliate;
scales present 8
8(7'). Dens dorsally crenulate and curving upward in preserved specimens,
basally in line with manubrium Entomobryidae p.172
8' Dens not crenulate, straight 9
9(8'). Eyes and pigment absent; dens with large dorsal scales and without
apicallobe Cyphoderidae p.174
9' Eyes and pigment present; dens without dorsal scales, with apicallobe Paronellidae p.174
172 Chapter7 The EntognathousHexapods
10(1'). Antennaeshorter than head;eyesabsent
10'. Antennae longer than head, or eyes with at least 1 facet, sometimes
unpigmented
11(10'). Body elongate, oval; dens with 3 setae
11'. Body globular; dens with many setae
Family Poduridae:This family contains only one
species, Podura aquatica L., a ubiquitous species that
lives on the surface of freshwater ponds (Figure 7-2A).
lt is about 1.3 mm in length, and dark blue to reddish
brown. This family is now considered to be more
closely related to the Sminthuridae and Neelidae.
Family Hypogastruridae: Members of this familyare
usually 1-2 mm in length, with short appendages
(sometimes with the furcula reduced or lacking), rang-
ing from white, tan, purple, blue, and greenish, to
black (Figure 7-2B). This is the largest family in the or-
der, with 234 North American species. The snow fIea,
Hypogastrura nivicola (Fitch), is a dark-colored species
often found grazing on algae and fungal spores on
snow during the winter. lt is sometimes a pest in buck-
ets of maple sapo Neanura muscorum (Templeton) is a
fIat species with lobed body segments armed with
short, strong setae, lacking a furcula, and lives beneath
loose bark, rotting wood, or in leaf litter. lt feeds on
fungal juices and its mouthparts are formed into a
cone. The seashore springtail, Anurída marítima
(Guérin), is a slate-blue species that is sometimes ex-
tremely abundant along the northern Atlantic seashore
between tidemarks, where it is found on the surface of
small pools, under stones and shells, and crawling over
the shore. These springtails cluster in air pockets under
submerged rocks at high tide.
Family Onychiuridae:The members of this family
(85 North American species) are somewhat similar to
the Hypogastruridae. However, they differ markedly
from that family by lacking pigment, eye patches, and
a furcula (Figure 7-2C). They characteristically have
pseudocelli (porelike structures) distributed on the an-
tennal bases, head, and trunk segments. When dis-
turbed, these creatures are capable of exuding noxious
or toxic secretions through the pseudocelli. In culture,
species of Tullbergia and Onychiurus have been shown
to be parthenogenetic. This form of reproduction is
probably common among these soil-dwelling species.
Members of the Onychiuridae are abundantly found in
agricultural and forest soils.
Family Isotomidae: The 197 North American mem-
bers of this family range in color from white, yellow,
and green to blue, brown, and dark purple with longi-
Neelidae p.172
11
Mackenziellidae p.174
Sminthuridae p.172
tudinal stripes or transverse bands. Often occurring in
vast numbers, Isotomurus trícolor (Packard), is a com-
mon species found in marshes, as well as wet forest
edges, and sometimes freshwater pools (Figure 7-2D).
Metisotomagrandiceps(Reuter) is carnivorous on other
Collembola. Isotoma propinqua Axelson is one of sev-
eral collembolan species that exhibit ecomorphosis, a
phenomenon that occurs when individuals developed
at abnormally high temperatures differ morphologi-
cally from those developing at lower temperatures, re-
sulting in individuals that were earlier placed in differ-
ent taxa.
Family Entomobryidae:This is a rather large group
of species (138 North American species) of slender
springtails that resemble the Isotomidae but have a
large fourth abdominal segment (Figure 7-2E). In ad-
dition, some species have robust setae, scales, very long
antennae and legs, and striking color combinations.
Orchesella hexfasciata Harvey is a common yellow
species with purple markings, and is found in leaf lit-
ter and under bark. Lepidocyrtus paradoxus Uzel is a
dark blue species with a scaled body and enlarged
mesothoracic segment, giving it the appearance of be-
ing "humpbacked." Another species, Willowsia nigro-
maculata (Lubbock) is found in close association with
human structures and very protected habitats; it can be
found in every old house. This is an extremely diverse
family, which will probably be split into several families
on future revision.
Family Neelidae:This is a small group (seven North
American species) of very small springtails (0.27 to
0.70 mm in length) that have been collected in wooded
areas and in caves. Most species are found in organic
soils, caves, or under bark. They lack eyes, and the an-
tennae are reduced in length to less than the diameter
of the head (Figure 7-2G). Several members of the
family are pigmented, but most are colorless. The tho-
rax is relatively large, giving the animal a seedlike
shape. Megalothorax minimus (Willem) is one of our
commonest species, reaching a length of 0.4 mm.
Family Sminthuridae:These springtails (more than
100 North American species) range in size from 0.75 to
3 mm, and are oval-bodied active jumpers (Figure 7-2H).
Many species are common on vegetation: some, such as
--
Keyto the Familiesof Collembola 173

A B

e D

G H

Figure7-2 Springtails. A, Poduraaquatica (L.) (Poduridae); B, Pseudachorutesaureofas-

ciatus (Harvey) (Hypogastruridae); C, Onychiurus ramosus Folsom (Onychiuridae);
D, Isotomurus tricolor (Packard) (Isotomidae); E, Entomobrya socia Denis (Entomobryi-
dae); F, Tomoceruselongatus Maynard (Tomoceridae); G, Neelus minutus (Folsom) (Neeli-
dae); H, SminthurusJloridanus MacGillivray (Sminthuridae). (Courtesy of Peter H.
Carrington and R.J. Snider.)
174 Chapter7 TheEntognathousHexapods

sence of ocelli, dental crenulations, and dental spÍl

Figure 7-3 MackenzielliapsocoidesHammer, female
(Mackenziellidae) .
Bourletiella hortensis (Fitch), can be pests in gardens.
Others, such as Sminthurus viridis L., can be devastat-
ing on alfalfa in New Zealand and Australia. Still oth-
ers live under stones or bark or in leaf litter, and a few
are found on freshwater pond surfaces. In woodland
situations, Ptenothrix atra (L.) and P. marmorata
(Packard) are often seen on mushrooms or living in old
pine cones. Many species have elabora te mating habits.
Family Mackenziellidae: Members of this family
have a linear, rather than a globular body (Figure 7-3),
incomplete fusion of segments, and very simple, uni-
form setation. There is only a single known species,
Mackenziella psocoides Hammer, described from north-
ern Canada, but also known from Germany, Norway,
and the Canary Islands.
Family Tomoceridae: Members of this family have
coarsely ribbed scales and multilaterally ciliate setae.
The fourth abdominal segment is shorter than or about
equal to the length of the third (Figure 7-2F). There
are 16 species in the Nearctic region, all in the genus
Tomocerus, generally distributed in soil, litter, and
caves. Tomocerusflavescens (Tullberg) and T. elongatus
Maynard are commonly found in leaf litter and under
bark. They are primarily nocturnal.
Fami/y Cyphoderidae:Members of this family can be
distinguished from entomobryids by the combined ab-
They are facultative or obligatory commensals of so
insects. Some tropical forms, incIuding several knc
from Mexico, have highly modified legs or mouthp
for free existence. Only one species, Cyphoderus sin
Folsom, occurs in the United States. It is widely
tributed (California, Iowa, Massachusetts, New Jer
and Louisiana), usually in association with ants.
Family Oncopoduridae: Members of this family h
cIear, hyaline scales and multilaterally ciliate setae. .
furcula is densely scaled ventrally and has both siIT
and ciliate setae dorsally. The retinaculum is qua,
dentate, and all Nearctic species have a row of blunt
tae dorsally on the fourth abdominal segmento n
are two genera: Harlomillisia, with 1 species, H. ocu
Mills (Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, Oregon, 1
nessee, and Maryland); and Oncopodura with
species, found in litter, soil, and caves.
Family Paronellidae:In this family the fourth abd(
inal segment is greatly elongated. There are three wi<
distributed Nearctic species, all in the genus Salina.
Order Diplura4-Diplurans
The diplurans appear somewhat similar to the sil1
fish and bristletails, but they lack a median caudal I
ment and thus have only two caudal filaments or
pendages. The body is usually not covered with sca
compound eyes and ocelli are absent; the tarsi are o
segmented; and the mouthparts are mandibulate :
withdrawn into the head. The antennae are long:
multisegmented; styli are present on abdominal !
ments 1-7 or 2-7. These hexapods are small (gener;
less than 7 mm in length) and usually pale in co
They are found in damp places in the soil, under b¡
under stones or logs, in rotting wood, in caves, an<
similar moist situations.
<Diplura: dipl, two; ura, tail.

Keyto the Families of Diplura

1. Cerci (of adults) l-segmented and forcepslíke (Figure 7-4C) 2
1/ Cerci many-segmented, not forcepslíke (Figure 7-4A,B) 3
2(1). Labial palpi lacking; antennal segment 4 without trichobothria Parajapygidae p.l:
2' Labial palpi present; antennal segments 4-6 with trichobothria Japygidae p.l:
3(1/). Cerci long, about as long as antennae, and many-segmented
(Figure 7-4A); widely distributed Campodeidae p.1:
3' Cerci short, shorter than antennae, and 8-segmented (Figure 7-4B);
California 4
...
B e
4(3'). Styli on abdominal segments 2-7; antennal trichobothria beginning
on third segment
4'. Styli on abdominal segments 1-7; antennal trichobothria beginning
on fifth segment
Family Campodeidae: This is the largest family of
diplurans (34 North American species), and contains
¡hosemost often encountered. Most are about 6 mm
long.Campodeafolsomi Silvestri (Figure 7-4A) is a
fairlycommon member ofthis family. It is found under
stones in damp woods and in humus.
Family Procampodeidae: The only North American
member of this family is Procampodea macswaini
Condéand Pagés, which occurs in California.
FamilyAnajapygidae: This family is represented in
¡heUnited States by a single rare species, Anajapyx her-
mosa Smith, which has been taken in wet soil and hu-
musin Placer County, California.
Family Japygidae: This is a widely distributed
group, but its members are not often encountered.
japygidsand the next family can be recognized by the
l-segmented forcepslike cerci (Figure 7-4C). Twenty-
eigh¡species occur in the United States, and all are
small.Some tropical species are larger, and one Aus-
tralianspeciesof Heterojapyx reaches a length of SOmm.
Collectingand PreservingEntognatha 175
Figure7-4 Diplurans. A, Campodea
folsomi Silvestri (Campodeidae);
B, Anajapyx vesiculosus Silvestri
(Anajapygidae); C, Holojapyx diversi-
ungis (Silvestri) Oapygidae).
Procampodeidae p.175
Anajapygidae p.175
Family Parajapygidae:A cosmopolitan group of
some 40 species, with only two genera and 6 species
found in the United States and Canada. Generally less
than 15 mm in length, this family is distinguished from
the ]apygidae by the absence of trichobothria on the
antennae.
Collecting and Preserving Entognatha
Most species can be collected by sifting debris or by
looking under bark or stones or in fungi. Soil, leaf lit-
ter, or other material that may contain these species
can be sprinkled onto a white surface and the animals
found can be picked up with a moistened brush or as-
pirator. Many forms are most easily collected by means
of a Berlese funnel (see Chapter 35). The springtails
that occur on vegetation can be collected by sweeping
the vegetation with a white enameled pan held at about
176 Chapter7 TheEntognathous
Hexapods
a 30-degree angle to the ground. The hexapods falling
or jumping into the pan can be easily seen and col-
lected. The aquatic springtails can be collected with a
dipper or tea strainer.
References
Bernard, E. c., and S. L. Tuxen. 1987. Class and order Pro-
tura. In F. W Stehr (Ed.), Irnrnature Insects, vo\. 1,
pp. 47-54. Dubuque, lA: KendalVHunt, 754 pp.
Betsch, J.-M. 1980. Elérnents pour une rnonographie des
Collernboles Symphypleones (Hexapodes, Aptérygotes).
Mern. Mus. Nat. Hist. Natur., Serie A 116:1-227.
Boudreaux, H. B. 1979. Arthropod phylogeny with special ref-
erence to insects. New York: Wiley, 320 pp.
Carapelli, A., F. Frati, F. Nardi, R. Dallai, and C. Sirnon. 2000.
Molecular phylogeny of the apterygotan insects based on
nuclear and rnitochondrial genes. Pedobiologia 44:361-373.
Christiansen, K. 1964. Bionornics of Collernbola. Annu. Rev.
Entorno\. 9:147-178.
Christiansen, K. A., and P. F.Bellinger. 1988. The Collernbola
of North Arnerica North of the Rio Grande. Grinnell, lA:
Grinnell College, 1322 pp.
Christiansen, K. A., and R. J. Snider. 1984. Aquatic Collern-
bola. In R. W Merritt and K. W Curnrnins (Eds.), An In-
troduction to the Aquatic Insects, 2nd ed., pp. 82-93.
Dubuque, lA: KendalVHunt.
Ewing, H. E. 1940. The Protura of North Arnerica. Ann. En-
torno\. Soco Arner. 33:495-551.
Fjellberg, A. 1985. Arctic Collernbola I-Alaskan Collernbola
of the farnilies Poduridae, Hypogastruridae, Odontelli-
dae, Brachystornellidae, and Neanuridae. Entorno\.
Scand. Supp\. No. 21, 126 pp.
Gisin, J. 1960. Collernbolenfauna Europas. Geneva: Muséurn
d'Histoire Naturelle, 312 pp.
Hopkin, S. 1997. The biology of springtails, Insecta: Collern-
bola. New York: Oxford University Press, 300 pp.
Kristensen, N. P. 1981. Phylogeny of insect orders. Annu. Rev.
Entorno\. 26: 135-157.
Lubbock, J. 1873. Monograph of the Collernbola and Thysa-
nura. London: Royal Society of London, 276 pp.
The best way to preserve these hexapods is in
fluid-generally 80 to 85% alcohol. It is usually neces-
sary to mount them on microscope slides for detailed
study.
Manton, S. M. 1977. The Arthropoda, Habits, Functional
Morphology, and Evolution. Oxford, UK: Clarendon
Press, 527 pp.
Paclt,]. 1956. Biologie der primar flugellosen insekten. ]ena,
Gerrnany: Gustav Fischer, 258 pp.
Paclt, J. 1957. Diplura. Genera Insect. 212:1-122.
Richards, W R. 1968. Generic classification, evolution, and
biogeography of the Srninthuridae of the world (Collem-
bola). Mern. Entorno\. SOCoCan. 53:1-54.
Salrnon, J. T. 1964-1965. An index to the Collernbola. Bull.
Roy. Soco New Zealand No. 7. Vo\. 1, pp. 1-144 (1964).
Vo\. 2, pp. 145-644 (1964). Vo\. 3, pp. 645-651 (1965).
Srnith, L. M. 1960. The farnilies Projapygidae and Anajapygi-
dae (Diplura) in North Arnerica. Ann. Entorno\. Soco
Arner. 53:575-583.
Snider, R. J. 1987. Class and order Collernbola. In F.W Stehr
(Ed.), Irnrnature Insects, vo\. 1, pp. 55-64. Dubuque, lA:
KendalVHunt, 754 pp.
Szeptycki, A. 1979. Chaetotaxy of the Entomobryidae and Its
Phylogenetical Significance: Morpho-Systematic Studies
on Collembola. IV Krakow: Polska Akademia Nauk,
218 pp.
Tuxen, S. L. 1959. The phylogenetic significance of entog-
nathy in entognathous apterygotes. Smithson. Misc. Coll.
137:379-416.
Tuxen, S. L. 1964. The Protura: A Revision of the Species of
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360 pp.
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KendalVHunt, 754 pp.
 8 TheApterygote Insects
Microcoryphia
andThysanura
he species in these two orders are small to medium-
Tsized wingless creatures with simple metamorpho-
sisoThe Microcoryphia and Thysanura are the closest
livingrelatives of the winged insects (see Figure 8-1),
butthey differ in a number of respects. Some features
of thoracic structure in the Pterygota are correlated
withthe development of wings and are present even in
thewingless members of that group. In the Pterygota
eachthoracic pleuron (with rare exceptions) is divided
bya pleural suture into an episternum and epimeron,
andthe thoradc wall is strengthened internally by fur-
caeand phragmata. The Microcoryphia and Thysanura
haveno pleural sutures, and furcae and phragmata are
notdeveloped. In addition, these orders usually have
stylelikeappendages on some of the pregenital abdom-
inalsegments. Adult Pterygota lack such appendages.
There are some differences between these orders
andthe other primitively wingless hexapods. The Mi-
crocoryphiaand Thysanura are ectognathous; that is,
themouthparts are more or less exposed and not cov-
eredby cranial folds. The segments of the antennal fla-
gellumare without muscles; the tarsi are three- to five-
segmented;compound eyes are usually present; the
tentoriumis fairly well developed; and the abdomen
hasthree long caudal filaments.
Microcoryphia'-Jumping Bristletails
TheMicrocoryphia resemble the silverfish in the order
Thysanura.However, they are more cylindrical, with
thethorax somewhat arched; the compound eyes are
'Microcoryphia:micro, small; coryphia, head.
large and contiguous; ocelli are always present; each
mandible has a single point of articulation with the
head capsule2; the tarsi are three-segmented; and the
middle and hind coxae usually bear styli. These styli
are sometimes lacking on the middle coxae, or they
may be completely absent. The abdomen bears a pair of
styli on segments 2-9, and segments 2-7 each bear
three ventral sclerites (¡he coxopodites and a median
sternum; the sternum is sometimes much reduced).
Segments 1-7 usually bear one or two pairs of eversi-
ble vesicles.
These insects live in grassy or wooded areas under
leaves, under bark, in dead wood, under stones, under
rocks and cliffs, and in similar situations. Most are noc-
turnal, and their eyes glow at night when illuminated
with a flashlight. The largest members of the order are
about 15 mm in length.
The Microcoryphia are quite active and jump
when disturbed, sometimes as far as 25-30 cm. The
eversible vesicles on the abdomen function as water-
absorbing organs. Before these insects molt, they ce-
ment themselves to the substrate (¡he cement appears
to be fecal material). If the cement fails, or if the sub-
strate (such as sand) is not firm, they are unable to
molt, and die. The bodies of these insects are covered
with scales, which sometimes forro distinctive pat-
terns. The scales are often lost during the collecting
process or when the insects are preserved in fluido
The jumping bristletails feed chiefly on algae, but
feed also on lichens, mosses, decaying fruits, and sim-
ilar materials.
'The retention of this primitive form of mandibular articulation is
reflected in the other name commonly used for this order, Archaeo-
gnatha: archaeo,old; gnatha,jaw. 177
178 Chapter8 TheApterygoteInsects

Figure 8-1 A, A jumping bristletail (Meinertellidae), female;

B, Same, ventral view of abdomen. ant, antenna; er, cerci; ex,
coxa; cxp, coxopodite of abdominal appendages; e, compound
eye;fm, femur; Ip, labial palp; mef, median caudal filament;
mxp, maxillary palp; n'_J, thoracic nota; De,ocellus; ovp,
B ovipositor (in A the gonapophyses forming the ovipositor are
shown separated at the apex); stn, abdominal sternites; sty,
styli; t, terga; tb, tibia; tr, trochanter; ts, tarsus.

Key to the Familiesof Microcoryphia

1. The 2 basal antennal segments heavily scaled; sterna of abdominal

segments 2-7large and triangular, extending caudad at least half
the length of coxopodite; abdominal segments 2-7 with at least 1 pair
of eversible vesicles, some segments with 2 pairs Machilidae p.179
1'. Antennae without scales; sterna of abdominal segments 2-7 very small,
protruding only slightly or not at all between coxopodites, never
extending as much as half the length of coxopodites (Figure 8-1B);
abdominal segments 2-7 never with more than 1 pair of eversible
vesicles, sometimes with none Meinertellidae p.179

Family Machilidae: These insects are brownish,
elongate, and about 12 mm in length. There are 19
speciesin North America, and they are found in leaf lit-
ter,under bark, among rocks along the seashore, or in
oldstone walls. Petrobius brevistylis Carpenter is com-
monin rocky cliffs along the New England seacoast,
usually5 to 20 feet above the high-tide mark.
Fami/y Meinertellidae: These are similar in appear-
anceto the machilids and are widely distributed. Five
species occur in N orth America.
Order Thysanura-Silverfish3
The silverfish are moderate-sized to small
usuallyelongated and somewhat flattened, with three
tail-like appendages at the posterior end of the ab-
'Thysanura:
thysan,bristle or fringe; ura, tail.
Keyto the Familiesof Thysanura
1. Tarsi 5-segmented; ocelli present; body not covered with scales;
northern California
1'. Tarsi 3- or 4-segmented; ocelli absent; body usually covered with scales
2(1'). Compound eyes present; body always covered with scales; widely
distributed
2', Compound eyes absent; body with scales (Atelurinae) or without scales
(Nicoletiinae); Florida and Texas
FamilyLepidotrichidae: This familyis represented in
theUnited States by a single species, Tricholepidion
gerlschiWygodzinsky, which lives under decaying bark
offallenDouglas fir in northern California. This insect
isreddish, elongate, with a maximum body length of
about12 mm, with the antennae reaching a length of
9mmand the caudal appendages 14 mm.
Fami/yNicoletiidae:This group contains two sub-
families,which differ in appearance and habits. The
Nicoletiinaeare slender and 7-19 mm in length; they
lackscales;and the caudal filaments and antennae are
relativelylong (half as long as the body or longer). The
Atelurinaeare oval (often with the body tapering pos-
terioriy);the body is usually covered with scales; and
thecaudal filaments and antennae are shorter (usually
lessthan half as long as the body). The Nicoletiinae are
subterraneanor occur in caves and mammal burrows.
TheAtelurinae are free-living or occur in ant or termite
Keyto the Familiesof Thysanura 179
domen. The body is nearly always covered with
scales. The mouthparts are mandibulate, and each
mandible has two points of articulation with the head
capsule. The compound eyes are small and widely
separated (or absent), and ocelli may be present or ab-
sent. The tarsi are 3- to 5-segmented. The tail-like ap-
pendages consist of the cerci and a median caudal fil-
ament. The abdomen is II-segmented, but the last
segment is often much reduced. Segments 2-7 each
contain a single undivided ventral sclerite or a stern-
ite and a pair of coxopodites, and there are styli on
segments 2-9, 7-9, or 8-9.
insects,
Lepidotrichidae p.179
2
Lepismatidae p.179
Nicoletiidae p.179
nests. Five species in this family have been reported
from Florida and Texas.
Fami/y Lepismatidae: This group is represented in
North America by 14 species, some of which are com-
mon and widely distributed. The best-known members
of this family are the silverfish, Lepisma saccharina L.,
and the firebrat, Thermobia domestica (Packard), which
are domestic species that live in buildings. They feed
on all sorts of starchy substances and frequently be-
come pests. In libraries they feed on starch in books,
bindings, and labels. In dwellings they feed on starched
clothing, curtains, linens, silks, and the starch paste in
wallpaper. In stores they feed on paper, vegetables, and
foods that contain starch. The silverfish is gray in color,
about 12 mm in length, and is found in cool, damp sit-
uations. The firebrat (Figure 8-2) is tan or brown in
color, about the same size as the silverfish, and fre-
quents warm places around furnaces, boilers, and
180 Chapter8 TheApterygoteInsects
Figure8-2 The firebrat, Thermobia domestica (Packard).
(Courtesy of the Illinois Natural History Survey.)
steam pipes. Both species are quite active and can run
rapidly. The lepismatids that occur outside buildings
are found in caves, in debris, under stones and leaves,
and in ant nests.
Collecting and Preserving
Apterygote Insects
Indoor species such as the silverfish and firebrat can be
trapped (see Chapter 35), or they can be collected with
forceps or a moistened brush. Most outdoor species
References
Paclt, j. 1956. Biologie der primar flügellosen insekten. Jena,
Germany: Gustav Fischer, 258 pp.
Paclt,j. 1963. Thysanura, farnily Nicoletiidae. Genera Insect.,
Fasc. 216e, 58 pp.; illus.
Rernington, C. L. 1954. The suprageneric classification of the
order Thysanura (Insecta). Ann. Entorno\. Soco Arner.
47:277-286.
Slabaugh, R. E. 1940. A new thysanuran, and a key to the do-
mes tic species of Lepisrnatidae (Thysanura) found in the
United States. Entorno\. News 51:95-98.
Srnith, E. L. 1970. Biology and structure of sorne California
bristletails and silverfish (Apterygota: Microcoryphia,
Thysanura). Pan-Paco Entorno\. 46:212-225.
Wygodzinsky, P. 1961. On a surviving representative of the
Lepidotrichidae (Thysanura). Ann. Entorno\. Soco Arner.
54:621-627.
can be collected by sifting debris or by looking under
bark or stones or in fungi. Soil, leaf litter, or other ma-
terial that may contain these insects can be sprinkled
onto a white surface, and the insects can be picked up
with a moistened brush or aspirator. Many forrns are
most easily collected with a Berlese funnel. The jump-
ing bristletails can sometimes be most easily collected
at night by shining a flashlight over the rocks or leaf lit-
ter where they occur. In some 15-20 minutes the in-
sects will begin crawling toward the light.
The best way to preserve these insects is in fluid-
generally 80-85% alcohol. The bristletails are perhaps
better preserved in alcoholic Bouin's solution.
Wygodzinsky, P. 1972. A revision of the silverfish (Lepisrnati-
dae, Thysanura) of the United States and the Caribbean
area. Arner. Mus. Nov. No. 2481, 26 pp.
Wygodzinsky, P. 1987. Order Microcoryphia. In F. W Stehr
(Ed.), Irnrnature Insects, vo\. 1, pp. 68-70. Dubuque, lA:
KendalllHunt, 754 pp.
Wygodzinsky, P. 1987. Order Thysanura. In F.W Stehr (Ed.),
Irnrnature Insects, vo\. 1, pp. 71-74. Dubuque, lA:
KendalllHunt, 754 pp.
Wygodzinsky, p., and K. Schrnidt. 1980. Survey of the Micro-
coryphia (Insecta) of the northeastern United States and
adjacent provinces of Canada. Arner. Mus. Nov. No.
2071, 17 pp.
 9 Order Ephemeroptera1,2
Mayflies
ayflies are small to medium-sized, elongate, very
M soft-bodied insects with two or three long, thread-
liketails. They are common near ponds and streams.
Theadults (Figure 9-1) have membranous wings with
numerousveins. The front wings are usually large and
triangular,and the hind wings are small and rounded.
Somespecies have the front wings more elongate and
thehind wings very small or absent. The wings at rest
areheld together above the body. The antennae are
small,bristlelike, and inconspicuous. The immature
stagesare aquatic, and the metamorphosis is simple.
Mayflynymphs are found in a variety of aquatic
habitats.Some are streamlined in form and very active,
andothers are burrowing in habit. They can usually be
recognizedby the leaflike or plumose gills along the
sidesof the abdomen and the three (rarely two) long
tails(Figure 9-2). Stonefly nymphs (Figures 16-2B
and16-3) are similar, but have only two tails (the
cerci),and the gills are on the thorax (only rarely on
theabdomen)and are not leaflike. Mayfly nymphs feed
chieflyon algae and detritus. Many are most active at
night.
When ready to transform to the winged stage, a
mayfly nymph rises to the surface of the water and
molts, and a winged form flies a short distance to the
shorewhere it usually alights on vegetation. This stage,
whichis not the adult, is called a subimago. It molts
oncemore, usually the next day, to become the adult.
Thesubimagois dull in appearance and somewhat pu-
bescent.There are hairs along the wing margin and on
thecaudalfilaments (these areas are nearly always bare
'Ephemeroptera:
ephemera, for a day, short-lived; ptera, wings (refer-
ringlOIheshortlife of the adults),
'Th~chapteredited by Manuel L. Pescador.
in the adults), ancJ.the genitalia are not fully developed.
In a few genera there is no imago stage in the female;
the subimago in these species mates and lays the eggs.
The adult is usually smooth and shining; it has longer
legs and tails than the subimago; and its genitalia are
fully developed. The mayflies are the only insects that
molt again after the wings become functional. The
nymphs may require ayear or two to develop, but the
adults (which have vestigial mouthparts and do not
feed) seldom live more than a day or two.
Adult mayflies often engage in rather spectacular
swarming flights during which mating takes place.
These swarms vary in size from small groups of indi-
viduals flying up and down in unison to large clouds of
flying insects. The swarms of some species are 15 me-
ters or more above the ground. The individuals in the
swarm are usually all males. Sooner or later females en-
ter the swarm, and a male will seize a female and fly
away with her. Mating occurs in flight, and oviposition
generally occurs very shortly thereafter (within min-
utes or, at most, a few hours).
The eggs are laid on the surface of the water or are
attached to objects in the water. In cases where the eggs
are laid on the surface of the water, they may simply be
washed off the end of the abdomen a few at a time, or
they may all be laid in one clump. Each species has
characteristic egg-Iaying habits. A few species are ovo-
viviparous.
Mayflies often emerge in enormous numbers from
lakes and rivers and sometimes may pile up along the
shore or on nearby roads and streets. Piles as deep as
1.2 meters have be en observed in Illinois (Burks 1953),
causing serious traffic problems. Such enormous emer-
gences are often a considerable nuisance. Up until
about the mid-1950s, mass emergences of this sort oc- 181
 Figure9-1 A mayfly, Hexagenia bilineata
(Say) (Ephemeridae). (Courtesy of Needham
and the Bureau of Fisheries.)

Figure9-2 Mayfly nymphs. A, Baetis

brunneicolor McDunnough (Baetidae);
B, Anthopotamus sp. (Potamanthidae);
C, Heptagenia diabasia Burks (Hepta-
geniidae). (A, Courtesy of Leonard and
the Entomological Society of America;
A
e B, Courtesy of Needham and the Bu-
reau of Fisheries; e, Courtesy of Burks
and the Entomological Society of
America.)
--

Some Charactersof the Ephemeroptera 183

curredalong the shores of Lake Erie,but changesin the Kukalová-Peck (1985) proposed a reinterpretation of
lake(increased pollution) have greatly reduced the mayfly venation, bringing it in line with her hy-
numberof these insects (and also the numbers of many potheses on the fundamental structure of pterygote
fish),and their emergences now are not as striking as wings. Table 9-1 presents a comparison of these
theyused to be. three venational terminologies (veins labeled 1 are
The chief economic importance of mayflies lies in in tercalaries) .
theirvalue as food for fish. Both adults and nymphs
The abdomen. The abdomen of a mayfly is 10-
are an important food of many freshwater fish, and
segmented, with the caudal filaments arising on the
manyartificial flies used by fishermen are modeled af-
tenth segment. Some mayflies have only two caudal fil-
terthese insects. Mayflies also serve as food for many
aments (the cerci), with the median filament vestigial
otheranimals, including birds, amphibians, spiders, or absent; others have all three filaments well devel-
andmany predaceous insects. Most species of mayflies
oped. The sternum of segment 9 forms the subgenital
inthe nymphal stage are restricted to particular types
plate. The male has a pair of clasperlike genital forceps
ofhabitats. Hence the mayfly fauna of an aquatic habi-
on the distal margin of this plate and paired penes
tatmay serve as an indicator of the ecological charac-
(rarely, the penes are more or less fused) dorsal to this
teristics (including the degree of pollution) of that
habitat. plate (Figure 9-5). The subgenital plate of the female,
formed by the posterior part of the ninth sternum,
varies in shape, and there are no claspers or penes. The
character of the claspers is sometimes used in separat-
ing families, and both the claspers and the penes are
SomeCharacters of the Ephemeroptera usually very important in separating species.
Thehead. The compound eyes often differ in the two
sexes,being generally larger and closer together in the
male,and smaller and farther apart in the female. In
mostof the smaller species, such as the Caenidae, the
eyesaresmall and widely separated in both sexes. The Table 9-1 A Comparisonof Venational
eyes of the male are often larger or have upper facets Terminologiesin the Ephemeroptera
that are a different color from the other facets. In the
Edmundsand
Baetidaeand some Leptophlebiidae, the upper facets Kukalová-Peck Traver (1954a); Needhamet al.
aremore or less on stalks (such eyes are described as (1985) Edmundset al. (1976r (1935)'
turbinate).The eyes of the female are usually uniform
in colorand facet size. C' C C
SeP Se Se
Thelegs. In most mayflies, the front legs of the male RA R, R,
aremuch longer than the other legs (the tibiae and RPI R2 R2
tarsibeing much elongated), sometimes as long as or RP2 R)(a+b)
longer than the body. In the Polymitarcyidae and RP3-4 R.+, R)
Behningiidae,the middle and hind legs of the male and MAI-2 MAl R.
al!the legs of the female are vestigial. IMA
The wings. Most mayflieshave two pairs of wings, but MA3-4 MA2 R,
in the Caenidae, Leptohyphidae, Baetidae, and some MPI-2 MP, M,
Leptophlebiidae the hind wings are greatly reduced or IMP
absent.The shape of the front wings is somewhat tri- MP3-4 MP2 M2
angularin most mayflies, but the front wings are more CuAI-2 CuA CUI
elongatein those species that have reduced hind wings Cu supplements Cubital interealaries Cu,
orlack them altogether. The wings are somewhat cor- + CuA3-4
rugated,with the veins lying either on a ridge or in a CuP (+AAl) CuP CU2
furrow.Some veins contain bullae, weakened areas that AA2 lA lA
al!owthe wings to bend during flight.
There is considerable variation in the venational 'Usedin this book and by many present workers on the
Ephemeroptera.
terminologies different authorities use in this group. 'Used by Burks (1953) and in previous editions of this book.
Weuse here the terminology of Edmunds and Traver 'The costal margin is formed by the fusion of PC, CA, cp, and
(l954a; Figure 9-3), which differs a little from ScAl-2; Sc3-4 forms the subcostal brace at the baseof the wing (the
that used by many earlier researchers. In addition, costal brace of Edmunds &: Traver 1954a).
184 Chapter9 Order Ephemeroptera

IMA(-)

1 A(+)CuP(-) ICuA

SC(-)
R,(+)
R2(-)
(+)
R4+5(-)
'-MA(+)
MP,(-)
, IMP(+)

1A(+)Cup(-)
\
CuA(+)
" MP2(-) Figure9-3 Wings of Pentagenia (Ephemeridae). Major convex
(+) and convave (-) longitudinal veins indicated.

Baetidae (135): Acentrella (6), Acerpenna (4), Ameri-

Classification of the Ephemeroptera
Several higher classifications have been proposed re-
centiy for Ephemeroptera, ranging from O to 4 subor-
ders, and several more infraorders and superfamilies.
The situation is presentiy in a state of active flux. The
following list begins at the relatively stable level of fam-
ily, and the names are simply listed in alphabetical or-
der. The numbers of genera and species are from the
2002 list of the Mayflies01NorthAmericaWebsite. The
groups marked with an asterisk are relatively rare or
are unlikely to be taken by the general collectar.
Acanthametropadidae (2): Acanthametropus (l),
Analetris (l)
Ameletidae (34): Ameletus (34)
Ametropodidae (3): Ametropus (3)
Arthropleidae (1): Arthroplea (l)
cabaetis (3), Apobaetis (3), Baetis (22), Baetodes
(6), Baetopus (l), Barbaetis (l), Callibaetis (12),
Camelobaetidius (5), Centroptilum (15),
Cloeodes (3), Cloeon (l), Diphetor (l), Fallceon (1),
Heterocloeon (4), Paracloeodes (1), Plauditus (13),
Procloeon (25), pseudocentroptiloides (2),
Pseudocloeon (6)
Baetiscidae (12): Baetisca (12)
Behningiidae (l): Dolania (1)
Caenidae (26): Americaenis (l), Brachycercus (10),
Caenis (12), Cercobrachys (3)
Ephemerellidae (96): Attenella (4), Caudatella (7),
Caurinella (1), Dannella (3), Dentatella (2),
Drunella (15), Ephemerella (34), Eurylophella (15),
Serratella (13), Timpanoga (2)
Ephemeridae (15): Ephemera (7), Hexagenia (5), Lito-
brancha (1), Pentagenia (2)
 Classification of the Ephemeroptera 185

R4-S + MA,
\ I 1--
CuP ~MA2 + MP, , ,',
A MP2 + CuA _-l !__ B

e D

E F

CuP
."''''1
G CuA/ MP2 MP, MA2 MA, I",ur-- I",UI-\ IVIr-2
MP, H
F=!2

1A
lA
CuP
ICuA- - -:

CuA MP2 ,
,...
J

Figure9-4 Wingsof Ephemeroptera.A, Lachlania,Oligoneuriidae,front wing;

B, Neoephemera, Neoephemeridae, terga 9 and 10; C, Leptohyphes, Leptohyphidae, hind
wing of male; D, Baetis, Baetidae, front and hind wings; E, Tncorythodes, Leptohyphidae,
front wing; F, Caenis, Caenidae, front wing; G, Ephemerdla, Ephemerellidae, front wing;
H, Baetisca, Baetiscidae, front wing; 1, Anthopotamus, Potamanthidae, front wing; J, Lep-
tophlebia, Leptophlebiidae, front wing.
186 Chapter9 OrderEphemeroptera

Heptageniidae (127): Acanthomola (1), Anepeorus (2),
Cinygma (3), Cinygmula (10), Epeorus (19), Hepta-
genia (12), lronodes (6), Leucrocuta (10), Macdun-
noa (3), Nixe (ll), Raptoheptagenia (1), Rhithro-
gena (22), Stenacron (7), Stenonema (20)
Isonychiidae (16): Isonychia (16)
Leptohyphidae (25): Allenhyphes (2), Asioplax (5),
Homoleptohyphes (3), Leptohyphes (2), Tricoryhy-
phes (l), Tricorythodes (10), Vacupemius (2)
Leptophlebiidae (66): Choroterpes (5), Farrodes (l),
Habrophlebia (l), Habrophlebiodes (4), Leptophlebia
(7), Neochoroterpes (3), Paraleptophlebia (39),
Thraulodes (3), Traverella (3)
Metretopodidae (9): Metretopus (2), Siphloplecton (7)
Neoephemeridae (4): Neoephemera (4)
Oligoneuriidae (6): Homoeoneuria (4), Lachlania (2)
Polymitarcyidae (6): Campsurus (2), Ephoron (2),
Tortopus (2)
Potamanthidae (5): Anthopotamus (5)
Pseudironidae (l): Pseudiron (l)
Siphlonuridae (24): Edmundsius (1), Parameletus (4),
Siphlonisca (l), Siphlonurus (18)

Keyto the Familiesof Ephemeroptera

The venational characters used are those of the front wing, unless otherwise indicated.
This key is modified from the last edition of this book and Edmunds and Waltz (1996)
by Manuel L. Pescador andjanice Peters. Graups marked with an asterisk (*) are rela-
tively rare or are unlikely lObe taken by the general collector. Keys to nymphs are given
by Edmunds et al. (1963), Edmunds (1984), and Edmunds and Allen (1987).

1. Fore wing venation appears reduced, with apparently only 3 or

410ngitudinal veins behind R¡ (Figure 9-4A) Oligoneuriidae p.191
l' Fore wing venation complete or moderately reduced, with numeraus
longitudinal veins present behind R¡ 2
2(1'). Bases of MP2and CuA of fore wing strangly divergent and recurved
fram MP¡ (Figures 9-3, 9-41), or recurved base of MP2close to or
fused with CuA (Figure 9-4D, H, J) 3
2'. Bases of MP2and CuA of fore wing liule divergent fram MP. (MP2
only may diverge fram MP¡) (Figures 9-6C,D) 7
3(2). Middle and hind legs of male and alllegs of female atrophied (or lost)
beyond trochanter; vein MA of fore wing forked in basal half
(Figure 9-6A, B) 4
3' Alllegs well developed in both sexes; vein MA of fore wing forked near
middle of wing (Figures 9-3, 9-41) 5
4(3). Males with penes twice as long as genital forceps; female wings white Behningiidae
* p.190
4'. Males with penes shorter than genital forceps; female wings hyaline Polymitarcyidae p.191
5(3'). Abdominal tergum 9 with well-developed posterolateral projections
with apex about as long as tergum 10; body robust Neoephemeridae p. 190
5' Lateral margins of abdominal tergum 9 without projections as in
preceding entry; most species with slender body 6
6(5/). Vein lA of fore wing forked near margin (Figure 9-41) Potamanthidae p.191
6/ Vein lA of fore wing unforked, but with three or more veinlets
extending to hind margin of wing (Figure 9-3) Ephemeridae p.190
7(2'). Fore wing cubital intercalaries with a series of veinlets, often forked
or sinuate, extending fram CuA to hind margin of wing (Fig. 9-6D);
vein MA of hind wing forked; hind wings present 8
7' Fore wing cubital intercalaries not as in preceding entry; vein MA of
hind wing forked or unforked; hind wing present, reduced, or absent 11
 Keyto the Familiesof Ephemeroptera 187

8(7). Three caudal filaments present, median filament distinctly longer than
abdominal tergum 10; hind wing 1/2or more length of fore wing; very
rare Aeanthametropodidae * p. 189
8', Twocaudal filaments present, medial filament vestigial; hind wing less
than 1/2length of fore wing 9
9(8'), Vein MP of hind wing forked near margin; fore legs largely or entirely
dark; middle and hind legs pale Isonyehiidae p.190
9', Vein MP of hind wing forked near base or middle of wing; legs not as
in preceding entry 10
10(9'). Tarsal claws of each leg dissimilar, one pointed, the other rounded or
padlike Ameletidae p. 189
10'. Tarsal claws on each leg similar in form, pointed Siphlonuridae p.191
11(7'). Three well-developed caudal filaments present (median filament
sometimes shorter and thinner than cercO 12
11'. Twowell-developed caudal filaments present (median filament
rudimentary or absent) 15
12(11). Hind wings present, usually relatively large with one or more veins
forked; costal projection of hind wings, if present, shorter than width
ofwing 13
12'. Hind wings absent or very small, with only 2 or 3 simple veins;
costal projection of hind wings, if present, as long as or longer than
width of wing 20

sgp

pe
L-i:l?J)\,\\ \
I I I '1.\ l.' I\ n I I I
gf

mcf
\ \nHnl /

Figure 9-5 Apex of abdomen of male mayfly, Leptophlebiaeupida (Say), ventral view.
er, lateral caudal filament (cercus); gf, genital forceps; mef, median caudal filament; pe,
penes; sgp, subgenital plate.
188 Chapter9 Order Ephemeroptera

R4+5
MA,
MA2
MP,

MP2
CuA

1A CuP--- --.' ICuA

Se
R, -R2
se~R2ICUA R3
R4+5
MA
cUP~~~'
CuA I " MP,
A B CuA MP2

Se~R4+5
MA,
~MA2
1A Cup/ICUA 1A CuP .=-=-.
ICuA'Cu.tn
se
MP
MP2
'

~
se Figure 9-6 Wings of Ephemeroptera.

~
R,
R, R4+5 A, Campsurus, Campsurinae, Polymitar-
R4+5 cyidae; B, Ephoron, Polymitarcyinae,
1A ~MA,
MA,
CuP CuA MP'0 MA2 Polymitarcyidae; C, Stenonema, Hepta-
e CuA MP2 MP, MA2 D MP, geniidae; D, Siphlonurus, Siphlonuridae.

13(12). Fore wing with 1 long pair of parallel cubital intercalaries and several
shorter intercalaries between CuA and CuP; vein lA attached to hind
margin of wing by series of marginal veinlets; western United States Ametropodidae* p.189
13'. Fore wing with cubital intercalaries not as in preceding entry; vein lA
not as in preceding entry; widely distributed 14
14(13'). Fore wing with short, basally detached marginal veinlets along outer
margin of wing; vein CuA basally close to or overlapping base of vein
CuP (Figure 9-4G); genital forceps of male with one terminal segment Ephemerellidae p.190
14'. Fore wing without basally detached marginal veinlets along outer
margin of wing; base of CuA separated from base of CuP (Figure 9-4J);
male genital forceps with 2 or 3 terminal segments (Figure 9-5) Leptophlebiidae p.190
15(11'). Cubital intercalaries absent in fore wing and vein lA extending to
outer margin of wing (Figure 9-4H); hind wing with numerous long,
free marginal veinlets Baetiscidae p.190
15'. Cubital intercalaries present in fore wing and vein lA extending to
hind margin ofwing (Figures 9-4D, 9-6C); hind wing (ifpresent)
not as in preceding entry 16
 Keyto the Familiesof Ephemeroptera 189

16(15'). Fore wing with 1 or 2 short, basally detached marginal veinlets between
main longitudinal veins; bases of veins MA2and MP2detached from
their respective stems (Figure 9-4D); 1 long and 1 short cubital
intercalary present (Figure 9-4D); hind wing small or absent; upper
portion of male eye large and on stalk Baetidae p.190
16'. Fore wing with marginal intercalaries attached basally to other veins
(Figure 9-6C); bases ofveins MA2and MP2attached to MA, and MP,;
usually with 2 pairs (rarely 1) of cubital intercalaries (Figure 9-6C);
hind wings relatively large; male eyes not on stalks 17
17(16'). Hind tarsi distinctly 5-segmented 18
17'. Hind tarsi apparently 4-segmented, basal segment more or less fused
to tibia 19
18(17). Genital forceps of male with 3 short terminal segments; MA of hind
wing unforked; rare, U.S. Northeast west to Wisconsin Arthropleidae * p. 189
18'. Genital forceps of male with 2 short terminal segments; MA of hind
wing usually forked (Figure 9-6C); very common, widespread Heptageniidae p.190
19(17'). Eyes of male imago separated by distance greater than width of median
ocellus; length of fused basal segment of hind tarsus less than '/2 length
of tibia; subgenital plate of female with median cleft; abdominal sterna
without median marks Pseudironidae
* p.191
19'. Eyes of male imago contiguous (touching) medially or nearly so; length
of fused basal segment of hind tarsus greater than '/2length of tibia;
subgenital plate of female evenly rounded; abdominal sterna with
median dots or lines Metretopodidae p.190
20(12'). Veins MP2and IMP of fore wing extending less than y. distance to base
of wing (Figure 9-4E); male genital forceps 2- or 3-segmented; hind
wings present or absent; thorax usually black or gray Leptohyphidae p.190
20'. VeinsMP2and IMPof forewingextendingnearly to baseof wing
(Figure 9-4F); male genital forceps l-segmented; hind wings absent;
thorax color variable, usually brown Caenidae p.190

FamilyAcanthametropodidae: Two genera of these
rareand sporadically distributed mayOiesare known
fromNorth America,but only one has been collected
asan adulto They have relatively large hind wings with
theirlength one half or more of the length of the fore
wing,and three caudal filaments with the median fila-
mentdistinctly longer than abdominal tergum 10. The
nymphshave long, slender tarsal claws (especially the
hindtarsal claws) that enable them to maintain their
positionin sandy bottom streams.
Fami/y Ameletidae: The adults are similar to
Siphlonuridae, from which they are distinguished by
the dissimilarity of the tarsal claws on each leg: one
pointedand the other rounded or padlike. The fast-
swimmingnymphs inhabit a wide variety of habitats,
ranging from swift-flowing streams to large rivers,
lakes,and ponds. They occur mostly among pebbles on
gravelly substrates, although a few nymphs have been
collected among vegetation and debris.
Family Ametropodidae: These mayflies have a wing
venation similar to that of the Heptageniidae (Fig-
ure 9-6C), but they have three caudal filaments (two in
the Heptageniidae), and the hind tarsi have four seg-
ments. The nymphs live buried in the silty sand in the
bottoms of large rivers with a fairIystrong current.
Family Arthropleidae: Adults are similar to Hepta-
geniidae, but the genital forceps of the males have
three short terminal segments and vein MA of the
hind wing is unforked. The family is represented by
one rare, widely distributed species, Arthroplea
bipunctata (McDunnough). The nymphs live on vege-
tation in temporary ponds and marginal areas of
streams and feed by sweeping elongate maxillary
palpi through the water.
190 Chapter9 OrderEphemeroptera
Family Baetidae:This is the largest family of
mayflies in North America, and its members are com-
mon and widely distributed. The nymphs occur in a
variety of aquatic habitats. The adults are small (front
wings 2-12 mm), with front wings elongate-oval and
hind wings very small or absent. Baetids (Figure 9-40)
differ from other mayflies that have hind wings small
or absent (Caenidae, Figure 9-4F; Leptohyphidae, Fig-
ure 9-4E; and some Leptophlebiidae) in having only
two caudal filaments, one or two short marginal vein-
lets between the main longitudinal veins, and the bases
ofMA2 and MP2 atrophied. The eyes ofthe male are di-
vided, with the upper portion turbina te.
Family Baetiscidae: These mayflies are small to
medium-sized (front wing 8-12 mm), with two caudal
filaments (which are usually shorter than the body).
The wings are often reddish or orange, at least basally.
The front wing lacks cubital intercalaries and has lA
extending to the outer margin of the wing (Fig-
ure 9-4H). The nymphs occur principally in cool,
fairly rapid streams.
Family Behningiidae: This group is represented in
the United States by a single rare species. Dolania amer-
icana Edmunds and Traver, which has been found in
the southeastem states with one record from Wiscon-
sin. The nymphs burrow in the sand at the bottom of
large rivers.
Family Caenidae:These mayflies are quite small
(front wing 2-6 mm), with three caudal filaments and
no hind wings. They are similar to the Leptohyphidae,
but the fork ofMA is asymmetrical and veins IMP¡ and
MP2 extend nearly to the wing base (Figure 9-4F). The
nymphs occur in a variety of aquatic habitats, usually
in quiet water.
FamilyEphemerellidae: These mayfliesare medium-
sized (front wing 6-19 mm) and usually brownish,
with three caudal filaments. They have short, basally
detached marginal veinlets along the outer margin of
the front wing, and the costal crossveins are reduced
(Figure 9-4G). The ephemerellids are common and
widely distributed mayflies. The nymphs live in a va-
riety of aquatic habitats, usually under rocks or in de-
bris in cool, clear, rapid streams or in small, clear
lakes.
Family Ephemeridae: These mayflies are medium-
sized to large (front wings 10-25 mm), with two
or three caudal filaments. The wings are hyaline
or brownish and, in Ephemera, have dark spots. The
nymphs are burrowing in habit and occur in the
sand or silt at the bottoms of streams and lakes, some-
times in fairly deep water. Adults of Hexagenia (Fig-
ure 9-1) sometimes emerge from lakes in tremendous
numbers.
Family Heptageniidae: This is the second largest
family of mayflies in North America, and its members
are common and widely distributed. The nymphs
sprawling forms, sometimes dark-colored, with
head and body flattened (Figure 9-2C). Most Sp
occur on the underside of stones in streams, but s
occur in sandy rivers and boggy ponds. Adults ]
two caudal filaments and two pairs of cubital ir
calaries that are more or less parallel (Figure 9-1
and MA in the hind wing is usually forked. The I
tarsi are five-segmented.
Family Isonychiidae: The adults are easily re
nized by the forked vein MP of the hind wings neal
wing margin, and the largely or entirely dark fore
and pale middle and hind legs. The minno\\
nymphs are mostly found in flowing water with r
current, from which they filter food particles thro
the double row of long hairs on the fore tibiae
femora.
Family Leptohyphidae: This group is largely tI
cal, but a few species extend into Canada. The nyn
occur in rivers and streams. The adults are small (f
wing 3-9 mm), with three caudal filaments. The f
wings are elongate-oval or wider at the base, witl
marginal veinlets. MA forms a symmetrical fork
MP2 is usually free at its base (Figure 9-4E). t
wings are lacking, but males of some genera have S
hind wings with a long, slender costal projection (
ure 9-4C).
Family Leptophlebiidae: This is a fairly large gn
and its members are relatively common and widely
tributed. The nymphs occur in a variety of aql
habitats, usually in still water or in streams with ,
duced current. Adults have three caudal filaments,
the venation (Figure 9-4J) is fairly complete. Then
no detached veinlets, and CuP is rather strongly
curved. The eyes of the male are strongly divided, 1
the upper portion having larger facets. Adults rang
size (measured by the length of the front wing) fro
to 14 mm.
Family Metretopodidae:The nymphs of this S
group generally live in large, slowly flowing stre~
usually in shallow water near the shore. The ad
have a wing venation similar to that of the Heptag
ida e (Figure 9-6C), but the hind tarsi are f
segmented (five-segmented in the Heptageniid
These mayflies are chiefly northem in distribution,
curring across Canada to the U.S. Southeast.
Family Neoephemeridae: These mayflies are SiI
to the ephemerids, but they have somewhat redu
costal crossveins and an acute costal projection 1
the base of the hind wing. They are easily recogni
by the acute lateral projections on abdominal tergu
(9-4B). The nymphs live in slow to moderately n
streams, usually in debris. This is a small group wl
members occur in the eastem United States. They
not very common.

Family Oligoneuriidae:The adults of genera in this
familyhavegreatly reduced wing venation (Figure ~A).
Thenymphs live in fairly rapid streams clinging to rocks
or vegetation (Lachlania) or partially burrowed in sand
(Homoeoneuria).
FamilyPolymitarcyidae: These mayflies are similar
totheEphemeridae, but have the middle and hind legs
ofIhemale, and alllegs of the female, gready reduced
orvestigia\.They are widely distributed but not very
eommon.Some (Polymitarcyinae) have a dense net-
workof marginal veinlets (Figure 9-6B), and the gen-
italforceps of the male have four segments. Others
(Campsurinae) have few marginal veinlets (Fig-
ure~A), and the genital forceps of the male have two
segments.
FamilyPotamanthidae: The nymphs of this group
livein the silt or sand at the bottom of swifdy Oowing
shallowwater. The adults are pale in color, with the
vertexand thoracic dorsum reddish brown, and the
frontwings are 7-13 mm in length. There are three
caudalfilaments,and the median filament is a litde
shorterthan the lateral ones. The wing venation is sim-
ilar10Ihat of the Ephemeridae, but lA is forked near
thewingmargin (Figure 9-41).
FamilyPseudironidae:Adults of this monogeneric
familyare similar to Heptageniidae, but have only four
freetarsalsegments. The length of the fused basal seg-
menlof the hind tarsus is less than half the length of
thehind tibia. The nymphs have spiderlike long legs
andarefound in sand rivers over much of North Amer-
iea.Ihe nymphs have mouthparts adapted for preda-
úonwith the mandibular incisors modified apically
andequipped with sharp, pointed spines. Only one
species,Pseudironcentralis McDunnough, occurs in the
UnitedStates.
FamilySiphlonuridae: The nymphs of these mayOies
are streamlined in form and occur principally in
rapidlyflowing streams and rivers. At least some are
predaceouson tube-dwelling midge larvae and other
smallaquatic insects. The adults resemble the Hepta-
geniidaein having MA in the hind wing forked, but
theydo not have two parallel pairs of cubital inter-
calaries(compare Figure 9-6C,D), and the hind tarsi
arefour-segmented (five-segmented in the Heptageni-
idae).Ihis is a large and widely distributed group, and
itsmembersvary in size (measured by the length of the
frontwings)from 8 to 20 mm.
References
Allen,R. K., and G. E Edmunds, Jr. 1965. A revision of the
genus Ephemerella (Epherneroptera: Ephernerellidae).
VIII.The subgenus Ephemerella in North Arnerica. Misc.
Pub!.Entorno\. SOCoArner. 4:244-282.
References 191
Collecting and Preserving
Ephemeroptera
Most adult mayOies are captured with a net, either from
swarms or by sweeping vegetation. One sometimes
needs a net with a very long handle for swarms high
above the ground. Some mayflies may be taken at night
at lights, especially when the nights are warm and the
sky is overcast. Large numbers of adults can sometimes
be obtained with a trap such as a Malaise trap (Fig-
ure 35-5C). Curtains of netting placed over a stream
can serve as a surface on which emerging mayOies
alight and from which they can be collected.
If subimagos are collected (usually recognizable
by their dull appearance and pubescence), allow them
to molt to the adult stage. This is done by transferring
them to small boxes (without actually handling them if
possible, as they are very delicate). A cardboard box
with a clear plastic window is good for this purpose.
Adults of many species are best obtained by rear-
ing them from nymphs, in a container where the adults
can be captured. Nymphs with black wing pads are
nearly mature and are the best to select for rearing, be-
cause they usually transform to the winged stage in a
day or two. When the subimago emerges, transfer it to
a box where it can molt to the adult stage.
MayOy nymphs can be collected in various types
of aquatic habitats by the methods of collecting aquatic
insects.
Adult mayflies are extremely fragile and must be
handled with considerable careo They can be preserved
dry, on pins or points or in paper envelopes, or in alco-
ho\. Specimens preserved dry retain their color better
than those preserved in alcohol, but they sometimes be-
come somewhat shriveled and are more subject to break-
age. Adults preserved in alcohol should be preserved in
80% alcohol, preferably with 1% of ionol added.
Nymphs are best put directly into modified
Carnoy Ouid (glacial acetic acid, 10%; 95% ethanol,
60%; chloroform, 30%). After a day or so, drain off the
Carnoy Ouid and replace it with 80% alcohol. A good
substitute for Carnoy Ouid is Kahle's Ouid (formalin,
11%; 95% ethanol, 28%; glacial acetic acid, 2%; water,
59%). In about a week drain this Ouid off and replace
it with 80% alcohol. If neither Carnoy nor Kahle's Ouid
is available, nymphs can be preserved in 95% alcoho\.
Bae, Y., and W P. McCafferty. 1991. Phylogenetic systernatics
of the Potarnanthidae (Epherneroptera). Trans. Arner. En-
torno\. Soco 117:1-143.
192 Chapter9 OrderEphemeroptera
Bae, Y J., and W P. McCafferty. 1998. Phylogenetic systemat-
ics and biogeography of the Neoephemeridae (Ephem-
eroptera: Pannota). Aquatic Insects 20:35-68.
Bednarik, A. F., and W P.McCafferty. 1979. Biosystematic re-
vision of the genus Stenonema (Ephemeroptera: Hepta-
geniidae). Can. Bull. Fish. &:Aquatic Sci. 201. 73 pp.
Berner, L. 1978. A review of the family Metretopodidae.
Trans. Amer. Entomol. Soco 104:91-137.
Berner, L., and M. L. Pescador. 1988. The Mayflies of Florida
(rev. ed.). Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 415 pp.
Brittain, J. E. 1982. Biology of mayflies. Annu. Rev. Entomol.
27:119-147.
Burian, S. K 2001. A revision of the genus Leptophlebia West-
wood in North America (Ephemeroptera: Leptophlebiidae:
Leptophlebiinae). Bull. Ohio Bioi. Surv. n.S. 13(3).80 pp.
Burks, B. D. 1953. The mayflies of Ephemeroptera of Illinois.
Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. 26:1-216.
Day, W e. 1956. Ephemeroptera. In R. L. Usinger (Ed.),
Aquatic Insects of California. Berkeley: University of Cal-
ifornia Press, pp. 79-105.
Edmunds, G. F.,Jr. 1962. The type localities of the Ephem-
eroptera of North America north of Mexico. Univ. Utah
Biol. Ser. 12(5):1-39.
Edmunds, G. F.,Jr. 1972. Biogeography and evolution of the
Ephemeroptera. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 17:21-42; illus.
Edmunds, G. F., Jr. 1984. Ephemeroptera. In R. W Merritt
and K W. Cummins (Eds.), An introduction to the
aquatic insects of North America, 2nd ed., pp. 94-123.
Dubuque, lA: KendalVHunt.
Edmunds, G. F., Jr., and R. K Allen. 1987. Order
Ephemeroptera. In F. W Stehr (Ed.), Immature Insects,
vol. 1, pp. 75-94. Dubuque, lA: KendalVHunt, 754 pp.
Edmunds, G. F.,Jr., R. K Allen, and W L. Peters. 1963. An
annotated key to the nymphs of the families and subfam-
ilies of mayflies (Ephemeroptera). Univ. Utah Biol. Ser.
13(1):1-49.
Edmunds, G. F., Jr., S. L. Jensen, and L. Berner. 1976. The
Mayflies of North and Central America. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press, 300 pp.
Edmunds, G. F., Jr., and J. R. Traver. 1954a. The flight me-
chanics of the wings of Ephemeroptera with notes on the
archetype wing. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 44(12):390-400.
Edmunds, G. F.,Jr., and J. R. Traver. 1954b. An outline of a
reclassification of the Ephemeroptera. Proc. Entomol.
Soc. Wash. 56:236-240.
Edmunds, G. F.,Jr., and R. D. Waltz. 1996. Ephemeroptera. In
R. W Merrit and K W Cummins (Eds.), An introduction
to the aquatic insects of North America, 3rd ed., Chapter 11,
pp. 126-136. Dubuque, lA: Kendall Hunt.
Funk, D. H., and B. W Sweeney. 1994. The larvae of eastern
North American Eurylophella Tiensuu (Ephemeroptera:
Ephemerellidae). Trans. Amer. Entomol. SOC.120:209-286.
Hubbard, M. D. 1990. Mayflies of the world: A catalog of the
family and genus group taxa. Gainesville, FL: Sandhill
Crane Press, 119 pp.
Hubbard, M. D., and W L. Peters. 1976. The number of gen-
era and species of mayflies (Ephemeroptera). Entomol.
News 87:245.
Kondratieff, B. e., andJ. R. Voshell,Jr. 1984. The North and
Central American species of Isonychia (Ephemeroptera:
Oligoneuriidae). Trans. Amer. Entomol. Soc. 110:129-244.
Kukalová-Peck, J. 1985. Ephemeroid wing venation based
upon new gigantic Carboniferous mayflies and basic
morphology, phylogeny, and metamorphosis of pterygole
insects. Can. J. Zool. 63:933-955.
Leonard, J. W, and F.A. Leonard. 1962. Mayflies of Michigan
Trout Streams. Bloomfield Hills, MI: Cranbrook Institute
of Science, 137 pp.
McCafferty,W P.1975. The burrowing mayflies (Ephemeroptera:
Ephemeroidea) of the United States. Trans. Amer. Entorno!.
Soc. 101:447-504.
McCafferty, W P. 1991. Toward a phylogenetic classification
of the Ephemeroptera (Insecta): A commentary on sys-
tematics. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 84:343-360.
McCafferty, W P. 1996. The Ephemeroptera species of North
America and index to their complete nomenclature.
Trans. Amer. Entomol. Soc. 122:1-54.
McCafferty, W P. 1998. Additions and corrections lo
Ephemeroptera species of North America and index to their
complete nomenclature. Entomol. News 109:266-268.
McCafferty, W P., and G. F. Edmunds, Jr. 1979. The higher
classification of the Ephemeroptera and its evolutionary
basis. Ann. Entomol. SOC.Amer. 72:5-12; illus.
McCafferty, W P., and R. D. Waltz. 1990. Revisionary synop-
sis of the Baetidae (Ephemeroptera) of North and Middle
America. Trans. Amer. Entomol. Soc. 116:769-799.
McCafferty, W P., and T.-Q. Wang. 2000. Phylogenetic sys-
tematics of the major lineages of the pannote mayflies
(Ephemeroptera: Pannota). Trans. Amer. Entomol. Soco
126:9-101.
Morihara, D. K, and W P.McCafferty. 1979. The Baetis larvae
of North America (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae). Trans.
Amer. Entomol. Soc. 105:139-221.
Needham,J. G.,J. R. Traver, and Y-e. Hsu. 1935. The biology
of mayflies, with a systematic account of North America
species. Ithaca, NY: Comstock, 759 pp.
Peckarsky, B. L., P. R. Fraissinet, M. A. Penton, and D. J.
Conklin, Jr. 1990. Freshwater macroinvertebrates of
northeastern United States. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univer.
sity Press, 442 pp.
Pescador, M. L., and L. Berner. 1981. The mayfly family Baetis.
cidae (Ephemeroptera). Part n. Biosystematics of the
genus Baetiscas. Trans. Amer. Entomol. Soco 107:163-228.
Peters, W L., and G. F. Edmunds, Jr. 1970. Revision of the
generic classification of the Eastern Hemisphere Lep-
tophlebiidae (Ephemeroptera). PacoInsects 12(1):157-240.
Provonsha, A. V. 1990. A revision of the genus Caenis in
North America (Ephemeroptera: Caenidae). Trans. Arner.
Entomol. Soc. 116:801-884.
Soldán, T. 1986. A revision of the Caenidae with ocellar tu-
bercles in the nymphal stage (Ephemeroptera). Acta
Univ. Carl. 1982-1984 (Biol.):289-362.
Wiersema, N. A., and W P.McCafferty. 2000. Generic revision
of the North and Central American Leptohyphidae
(Ephemeroptera: Pannota). Trans. Amer. Entomol. Soc
126:337-371.
Zloty,J. 1996. A revision of the Nearctic Ameletus mayflies based
on adult male, with descriptions of seven new species
(Ephemeroptera: Ameletidae). Can. Entomol. 128:293-346.
 10 Order Odonata1,2
Dragonfliesand Damselflies
heüdonata are relatively large and often beautifully
T colored insectsthat spend a large part of their time
onIhewing.The immature stages are aquatic, and the
adultsare usually found near water. All stages are
predaeeous and feed on various insects and other or-
ganisms and, fram the human point of view, are gener-
allyverybeneficia!.The adults are harmless to people;
thalis,theydo not bite or sting. Certain groups are
usefulasindicators of ecosystem quality.
Adultdragonflies and damselflies are easily recog-
nized (seeFigures 10-10 thraugh 10-14). The com-
poundeyesare large and multifaceted, and often oc-
cupymost of the head. There are three ocelli. The
antennaeare very small and bristlelike, and the mouth-
partsareofthe chewingtype. The thorax consists of a
smallprothoraxand a larger pterothorax. The dorsal
andlateralsurfaces of the pterothorax, between the
pronotumand the base of the wings, are formed by
pleuralsclerites. The four wings are elongate, many-
veined,and membranous. The legs are relatively long
andsuitedfor perching and holding prey, not for walk-
ing.Theabdomen is long and slender, with 10 visible
segments.The cerci are not segmented. Metamorphosis
issimple.
Present-dayOdonata vary in length from about 20
10more
than 135 mm. The largest dragonfly known,
whiehlivedabout 250 million years ago and is known
onlyframfossils,had a wingspread of about 71 cm
(28inehes)! The largest dragonflies in the United
Stales
areabout 85 to ll5 mm in length, although they
lookmuchlargerwhen seen on the wing.
often
'Odonata:
¡raro the Greek, meaning tooth (referring 10 the teeth on
ihe mandibles).
'Th~chapter edited by K. J. Tennessen.
Odonata nymphs are aquatic and breathe through
the general integument, with gaseous exchange sup-
plemented by gills. The gills of damselfly nymphs (Zy-
goptera) are in the form of three leaflike structures at
the end of the abdomen (Figure lO-l). These nymphs
swim by body undulations, the gills functioning like
the tail of a fish. The gills of dragonfly nymphs
(Anisoptera) (Figures 10-2 and 10-llA,B) are in the
form of ridges in the rectum. When a dragonfly nymph
breathes, it draws water into the rectum through the
anus and then expels it. Rapid expulsion of water fram
the anus is a chief means of locomotion, resulting in a
form of "jet propulsion."
The nymphs vary somewhat in habits, but all are
aquatic and feed on various sorts of small aquatic or-
ganisms. They usually lie in wait for their prey, either
on a plant or more or less buried in the substrate. The
prey is generally small, but some of the larger nymphs
(particularly Aeshnidae) occasionally attack tadpoles
and small fish. In the nymphs, the labium is modified
into a peculiar segmented structure with which they
capture prey. The labium is folded under the head
when not at resto When used, it is thrust forward very
quickly, and the prey is grabbed by two movable, claw-
like lobes (the palpi) at the tip of the labium (Fig-
ure 10-3). The labium, when extended, is usually at
least a third as long as the body (Figure 10-1 lB).
Nymphs may molt 9 to 17 times, but the norm is
9 to 13. When a nymph is fully grown, it crawls up out
of the water to complete its metamorphosis, usually on
a plant stem or rack and usually early in the moming.
The nymphs of some species wander many meters fram
the water before molting to the adult stage. Once out of
the last nymphal skin, the adult expands to its full size
in about 30 to 60 minutes. The flight of newly emerged 193
194 Chapter10 OrderOdonata
adults is relatively feeble, and they are not yet fully col-
ored and are very soft-bodied. It is usually a few days
before the insect's full powers of flight develop, and a
week or more may elapse before the color pattern fully
develops. Many Odonata have a color or color pattern
in the first few days of their adult life that is quite dif-
ferent from what they will have after a week or two.
Newly emerged, pale, soft-bodied adults are called ten-
eral individuals.
The two sexes in the suborder Anisoptera are usu-
ally similarly colored, although the colors of the males
are frequently brighter. In some of the Libellulidae, the
two sexes differ in the color pattern of the wings or ab-
domen. The two sexes are differently colored in most
of the Zygoptera, and the male is usually the more
Figure10-1 Nymphs of dam-
se1flies(Zygoptera), dorsal and
lateralviews.A and B, Calopteryx
aequabilis (Say) (Calopterygidae);
C and D, Lestes dryas Kirby
(Lestidae); E and F, Ischnura
cervula Se1ys(Coenagrionidae);
G, head of Lestes dryas, lateral
view; H and 1, Argia emma
Kennedy (Coenagrionidae).
(Courtesy of Kennedy and the
V.5. National Museum).
brightly colored, especially in the Coenagrionidae. Fe-
males of several genera within this family are polymor-
phic. For example, most females of Ischnura verticalis
(Say) are heterochromatic, being orange and black
when newly emerged and rather uniformly bluish
when mature. A small proportion of the female popu-
lation is homeochromatic.
Some species of Odonata are on the wing for only
a few weeks each year, whereas others may be seeo
throughout the summer or over a period of several
months. Observations of marked individuals indicate
that the average damself1y probably has a maximum
adult life of 3 or 4 weeks, and so me dragonflies may
live 6 to 10 weeks. Most species have a single genera-
tion ayear, with the egg or, usually, the nymph over-
 Order Odonata 195

males that come near. This is known as "noncontact

guarding." An unprotected female, after she begins
ovipositing, may be interrupted by another male, who
may grab and fly off in tandem with her. Males of most
species of Odonata can displace the sperm fram a pre-
vious mating within the female's spermatheca, a form
of sperm competition (Waage 1984). Eggs are not fer-
tilized during copulation, but during oviposition.
Therefore, males that stay with their ovipositing mate
have a better chance of ensuring that their genes pass
on to the next generation.
Females of the Gomphidae, Corduliidae, and Li-
bellulidae do not have an ovipositor, and the eggs are
generally laid on the surface of the water by the female
flying low and dipping her abdomen in the water and
washing off the eggs. The females of most species in
Figure10-2 Nymphs of Aeshnoidea. A, Aeshna verti-
these graups oviposit alone. A somewhat rudimentary
Hagen(Aeshnidae);B, Gomphus quadricolorWalsh
ca/is
ovipositor is developed in the Cordulegastridae, which
(Courtesy of Walker and The Canadian
(Gomphidae). oviposit by hovering above shallow water with the
Entomologist.)
body in a more or less vertical position and repeatedly
jabbing the abdomen into the water and laying the eggs
on the bottom of the body of water. The females of the
other graups (Aeshnidae, Petaluridae, and all Zygop-
wintering.
A few of the larger darners and clubtails are tera) have a well-developed ovipositor (Figure I0-4E)
knownto spend two or more years in the nyrnphal and insert their eggs in plant tissues (in many species
stage.
Dragonfliesand damselflies are peculiar among in-
sectsin having the copulatory organs of the male 10-
catedat the anterior end of the abdomen, on the ven-
tralsideof the second and third segments. The male
genitaliaof other insects are located at the posterior
endofthe abdomen. The copulatory organs of male
Odonataare therefore considered "secondary geni-
!alía."Beforemating, male Odonata must transfer
spennfromthe genital opening on the ninth segment
10Ihepenis,an extension of the third abdominal ster-
numthatlies in the genital pocket of the second seg-
ment. Ihis transfer is accomplished by bending the ab-
domen downward and forward.
Ihe twosexes frequently spend considerable time
'intandem," with the male clasping the female by the
backoftheheador the prathorax with the appendages
atIheendof his abdomen. Copulation is usually initi-
atedin !\ight, with the female bending her abdomen
downward and forward and making contact with the
secondarygenitalia of the maleo This coupling is
knownas the "wheel position." In all Zygoptera and
Anisoptera, the pair perches
many to finish copulation.
InmostLibellulidae, copulation is brief and occurs in
Dight.
Odonata lay their eggs in or near water and may Figure 10-3 Labia of nyrnphal Odonata. A, Calopteryx
dosowhile in tandem or when alone. In some species (Calopterygidae); B, Lestes (Lestidae); C, Plathemis (Li-
where
the female de taches from the male before begin- bellulidae); D, Anax (Aeshnidae). 1st,lateral setae; mh,
oviposition,the male remains nearby "on guard"
ning movable hook or palp; mn, mentum; mst, mental setae;
whilethe femaleis ovipositing and chases off other p, palp or laterallobe. (Redrawn fram Garman.)
196 Chapter 10 OrderOdonata

while still in tandem with the male). The eggs are usu-
ally inserted just below the surface of the water, no far-
ther than the female can reach. In a few cases (for ex-
ample, some species of Lestes), the eggs are laid in
plant stems above the water line, and in a few other
cases (for example, some species of Enallagma) the fe-
male may climb down a plant stem and insert her eggs
into the plant a foot or more below the surface of the
water. The eggs usually hatch in one to three weeks. In
some species (for example, Lestes), however, the eggs
overwinter and hatch the following spring.
Most species of Odonata have characteristic habits
of flight. The flight of most skimmers (Libellulidae) is
very erratic. They fly this way and that, often hovering
in one spot for a few moments, and they seldom fly
very far in a straight line. Many stream species fly rela-
tively slowly up and down the stream, often patrolling
a stretch of 90 meters or more. These dragonflies fly al

,
A tell

"er
I 9
8 \ I 9
\) 10 b \
\
\ \ 10
ppt
e
VV--- ppt
---er D

Figure10-4 Structural characters of Odonata. A, Lateral view of Sympetrum intemum

Montgomery, male; B, Lateral view of abdomen of S. intemum, female; e, Terminal ab-
dominal segments of Enallagma hageni (Walsh), male lateral view; D, Same, dorsal view;
E, Terminal abdominal segments of E. hageni, female, lateral view. ant, antenna; elp,
clypeus; cr, cerci; ex, coxa; e, compound eye; epm2,mesepimeron; epm3' metepimeron;
eps2,mesepistemum; eps3,metepistemum; ept, epiproct;fm, femur;fr, frons; gen, male
copulatory apparatus; iep2'mesinfraepistemum; iep3,metinfraepisternum; Ibm, labium;
Ibr, labrum; md, mandible; n¡, pronotum; oe, ocellus; ovp, ovipositor; pg, postgena; pls2'
mesopleural suture (or humeral suture); ppt, paraproct; spr, spiracle; stn, sternum; tb,
tibia; tel, tarsal claws; tr, trochanter; ts, tarsus; ver, vertex; 1-10, abdominal segments.
...

Classification of the Odonata 197

a heightand a speed that are characteristic for the Superfamily Cordulegastroidea

species.Some of the gomphids, when flying over open
landareas,fly with a very undulating flight, each un-
dulationcovering 1.2 to 1.8 meters vertically and 0.6 to
0.9 metershorizontally. Many of the corduliids and
aeshnidsfly from 1.8 to 6.1 meters or more above the
ground,and their flight seems tireless. Some aeshnids
feedattwilight above the treetops. Many of the smaller
damselfiiesfly only 25 to 50 mm above the surface of
thewater.Some species of Anisoptera make long, even
transoceanic,dispersal flights (see Corbet 1999).
Most dragonflies feed on a variety of insects that
theycatchon the wing in a basketlike arrangement of
thelegsor with their mouthparts. Dragonflies may eat
theirpreyon the wing or may alight to devour it. The
preyis chiefly small flying insects such as midges, mos-
quitoes,and small moths, but larger dragonflies often
bees,butterflies, or other dragonflies. Odonata
capture
normallytake moving prey, but some damselflies glean
prey from perches. If captured, dragonflies
stationary
~;1Ieator chew on almost anything that is put into
theirmouth-even their own abdomen!
Pond species are frequently found with numbers
ofsmall,globular, usually reddish bodies attached to
theundersideof the thorax or abdomen. These are the
of water mites. The mite larvae attach to the
larvae
odonatenymph in the water and, when the nymph
emergesto transformto the adult stage, the mite larvae
moveonto the adult. The mites spend one to three
weeks on the dragonfly adults, feeding on their he-
molymph and growing larger. Sometime during the
odonatehost'sretum to water, the mite larvae drop off
and
eventuallycomplete their complex life cycle by de-
into free-living, predaceous adults. lt is not
veloping
unusualto find dragonflies with dozens of mite larvae
onthem.Parasitic mites do not appear to do a great
ofdamageto Odonata.
deal
Cordulegastridae (Cordulegasteridae) (8)-
spiketails, biddies
Superfamily Libelluloidea
Corduliidae (58)-cruisers, emeralds, green-
eyed skimmers
Libellulidae (114 )-skimmers
Suborder Zygoptera-damselflies
Calopterygidae (Agrionidae, Agriidae) (8)-
broad-winged damselflies
Lestidae (18)-spreadwinged damselflies
Protoneuridae (Coenagrionidae in part) (3)-
threadtails
Coenagrionidae (Coenagriidae, Agrionidae)
(99)-pond damsels, narrow-winged
damselflies
Platystictidae (l)-shadow damsels
The separation of the families of Odonata is based
primarily on characters of the wings and head. We use
the Comstock-Needham system of wing vein nomencla-
ture. This includes a number of special terms not used
in other orders and is illustrated in Figures 10-5 and
10-6. Riek and Kukalová-Peck (1984) proposed a rein-
terpretation of dragonfly wing venation on the basis of
fossil specimens. A comparison between their scheme
and that used here is presented in Table 10-1. The sep-
aration of genera and species is based on wing venation,
color pattem, structure of the genitalia, and other char-
acters. Useful recent guides to identifying the genera and
species of North American Odonata are Westfall and
May (1996) for Zygoptera and Needham, Westfall
Jable 10-1 Comparisonof Interpretations
of DragonflyVenation
Comstock-Needham Riek and Kukalová-Peck(1984)

C Costal margin (PC + CA +

CP + ScA)
Classification
01 the Odonata Se SeP
R + M basally Paired or fused stems of RA and RP
Asynopsisof the nearly 450 species of Odonata occur- R¡ RA
ringin North America north of Mexico is given next, Rs Radial supplement
withsynonyrnsand altemate spellings in parentheses. MI+2 RPI-2
Thenumbersin parentheses following each family are M¡ RPI
ihenumbersof North American species, taken mainly M2 RP2
from Westfalland May (1996) and Needham, Westfall, M3 RP3-4
andMay (2000). M. MA
Cu basally MP
Anisoptera-dragonflies
\uborder CUI MP
SuperfamilyAeshnoidea CU2 CuA
Petaluridae (2)-petaltails, graybacks lA CuP
Gomphidae (97)-clubtails
Anal erossing CuP erossing
Aeshnidae(Aeschnidae) (39)-damers
198 Chapter10 OrderOdonata

st

,....pn,
1" M,
I
// I " I
I IR, " '
no d 'R I I
bcv i {/I MI
\\~
\

Figure10-5 Wings of Sympetrum rubicundulum (Say) (Libellulidae), showing the

Comstock-Needham system of terminology. Ae, anal crossing (A branching posteriorly
from Cu; often called the cubitoanal crossvein); alp, anal loop (foot-shaped in this
species); an, antenodal crossveins; are, arculus (the upper part is M, and the lower part is
a crossvein);bev, bridge cross vein; brv, bridge vein; mspl,medial supplement;nod,
nodus; obv, oblique vein; pn, postnodal crossveins; rspl, radial supplement; st, stigma; str,
subtriangle (3-celled in this wing); tri, triangle (2-celled in front wing, l-celled in hind
wing). The usual symbols are used for the other venational characters.

and May (2000) for Anisoptera. Many species of popularity, the Dragonfly Society of the Americas has
üdonata can be recognized in the field without capture devised and standardized a list of English vemacular
by using binoculars to view their characteristic size, names for all species known to occur in North America
shape, color, or habits (Dunkle 2000). Because of their (www.ups.edu/biology/museumINAdragons.html).

Keyto the Familiesof Odonata

This key deals only with adults. A key to the nymphs of Odonata may be found in
Westfall (1987).

1. Front and hind wings similar in shape, narrow at base (Figures 10-6,
10-7D,F,G); wings at rest held either together above body or slightly
divergent;compoundeyesseparatedby a distancegreater than width of
1 eye;maleswith 4 appendagesat end of abdomen(FigureI0-4C,D)
(damselflies, suborder Zygoptera) 2
 Keyto the Familiesof Odonata 199

e,

R+M C an

B M. Cu, Cu, Rs

Figure10-6 Hind wings of damselflies. A, Enallagma (Coenagrionidae); B, Lestes

(Lestidae). q, quadrangle; sq, subquadrangle.

1', Hind wings wider than front wings, particularly at base (Figures 10-5,
10-7A-C); wings at rest held horizontally or nearly so; compound eyes
contiguous or separated by a distance less than width of eye; males with
3 appendages at end of abdomen (Figure 10-4A) (dragonflies, suborder
Anisoptera) 6

2(1), Tenor more antenodal crossveins (Figure 10-7D); wings not stalked, often
with black, brown, or red markings; quadrangle with several crossveins Calopterygidae p. 205
2', Twoantenodal crossveins (Figures 10-6 and 10-7F); wings stalked
at base, either hyaline or lightly tinged with brown (rarely black);
quadrangle without crossveins 3

3(2'). M) and Rs arising nearer arculus than nodus (Figure 10-6B); wings
usually held divergent at rest Lestidae p. 205
3', M3and Rs arising nearer nodus than arculus (Figure 10-6A), usually
arising below nodus; wings usually held together at rest 4

4(3'). Analvein and CU2long, reaching level of nodus; quadrangle distinctly

trapezoidal (Figure 10-6A) Coenagrionidae p. 205
4', Analvein and CU2absent or reduced to length of 1 cell; quadrangle
roughly rectangular (Figure 10-7F) 5

5(4'). Crossvein present in cubitoanal space proximal to anal crossing

(Figure 10-7F); Cu¡ at least 10 cells in length Platystictidae p. 205
5', No crossvein in cubitoanal space proximal to anal crossing
(Figure 10-7G); Cu¡ at most 3 cells in length Protoneuridae p. 205
6(1'). Trianglesin front and hind wings similar in shape, about equidistant
from arculus (Figure 10-7 A); most costal and subcostal crossveins not
in line; usually abrace vein (an oblique crossvein; Figure 10-7E, bvn)
present behind proximal end of pterostigma 7
200 Chapter10 OrderOdonata

bvn

G Cu,
x

Figure10-7 Wingsof Odonata.A, Baseof wingsof Gomphus(Gomphidae);B, Baseof

wings of Didymops (Corduliidae); C, Base of wings of Epitheea (Corduliidae); D, Front
wing of Calopteryx (Calopterygidae); E, Stigmal area of wing of Aeshna (Aeshnidae);
F, Base of front wing of Palaemnema domina Calvert (Platystictidae); G, Base of front
wing of Neoneura aaroni Calvert (Protoneuridae). alp, anal loop; an, antenodal
crossveins; are, arculus; bvn, brace vein; nod, nodus; q, quadrangle; st, stigma;
tri, triangle; x, crossvein in cubitoanal space.

~t¡~,
/~,. '..
 Keyto the Familiesof Odonata 201

6'. Trianglesin front and hind wings usually not similar in shape, triangle
in front wing farther distad of arculus than triangle in hind wing
(Figure 10-5, 10-7B,C); most costal and subcostal crossveins in line;
no brace vein behind proximal end of pterostigma 10
7(6). No brace vein behind proximal end of pterostigma; eyes barely meeting
or slightly separated dorsally; if meeting, contiguous by less than width
of lateral ocellus Cordulegastridae p.203
7'. Bracevein present behind proximal end of pterostigma (Figure 10-7E,
bvn); eyes either broadly contiguous by more than width of lateral
ocellus or widely separated 8
8(7). Compound eyes contiguous on dorsum of head for a distance greater
than width of lateral ocellus (Figure I0-8B) Aeshnidae p.203
8'. Compound eyes separated on dorsum of head by distance greater than
width oflateral ocellus (Figure I0-8A) 9
9(8'). Medianlobe of labium notched (Figure 1O-9A); pterostigma at least
8 mm in length Petaluridae p. 202

e
D

Figure10-8 Head structure in dragonflies. A, Gomphus exi/is Selys (Gomphidae), dor-

sal view; B, Basiaesehnajanata (Say) (Aeshnidae), dorsal view; C, Sympetrum (Libelluli-
dae), lateral view; D, Epitheca (Corduliidae), lateral view. aelp, antec1ypeus; ant, antenna;
e, compound eye;fr, frons; lbm, labium; lbr, labrum; md, mandible; mx, maxilla; oe, ocel-
lus; oep, occiput; pelp, postc1ypeus; pg, postgena; ver, vertex.
UNIVERSIDAD
DECMDAI
BIBLIOTeCA
 11

202 Chapter10 OrderOdonata

Figure10-9 Labia of adult dragonflies. A, Tachopteryx (Petaluridae); B, Aeshna (Aesh-

nidae). 19,ligula or median lobe; mn, mentum; p, palp or laterallobe; plg, palpiger or
squama.

9'. Median lobe oflabium not notched (Figure 10-9B); pterostigma less
than 8 mm in length Gomphidae p.202
10(6'). Hind margin of compound eyes lobed (Figure lO-8D); males with small
lobe on each side of second abdominal segment; inner margin of hind
wing of male somewhat notched; anal loop rounded (Figure 1O-7B) or
elongate, if foot-shaped with liule development of "toe" (Figure 10-7C) Corduliidae p.203
10'. Hind margin of compound eyes straight (Figure lO-8C); males without
smalllobe on side of second abdominal segment; inner margin of hind
wing of male not notched; anal loop with inner margin of "toe" usually
well developed (Figure 10-5) Libellulidae p.203

Suborder Anisoptera-Dragonflies
Dragonflies have hind wings that are wider at the base
than the front wings, and the wings are held horizontal
(or nearly so) at resto The hind wings of the male in all
but the Libellulidae are somewhat notched at the anal
angle (Figure 10-7 A-C), whereas the hind wings of all
Libellulidae and the females of the other families have
a rounded anal angle (Figure 10-5). The head is some-
what rounded to slightly transversely elongate, and in
dorsal view is not wider than the thorax. The males
have three appendages at the apex of the abdomen, two
cereí (the superior appendages) and the epiproct (the
inferior appendage), which may be bifid. The females
of some groups have a well-developed ovipositor,
whereas others either have a poorly developed ovipos-
itor or entirely lack one. The nymphs have five short,
stiff appendages at the apex of the abdomen and have
epithelial gills in the rectum.
Family Petaluridae-Petaltails, Graybacks: Two
spe~ies ~n this family occur in North America:
. I
Tachopteryx thoreyi (Hagen), the gray petaltail, in the
eastern United States and Tanypteryx hageni (Selys), the
black petaltail, in the Northwest (California and
Nevada to southern British Columbia). Adults of
T. thoreyi are grayish brown and about 75 mm in
length. They usually occur along small streams in
wooded valleys, where they often alight on tree trunks.
Nymphs hide under dead leaves in seepage areas.
Adults of T. hageni are smaller, about 55 mm in length,
and black with yellow markings. They are found typi-
cally at higher elevations. The nymphs of this species
burrow in permanently wet soil under moss.
Family Gomphidae-Clubtails: This is a fairly large
group, and most of its members live along streams al
lake shores. The clubtails range from 30 to 90 mm in
length and are usually dark with yellowish or greenish
markings (Figure lO-lOD,E). Almost all speeíes have
clear wings. Many have swollen terminal abdominal
segments, hence the common name for the group.
They generally alight on a bare flat surface, although

tD
! 't
E
!
..:
'§
o
Figure10-10 Aeshnoidea. A, Anax junius (Drury) ,
male(Aeshnidae); B, Aeshna constricta Say, male
(Aeshnidae); e, Cordulegaster obliquus (Say), female
(Cordulegastridae); D, Dromogomphus spoliatus (Hagen),
male(Gomphidae); E, Gomphus extemus Hagen, male
(Gomphidae). About one third natural size.
manyspeciesperch on vegetation, and they are more
secretivethan most other dragonfly families. The lar-
vaeof most species bury themselves in soft or loose
substrates of streams, ponds, or lakes. The largest
genusin the family is Gomphus. The impressive, large
dragonhunter, Hagenius brevistylus Selys, is black and
yellowand often feeds on other dragonflies.
Family Aeshnidae-Darners: This group includes
thelargest and most powerful of the dragonflies. They
rangefrom 50 to 116 mm long, but most are about 65
to 85 mm. The common green darner, Anax junius
(Drury),a common and widely distributed species that
livesaround ponds, has a greenish thorax, a bluish ab-
domen,and a targetlike mark on the upper part of the
Cace(Figure 1001OA). The genus Aeshna includes a
numberof species, mosaic darners, most of which are
tobe found near marshes in the latter part of the sum-
mero Theyare dark with blue or greenish markings on
thethorax and abdomen (Figure 1001OB). One of the
largestspeciesin this family is Epiaeschnaheros(Fabricius),
theswampdarner, an early summer species about 85 mm
in length and dark brown with indistinct greenish
markingson the thorax and abdomen.
Family Cordulegastridae-Spiketails. Biddies: The
spiketailsare large brown or black dragonflies with yel-
lowmarkings (Figure 10-10C). They differ from the
Aeshnoideain lacking abrace vein at the proximal end
oCthe pterostigma. These dragonflies are usually found
alongsmall, clear, woodland streams. The adults fly
Keyto the Familiesof Odonata 203
slowly up and down the stream, 0.3 to 0.7 m above the
water, but if disturbed can fly very rapidly. The group
is a small one, and all species in the United States be-
long to the genus Cordulegaster.
Family Corduliidae-Cruisers. Emeralds, Green-
Eyed Skimmers: These dragonflies are mostly black or
metallic green, although some are brown. Their con-
spicuous light markings are usually yellow. In life, the
eyes of many species are brilliant green. The flight is
usually direct, in many species interrupted by periods
of hovering. Most members of this group are more
common in Canada and the u.s. North than in the
South.
Cruisers (Macromiinae, former!y Macromiidae)
can be distinguished from emeralds by the rounded
anal loop that lacks a bisector (Figure 1O-7B). Two
genera occur in the United States, Didymops and
Macromia. The brown cruisers (Didymops) are light
brown with light yellow markings on the thorax and
abdomen. They live along streams and pond or lake
shores. The river cruisers (Macromia) are large species
that occur along lake shores and large streams. These
dragonflies are dark brown to shiny, blackish green
with yellow stripes on the thorax and yellow markings
on the abdomen (Figure 10011C,D). The eyes of living
Macromia are usually brilliant green. Macromia are ex-
tremely fast fliers.
The emeralds (Corduliinae) are more diverse than
the cruisers. The genus Epitheca (baskettails) contains
brown to blackish dragonflies, usually 32-48 mm in
length, often with brownish color at the base of the
hind wing. They occur chiefly around ponds and
swamps. The prince baskettail, Epitheca princeps (Hagen),
is the only corduliid in North America with large brown
spots at the tip of the wing. lt is about 75 mm in length,
with three blackish spots in each wing: basal, nodal,
and apical. lt lives around ponds. The largest genus in
this group is Somatochlora, or striped emeralds. Most
species in this group are metallic in color and more
than 50 mm in length, and they usually occur along
small, wooded streams or in bogs.
Family libellulidae-Skimmers: Most species in this
group live around ponds and swamps, and many are
quite common. These dragonflies vary in length from
about 20 to 75 mm, and many species have wings
marked with spots or bands. The flight is usually rather
erratic. This is a large group, and only a few of the more
common genera and species are mentioned here.
The smallest libellulid in the United States is the
elfin skimmer, Nannothemis bella (Uhler), only 18-20 mm
long. lt occurs in bogs in the eastern states. The males are
bluish with clear wings (Figure 10012G), and the fe-
males are patterned with black and yellow and the
basal third or more of the wings is yellowish brown. In
Nannothemis, the anal loop of the hind win~ is open~
204 Chapter10 OrderOdonata

Figure10-11 Macromia magnífica MacLachlan (Corduliidae). A, Nymph, dorsal view;

B, Nymph, lateral view,with labium extended; C, Adult male, dorsal view; D, Same, lat-
eral view. (Courtesy of Kennedy and the V.5. National Museum.)

ended, an exception in this family to the usual dosl

Figure 10-12 Libellulidae. A, Libellulapulchella Drury,
male; B, Libellula luctuosaBurmeister, male; C, Pachy-
diplax longipennis(Burmeister), male; D, Plathemis
lydia (Drury), male; E, Tramealacerata Hagen, male;
F, Celithemis elisa (Hagen), male; G, Nannothemis bella
(Vhler), male; H, Erythemis simplicicollis (Say). About
one third natural size.
anal loop (Figure 10-5).
The large dragonflies that are common aroU
ponds and have black spots or black and white spots (
the wings are mostly species in the genus Libellula. T
12-spotted skimmer, L. pulchella Drury (Figure 10-12¡1
with a wingspread of about 90 mm, has three black spc
(basal, nodal, and apical) on each wing, and the mal
have white spots between the black spots. The widc
skimmer, L. luctuosa Burmeister, which is slighl
smaller, has the basal third or so of each wing blacki
brown, and the males have a white band beyond t
basal dark coloring of the wing (Figure 10012B).
The common whitetail, Plathemis Iydia (DruI)
has a wingspread of about 65 mm. The male has
broad, dark band across the middle of each wing, al
the dorsal side of the abdomen is nearly white (Fi
ure lO-12D). The females have spotted wings as in t
females of L. pulchella and do not have a white a
domen. Pennants (Celithemis) are medium-sizl
(wingspread of about 50 mm), mostly reddish
brownish with darker markings, and with reddish
brownish spots on the wings (Figure 10012F).
The eastern amberwing, Perithemis tenera (Sa
with a wingspread of about 40 mm, has the wings amb¡

colored in the male and clear with brownish spots in
the female. The meadowhawks (Sympetrum) are
medium-sized,late-summer, marsh-dwelling insects.
Their color varíes from yellowish brown to a bright
red,and the wings are usually clear except for a small
basalspotof yellowish brown. The whiteface skimmers
have a wingspread of about 40 mm and
(l.eucorrhinia)
aredark, with a conspicuous white face. The most
commonspecies in the East is L. intacta Hagen, the
dot-tailed whiteface, which has a yellow spot on the
dorsal sideof the seventh abdominal segment.
Theblue dasher, Pochydiplax longipennis (Burmeister),
isacommonpond species, particularly in the central and
southemUnited States. It varíes in color from a pat-
temedbrown and yellow to a uniform bluish, and the
wingsareoften tinged with brownish (Figure 10-12C).
Ithasa long cell just behind the pterostigma and has a
wingspreadof 50 to 65 mm. The eastem pondhawk,
Erythemis simplicicollis (Say) , is a liule larger than
P longipennis.It has clear wings, and the body color
variesfrom light green pauemed with black in females
andimmature males, to a uniform light blue in mature
males (Figure 10-12H). The skimmers in the genera
Pantala (gliders)and Tramea (saddlebags) are medium-
tolarge(wingspread75-100 mm), wide-ranging
sized
dragonllies that have a very broad base of the hind
wings.Those in Pantala are yellowish brown or gray
witha lightyellowish or brownish spot at the base of
thehindwing. Those in Tramea are largely black or
dark,
reddishbrown with a black or dark brown spot at
thebaseof the hind wing (Figure 10-12E).
SuborderZygoptera-Damselflies
Damselllieshave front and hind wings that are similar
inshape,both narrowed at the base. The wings of the
tWosexesare similar in shape and at rest are held ei-
thertogetherabovethe body or slightly divergent. The
head istransversely elongate and in dorsal view is usu-
aUywiderthan the thorax. The males have four ap-
pendagesat the apex of the abdomen: a pair of cerci
(thesuperiorappendages)and a pair of paraprocts Cthe
appendages).The females have an ovipositor,
inferior
whichusually makes the end of the abdomen look
somewhat swollen. The nymphs have three gills at the
apex of the abdomen, which may be leaflike, tri-
quetrous,or sacculate(Figure lO-l).
Family Calopterygidae-Broad-winged damsels:
Themembersof this group are relatively large dam-
selflies
that have the base of the wings gradually nar-
rowed,not stalked as in other families of Zygoptera.
Theseinsectsoccur along streams. Two genera occur in
theUnitedStates, Calopteryx and Hetaerina. The com-
moneastemspeciesof Calopteryxis the ebony jewel-
wing,C. maculata (Beauvois). The wings of the male
areblack,and those of the female are dark gray with a
Keyto the Familiesof Odonata 205
white pterostigma. The body is metallic greenish black.
The most common species of Hetaerina is the American
ruby-spot, H. americana (Fabricius), which is reddish
in color, with a red or reddish spot in the basal third or
fourth of the wings.
The remaining four families of Zygoptera have
wings that are stalked at the base with only two ante-
nodal crossveins. Most of the species are between 25
and 50 mm long, and nearly all have clear wings.
Family Lestidae-Spreadwings: The members of
this group live chiefly in swamps and edges of ponds
and lakes, but the adults occasionally wander some dis-
tance from the water. When alighting, these damselflies
hold the body vertically, or nearly so, and the wings are
partly outspread. They usually alight on plant or grass
stems. There are two species of Archilestes in North
America, but most species in this region (16) belong to
the genus Lestes.
Family Platystictidae-Shadow damsels: One
species in this tropical group, Palaemnema domina
Calvert, has been found in southem Arizona. It is a
blue, black, and brown species, 37-43 mm in length,
that prefers shaded edges of streams in dry country.
Palaemnema perch horizomally with wings together,
occasionally flicking their wings open, and they are
usually very difficult to find in tangles of roots and
other riparian vegetation.
Family Protoneuridae- Threadtails: Three species in
this tropical group, Neoneura aaroni Calvert, N. amelia
Calvert, and Protoneura cara Calvert, occur in southem
Texas. The Neoneura species are red and black, whereas
the Protoneura species is orange and black. They range
from 29 to 37 mm in length. Threadtails fly low over
swiftly flowing and po oled portions of medium-sized
to large streams, usually ovipositing in tandem in very
small floating pieces of wood.
Family Coenagrionidae-Pond damsels: This large
family has many genera and species. They range in
length from 20 to 50 mm. These damselflies occur in a
variety of habitats, some chiefly along streams and oth-
ers around ponds or swamps. Most are rather feeble
fliers and, when alighting, usually hold the body hori-
zontal and wings together over the body (except Chro-
magrion, which holds the wings slightly spread). The
two sexes are differently colored in most species, the
males more brightly colored than the females. Many of
these damselflies are beautifully colo red in various
combinations of blue, purple, red, orange, yellow, or
green contrasting with black markings.
The dancers (Argia, Figure 10-13) are chiefly
stream species, easily recognized by the long, close-set
spurs on the tibiae and stout body. The males of the
variable dancer, Argiafumipennis (Burmeister), a com-
mon species along streams and pond shores, are a
beautiful violet color. Their wing color varies from
clear in the northem and westem parts of its range, to
206 Chapter10 OrderOdonata

e
A

Figure 10-13 Argia emma Kennedy (Coenagrionidae). A and B, Male; C and D, Female.
(Courtesy of Kennedy and the V.5. National Museum.)

brown or completely black in the Southeast. The flight habits. Many species have particular beats along
sprites (Nehalennia), which also have fairly long tibial which they fly at rather regular intervals or have
spurs, are small, slender, bronzy-green damselflies usu- perches on which they frequently alight. Someone fa-
ally living in bogs and swamps. The eastem red damsel, miliar with the insect's habits can often anticipate
Amphiagrion saucium (Burmeister), is a small, stout- where it will fly and be prepared for it. S~ing at a fly-
bodied, red and black damselfly usually found in bogs. ing dragonfly from behind. If approached from the
The largest genus in this family in North America
is Enallagma, called the bluets. Most species are light
blue with black markings, although a few are predom-
inantly orange or red. Several species of Enallagma may
be found around the same pond or lake. Among the
forktails (Figure 10-14), the eastem forktail, Ischnura
verticalis (Say), is a very common species in the East
(although uncommon further southeast) that occurs
A
nearly wherever any damselfly is to be found. The
males are mostly black, with narrow green stripes on
the thorax and blue on the tip of the abdomen. Most fe-
males are bluish green with faint dark markings (older
individuals) or brownish orange with black markings
(recently emerged individuals). A very few females are
colored like the males.

Collecting and Preserving Odonata

Many Odonata are powerful fliers, and capturing them
on film or with a net is often a challenge. Some species
are so adept on the wing that they can easily dodge a
net, even when the net is swung like a baseball bato Figure 10-14 Ischnura cervula Se\ys, male (Coenagri-
Those who wish to catch, photograph, or observe with onidae). A, Dorsal view; B, Lateral view. (Courtesy of
binoculars these fast-flying insects must study their Kennedy and the V.5. National Museum.)

front,theinsect can see the net coming and can usually
dodge it. In stalking a specimen, use only the slowest
motionsand try to approach from behind. Cover
movementsof your legs and feet by vegetation as much
aspossible,because dragonflies often see motion beIow
thembeuerthan on a leveIwith them.
The net used to capture Odonata should be an
open-meshnet with liule air resistance so it can be
swungrapidly. The rim size and handle length depends
onthe collector, but for many species it is desirable to
have a re1ativelylarge rim 000-380 mm in diameter)
anda net handle at least 1 meter long.
Dragonflies beyond the reach of a net (many will
fallin this category) can often be collected with a sling-
shotloaded with sand or with a gun loaded with dust
shot.Many specimens so collected may be slightly
damaged,but a slightly damaged specimen is usually
betterthan none at all. For closeup photography, a
macrolens is a necessity.
Odonata live in a great variety of habitats, and to
observea large number of species visit as many differ-
enthabitatsas possible. Two habitats that appear simi-
laroftencontain different species, or the same habitat
mayharbor different species in different seasons. Many
specieshave a short seasonal flight range, especially
specieswhose flight period is restricted to the spring,
andan observer must be in the fieId at just the right
seasonto see them. Most species are found near aquatic
habitats-ponds, streams, marshes, and the like-but
manyare wide-ranging and can be found in meadows,
woodlands,and the hillsides above aquatic habitats.
Emergingindividuals can be found along stream and
lakeshores, either on flat surfaces or on the upright
surfaces of rock and vegetation.
lt is practically impossible to get close to many
Odonata without wading, because they often fly at some
distancefram the shores of a pond or stream. Many
species,particularIy damseIflies, can be obtained by
sweeping in the vegetation along and near the shores of
pondsand rnarshes. Others patrol along the edge of the
emergent vegetation, where the water is a few feet deep.
Stream species, which are usually rare in collections and
areoftenlocally distributed, are best collected by wad-
ingstreams,if the strearns are small enough. It is often
necessary to wade for considerable distances.
References
Bick,G. H. 1983. Odonata at risk in conterminous United
States and Canada. Odonatologica 12:209-226.
D.]. 1945.A key to the NewWorld genera ofLibellulidae
Borror,
(Odonata). Ann. Entorno\. Soco Amer. 38:168-194; illus.
Bridges,C. A. 1994. Catalogue of the Family-Group, Genus-
Group, and Species-Group Names of the Odonata of the
World, 3rd ed. Champaign, IL: C. A. Bridges.
References 207
Specimens collected for stUdy should be placed
alive in glassine or ordinary letter envelopes in the
fieId, with the wings together above the body. Write 10-
cality data and collection date on the outside of the en-
veIope. Record eye color of the living insects before
placing them in the enveIopes. If the specimens are to
be put in a collection, keep them cool so they stay alive
until time to preserve them.
The bright colors of Odonata generally fade
quickly after the insect dies. Most color patterns can be
retained if the specimens are killed in acetone and then
left in acetone: 2 to 4 hours for Zygoptera and up to
24 hours for Anisoptera. It is best to put the specimens
in glassine enveIopes with the wings together. After
soaking, immediately air-dry the specimens, preferably
in an air-conditioned room or fume hood. The dried
specimens are extremely brittle and should be handled
very carefully. If one stores Odonata in any numbers,
they are best kept in clear plastic enveIopes or triangu-
lar paper enveIopes (Figure 35-7), preferably one spec-
imen to an enveIope, never two species in the same en-
veIope. For display, specimens may be pinned with the
wings outspread, with the heIp of a spreading board, or,
to save storage space, pin the specimen sideways, the
pin passing through the thorax at the base of the wings
and the left side of the insect uppermost.
The nymphs of Odonata may be collected by the
various types of aquatic collecting equipment and
methods described in Chapter 35. Zygoptera nymphs
should be preserved directly in 70 to 75% ethanol. The
anal gills are important structures in identifying dam-
seIfly nymphs to genus and species, but are easily dis-
lodged from the abdomen. Therefore, it is best to put
only a few individuals together in the same vial and not
to put other insects in the vial with them. Nymphs of
Anisoptera should be killed in boiling water, cooled to
room temperature, and then immediately preserved in
75-80% ethanol. Preserve newly emerged odonate
adults and their exuviae together, preferably in a vial of
alcohol. Full-grown nymphs collected in the fieId can
be brought back to the laboratory, preferably in wet
moss, and reared in a fish-free, balanced aquarium. A
stick or piece of screen must be provided for the
nymphs to crawl out of the water, and the aquarium
should be covered with a screen or cloth.
Byers, C. F. 1930. A contribution to the knowledge of Florida
Odonata. Univ. Fla. Pub!. Bio!. Ser. No. 1,327 pp.
Calvert, P. 1901-1909. Odonata. In Biologia Centrali Ameri-
cana: Insecta Neuroptera, pp. 17-342, Supp\., pp. 324-420.
London: Dulau.
Corbet, P. S. 1963. A Biology of Dragonflies. Chicago: Quad-
rangle, 247 pp.

208 Chapter10 OrderOdonata
Corbet, P. S. 1999. Dragonflies: Behavior and Ecology of
Odonata. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 829 pp.
Dragonfly Society of the Americas. The Odonata of North Amer-
iea. http://www.ups.edulbiology/museum/NAdragons.html.
Date accessed: November 20, 2003.
Dunkle, S. W 2000. Dragonflies through Binoculars. A Field
Guide to Dragonflies of North America. New York, NY.
Oxford University Press, 266 pp.
Fraser, F. C. 1957. A Reclassification of the Order Odonata.
Roy. Soco Zoo\. New South Wales, Sydney. 133 pp.
Gloyd, L. K, and M. Wright. 1959. Odonata. In W T.
Edmondson (Ed.), Freshwater Biology, pp. 917-940.
New York: Wiley.
Johnson, C. 1972. The damselflies (Zygoptera) ofTexas. Bull.
Fla. State Mus. Bio\. Sci. 16(2):55-128.
Johnson, c., and M. j. Westfall,Jr. 1970. Diagnostic keys and
notes on the damselflies (Zygoptera) of Florida. Bull. Fla.
State Mus. Bio\. Sci. 15(2):45-89.
Kennedy, C. H. 1915. Notes on the life history and ecology of
the dragonflies of Washington and Oregon. Proc. U.S.
Nat\. Mus. 49:259-345.
Kennedy, C. H. 1917. Notes on the life history and ecology of
the dragonflies of cemral California and Nevada. Proc.
U.S. Nat\. Mus. 52:483-635.
Montgomery, B. E. 1962. The classification and nomenclature
of calopterygine dragonflies (Odonata: Calopterygoidea).
Verh. XI. 1m. Kongr. Ent. Wien 1960,3(1962):281-284.
Musser, R. j. 1962. Dragonfly nymphs of Utah (Odonata:
Anisoptera). Univ. Utah Bio\. Ser. 12(6):1-66.
Needham,j. G., and E. Broughton. 1927. The venation of the
Libellulidae. Trans. Amer. Entorno\. Soco 53:157-190.
Needham, j. G., and H. B. Heywood. 1929. A Handbook of
the Dragonflies of North America. Springfield, lL.: C. C.
Thomas, 378 pp.
Needham,j. G., and M.j. Wesúall,Jr. 1955. A Manual ofthe
Dragonflies of North America (Anisoptera). Los Angeles:
University of California Press, 615 pp. (Reprimed 1975).
Needham,j. G., M.j. Westfall,Jr., and M. L. May. 2000. Drag-
onflies of North America, rev. ed. Gainesville, FL: Scien-
tific Pub\., 939 pp.
Paulson, D. R, and S. W Dunkle. 1999. A checklist of North
American Odonata. Tacoma, University of Puget Sound
Occ. Papo 56:1-86.
Pennak, R W 1978. Fresh-water invertebrates of the United
States, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley lmerscience, 803 pp.
Pritchard, G. 1986. The operation of the labium in larval
dragonflies. Odonatologica 15:451-456.
1
Riek, E. F., andj. Kukalová-Peck. 1984. A new imerpretation
of dragonfly wing venation based upon early Upper Car-
boniferous fossils from Argentina (Insecta: Odonatoidea)
and basic character states in pterygote wings. Can. J.
Zoo\. 62:1150-1166; ilIus.
Ris, F. 1909-1919. Collections Zoologiques du Baron Edm. de
Selys Longchamps. Bruxelles: Hayez, Impr. des Acade-
mies, Fasc. IX-XVI, Libellulinen 4-8, 1278 pp.
Robert, A. 1963. Libellules du Québec. Bull. 1, Serv. de la
Faune, Ministere du Tourisme, de la Chasse et de la
Peche, Prov. Québec; 223 pp.
Smith, R F., and A. E. Pritchard. 1956. Odonata. In R L.
Usinger (Ed.), Aquatic Insects of California. Berkeley:
University of California Press, pp. 106-153.
TilIyard, R. j. 1917. The Biology of Dragonflies. Cambridge,
UK: The University Press, 396 pp.
Waage, j. K 1984. Sperm competition and the evolution of
odonate mating systems. In R L. Smith (Ed.), Sperm
Competition and the Evolution of Animal Mating Sys-
tems, pp. 251-290. Academic Press, New York.
Walker, E. M. 1912. North American dragonflies of the genus
Aeshna. Univ. Toronto Studies, Bio\. Ser. No. 11, 214 pp.
Walker, E. M. 1925. The North American dragonflies of the
genus Somatochlora. Univ. Toronto Studies, Bio\. Ser.
No. 26, 202 pp.
Walker, E. M. 1953. The Odonata of Canada and Alaska.
Vo\. 1: General, the Zygoptera-Damselflies. Toronto:
University of Toronto Press, 292 pp.
Walker, E. M. 1958. The Odonata of Canada and Alaska,
Vo\. 2: The Anisoptera-Four Families. Toronto: Univer-
sity of Toronto Press, 318 pp.
Walker, E. M., and P.S. Corbet. 1975. The Odonata of Canada
and Alaska, Vo\. 3: The Anisoptera-Three Families.
Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 307 pp.
Wesúall, M. j., Jr. 1987. Order Odonata. In F. W Stehr (Ed.),
Immature Insects, vo\. 1, pp. 95-177. Dubuque, lA:
KendalllHunt, 754 pp.
Westfall, M. J.,Jr., and M. L. May. 1996. Damselflies of Nonh
America. Gainesville, FL: Scientific Publishers, 649 pp.
Westfall, M. j., Jr., and K j. Tennessen. 1996. Odonata. lo
R W Merritt &: K W Cummins (Eds.), An Introductioo
to the Aquatic Insects of North America, 3rd ed.,
pp. 164-211. Dubuque, lA: KendalllHunt.
Wright, M., and A. Peterson. 1944. A key to the genera of
anisopterous dragonfly nymphs of the United States and
Canada (Odonata, suborder Anisoptera). Ohio j. Sci.
44(4):151-166.

11 Order Orthoptera1,2
Grasshoppers,
Crickets,and Katydids
heorder Orthoptera contains a rather varied assem-
T blage
of insects, many of which are very common
andwellknown. Most are plant feeders, and some of
(hese
areimportant pests of cultivated plants. A few are
predaceous,
a few are scavengers, and a few are more or
lessomnivorous.
TheOrthoptera may be winged or wingless, and
thewingedforms usually have four wings. The front
wingsare usually elongate, many-veined, and some-
whatthickened and are called tegmina (singular,
legmen).The hind wings are membranous, broad, and
many-veined, and at rest they are usually folded fan-
wisebeneaththe front wings. Some species have one or
both pairsof wings greatly reduced or absent. The body
~elongate;the cerci are well developed (containing
&om oneto many segments); and the antennae are rel-
ativelylong (sometimes longer than the body) and
have manysegments. Many species have a long ovipos-
whichis sometimes as long as the body. In others
¡Ior,
!heovipositoris short and more or less hidden. The
usuallyhave three to four segments. The mouth-
tarsi
pansareof the chewing type (mandibulate), and meta-
morphosis is simple.
50und Production in the Orthoptera
Agreat
many types of insects "sing," but some of the
bestknowninsect singers (grasshoppers and críckets)
areinthe order Orthoptera. The songs of these insects
areproducedchiefly by stridulating, that is, by rubbing
artha, straight; plera, wings.
'Onhoptera:
'lhischapterwas edited by David A. Nickle and Thomas J. Walker.
..
one body part against another (Figure ll-l). The
singing Orthoptera usually have auditory organs-oval
eardrums or tympana, located on the sides of the first
abdominal segment (grasshoppers) or at the base of the
front tibia e (katydids and críckets; Figure 11-4B, tym).
These tympana are relatively insensitive to changes in
pitch, but can respond to rapid and abrupt changes in
intensity. The songs of grasshoppers, katydids, and
crickets play an important role in their behavior, and
the songs of different species are usually different. The
significant differences are in rhythm.
The crickets (Gryllidae) and katydids (Tettigoni-
idae) produce their songs by rubbing a sharp edge (the
scraper) at the base of the front wing along a filelíke
ridge (the file) on the ventral side of the other front
wing (Figure 11-2 B-D). The bases of the front wings
at rest líe one above the other. The left one is usually
uppermost in the katydids, and the ríght is usually up-
permost in the crickets. Both front wings have afile
and a scraper, but the file is usually longer in the upper
wing and the scraper is better developed in the lower
wing. In the katydids, the lower (right) front wing usu-
ally contains more membranous area than the upper
one. The file on the lower front wing and the scraper
on the upper one are usually nonfunctional.
When the song is produced, the front wings are el-
evated (Figure ll-l) and moved back and forth; gen-
erally, only the closing stroke of the wings produces a
sound. The sound produced by a single stroke of the
front wings is called a pulse. Each pulse consists of a
number of individual tooth strikes of the scraper on the
file. The pulse rate in a given insect varies with the
temperature, being faster at higher temperatures. In
different species it varíes from 4 or 5 per second to
more than 200 per second. 209
210 Chapter 11 Order Orthoptera

Figure11-1 A field cricket singing (note elevated position of front wings). (Courtesy
of R. D. Alexander.)

.A may range from 1,500 to 10,000 Hz (hertz, or cycles per

16
N second). The pulses ofkatydids (Figure 11-13) are more
t
.<:
12 noiselike; that is, they contain a wide band of frequen-
g B cies and cannot be assigned a definite pitch. The princi-
4
pal frequencies in the songs of some Orthoptera are
0.1 0.2 quite high, between 10,000 and 20,000 Hz, and may be
nearly or quite inaudible to some people. The pulses
may be delivered at a regular rate for a considerable pe-
riod, producing a prolonged trill (Figure 11-3E,F) or
~ buzz (Figure 11-13D). They may be delivered in shon
r
1
bursts, a second or less in length, separated by silent in-
tervals of a second or more (some tree crickets). They
, ' may be delivered in short series of a few pulses each

-:V""'' II (Figure 11-3A,B,D), producing chirps. They may be de-

livered in regularly alternating series of fast and slow

~
,.
l'5i
Al .

r ....
Median ~
pulses (meadow katydids, Figure 11-13B). Or the pulse
rhythm may be more complex.

0_
The band-winged grasshoppers (Gomphocerinae
and Oedipodinae) usually make their noises by snap-
ping their hind wings in flight. The noises so produced
are crackling or buzzing. The slant-faced grasshoppers
(Acridinae) "sing" by rubbing the hind legs across the
front wings, producing a soft, rasping sound. The hind

Figure 11-2 Song and sound-producing

the big green pine-tree katydid, Hubbdlia marginifera
structures
(Walker) (Tettigoniidae, Tettigoniinae). A, audiospectro-
graph of two pulses of the song (4 kHz is approximately
the pitch of the top note of the piano); B, front wings,
dorsal view (Hne = 10 mm); C, ventral surface of basal
portion of left front wing showing the file (Hne = 1 mm);
D, several teeth of the file (Hne = 0.1 mm). (Courtesy of
R. D. Alexander).
The songs of different species differ in the character
of the pulses, in the pulse rate, and in the way
the pulses are grouped. The pulses of crickets (Fig-
ure 11-3) are relatively musical; that is, they can usually
be assigned a definite pitch, which in different species
of
femora of these insects usually have a series of short,
peglike structures that function something like afile
(Figure 11-4H, strp).
The females of a few Orthoptera may make a few
soft noises, but males do most of the singing. Grass-
hoppers usually move about while singing. Crickets
and katydids are usually stationary. In all U.s. bush
katydids, however, males sing, females respond with
an acoustic tick sound, and males then move toward
the sound produced by the female. Many Orthoptera,
particularly so me of the crickets and katydids, can
produce two or more different types of sounds (Fig-
ure 11-3A-C). Each type is produced in certain cir-
cumstances, and each produces a characteristic reac-
tion by the other individuals. The loudest and mos!
commonly heard sound is the "calling song" (Fig-
ure 11- 3A,D-F), which serves primarily to attract the fe-

-.. ..
1~O 1'.s
Time in Seconds
Figure 11-3 Audiospectrographs of cricket songs.
A,callingsong; B, aggressive song, and e, courtship
songof a field cricket, Gryllus pennsylvanicus Burmeister;
D,calling song of snowy tree cricket, Oecanthus fultoni
Walker;E, calling song of the tree cricket, Oecanthus ar-
gmtinusSaussure; F, calling song of the tree cricket, Oe-
canthuslatipennis Riley. The pulse rate in E is 34 per sec-
ond,and that in F is 44 per second.
male.The female, if she is at the same temperature as
thesinging male, can recognize the song of her species
andmove toward the maleo In the presence of another
male,the males of some species produce an aggressive
song(Figure 11-3B); this type of song is generally
producedwhen a male's territory is invaded by an-
othermaleo The field and ground crickets (Gryllinae
andNemobiinae) produce a special courtship song in
thepresence of a female (Figure 11-3C), which usu-
allyleads to copulation. A few Orthoptera (for exam-
pie,the northern true katydid) produce "alarm" or
Classification of the Orthoptera 211
"disturbance" sounds when disturbed or threatened
with injury.
The majority of the singing Orthoptera sing only
at night (Tettigoniidae and many Gryllidae); some sing
only in the daytime (band-winged grasshoppers), and
some sing both day and night (field, ground, and some
tree crickets). Many species (for example, so me of the
cone-headed katydids and tree crickets) "chorus"; that
is, when one starts to sing, other nearby individuals
also begin to sing. In a few cases (for example, the
snowy tree cricket), the individual pulses of the cho-
rusing individuals may be synchronized, making it
seem to a listener that only one insect is singing; in
other cases the synchronization is less evident. In the
case of the northern true katydid, a group whose songs
are synchronized will alterna te their songs with those
of another such group, producing the pulsating "Katy
did, Katy didn't" sound commonly heard on summer
evenings in the East.
Classification of the Orthoptera
Until rather recently, this order of the Orthoptera in-
cluded not only the grasshoppers, crickets, and katy-
o dids, but also the mantids (order Mantodea), walking-
.§ sticks (Phasmatodea), cockroaches (Blattodea), and
~ rock crawlers (Grylloblattodea). Few entomologists
~ will deny that these groups-along with the earwigs
<=>
(Dermaptera), webspinners (Embiidina), and termites
(Isoptera)-are relatively generalized Neoptera, and
they are generally referred to as the orthopteroid or-
ders. We have chosen to maintain a conservative ap-
proach to the classification of the orthopteroid orders,
while admitting that many affinities pointed out by
other authors (such as between termites, cockroaches,
and mantids) certainly have merit and that many of the
subfamilies we recognize may deserve family rank.
A synopsis of North American Orthoptera, as
treated in this book, is given next. Other spellings,
names, and arrangements are given in parentheses.
Classification of the Orthoptera
Suborder Caelifera
Infraorder Acridomorpha
Superfamily Eumastacoidea
Eumastacidae (Acrididae in part)-monkey
grasshoppers
Superfamily Pneumoroidea
Tanaoceridae (Eumastacidae in part)-
desert 10ng-horned grasshoppers
212 Chapter11 OrderOrthoptera

Superfamily Acridoidea Superfamily Tettigonioidea

Romaleidae-Iubber grasshoppers Tettigoniidae-katydids
Acrididae (Locustidae)-grasshoppers Copiphorinae-cone-headed katydids
Cyrtacanthacridinae Phaneropterinae-bush katydids
Podisminae PseudophyIlinae-true katydids
Me1anoplinae Listroscelinae
Leptysminae Conocephalinae-meadow katydids
Oedipodinae Decticinae-shield-backed katydids
Acridinae Saginae-matriarchal katydid
Gomphocerinae Meconematinae--drumming katydid
Infraorder Tetrigoidea Tettigoniinae-big green pine-tree katydid
Tetrigidae-pygmy grasshoppers and pygmy Prophalangopsidae (Haglidae)-hump-winged
locusts crickets
Infraorder Tridactyloidea Superfamily GryIloidea
Tridactylidae (Gryllidae in part, GryIlotalpidae Gryllidae-crickets
in part)-pygmy mole crickets Oecanthinae-tree crickets
Eneopterinae-bush crickets
Suborder Ensifera Trigonidiinae-bush crickets
Superfamily GryIlacridoidea Nemobiinae-ground crickets
Stenopelmatidae-]erusalem, sand, or stone Gryllinae-house and field crickets
crickets Brachytrupinae-short-tailed crickets
GryIlacrididae (Tettigoniidae in part)- Pentacentrinae-anomalous crickets
leaf-rolling grasshoppers Superfamily GryIlotalpoidea
Rhaphidophoridae (Ceuthophilinae)- GryIlotalpidae-mole crickets
cave or camel crickets Superfamily Mogoplistoidea
Anostostomatidae-silk -spinning Mogoplistidae-scaly crickets
crickets Myrmecophilidae-ant-Ioving crickets

Keyto the Familiesof Orthoptera

Adults (and some nymphs) of North American Orthoptera may be identified to family by
means of the following key. Families marked with an asterisk (*) are relatively rare and
are unlikely to be taken by a general collector.

1. Front legs much dilated and modified for digging (Figure U-18); tarsi
3-segmented; length 20-35 mm Gryllotalpidae p.219
1'. Front legs not so enlarged, or if they are slightly enlarged (Tridactylidae)
the front and middle tarsi are 2-segmented and the insect is less than
10 mm in length 2
2(1'). Front and middle tarsi 2-segmented, hind tarsi l-segmented or absent;
front legs somewhat dilated and fitted for digging; abdomen with
apparently2 pairs of stylelikecerci;4-10 mm Tridactylidae p.218
2'. Tarsi 3- or 4-segmented, or if front and middle tarsi are 2-segmented
(Tetrigidae), then hind tarsi are 3-segmented; front legs not dilated;
abdomen with a single pair of cerci; length usually over 10 mm 3
3(2'). Hind tarsi 3-segmented, front and middle tarsi 2- or 3-segmented;
ovipositor short; antennae usually short, seldom more than half as long
as the body (Figures U-6 through U-9); auditory organs (tympana),
if present, on sides of first abdominal segment 4
3'. Tarsi 3- or 4-segmented; ovipositor usually elongate; antennae long,
usually as long as body or longer (Figures U-l, U-14 through U-17);
auditoryorgans,if present,at baseof front tibiae (Figure11-4B,tym) 8
 Keyto the Families of Orthoptera 213

o tb ~-

-- aro
e
A B D

sp
de

sp

F G strp

Figure11-4 Leg structure in Orthoptera. A-E, tibiae and tarsi; F-G, apical portion of
left hind femur; H, hind femur, mesal view. A, Nemobius (Nemobiinae, Gryllidae), hind
leg; B, Seudderia (Phaneropterinae, Tettigoniidae), front leg; C, Sehistoeerea (Cyrtacan-
thacridinae, Acrididae); D, Oeeanthus (Oecanthinae, Gryllidae), hind leg; E, Phyllopalpus
(Trigonidiinae, Gryllidae), hind tarsus; F,Romalea (Romaleidae); G, Melanoplus
(Melanoplinae, Acrididae); H, Acridinae (Acrididae). aro, arolium; de, movable spines or
calcaria; ex, coxa; fm, femur; sp, immovable spines; stpr, stridulatory pegs; tb, tibia; ts,
tarsus; tym, tympanum.

4(3). Pronotum prolonged backward over abdomen and tapering posteriorly

(Figure 11-9); front wings vestigial; no arolia; front and middle tarsi
2-segmented,hind tarsi 3-segmented Tetrigidae p.218
4' Pronotum not prolonged backward over abdomen (Figures 11-6 through
11-8); front wings usually well developed if hind wings are present;
arolia present (Figure 11-4C); all tarsi 3-segmented 5
5(4'). Antennae shorter than front femora; wings absent; 8-25 mm in length;
occurringin the chaparralcountryof the southwestemUnited States Eumastacidae* p.215
S'. Antennae longer than front femora; wings nearly always present; size
variable, but usually over 15 mm in length; widely distributed 6
214 Chapter 11 Order Orthoptera

6(5'). Wings and tympana nearly always present; antennae not unusually long;
males without afile on third abdominal tergum; widely distributed 7
6'. Wings and tympana absent; antennae very long, in males longer than
body; males with afile on third abdominal tergum; southwestern
United States Tanaoceridae
* p.215
7(6). Hind tibia with both inner and outer immovable spines at apex
(Figure 11-4F); prosternum usually with median spine or tubercle Romaleidae p.215
7'. Hind tibia with only the inner immovable spine at apex, outel one absent
(Figure 11-4G); prosternum with or without median spine or tubercle Acrididae p.215
8(3'). All tarsi 3-segmented (Figure 11-4A,D,E); ocelli present or absent;
ovipositor cylindrical or needle-shaped 9
8'. At least middle tarsi, and usually all tarsi, 4-segmented (Figures 11-4B,
11-lOE); ocelli usually present; ovipositor sword-shaped 11
9(8). Wingless, broadly oval; hind femora much enlarged; eyes small and ocelli
lacking; length 2-4 mm; living in ant nests Myrmecophilidae p.225
9'. Without the preceding combination of characters 10
10(9'). Wings very short or absent; hind tibiae without long spines (but with
apical spurs); body covered with scales; hind femora stout; southern
United States Mogoplistidae p.225
10'. Wings usually well deve1oped; hind tibiae nearly always with long spines
(Figure 11-4A); body not covered with scales; hind femora only
moderate1y enlarged; wide1ydistributed Gryllidae p.223
11(8'). Wings usually absent, but ir present, then with 8 or more principal
longitudinal veins; males lacking stridulatory structures on front wings;
front tibiae with or without tympana; color usually gray or brown 12
11'. Wings present (but sometimes very small) and with fewer than
8 principallongitudinal veins; males with stridulatory structures on
front wings (Figure 11-2 B-D); front tibiae with tympana; color variable,
but often green 15
12(11). Antennaecontiguousat baseor nearly so Rhaphidophoridae p.219
12'. Antennae separated at base by a distance equal to or greater than length
of first antennal segment 13
13(12'). Tarsi lobed, more or less flattened dorsoventrally; hind femora extending
beyond apex of abdomen; eastern United States Gryllacrididae p.219
13'. Tarsi not lobed and more or less flattened laterally, hind femora not
extending beyond apex of abdomen; western United States 14
14(13'). Base of abdomen and often head much wider than thorax; tibiae short
and thick Stenopelmatidae p.219
14'. Base of abdomen and head almost the same width as thorax; tibiae thin Anostostomatidae* p.219
15(11 '). Antennal sockets located about halfway between epistomal suture and
top of head; wings reduced, broad in male, minute in female; ovipositor
extreme1yshort; hind femora extending to about apex of abdomen
northwestern United States and southwestern Canada Prophalangopsidae p.221
15'. Antennal sockets located near top of head wings and ovipositor variable;
hind femora usually extending beyond apex of abdomen Tettigoniidae p.219
 Keyto the Subfamiliesof Acrididae 215

SUBORDER Caelifera:The Caelifera are jumping
Orthoptera,with the hind femora more or less en-
larged;they inc!ude the short-horned grasshoppers and
thepygmy mole crickets. The antennae are nearly al-
waysrelativelyshort, and the tarsi contain three or
fewersegments. The tympana, if present, are located
on the sides of the first abdominal segmento The
speciesthat stridulate usually do so by rubbing the
hindfemoraover the tegmina or abdomen or snapping
thewings in flight. All have short cerci and ovipositor.
Family Eumastacidae-Monkey Grasshoppers: The
membersof this group live on bushes or trees in the
chaparralcountry of the Southwest. They are wingless
andremarkably agile. Their common name refers to
theirability to progress through small trees and shrubs.
Adultsare slender, 8-25 mm in length, and usually
brownish.The face is somewhat slanting; the vertex is
pointed;and the antennae are very short (not reaching
therear edge of the pronotum). Monkey grasshoppers
donothave a stridulatory organ on the sides of the third
abdominalsegment, as do the Tanaoceridae. This group
isprincipallytropical, with 13 species in 3 genera oc-
curringin the United States. They occur from central
California,southern Nevada, and southwestern Utah
southto southern California and southeastern Arizona.
FamilyTanaoceridae-Desert long-Horned Grass-
hoppers: The members of this family resemble the
monkeygrasshoppers in being wingless and very ac-
tive,and they occur in the deserts of the Southwest.
Theyare grayish to blackish in color, relatively robust,
and8-25 mm in length. The face is less slanting than
in the monkey grasshoppers, and the vertex is
1Ounded. The antennae are long and slender, longer
(hanthe bodyin the male and shorter than the body in
thefemale.Males have a stridulatory organ on the sides
ofthe third abdominal segmento These grasshoppers
areveryseldom encountered. They are nocturnal and
are likely to be found early in the season. Four species
live in the United States (in the genera Tanaocerus and
Mohavacris); they occur from southern Nevada to
southern California.
Family Romaleidae-lubber Grasshoppers: These
are robust, usually large grasshoppers Oength mostly
25-75 mm) that are chiefly western in distribution.
Some species have short wings and do not fly,and some
have brightly colo red hind wings. The only species in
this group that normally occurs in the East is Romalea
microptera (Beauvois), which occurs from North Car-
olina and Tennessee to Florida and Louisiana. This in-
sect is 40-75 mm in length, with short wings, and the
hind wings are red with a black border. This species is
often used for morphological studies in beginning bi-
ology and entomology c!asses.
Family Acrididae-Grasshoppers: This family in-
c!udes most of the grasshoppers that are so common in
meadows and along roadsides from midsummer until
fallo The antennae are usually much shorter than the
body, the auditory organs (tympana) lie on the sides of
the first abdominal segment, the tarsi have three seg-
ments, and the ovipositor is short. Most are gray or
brownish, and some have brightly colored hind wings.
These insects eat plants and are often very destructive
to vegetation. Most species pass the winter in the egg
stage, the eggs being laid in the ground. A few over-
winter as nymphs, and a very few overwinter as adults.
Many males in this group sing (during the day), ei-
ther by rubbing the inner surface of the hind femur
against the lower edge of the front wing or by snapping
the hind wings in flight. Males in the former group
(most slant-faced grasshoppers) have a row of tiny
stridulatory pegs on the inner surface of the hind femur
(Figure 11-4H, strp), and the sound produced is usually
a low buzzing sound. In the latter group (band-winged
grasshoppers), the song is a sort of crackling sound.

Keyta the Subfamiliesof Acrididae

Thereare differences of opinion regarding the number of subfamilies in this family. We

followAmadegnato (1974) and ütte (1995 a, b), who recognize RomaIeidae as distinct
[10mAcrididae and separate Acrididae into seven subfamilies in our fauna, which may be
separatedby the following key:

1. Prosternum with median spine or tubercle (Figure 11-5A) 2

¡'. Prostenum without median spine or tubercle 4
2(1). Usually very large species (40-65 mm long); mesosternallobes usually
longer than wide, inner margin of mesosternallobe of mesosternum
angulate (Figure U-5E) (Schistocerca) Cyrtacanthacridinae p.216
2' Smaller species (usually less than 40 mm long); mesosternallobes wider
than long, inner margin of mesosternallobe of mesosternum rounded
(Figure U-5D) 3
-
216 Chapter11 Order Orthoptera

B e

Figure11-5 A, prothorax of Melanoplus

(Melanoplinae, Acrididae), ventral view;
B, pronotum of Syrbula (Acridinae, Acridi-
dae), dorsal view; C, pronotum of Chor-
tophaga (Oedipodinae, Acrididae), dorsal
view; D, mesothorax of Melanoplus
(Melanoplinae, Acrididae), ventral view;
E, same, Schistocerca (Cyrtacanthacridinae,
Acrididae). stl, mesosternallobe; stn2,
E mesosternum; tub, prosternal tubercle.

3(2'). Elongated, slender species, with slanted faces and broad, fIattened
antennae; inner margins of mesosternallobes touching; apex of hind
wings usually pointed Leptysminae p.217
3' Elongated or robust species, with rounded faces and thin, filiform
antennae; inner margins of mesosternallobes not touching; apex of hind Melanoplinae and
wings usualIy rounded Podisminae p. 216
4(1'). Face vertical or neady so; antennae slender, filamentous, not fIattened;
pronotum usually with strong median ridge, caudal margin produced
backward and mesally angula te (Figure ll-5C); wings long, reaching to
or surpassing apex of abdomen; hind wings usually colored, often with
black bands, separating areas that are clear or colored; hind femora of
males without a row of stridulatory pegs; grasshoppers that often
stridulate in flight Oedipodinae p.217
4'. Face usualIy slanting backward, sometimes strongly so; antennae either
filiform or weakly fIattened; pronotum fIat, only rarely with a median
ridge; caudal margin of pronotum trunca te or rounded, not angulate
mesally (Figure ll-5B); hind wing usually hyaline; wings variable in
length, sometimes short and reaching apex of abdomen; grasshoppers
that do not stridulate in flight, but usually with row of stridulatory pegs
on hind femora of male (Figure ll-4H, strp), which are rubbed against Gomphocerinae and
the tegmina when the insect is at rest Acridinae p.217

Subfamily Cyrtacanthacridinae: The genus Schisto-
cerca (Figure 11-6A) with 12 species is the only genus
in this subfamily. Most of them are large and strong
fliers. The desert locust, S. gregaria (Forkskil), of
Africa, the "plague" species mentioned in the Bible, be-
longs to this group. lt is one of the world's most de-
structive insects.
Subfamily Podisminae:These grasshoppers are very
similar to the Melanoplinae. Twenty-three species are
known fram the United States.
Subfamily Melanoplinae:This is the largest subfam-
ily of Acrididae with more than 300 species in 39 gen.
era in the United States, most in the genus Melanoplus.
Here belong OUTmost common grasshoppers-and the

-
r
A
@
~~
~J~
,
Figure11-6 Spur-throated grasshoppers. A, Schistocercaamericana (Drury), with
wings outspread; B, Melanoplus differentialis (Thomas); C, Melanoplus sanguinipes
(Fabricius). (A, courtesy of the Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center;
B-C, courtesy of USDA.)
onesthat are most destructive. Most damage to U.5. crops
byspur-throated grasshoppers is done by four species of
Melanoplus: the migratory grasshopper, M. sanguipes
(Fabricius)(Figure 11-6C); the differential grasshopper,
M.differentialis(Thomas) (Figure 11-6B); the two-striped
grasshopper,M. bivittatus (Say); and the red-legged
grasshopper,M.femurrubrum (DeGeer).
Some species of spur-throated grasshoppers occa-
sionallyincrease to tremendous numbers and migrate
considerabledistances, causing catastrophic damage.
Themigrating hordes of these insects may contain
millionson millions of individuals and can literally
darkenthe sky. From 1874 to 1877 great swarms of
migratorygrasshoppers appeared on the plains east of
theRocky Mountains and migrated to the Mississippi
valleyand to Texas, destroying crops whenever they
stoppedin their night. This migratory behavior fol-
lowsa tremendous buildup in numbers, resulting
froma combination of favorable environmental con-
ditions.When the numbers decrease, the insects do
notmigrate.
Subfamily Leptysminae:Most of these grasshoppers
have a verticalface or nearly so, but a few,such as the
slendergrasshopper, Leptysma marginicollis (Serville),
havea very slanting face and may be confused with
someGomphocerinae. There are only two species of
thissubfamily in the United States.
Subfamily Oedipodinae-Band-Winged Grasshop-
pers:These insects have brightly colored hind wings
andgenerally frequent areas of sparse vegetation. They
oftenalighton bare ground, with the hind wings con-
cealedand the front wings blending with the back-
ground.These insects are quite conspicuous in night,
Keyto the SubfamiliesofAcrididae 217
B
~"''''''
e
.
. ..J¡ "L
owing to the bright colors of the hind wings and the
crackling sound some times made by the wings. The
Oedipodinae are the only short-homed grasshoppers
that stridulate while flying (the stridulation producing
the crackling sound).
One of the more common species in this group is
the Carolina grasshopper, Dissosteira carolina (L.), in
which the hind wings are black with a pale border (Fig-
ure 11-7 A). The clear-winged grasshopper, Camnula
pellucida (Scudder), is an important pest species in this
group. It has clear hind wings.
Subfamily Acridinae-Silent Slant-Faced Grasshop-
pers: Acridinae differ from Gomphocerinae in lacking
stridulatory pegs on the inner face of the hind femur of
the maleo The only U.s. member of this subfamily is
Metaleptea brevicomis Qohannson), found in the east-
em states from southem Michigan and Wisconsin to
Texas and Louisiana.
Subfamily Gomphocerinae-Stridulating Grasshop-
pers: The slanting face of these grasshoppers (Fig-
ure 11-8) distinguishes them from most other
Acrididae, except the very slender grasshoppers in the
Leptysminae. Males of most genera have a row of tiny
stridulatory pegs on the inner surface of the hind fe-
mur (Figure 11-4H, strp). These pegs are lacking in
the other subfamilies in North America. The Gompho-
cerinae usually lack a prostemal spine or tubercle, and
the hind wings are usually hyaline.
The Gomphocerinae are not as abundant as the
Melanoplinae and Oedipodinae and are most likely to
be found along the borders of marshes, in wet mead-
ows, and in similar places. They are rarely numerous
enough to do much damage to vegetation.
218 Chapter11 OrderOrthoptera
\
,
Figure 11-7 Band-winged grasshoppers. A, Dissosteira
carolina (L.); B, Spharagemonbolli Scudder. (A, courtesy
of Dwight M. Delong; B, courtesy of Institut de Biologie
Générale, Université de Montréal.)
Figure 11-8 A slant-faced grasshopper, Chloealtis con-
spersa Harris. (Courtesy of Insititut de Biologie Générale,
Université de Montréal.)
Figure 11-9 A pygmy grasshopper, Tettigidea latera/is
(Say), Y/2x. n¡, pronotum.
Family Tetrigidae-Pygmy Grasshoppers or Grouse
Locusts: The pygmy grasshoppers may be recognized
by the characteristic pronotum, which extends back-
ward over the abdomen and is narrowed posteriorly
(Figure 11-9). Most species are between 13 and 19 mm
in length, and the females are usually larger and heay-
ier bodied than the males. These are among the few
grasshoppers that winter as adults. The adults are mas!
often encountered in the spring and early summer. The
pygmy grasshoppers are not of very much economic
importance. In North America there are 27 species in
six genera.
Family Tridactylidae-Pygmy Mole Crickets: These
tiny crickets (length 4-10 mm) are burrowing in habi!
and usually occur along the shores of streams and
lakes. They are very active jumpers, and when one is
approached, it may seem to disappear suddenly. The
tridactylids are peculiar among the Orthoptera in hay-
ing what appear to be two pairs of cerci: four slender,
stylelike appendages at the apex of the abdomen. These
insects have no tympanal organs, and the males do no!
sing. Five species occur in North America, but they are
widely distributed.
SUBORDEREnsifera:The Ensifera are jumping Or-
thoptera, with the hind femora more or less enlarged.
They include the katydids and crickets. The antennae
are nearly always long and hairlike, and the tarsi haye
three- or four -segments. The tympana, if present, are
located on the upper ends of the front tibiae (Fig-
 Keyto the Subfamiliesof Tettigoniidae 219

ure11-4B). The species that stridulate do so by rub-

bingthe edge of one front wing over a filelike ridge on
theventral side of the other front wing. Nearly all have
a relatívely long ovipositor, either sword-shaped or
cylindrical.
FamilyStenopelmatidae-Jerusalem, Sand, or Stone
Crickets:These insects are 20-50 mm long, and the
headand abdomen are rather large and robust. They
areusually brownish, with black bands on the ab-
domen.They are generally found under stones or in
loosesoil. Four species of Stenopelmatus and five
speciesof Cnemotettix represent this family in North
America.They occur in the West and are most com-
monin the Pacific Coast states.
Family Gryllacrididae-Leaf-Rolling Grasshoppers:
Ihis group is represented in the United States by one
species:Camptonotus carolinensis (Gerstaecker), which
occursin the East from New Jersey to Indiana and
southto Florida and Mississippi. This insect is noctur-
naland feeds chiefly on aphids. During the day it shel-
tersina leaf rolled up and tied with silk spun from its
ownmouth.
FamilyRhaphidophoridae-Caveor Camel Crickets:
Iheseinsects are brownish and rather humpbacked in
appearance(Figure ll-lO) and live in caves, in hol-
lowtrees, under logs and stones, and in other dark,
moistplaces. The antennae are often very long. Most
species in this group belong to the genus
Ceuthophilus, with 89 species in the United States and
Canada.
Figure 11-10 A cave cricket, Ceuthophilus maculatus
(Hanis), female. (Courtesy of Hebard and the Illinois
Natural History Survey.)
Family Anostostomatidae-Silk-Spinning Crickets:
The five species (four in the genus Cnemotettix) be-
longing to this family, spin silk from their maxillary
glands. They are all found in the Channel Islands off
the coast of California.
FamilyTettigoniidae-Katydids: This is a large fam-
ily, with 265 species in 50 genera in North America,
whose members can usually be recognized by the long,
hairlike antennae, the four-segmented tarsi, the audi-
tory organs (when present) located at the base of the
front tibiae, and the laterally flattened bladelike ovipos-
itor. Most species have well-developed stridulating or-
gans and are noted songsters. Each species has a char-
acteristic songo The winter is usually passed in the egg
stage, and in many species the eggs are inserted into
plant tissues. Most species feed on plants, but a few
prey on other insects.

Keyto the Subfamiliesof Tettigoniidae2

1. Front wings oval and convex, costal field broad, with many parallel
transverse veins; prostemal spine present; color green Pseudophyllinae p.221
l' Front wings variable in shape, but costal field without transverse veins
as described in the preceding entry; other characters variable 2
2(1'). Dorsal surface of first tarsal segment grooved laterally (Figure ll-llE);
prostemal spines usually present (Figure ll-llD); front wings about
as long as hind wings 3
2'. Dorsal surface of first tarsal segment smoothly rounded; prostemal spines
absent;hind wingsusuallylongerthan front wings Phaneropterinae p. 220
3(2). Anterior portíon of vertex conical, sometimes acuminate, extending well
beyondbasal antennalsegment(Figurell-llC, ver) Copiphorinae p. 220
3'. Anterior portion of vertex usually not conical or acuminate, not
extending beyond basal antennal segment (Figure ll-llA,B, ver) 4
4(3'). Anterior portion of vertex laterally compressed, much less than half as
wide as basal antennal segment (Figure ll-llA, ver); southwestem
UnitedStates Listroscelidinae p.221

'IhesubfamiliesSaginaeand Meconematinae, each containing one species that has been introduced and established in the United States, are
no!included in this key. The subfamilies are discussed in the tex!.
220 Chapter11 OrderOrthoptera

ver
/
I ,ant
I /
/
/

A
Figure 11-11 Characters of
Tettigoniidae. A, head of Rehnia
(Listroscelidinae), dorsal view;
B, head of Orchelimum (Cono-
cephalinae), dorsal view; C, head
of Neoconocephalus (Copiphori-
nae), dorsal view; D, prothorax of
Orchelimum (Conocephalinae),
ventral view; E, hind tarsus of
Neoconocephalus (Copiphorinae),
dorsal view. ant, base of antenna;
sp, prosternal spine; ver, vertex;
E I-IV, tarsal segments.

4'. Anterior portion of vertex variable, but always more than half as wide as
basal antennal segment; widely distributed 5
5(4'). One or more spines on dorsal surface of front tibiae 6
S'. No spines on dorsal surface of front tibiae Conocephalinae p.221
6(5). Pronotum extending back to abdomen (except in a few long-winged
forms); wings usually greatly reduced; front wings usually gray, brown,
or spotted; prosternal spines present or absent; widely distributed Decticinae p.221
6'. Pronotum never extending back to abdomen; wings always well
developed; front wings green, rarely spotted with brown; prosternal
spines present; southeastern United States Tettigoniinae p.222

Subfamily Copiphorinae-Cone-Headed Katydids:
The cone-heads are long-bodied katydids that have a
conical head (Figure U-l2) and a long, swordlike
ovipositor. They have two color phases, green and
brown. They are generally found in high grass or weeds
and are rather sluggish. Their jaws are very strong, and
a person handling these insects carelessly may receive
a healthy nip. This group is a small one, with only a
few genera. The more common eastern species belong
to the genus Neoconocephalus. The songs of cone-heads
vary. In most cases the song is a prolonged buzz (Fig-
ure U-BD), but in N. ensiger (Harris), a common
eastern species, it is a rapid series of lisping notes (Fig-
ure U-BC). These insects generally sing only al
night.
Subfamily Phaneropterinae-Bush Katydids: The
members of this and the next subfamily are well known
for their songs, which are usually heard in the evening
and at night. The katydids in this subfamily can be rec-
ognized by the absence of spines on the prosternum,
 Keyto the $ubfamilies of Tettigoniidae 221

Figure11-12 A cone-headed
:=;. katydid, Neoconocephalusensiger
(Harris). A, male; B, female.
(Courtesy of the lnstitut de Bi-
ologie Générale, Université de
A B Montréal.)

10,
S, dids), Microcentrum (angular-winged katydids), and
Amblycorypha (round-headed katydids). Scudderia has
~:A.__ nearly parallel-sided front wings (Figure 11-14B,C);
Microcentrum has some,what angled front wings, with
the hind femora not extending beyond the front wings
14<
Ñ 12- (Figure 11-14A). Ambylcorypha has elongate-oval
~ 10~ front wings, and the hind femora extend beyond the
; S. ~ apex of the front wings. These katydids are normally
S 6. green, but pink forms occasionally occur; these color
g 4-S
forrns are not distinct species.

r1
~~ 2 ""..-
Subfamily Pseudophyllinae-True Katydids: These
.
'.
i~ ~;.
12,
.

..
.. .
. katydids are principally arboreal in habit, living in the
foliage of trees and shrubs. The northem true katydid,
g ID. Pterophylla camellifolia (Fabricius), is the insect whose
~ S-.
.E 6.
4.
, .. ...

"Katy did, Katy didn't" song is heard so commonly on

summer evenings in the Northeast. lts song contains
g~ 2 e
>-

~
tT
. from two to five pulses (Figure 11-13A). The southem
~ representatives of this katydid sing a somewhat longer
¡¡ 14.
and faster song, containing up to about a dozen pulses.
12.
10. Subfamily Listroscelidinae: These katydids are very
S- similar to the Decticinae, and the U.S. genera (Neobar-
6- ~ rettia and Rehnia) were formerly placed in that group.
4-D
2- ~ This subfamily is principally tropical in distribution
o.b
"Í~
0.4
f
0.6
Time in Seconds
0.8 1.'0 ~ and is represented in the United States by a few species
.g in the south central states, from Texas north to Kansas.
Subfamily Conocephalinae-Meadow Katydids: These
small to medium-sized, slender-bodied, usually greenish
Figure11-13 Audiospectrographs of the songsof katy- katydids (Figure 11-15) are found principally in wet,
dids(Tettigoniidae).A, northem true katydid, Pterophylla grassy meadows and along the margins of ponds and
camdlifolia(Fabricus), a two-pulse song, the pulses ut- strearns. Two genera are common in the eastem United
teredat the rate of about 5 per second; B, a meadow katy- States, Orchelimum (usually over 18 mm in length) and
did,Orchelimumnigripes Scudder; C, a cone-headed katy- Conocephalus (usually less than 17 mm long).
did,Neoconocephalus ensiger (Harris), the pulses produced Subfamily Decticinae-Shield-Backed Katydids:
attherate of about 5 per second; D, another cone-headed These insects are brownish to black, short-winged, and
katydid,N. nebrascensis (Brunner), the pulses produced at usually 25 mm or more in length. The pronotum ex-
therate of about 146 per second. B, C, and D show only a tends back to the abdomen. Most species appear crick-
panof the long-continued song of these insects. etlike. The eastem species, most of which belong to the
genus Atlanticus, occur in the dry upland woods. The
majority of the Decticinae occur in the West, where
andthe hind wings are usually longer than the front they may live in fields or woods. Some of the westem
wings;some westem species are brachypterous. About species often do serious damage to field crops. The
10genera occur in the United States. The three most Mormon cricket, Anabrus simplex Haldeman, is a seri-
commongenera in the East are Scudderia (bush katy- ous pest in the Great Plains states, and the coulee
222 Chapter11 Order Orthoptera

B e

Figure 11-14 Bush Katydids. A, Microcentrum rhombifolium (Saussure); B, Scudderia

furcata Brunner, male; C, S.furcata Brunner, female. (A, courtesy of Hebard and the Illi-
nois Natural History Survey; B and C, courtesy of Institut de Biologie Générale, Univer-
sité de Montréal.)

Figure 11-15 A meadow katydid, Cono-

cephalus fasciatus (DeGeer), female. (Courtesy
of the Institut de Biologie Générale, Université
de Montréal.)

cricket, Peranabrus scabricollis (Thomas), often does
considerable damage in the arid regions of the Pacitic
Northwest. The work of California gulls (Larus califor-
nicus) in checking an outbreak of the Mormon crickets
in Utah in 1848 is now commemorated by a monument
to the gull in Salt Lake City.
Subfamily Saginae: Saga pedo(PalIas), the matriar-
chal katydid, has been introduced from Europe and
was established in Michigan. It has no potential for
rapid spread and may even have died out. This insect
has raptorial front and middle legs and is predaceous
on other insects.
Subfamily Meconematinae:Meconemathalassinum
(DeGeer), the drumming katydid, has be en introduced
from Europe is established in New York and Pennsyl-
vania, and is rapidly spreading. It is a small, delicate,
greenish insect with a rounded head, and the antennae
are inserted between the eyes. This subfamily is well
represented by some 200 species in the Palearctic re-
gion and Africa.
Subfamily Tettigoniinae: This group contains a sin.
gle U.S. species, Hubbellia marginifera (Walker), the big
green pine-tree katydid, which occurs in the southeast-
ern United States. The song and song-producing stroc.
tures of this katydid are illustrated in Figure 11-2.
FamilyProphalangopsidae-Hump-WingedCrickets:
This family is represented in North America by two
species of Cyphoderris, which occur in the mountains
of the northwestern United States and southwestern
Canada. Adults are brownish with light markings, rel.
 Keyto the Subfamilies of Gryllidae 223

ativelyrobust, and about 25 mm in length. In the Tet-
tigoniidae,the left front wing is uppermost, and its file
in the functional one. In this group either front wing
maybe uppermost, and the males may switch the posi-
tionof the wings while singing. The song of C. mon-
strosaUhler is a loud, very high-pitched (12-13 kHz)
trillabout 2 seconds in length or less, which has a
slightpulsating quality apparently due to the switching
ofthe front wings during the songo
Family Gryllidae-Crickets: The crickets resemble
thekatydids in having long, tapering antennae; stridu-
lating organs on the front wings of the male; and the
auditory organs on the front tibiae, but differ from
them in having not more than three tarsal segments,
the ovipositor usually needlelike or cylindrical rather
than flattened, and the front wings bent down rather
sharply at the sides of the body. Many of these insects
are well-known singers, and each species has a charac-
teristic songo Most species overwinter as eggs, laid gen-
erallv in the ground or vegetation. This family is repre-
sented in the United States by seven subfamilies, which
can be separated by the following key.

Keyto the Subfamilies of Gryllidae

l. Second tarsal segment somewhat expanded laterally, flattened

dorsoventrally (Figure 11-4E) 2
1'. Second tarsal segment small, flattened laterally (Figure 11-4A,D) 3
2(1). Hind tibiae with small teeth between longer spines; ovipositor cylindrical,
usually straight; length 11-23 mm Eneopterinae p.224
2'. Hind tibiae without small teeth between longer spines; ovipositor
compressed, upcurved; length 4.0-8.5 mm Trigonidiinae p.224
3(1'). Antennae inserted well below middle of face Pentacentrinae p.225
3'. Antennae inserted at or above middle of face 4
4(3'). Ocelli present; head short, vertical (Figures 11-1, 11-17); hind tibiae
without teeth between spines (Figure 11-4A); black or brown insects 5
4'. Ocelli absent; head elongate, horizontal (Figure 11-16); hind tibiae
usually with minute teeth between spines (Figure 11-4D); usually pale
green insects Oecanthinae p. 223
5(4). Spines of hind tibiae long and movable (Figure 11-4A); last segment
of maxillary palps at least twice as long as preceding segment; body
usually less than 12 mm long Nemobiinae p. 224
5'. Spines of hind tibiae stout and immovable; last segment of maxillary
palps only slightly longer than preceding segment; body usually over
14 mm in length 6
6(5'). Ocelli arranged in nearly a transverse row; ovipositor very short, often
not visible; southeastern United States Brachytrupinae p.225
6'. Ocelli arranged in an obtuse triangle; ovipositor at least half as long as
hind femora; widely distributed Gryllinae p.224

Subfamily Oecanthinae- Tree Crickets: Most tree
cricketsare slender, whitish or pale green insects (Fig-
ure11-16). All are excellent singers. Some species oc-
curin trees and shrubs; others occur in weedy fields.
Thesnowy tree cricket, Oecanthusfultoni Walker, a
shrubinhabitant, chirps at a very regular rate, which
varieswith the temperature (Figure U-3D). Adding 40
tothe number of its chirps in 15 seconds gives a good
approximation of the temperature in degrees Fahren-
heit. Most species of tree crickets deliver loud trills.
Some of the tree-inhabiting species have songs consist-
ing of short bursts of pulses. Most North American tree
crickets belong to the genus Oecanthus. The two-
spotted tree cricket, Neoxabea bipunctata (DeGeer), dif-
fers from Oecanthus in lacking teeth on the hind tibiae,
in having the hind wings much longer than the front
 1

224 Chapter11 Order Orthoptera

A B

Figure11-16 A tree cricket, Oecanthusquadrimaculatus Beutenmüller. A, male;

B, female. (Courtesy of the lnstitut de Biologie Générale, Université de Montréal.)

wings, and in its buffy coloration. Tree crickets lay

their eggs in bark or on stems (Figure 2-34 E) and of-
ten seriously damage twigs by their egg laying.
Subfamilies Eneopterinae and Trigonidiinae-Bush
Crickets: The bush crickets are principally bush- or
tree-inhabiting and are rarely found on the ground
(where one would find the somewhat similar ground
crickets). They differ from other crickets in having the
second tarsal segment distinct and somewhat flattened
and expanded laterally (Figure 11-4E). This segment is A
quite small and somewhat compressed in other crick-
ets (Figure 11-4D). The Eneopterinae differ from the
Trigonidiinae in being much larger Oength 11-23 mm
in the Eneopterinae and 4.0-8.5 mm in the Trigonidi-
inae) and in the shape of the ovipositor and the char-
acter of the spines on the hind tibiae (see key to sub-
families, couplet 2). Both groups are small and occur
only in the eastern states.
The most common species in the Eneopterinae is
the jumping bush cricket, Orocharis saltator Uhler,
which is grayish brown in color and 14-16 mm in B e
length. The two most common species in the Trigoni-
diinae are Say's bush cricket, Anaxipha exigua (Say),
which is brownish and 6-8 mm in length, and the Figure11-17 A, a ground cricket, Allonemobiusfascia-
handsome or red-headed bush cricket, Phyllopalpus tus (DeGeer), male; B, the house cricket, Acheta domesti-
pulchellus Uhler, which is blackish, with the head and cus (L.); C, a field cricket, Gryllus pennsylvanicus
pronotum red, and 6-7 mm in length. The species of Burmeister. (A, courtesy of Hebard and the Illinois Nat-
Cyrtoxipha (Trigonidiinae), which occur in the South- ural History Survey; B and C, courtesy of the lnstitut de
west, are pale green in color. Biologie Générale, Université de Montréal.)
Subfamily Nemobiinae-Ground Crickets: These
crickets (Figure 11-17 A) are common in pastures, in
meadows, along roadsides, and in wooded areas. They
are less than 13 mm in length and are usually brown- but are generally larger (more than 13 mm in length),
ish. The songs of most species are soft, high-pitched, and they vary from brownish to black. The field crick-
and often pulsating trills or buzzes. ets (Figure 11-1) are very common in pastures, in
Subfamily Gryllinae-House and Field Crickets: meadows, along roadsides, and in yards, and some en-
These crickets are very similar to the ground crickets ter houses. The several species of Gryllus are very sim-

ilarmorphologicallyand were formerly considered to
representa single species. Now several species are rec-
ognized,which differ chiefly in habits, life history, and
songoMost species of Gryllus chirp (Figure 11-3A) ,
butone species occurring in the Southwest, G. rubens
Scudder,produces a more or less long trillo The most
commonspecies of Gryllus in the East is probably the
northem field cricket, G. pennsylvanicus Burmeister
(Figure11-17C). The house cricket, Acheta domesticus
(L.),a species introduced into the United States from
Europe,which often enters houses, differs from the na-
tivespeciesof Gryllus in having a light-colored head
withdarkcrossbars (Figure 11-17B). The members of
thisgroup sing both day and night. Other genera in
thissubfamily(Miogryllusand Gryllodes)occur in the
southemstates.
Subfamily Brachytrupinae-Short-Tailed Crickets:
Ihesecrickets get their common name from the fact
thattheir ovipositor is very short and often not visible,
ratherthan long and slender as in most other crickets.
Ihe short-tailed crickets are burrowing in habit and
usuallyoccur in colonies, their burrows going 0.3 mor
moreinto the ground. They spend most of the time
duringthe day in their burrows and generally come out
onlyatnight.Asingle speciesof short-tailed cricket oc-
cursin the southeastern states, Anurogryllus muticus
(DeGeer).This insect is 12 to 17 mm long and yellow-
ishbrown.
Subfamily Pentacentrinae-Anomalous Crickets:
Ihis subfamily is represented in the United States by
thesingle species Trogonidimimus belfragei Caudell in
Oklahomaand northern Texas. The species may be col-
lectedat lights. This family is largely tropical in distri-
bution.
FamilyGryllotalpidae-MoleCrickets:Mole crickets
arebrownish, very pubescent insects with short anten-
nae,and the front legs are very broad and spadelike
(Figure11-18). These insects burrow in moist soil,
usuallynear ponds and streams, often 150-200 mm be-
lowthe surface. There is a tympanum on the front
tibia,and the males sing. Only seven species of mole
cricketsoccur in North America, six in the East and
onein the West. The most common eastern species is
Neocurtilla hexadactyla (Perty) (Figure 11-18). This
Figure11-18 The northern mole cricket, Neocurtilla
hexadactylaCPerty). CCourtesy of Hebard and the Illinois
NaturalHistory Survey.)
Collecting and Preserving Orthoptera 225
insect is generally 25-30 mm in length, and its song is
much like that of the snowy tree cricket (Oecanthus ful-
toni Walker) but is pitched lower. Mole crickets of the
genus Scapteriscus often damage crops such as peanuts,
tobacco, strawberries, and garden vegetables in the
South Atlantic and Gulf Coast states.
Family Mogoplistidae-Scaly Crickets: The members
of this group are small, wingless or very short-winged,
slender-bodied, flattened insects that are chiefly tropi-
cal in distribution. They occur on bushes or beneath
debris in sandy localities near water. The body is cov-
ered with translucent scales that are easily rubbed off.
The members of this group in the southern states are
5-13 mm in length.
Family Myrmecophilidae-Ant-Loving Crickets:
These crickets are small (2-4 mm in length) and
broadly oval, with greatly dilated hind femora. They
live in ant nests and feed (at least in part) on secretions
from the ants. Of the half dozen or so North American
species, only one, Myrmecophila pergandei Bruner, oc-
curs in the East (from Maryland to Nebraska).
Collecting and Preserving Orthoptera
Many of the Orthoptera, because they are relatively large
and numerous, are fairly easy to collect. The best time for
collecting most species is from midsummer to late fall, al-
though a few species should be looked for in early sum-
mero The more conspicuous forms such as the grasshop-
pers and crickets, are most easily collected with a net,
either by sweeping vegetation or by aiming for particular
individuals. Some of the more secretive species can be
collected at night by listening for their songs and then 10-
cating them with a flashlight, or by means of various
sorts of baited traps. Some forms can be caught by
putting molasses or a similar material in the bottom of a
trap like that shown in Figure 35-6A. The insects so col-
lected can simply be picked out of the trapo
Most nymphs and some soft-bodied adult speci-
mens should be preserved in alcohol, but most adults
can be pinned. Pin grasshoppers through the right side
of the rear part of the pronotum or through the right
tegmen. Pin crickets through the right tegmen, in
about the middle (from front to rear) of the body. If the
specimen is very soft-bodied, support the body by a
piece of cardboard or by pins, or it will sag at either
end. In the case of grasshoppers, spread the wings, at
least on one side (as in Figure 11-8A), so the color and
venation of the hind wing can be seen. It is sometimes
desirable to eviscerate some of the larger grasshoppers
before they are pinned, to facilita te drying and preser-
vation. Make a short incision on the right or left side of
the body near the base of the abdomen, and remove as
much of the viscera as possible.

226 Chapter11 OrderOrthoptera
References
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Alexander, R. D., A. E. Pace, and D. OUe. 1972. The singing
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 12 Order Phasmatodea1
Walkingsticks
and LeafInsects
he members of this order do not have enlarged hind
T femora (and they do not jump), and the tarsi are
usually tive-segmented (lhree-segmented in the
Timematidae). The species in North America have an
elongatedand sticklike body, and the wings are either
muchreduced or entirely absent. Some tropical forms
Oeafinsects) are flattened and expanded laterally (and
haveat least the hind wings well developed), and very
greatlyresemble leaves. These insects lack tympana
and stridulatory organs; the cerci are short and one-
segmented;and the ovipositor is short and concealed.
The walkingsticks are slow-moving herbivorous
insectsthat are usually found on trees or shrubs. They
arevery similar to twigs in appearance, and this mim-
icryprobably has protective value. Walkingsticks can
emita foul-smelling substance from glands in the tho-
rax,a behavior that serves as a means of defense. Unlike
mostinsects, the walkingsticks can regenera te lost legs,
atleastin part. These insects are usually not numerous
enoughto do much damage to cultivated plants but,
whennumerous, may do serious damage to trees.
Some species are parthenogenetic, the males being
completelyunknown. The eggs are not laid in any par-
ticular situation but are simply scattered on the
ground.There is a single generation per year, with the
Keyto the Families of Phasmatodea
1. Tarsi 3-segmented
l' Tarsi 5-segmented
lThischapter was edited by David A. Nickle.
egg stage overwintering. The eggs often do not hatch
the following spring but hatch the second year after
they are laido For this reason walkingsticks are gener-
ally abundant only in alterna te years. The young are
usually greenish, and the adults are brownish.
The walkingsticks are widely distributed (more
than 2000 species worldwide), but the group is most
diverse in the tropics, especially in the lndo-Malayan
region, and in the Nearctic is better represented in the
southern states. All walkingsticks in the United States
are wingless except Aplopus mayeri Caudell, which oc-
curs in southern Florida. This species has short, oval
front wings, and the hind wings project 2 or 3 mm be-
yond the front wings. Some tropical walkingsticks are
around 30 cm or so in length.
Classification of the Phasmatodea
Timematidae (Timemidae)-timema walkingsticks
Pseudophasmatidae (Bacunculidae)-striped walking-
sticks
Heteronemiidae-common walkingsticks
Phasmatidae (Bacteriidae)-winged walkingsticks
Timematidae p. 228
2
227
228 Chapter12 OrderPhasmatodea

2(1'). Mesothorax never more than 3 times as long as prothorax; middle and
hind tibiae deeply emarginate apically, reeeiving base of tarsi in repose Pseudophasmatidae p.228
2'. Mesothorax at least 4 times as long as prothorax; middle and hind tibiae
not deeply emarginate apically 3
3(2'). Adults with short wings; first abdominal tergum as long as or longer than
metanotum (longer than wide); head with 2 stout spines on vertex Phasmatidae p.228
3'. Wings absent; first abdominal tergum mueh shorter than metanotum
(subquadrate); vertex without stout spines Heteronemiidae p. 228

Family Timematidae- Timema Walkingsticks: These

insects are mueh stouter and shorter than most other
walkingstieks and somewhat resemble earwigs. They
are short-Iegged, apterous, 15-30 mm in length, and
greenish to pink in color. The tarsi are all three-
segmented and have unequal pretarsal claws. There are
10 known species, all belonging to the genus Timema,
which oceur in deciduous trees in California, Arizona,
and Nevada. At least one species is parthenogenetie.
Timemas are usually eolleeted by beating foliage. ~
u'"
Family Pseudophasmatidae-Striped Walkingsticks:
c:
'"
In these insects, the tergum of the first abdominal seg- E
c.
o
ment is at least as long as the thoracie metanotum, with Q;
>
'"
which it is completely fused, and the middle and hind C>
'O
c:
tibiae are broadly and deeply emarginate apically, re- '"
'5
eeiving the base of the tarsus in repose. They are ro
g¡
brownish yellow (male) or brown (female) with a dark '"
a::
median and two lateral dorsal stripes. They have de- c;;
~
fensive glands from which they can squirt a thick, ]
milky fluido Our fauna is restrieted to two species of «
e,
o
Anisomorpha, both of which oecur in Florida. They are :E
o
found in grass or on bushes all year long.
Family Heteronemiidae-Common Walkingsticks:
These insects are more sticklike than the other three
Figure 12-1 A walkingstick, Diapheromerafemorata
families of Phasmatodea. There are 20 species in six (Say).
genera in North America; 8 of the species belong to the
genus Diapheromera. The common walkingstick in the
northeastern states is D.femoratum (Say) (Figure 12-l),
which sometimes becomes abundant enough to seri-
ously defoliate forest trees. This family contains the
longest insect in the United States, Megaphasma denti- Collecting and Preserving Phasmatodea
crus (Stal), which reaches a length of 150-180 mm. lt
occurs in the South and Southwest. Walkingsticks are relatively large and slow-moving
Family Phasmatidae-Winged Walkingsticks: There and, once found, are fairly easy to collect. The best
are more than 100 Neotropical species in this family, time for collecting the adults of most species is from
but only one, Aplopusmayeri Caudell, occurs in North midsummer to late fallo Adults should be pinned in
America (southern Florida), feeding on bay cedar and about the middle ofthe body (from front to rear). Ifthe
other shore vegetation. lt is 80-130 mm in length and specimen is very soft-bodied, support the body by a
is the only North American walkingstick with wings. piece of cardboard or by pins, or it will sag at ei-
The head has two stout spines on the vertex. ther end.
--
References 229

References

Bedford,G. O. 1978. Biology and ecology of the Phasrna- Strohecker, H. F. 1966. New Timema frorn Nevada and Ari-
todea. Annu. Rev. Entorno!. 23:125-149. zona (Phasrnodea: Tirnernidae). Pan-Paco Entorno!. 42:
Bradley,J. c., and B. S. Gali!. 1977. The taxonornic arrange- 25-26.
rnent of the Phasrnatodea with keys to the subfarnilies Tilgner, E. 2000. The fossil record of Phasrnida (Insecta:
and tribes. Proc. Entorno!. Soco Wash. 79:176-208. Neoptera). lnsect Syst. &: Evo!. 31:473-480.
Gustafson, J. F. 1966. Biological observations on Timema cal- Tilgner, E. H., 1. G. Kiselyova, and J. V McHugh. 1999. A
ifomica (Phasrnoidea: Phasrnidae). Ann. Entorno!. Soc. ,norphological study of Timema cristinae Vickery with
Amer. 59:59-6l. irnplications for the phylogenetics of Phasrnida. Deutsch.
Helfer,]. R. 1987. How to Know the Grasshoppers, Cock- Entorno!. Z. 46:149-162.
roaches, and Their Allies, 2nd edition. New York: Dover Vickery, VR. 1993. Revision of Timema Scudder (Phas-
Publications, 363 pp. rnatoptera: Tirnernatodea) including three new species.
Henry,L. M. 1937. Biological notes on Timema califomica Can. Entorno!. 125: 657-692.
Scudder. Pan-Paco Entorno!. 13: 137-14l. Vickery, V R., and D. K. McE. Kevan. 1985. The Grasshop-
Nickle,D. A. 1987. Order Phasrnatodea. In F. W Stehr (Ed.), pers, Crickets, and Related lnsects of Canada and Adja-
lrnmature lnsects, vo!. 1, pp. 145-146. Dubuque, lA: cent Regions. Ulonata: Derrnaptera, Cheleutoptera, No-
KendalVHunt, 754 pp.; illus. toptera, Dictuoptera, Grylloptera, and Orthoptera. The
Sellick,]. T. C. 1997. Descriptive terminology of the phasrnid lnsects and Arachnids of Canada, Part 14. Ottawa: Cana-
egg capsule, with an extended key to the phasrnid genera dian Governrnent Publishing Centre, 918 pp.
based on egg structure. Syst. Entorno!. 22:97-122.
 Order Grylloblattodea
13 RackCrawlers

he first member of this graup was not discovered un-

T til 1914, when Walker described Grylloblatta cam-
podeiformis fram Banff, Alberta. Rock crawlers are slen-
der, elongate, wingless insects, usually about 15-30 mm
in length (Figure 13-1). The body is pale in color and
finely pubescent. The eyes are small or absent, and
there are no ocelli. The antennae are long and filiform,
consisting of 23 to 45 segments; the cerci are long, with
either 5 or 8 segments; and the sword-shaped oviposi-
tor of the female is nearly as long as the cerci.
There are only 25 species and four genera of living
rack crawlers in the world Qapan, Siberia, China, Ko-
rea, northwestern United States and western Canada).
Eleven species, all belonging to the genus Grylloblatta
in the family Grylloblattidae, have been described fram
North America.
Rock crawlers live in cold places such as the talus
slopes at the edges of glaciers and in ice caves, often at
high elevations. They are mainly nocturnal, and their
principal food appears to be dead insects and other or-
ganic matter found on the snow and ice fields. They are A B
soft-bodied, and prabably best preserved in alcohol.
Some specialists consider grylloblattids to be liv-
ing remnants of the extinct order Pratorthoptera, and Figure13-1 A rock crawler, Grylloblatta sp. A, dorsal
some still consider them merely a disjunctive, primi- view; B, lateral view.
tive subfamily of Orthoptera, a notion not too difficult
to accept. Wheeler et al. (2001) praposed on the basis
of morphological and molecular evidence that they are
most dosely related to the Dermaptera.

230

References
Ando,H. 1982. Biology of the Notoptera. Nagano, japan:
Kashiyo-Insatsu, 194 pp.
Gumey,A. B. 1948. The taxonorny and distribution of the
Grylloblattidae. Proc. Entorno\. Soco Wash. 50:86-102.
Gumey,A. B. 1953. Recent advances in the taxonorny and
distribution of Grylloblatta (Orthoptera: Grylloblattidae).
]. Wash. Acad. Sci. 43:325-332.
Gumey,A. B. 1961. Further advances in the taxonorny and
distribution of Grylloblatta (Orthoptera: Grylloblattidae).
Proc. Bio\. Soco Wash. 74:67-76.
Helfer,j. R. 1987. How to Know the Grasshoppers, Cock-
roaches, and Their Allies. Dubuque, lA: Williarn C Insects and Arachnids of Canada, Part 14. Ottawa: Cana-
Brown, 363 pp.
Kamp,j. W 1963. Descriptions of two new species of Gryl-
loblattidae and the adult of Grylloblatta barberi, with an
interpretation of their geographic distribution. Ann. En-
torno\. Soco Arner. 56:53-68.
Kamp,j. W 1970. The cavernicolous Grylloblattoidea of the
western United States. Ann. Speleology 25:223-230.
Kamp,j. W 1973. Taxonorny, distribution and zoogeographic
evolution of Grylloblatta in Canada (Insecta: Notoptera).
Can. Entorno\. 105:1235-1249.
References 231
Nickle, D. A. 1987. Order Grylloblattodea (Notoptera). In F.
W Stehr (Ed.), Irnrnature Insects, vo\. 1, pp. 143-144.
Dubuque, lA: KendallJHunt, 754 pp.
Rentz, D. C. F. 1982. A review of the systernatics, distribution
and bionornics of the North American Grylloblattidae. In
H. Ando. (Ed.), Biology of the Notoptera. Nagano,japan:
K'lshiyo-Insatsu, 194 pp.
Vickery, V. R., and D. K. McE. Kevan. 1985. The Grasshop-
pers, Crickets, and Related Insects of Canada and Adja-
cent Regions: Ulonata: Derrnaptera, Cheleutoptera, No-
toptera, Dictuoptera, Grylloptera, and Orthoptera; The
dian Governrnent Publishing Centre, 918 pp.
Walker, E. M. 1914. A new species of Orthoptera, forrning a
new genus and farnily. Can. Entorno\. 46:93-99.
Wheeler, W c., M. Whiting, Q. D. Wheeler, andJ. M. Carpenter.
2001. The phylogeny of the extant hexapod orders. Cladis-
tics 17:113-169.
 1

14 Order Mantophasmatodea1

he Mantophasmatodea is the newest addition to the tion. lt is unclear, at this early point, whether the
Tcast of insect orders. The genus Raptophasma was recognition of this group as an order will meet with
first described in 2001 for fossil specimens preserved in general acceptance or if it will eventually be subsumed
Baltic amber, approximately 30 million years old within Grylloblattodea or another group.
(Zompro 2001). Specimens of similar species were
later discovered in collections from Namibia and Tan-
zania in Africa (Figure 14-1), and a new order was pro-
posed for them. Mantophasmatodea have since been
found in a number of locations in South Africa in the
Cape Faunal Zone (Figure 14-2), an area well known
for species richness and endemism. The order contains
only a single family, Mantophasmatidae, and three gen-
era: the fossil Raptophasma (one described species) and
the living genera Mantophasma (two species) and
Praedatophasma (one species). Researchers think there
are at least three new species in South Africa. Figure14-1 Praedatophasmamaraisi Zompro &:Adis,
Mantophasmatodea are rather small, generally 2-3 cm female, lateral view; antennae are not completely shown.
in length, and both sexes are wingless. They have chewing (Reproduced with permission of Thom Glas.)
mouthparts, the head is hypognathous, and the anten-
nae are long and filiform. The tarsi are five-segmented.
They have simple metamorphosis. According to van
Noort (2003), Mantophasmatodea superficially resem-
ble immature mantids, but the fore legs are not modi-
fied for prey capture. Nevertheless, these are predatory
insects. Adults are rather short-lived, surviving for only
a few weeks.
In the original description of the order, it was un-
clear which order(s) of insects were the closest rela-
tives of Mantophasmatodea, but Grylloblattodea and
Phasmatodea were suggested as possibilities. Unfortu-
nately, no phylogenetic analysis preceded the descrip-

lMantophasmatodea: a combination of Mantis (Mantodea) and

Phasma (Phasmatodea), referring to the purported similarity to those Figure14-2 An undescribed species of Mantophasma-
todea from South Africa.
23~(f 1:~?rders. ,,
~tU.~~;.
. ~'-!:.; f ,~~.:

; : .:..,¡
 References 233

References

Arillo,A., V. M. Ortuño, and A. Ne\. 1997. Description of an lompro, O. 2001. The Phasmatodea and Raptophasma n.
enigmatic insect from Baltic amber. Bull. 50c. Entorno\. gen., Orthoptera incertae sedis, in Baltic amber (lnsecta:
France 102:11-14. Orthoptera). Min. Geo\.-Palaonto\. Inst. Univ. Hamburg
Klass,K.-D., O. lompro, N. P. Kristensen, and J. Adis. 2002. 85: 229-261.
Mantophasmatodea: A new insect order with extant lompro, O., J. Adis, and W Weitschat. 2002. A review of the
members in the Afrotropics. 5cience 296:1456-1459. arder Mantophasmatodea (lnsecta). loologischer Anzeiger
Picker, M. D., J. F. Colville, and S. van Noort. 2002. Man- ~4l(3): 269-279.
tophasmatodea now in 50uth Afrika. 5cience 297:1475.
van Noort, S. 2003. Order Mantophasmatodea (mantos).
Available on the Web at www.museums.org.za/bio/
insectslmantophasmatodeallO Dec., 2003.

UNIVERSIDAD
DECAmAS
8IBL'OTECA
 Order Dermaptera1
15 Earwigs

arwigs are elongate, slender, somewhat flattened in-

E sects that resemble rove beetles but have forcepslike
cerci (Figure 15-1). Adults may be winged or wingless,
with one or two pairs of wings. If winged, the front
wings are short, leathery, and veinless (and are usually
called tegmina or elytra) , and the hind wings (when
present) are membranous and rounded, with radiating
veins. At rest the hind wings are folded beneath the
front wings with only the tips projecting. The tarsi
have three segments, the mouthparts are of the chew-
ing type, and the metamorphosis is simple.
lmmature earwigs have fewer antennal segments
than do adults, with segments added at each molt.
lmmatures can be distinguished from adults by
the combination of a malelike lO-segmented ab-
domen (adult females have only 8 apparent seg-
ments) with femalelike straight forceps (adult male
forceps usually have the inner margin distinctly
curved) (Figure 15-2).
Earwigs are largely nocturnal in habit and hide
during the day in cracks, in crevices, under bark, and
in debris. They feed mainly on dead and decaying veg-
etable matter, but some occasionally feed on living
plants, and a few are predaceous.
Some of the winged forms are good fliers, but oth- Figure15-1 The European earwig, Foifrcula auricu-
ers fly only rarely. The eggs are laid in burrows in the laria L., remale, about 4X. (Courtesy of Fulton and the
ground or in debris, generally in clusters, and are Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station.)
guarded by the female until they hatch. Earwigs over-
winter in the adult stage.
Some species of earwigs have glands opening on serves as a means of protection. Some species can
the dorsal side of the third and fourth abdominal seg- squirt this fluid 75-100 mm.
ments, from which they emit a foul-smelling fluid that The name "earwig" is derived from an old super-
stition that these insects enter people's ears. This belief
lDermaptera: denna, skin; plera, wings (referring to the texture of is entirely without foundation. Earwigs do not bite but,
234 t~e front wings). if handled, will attempt to pinch with their cerci, and

...
 Keyto the Familiesof Dermaptera 235

Figure15-2 Anal forceps of

A 8
Dermaptera. A, Foifrcula auric-
ularia L.; B, Labia minar (L.);
C, Doru lineare (Eschscholtz).
Upper figures, forceps of
female; lower figures, forceps
e of maleo

¡heabdomen is quite maneuverable. The larger ear-
wigs,especiallythe males, can inflict a painful pincho
Classification
of the Dermaptera
Thearder Dermaptera is usually divided into three
suborders, the Arixenina, the Diploglossata (Hemi-
rnerina),and the Forficulina. Some authorities con-
sider the Arixenina a family (Arixenidae) of the For-
ficulina. The Arixenina are Malayan ectoparasites of
bats, and the Diploglossata are Somh African para-
sites of rodents. The Forficulina is the only suborder
occurring in North America. Of the 22 North Ameri-
can earwig species, 12 have been introduced from
Europe or from the tropics. Our species represent six
families, adults of which may be separated by the fol-
lowing key.

Keyto the Familiesof Dermaptera

1. Second tarsal segment extending distally beneath base of third

(Figure 15-3D); antennae with 12~16 segments 2
l' Second tarsal segment not extending distally beneath base of third
(Figure 15-3C); antennae with 10-31 segments 3
2(1). Distal extension of second tarsal segment dilated, broader than third
segment (Figure 15-3D), and without a dense brush of hairs beneath;
antennae with 12-16 segments; usually yellowish or brownish; widely
distributed Farficulidae p. 237
 .

236 Chapter 15 Order Dermaptera

B Figure15-3 Characters of the

Dermaptera. A, head of Labia mi-
nor (L.), dorsal view; B, head
of Labidura riparia Pallas, dorsal
view; C, tarsus of Labidura;
D D, tarsus of Forficula.

2'. Distal extension of second tarsal segment not dilated, no wider than third
segment, and with dense brush of hairs beneath; antennae 12-segmented;
black; California Chelisochidae p. 237
3(1'). A large, padlike arolium between tarsal claws; male forceps curved
strongly inward; recorded near Miami, Florida Pygidicranidae p. 236
3'. No arolium between tarsal claws; male forceps not strongly curved
(Figure 15-2B,C); widely distributed 4
4(3'). Antennae with 25-30 segments; pronotum light brown with 2 dark
longitudinal stripes; length 20-30 mm; southern United States, from
North Carolina to Florida and California Labiduridae p. 237
4'. Antennae with 10-24 segments; pronotum uniformly colored; length
4-25 mm; widely distributed 5
5(4'). Antennae with 14-24 segments; tegmina present as rounded flaps not
meeting at inner basal margins, or absent; right forceps of male more
strongly curved than left; length 9-25 mm Anisolabididae p. 236
5'. Antennae with 10-16 segments; tegmina normally developed and meeting
along entire midline; male forceps symmetrical; length less than 20 mm Labiidae p.237

Family Pygidicranidae: This familyis represented in
the United States by a single species, Pyragropsis buscki
(Caudell), which is fully winged and 12-14 mm in
length. This insect has been collected in southern
Florida and also occurs in Cuba, Jamaica, and Hispan-
iola.
Family Anisolabididae (Carcinophoridae, Psalididae,
Anisolabidae;Labiduridaein part)-Seaside and Ring-Legged
Earwigs: The seaside earwig, Anisolabis maritima
(Bonelli), is a wingless, blackish brown insect 20-25 mm
in length with 20-24 antennal segments. lt is an intro-
duced species that is predaceous and usually found be-
neath debris along seashores. It now occurs locally
along the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf Coasts. The genus
Euborellia contains six North American species, which
are 9-18 mm in length with 14-20 antennal segments.
These earwigs are usually found in debris and occur
mainly in the southern states. The most common
species is the ring-Iegged earwig, E. annulipes (Lucas),
a wingless species that is widely distributed and some-
times invades houses. Euborellia cincticollis (Gerstaecker)
was introduced into California and Arizona. This species
has three morphs, with individuals exhibiting well-
developed wings, shortened front wings with the hind
wings reduced or absent, or lacking both pairs of wings
altogether.

FamilyLabiidae-Little Earwigs:This family con-
tainseight North American species in three genera,
withthe most common species being Labia minor
(l.), an introduced species. This insect is 4-7 mm in
lengthand covered with golden hair. It is a good flier
and can be found flying during the early evening
or attracted to lights at night. Marava pulchella
(Audinet-Serville) is a larger (8-10 mm in length),
shiningreddish brown species in which individuals
can possess either well-developed wings or short
[rontwings with the hind wings reduced or absent.
Ihisinsect is found in the southern states. The genus
Vostox contains three species, one of which, V.apice-
dentatus (Caudell), is 9-12 mm in length and fairly
commonaround dead leaves and cacti in the desert
regionsof the Southwest.
Family Labiduridae-Striped Earwigs: This group
includesa single North American species, Labidura ri-
paria(PalIas),an introduced species that occurs in the
southempart of the United States, from North Car-
olinasouth to Florida and west to California. This
speciesis most readily recognized by its large size
Oength20-30 mm) and the longitudinal dark stripes
on the pronotum and tegmina. It is nocturnal and
predaceous,hiding under debris during the day.
Family Chelisochidae-BlackEarwigs: This group
includesa single North American species, Chelisoches
References
Blatchley,W S. 1920. Orthoptera of Northeastern America.
lndianapolis: Nature, 784 pp.
Brindle, A. 1966. A revision of the subfamily Labidurinae
(Dermaptera: Labiduridae). Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.
(13)9:239-269.
Brindle,A. 1971a. A revision of the Labiidae (Dermaptera) of
the Neotropical and Nearctic regions. n. Geracinae and
Labiinae. J. Nat. Hist. 5:155-182.
Brindle,A. 1971b. A revision of the Labiidae (Dermaptera) of
the Neotropical and Nearctic regions. IlI. Spongiphori-
nae. J. Nat. Hist. 5:521-568.
Brindle,A. 1971c. The Dermaptera of the Caribbean. Stud.
Fauna Curac;ao and Other Caribbean Islands 38:1-75.
Brindle,A. 1987. Order Dermaptera. In F. W Stehr (Ed.), Im-
mature Insects, vo!. 1, pp. 171-178. Dubuque, lA:
KendalVHunt, 754 pp.
Cantrell,I. J. 1968. An annotated list of the Dermaptera, Dic-
tyoptera, Phasmatoptera, and Orthoptera of Michigan.
Mich. Entorno!. 1:299-346.
Eisner,1. 1960. Defense mechanisms of arthropods. n. The
chemical and mechanical weapons of an earwig. Psyche
67:62-70.
Giles,E. 1. 1963. The comparative external morphology and
affinities of the Dermaptera. Trans. Roy. Entorno!. Soco
Lond. 115:95-164.
References 237
morio (Fabricius), which is a native of the tropics (is-
lands in the Pacific) but has be come established in Cal-
ifornia. This insect is black and 16-20 mm long.
Family Forficulidae-European and Spine-tailed Ear-
wigs: The most common member of this family is the
European earwig, Forficula auricularia L., a brownish
black insect 15-20 mm long (Figure 15-1). It is widely
distributed throughout southern Canada south to North
Carolina, Arizona, and California. It occasionally causes
substantial damage to vegetable crops, cereals, fruit
trees, and ornamental plants. The spine-tailed earwigs
(Doru) are a liule smaller (12-18 mm in length), and are
so called because the male has a short median spine on
the terminal abdominal segment (Figure 15-2C).
Collecting and Preserving Dermaptera
Earwigs generally must be looked for in various pro-
tected places: in debris, in cracks and crevices, under
bark, and about the roots of grasses and sedges. They
are not often collected with a net. Some will come to
lights at night, and some can be taken in pidall traps
(Figure 35-6A). They are normally preserved dry, on
either pins or points. If pinned, they are pinned
through the right tegmen, as are beetles.
Gurney, A. B. 1972. Important recent name changes among
earwigs of the genus Daru (Dermaptera, Forficulidae).
Coop. Econ. Insect Rep. (USDA) 22(13):182-185.
Haas, F. 1995. The phylogeny of the Forficulina, a suborder of
the Dermaptera. Syst. Entorno!. 20:85-98.
Haas, F., and J. Kukalová-Peck. 2001. Dermaptera hindwing
structure and folding: New evidence for familial, ordinal
and superordinal relationships within Neoptera (In-
secta). Eur. J. Entorno!. 98:445-509.
Hebard, M. 1934. The Dermaptera and Orthoptera of lllinois.
lll. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 20(3):125-279.
Helfer, J. R. 1987. How to Know the Grasshoppers, Cock-
roaches, and Their Allies, 2nd ed. New York: Dover Pub-
lications, 363 pp.
Hinks, W D. 1955-1959. A Systematic Monograph of the
Dermaptera of the World Based on Material in the British
Museum (Natural History). Part 1: Pygidicranidae, Sub-
family Diplatyinae, 132 pp. (1955). Part n: Pygidi-
cranidae Excluding Diplatyinae, 218 pp. (1959). London:
British Museum (Natural History).
Hoffman, K. M. 1987. Earwigs (Dermaptera) of South Car-
olina, with a key to the eastern North American species
and a checklist of the North American fauna. Proc. Ent.
SOCoWash. 89:1-14.
238 Chapter15 OrderDermaptera
Knabke, ]. ]., and A. A. Grigarick. 1971. Biology of the
African earwig, Euborellia cincticollis (Gerstaecker) in
California and comparative notes on Euborellia annulipes
(Lucas). Hilgardia 41:157-194.
Langston, R. L., and]. A. Powell. 1975. The earwigs of Cali-
fornia. Bull. Calif. Insect Surv. 20:1-25.
Popham, E.]. 1965. A key to the Dermaptera subfamilies. En-
tomologist 98:126-136.
Popham, E.]. 1965. Towards a natural classification of the
Dermaptera. Prac. 12th Int. Congr. Entorno\. Lond.
(1964): 114-115.
Popham, E. J. 1985. The mutual affinities of the major earwig
taxa (Insecta, Dermaptera). l. loo\. Syst. Evo\.-Forsch.
23:199-214.
Steinmann, H. 1978. A systematic survey of the species be-
longing to the genus Labidura Leach, 1815 (Dermaptera).
Acta loo\. Acad. Sci. Hung. 25:415-423.
Steinmann, H. 1989. World Catalog of Dermaptera. Series En-
tomologica 43:1-934.
Vickery, V. R., and D. K. McE. Kevan. 1985. The Grasshop-
pers, Crickets, and Related Insects of Canada and Adja-
cent Regions: Dlonata: Dermaptera, Cheleutoptera, No-
toptera, Dictuoptera, Grylloptera, and Orthoptera. The
Insects aDd Arachnids of Canada, Pan 14. Ottawa: Cana-
dian Government Publishing Centre, 918 pp.
 16 Order Plecoptera1,2
Stonefl¡es
toneflies are mostly medium-sized or small, some-
S what fiattened, soft-bodied, rather drab-colored in-
sectsfound near streams or rocky lake shores. They
aregenerally poor fliers and are seldom found far
fromwater. Most species have four membranous
wings(Figure 16-1). The front wings are elongate
and rather narrow and usually have a series of
crossveinsbetween M and Cu¡ and between Cu¡ and
CUloThe hind wings are slightly shorter than the
[rontwings and usually have a well-developed anal
lobethat is folded fanwise when the wings are at rest.
Afewspecies of stoneflies have reduced wings or lack
wings,usually in the maleo Stoneflies at rest hold the
wingsfiat over the abdomen (Figure 16-2A). The an-
tennaeare long, slender, and many-segmented. The
tarsiare three-segmented. Cerci are present and may
belong or short. The mouthparts are of the chewing
type,although in many adults (which do not feed)
theyare somewhat reduced. The stoneflies undergo
simplemetamorphosis, and the nymphal stages of de-
velopmentare aquatic.
Stonefiy nymphs (Figures 16-2B and 16-3) are
somewhatelongate, flattened insects with long anten-
naeand long cerci, and often with branched gills on
thethorax and about the bases of the legs. They are
verysimilar to mayfly nymphs but lack a median cau-
dalfilament; that is, they have only two tails, whereas
mayflynymphs nearly always have three. Stonefiy
nymphshave two tarsal claws and mayfiy nymphs
haveonly one, and the gills are different: Mayfiy
'Pleeoptera:p/eeo, folded or plaited; ptera, wings (referring to the
bet that the anal region of the hind wings is folded when the wings
areat rest).
'Thisehapter was edited by Richard W. Bauman.
nymphs have leaflike gills along the sides of the ab-
domen (Figure 9-2), whereas stonefly gills are always
fingerlike, either simple or branched, and only occur
ventrally (Figure 16-2B). Stonefiy nymphs are often
found under stones in streams or along lake shores
(hence the common name of these insects), but may
occasionally be found anywhere in a stream where
food is available. A few species live in underground
water, and their nymphs sometimes appear in wells or
other drinking water supplies. Some species are plant
feeders in the nymphal stage, and others are preda-
ceous or omnivorous. Some species of stoneflies
emerge, feed, and mate during the fall and winter
months. The nymphs of these species are generally
plant feeders, and the adults feed chiefiy on blue-green
algae and are diurnal in feeding habits. The species
that emerge during the summer vary in nymphal feed-
ing habits. Many do not feed as adults.
In many species of stoneflies, the sexes get to-
gether in response to acoustic signals. The males drum
by tapping the tip of the abdomen on the substrate. Vir-
gin females respond to this drumming, and answer
with a drumming of their own either during or imme-
diately after the male drumming. The males drum
throughout their adult life, and the signals are species
specific.
Classification of the Plecoptera
This order in North America is divided into two
groups. Previously they were separated simply by the
structure of the labium, comparing the length of the
glossae and paraglossae (Figure 16-4). However, 239
240 Chapter16 OrderPlecoptera

Se R
I I

Figure16-1 Wings of a perlid stonefly. BA, basal anal cel!.

Figure16-2 A, an adult stonefly,

Clioperla dio Newman (Perlodidae);
B, a stonefly nymph. gi, gills.
B (Courtesy of Frison and the Illinois
Natural Nistory Survey; B redrawn
from Frison.)
 Classificationof the Plecoptera 241

Figure16-3 Stonefly nymphs. A, Isoperla transmarina (Newman) (Perlodidae);

B, Nemoura trispinosa Claassen (Nemouridae); C, Oemopteryx glacialis (Newport)
(Taeniopterygidae). (Courtesy ofHarden and the Entomological Society of America.)

91
Zwick(1973) showed that the families Pteronarcyidae
and Peltoperlidae belong in the group Systellognatha.
Henoted that the structure of the labium is a function
offeedingmethod, with herbivores exhibiting similarly
sizedglossae and paraglossae, and carnivores having
themmodified in size and shape.
Different authorities recognize different numbers
offamilies;we follow here the arrangement of Stark et
al.(1986), who recognize nine families in North Amer-
ira.Ihis arrangement is outlined next, with alterna te
namesand arrangements in parentheses. The numbers A
in parentheses, representing the numbers of North
Americanspecies, are from Stark et al. (1986).
GroupEuholognatha (Filipalpia, Holognatha) (280)
Iaeniopterygidae (Nemouridae in part) (33)-
winter stoneflies
Nemouridae (Nemourinae of Nemouridae)
(64 )-spring stoneflies
Leuctridae (Nemouridae in part) (52)-rolled-
wing stoneflies
Capniidae (Nemouridae in part) (13l)-small
winter stoneflies
GroupSystellognatha (Setipalpia, Subulipalpia) (257)
Pteronarcyidae (Pteronarcidae) (lO)-giant
stoneflies
Peltoperlidae (l7)-roachlike stoneflies
Perlidae (44 )-common stoneflies 8
Perlodidae Cincluding Isoperlidae) (114)
Chloroperlidae (72)-green stoneflies
Figure16-4 Labia of adult stoneflies, ventral views.
Ihe principal characters used to separate the fam- A, Taeniopteryxnivalis (Fitch) (Taeniopterygidae); B, Perla
¡liesof stoneflies are wing venation, characters of the (Perlidae). gl, glossa; Ip, labial palp; pgl, paraglossa.
242 Chapter16 OrderPlecoptera

tarsi, the gill remnants, and adult mouthparts. The gill

remnants are usually shriveled and difficult to see in
pinned and dried specimens. Their location on the tho-
rax is shown in Figure 16-5. The characters of the gill
remnants are much easier to study in specimens that
are preserved in alcohol.

Figure16-5 Thorax of Acroneuria (Perlidae), ventral

view. gr, gill remnants. (Redrawn from Frison, courtesy
of the Illinois Natural History Survey.)

Keyto the Familiesof Plecoptera

Keys lOnymphs are given by Claassen (1931), Jewett (1956), Pennak (1978), Harper
(1984), Stewart and Stark (1984, 1988), and Baumann (1987).

1. Labium with glossae and paraglossae about the same size, labium thus
appearing to have 4 similar terminallobes (Figure 16-4A) 2
1'. Labium with glossae very small, appearing to have 2 terminallobes
Ctheparaglossae), each with a small basomesallobe Ctheglossae)
(Figure 16-4B) 7
2(1). Basal tarsal segment short, much shorter than third segment (Figure 16-6E) 3
2' Basal tarsal segment longer, nearly as long as or longer than third segment
(Figure 16-6A-D) 4
3(2). Anal area of front wing with 2 series of crossveins (Figure 16-7 A);
head with 3 ocelli; gill remnants on sides of first 2 or 3 abdominal
segments; large slOneflies, usually over 25 mm in length Pteronarcyidae p.245

A B e o E

Figure16-6 Hind tarsi of Plecoptera. A, Taeniopteryx(Taeniopterygidae); B, Leuctra

(Leuctridae); C, Nemoura (Nemouridae); D, Allocapnia (Capniidae); E, Pteronarcys
(Pteronarcyidae) .
 Keyto the Familiesof Plecoptera 243

~1
Rs
I

~pe R,

Se,

Cu,
1A
Se,

Figure16-7 Wings of Plecoptera. A, Pteronarcys(Pteronarcyidae); B, Taenionema (Tae-

niopterygidae); C, Leuctra (Leuctridae); D, Nemoura (Nemouridae); E, front wing of a
capniid. apc, apical crossvein; BA, basal anal cell.

3', Anal area of front wing with no rows of crossveins (Figure 16-7B-E);
head with 2 ocelli; no gill remnants on abdominal segments; length less
than 25 mm Peltoperlidae p. 245
4(2'). Second segment of tarsi about as long as each of the other 2 segments
(Figure 16-6A) Taeniopterygidae p. 244
4', Second segment of tarsi much shorter than each of the other 2 segments
(Figure 16-6B-D) 5
5(4'). Cerci short and l-segmented; front wing with 4 or more cubital crossveins,
2A forked (Figure 16-7C) 6
5'. Cerci long and with 4 or more segments; front wing with only 1 or
2 cubital crossveins, 2A not forked (Figure 16-7E) Capniidae p.245
6(5). Front wings flat at rest, with an apical crossvein (Figure 16-7D, apc) Nemouridae p. 244
 1
/
244 Chapter 16 Order Plecoptera

-- :

A B D

Figure 16-8 Head and pronotum of Plecoptera. A, Peltoperla (Peltoperlidae);

B, Isogenoides(Perlodidae); C, Chloroperla(Chloroperlidae); D, Isoperla (Perlodidae).
(Redrawn from Frison, courtesy of the Illinois Natural History Survey.)

6'. Front wings at rest bent down around sides of abdomen, without an
apical crossvein (Figure 16-7C) leuctridae p.244
7(1'). Front wing with cu-a (if present) opposite basal anal cen, or distad of it
by no more than its own length; remnants of branched gills on thorax
(Figure 16-5) Perlidae p.245
7'. Front wing with cu-a (if present) usuany distad of basal anal cen by more
than its own length; no remnants of branched gills on thorax (some
Perlodidae may have remnants of unbranched or fingerlike gills on thorax) 8
8(7'). Hind wings with anallobe wen developed, with 5-10 anal veins; front
wing with no forked vein arising from basal anal cen; pronotum
rectangular, the corners acute or narrowly rounded (Figure 16-8B,D);
length 6-25 mm Perlodidae p.245
8'. Hind wings with anallobe reduced (rarely absent), and usuany with no
more than 4 anal veins; front wing sometimes with forked vein arising
from basal anal cen; pronotum with corners rounded (Figure 16-8C);
length 15 mm or less Chloroperlidae p.245

GROUPEuholognatha: These stondhes have the Strophopteryx fasciata (Burrneister), 10-15 mm in

glossae and paraglossae similar in size (Figure 16-4A).
They are principally plant feeders, both as adults and
nyrnphs. This is the larger of the two groups, and con-
tains about three fifths of the North American species.
Fami/y Taeniopterygidae-Winter Stoneflies: The
members of this family are dark brown to black insects,
generally 13 mm or less in length, which emerge from
january to Junco The nyrnphs (Figure 16-3C) are phy-
tophagous and occur in large streams and rivers. Some
adults are flower feeders. Two common eastern species
in this group are Taeniopteryx maura (Pictet), 8-12 mm
in length, which emerges from january to March, and
length, which emerges during March and April.
Family Nemouridae-Spring Stoneflies: The adults
of this family are brown or black and appear from April
to JuncoThe nyrnphs (Figure 16-3B) are plant feeders,
and usually occur in small streams with rocky bottoms.
Family leuctridae-Rolled-Wing Stoneflies: These
stoneflies are for the most part 10 mm long or lessand
brown or black. The wings at rest are bent down over
the sides of the abdomen. These insects are mostcomo
mon in hilly or mountainous regions, and the nymphs
usually occur in small streams. The adults appearfrom
March to December.

...

Family Capniidae-SmallWinter Stoneflies: This is
thelargest family in the order, and its members, which
areblackish and mostly 10 mm long or less, emerge
duringthe winter months. The wings are short or rudi-
mentaryin some species. Most of the capniids occur-
ringin the East belong to the genus Allocapnia.
Group Systellognatha: The carnivorous families
Perlidae,Perlodidae and Chloroperlidae have enlarged
glossaeand smalI paraglossae. The herbivorous fami-
líesPteronarcyidae and Peltoperlidae have these labial
lobesof nearly equal size and shape.
Family Pteronarcyidae-Giant Stoneflies: This fam-
ilyineludes the largest insects in the order; females of
a cornmon eastern species, Pteronarcys dorsata (Say),
maysometimes reach a length (measured to the wing
tips)of 55 mm. The nymphs are plant feeders and oc-
curin medium-sized to large rivers. The adults are noc-
turnalin habit and often come to lights. Adults do not
feed.They appear in late spring to early summer.
Family Peltoperlidae-Roachlike Stoneflies: This
familyis so calIed because the nymphs are somewhat
cockroachlike in appearance. Most of these stoneflies
arewestern or northern in distribution. The most com-
moneastern species are brown and 12-18 mm long.
Family Perlidae-Common Stoneflies: This family
containsthe stoneflies most often colIected. The adults
arenonfeeding spring and summer forms, and most are
20-40mm long. The nymphs are mostly predaceous.
Two eastern species in this family have only two
ocelli,Perlinella ephyre (Newman) and Neoperla cly-
mene (Newman).Both are about 12 mm in length and
brown,with somewhat grey wings. Neoperla clymene
has ocelIi that are close together, and P. ephyre has
themfar apart. Perlinella drymo (Newman), 10-20 mm
inlength, is brown, with two black spots on the yel-
lowhead, and it has a row of crossveins in the anal
areaofthe frontwing.Perlestaplacida(Hagen),9-14 mm
long and nocturnal in habit, and Agnetina capitata
(Pictet), 14-24 mm long and diurnal in habit, have
thecostal edge of the front wing yelIow. One of the
largestand most common genera is Acroneuria. The
References
Baurnann, R. W 1987. Order Plecoptera. In E W Stehr (Ed.),
Irnmature Insects, vo!. 1, pp. 186-195. Dubuque, lA:
KendalllHunt, 754 pp.
Baurnann, R. W, A. R. Gaufin, and R. E Surdick. 1977. The
stoneflies (Plecoptera) of the Rocky Mountains. Mem.
Amer. Entorno!. Soco 31, 208 pp.
Claassen, P. W 1931. Plecoptera nymphs of America (north of
Mexico). Thornas Say Foundation Pub!. 3, 199 pp.
Frison, T. H. 1935. The stoneflies, or Plecoptera, of Illinois.
Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 20(4):281-471.
References 245
adults in this genus are relatively large (20-40 mm
long), and the males have a disklike structure in the
middle of the posterior portion of the ninth abdomi-
nal sternum.
Family Perlodidae: The most common members of
this family (Figure 16-2A) usualIy have green wings
and yelIow or green body, and are 6-15 mm in length.
Most adults do not feed, but members of the subfamily
Isoperlinae seem to be chiefly polIen feeders. They are
diurnal in habito Other less common species are brown
or black and 10-25 mm long. The nymphs are omni-
vores or carnivores.
Family Chloroperlidae-Green Stoneflies: The adults
of this family are 6-15 mm long and yelIow or green.
They appear in the spring. Haploperla brevis (Banks), a
common eastern species, is 6-9 mm long, bright yelIow,
and has no anal lobe in the hind wing. The stoneflies
belonging to the genus Alloperla, of which there are sev-
eral eastern species, are green, average 8-15 mm, and
have a smalI anallobe in the hind wing.
Collecting and Preserving Plecoptera
During the warmer days in the falI, winter, and spring,
adults of the winter species can be found resting on
bridges, fence posts, and other objects near the streams
in which the nymphs develop. Many species can be
colIected by sweeping the foliage along the banks of
streams. Using a beating sheet is the preferred method
of colIecting adult stoneflies. Bridges are a favorite rest-
ing place for many species throughout the year. Many
of the summer forms are attracted to lights. The
nymphs can be found in streams, usualIy under stones
or in the bottom debris.
Both adult and nymphal stoneflies should be pre-
served in alcohol. Pinned adults often shrink, with
the result that some characters, particularly those of
the genitalia and the gill remnants, are difficult to
make out.
Frison, T. H. 1942. Studies of North American Plecoptera,
with special reference to the fauna of Illinois. Ill. Nat.
Hist. Surv. Bull. 22(2):231-355.
Gaufin, A. R., A. V. Nebeker andJ. Sessions. 1966. The stone-
flies (Plecoptera) of Utah. Univ. Utah Bio!. Ser. 14:9-89.
Harper, P. P. 1984. Plecoptera. In R. W Merritt and K. W
Cummins (Eds.), An Introduction to the Aquatic lnsects
of North America, 2nd ed., pp. 182-230 Dubuque, lA:
KendalllHunt.
246 Chapter 16 Order Plecoptera
Hitchcock, S. W 1974. Guide to the insects of Connecticut.
Part VII. The Plecoptera or stoneflies of Connecticut.
Conn. State Geo\. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 107:1-262.
Illies,]. 1965. Phylogeny and zoogeography of the Plecoptera.
Annu. Rev. Entorno\. 10:117-140.
Jewett, S. G., Jr. 1956. Plecoptera. In R. L. Usinger (Ed.),
Aquatic Insects of California, pp. 155-181. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
Jewett, S. G., Jr. 1959. The stoneflies (Plecoptera) of the Pa-
cific Northwest. Ore. State Monogr. No. 3, 95 pp.
Kondratieff, B. c., and R. F. Kirchner. 1987. Additions, taxo-
nornic corrections, and faunal affinities of the stoneflies
of Virginia, USA. Proc. Entorno\. Soco Wash. 89:24-30.
Needharn,]. G., and P. W Claassen. 1925. A rnonograph of
the Plecoptera or stoneflies of Arnerica north of Mexico.
Thornas Say Foundation Pub\. 2, 397 pp.
Nelson, C. R., and R. W Baurnann. 1989. Systernatics and dis-
tribution of the winter stonefly genus Capnia (Plecoptera:
Capniidae) in North Arnerica. Gr. Basin Natur.
49:289-363.
Pennak, R. W 1978. Fresh-Water Invertebrates of the United
States, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley Interscience, 803 pp.
Ricker, W E. 1952. Systernatic studies in Plecoptera. Ind.
Univ. Stud. Sci. Ser. 18:1-200.
Ricker, W E. 1959. PlecopteraIn W 1. Edrnondson (Ed.),
Fresh-Water Biology, pp. 941-957. New York: Wiley.
Ross, H. H., and W. E. Ricker. 1971. The classification, evolu-
tion, and dispersal of the winter stonefly genus Allocap-
nia. Ill. Bio\. Monogr. No. 43, 240 pp.
Stanger, ]. A., and R. W Baurnann. 1993. A revision of the
stonefly genus Taenionema (Plecoptera: Taeniopterygi-
dae). Trans. Arner. Entorno\. Soco 119:171-229.
Stark, B. P., and C. R. Nelson. 1994. Systernatics, phylogeny
and zoogeography of genus Yoraperla (Plecoptera: Pel-
toperlidae). Entorno\. Scand. 25:241-273.
Stark, B. P.,K. W Stewart, W W Szczytko, and R. W Baurnann.
1998. Cornrnon narnes of stoneflies (Plecoptera) frorn the
United States and Canada. Ohio Bio\. Surv. Notes 1:1-18.
Stark, B. P., S. W. Szczytko, and R. W Baurnann. 1986. North
American stoneflies (Plecoptera): Systernatics, distribu-
tion, and taxonornic references. Gr. Basin Nat.
46:383-397.
Stark, B. P., S. W Szczytko, and C. R. Nelson. 1998. American
stoneflies: A photographic guide to the Plecoptera.
Colurnbus, OH: Caddis Press, 126 pp.
Stewart, K. W, and B. P.Stark. 1984. Nyrnphs of North Amer-
ican Perlodinae genera (Plecoptera: Perlodidae). Gr.
Basin Nat. 44:373-415.
Stewart, K. W., and B. P. Stark. 1988. Nyrnphs of North Amer-
ican stonefly genera (Plecoptera). Thornas Say Founda-
tion Pub\. 12. 460 pp. (Reprinted in 1993 by University
of North Texas Press.)
Surdick, R. F. 1985. Nearctic genera of Chloroperlinae (Ple-
coptera: Chloroperlidae). Ill. Bio\. Monogr. 54:1-146.
Surdick, R. F., and K. C. Kirn. 1976. Stoneflies (Plecoptera) of
Pennsylvania, a synopsis. Bull. Penn. State Univ. ColI.
Agr. 808:1-73.
Szczytko,S. W, and K. W. Stewart. 1979. The genus Isoperla
(Plecoptera) of western North Arnerica; holornorphology
and systernatics, and a new stonefly genus Cascadoperla.
Mern. Arner. Entorno\. Soco 32:1-120.
Unzicker,]. D., and V. H. McCaskill. 1982. Plecoptera. In A.
R. Brigharn and W. U. Brigharn: Aquatic Insects and
Oligochaetes of North and South Carolina. Mahornet, IL:
Midwest Aquatic Enterprises, 837 pp.
Zwick, P. 1973. Insecta: Plecoptera, phylogenetisches System
und Katalog. Das Tierreich 94:1-465 pp.
Zwick, P. 2000. Phylogenetic systern and zoogeography of the
Plecoptera. Annu. Rev. Entorno\. 45:709-746.
 Order Embiidina1,2
17 Web-Spinners
he web-spinners, perhaps more appropriately called
T "foot-spinners," are small, slender, chiefly tropical
insects,represented by 11 species in the southern
UnitedStates. The body of adult males is somewhat
flattened,but that of females and young is cylindrical.
Mostspeciesare about 10 mm in length. The antennae
arefiliform, ocelli are lacking, and the head is prog-
nathous,with chewing mouthparts. Adult males do
noteat, their mandibles being used mostly for chew-
ingentry into a gallery and for grasping the female's
headprior to copulation. The legs are short and stout;
thetarsi have three segments; and the hind femora are
greatlyenlarged because of large tibial depressor mus-
despowering defensive reverse movement. The basal
segmentof the front tarsus is enlarged and contains
silkglands. The silk is spun from a hollow, setalike
ejectoron the ventral surface of the basal and second
tarsalsegments that transport fluid silk from the nu-
merousglobular glands. The males of most species are
winged,but some are wingless or have only vestigial
wings.Both winged and wingless males may occur in
thesame species. The females are always wingless and
neotenic.The wings are similar in size, shape, and
somewhatreduced venation (Figure 17-1A). The ve-
nationis characterized by broadened, dead-end blood-
sinusveins, which stiffen for flight by blood pressure.
Whennot in use, the wings are very flexible and can
roldforwardto reduce the "barb effect" during predator-
avoiding reversemovements. The abdomen, lO-segmented
withrudiments of the eleventh, bears a pair of cerci. The
'Embiidina: embio, lively.
'This chapter was written by Edward S. Ross, with minor
by the authors.
changes
cerci are two-segmented, but in adult males of so me
species the distal segment of the left cercus is absorbed
into the basal one. The terminal appendages of the
female are always symmetrical, but they are asymmet-
rical in the males of most species. Web-spinners
undergo simple metamorphosis. One introduced
Mediterranean species in the United States is partheno-
gene tic.
Web-spinners spend most of their lives in a
labyrinth of silken galleries spun in leaf litter, under
stones, in soil cracks, in bark crevices, and in epiphytic
plants. Most other silk-producing insects use silk pro-
duced by modified rectal glands or by salivary glands
opening near the mouth, but web-spinners produce the
silk from glands in the front tarsi. All instars, even the
first, can spin silk. Most species live in colonies made
up of a parent female and her brood. Web-
spinners often feign death when disturbed, but on oc-
casion can move very rapidly, usually backward. The
eggs are elongate-oval and are usually laid in a single-
layered patch in the galleries. In most species the eggs
are coated with a hardened paste of chewed habitat ma-
terial or fecal pellets, which must reduce the chances of
oviposition by egg parasitoid wasps. Females guard
their eggs and early-stage nymphs. Web-spinners feed
mostly on dead plant materials, which also constitute
the substrate of their galleries. Embiids are easily cul-
tured in tubes or jars containing habitat material, and
this is the best method of obtaining adult males, which
are usually required for identification to family. Deter-
mination is usually based on the form of the terminal
abdominal structures (terminalia). Males of most
species mature during a limited time each year, those of
editorial some species, especially Oligotoma, fly to light during
warm, humid nights. 247
248 Chapter17 Order Embiidina

A B

Figure 17-1 A web-spinner, Oligotoma saundersii (Westwood). A, winged male; B,

wingless female. fm, femur; tb, tibia; ts, tarsus.

Keyto the Families of Embiidina

l. Adults and immatures with 2 bladderlike papillae on ventral surface of
basalsegmentof hind tarsus (Haploembia) Oligotomidae(in part) p.248
1/. Adults and immatures with only 1 bladderlike papilla on ventral surface
of hind tarsus 2
2(1'). Mandibles of adult males dentate apically; left cercus 2-segmented, inner
surface of basal segment lacking peglike setae 3
2/. Mandibles of adult males not dentate apically; left cercus l-segmented,
inner surface of apex with a few peglike setae Anisembiidae p.248
3(2). MA forked Teratembiidae p. 248
3/. MA not forked (Figure 17-1A) (in part) p.248
Oligotomidae

Family Anisembiidae: The Anisembiidae are repre-
sented in the United States by three species: Anisembia
texana (Melander) of the south central states, and
Dactylocerca rubra (Ross) and D. ashworthi Ross of the
Southwest. In some habitats, both winged and wingless
males occur in colonies of A. texana. In humid regions,
males are always ala te, whereas in colder and arid re-
gions males are always apterous.
Family Teratembiidae(Oligembiidae):This family is
represented in the southeastern United States by
five species: Oligembia hubbardi (Hagen) of Florida,
~~~r~ Ross 0H:9u\sian~ and Texas, Diradius 10-
~'...,,"\ :1 'fJ..
;¡
batus (Ross) in the lower Rio Grande valley of Texas,
D. caribbeanus (Ross) in the Florida Keys, and D. van-
dykei (Ross) of the Southeast.
Family Oligotomidae:The Oligotomidae are repre-
sented in the United States by three introduced Old
World species: Oligotoma saundersií (Westwood) of ¡he
southeastern states, O. nigra Hagen of the Southwest
(extending as far east as San Antonio, Texas), and Hap-
loembia solieri (Rambur) of the Southwest (extending
as far north as southern Oregon). The last species is
parthenogenetic, but a bisexual form has recently been
introduced into central California.
--
Collecting
and PreservingEmbiidina
Themales, which are generally more easily identified
thanthe females, are often collected at lights, during
andafter the rainy season while the soil or bark is
damp.None of the Anisembiidae fly to light, nor do
thoseof melanic Oligembiamelanura.Well-pigmented
ormelanic males apparently never disperse at night.
References
Ross,E. 5.1940. A revision ofthe Ernbioptera ofNorth Arner-
ica. Ann. Entorno\. Soco Arner. 33:629-676.
Ross,E. S. 1944. A revision of the Ernbioptera of the New
World. Proc. U.S. Nad. Mus. 94(3175):401-504.
Ross,E. S. 1970. Biosysternatics of the Ernbioptera. Annu.
Rev. Entorno\. 15:157-171.
Ross,E. S. 1984. A synopsis of the Ernbiidina of the United
States. Proc. Ent. Soco Wash. 86:82-93.
Ross,E. S. 1987. arder Ernbiidina (Ernbioptera). In F. W
Stehr (Ed.), lrnrnature lnsects, vo\. 1, pp. 179-183.
Dubuque, lA: KendalVHunt, 754 pp.
References 249
Most individuals encountered in the colonies may be
immature, but both sexes can be reared to maturity in
jars, or large cotton-plugged tubes containing some
dried grass and leaves that are kept somewhat moist.
Web-spinners, preferably adults, should be pre-
served in 70% alcohol. For detailed study, it may be de-
sirable to clear the specimens in potassium hydroxide
(KOH), and following proper procedures, to mount
them on microscope slides (see Ross 1940, p. 634).
Ross, E. S. 2000. EMBIA, Contributions to the biosysternatics
of the insect order Ernbiidina. Parts 1 and 2. Occ. Papers
California Acaderny of Sciences, No. 149; Part 1, 53 pp.;
part 2, 36 pp.
Ross, E. S. 2001. EMBIA. Contributions to the biosysternatics
of the insect order Ernbiidina. Part 3. The Ernbiidae of the
Arnericas (arder Ernbiidina). Occ. Papers California
Acaderny of Sciences, No. 150,86 pp.
UNIVERSIDAD
DECAI8
BIBL'OTeCA
 18 Order Zoraptera1
Zorapterans,
AngelInsects
he zorapterans are minute insects, 3 mm or less in
T length, and may be winged or wingless. The winged
forms are generally dark, and the wingless forms are
usually pale. The zorapterans are a liule like termites in
general appearance and are gregarious. The order was
not discovered until1913.
Winged and wingless forms occur in both sexes.
The four wings are membranous, with very reduced ve-
nation and with the hind wings smaller than the front
wings (Figure 18-1A). The wings of the adult are even-
tually shed, as in ants and termites, leaving stubs at-
tached to the thorax. The antennae are moniliform and
nine-segmented as adults. The wingless forms (Fig-
ure 18-1D) lack both compound eyes and ocelli, but
the winged forms have compound eyes and three
ocelli. The tarsi are two-segmented, and each tarsus
bears two claws. The cerci are short and unsegmented
and terminate in a long bristle. The abdomen is short,
oval, and lO-segmented. The mouthparts are of the
chewing type, and the metamorphosis is simple. Ap-
parently there are four juvenile instars in the common
species in North America.
Some wingless males of certain species have a
cephalic fontanelle. This is true of Usazoros hubbardi
(Caudell). The gland may secrete a pheromone that
helps keep the largely blind gregarious assemblage to-
gether in their dark habitat. Delamare Debouueville
(1956) considered the zorapteran fontanelle as proba-
bly homologous with that of termites.
lZoraptera: zor, pure; aplera, wingless. Only wingless individuals
were known when Ihis order was described, and entomologists
250 .' ihotight tne wingless condition was a distinctive feature
The order Zoraptera contains a single family, the
Zorotypidae, and seven genera. In 1978, New listed
28 described species of zorapterans, and since then
two more species have been found in southeast Tibet.
Three species occur in the United States. Usazoros
hubbardi has been taken in a number of localities in
33 states in the central, eastern, and southern United
States, from Maryland and southern Pennsylvania
westward to southern Iowa and southward to Florida
and Texas; Zorotypus swezeyi Caudell is known froID
Hawaii; Floridazoros snyderi (Caudell) occurs in
Florida and Jamaica. Usazoros hubbardi is commonly
found under slabs of wood buried in piles of old saw-
dust. Colonies are also found under bark and in rot-
ting logs. The principal food of zorapterans appears to
be fungal spores, but they are known to eat small dead
arthropods.
Collecting and Preserving Zoraptera
Zorapterans are to be looked for in the habitats indi-
cated previously and are generally collected by sifting
debris or by means of a Berlese funnel (Figure 35-5).
Where zorapterans are abundant, an aspirator is very
useful. They should be preserved in 70% alcohol and
may be mounted on microscope slides for detailed
study.
of the order.
 References 251

A B e D

Figure18-1 Usazoros hubbardi (Caudell). A, winged adult; B, nymph ofwinged forrn;

C, dealated winged adult, lateral view; D, wingless adult. (Courtesy of Caudell.)

References

Caudell,A. N. 1918. Zorotypus hubbardi, a new species of the Kukalová-Peck, ]., and S. B. Peck. 1993. Zoraptera wing
order Zoraptera frorn the United States. Can. Entornol. structures: Evidence for new genera and relationship
50:375-381. with the blattoid orders (Insecta: Blattoneoptera). Syst.
Caudell, A. N. 1920. Zoraptera not an apterous order. Prac. Entornol. 18:333-350.
Entornol. Soco Wash. 22:84-97. New, T. R. 1978. Notes on Neotrapical Zoraptera, with de-
Caudell, A. N. 1927. Zorotypus longiceratus, a new species of scriptions of two new species. Syst. Entornol. 3:361-370.
Zoraptera frarn Jamaica. Prac. Entornol. Soco Wash. Riegel, G. T. 1963. The distribution of Zorotypus hubbardi
29:144-145. (Zoraptera). Ann. Entornol. Soco Arner. 56:744-747.
Delarnare Deboutteville, C. 1956. Zoraptera. In S. L. Tuxen Riegel, G. T. 1969. More Zoraptera records. Prac. North Cen-
(Ed.), Taxonornist's Glossary of Genitalia in Insects, pp. tral Branch, Entornol. SOCoArner. 23(2):125-126.
38-41. Copenhagen: Munksgaard. Riegel, G. T. 1987. Order Zoraptera. In F. W Stehr (Ed.), Irn-
Gurney,A. B. 1938. A synopsis of the order Zoraptera, with rnature Insects, pp. 184-185. Dubuque, lA: KendalllHunt.
notes on the biology of Zorotypus hubbardi Caudell. Prac. Riegel, G. T., and S.]. Eytalis. 1974. Life history studies on
Entornol. Soco Wash. 40:57-87. Zoraptera. Proc. North Central Branch, Entornol. SOCo
Gumey,A. B. 1959. New distribution records for Zorotypus Arner. 29:106-107.
hubbardi Caudell (Zoraptera). Prac. Entornol. Soco Wash. Riegel, G. T., and M. B. Ferguson. 1960. New state records of
61:183-184. Zoraptera. Entornol. News 71(8):213-216.
Gumey,A. B. 1974. Class Insecta, Order Zoraptera. In W G. St. Arnand, W 1954. Records of the order Zoraptera frarn
H. Coa ton (Ed.), Status of the Taxonorny of the Hexa- South Carolina. Entornol. News 65(5):131.
poda of Southern Africa. RSA Dept. Agr. Tech. Serv., En-
tornol. Mern. 38:32-34.
 '1

19 Order Isoptera
Termites
1,2

I
,/
¡'
./

ermites are medium-sized, cellulose-eating social in-
T sects making up the order Isoptera, a relatively small
group of insects, consisting of approximately 1900
species worldwide. They live in highly organized and
integrated societies, or colonies, with the individuals
differentiated morphologically into distinct forms or
castes-reproductives, workers, and soldiers-that
perform different biological functions. The four wings
(present only in the reproductive caste) are membra-
nous. The front and hind wings are almost equal in size
(Figure 19-1), hence the name Isoptera. The antennae
are moniliform or filiform. The mouthparts of the
workers and reproductives are of the chewing type.
The metamorphosis is simple. The nymphs have the
potential to develop into any one of the castes. Experi-
ments have shown that hormones and inhibitory
pheromones secreted by the reproductives and soldiers
regulate caste differentiation.
Although termites are popularly referred to as
"white ants," they are not ants, nor are they closely re-
lated to ants, which are grouped with bees and wasps
in the Hymenoptera, whose social system has evolved
independently of that in the Isoptera. Termites are
most closely related to the cockroaches and mantids
(Thorne and Carpenter 1992, Wheeler et al. 2001).
The primitive living species Mastotennes darwiniensis
Froggatt from Australia has some similarities with
some cockroaches, such as the folded anallobe in the
hind wing and an egg mass resembling the oothecae of
cockroaches and mantids. However, the Mastotennes
egg mass differs in structural details from the ootheca
and is probably more similar to egg pods of other Or-
thoptera. The relationship to the monophyletic group
of Blattodea + Mantodea suggests that termites evolved
in the late Permian, approximately 200 million years
ago (although the known fossil termites date only from
the Cretaceous, about 120 million years ago). The ter-
mite society is therefore the oldest.
There are many important differences between ter-
mites and ants. Termites are soft-bodied and usually
light-colored, whereas ants are hard-bodied and usu-
ally dark. The antennae in termites are not elbowed as
in ants. The front and hind wings of termites are nearly
equal in size and are held fiat over the abdomen at rest,
whereas in ants the hind wings are smaller than the
fore wings and the wings at rest are usually held above
the body. In termites, the wings, when shed, break
along a suture, leaving only the wing base, or "scale,'
attached 10 the thorax. The abdomen in termites is
broadly joined to the thorax, whereas in ants it is con-
stricted at the base, forming the characteristic hy-
menopteran petiole, or "waist." The sterile castes

lIsoptera: ¡so, equal; ptera, wings,

252 'This chapter was edited by Kumar Krishna, Figure19-1 A winged termite. (Courtesy of USDA)

(workersand soldiers) in termites are made up of both
sexes,and reproductives and sterile castes develop
[romfertilized eggs. In ants, the sterile castes are made
up of females only, and all females, sterile and repro-
ductive,develop from fertilized eggs, whereas the re-
productivemales develop from unfertilized eggs.
TermiteCastes
Thereproductive function in the termite society is car-
riedout by the primary reproductives, the king and
queen-most commonly one pair to a colony-which
developfrom fully winged (macropterous) adults (Fig-
ure I9-2A). They are heavily sclerotized and have
compound eyes. The king is generally small, but in
manyspeciesthe queen developsan enlarged abdomen
asa result of her increasing egg-Iaying capacity, and in
sometropical species she can reach a size as great as
11 cm (compared with 1-2 cm for the king). The
wingedreproductives from which the king and queen
developare produced in large numbers seasonally.
Theyleave the colony in a swarming or colonizing
fiight,shed their wings along a suture, and, as individ-
-.'~~ "'"-~ - --
Termite Castes 253
ual pairs, seek a nesting site, mate, and establish new
colonies. Some species have one emergence ayear; oth-
ers have many. In the most common eastern species,
Reticulitennes flavipes (Kollar), emergence occurs in
the spring; in some western species, it occurs in late
summer, whereas other species also swarm between
January and April.
In the initial stages of colony foundation, the re-
productives feed the young and tend to the nest, but
young nymphs and workers soon take over these
household duties.
If it happens that the king and queen die or part of
the colony is separated from the parent colony, supple-
mentary reproductives develop within the nest and
take over the function of the king and queen. The sup-
plementary reproductives are slightly scleratized and
pigmented, with short wing pads (brachypterous) or
no wing pads (apterous) and reduced compound eyes.
They develop fram nymphs and achieve sexual matu-
rity without reaching the fully winged adult stages and
without leaving the nest.
The worker and soldier castes, made up of both
sexes, are sterile, wingless, in most species blind, and
in some species polymorphic, that is, of two or more
distinct sizes (Figure 19-2C,D).
Figure 19-2 Castes of termites.
A, sexual winged adult, Amitennes
wheeleri (Desneux), lOX (Termiti-
dae); B, nasute soldier of
Tenuirostritennes tenuirostris
(Desneux), 15X (Termitidae);
C, worker, and D, soldier of
Prorhinotermessimplex (Hagen),
10X (Rhinotermitidae). (Courtesy
of Banks and Snyder and the
U.5. National Museum.)

254 Chapter19 OrderIsoptera
The workers are usually the most numerous indi-
viduals in a colony. They are pale and soft-bodied, with
mouthparts adapted for chewing. They perform most
of the work of the colony: nest building and repair, for-
aging, and feeding and grooming the other members of
the colony. Because of its feeding function, the worker
caste causes the widespread destruction for which ter-
mites are notorious. In the primitive families, a true
worker caste is absent and its functions are carried out
by wingless nymphs called pseudergates, which may
molt from time to time without change in size.
The soldier has a large, dark, elongated, highly
sclerotized head, adapted in various ways for defense.
In the soldiers of most speeies, the mandibles are long,
powerful, hooked, and modified to operate with a seis-
sorlike action to behead, dismember, or lacerate ene-
mies or predators (usually ants). In the soldiers of
some genera, such as Cryptotermes, the head is short
and truncated in front and is used in defense to plug
en trance holes in the nest.
The mechanical means of defense are sometimes
supplemented or displaced by chemical means, in
which a sticky and toxic fluid is secreted by the frontal
gland and ejected through an opening onto the enemy.
In Coptotermes and Rhinotermes, the gland occupies a
large portion of the head. In the subfamily Nasutiter-
mitinae, the mechanism of defense is exclusively
chemical: the mandibles are reduced, the frontal gland
is greatly enlarged, and the head has developed a snout,
or nasus (Figure 19-2B) through which a sticky, repel-
lent secretion is squirted at the enemy.
In a few genera, such as Anoplotermes, the soldier
caste is absent, and the nymphs and workers defend
the colony.
Habits of Termites
Termites frequently groom each other with their
mouthparts, probably as a result of the attraction of se-
cretions that are usually available on the body. The
food of termites consists of the cast skins and feces of
other individuals, dead individuals, and plant materials
such as wood and wood products.
Keyto the Familiesof Isoptera(WingedAdults)
1. Fontanelle usually present (Figure 19-3, fon); wings with only 2 heavy
veins in anterior part of wing beyond scale, R usually without anterior
branches (Figure 19-4A)
l' Fontanelle absent; wings with 3 or more heavy veins in anterior part of
wing beyond scale, R with 1 or more anterior branches (Figure 19-4B)
,.
Figure19-3 Head of Prorhinotermes,dorsal view,show-
ing fontanelle (ton). (Modified fram Banks and Synder.)
Some termites live in moist subterranean habitats,
and others live in dry habitats aboveground. The subter-
ranean forrns normally live in wood buried beneath or in
contact with the soil. They may enter wood remo te froro
the soil, but must maintain a passageway or connecting
gallery to the soil, from which they obtain moisture.
50me speeies construct earthen tubes between the soil
and wood aboveground. These tubes are made of din
mixed with a secretion from a pore on the front of the
head (the fontanelle; Figure 19-3, fon). The nests may
be entirely subterranean, or they may protrude above
the surface: Some tropical speeies have nests (termitaria)
9 meters high. The drywood termites, which live above-
ground (without contact with the ground), live in posts,
stumps, trees, and buildings construeted of wood. Their
ehief souree of moisture is metabolic water (water re-
sulting from the oxidation of food).
The eellulose in a termite's food is digested by
myriads of flagellate protists living in the termite's di-
gestive traet. A termite from which these flagellates
have been removed will eontinue to feed, but it will
eventually starve to death beeause its food is not di-
gested. This assoeiation is an exeellent example of sym-
biosis, or mutualism. 50me termites harbor bacteria
rather than flagellates. Termites engage in a unique
form of analliquid exehange Ctrophallaxis), and this is
how intestinal mieroorganisms are transmitted from
one individual to another.
2
3
 Keyto the Familiesof Isoptera(Soldiers) 255

R
/
,
/

:...... ......

,.......................................................
",

R
,
/

............ ...................

í1'~F;ii02:;::::"
Figure19-4 Wings of ter-
mites. A, Rhinotermitidae;
B B, Kalotermitidae.

2(1). Scale of front wing longer than pronotum; pronotUm flat; cerci
2-segmented; widely distributed Rhinotermitidae p.256
2', Scale of front wing shorter than pronotUm; pronotum saddle-shaped;
cerci 1- or 2-segmented; southwestem United States Termitidae p.257
3(1'), Ocelli present; shaft of tibiae without spines; antennae usually with
fewer than 21 segments; cerci short, 2-segmented; Florida and westem
United States Kalotermitidae p.256
3', Ocelli absent; shaft of tibiae usually with spines; antennae usually with
more than 21 segments; cerci long, 4-segmented; westem United States,
southem British Columbia, and Queen Charlotte Island Termopsidae p. 256

Keyto the Familiesof Isoptera (Soldiers)

1. Mandibles vestigial, the head produced anteriorly into a long, noselike

projection (nasute soldiers; Figure 19-2B) Termitidae p. 257
l' Mandibles normal, head not as in preceding entry 2
2(1'), Head longer than broad (Figure 19-2D); mandibles with or without
prominent marginal teeth 3
2'. Head short, hollowed out; mandibles without marginal teeth; southem
United States (powderpost termites) Kalotermitidae p.256
3(2). Mandibles with one or more prominent marginal teeth; southem and
westem United States 4
3' Mandibles without marginal teeth (Figure 19-2D); widely distributed Rhinotermitidae p.256
256 Chapter19 OrderIsoptera

4(3). Mandibles with only 1 prominent marginal tooth; head narrowed

anteriorly Termitidae p.257
4'. Mandibles with more than 1 prominent marginal tooth; head not
narrowed anteriorly 5
5(4'). Third antennal segment modified; hind femora swollen Kalotermitidae p. 256
S'. Third antennal segment not modified; hind femora variable 6
6(5'). Hind femora swollen; antennae with at least 23 segments; shaft of tibiae
with spines Termopsidae p.256
6'. Hind femora not, or only slightly, swollen; antennae with fewer than
23 segments; shaft of tibiae without spines Kalotermitidae p.256

Family Kalotermitidae:This family is represented in
the United States by 17 species and includes drywood,
dampwood, and powderpost termites. These termites
have no worker caste, and the young of the other castes
perform the work of the colony. The kalotermitids lack
a fontanelle and do not construct earthen tubes.
The drywood termites (Incisitennes, Pterotennes,
and Marginitennes) attack dry, sound wood and do not
have a ground contact. Most infestations are in the
structure of buildings, but furniture, utility poles, and
piled lumber may also be attacked. Adults are cylindri-
cal and about 13 mm long, and the reproductives are
pale brown. Incisitennes minor (Hagen) and Marginiter-
mes hubbardi (Banks) are important species in the
southwestern states.
The dampwood termites in this family (Neotennes
and Paraneotennes) attack moist, dead wood, tree
roots, and the like. They occur in Florida and the west-
ern United States.
The powderpost termites (Cryptotennes and Cal-
caritennes) usually attack dry wood (without a soil
contact) and reduce it to powder. They occur in the
southern United States. Cryptotennes brevis (Walker) is
an introduced species in the United States. lt occurs
along the Gulf Coast near Tampa and New Orleans and
has been found as far north as Tennessee. lt was prob-
ably introduced in furniture. lt attacks furniture,
books, stationery, dry goods, and building timbers. lt
frequently do es a great deal of damage. It is found in
buildings, never outdoors. Where it is found, its
colonies are numerous but small.
Family Termopsidae-Dampwood Termites: This
group includes three species of Zootennopsis, which oc-
cur along the Pacific Coast north to southern British
Columbia. The adults are 13 mm or more in length, are
somewhat flattened, and lack a fontanelle. There is no
worker caste. These termites attack dead wood, and al-
though they do not need a ground contact, some mois-
ture in the wood is required. They generally occur in
dead, damp, rotting logs, but frequently damage build.
ings, utility poles, and lumber, particularly in coastal
regions where there is considerable fog.
The most common species in this group are
Z. nevadensis Banks and Z. angusticollis (Hagen).
Zootennopsis nevadensis is a little over 13 mm long and
lives in relatively dry habitats (especially dead tree
trunks). The wingless forms are pale with a darker
head, and the winged forms are dark brown with the
head chestllut or orange. Zootennopsis angusticollisis
larger (about 18 mm long) and generally occurs in
damp, dead logs. Adults are pale with a brown head.
Family Rhinotermitidae:This group is representedin
the United States by nine species (with one species ex-
tending northward into Canada) and includes the sub-
terranean termites (Reticulitennes and Heterotennes) and
the dampwood termites in the genus Prorhinotermes
(Figure 19-2C,D). Reticulitennes is widely distributed,
Heterotennes is found only in the western and southem
United States, and the dampwood termites occur onlyin
Florida. These termites are small (adults are about
6-8 mm long). Wingless forms are very pale (soldiers
have a pale brown head) , and winged forms are black.
There is a fontanelle on the front of the head (Fig-
ure 19-3, fon). The members of this group always main.
tain contact with the soil. They often construct earthen
tubes to wood not in contact with the soil. The eastem
subterranean termite, Reticulitennesflavipes (Kollar)
(Figure 19-5), is probably the most destructive species
in the order and is the only termite in the Northeast.
The Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes
fonnosanus Shiraki, a native of mainland China and Tai-
wan, and one of the most destructive species in the
world, has become established in many areas of the
globe, includingJapan, Guam, Hawaii, and South Africa.
lt was first introduced into the continental United States
in 1965 in Houston, Texas, and has since spread to many
--
EconomicImportanceof Termites 257

with a large fontanelle opening in the front margin,

Figure
19-5 A group of the eastem subterranean terrnite,
flavipes (Kollar); note the soldier in the right
Reticulitennes
centralportion of the picture.
southemstates: Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Geor-
gia,Florida,Tennessee and North and South Carolina. It
attacksliving trees as well as old tree stumps, poles, and
otherwoodstructures. The nest is underground or in
wood.A colony may take several years to mature, at
whichtime it contains several million individuals. The
soldierof this species can be recognized by its oval head,
which exudes a whitish, sticky substance.
FamilyTermitidae:This group is represented in the
United States by 15 species, most of them in the South-
west. It includes the soldierless termites (Anoploter-
mes), the desert termites (Amitermes and Gnathamiter-
mes), and the nasutiform termites (Tenuirostritermes).
The soldierless termites burrow under logs or cow
dung and are not of economic importance. The desert
termitt:s are subterranean and occasionally damage the
wood of buildings, poles, and fence posts. The nasuti-
form terrnites normally attack desert shrubs or other
objects on the ground and maintain a ground contacto
Economic Importance of Termites
Terrnites hold two positions from the economic point
of view. On the one hand, they may be very destructive,
beca use they feed on and often destroy various struc-
tures or materials that people use: wooden portions of
buildings, furniture, books, utility poles, fence posts,
many fabrics, and the like (Figure 19-6). Worldwide
they account for a high amount of atmospheric

GAME LAWS
OF OHlO

1921
MIl)
1922

Á. C. BA~TER
Cf.¡.¡_

Figure 19-6 Terrnite damage.

258 Chapter19 OrderIsoptera
methane. On the other hand, they help convert dead
trees and other plant products to substances that plants
can use.
Reticulitennes jlavipes is the common termite
throughout the eastern United States. This species oc-
curs in buried wood, fallen trees, and logs. It must
maintain a ground connection to obtain moisture. It
cannot initiate a new colony in the wood in a house;
the nest in the soil must be established first. Once the
soil nest is established, these termites may enter build-
ings from the soil in one of five ways: (1) through tim-
bers that are in direct contact with the soil, (2) via
openings in rough stone foundations, (3) through
openings or cracks in concrete-block foundations,
(4) through expansion joints or cracks in concrete
1100rs, or (5) by means of earthen tubes constructed
over foundations or in hidden cracks and crevices in
masonry.
Infestations of the subterranean termite in a
building may be recognized by the swarming of the re-
productives in the spring in or about the building, by
mud protruding from cracks between boards or beams
or along basement joists, by the earthen tubes extend-
ing from the soil to the wood, or by the hollowness of
the wood in which the insects have been tunneling.
You can easily push a knife blade into a timber hol-
lowed out by termites, and such wood readily breaks
aparto
Subterranean termites in buildings are controlled
by two general methods: by properly constructing the
buildings to render them termite proof, and by using
chemicals. The former involves construction in which
no wood is in contact with the ground and in which
the termites cannot reach the wooden part of the
References
Abe, T., D. E. Bignell, and M. Higashi (Eds.). 2000. Termites:
Evolution, SOciality, Symbioses, Ecology Dordrecht:
Kluwer Academic, 488 pp.
Constantino, R. 1998. Catalog of the living termites of the
New World (Insecta: Isoptera). Arquivos de Zoologia
(Sao Paulo) 35(2):135-231.
Ebeling, W 1968. Termites: Identification, biology, and con-
trol of termites attacking buildings. Calif. Agr. Expt. Sta.
Extension Service Manual No. 38, 68 pp.
Ebeling, W 1975. Urban Entomology. Berkeley: University of
California Press, 695 pp.
Ernst, E., and R. L. Araujo. 1986. A Bibliography of Termite
Literature, 1966-1978. Chichester, UK: Wiley, 903 pp.
Forschler, B. T. 1999. Part n. Subterranean termite biology in re-
lation to prevention and removal of structural infestation.
In National Pest Control Association (Ed.), NPCA Research
Report on Subterranean Termites, pp. 31-52. Dunn Loring,
VA: National Pest Control Association, 57 pp.
building through outside steps, through sills, or
through the foundation. Control by chemicals in-
volves their application to the wood or to the soil.
Utility poles and fence posts, which must be in contact
with the ground, may be rendered termite proof by
chemical treatment.
The best method of eliminating drywood termites
is by chemical fumigation. For such termites in build-
ings a large tent of plastic or other impervious material
is placed over the entire building. The fumigant, usu-
ally sulfuryl l1uoride, methyl bromide, or a combina-
tion of methyl bromide and carbon dioxide, is then
pumped into the building. This is a rather expensive
procedure. Drywood termites may also be eliminated
by drilling holes in infested timbers, forcing a small
amount of a poison dust into the holes, and then plug-
ging up the holes. Termites constantly groom one an-
other, and once a few individuals get this dust on thero-
selves, the other individuals of the colony will
eventually obtain it and be killed. Termite baits are now
used to control subterranean terrnites.
Collecting and Preserving Isoptera
Terrnites can be found by turning over dead logs or by
digging into dead stumps. They can be collected with
forceps or a moistened brush, or they can be shaken
out of infested timbers onto a paper. Preserve termites
in 70 to 80% alcohol. Most individuals are very soft-
bodied and shrivel or become distorted if mounted on
pins or points. It is often necessary to mount these in-
sects on microscope slides for detailed study.
Krishna, K. 1961. A generic revision and phylogenetic study
of the family Kalotermitidae (Isoptera). Bull. Amer. Mus.
Nat. Hist. 122(4):307-408.
Krishna, K. 1966. A key to eight termite genera. Coop. Econ.
Insect Rep. (USDA) 16(47):1091-1098.
Krishna, K, and E M. Weesner (Eds.). 1969, 1970. Biologyo[
termites. 2 vols. New York: Academic Press, vol. 1, 615
pp; vol. 2, 658 pp.
Miller, E. M. 1949. A Handbook of Florida Termites. Coral
Gables, FL: University of Miami Press, 30 pp.
Skaife, S. H. 1961. Dwellers in Darkness. New York: Double-
day, 180 pp.
Snyder, T. E. 1935. Our Enemy the Termite. Ithaca, NY: Como
stock, 196 pp.
Snyder, T. E. 1949. Catalogue of the termites (Isoptera) orthe
world. Smithson. Misc. ColI. 112(3953),490 pp.
Snyder, T. E. 1954. arder Isoptera-The Termites or the
United States and Canada. New York: National Pest Con.
trol Association, 64 pp.

Snyder,1.E. 1956. Annotated subject-heading bibliography
of termites, 1350 B.C. to A.D. 1954. Srnithson. Misc.
ColI.130(4258),305 pp.
Snyder,1. E. 1961. Supplernent to the annotated subject-
heading bibliography of terrnites, 1955 to 1960. Srnith-
son. Misc. Col!. 143(3), 137 pp.
Snyder,1. E. 1968. Second supplernent to the annotated
subject-heading bibliography of terrnites, 1961-1965.
Smithson. Misc. Col!. 152, 188 pp.
Tamashiro,M., and N.- Y Su (Eds.). 1987. Biology and con-
trol of the Forrnosan subterranean terrnite: Proc. Interna-
tional symposiurn on the Forrnosan subterranean ter-
mite. 67th Meeting, Pacific Branch, Entornological
Societyof Arnerica, Honolulu, Hawaii, 1985. Honolulu:
College of Tropical AgricuIture and Hurnan Resources,
Universityof Hawaii, 61 pp.
Thorne,B. L. 1999. Part 1.Biology of subterranean terrnites of
the genus Reticulitennes. In National Pest Control Asso-
ciation (Ed.), NPCA Research Report on Subterranean
References 259
Terrnites, pp. 1-30. Dunn Loring, VA: National Pest Con-
trol Association, 57 pp.
Thorne, B. L. and]. M. Carpenter. 1992. Phylogeny of the
Dictyoptera. Syst. Entorno!. 17:253-268.
Weesner, F. M. 1960. Evolution and biology of the terrnites.
Annu. Rev. Entorno!. 5:153-170.
Weesner, F. M. 1965. The Terrnites of the United States. A
Handbook. Elizabeth, NJ: National Pest Control Associa-
tion, 71 pp.
Weesner, F.M. 1987. Order Isoptera. In F.W Stehr (Ed.), Irn-
mature Insects, pp. 132-139. Dubuque, lA:
KendalllHunt.
Wheeler, W c., M. Whiting, Q. D. Wheeler, and ]. M.
Carpenter. 2001. The phylogeny of the extant hexapod
orders. Cladistics 17: 113-169.
 20 Order Mantodea1,2
Mantids
antids are large, elongate, rather slow-moving in-
M sects that are striking in appearance because of their
peculiarly modified front legs (Figure 20-1). The pro-
thorax is greatly lengthened and movably attached to the
pterothorax; the front coxae are very long and mobile;
and the front femora and tibiae are armed with strong
spines and fitted for grasping prey. The head is freely
movable. Mantids are the only insects that can "look
over their shoulders." These insects are highly preda-
ceous and feed on a variety of insects (including other
mantids). They usually lie in wait for their prey with the
front legs in an upraised position. This position has
given rise to the common names "praying mantis" and
"soothsayer" that are often applied to these insects.
Mantids overwinter in the egg stage, and the eggs
are deposited on twigs or grass stems in a Styrofoam-like
'Mantodea, from the Greek, meaning a soothsayer or a kind of
grasshopper.
'This chapter was edited by David A. Nickle.
Figure20-1 The Carolina mantid, Stagomantis carolina Oohansen). (Courtesy of
260 Hebard and the Illinois Natural History Survey.)
eggcase or ootheca secretedby the female.Each eggcase
may contain 200 or more eggs. If brought into the house
and kept warm, the eggs will hatch in late winter or early
spring, and the nymphs, unless supplied with food, will
eat each other until one, large nymph remains.
There are more than 1500 species in eight families
of mantids in the world, most of which are tropical.
The United States and Canada have only 17 species, all
except one belonging to the family Mantidae. The Car-
olina mantis, Stagmomantis carolina Qohannson),
which is about 50 mm in length (Figure 20-1), is the
most common of several species of mantids occurring
in the southern states. The large mantis (75-100 mm in
length) that is locally common in the northern states is
an introduced species, the Chinese mantis, Tenodera
aridifolia (Stoll). This species was introduced in the
vicinity of Philadelphia about 75 years ago and has
since become rather widely distributed through the
transportation of egg masses. Another species, I an-
gustipennis Saussure, the narrow-winged mantis, was
-
 Collecting and Preserving Mantodea 261

introducedfrom Asia. The European mantis, Mantis re-
ligiosaL., a pale-green insect about 50 mm in length,
wasintroduced in the vicinity of Rochester, New York,
about75 years ago and now occurs throughout most of
theeastern states.
The family Mantoididae has only one member in the
United States, Mantoidea maya Saussura and Zehntner. lt
is small (length 15-17 mm) with the pronotum about as
wide as long. lt is found in southern Florida and Yucatán,
Mexico.

Keyto the Familiesand Subfamiliesof Mantodea

1. Pronotum quadrate or only slightly longer than wide; small species found
only in south Florida Mantoididae (Mantoidea, 1 sp.)
1'. Pronotum distinctly longer than wide (Mantidae) 2
2(1'). Fore femur with deep pit or groove between first and second spines on
outer ventral margin to receive apical ventral claw of fore tibia Liturgusinae(Gonatista, 1 sp.)
2'. Fore femur lacking deep pit or groove between first and second spines on
outer ventral margin 3
3(2'). Outer ventral margin of fore femur with 5-7 spines; antenna basally
broad, flattened Photinae (Brunneria, 1 sp.)
3' Outer ventral margin of fore femur usually with 4 spines; antenna thin,
filamentous 4
4(3'). Fore tibia armed dorsoapically with 1-2 spines; long slender species Oligonychinae (Oligonicella,
2 spp., Thesprotia,1 sp.)
4'. Fore tibia unarmed dorsoapically; more robust species 5
5(4'). Small species, less than 3S mm long; eyes dorsally pointed (Yersiniops,
2 spp.) or costal margin of tegmen with dense coat of fine cilia
(Litaneutra, 1 sp.) Amelinae
5' Larger species, greater than 40 mm long; eyes globose, with costal margin Mantinae (Pseudovates,
of tegmen glabrous 1 sp.; Iris, 1 sp.,
Mantis, 1 sp.; Tenodera,
2 spp., Stagmomantis,
5spp.)

Ihe female mantid usually eats the male immedi-
atelyafter or actually during mating. No males are
knownforBrunneriaborealisScudder,a fairlycommon
speciesin the South and Southwest.
Mantids are highly touted as biological control
agents,and you can buy them to place in gardens to
helpcontrol pest insects. This practice is not recom-
mendedbecause the mantids cannot possibly keep up
withpopulations of damaging insects. In addition,
mantidsdo not discrimina te between destructive and
usefulinsectsand sometimesbecome a pest themselves,
especiallyaround beehives, where they may have a real
ofhoneybees going to and from the hive.
feast
Collecting and Preserving
Mantodea
Mantids are relatively large and slow-moving and,
once found, are fairly easy to collecL The best time for
collecting the adults of most species is from midsum-
mer to late fallo The egg masses are large and fairly
conspicuous, especially on the bare twigs of trees dur-
ing the winter. Pin adults through the right tegmen, in
about the middle of the body (from front to rear). If
the specimen is very soft-bodied, support the body by
a piece of cardboard or by pins; otherwise, it will sag
at either end.
262 Chapter20 OrderMantodea
References
Blatchley, W. S. 1920. Orthoptera of Northeastern America.
Indianapolis: Nature, 785 pp.
Gurney, A. B. 1951. Praying mantids of the United States.
Smithson. Inst. Rep. 1950:339-362.
Hebard, M. 1934. The Dermaptera and Orthoptera of Illinois.
Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 20:125-179.
Helfer, J. R. 1987. How to Know the Grasshoppers, Cock-
roaches, and Their Allies, 2nd ed. New York: Dover Pub-
lications, 363 pp.
Nickle, D. A. 1987. Order Mantodea. In E W. Stehr CEd.), 1m.
mature Insects, vol. 1, pp. 140-142. Dubuque, lA:
KendalVHunt, 754 pp.
Vickery, v. R., and D. K. McE. Kevan. 1985. The Grasshop-
pers, Crickets, and Related Insects of Canada and Adja-
cent Regions: Ulonata: Dermaptera, Cheleutoptera, No-
toptera, Dictuoptera, Grylloptera, and Orthoptera. The
Insects and Arachnids of Canada, Part 14. Ottawa: Cana-
dian Government Publishing Centre, 918 pp.
 Order Blattodea1,2
21 Cockroaches
( ockroaches are cursorial insec15 with 5-segmented
tarsiand none of the legs modified for digging or
grasping.They run very fast, as anyone who attemp15
tostepon one soon discovers. The body is oval and
flattened,and the head is concealed from above by the
pronotum.Tympana and stridulating organs usually
areabsent. Wings are generally present, although in
sorne speciesthey are much reduced. The females of
rnany specieshave shorter wings than the males. The
cerciare one- to many-segmented and usually fairly
long;the antennae are long and filiform.These insec15
arerathergeneralized feeders. The eggs are enclosed in
capsulesor oothecae, which may be deposited immedi-
atelyafterthey are formed, carried about on the end of
theabdomen of the female until the eggs hatch, or car-
riedintemally in a uterus or brood pouch for the full
gestation periodo
Cockroaches are primarily tropical insects, and
mostNorth American species occur in the southern
par!of the United States. Some tropical species are oc-
casionallybrought into the North in shipmen15 of ba-
nanasor other tropical frui15. The most commonly en-
counteredcockroaches in the North are those that
'8lauodea:blatta. Latin for cockroach.
contributions to this chapter made by Philippe Grandcolas.
'Valuable
invade houses, where they are often serious pes15. None
is known to be a specific vector of disease, but they feed
on all sor15of things in a house. They contaminate food,
they have an unpleasant odor, and their presence is of-
ten very annoying.
Classification of the Blattodea
There is much difference of opinion regarding the clas-
sification of cockroaches. The 40-odd major groups are
variously treated as tribes, subfamilies, or families by
different authorities. We generally follow here the clas-
sification of McKittrick (1964), who groups the 50 or
so North American species in five families. A synopsis
of the North American Blattodea, as treated in this
book, is given here. The groups marked with an aster-
isk (*) are relatively rare or are unlikely to be taken by
a general collector.
Blattidae-Oriental, American, and other cockroaches
Polyphagidae (Cryptocercidae)*-sand cockroaches
and others
Blattellidae-German, wood, and other cockroaches
Blaberidae-giant cockroaches and others 263
264 Chapter21 OrderBlattodea

Keyto the Familiesof Blattodea

l. Length 3 mm or less; found in ant nests 2*

1'. Length over 3 mm; almost never found in ant nests 3
2(1). Clypeus large and divided; found in association with carpenter ants
(Formicinae: Camponotus) (Mynnecoblatta) Polyphagidae
* p.265
2'. Clypeus small, undivided; found in association with leaf-cutter ants
(Myrmicinae: AttinO (Attaphíla) Blattellidae* p. 266
3(1'). Middle and hind femora with numerous spines on ventroposterior margin 4
3'. Middle and hind femora without spines on ventroposterior margin, or
with hairs and bristles only, or 1 or 2 apical spines 8
4(3). Pronotum and front wings denseiy covered with silky pubescence; length
27 mm or more (tropicalspeciesaccidentalin the UnitedStates:Nyctibora) Blattellidae(in part)* p.266
4'. Pronotum and front wings glabrous or only very sparsely pubescent 5
5(4'). Ventroposterior margin of front femora with row of spines that either
decrease gradually in size and length distally or are neariy equallength
throughout (Figure 2l-1A) 6
5'. Ventroposterior margin of front femora with row of heavy spines
proximally and more slender and shorter spines distally (Figure 2l-1B) 7
6(5). Female subgenital plate divided longitudinally (Figure 21-2C); male styli
similar, slender, eiongate, and straight (Figure 21-2D); length 18 mm or
more (Blatta,Periplaneta,Eurycotis,Neostylopyga) Blattidae p.265
6'. Female subgenital plate entire, not divided longitudinally (Figure 2l-2B);
male styli variable, often modified, asymmetrical, or unequal in size
(Figure 2l-2E); length variable, but usually less than 18 mm (Supella,
Cariblatta,Symploce,Pseudomops, Blattella) Blattellidae(in part) p.266
7(5'). Front femora with only 1 apical spine; supra-anal plate weakly bilobed;
glossy light brown, with sides and front of pronotum and basal costal part
of frontwingsyellowish;15-20mm long;FloridaKeys(Phoetalia, Epílampra) Blaberidae(in part)* p.266
7'. Front femora with 2 or 3 apical spines; supra-anal plate not bilobed; size
and color variable; wideiy distributed (Ectobius, Latiblattella, Ischnoptera,
Parcoblatta, Euthlastoblatta,
Aglaopteryx) Blattellidae(in part) p.266

~ n 11' n
A
~

Figure
21-1 Front femora of Blattodea. A, Periplaneta (Blattidae); B, Parcoblatta
(Blattellidae); C, Blaberus (Blaberidae).
 Key to the Families of Blattodea 265

8(3'). Distalportion of abdomen(usuallyincludingcerci)coveredby produced

seventh dorsal and sixth ventral abdominal sclerites, subgenital plate
absent; wingless, body almost parallel-sided, shining reddish brown,
finely punctate, 23-29 mm in length; widely distributed, usually found in
rotting logs (Cryptocercus) Polyphagidae* p.265
8'. Distalportion of abdomennot so covered,subgenitalplate present;wings
usually well developed (absent in some females); usually oval in shape;
size and color variable; mostly southern United States 9*
9(8'). Hind wings with an apical portion (intercalated trianglc: or appendicular
area) that folds over when wings are in resting position (Figure 21-2A, it);
8.5 mm in length or less, glossy yellowish, often beetlelike in appearance;
southeasternUnited States(Chorisoneura,Plectoptera) Blattellidae (in part)* p. 266
9'. Hind wings not as in preceding entry 10*

10(9'). Front femora with 1 to 3 spines on ventroposterior margin and 1 at tip

(Figure 21-1C); length over 40 mm; arolia present; southern Florida
(Blaberus, Hemiblabera) Blaberidae (in part) * p. 266
10'. Front femora without spines on ventroposterior margin and with 1 or a
few at tip; size variable; arolia present or absent; eastern and southern
United States 11*

11(10'). Wings well developed, the anal area of hind wings folded fanwise at rest;
frons flat, not bulging; length over 16 mm, pale green in color (Panchlora,
Pycnoscelus,Nauphoeta, Leucophaea) Blaberidae (in part)* p.266
11'. Anal area of hind wings flat, not folded fanwise at rest (some females are
wingless); frons thickened and somewhat bulging; usually (except some
Arenivaga)less than 16 mm in lengthand never green (Holocompsa,
Eremoblatta,Compsodes, Arenivaga) Polyphagidae* p.265

Family Blattidae:The cockroaches in this group are

A about 25 mm long, dark brown, and broadly oval with
e uid, and is sometimes called the "stinking cockroach." It
Figure21-2 A, hind wing of Chorisoneura (Blattellidae);
B,apex of abdomen of female cockroach (Blattellidae),
ventralview; C, apex of abdomen of female cockroach
(Blattidae),ventral view; D, subgenital plate of male cock-
roach(Blattidae), ventral view; E, same (Blattellidae).
il,intercalated triangle; sgp, subgenital plate; sty, stylus.
relatively large insects (most are 25 mm or more in
length). Several species are important household pests.
One of the most common pest species in this group is
the Oriental cockroach, Blatta orientalis L., which is
short wings (Figure 2l-3D,E). Several species of Peri-
planeta also invade houses, one of the most common
being the American cockroach, P. americana (L.) (Fig-
ure 21-3B). This species is about 27-35 mm long and
reddish brown, with well-developed wings. Eurycotis
JIoridana (Walker) is found in Florida and southern-
most Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia. It lives under
various sorts of cover outdoors, emits a very smelly liq-
is brown to black, with very short wings, and 30-39 mm
in length.
Family Polyphagidae:These are mostiy small cock-
roaches that have a rather hairy pronotum. In the
winged forms, the anal area of the hind wings is flat at
rest (not folded fanwise). They occur in the southern
states, from Florida to California. Most species in the
Southwest (Arenivaga and Eremoblatta) are in desert ar-
r
I
I
I
266 Chapter 21 Order Blattodea
A 8
O E
eas (some burrow in the sand like moles), and the fe-
males are wingless. Some Arenivaga are nearly 25 mm
in length. Other species are 6.5 mm in length or less.
The brown-hooded cockroach, Cryptocercus punc-
tulatus Scudder, is a subsocial species that occurs in
hilly or mountainous areas from Pennsylvania to Geor-
gia and Alabama in the East and from Washington to
northern California in the West. This cockroach is
wingless, 23-29 mm in length, and shining reddish
brown with the dorsal surface finely punctured and is
somewhat elongate and parallel-sided. It occurs in de-
caying logs, particularly oak logs. This cockroach has
intestinal protists that break down the cellulose in-
gested (as in termites). Cryptocercus traditionally has
been placed in its own family Cryptocercidae. We fol-
low here the phylogenetic results of Grandcolas and
D'Haese (2000 in grouping them in the Polyphagidae.
Family Blattellidae: This is a large group of small
cockroaches, most of them 12 mm in length or less. Sev-
eral species invade houses. One of the most important of
these is the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.)
(Figure 2l-3C,F), which is light brown with two longi-
tudinal strip es on the pronotum. Another is the brown-
banded cockroach, Supella longipalpa(Fabricius). A
number of species in this group occur outdoors; the
Figure 21-3 Some common
cockroaches. A, a wood cock-
e roach, Parcoblattapennsylvanica
(DeGeer) (Blattellidae); B, the
American cockroach, Periplaneta
americana (L.) (Blattidae); e, the
Germancockroach,Blattellager-
manica (L.), female (Blattellidae);
D, the oriental cockroach, Blatta
orientalis (L.), male (Blattidae);
E, same, female; F, the German
cockroach, maleoA, slightly en-
larged; B, D, and E, about natural
size; C and F, 2x. (Courtesy of
Institut de Biologie Générale,
F Université de Montréal.)
most common such species in the North are the wood
cockroaches, Parcoblatta spp. (Figure 21-3A), which
live in litter and debris in woods, Most species in this
group occur in the South, where they may be found in
litter and debris outdoors, under signs on trees, and in
similar situations. The Asian cockroach, Blattella asahi-
nae Mizukoba, morphologically very similar to B. ger-
manica, is now established in Florida (first detected in
1986). Attaphilafungicola Wheeler is 3 mm long or less
and lives in southern Texas and Louisiana in the nestsof
leaf-cutting ants. The proper classification of this smal!
and behaviorally specialized genus is uncertain.
Family Blaberidae: This group is principally tropi-
cal, and eleven North American species are nearlyal!
restricted to the southern states. The group inc\udes
the largest U.S. cockroaches (Blaberus and Rhyparobia),
which may reach a length of 50 mm. Most species are
brownish, but one living in southern Texas easl to
Florida, Panchloranivea (L.), is pale green. Most memo
bers of this group are found outside in litter or debris.
A few occasionally get into houses, such as the Suri.
nam cockroach, Pycnoscelus surinamensis (L.), and Ihe
Madeira cockroach, Rhyparobia maderae (Fabricius).
The Madeira cockroach (38-51 mm in length) can
stridulate, and it gives off an offensive odor.
 References 267

that shown in Figure 35-6A. The insects so collected

and Preserving Blattodea
Collecting
Cockroaches are mainly nocturnal creatures, and night
isoften the best time to callect them. They can be
foundby searching in leaf litter or under bark, or by
overtumingfallen logs. Many species, including the
cornmonhousehold pests, can be caught by putting
molassesor a similar bait in the bottom of a trap like
can simply be picked out of the trapo
Most nymphs and some soft-bodied adult speci-
mens should be preserved in alcohol, but most adults
can be pinned. Place the pin through the right tegmen,
in about the middle (from front to rear) of the body. If
the specimen is very soft-bodied, support the body
by a piece of cardboard or by pins, or it will sag at
either end.

References

Atkinson,1. H., P. G. Koehler, and R. S. Patterson. 1991. Cat- Princis, K. 1960. Zur Systernatik der Blattarien. Eos, Revista
alogue and atlas of the cockroaches of North Arnerica Española Entorno\. 36(4):427-449.
north of Mexico. Misc. Pub\. Entorno\. Soco Arner. Princis, K. 1969. Farn. Blattellidae. Orthopterorurn Catalogus
78:1-85. 13:713-1038.
Deyrup,M., and F. W. Fisk. 1984. A rnyrrnecophilous cock- Rehn, J. w. H. 1950. A key to the genera of North American
roach new to the United States (Blattaria: Polyphagidae). Blattaria, including established adventives. Entorno\.
Enl. News 95:183-185. News 61(3):64-67.
Fisk,f W 1987. Order Blattodea. In F.W. Stehr (Ed.), Irnrna- Rehn, J. w. H. 1951. Classification of the Blattaria as indicated
ture Insects, vo\. 1, pp. 120-131. Dubuque, lA: by their wings (Orthoptera). Mern. Arner. Entorno\. Soco
KendalVHunt,754 pp. No. 14, 134 pp.
Grandcolas,P. 1996. The phylogeny of cockroach farnilies: A Roth, L. M. 1970. Evolution and taxonornic significance of re-
cladistic appraisal of rnorpho-anatornical data. Can. J. production in Blattaria. Annu. Rev. Entorno\. 15:75-96.
Zoo!. 74:508-527. Roth, L. M., and E. R. Willis. 1957. The rnedical and veteri-
Grandcolas,P., and C. D'Haese. 2001. The phylogeny of cock- nary irnportance of cockroaches. Srnithson. Misc. Col\.
roach farnilies: is the current rnolecular hypothesis ro- 134(10), 147 pp.
bust? Cladistics 12:93-98. Thorne, B. L., and J. M. Carpenter. 1992. Phylogeny of the
Hebard,M. 1917. The Blattidae ofNorth Arnerica north of the Dictyoptera. Syst. Entorno\. 17:253-268.
Mexican boundary. Mern. Arner. Entorno\. Soco 2:1-284. Vickery, V. R., and D. K. McKevan. 1985. The Grasshoppers,
Helfer,J. R. 1987. How to Know the Grasshoppers, Cock- Crickets, and Related lnsects of Canada and Adjacent Re-
roaches, and Their Allies, 2nd ed. New York: Dover Pub- gions: Ulonata: Derrnaptera, Cheleutoptera, Notoptera,
lications, 363 pp. Dictuoptera, Grylloptera, and Orthoptera. The Insects
McKittrick,F. A. 1964. Evolutionary studies of cockroaches. and Arachnids of Canada, Part 14. Ottawa: Canadian
Comell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Mern. No. 189, 197 pp. Governrnent Publishing Centre, 918 pp.
McKittrick,F. A. 1965. A contribution to the understanding
of the cockroach-terrnite affinities. Ann. Entorno\. Soco
Amer. 58:18-22.
 22 Order Hemiptera1,2
TrueBugs,Cicadas,Hoppers,
Psyllids,
Whiteflies,Aphids,
and ScaleInsects
hiS is a large and diverse group of insects, varying
T considerably in body form, wings, antennae, life his-
tories, and food habits. Many plant parasitic species are
simplified in structure, lacking wings, eyes, and anten-
nae. Given this diversity, it is not surprising that earlier
authorities recognized two orders for these insects-
the Hemiptera, or true bugs, and the Homoptera, in-
cluding cicadas, hoppers, aphids, and their allies. Ear-
lier classifications had the Homoptera divided into two
suborders, the Auchenorrhyncha, containing the ci-
cadas and hoppers, and the Sternorrhyncha, including
the psyllids, whiteflies, aphids, and scale insects.
The most unifying character in this mélange of
diversity is the mouthparts, which are of a unique
piercing-sucking type (Figure 2-17). These consist of
four piercing stylets (the mandibles and maxillae) en-
closed in a slender, flexible sheath Cthe labium),
which is usually segmented. The maxillae fit together
in the beak to form two channels, a food channel and
a salivary channel. There are no palps, although some
authorities think that certain lobe-like structures on
the beak of some aquatic bugs represent vestigial
palps. The mouthparts of the Hemiptera are usually
used for sucking plant sap, but in many of the true
bugs they are used for sucking blood (for example,
Reduviidae). The beak arises from the front of the
head (Figure n-lB) in the suborder Heteroptera,
lHemiptera: hemi, half; plera. wings, referring to the characteristic of
the Heteroptera in which the front wings usually have the basa! por-
tion thickened and the dista! portion membranous.
'The Heteroptera section of this chapter was edited by James A.
S!ater, the Coccoidea section by Michael Kosztarab, and the Cicadi-
268 dae section by Thomas E. Moore.
fram the back of the head in the suborder Auchenor.
ryhncha, and (when present) fram between the pro.
coxae in the Sternorrhyncha.
The front wings of the Heteroptera (if present) are
usually very distinctive, consisting of a hardened or
thickened basal portion and a membranous apical por.
tion. This type of wing is called a hemelytron (plural,
hemelytra). The hind wings are entirely membranous
and slightly shorter than the front ones. The wingsat
rest are held flat over the abdomen with the membra.
nous apical portions overlapping. Winged Auchenor.
rhyncha and Sternorrhyncha usually have four wings.
The front wings have a uniform texture throughout,
either membranous or slightly thickened, and the hind
wings are membranous. The wings at rest are held
roof-like over the body, with the inner margins slightly
overlapping at the apex. In some groups one or both
sexes may be wingless, or both winged and wingless
individuals may occur in the same sexo Male scalein.
sects have only one pair of wings, located on the
mesothorax.
The Hemiptera usually undergo simple metamor.
phosis. The development in whiteflies and scale insects
resembles complete metamorphosis in that the last
nymphal instar is quiescent and pupa-like.
The life histories of some Sternorrhyncha are very
complex, involving bisexual and parthenogenetic gen.
erations, winged and wingless individuals, and genera.
tions, and sometimes regular alternation of food plants.
Some species transmit plant diseases and a few Het.
eroptera are vectors of diseases of warm-blooded verte.
brates, including humans. Many species are serious
pests of cultivated plants. A few provide useful prod.
ucts such as shellac, dyes, and other materials.
 Classification of the Hemiptera 269

111
IV

Figure22-1 Structure of a
A plant bug, Lygus oblineatus (Say),
family Miridae. A, dorsal view;
B, lateral view. ant, antenna;
aro, arolia; bk, beak; buc, buccula;
el, clavus; els, claval suture;
/590
I
I cor, corium; cun, cuneus;
cx, coxa; e, compound eye;
fm, femur;j, jugum; lbr, labrum;
lo, lorum; mem, membrane;
nj, pronotum; plj, propleuron;
sel, scutellum; sgo, scent gland
opening; spr, spiracle; tb, tibia;
tel, tarsal claw; ts, tarsus; ty, tylus;
ver, vertex; I-IV, antennal
bk
B segments.

Classificationof the Hemiptera lnfraorder Gerromorpha

Superfamily Hebroidea
Theclassification of the troe bugs, or Heteroptera, fol- Hebridae-ve1vet water bugs
lowsSchuhand Slater (1995) with the inclusion of su- Superfamily Mesovelioidea
perfamiliesas listed in Henry and Froeschner (1988). Mesoveliidae-water treaders
Superfamily Hydrometroidea
Heteroptera
Suborder Macroveliidae
Infraorder Enicocephalomorpha Hydrometridae-water measurers, marsh
Superfamily Enicocephaloidea treaders
Aenictopecheidae Superfamily Gerroidea
Enicocephalidae-unique-headed bugs, Veliidae-broad-shouldered water striders,
gnat bugs riffle bugs
Infraorder Dipsocoromorpha Gerridae-water striders
Superfamily Dipsocoroidea lnfraorder Nepomorpha
Ceratocombidae Superfamily Nepoidea
Dipsocoridae-jumping ground bugs Belastomatidae-giant water bugs
Schizopteridae-jumping ground bugs Nepidae-waterscorpions
 1

270 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera

Superfamily Gelastocoroidea Superfamily Pyrrhocoroidea

Gelastocoridae-toad bugs Largidae
Ochteridae-velvety shore bugs Pyrrhocoridae-red bugs, cotton stainers
Superfamily Corixoidea Superfamily Coreoidea
Corixidae-water boatmen Alydidae-broad-headed bugs
Superfamily Naucoroidea Coreidae-squash bugs, leaf-footed bugs
Naucoridae-creeping water bugs Rhopalidae-scentless plant bugs
Superfamily Notonectoidea
Notonectidae-backswimmers Suborder Auchenorrhyncha
Pleidae-pygmy backswimmers Superfamily Cicadoidea
Cicadidae-cicadas
Infraorder Leptopodomorpha
Superfamily Leptopodoidea Cercopidae-froghoppers, spittlebugs
Aetalionidae
Saldidae-shore bugs
Leptopodidae-spiny shore bugs Membracidae-treehoppers
Infraorder Cimicomorpha Cicadellidae-leafhoppers
Superfamily Reduvioidea Superfamily Fulgoroidea
Delphacidae
Reduviidae (including Phymatidae, Cixiidae
Ploiariidae)-assassin bugs, ambush
bugs, thread-legged bugs Fulgoridae
Achilidae
Superfamily Thaumastocoroidea Derbidae
Thaumastocoridae-royal palm bugs
Superfamily Miroidea Dictyopharidae
Microphysidae Tropiduchidae
Kinnaridae
Miridae-leaf bugs, plant bugs
Superfamily Tingoidea Issidae (including Acanaloniidae)
Flatidae
Tingidae-lace bugs
Superfamily Cimicoidea Suborder Stemorrhyncha
Nabidae-damsel bugs Superfamily Psylloidea
Lasiochilidae Psyllidae-psyllids, jumping plantlice
Lyctocoridae Superfamily Aleyrodoidea
Anthocoridae-minute pira te bugs Aleyrodidae-whiteflies
Cimicidae-bed bugs Superfamily Aphidoidea
Polyctenidae-bat bugs Aphididae (including Eriosomatidae)-aphids,
Infraorder Pentatomomorpha plantlice
Superfamily Aradoidea Phylloxeridae
Aradidae-flat bugs Adelgidae-pine and spruce aphids
Superfamily Pentatomoidea Superfamily Coccoidea
Acanthosomatidae Margarodidae-giant coccids, ground
Cydnidae-burrower bugs pearls
Pentatomidae-stink bugs Ortheziidae-ensign coccids
Scutelleridae-shield-backed bugs pseudococcidae-mealybugs
Superfamily Lygaeoidea Eriococcidae-felt scales
Berytidae-stilt bugs Cryptococcidae-bark-crevice scales
Rhyparochromidae Kermesidae-gall-like coccids
Lygaeidae-seed bugs Dactylopiidae-cochineal insects
Blissidae Asterolecaniidae-pit scales
Ninidae Cerococcidae-omate pit scales
Cymidae Lecanodiaspididae-false pit scales
Geocoridae-big-eyed bugs Aclerdidae-grass scales
Artheneidae Coccidae-soft scales, wax scales, tortoise
Oxycarenidae scales
pachygronthidae Kerriidae (Tachardiidae)-lac scales
Heterogastridae Phoenicococcidae-date scales
Superfamily Piesmato idea Conchaspididae-false armored scales
Piesmatidae-ash-gray leaf bugs Diaspididae-armored scales

Characters
Usedin Identifying
Hemiptera
Theprincipal characters used in separating the families
ofthe Heteroptera are those of the antennae, beak, legs,
andwings. Features of the thorax and abdomen (par-
ticularlythe symmetry or asymmetry of the genitalia,
thenature of the phallus and spermatheca, and the po-
sitian of the spiracles and trichobothria), and such
generalcharacters as size, shape, color, and habitat are
sometimesused in separating families.
The antennae may be either four- or five-segmented.
Ina few Heteroptera, such as some of the Reduviidae,
oneof the antennal segments may be divided into sev-
eralsubsegments. In counting the antennal segments,
theminute segments between the larger ones are not
counted.In the Nepomorpha, the antennae are very
shortand concealed in grooves on the underside of the
head;in the other infraorders, they are fairly long and
conspicuous.The beak is usually three- or four-segmented
andin some groups fits inlo a groove on the pros ter-
numwhen not in use. In the Pentatomoidea, the five-
segmentedantennae are often hidden beneath a ridge on
thesideof the head.
The posterolateral angles of the pronotum are
sometimescalled the humeral angles, or the humerí.
Thedisk is the central dorsal portion of the pronotum.
Itsometimesbears slightly raised areas (the calli) ante-
riorly.In some cases the anterior border of the prono-
tumis more or less separated from the rest of the
pronotumby a groove or suture, thus forming a collar.
AfewHeteroptera have a more-or-less two-part prono-
Figure22-2 Raptorial front legs of Hemiptera. A, Phymata (Reduviidae); B, Lethocerus
(Belostomatidae); C, Sinea (Reduviidae); D, Pelocoris (Naucoridae); E, Nabis (Nabidae);
F, Ranatra (Nepidae). ex, coxa;fm, femur; tb, tibia; tr, trochanter; ts, tarsus.
CharactersUsedin IdentifyingHemiptera 271
tum, or divided into an anterior and a posterior lobe
(for example, Figures 22-31C, 22-35B,F). Laterally
the pronotum may have a sharp edge (in which case it
is described as "margined") or it may be rounded.
The front legs in many predaceous Heteroptera are
more or less modified into grasping structures and are
spoken of as being raptoríal. A raptorialleg (Figure 22-2)
usually has the femur enlarged and armed with large
spines on the ventroposterior margino The tibia fits
tighuy against this armed surface, and often it, too, bears
conspicuous spines.
The Heteroptera generally have two or three tarsal
segments, the last of which bears a pair of claws. The
claws are apical in most of the Heteroptera, but in the
water striders (Gerridae and Veliidae) they are anteapi-
cal; that is, they arise slightly proximad of the tip of the
last tarsal segment (Figure 22-3C,D). Many Het-
eroptera have arolia, or lobelike pads, one at the base
of each tarsal claw (Figure 22-3A, aro).
The hemelytra differ considerably in different
groups of bugs, and entomologists give special names to
its different parts (Figure 22-4). The thickened basal
part of the hemelytron consists of two sections, the
corium (cor) and clavus (cl), which are separated by the
claval suture (cIs). The thin apical part of the heme-
lytron is the membrane (mem). In some Heteroptera, a
narrow strip of the corium along the costal margin is set
off from the remainder of the corium by a suture; this is
the embolium (Figure 22-4C, emb). In a few Het-
eroptera, a cuneus (Figure 22-4A, cun) is set off by a
suture in the apical part of the corium. The membrane
usually contains veins, the number and arrangement of
which often serve to separate different families.
 .,

272 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera

A B e D

Figure22-3 Tarsi of Hemiptera. A, hind tarsus of Lygaeus (Lygaeidae); B, middle tar-

sus of Nabis (Nabidae); e, front tarsus of Gerris (Gerridae); D, front tarsus and tibia of
Rhagovelia (Veliidae). aro, arolia; tb, tibia; tel, tarsal claw.

Figure22-4 Hemelytra of Heteroptera. A, Lygus (Miridae); B, Ligyrocoris (Rhy-

parochromidae); e, Orius (Anthocoridae); D, Boisea (Rhopalidae); E, Nabis (Nabidae);
F, Saldula (Saldidae); G, Mesovelia (Mesoveliidae); H, Largus (Largidae). el, clavus; els,
claval suture; cor, corium; cun, cuneus; emb, embolium; mem, membrane.
 Keyto the Familiesof Hemiptera 273

In the Auchenorrhyncha, the main characters used
inseparatingfamilies involve the ocelli, the position of
theantennae, the form of the pronotum, the spination
of¡helegs, and the texture and venation of the wings.
The Sternorrhyncha are separated on the basis of
thenumber of tarsal and antennal segments; the struc-
ture, texture, and venation of the wings; and other
characters. Scale insects are separated on the characters
of the adult female. They generally must be mounted
on microscope slides to run them through the key (see
procedures for collecting and preserving, at the end of
the chapter).

Key
to the Familiesof Hemiptera

Ihiskeyis based on aduits, but it wiI\ work for some nymphs. There should be no par-
ticulardifficuity in identifying winged specimens, but the brachypterous and wingless
fonns maybe troublesome.SomewinglessAphidoidea canbe separatedonly if oneis fa-
miliarwith their life history. Families marked with an asterisk are reiativeiy rare or are
unlikelyto be taken by a general coIlectar.

1. Beak arising from back of head or apparently from between front coxae;
antennae variable (bristlelike or with more than S segments); front wings
of uniform texture throughout, heid roof-like over abdomen, tips not or
but slightly overlapping 2
[' Beak arising from front part of head; antennae 4- or S-segmented, not
bristlelike; front wings (if present) usuaIly thickened at base, membranous
apicaIly, the membranous portions overlapping at rest; hind wings
uniformly membranous (suborder Heteroptera) 3
2(1). Antennal flageIlum short, bristlelike; beak arising from back of head;
tarsi 3-segmented; active, free-living insects (suborder Auchenorrhyncha) 65
2', Antennae usuaIly long and filiform, with evident segmentation; beak,
when present, arising between front coxae; tarsi (when legs are present),
arising between front coxae; often not active insects (suborder
Sternorrhyncha) 81
3(1'), Compound eyes absent Polyctenidae* p. 296
3' Compound eyes present 4
4(3'), Head constricted transverseiy, divided into 2 distinct lobes; ocelli (when
present) placed on posterior lobe; forewings of uniform texture
throughout, not divided into corium and membrane (infraorder
Enicocephalomorpha) 5
4', Head usuaIly not constricted and not divided into lobes; forewings
usuaIly divided into a distinct corium and membrane 6
5(4). Posterior prono tal lobe reduced, just distinguishable in lateral outline;
macropters with a short costal fracture; ovipositor present; parameres
distinct and movable Aenictopecheidae p. 288
5', Posterior prono tal lobe not reduced, weIl differentiated in lateral view;
macropters lacking a costal fracture; ovipositor lacking or vestigial;
parameres invisible Enicocephalidae p. 288
6(4'). Antennae shorter than head, usuaIly hidden in cavities beneath eyes
(Figure 22-SA); no arolia; aquatic or semiaquatic (infraorder Nepomorpha) 7
6', Antennae as long as or longer than head, usuaIly free and visible from
above; arolia present or absent; habits variable 14
7(6), Ocelli present (Figure 22-SB); length 10 mm or less 8
7' Ocelli absent; size variable; aquatic species 9
274 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera

Figure 22-5 Head structure in

Nepomorpha. A, Lethocerus
(Belostomatidae), ventroanterio¡
view; B, Gelastocoris (Gelasto-
coridae), dorsoanterior view.
ant, antenna; bk, beak; ex" fron!
coxa; e, compound eye;fm,
A femur; oc, ocelli; tr, trochanter.

8(7). Antennae hidden; front legs shorter than middle legs; eyes strongly
protuberant (Figure22-21); beakshort, concealedby front femora Gelastocoridae p.290
8'. Antennae exposed; front legs as long as middle legs; eyes not strongly
protuberant;beaklong, extendingat leastto hind coxae Ochteridae* p.290
9(7'). Front tarsi l-segmented and modified into scoop-shaped structures
(Figure 22-6); beak very short and hidden, appearing l-segmented;
dorsalsurfaceof body usualIywith fine, transverselines Corixidae p.290
9'. Front tarsi not as in preceding entry; beak segmentation clearly evident;
dorsal surface of body not as in preceding entry 10
10(9'). Bodywith 2 long terminalfilaments(Figure22-18); tarsi l-segmented Nepidae p.289
lO'. Body without elongate terminal filaments or, at most, with short ones
(Figure 22-19); tarsi variable 11
11(10'). Hind legs long and oarlike (Figure 22-23); hind tarsi without claws;
length 5-16 mm Notonectidae p.291
11'. Hind legs not unusualIy lengthened; hind tarsi with claws; length variable 12
12( 11'). Oval, beetIelike, convex, 3 mm long or less, front legs not raptarial Pleidae* p. 292
12'. More than 3 mm long, often more than 20 mm; not strongly convex;
front legsraptorialwith femorathickened 13

A B

Figure22-6 Corixa (Corixidae). A, head, anterior view; B, front lego(Courtesy of

Hungerford.)
 Keyto the Familiesof Hemiptera 275

13(12'). Membrane of hemelytra with veins; abdomen WÍthshort terminal

filaments (Figure 22-19); length over 20 mm Belostomatidae p. 289
13'. Membrane of hemelytra without veins; abdomen without terminal
filaments (Figure 22-22); length 5-16 mm Naucoridae p. 291
14(6'). Body linear, head as long as entire thorax, and legs very slender
(Figure 22-25); aquatic or semiaquatic Hydrometridae p. 292
14'. Body of various forms, but if linear, then head shorter than thorax and
the insect terrestrial 15
15(14'). Tarsal claws, especially on front legs, ante-apical (Figure 22-3C, D);
apex of last tarsal segment more or less cleft; aquatic, surface inhabiting 16
15'. Tarsal claws apical; apex of last tarsal segment entire 17
16(15). Middle legs arising closer to hind legs than to front legs; hind femora
extending well beyond apex of abdomen (Figure 22-26A); all tarsi
2-segmented; ocelli present but small;usually over 5 mm long Gerridae p. 293
16'. Middle legs usually arising about midway between front and hind legs; if
middle legs arise closer lOhind legs than front legs (Rhagovelia), then
front tarsi apparently l-segmented (Figure 22-25B); hind femora extend-
ing liule if any beyond apex of abdomen; tarsi 1-, 2-, or 3-segmented;
ocelli absent, 1.6-5.5 mm long Veliidae p.293
17(15'). Antennae 4-segmented 18
17'. Antennae 5-segmented 58
18(17). Prostemum WÍth a median, finely striated, longitudinal groove
(Figure 22-7B, stg); beak short, 3-segmented, its tip fitting into prostemal
groove; front legs usually raptorial Reduviidae p. 296
18'. Prostemum without such a groove; beak longer, its tip not fitting into
prostemal groove, 3- or 4-segmented; front legs variable 19

Figure22-7 A, antenna of Cryptostematida (Dipsocoridae); B, head of Sinea (Reduvi-

idae). ant, antenna; bk, beak; ex, coxa; e, compound eye;fm, femur; stg, prostemal
groove; tr, trochanter.
 .,

276 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera

19(18'). Front wings with numerous closed cells (reticulately sculptured), without
distinct division into corium, clavus, and membrane (Figure 22-27);
pronotum with triangular process that extends back over scutellum;
tarsi 1- or 2-segmented; ocelli absent; small somewhat flattened bugs,
usuallyless than 5 mm long Tingidae p.293
19'. Front wings with variable arrangement of cells, but corium, membrane,
and usually also clavus differentiated; pronotum usually without triangular
process that extends back over scutellum; tarsi, ocelli, and size variable 20
20(19'). Ocelli present 21
20'. Ocelli absent 51
21(20). Tarsi, at least on hind legs, 2-segmented 22
21'. Tarsi, at least on hind legs, 3-segmented 26
22(21). Antennae with 2 basal segments short and thick, third and fourth
segments very slender (Figure 22-7A); 2 mm long or less 26
22'. Not exactly fitting the description in preceding entry 23
23(22'). Clavus and membrane of hemelytra similar in texture (as in Figure 22-4G)
(some are brachypterous); body densely clothed with short, velvety hairs;
stout-bodied,semiaquaticbugs (Merragata) Hebridae* p.292
23'. Clavus and membrane of hemelytra different in texture; body not as in
precedingentry 24
24(23'). Hemelytra with a cuneus; body shining black, 1.2 mm long; recorded
fromMarylandand the Districtof Columbia Microphysidae* p.294
24'. Hemelytrawithout a cuneus 25
25(24'). Corium and clavus reticulated, with an irregular network of small cells,
juga extending considerably beyond tylus; pronotum with longitudinal
ridges(Figure22-33) Piesmatidae p.298
25'. Corium and clavus not as in preceding entry, juga not extending
considerablybeyondtylus;pronotum without longitudinalridges Thaumastocoridae* p.293
26(21' ,22).Antennae with 2 basal segments short and thick, third and fourth very
slender (Figure 22-7 A); tarsi and beak 3-segmented; length 3.5 mm
or less 27
26'. Antennal segments similar, not as in preceding entry; tarsi and size
variable 30
27(26). Head (including eyes), pronotum, front wings, front legs very spiny;
third and fourth antennal segments not hairy; front femora thickened;
3-5 mm long; California leptopodidae* p.293
27'. Body not spiny; third and fourth antennal segments hairy (Figure 22-7A);
1-2 mm long;widelydistributed 28
28(27'). Proespisternallobe broad in lateral view; mostly inflated and extending
below eye articulation of forecoxa and basal part of latter covered;
supracoxalcleftlong Schizopteridae* p.289
28'. Proepisternallobe narrow in lateral view, not inflated and not extending
cephalad; articulation of forcoxae laterally exposed, supracoxal cleft
extremely short to essentially absent 29
29(28'). Costal fracture short, just interrupting forewing margin, metapleuron
without evaporatorium; male genitalia and abdomen symmetrical
or asymmetrical, forewing terminal to brachypterous, or, rarely,
coleopteroid Ceratocombidae* p.289

. ! <'
,.,.' .. '~...c
 Keyto the Familiesof Hemiptera 277

29', Costal fracture reaching to about middle of width of forewing, metapleuron

with evaporatorium; male genitalia and abdomen asymmetrical; forewing
tegminal, macropterous to brachypterus Dipsocoridae* p. 289
30(26') , Hemelytra with a cuneus; small to minute bugs, 1.2-5.0 mm long, usually
2-3 mm 31
30'. Hemelytra without a cuneus; size variable 34
31(30). Beak 4-segmented (Isometopinae) Miridae p. 294
31', Beak 3-segmented 32
32(31'), Abdominal terga 1 and 2 with laterotergites; terga 3 to 8 forming single
plates; no traumatic insemination Lasiochilidae
* p. 295
32', All abdominal terga with laterotergites; insemination traumatic 33
33(32'). Females with internal apophyses on anterior margin of abdominal
sternum 7 Lyctocoridae
* p.296
33'. Femaleslackingapophyseson abdominalsternum 7 Anthocoridae p. 296
34(30') . Beak3-segmented 35
34', Beak 4-segmented 36

35(34). Membraneof hemelytrawith 4 or 5 long, closedcells (Figure22-4F) Saldidae p.293

35', Membraneof hemelytrawithout veins,more or less confIuentwith the
membranous clavus (Figures 22-4G, 22-24A) Mesoveliidae* p.292
36(34') , Bugs resembling mesoveliids in general appearance (Figure 22-24A),
but with closed cells in the front wings, pronotum with a median
backward projecting lobe that covers scutellum; western United States Macroveliidae
* p. 292
36', Without the combinationof charactersin precedingentry 37
37(36') , Distalends of front and middle tibiaewith broad, fIatapicalprocess
(Figure 22-3B); arolia absent; membrane of hemelytra (when developed)
with numerous marginal cells (Figures 22-4E, 22-29A) (Nabinae) Nabidae p.294
37'. Distalends of front and middle tibiaewithout such a process;arolia
present (Figure22-3A);membraneof hemelytravariable 38
38(37'). Bodyand appendageslong and slender;firstsegment of antennaelong
and enlarged apically, last segment spindle-shaped; femora clavate
(Figure 22-34) Berytidae p. 298
38'. Body shapevariable;antennaeand femoranot as in precedingentry 39
39(38'). Membraneof hemelytrawith only4 or 5 veins (Figure22-4B) 40
39', Membrane of hemelytra with many veins (Figure 22-4D) 49
40(39). Suture between abdominal sterna 4 and 5 usually curving forward
laterally and rarely attaining lateral margin of abdomen; trichobothria
usually present on head Rhyparochromidae* p. 298
40'. Suture between abdominal sterna 4 and 5 not curving forward, attaining
lateral margin of abdomen; no trichobothria present on head 41
41(40'). Spiracles on abdominal segments 2-7 alllocated dorsally Lygaeidae p. 299
41'. At least one pair (and often more) of spiracles on abdominal
segments 2-710cated ventrally 42
42(41'). Spiracles of abdominal segment 7 ventral, all others dorsal 43
42', At leastspiraclesof abdominalsegments6 and 7 ventral 45
43(42). Hemelytraimpunctateor at most with veryfaint,scatteredpunctures Blissidae p. 299
43'. Hemelytra in large part coarsely punctate 44
44(43').
Apex of scutellum bifid; clavus in part hyaline; eyes somewhat stalkeUNNeRSioAD DECAOJIs
BIBLIOTECA
278 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera

44'. Apex of scutellum pointed never bifid; clavus entirely coriaceous;

eyes not on stalks Cymidae p.300
45(42'). Spiracles of abdominal segments 3 and 4 dorsal Geocoridae p.300
45'. Spiracles of abdominal segments 3 to 7 ventral 46
46( 45'). Spiracles of abdominal segment 2 dorsal 47
46'. Spiracles of abdominal segment 2 ventral 48
47(46). Lateral prono tal margins explanate or laminate Artheneidae* p.300
47'. Lateral prono tal margins rounded or slightly carinate, never strongly
explanate Oxycarenidae p.300
48(46'). Fore femur strongly incrassate and heavily spined; no crossvein or cIosed
cell basally in forewing membrane Pachygronthidae
* p.300
48'. Fore femur at most weakly incrassate with a few small spines present;
a closed cell present basally in base of forewing membrane Heterogastridae* p.300
49(39'). Usually dark-colored, over 10 mm long; scent glands present, in opening
between middle and hind coxae (Figure 22-1B, sgo) 50
49'. Usually pale-colored, less than 10 mm long; scent glands absent Rhopalidae p.301
50(49). Head narrower and shorter than pronotum (Figure 22-38A-C); bucculae
(lateral view) extending backward beyond base of antennae; hind coxae
more or less rounded or quadrate Coreidae p.301
50'. Head nearly as wide and as long as pronotum (Figure 22-38D); bucculae
(lateral view) shorter, not extending backward beyond base of antennae;
hind coxae more or less transverse Alydidae p.301
51(20'). Tarsi l-segmented; beak 3-segmented; front legs raptorial, the front
femora slightly swollen; elongate, slender, 3.5-5.0 mm long, with
constriction near middle of body; yellowish or greenish yellow with
reddish brown markings; eastern United States (Carthasinae) Nabidae* p.294
51'. Tarsi 2- or 3-segmented; beak 3- or 4-segmented; front legs usually not
raptorial; size, shape, color variable 52
52(51'). Beak short, 3-segmented, fitting inlo groove in prosternum (Figure 22-7B);
front femora more or less enlarged, raplorial; head more or less cylindrical,
usually with transverse suture near eyes (Emesinae and Saicinae) Reduviidae p.296
52'. Beak longer, 3- or 4-segmented, not fitting into groove in prosternum;
front femora and head variable 53
53(52'). Beak 3-segmented; wings vestigial (Figure 22-30A); ectoparasites of birds
and mammals Cimicidae p.296
53'. Beak 4-segmented (only 2-3 segments can be seen in some Aradidae);
wings usually well developed 54
54(53'). Hemelytra with cuneus, the membrane with 1 or 2 cIosed cells, rarely
with other veins (Figure 22-4A); rarely (for example, Halticus;
Figure 22-28A) membrane absent, in which case cuneus lacking; hind
femora enlarged; mesosternum and metasternum formed of more than
1 sclerite Miridae p.294
54'. Hemelytra without cuneus, membrane not as in preceding entry;
mesosternum and metasternum formed of a single sclerite 55
55(54'). Tarsi without arolia; body very fIat; usually dull-colored, gray, brown, or
black (Figure 22-32) Aradidae p.298
55'. Tarsi with arolia; body not particularly fIattened; often brightly
colored 56
 Key to the Families of Hemiptera 279

56(55'). Elongate, shining black bugs, 7-9 mm long; front femora moderately
swollenand armedbeneath with 2 rows of teeth (Cnemodus) lygaeidae p. 299
56'. Color variable, but usually not shining black; 8-18 mm long; front
femora not swollen and usually not armed with teeth 57
57(56'). Pronotum margined laterally; sixth visible abdominal sternum entire in
both sexes Pyrrhocoridae p. 300
57'. Pronotum rounded laterally; sixth visible abdominal sternum of female
cleft to base largidae p. 300
58(17'). Tarsi 2-segmented; body densely clothed with velvety pubescence;
hemelytra with clavus and membrane similar in texture and without
veins; the two basal antennal segments thicker than others; semiaquatic
bugs, 3 mm long or less (Hebrus;Figure 22-24B) Hebrídae* p. 292
58'. Tarsi usually 3-segmented (2-segmented in Acanthosomatidae); body not
covered with velvety pubescence; hemelytra with clavus and membrane
differentiated, membrane usually with veins; the 2 basal antennal segments
similar to others; terrestrial; usually over 3 mm long 59
59(58'). Apex of front and middle tibiae with broad, fiat apical process
(Figure 22-3B); scutellum only about one -fifth as long as abdomen;
shining black bugs 5-7 mm long; body elongate and narrowed anteriorly;
the pronotum distinctly narrower than the widest part of the abdomen
(Prostemminae: Pagasa) Nabidae* p. 294
59'. Apex of front and middle tibiae without such a process; size variable;
color variable, but if shining black then body is oval or shield-shaped 60
60(59'). Tibiae armed with strong spines (Figure 22-8A); color usually shining
black; length 8 mm or less 61
60'. Tibiae not armed with strong spines (Figure 22-8B); color rarely shining
black; usually over 8 mm long 62
61(60). Scutellum very large, broadly rounded posteriorly, covering most of
abdomen (Figure 22-39A); length usually 3-4 mm Thyreocoridae p. 302
61'. Scutellum more or less triangular, not extending to apex of abdomen
(Figure 22-39B); length up te about 8 mm Cydnidae p. 302
62(60'). Scutellum very large, broadly rounded posteriorly, covering most of the
abdomen (Figure 22-40); corium of hemelytra narrow, not extending to
anal margin of wing 63

A B

Figure22-8 A, tibia of Pangaeus (Cydnidae); B, tibia of Murgantia (Pentatomidae).

280 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera

62'. Scutellum shorter, usually narrower posteriorly and more or less triangular
(Figures 22-41, 22-42), if large and broadly rounded posteriorly
(Stiretrus, family Pentatomidae, subfamily Asopinae), colors are bright
and contrasting; corium of heme1ytra broad, extending to anal margin
ofwing 64
63(62). Sides of pronotum with a prominent tooth or lobe in front of humeral
angle (Figure 22-40B); length 3.5-6.5 mm (Amauroehrous) Pentatomidae* p.302
63'. Sides of pronotum without such a tooth or lobe (Figure 22-40A);
length 8-10 mm Scutelleridae p.302
64(62'). Tarsi 2-segmented; sternum of thorax with median longitudinal ridge
or kee1 Acanthosomatidae p.303
64'. Tarsi 3-segmented; sternum of thorax usually without median longitudinal
kee1 Pentatomidae p.302
65(2). Antennae separated from front of head by a vertical carina, thus arising
on sides of head beneath eyes (Figure 22-9C); tegulae usually present;
2 anal veins in front wing usually meeting apically to form a Y-vein
(Figure 22-lOA, B, clv) (Superfamily Fulgoroidea) 66
65'. Antennae not separated from front of head by a vertical carina, thus
arising on front of head between eyes (Figures 22-9A, 22-49); tegulae
usually absent, no Y-vein in anal area of front wing (Figures 22-11A,
22-12A) (superfamily Cicadoidea) 76
66(65). Hind tibiae with broad, movable apical spur (Figure 22-lOC, sp); a large
group of small to minute forms, many dimorphic (with wings well
developed or short), the sexes often very different Delphacidae p.315

Figure 22-9 Head structure in

Auchenorrhyncha. A, froghopper
(Cercopidae: Philaenus), lateral
view; B, cicada (Cicadidae:
Magicieada), anterior view;
C, planthopper (Flatidae:
Anormenis), lateral view. ant,
antenna; bk, beak; clp, clypeus;
e, compound eye;fr, frons; nI>
A pronotum; De, ocelli; ver, vertex.

Figure22-10 Characters of FuI.

e D
goroidea. A, front wing of Epiptera
(Achilidae); B, front wing of Cixius
(Cixiidae); C, hind tarsus of a del.
phacid; D, hind tarsus of Anormcn~
(Flatidae). cls, claval suture; clv,
claval vein; sp, apical spur of tibia.
 Keyto the Familiesof Hemiptera 281

R4 + 5
'M, + 2
'M3+4
'-mv

Figure22-11 Structure of a leafhopper, Paraphlepsiusirroratus (Say) (Cicadellidae).

A, dorsal view; B, anterior view of head. ant, antennae; ap, appendix; clp, clypeus; e, com-
pound eye; el, elytron or front wing;fm, femur;fr, frons; ge, gena; lbr, labrum; lo, lorum;
mv, marginal vein; n" pronotum; oe, ocelli; scl2>mesocutellum; tb, tibia; ver, vertex. The
venational terminology follows the Comstock-Needham system, except for the veins pos-
terior to the media. Students of the leafhoppers usually use a different terminology for
the venational characters of the front wing; a comparison of their terminology with that
used here is given in the following table.
Veins Cells
Termsin Termsin
ThisFigure OtherTerms ThisFigure OtherTerms

R+M first sector R discal cell

R outer branch of first sector 1st R) outer anteapical cell
M inner branch of first sector 2nd R) first apical cell
Cu¡ second sector 1st Rs anteapical cell
CU2 claval suture 2nd Rs second apical cell
A claval veins 2nd M inner anteapical cell
1st m-cu first crossvein 3rd M third apical cell
2nd m-cu apical crossvein CUla fourth apical cell
s apical crossvein
1st r-m crossvein between sectors
2nd r-m apical crossvein
 ""

282 Chapter22 Order Hemiptera

R,
-
21-R3
- - R4+ 5
--MI
-.M2 M'+2
-'M3
-J--M4
--CUla
1A CUla
-'CUlb
CU2 + 1A /R2+ 3
, -R4 + 5 ~<,.';;::" .

M- -M1 1A~"'-'
" '. M2 C';2
\ " M3+4
CUlb CUla B
A

E F

Figure 22-12 Wings of Auchenorrhyncha and Sternorrhyncha. A, Cicadidae (Magici-

cada); B, Psyllidae (Psylla); C, Phylloxeridae (Phylloxera); D, Aphididae (Longistigma);
E, Adelgidae (Adelges); F, Aphididae (Colopha). C-F, front wings only.

66'. Hind tibiae without broad, movable apical spur 67

67(66'). Anal area of hind wings reticulate, with many crossveins Fulgoridae p.315
67'. Anal area of hind wings not reticulate, without crossveins 68
68(67'). Second segment of hind tarsi with 2 apical spines (Ion each side) and
with apex usually rounded or conical (Figure 22-lOD) 69
68'. Second segment of hind tarsi with a row of apical spines and with apex
truncate or emarginated 72
69(68). Front wings with numerous costal crossveins, longer than body, at rest
held almost vertically at sides of body (Figure 22-51F); clavus with
numerous small, pusmlelike tubercles Flatidae p.317
 Key to the Families of Hemiptera 283

69'. Front wings without numerous costal crossveins (except sometimes

apically), variable in size and position at rest; clavus without numerous
small, pustulelike tubercles 70

70(69'). Front wings longer than abdomen, with a series of crossveins between
costal margin and apex of clavus separating off the apical, more
densely veined portion of the wing; slender, greenish or yellowish lO
brownish, 7-9 mm long; southeastern United States, Florida lO
Louisiana Tropiduchidae p.317
70'. Front wings without differentiated apical portion as described in
preceding entry; variable long 71
71(70'). Front wings very broad, venation reticulate, longer than body, at rest held
almost vertically at sides of body (Figure 22-5IE); hind tibiae without
spines except at apex Acanaloniidae p.317
71'. Front wings variable in size and shape, often shorter than abdomen,
but if longer than abdomen, then usually oval; hind tibiae usually with
spines on sides, in addition to apical ones Issidae p.317
72(68'). Terminal segment of beak short, not more than 1.5 times as long as wide Derbidae p.316
72'. Terminal segment of beak longer, at least twice as long as wide 73
73(72'). Front wings overlapping at apex (Figure 22-5IC); claval vein (a Y-vein)
extending lO apex of clavus (Figure 22-10A, clv); body somewhat
flattened Achilidae p.317
73'. Front wings usually not overlapping at apex; claval vein not reaching
apex of clavus (Figure 22-10B, clv); body not particularly flattened 74
74(73'). Head prolonged in front (Figure 22-5IG-I), or ir not, then frons bears
2 or 3 carinae, or the tegulae are absent and the claval suture is obscure;
no median ocellus Dictyopharidae p.317
74'. Head not prolonged in front (Figure 22-51A,D) or only moderately so;
frons either without carinae or with median carina only; tegulae present;
claval suture distinct; median ocellus usually present 75
75(74'). Abdominal terga 6-8 chevron-shaped, sometimes sunk below rest of terga;
3-4 mm long; western United States Kinnaridae p.317
75'. Abdominal terga 6-8 rectangular; size variable; widely distributed Cixiidae p.316
76(65'). Three ocelli (Figure 22-9B); large insects with membranous front wings
(Figure 22-43); males usually have sound-producing organs ventrally
at base of abdomen (Figure 22-45); not jumping insects Cicadidae p. 305
76'. Two (rarely 3) ocelli (Figure 22-11B) or none; smaller insects, sometimes
with front wings thickened; sound-producing organs generally absent;
usually jumping insects 77

77(76'). Pronotum extending back over abdomen and concealing the scutellum
(Figure 22-46) or at least with a median backward-projecting process
that partly conceals the scutellum (Figure 22-13A); hind tibiae usually
without distinct spurs or long spines 78
77'. Pronotum not extending back over abdomen, the scutellum nearly always
well exposed (Figures 22-13B, 22-47, 22-49); hind tibiae with or without
distinct spurs or spines 79

78(77) . Pronotum with a narrow, median, backward-projecting process that

only partly conceals scutellum and extends between wings for one-fourth
their length or less (Figure 22-13A), often with a pair of ridges or
leaflike processes dorsally; beak extending to hind coxae
(Microcentrus) Aetalionidae p. 307
284 Chapter 22 Order Hemiptera

sel

A B

Figure22-13 Pronotum and associated structures in Aetalionidae, dorsal view.

A, Microcentrus;B, Aetalion. n¡, pronotum; scl, scutellum.

78/. Pronotum broadly extended backward over wings and abdomen,

completely covering scutellum and extending to middle wings or rather,
often with spines or other processes or appearing arched (Figure 22-46);
beak not extending to hind coxae Membracidae p.306
79(77/). Hind tibiae with 1 or more rows of small spines (Figure 22-14A); hind
coxae transverse Cicadellidae p.310
79/. Hind tibiae without spines or with 1 or 2 stout ones laterally and a crown
of short spines at tip (Figure 22-14B); hind coxae short and conical 80
80(79/). Hind tibiae without spines, but hairy; beak extending to hind coxae; head
large1ycovered dorsally by pronotum (Figure 2-13B), the face vertical
or nearly so; Florida, southern Arizona, and California (Aetalion) Aetalionidae p.307
80/. Hind tibiae with 1 or 2 stout spines laterally and a crown of short spines
at tip (Figure 22-14B); head usually not large1ycovered by pronotum
(Figure 22-47), the face slanting backward; beak length variable; wide1y
distributed Cercopidae p.309
81(2'). Tarsi 2-segmented, with 2 claws; winged forms with 4 wings; mouthparts
usually well deve10ped in both sexes, with beak long 82

A e

Figure22-14 A, Hind leg of a leafhopper (Cicadellidae); B, hind leg of a froghopper

(Cercopidae); C, a winged aphid (Aphididae). cm, cornicle. (C, Courtesy of U5DA.)
 Keyto the Familiesof Hemiptera 285

81'. Tarsi l-segmented (rarely 2-segmemed in males and some females of

Margarodidae), with a single claw (when legs are present); female always
wingless and often legless, scalelike, or grublike and wax-covered;
male with only 1 pair of wings and without beak (superfamily Coccoidea) 86
82(81). Antennae with 5-10 (usually 10) segments; front wings often thicker than
hind wings; jumping insects psyllidae p.317
82'. Antennae with 3-7 segments; wings membranous or opaque whitish;
not jumping insects 83
83(82/). Wings usually opaque, whitish, and covered with whitish powder; hind
wings nearly as large as front wings; no cornicles Aleyrodidae p.318
83'. Wings membranous and not covered with whitish powder; hind wings
much smaller than front wings (Figure 22-l4C); cornicles often present
(superfamily Aphidoidea) 84
84(83/). Front wings with 4 or 5 (rarely 6) veins behind stigma extending to wing
margin (Rs present) (Figure 22-l2D, F); cornicles usually present
(Figure 22-l4C); antennae generally 6-segmented; sexual females
oviparous, parthenogenetic females viviparous Aphididae p.319
84/. Front wings with only 3 veins behind stigma extending to wing margins
(Rs absent) (Figure 22-l2C, E); cornicles absent; antennae 3- to
5-segmented; all females oviparous 85
85(84/). Wings at rest held rooflike over body; Cu¡ and CU2in front wing separated
at base (Figure 22-l2E); apterous parthenogenetic females covered with
waxy flocculence; on conifers Adelgidae p.321
85'. Wings at rest held horizontal; Cu¡ and CU2in from wing stalked at base
(Figure 22-l2C); apterous parthenogenetic females not covered with waxy
flocculence (at most, covered with a powdery material) Phylloxeridae p. 322
86(81/). Abdominal spiracles presem (Figure 22-15A, spr); male usually with
compound eyes and ocelli 87
86', Abdominal spiracles absent (Figure 22-16B); male with ocelli only 88
87(86)
, Anal ring distinct, with numerous pores and 6 long setae; antennae
3- to 8-segmented (Figure 22-15A) Ortheziidae p.325
87'. Anal ring reduced, without pores or setae;antennae 1- to 13-segmented Margarodidae p. 324
88(86/), A large dorsal spine presem near center of abdomen, anterior spiracles
much larger than posterior ones; southwestern United States Kerriidae p. 327
88'. No large dorsalspine in center of abdomen;all spiraclesabout equalin
size; widely distributed 89
89(88'). Anal opening covered by 2 triangular plates (Figure 22-15D, anp)
(except Physokennes); abdomen with well-developed anal cleft
(Figure 22-15D, anc) Coccidae p. 324
89/. Anal openingcoveredby singleplate or none; anal cleft,if present,not
well developed 90
90(89'). Anus covered by single oval or triangular plate; caudal margin of body
with furrows or ridges; usually found under leaf sheaths of grasses
and reeds Aclerdidae p.326
90'. No plate coveringanal opening;caudalmarginof body without furrows
or ridges 91
91(90/). Anal ring surroundedby short, stout setae;cluster pore plate present,
just below each posterior thoracic spirac1e; northeastern United States,
on sugar maple and beech trees Cryptococcidae p.326
286 Chapter22 Order Hemiptera

~.;;~.._. A 8
a,~ mpo
:~
,

Figure22-15 Characters offe-

e D
male scale insects (diagrammatic).
A, Ortheziidae; B, Pseudococcidae;
C, Asterolecaniidae; D, Coccidae.In
A-C, the left side represents a dorsal
view, and the right side a ventral
view. anc, anal cleft; anp, anal plate;
anr, anal ring; do, dorsal ostioles;
mpo, marginal figure 8-shaped
pores; spr, abdominal spiracles; ve,
ventral circulus. (Figure prepared by
Dr. Michael Kosztarab.)

91'. Anal ring not surrounded by short, stout setae; no cluster pore plates;
widely distributed, on various host plants 92
92(91'). Dorsum with figure 8-shaped pores (Figure 22-15C, mpo) 93
92'. Dorsum without figure 8-shaped pores 96
93(92). Figure 8-shaped pores on dorsum and in submarginal band on venter;
antennae 1- to 9-segmented; on various host plants 94
93'. Figure 8-shaped pores restricted to dorsum; antennae 5-segmented;
on oaks Kermesidae p.326
94(93). A sclerotized anal plate present; antennae 1- to 9-segmented 95
94'. No sclerotized anal plate present; antennae l-segmented Asterolecaniidae p.326
95(94). Antennae l-segmented, with associated cluster of 5-7 locular pores; anal
plate triangular Cerococcidae p.326
 Keyto the Families of Hemiptera 287

I
,
I Want
,
,,
I
,
,I ,
,
I
I
,
, ./..sty
,
I
I
,
I
,
,
,
,
pro
\
,
I
,
,

A \
"','..\., _.~ mdu
, .. ...

.. ...
I
\
\
th2 \ o:"
':0
,
\
- -.
~ \
\
\
~
~
---::,~..." ~.:h_~'b
"';:¡' .,J...
u. V.J-
,J'", ~
~
;.;...
v
glt
\
1 mm ,,
¡,

---
-- __~gis

ans --- - - _

Figure 22-16 Morphological characters of armored scale insects (Diaspididae). A, scale

of female; B, diagrammatic drawing of a female armored scale. The left side of B repre-
sents a dorsal view, and the right side a ventral view. ans, anus; ant, antenna; aspr, ante-
rior spiracle; ex 1, first exuvium; ex 2, second exuvium; gis, gland spines; glt, gland tu-
bercle; mdu, microduct; mi, median lobe; mm, marginal macroduct, mp, mouth parts; pro,
prosoma; psl, paired second lobe; psp, posterior spiracle; pvp, perivulvar pores; py, pygid-
ium; sdp, spiracular disc pore; sec, secretion of adult; smm, submedian macroduct; smml,
submarginal macroducts; sp, spur; sty, stylets; th2, mesothorax; th3,metathorax; vu,
vulva. (Figure prepared by Dr. Michael Kosztarab.)
288 Chapter22 Order Hemiptera

95'. Antennae 7- to 9-segmented, without an associated cluster of 5-710cular

pores; anal plate triangular, much wider than long Lecanodiaspididae p. 326
96(92'). Locular pores usually in clusters, with common duet, scattered over
dorsum;body with numerous,thick, truncatesetae;on eaeti Dactylopiidae p.326
96'. Pores not arranged as in preeeding entry, setae usually not truneate; on
various host plants 97
97(96'). Terminal abdominal segments fused lo form pygidium (Figure 22-16, py);
anal opening simple; body eovered by thin, shieldlike seale 98
97'. Terminal abdominal segments not fused to form pygidium; anal opening
often with setae; body not covered by thin, shieldlike seale 99
98(97). Beakand antennael-segmented;legsabsentor vestigial;widelydistributed Diaspididae p.327
98'. Beak 2-segmented, antennae 3- or 4-segmented; legs present and well
developed;known from Californiaand Florida Conchaspididae p.327
99(97'). Body surface with small irregularities; anal ring simple, with 0-2 setae
and no pores;southwesternUnited States,on palms Phoenicococcidae p.327
99'. Body surfaee without small irregularities; anal ring variable; widely
distributed, on various host plants 100
100(99'). Dorsal ostioles and usually 1-4 ventral cireuli present (Figure 22-15B,
do and ve); in life eoveredwith white, powderyseeretion Pseudococcidae p.325
100'. Dorsal ostioles and ventral circuli absent; in life usually naked, not eovered
with whitish, powdery seeretion 101
101(100'). Usually with protruding anallobes; anal ring usually with pores and setae;
host plants varied Eriococcidae p.326
101'. Without protruding anallobes; anal ring simple, without pores and setae;
on oaks Kermesidae p.326

INFRAORDEREnicocephalomorpha: The infraorder

Enicocephalomorpha was forrnerly thought to be re-
lated to the Reduviidae because of similarities in head
structure. Entomologists now believe it is different
enough from other Hemiptera to eonstitute a separa te
suborder and probably represents the sister group of
the rest of the order.
FamilyAenictopecheidae: Ihis is a rare family con-
taining only two species, including a single American
species, Boreostolus americanus Wygodzinsky and Stys.
Ihis species lives under large, fIat stones and sandy
substrates along mountain streams in Oregon, Wash-
ington, and Colorado. It is 5 mm long and occurs in
both the macropterous and brachypterous condition. It
is presumed to be predaceous.
Family Enicocephalidae-Unique-HeadedBugs or
Gnat Bugs: Ihese are small (2-5 mm long), slender,
predaeeous bugs that have a peculiarly shaped head and Figure 22-17 A gnat bug, Systelloderes biceps (Say),
the front wings are entirely membranous (Figure 22-17). 15x. (Courtesy of Froesehner and The American
Ihey usually live under stones or bark or in debris, Midland Naturalist.)

wherethey feed on various small insects. Some species
formlargeswarms and fly about like gnats or midges. It
isprimarilya tropical group. Six genera and 11 species
areknown to occur in North America, 10 of which
speciesare southwestem and westem. One species is
foundin the FloridaKeys.
INFRAORDERDipsocoromorpha:The infraorder
Dipsocoromorpha contains a few small and seldom-
encounteredbugs whose position in the order is not
wellunderstood.
FamilyCeratocombidae:These are tiny insects (2 mm
long),with long, slender antennae and a distinct cuneal
fracture.Two genera and four species are known from
NorthAmerica.
Family Dipsocoridae:This is a family of primarily
smalltropical insects. They are elongate and flattened
andonly 2-3 mm long. The head is porrect. The la-
biumdoes not exceed the fore coxae, and a distinct
metapleuralevaporatorium is presento The abdominal
venteris densely pilose and the male genitalia strongly
asymmetrical(sinistral). In North America only one
genus(Cryptostemma), with two species, occurs. They
livein moist habitats near clear streams, often under
stones.
Family Schizopteridae: These tiny (0.8-2 mm),
beetlelike hemipterans are usually black with
coleopteroid(beetlelike) wings, and no elongate hairs on
thebody.They are abundant in the tropics, but only four
generaand four species are known from North America.
Theylivechiefly in ground litter in moist areas.
INFRAORDER Nepomorpha:The Nepomorpha are
aquatic(rarely shore-inhabiting). The antennae are
shorterthan the head and usually concealed in grooves
ontheunderside of the head. Trichobothria are absent.
B apiculata UhIer, 2x; B, Ranatrafusca Palisot
Keyto the Families of Hemiptera 289
Family Nepidae-Waterscorpions: The waterscorpi-
ons are predaceous aquatic bugs with raptorial front
legs and with a long caudal breathing tube formed by
the cerci. The breathing tube is often almost as long as
the body and is thrust up to the surface as the insect
crawls about on aquatic vegetation. These insects move
slowly and prey on various types of small aquatic ani-
mals, which they capture with their front legs. Water-
scorpions can inflict a painful bite when handled. They
have well-developed wings but seldom fly.The eggs are
inserted on or into the tissues of aquatic plants or into
the substrate near the waterline.
Three genera and 12 species of waterscorpions oc-
cur in the United States and Canada. The nine species
of Ranatra are slender and elongate with very long legs
and are somewhat similar to walkingsticks in appear-
ance (Figure 22-18B). The only North American
species of Nepa, N. apiculata Uhler, has the body oval
and somewhat flattened (Figure 22-18A). The body
shape in Curicta is somewhat intermediate between
those of Ranatra and Nepa. The most common North
American waterscorpions belong to the genus Ranatra;
N. apiculata is less common and occurs in the eastem
states; the two species of Cuneta are relatively rare and
live in the Southwest.
Family Belostomatidae-GiantWater Bugs:This fam-
ily contains the largest bugs in the order, some of which
(in the United States) may reach a length of 65 mm. One
species in South America is more than 100 mm long.
These bugs are elongate-oval and somewhat flattened,
with raptorial front legs (Figure 22-19). They are fairly
common in ponds and lakes, where they feed on other
insects, snails, tadpoles, and even small fish. They fre-
quently leave the water and fly about, and because they
Figure22-18 Waterscorpions. A, Nepa
de Beauvois, about natural size.
290 Chapter 22 Order Hemiptera
Figure 22-19 A giant water bug, Lethocerusgriseus
(Say), about natural size.
are often attracted to lights, they are sometimes called
"electric light bugs." Giant water bugs can inflict a
painful bite if handled carelessly. In some species (Be-
lostoma and Abedus), the female lays her eggs on the back
of the male, which then carries them about until they
hatch. The eggs of other species (Lethocerus) are attached
to aquatic vegetation.
The 19 species of giant water bugs in North Amer-
ica are classified in three genera: Lethocerus, Be1ostoma,
and Abedus. The first two are widely distributed,
whereas Abedus occurs only in the South and West. The
species of Lethocerus are our largest belostomatids
(45-65 mm long) (Figure 22-19) and have a very short
basal segment of the beak. Most species of Be1ostoma
are about 25 mm long, and they have a well-developed
membrane of the hemelytra. Abedus has a much re-
duced membrane of the hemelytra. One species occur-
ring in the Southwest (usually in streams) is 27-37 mm
long, but a relatively rare species in the southeastern
states is only 12-15 mm long.
Family Corixidae-Water Boatmen: This is the
largest family in the infraorder, with about 120 North
American species, and its members are common in
freshwater ponds and lakes. They occasionally occur in
streams, and a few species live in the brackish pools
just above the high-tide mark along the seashore. The
body is elongate-oval (Figure 22-20), somewhat flat-
tened, and usually dark gray. The dorsal surface of the
body is often cross-lined. The middle and hind legs are
elongate, and the hind legs are oarlike. The beak is
broad, conical, and unsegmented; the front wings are
Figure 22-20 A water boatman, Hesperocorixa
atopodonta (Hungerford) 7x. (Courtesy of Slater and
Baranowski and the Wm. C. Brown Co.)
uniform in texture throughout; and the front tarsi are
scoop-shaped (Figure 22-6B). Like all other aquatic
bugs, they lack gills and get air at the surface of the wa.
ter. They frequendy carry a bubble of air under water,
either on the surface of the body or under the wings.
They swim rapidly, usually in a somewhat erratic fash.
ion, and often cling to vegetation for long periods.
Most water boatmen feed on algae and other
minute aquatic organisms. A few are predaceous, [eed.
ing on midge larvae and other small aquatic animals.
They can apparendy take in solid particles of food, not
just liquids.
The eggs of water boatmen are usually attached to
aquatic plants. In some parts of the world (for example,
certain parts of Mexico), people use water boatmen
eggs as food. They collect the eggs from aquatic plants,
dry them, and later grind them into flour. Water boato
men are an important item of food for many aquatic
animals.
Family Ochteridae-Velvety Shore Bugs: These
oval-bodied insects, 4-5 mm long, live along the shores
of quiet streams and ponds, but they are uncommon.
They are velvety bluish or black and are predaceous.
Seven species occur in the United States.
Family Gelastocoridae-Toad Bugs: These bugssu.
perficially resemble small toads, in both appearance
and hopping habits. They are short and broad, have
large projecting eyes (Figure 22-21), and are usually
found along the moist margins of ponds and strearns.
Toad bugs capture their prey (other insects) by grasp'
ing it in their front legs. The eggs are laid in sand.
Many species can change colors depending on the
color of the substrate. This family is a small one, with
only seven species in North America.
 Keyto the Familiesof Hemiptera 291

Figure 22-22 A creeping water bug, Pelocorisfemora-

tus (Palisot de Beauvois), 5X.

figure
22-21 A toad bug, Gelastocorisoculatus
(Fabricius). 71/2 X .

Family Naucoridae-Creeping Water Bugs: These

bugs arebrownish, broadly oval and somewhat flat-
tened,and 9-13 mm long. The front femora are greatly
thickened(Figure 22-22). They are most common in
quietwater,where they may be found on submerged
vegetationor in debris. Some occur in streams. They
leedon various small aquatic animals. They bite quite
readily-and painfully-when handled. There are
about20 North American species, only two of which
(inthegenus Pelocoris) occur in the East. Figure22-23 A backswirnmer,Notonectainsulata
Family Notonectidae-Backswimmers:The back- Kirby, 4 x. (Courtesy of Slater and Baranowski and the
swimmersare so named because they swim upside Wrn. C Brown Co.)
down.They are very similar to the water boatmen in
shape(Figure 22-23), but have the dorsal side of the
bodymoreconvexand usually light-colored. They fre- the attacker has been clinging. These insects will bite
quentlyrest at the surface of the water, with the body people when handled, and the effect is much like a bee
atanangleand the head down, and with the long hind sting. Backswimmer eggs are deposited in the tissues of
legsextended. They can swim rapidly, using the hind aquatic plants or glued to the surface of a planto
legs like oars. Males of many species of backswimmers stridulate
Backswimmers are predaceous, feeding on other during courtship, by rubbing the front legs against the
insectsand occasionally on tadpoles and small fish. beak. The structure of the stridulatory areas often pro-
Theyfrequently attack animals larger than themse\ves vides characters of value in separating species.
andfeedby sucking the body fluids from their prey. A There are 34 species of backswimmers in North
common method of capturing prey is to drift up under America, in three genera: Buenoa, Notoneeta, and
itafterreleasing hold of a submerged plant to which Martarega. The species of Buenoa are small (5-9 mm
 .,

292 Chapter22 Order Hemiptera

long) and slender,with the antennae three-segmented,

the hemelytra glabrous, and the scutellum distinctly
shorter than the claval commissure. The other two gen-
era are usually larger (8-17 mm long) and a liule
stouter. The antennae are four-segmented, and the
hemelytra are usually longer than the claval commis-
sure. Most of the species, and most specimens col-
lected, belong to the genus Notonecta.
FamilyPleidae-Pygmy Backswimmers:These bugs
are similar to the Notonectidae, but are very small
0.6-2.3 mm long) and have a very convex dorsal sur-
face of the body, with the wings forming a hard shell.
Seven species occur in North America.
INFRAORDERGerromorpha:The members of this
group are semiaquatic or shore-inhabiting; they have
conspicuous antennae; and have three pairs of tri-
chobothria on the head.
Family Mesoveliidae-Water Treaders:These bugs
are usually found crawling over floating vegetation at
the margins of ponds or pools or on logs projecting
from the water. When disturbed, they ron rapidly over
the surface of the water. They are small (5 mm long or
less), slender, and usually greenish or yellowish green
(Figure n-24A). Within a species, some adults are
winged and some are wingless. These insects feed on
small aquatic organisms on and just beneath the sur-
face of the water.
Family Hydrometridae-Water Measurersor Marsh
Figure 22-25 A water measurer, Hydrometra martini
Treaders: These bugs are small (about 8 mm long),
Kirkaldy, 71(2X .
usually grayish, and very slender. They resemble tiny
walkingsticks (Figure n-25). The head is very long
and slender, with the eyes conspicuously bulging later-
ally. These insects are usually wingless. They occurin
shallow water among vegetation and feed on minute
organisms. They frequently walk very slowly over sur.
face vegetation or over the surface of the water. The
eggs,which are elongate and about one-fourth aslong
as the adult, are laid singly and glued to objectsnear
the water. Only seven species, all belonging to the
genus Hydrometra, occur in North America.
Family Hebridae-Velvet Water Bugs: The hebrids
are small (less than 3 mm long), oblong bugs witha
broad-shouldered appearance (Figure 22-24B), and
the entire body is covered with velvety hairs. Theyoe.
cur on the surface of shallow pools where there isan
abundance of aquatic vegetation and in damp soilnear
the water's edge. They are believed to be predaceous
This group contains 15 North American species, in two
B genera: Merragata (antennae four-segmented) and He.
brus (antennae five-segmented).
FamilyMacroveliidae: This group is representedin
Figure22-24 A, a water treader, Mesove/iamulsanti North America by two species in two genera in the
White, 9x; B, a velvet water bug, Hebrus sobrinus Uhler, westem states. Macrovelia homii Uhler resemblesa
16x. (Courtesyof Froeschnerand The AmericanMid- mesoveliid in appearance (see Figure n-24A), butdif.
land Naturalist.) fers in having six closed cells in the hemelytra, andthe

pronotumhas a backward-projecting lobe that covers
thescutellum. It lives along the shores of springs and
streams,usually in moss or other protected places. It
doesnot ron about on the water surface, but it has never
beentaken more than a few feet from the water's edge.
FamilyVeliidae-Broad-ShoulderedWater Striders,
RiffleBugs:These water striders are small 0.6-5.5 mm
long)and brown or black, often with silvery markings.
Theyare usually wingless. They live on the surface of
thewater or on the adjacent shore and feed on various
sITIall
insects. Members of the genus Rhagovelia (Fig-
ure22-26B) are gregarious, and a single sweep of a dip
netmay sometimes yield up to 50 or more specimens.
Theseveliids live on or near the riffles of small streams,
butmembers of other genera are usually inhabit qui-
eterparts of streams or on ponds. Three widely distrib-
utedgenera, with more than 30 species, occur in the
UnitedStates: Rhagovelia, Microvelia, and Paravelia.
FamilyGerridae-Water Striders: The water strid-
ersarelong-legged insects (Figure n-26A) that live on
thesurface of the water, running or skating over the
surfaceand feeding on insects that fall onto the water.
Thefront legs are short and are used in capturing food;
themiddle and hind legs are long and are used in 10-
comotion.Most species are black or dark-colored, and
thebody is long and narrow.
The tarsi of water striders are clothed with fine
hairsand are difficult to wet. This tarsal structure en-
ablesa water strider to skate around on the surface of
thewater. If the tarsi be come wet, the insect can no
longer stay on the surface film; it will drown unless it
cancrawl up on some dry surface. When the tarsi dry
again,they function normally.
These insects are common on quiet water in small
coves or protected places. They often live together in
A B
Figure
22-26 Water striders. A, Gerris sp. (Gerridae),
5X;B,Rhagoveliaobesa Uhler (Veliidae), 10X. (Courtesy
o[Slater
and Baranowski and the Wm. C Brown Ca.)
Keyto the Familiesof Hemiptera 293
large numbers. Species inhabiting small intermittent
streams burrow down in the mud or under stones
when the stream dries up and remain dormant until the
stream fills with water again. The adults hibernate in
such situations. Except for one genus, the water strid-
ers are restricted to fresh water. The species in the
genus Halobates live on the surface of the ocean, often
many miles fram land. Winged and wingless adults oc-
cur in many species, and the insect moves from one
aquatic situation to another when in the winged stage.
The eggs are laid at the surface of the water on floating
objects.
INFRAORDERLeptopodomorpha
Family Saldidae-Shore Bugs: The shore bugs are
small, oval, flattened, usually brown or black-and-
white bugs that are often common along shores of
streams, ponds, or the ocean. Some are burrowing in
habit. When disturbed, they fly quickly for a short dis-
tance and then scurry under vegetation or into a
crevice. They are predaceous on other insects. The
shore bugs can usually be recognized by the four or five
long, closed cells in the membrane of the hemelytra
(Figure 22-4F). There are about 70 North American
species of shore bugs.
Family Leptopodidae-Spiny Shore Bugs:This is an
Old World group, one species of which, Patapius spin-
osus (Rossi), has be en introduced into California. It
may be found fram Butte County south to Los Angeles
County. This spiny bug is 3.3 mm long and is yellow-
ish brown with two dark brawn transverse bands on
the hemelytra.
INFRAORDERS Cimicomorphaand Pentatomomorpha:
These bugs are all terrestrial; they almost always have
conspicuous antennae; and they usually have tri-
chobothria. The majority are plant feeders, feeding on
sap, flowers, fruits, or even mature seeds, but many
taxa are predaceous.
INFRAORDER Cimicomorpha
Family Thaumastocoridae-Royal Palm Bugs: This
group is represented in the United States by a single
species, Xylastodoris luteolus Barber, which occurs in
Florida. This insect is 2.0-2.5 mm long, flattened, ob-
long-oval, and pale yellowish with reddish eyes. It
feeds on the royal palmo
Family Tingidae-Lace Bugs: This is a fairly large
group (about 140 North American species) of small
(shorter than 5 mm) bugs that have the dorsal surface
of the body rather elaborately sculptured (Figure 22-27).
This lacelike appearance is found only in the adults; the
nymphs are usually spiny. These bugs are plant feeders,
and whereas most species feed on herbaceous plants,
some of our most common species feed on trees. Their
feeding causes a yellow spotting of the leaf, and with
continued feeding the leaf be comes entirely brown and
falls off. Some species do considerable damage to trees.

294 Chapter22 Order Hemiptera
A B
The eggs are usually laid on the underside of the leaves.
Corythuca ciliata (Say) (Figure 22-27B), a common
species that is somewhat milky in color, feeds chiefly on
sycamore.
Famíly Microphysidae:This familyis represented in
the United States by four species in four genera. One
species, Mallochiola gagates (McAtee and Malloch), re-
sembles a mirid in having a cuneus, but it has ocelli,
symmetrical male genitalia, and the tarsi are two-
segmented; it is broadly oval and somewhat flattened,
shining black, and 1.2 mm long. lt is known only from
Maryland and the District of Columbia.
Famíly Miridae-Plant Bugs or Leaf Bugs: This is
the largest family in the order (about 1750 North
American species), and its members are to be found on
vegetation almost everywhere. Some are very abun-
dant. Most species are plant feeders, but many are
predaceous on other insects. Some of the plant-feeding
species are pests of cultivated plants.
The mirids are soft-bodied bugs, mostly 4-10 mm
long, that may be variously colored. Some species are
brightly marked with red, orange, green, or white.
Members of this group can be recognized by the pres-
ence of a cuneus and only one or two closed cells at the
base of the membrane (Figure 22-1 and 22-4A). The
antennae and beak are four-segmented; the ocelli are
lacking (except for the Isometopinae).
Figure 22-28 illustrates some of the more impor-
tant mirids that attack cultivated plants. The meadow
plant bug, Leptoptema dolobrata (L.) (Figure 22-28D),
is abundant in meadows and pastures in early summer
and does considerable damage to grass. lt is 7-9 mm
long. The tarnished plant bug, Lygus lineolaris (Palisot
de Beauvois) (Figure 22-28C), is brown with a Y-
shaped mark on the scutellum. lt is a very common
bug and often seriously damages legumes, vegetables,
,.
Figure22-27 Lacebugs.A,Atheas
mimeticus Heidemann, 18x; B, the
sycamore lace bug, Corythuca ciliata
(Say), 13x; e, Acalypta lillianis
Bueno, 14x. (Aand B redrawn from
Froeschner and the American Mid-
land Naturalist; e, redrawn frorn
Osborn and Drake and the Ohio
e BiologicaISurvey).
and flowers. This species occurs throughout the east-
ern and central states. Other species of Lygus are seri-
ous crop pests in the West. The four-lined plant bug,
Poecilocapsus lineatus (Fabricius) (Figure 22-28E), is
yellowish or greenish with four longitudinal black
stripes on the body. lt feeds on a large number of plants
and sometimes causes serious damage to currants,
gooseberries, and some ornamental flowers. The apple
red bug, Lygidea mendax Reuter (Figure 22-28B), a red
and black bug about 6 mm long, was at one time a se-
rious pest of apples in the Northeast, but has become
less important in recent years. The rapid plant bug,
Adelphocoris rapidus (Say) (Figure n-28F), is 7-8 mm
long and dark brown with yellowish margins on the
front wings. lt feeds chiefly on dock, but sometimes in-
jures cotton and legumes. The garden fleahopper,
Halticus bractatus (Say) (Figure n-28A), is a cornmon
leaf bug that is often brachypterous. lt is a shining
black, jumping bug, 1.5-2.0 mm long, that feeds on
many cultivated plants but is often a pest of legumes.
The front wings of the female (the sex illustrated) lack
a membrane and resemble the elytra of a beetle.The
males have normal wings, but the membrane is short.
This family is divided into a number of subfami-
lies, one of which, the Isometopinae, is sometimes
given family rank. These mirids, commonly called
"jumping ground bugs," differ from other mirids in
having ocelli. They are found on bark and dead twigs,
and they jump quickly when disturbed. The group isa
small one, with less than a dozen North American
species, all relatively rare.
Famíly Nabidae-Damsel Bugs: The nabids are
small bugs 0.5-11.0 mm long) that are relatively sIen-
der with the front femora slightly enlarged (Fig-
ure 22-29), and the membrane of the hemelytra (when
developed) has a number of small cells around the
 Keyto the Familiesof Hemiptera 295

B e
Figure 22-28 Plant or leaf
bugs (Miridae). A, garden flea-
hopper, Halticus bractatus (Say),
female, lOx; B, apple red bug,
Lygidea mendax Reuter, female,
5 X; e, tarnished plant bug, Lygus
lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois),
4X; D, meadow plant bug,
Leptoptema dolobrata (L.), male
4x; E, four-lined plant bug, Poe-
cilocapsus lineatus (Fabricius),
4 X; F, rapid plant bug, Adelpho-
coris rapidus (Say), 4X. (Re-
drawn fram the Illinois Natural
E History Survey.)

margin(Figures 22-4E and 22-29A). These bugs are

predaceouson many different types of insects, includ-
ingaphids and caterpillars.
The most commonly encountered damsel bugs are
paleyellowish to brownish with well-developed wings.
NabisamericoferusCarayon (Figure 22-29A) is com-
monthraughout the United States. Some of the nabids
occurin both long-winged and short-winged forms,
butthe long-winged forms are in many cases quite rare
andit is the short-winged forms that are usually en-
countered.A fairly common nabid of this sort is Nabic-
ulasubcoleoptrata(Kirby), a shining black insect (Fig-
ure22-29B) usually found in meadows, where it feeds
chieflyon the meadow plant bug, Leptoptema dolo-
brata. A B
Family lasiochilidae: These bugs have the general
habitusof Anthocoridae but not the asymmetrical male
genitalia,and insemination occurs in the vagina of the Figure 22-29 Damsel bugs. A, Nabis americoferus
remale.Our species are 3-4 mm long. The presence of Carayon, 5x; B, Nabicula subcoleoptrata (Kirby), 4X.
dorsallateral tergites on abdominal segments one and (A, redrawn from Froeschner and the American Midland
twoappears to be diagnostico Most species have been Naturalist; B, courtesy of Slater and Baranowski and the
reponedto live under bark. More than 30 species are Wm. C Brown Co.)

296 Chapter22 Order Hemiptera
known to occur in North America, most of them south-
western and western.
Family Lyctocoridae:Although similar in general
appearance to Anthocoridae, the species of this family
differ in the type of asymmetrical male genitalia with
both parameres developed and the aedeagus does not
"ride" in a groove in the left paramere. A difficult, but
definitive character is the presence of apophyses on the
anterior margin of abdominal sternum 7. About 36
species occur in North America. Of these the best
known is Lyctocoris campestris (Fabricius), which is
common and widely distributed. It may be an intro-
duced species and sometimes is known to live in nests
of rodents and to suck blood of domes tic animals and
humans.
Family Anthocoridae-Minute Pirate Bugs: This
family formerly included the Lyctocoridae and Laso-
chilidae. As presently restricted, it contains small, flat-
tened bugs 2-5 mm long, elongate, with the male
genitalia asymmetrical and with a sickle-shaped para-
mere; many species are black with whitish markings
(Figure n-30B). Although some times found on the
ground and under bark, many species occur on flowers
and fruits. Most species are predaceous, feeding on var-
ious small insects and insect eggs. The insidious flower
bug, Orius insidiosus (Say) (Figure n-30B), is an im-
portant predator on the eggs and larvae of the corn ear-
worm and many other pests. The bite of this bug is sur-
prisingly painful for such a tiny insect. The common
species of anthocorids are usually found on flowers,
but some species live under loose bark, in leaf litter,
and in decaying fungí. About 43 species occur in North
America.
Figure 22-30 A, the eommon bed bug, Cimex lectular-
ius (L.), 7X; B, the insidious flower bug, Orius insidiosus
(Say), 16X. (Courtesy of Froesehner and The American
Midland Naturalist.)
..,
Family Cimicidae-Bed Bugs: The bed bugs are
flat, broadly oval, wingless bugs about 6 mm long (Fig-
ure n-30A) that feed by sucking blood from birds and
mammals. The group is a small one, but some of the
species are widely distributed and well known. The
common bed bug that attacks people is Cimex lectular-
ius L. This species is sometimes a pest in houses, ho-
tels, barracks, and other living quarters. It also attaeks
animals other than humans. A tropical species, Cimex
hemipterus (Fabricius) also bites people. Other species
in this family attack bats and various birds.
The common bed bug is largely nocturnal and,
during the day, hides in cracks in a wall, under the
baseboard, in the springs of a bed, under the edge of a
mattress, under wallpaper, and in similar places. Its
flatness makes it possible for it to hide in very small
crevices. Bed bugs may be transported from place to
place on clothing or in luggage or furniture, or they
may migrate from house to house. They lay their eggs,
100-250 per female, in cracks. Development to the
adult stage requires about 2 months in warm weather.
The adults may live for several months and can survive
long periods without food. Bed bugs are important pri-
marily because of their irritating bites; they are appar-
ently unimportant as disease vectors.
Family Polyctenidae-Bat Bugs: Only two rare
species of bat bugs occur in the United States, one in
Texas and the other in California. They are ectopara-
sites of bats. These bugs are wingless and lack eom-
pound eyes and ocellí. The front legs are short and flat-
tened, and the middle and hind legs are long and
slender. The body is generally covered with bristles.
These bugs are 3.5 to 4.5 mm long.
Family Reduviidae-Assassin Bugs, Ambush Bugs,
and Thread-Legged Bugs: This is a large group (more
than 160 North American species) of predaceous bugs,
and many species are fairly common. They are often
blackish or brownish, but many are brightly colored.
The head is usually elongate, with the area behind the
eyes constricted and necklike. The beak is short and
three-segmented, and its tip fits into a stridulatory
groove in the prosternum (Figure n-7B). The ab.
domen in many species is widened in the middle, ex-
posing the lateral margins of the segments beyond the
the wings. Most species are predaceous on other in-
sects, but a few are bloodsucking and frequently bite
people. Many species inflict a painful bite if carelessly
handled.
One of the largest and most easily recognized as.
sassin bugs is the wheel bug, Arilus cristatus (L.), a
grayish bug 28-36 mm long, with a semicircular erest
on the pronotum that terminates in teeth and resem.
bles a cogwheel (Figure n-31B). This species is fairly
common in the East. The masked hunter, Reduviuspero
sonatus (L.), is a brownish black bug (it resembles the
 Keyto the Familiesof Hemiptera 297

reduviidshown in Figure 22-31C), 17-22 mm long,
thatis often found in houses. It feeds on bed bugs, but
itwillalso bite people. The nymphs are soft-bodied and
coverthemselves with dust particles; they are often
caBed"dust bugs" or "masked bedbug hunters."
The assassin bugs in the genus Triatoma also in-
vadehousesand bite people. They feed at night, biting
anyexposed parts (such as the face) of people sleeping.
These bugs are sometimes called "kissing bugs" (be-
cause of their tendency to bite people about the
mouth) or "Mexican bed bugs." In South America,
speciesof this genus serve as vectors of a trypanosome
disease of humans known as Chagas disease (several
cases of this disease have recently be en reported in the
United States). Armadillos, opossums, and certain rats
also serve as a host for the trypanosome causing this
disease.
Ambush bugs (Phymatinae) are small, stout-bodied
bugs with the front femora much thickened and the
terminal antennal segment swollen (Figure 22-31F).
Most of the ambush bugs are about 13 mm long or less,
yet they can capture insects as large as fair-sized bum-
ble bees. They líe in wait for their prey on flowers, par-
ticularly goldenrod, where they are excellently con-

A B e

o E F

Figure22-31 Assassin bugs (A-D), a thread-Iegged bug (E), and an ambush bug (F).
A, Narvesus carolinensisSt:1l,21/2X;B, the wheel bug, Arilus cristatus (L.) P/2X;
C, Melanolestespicipes (Herrick-Schiiffer), 2x; D, a blood-sucking conenose, Triatoma
sanguisuga (LeConte), 2X; E, Barceuhleri (Banks), 51/2X;F,Phymatafasciata georgiensis
Melin, 41f2X. (Courtesy of Froeschner and The American Midland Naturalist.)
298 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera

cealed by their greenish yellow color. They feed princi-

pally on large bees, wasps, and flies.
The thread-Iegged bugs (Emesinae) are very slen-
der and long-Iegged and resemble walkingsticks (Fig-
ure 22-31E). They live in old barns, cellars, and
dwellings, and outdoors beneath loose bark and in
grass tufts, where they catch and feed on other insects.
One of the largest and most common of the thread-
legged bugs is Emesaya brevipennis (Say), a widely dis-
tributed species that is 33-37 mm long. Most of the
thread-Iegged bugs are smaller (down to 4.5 mm long).
Barce uhleri (Banks) (Figure 22-31E) is 7-10 mm long.
Family Aradidae-Flat Bugs: Nearly a hundred
species in this group occur in North America. They are
3-11 mm long, usually dark brownish, very flat bugs
(Figure 22-32), with the body surface somewhat gran- Figure 22-33 An ash-gray leaf bug, Piesma cinerea
ular. The wings are well developed but small and do (Say), lSX (Redrawn from Froeschner and The Ameri-
not cover the entire abdomen. The antennae and beak can Midland Naturalist.)
are four-segmented (sometimes only two to three seg-
ments of the beak are visible); the tarsi have two seg-
ments; and there are no ocellí. These insects are usually
found under loose bark or in crevices of dead or de- Family Berytidae-Stilt Bugs: The stilt bugs are
caying trees. They feed on fungí. slender and elongate and have very long and slender
Family Piesmatidae-Ash-Gray Leaf Bugs: These legs and antennae (Figure 22-34). They resemble the
small bugs (2.5-3.5 mm long) can usually be recog- water measurers (Figure 22-25) and thread-Iegged
nized by their reticulately sculptured corium and bugs (Figure 22-31E), but the head is not greatIy elon-
clavus, the two-segmented tarsi, the ridges of the gate and they never live on the surface of the water (as
pronotum, and the juga extending well beyond the do water measurers). In addition, they do not have rap-
tylus (Figure 22-33). They are plant feeders and are torial front legs (as do the thread-Iegged bugs). They
probably found most often on pigweed (Amaran- live on vegetation and feed chiefly on plants, although
thus), but also feed on other plants. The la North some species are partIy predaceous. They are 5-9 rnm
American species in this group belong to the genus long and usually brownish.
Piesma. Family Rhyparochromidae: This is a large familyoi
mostIy dull-colored, ground living species with en-
larged and spinose fore femora (Figure 22-3SB, E,F).

A B

Figure 22-32 Flat bugs (Aradidae). A, Aradus inoma- Figure 22-34 The spined stilt bug, Jalysus wichhami
tus Uhler, 41/2X;B, Aradus acutus (Say), SI/2X. (Redrawn Van Duzee, 31(2X. (Courtesy of Froeschner and The
from Froeschner and The American Midland Naturalist.) American Midland Naturalist.)

D E
Despitethe appearance of predatory habits because of
theirenlarged and spiny profemora, they feed on ma-
tureseeds. lt is a large group, with about 165 species
knownto occur in North America. The incomplete,
forward-curving abdominal suture between sterna 4
and5 identifies them.
Family Lygaeidae-Seed Bugs: Until recently, this
wasan omnibus family that is now divided into 10 sep-
aratefamilies in North America. Now the family con-
tainsonly the old subfamilies Lygaeinae, Orsillinae,
andIschnorthynchinae. lt is readily recognizable by
havingall the abdominal spiracles dorsal. Many of the
speciesare brightly colored orange and black or red
andblack, and many of these feed on milkweeds and
otherplants that are distasteful or toxic to other ani-
mals(Figure 22-35A). Oncopeltusfasciatus (Dalias) has
beenused extensively as an experimental laboratory
animaland its flight patterns studied. Species feed
chiefly,but not exclusively on seeds, and although a
fewareground-living, the majority in North America
tendto live aboveground, sometimes in trees. Nysius
ericaeSchillingand related species are often pests of
cultivatedcrops. About 75 species are known to occur
inNorthAmerica.
Family Blissidae:This family is characterized by
havingonly the spiracles of abdominal segment 7 ven-
traland by lacking conspicuous punctures on the
Keyto the Families of Hemiptera 299
Figure22-35 Lygaeoidea. A, the
small milkweed bug, Lygaeus kalmii
Stal, 3X (Lygaeidae); B, Myodocha ser-
ripes Olivier, 4X (Rhyparochromidae);
C, a big-eyed bug, Geocorispunctipes
(Say), 8X (Geocoridae); D, Phlegyas
abbreviatus (Uhler), 8X (Pachygronthi-
dae); E, Aphanus illuminatus (Distant),
6x (Rhyparochromidae); F,Eremocoris
fems (Say) (Rhyparochromidae). (Cour-
tesy of Froeschner and The American
F Midland Naturalist.)
hemelytra. All known North American species breed
only on monocot plants and are sap suckers rather than
seed feeders. The chinch bug, Blissus leucopterus(Say)
(Figure 22-36), is probably the most injurious bug in
this family, attacking wheat, corn, and other cereals.
Sometimes it becomes a serious pest of turf grasses. lt
is about 3.5 mm long and is black with white front
wings. Each front wing has a black spot near the mid-
die of the costal margino Both long-winged and short-
winged forms occur in this species (Figure 22-36C,D).
Chinch bugs overwinter as adults in grass clumps,
fallen leaves, hedgerows and other protected places.
They emerge about the middle of April and begin feed-
ing on small grains. The eggs are laid during May, ei-
ther in the ground or in grass stems near the ground,
and hatch about a week or la days later. Each female
may lay several hundred eggs. The nymphs feed on the
juices of grasses and grains and reach maturity in 4 to
6 weeks. By the time these nymphs be come adult, the
small grains (wheat, rye, oats, and barley) are nearly
mature and no longer succulent, and the adults (along
with nymphs nearly adult) migrate to other fields of
more succulent grain, usually corno They migrate on
foot, often in great numbers. The females lay eggs for a
second generation on the corn, and this generation
reaches maturity in late fall and then seeks out places
of hibernation. When chinch bugs are abundant, they
300 Chapter22 Order Hemiptera
A B
Figure22-36 The chinch bug, Blissus leucoptems (5ay). A, fourth instar nymph;
B, fifth instar nymph; C, adult; D, short-winged adulto (Courtesy of U5DA.)
may destroy whole fields of grain. A close relative of
the chinch bug, BlissusinsularisBarber,is a major pest
of lawn grasses in the southeastern states. There are 29
species of blissids known from North America.
Family Ninidae:This is a small family readily rec-
ognized by the bifid apex of the scutellum, partially
hyaline clavus, and peculiar two-stepped rostrum.
Only a single species, Cymoninus notabilis (Distant),
occurs in North America, where it is confined to the
Gulf states from Florida to Texas. lt breeds on a num-
ber of sedges.
Family Cymidae:These are small, dull yellow to
straw-colored, coarsely punctate bugs that often re-
semble the seeds of the sedges and rushes on which
they live. The nymphs are particularly cryptic. Ten
species from North America are recognized at presento
Family Geocoridae-Big-Eyed Bugs: The members
of this family are known as "big-eyed bugs" because of
the large, reniform (kidney-shaped) eyes that protrude
from the head and often curve back over the outer mar-
gins of the pronotum (Figure 22-35C). The dorsal po-
sition of the spiracles on abdominal segments 3 and 4
is diagnostico North American species are short-bodied
and for the most part live on or near the ground. Most
are predaceous and have been used extensively in bio-
logical control studies. However, they are, in part at
least, also plant feeders. Approximately 27 species oc-
cur in North America.
Family Artheneidae:This is a small familyof some-
what flattened, yellowish to straw-colored bugs, readily
recognizable by the broadly explana te margins of the
pronotum. This family is not native to North America,
but two Palearctic species, Chilacis typhae (Perris) and
Holcocranum saturejae (Kolenati), have successfully es-
tablished themselves. They breed on the catkins of cat-
tails.
Family Oxycarenidae:Members of this family lack
the explanate margins of the pronotum found in the
e
Artheneidae, but share with them the dorsal positionol
the spiracles of abdominal segment 2. In the Old World
tropics, some members of this family are pests of coto
ton and other crops. One of these is established in the
American tropics but has not yet reached North Amer.
ica. Ten species occur at present in North America,
nine of them western, where severallive in the cones01
conifers.
Family Pachygronthidae: Members of this familyare
readily recognizable by having all the abdominal spira-
cles ventral, being coarsely punctate, and with strongly
incrassate and spinose fore femora (Figure 22-35D).
Seven species occur in North America. One genus
(Phlegyas) is widespread on grasses, the others (Oedan.
cala) are sedge and rush feeders.
Family Heterogastridae:This family is recognizable
by the ventral abdominal spiracles and the presence01
a large, closed cell at the base of the membrane ofthe
front wing. They are dull-colored, rather bulky insects
and feed on urticaceous and related plants. Only two
species, both western, occur in North America.
Family Largidae: These bugs are similar to the pyrrho-
corids in appearance and habits (Figure 22-37 A,B).Some
of them, such as Arhaphe carolina (Herrich-Shaffer),are
very antlike in appearance and have short hemelytra
(Figure 22-37A). These bugs occur principally in the
southern states.
Family Pyrrhocoridae-Red Bugs and Cotton Stainers:
These are medium-sized (11-17 mm long), elongate.
oval bugs that are usually brightly marked with red01
brown and black. They resemble large lygaeids, bUI
lack ocelli and have many branched veins and cellsin
the membrane of the hemelytra (as in Figure 22-4H).
An important pest species in this family is the cottoo
stainer, Dysdercus suturellus (Herrich-Schaffer) (Fig'
ure 22-37C), which is a serious pest of cotton insome
parts of the South. In feeding it stains the cotton fibers
and greatly reduces their value. This family is a small
 Key to the Families of Hemiptera 301

Figure22-37 A, Arhaphe carolina (Herrick-Schaffer) (Largidae), 4x; B, Largus succinc-

tus (L.) (Largidae), 3x; C, the cotton stainer, Dysdercussuturellus (Herrick-Schaffer)
(Pyrrhocoridae), 4X. (A and B, courtesy of Froeschner and The American Midland Nat-
uralist; C, courtesy of Slater and Baranowski and the Wm. C Brown Co.)

one(seven North American species), and its members
arelirnited to the southern states.
Family Coreidae-Leaf-Footed Bugs: This is a
moderate-sized group (about 80 North American
species)whose members have well-developed scent
glands.These glands open on the sides of the thorax be-
tweenthe middle and hind coxae (Figure 22-1B, sgo).
Mostspecies give off a distinct odor (sometimes pleas-
am, sometimes not) when handled. The coreids are
mostlymedium-sized to large, somewhat elongate, and
dark-colored,with the head narrower and shorter than
thepronotum (Figure 22-38A-C). Some species have
thehind tibiae expanded and leaflike (Figure 22-38A),
hencethe name "leaf-footed bugs" for this group.
The Coreidae are plant feeders, but a few may be
predaceous. The squash bug, Anasa tristis (DeGeer)
(Figure22-38C), a serious pest of cucurbits, is dark
brownand about 13 mm long. lt has one generation a
yearand passes the winter in the adult stage in debris
andother sheltered places. The males of many species
ofcoreids have the hind femora enlarged and artned
witha series of sharp spines. These males establish ter-
riloriesand defend them vigorously from other males.
Thernesquite bug, Thasus acutangulus Stal, is one of
thelargest North American coreids (35-40 mm long).
Itiscornmon on mesquite in Arizona and New Mexico.
Thenymphs form aggregations that, when disturbed,
simultaneouslyproduce a noxious vapor. If a tree with
mesquitebugs on it is in a suburban yard, the home-
ownermay be considerably upset by the presence of so
manybig bugs.
Family Alydidae-Broad-Headed Bugs: These bugs
are similar to the Coreidae, but the head is broad and
nearly as long as the pronotum, and the body is usually
long and narrow (Figure 22-38D). They might well be
called "stink bugs," as they often "stink" much worse
than the members of the Pentatomidae (to which the
name "stink bug" is usually applied). They give off an
odor reminiscent of someone with a bad case of halito-
sis. The openings of the scent glands are conspicuous
oval openings between the middle and hind coxae.
These bugs are fairly common on the foliage of weeds
and shrubs along roadsides and in woodland areas.
Most broad-headed bugs are either yellowish brown or
black. Some of the black species have a red band across
the middle of the dorsal side of the abdomen. A com-
mon brown species in the Northeast is Protenor belfragei
Haglund; it is 12-15 mm long. Some of the black
species (for example, Alydus; Figure 22-38D) look very
much like ants in their nymphal stage, and the adults in
the field look much like some of the spider wasps.
Family Rhopalidae-Scentless Plant Bugs: These
bugs differ from the coreids in lacking well-developed
scent glands. They are usually light-colored and
smaller than the coreids (Figure 22-38E,F). Some are
very similar to the orsilline lygaeids, but can be distin-
guished by the numerous veins in the membrane of the
hemelytra (Figure 22-4D). They live principally on
weeds, but a few (including the box elder bug) are ar-
boreal. All are plant feeders.
The box elder bug, Boisea trivittata (Say), is a com-
mon and widely distributed species in this group. lt is
302 Chapter22 Order Hemiptera
D E
blackish with red markings and 11-14 mm long (Fig-
ure 22-38F). lt often enters houses and other sheltered
places in the fall, sometimes in considerable numbers.
It feeds on box elder and occasionally other trees.
FamilyCydnidae-Burrower Bugs:These bugs are a
liule like stink bugs in general appearance and anten-
nal structure, but they are a little more oval and have
the tibiae spiny (Figure 22-8A). They are black or red-
dish brown and less than 8 mm long (Figure 22-39B).
They are usually found beneath stones or boards, in
sand, or about the roots of grass tufts. They apparently
feed on the roots of plants. The general collector is
most likely to see them when they come to lights at
night.
FamilyThyreocoridae: These bugs are small (mostly
3-6 mm long), broadly oval, strongly convex, shining
black bugs that are somewhat beetlelike in appearance
(Figure 22-39A). The scutellum is very large and cov-
ers most of the abdomen and wings. These insects are
common on grasses, weeds, berries, and flowers.
Family Scutelleridae-Shield-Backed Bugs: These
look much like stink bugs (Pentatomidae), but the
Figure 22-38 A, a leaf-footed
bug, Leptoglossusclypealis (Heide-
mann), 11/2x; B, Acanthocephala
femorata (Fabricius), male (Corei-
dae), 11/2X;C, the squash bug,
Anasa tristis (DeGeer), 2x; D, a
broad-headedbug,Alyduscurinus
(Say), 2X; E, a scentless plant
bug, Arhyssus lateralis (Say), 5X;
F, the box elder bug, Boiseatrivit-
tatus (Say), 2x. (Redrawn from
F Froeschner.)
scutellum is very large and extends to the apex of the
abdomen. The wings are visible only at the edge of the
scutellum (Figure 22-40A). Most species in the north-
em part of the United States and Canada are brown or
yellow, but many tropical species are brightly colored,
even iridescent. The scutellerids are 8-10 mm long, and
are plant feeders. Some species, particularly the sunn
pest, Eurygaster integriceps Puton, are important pestsoí
grain crops in Europe, central Asia,and the MiddleEast.
Family Pentatomidae-Stink Bugs: This is a large
and well-known group (more than 200 North Ameri-
can species), and its members are easily recognized by
their round or ovoid shape and 5-segmented antennae.
They can be separated from other bugs having five-
segmented antennae by the characters given in the key.
Stink bugs are the most common and abundant of the
bugs that produce a disagreeable odor, but some other
bugs (particularly the broad-headed bugs) produce a
more potent odor. Many stink bugs are brightly colored
or conspicuously marked.
The family Pentatomidae is divided into fivesub.
families, the Asopinae, Discocephalinae, Edessinae,

A B
A B
Podopinae,and Pentatominae. The last four, which
containmost of the species in the family, are plant
feeders,and the basal segment of the beak is slender
andat rest lies between the bucculae, which are paral-
lel.TheAsopinae, which are predaceous, have a short,
thick,basal segment of the beak, with only the base ly-
ingbetween the bucculae, which converge behind the
beak.
The eggs of stink bugs, which are usually barrel-
shapedand have the upper end ornamented with spines,
areusually laid in groups, like many liule brightly col-
oredbarreIs lined up side by side (Figure 2-35).
One rather important pest species in this group
is the harlequin bug (Murgantia histrionica (Hahn),
Figure22-41B). This brightly colored insect is often
verydestructive to cabbage and other cruciferous
plants,particularly in the southern part of the United
States.The southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula
Keyto the Familiesof Hemiptera 303
Figure 22-39 A, AlIocorispulicaria (Germar),
61/2X (Thyreocoridae); B, a burrower bug,
Pangaeus bilineatus (Say), 71f2X (Cydnidae).
(Courtesy of Froeschner and The American
Midland Naturalist.)
Figure 22-40 A, a shield-backed bug,
Homaemus parvulus (Germar) (Scutel-
leridae); B, a terrestrial turde bug,
Amaurochrous cinctipes (Say), 8X (Pen-
tatomidae). (Courtesy of Froeschner
and The American Midland Naturalist.)
(L.), is an important pest of a wide variety of crops in
the southeastern United States and throughout the
world's tropics. The other stink bugs that are plant
feeders (Figures 22-41A,C, 22-42) usually auack
grasses or other plants and usually are not of very great
economic importance. The spined soldier bug, Podisus
maculiventris (Say) (Figure 22-41 D), is predaceous on
lepidopterous larvae. The terrestrial turtle bugs, Amau-
rochrous spp., 3.5-6.5 mm long, are similar to the
shield-backed bugs, but may be separated by the char-
acters given in the key (couplet 63). These were for-
merly placed in a family by themselves, the Podopidae,
which has be en reduced to the subfamily Podopinae.
Family Acanthosomatidae:This is a small group
closely related to the Pentatomidae, but readily sepa-
rated from them by having only two instead of three
tarsal segments. The females of several of the species in
North America guard the eggs and young nymphs.
[ 304 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera

B
A

Figure
22-41 Stinkbugs. A, Thyantacustator
(Fabricius), 41/2X; B, harlequin bug, Murgantia
histrionica (Hahn), 4X; C, onespot stink bug,
Euschistus variolarius (Palisot de Beauvois), 3X;
D, spined soldier bug, Podisus maculiventris
(Say), 41/2X. A-C, Pentatominae; D, Asopinae.
(Courtesy of Froeschner and The American
e o Midland Naturalist.)

Figure 22-42 Stink bugs (sub-

family Pentatominae). A, Coenus
delius (Say), 31f2X; B, Brochy-
mena arborea (Say), 3X; e, De-
balus pugnax (Fabricius), 41/¡X.
(Courtesy of Froeschner and the
A B e American Midland Naturalist.)
 Keyto the Familiesof Hemiptera 305

Elasmucha lateralis (Say) is fairly common on birch
treesin the northern states and southern Canada.
SUBORDER Auchenorrhyncha: The members of the
suborderAuchenorrhyncha (cicadas and hoppers) are
activeinsects, being good fliers or jumpers. Their tarsi
arethree-segmented, and their antennae are very short
andbristlelike. The cicadas are relatively large insects,
withmembranouswings and three ocelli. The hoppers
aresmall to minute insects, with the front wings usu-
allymore or less thickened, and they usually have two
ocelli(or none). The males of many Auchenorrhyncha
canproduce sound, but except for the cicadas these
soundsare nearly inaudible to humans.
Figure22-43 A dog-day cicada, Tibicenpruinosa (Say),
about natural size. (Courtesy of Carl Mohr and the Illi-
noisNatuaral History Survey.)
FamilyCicadidae-Cicadas: The members of this
family can usually be recognized by their characteristic
shape, their large size, and three ocelli (Figure 22-43).
This group contains some of the largest Hemiptera in
the United States, some of which reach a length of
about 50 mm The smallest cicadas are a litde less than
25 mm long. There are 157 species in 16 genera in the
United States.
A conspicuous characteristic of cicadas is their
ability to produce sound. Other Auchenorrhyncha (for
example, leafhoppers) can make sounds, but their
sounds are very weak and are detected through the
substrate. The sounds produced by cicadas are gener-
ally quite loud. The sounds are made by the males, and
each species has a characteristic songo Someone who is
familiar with these songs can identify the species by
song alone (Figure 22-44). Each species also produces
a somewhat different sound (a disturbance squawk or
"pro test" sound) when handled or disturbed, and some
species have a special song (termed a "courtship" song)
that is produced by a male approaching a female.
Typical cicada sounds are produced by a pair of
tymbals located dorsally at the sides of the basal ab-
dominal segment in males (Figure 22-45, tmb). The

Figure 22-44 Audiospectragraphs of ci-

cada calling songs. A, A dog-day cicada,
Tibicen chloromera (Walker), about two
~: 111111
11 111 seconds fram near the middle of the song;
S- . ! 11
4- ~ I ! I 1, 1 I
B, another dog-day cicada, sometimes called
3- the scissors-grinder cicada, T.pruinosa (Say),
2- a ponion of the song; C, a periodical cicada,
D
1- Magicicada septendecim (L.), the end of the
0.0 0:5 ú Ú 2.'0 song; D, a pan of the song of another peri-
TimeinSeconds odical cicada, M. cassini (Fisher).

j
306 Chapter 22 Order Hemiptera
Figure22-45 Thorax of a cicada (Magicicada), ventral
view,showing the sound-producing organs; the opercu-
lum at the right has been removed. ex, coxa; mem, mem-
brane; ap, operculum; stn, abdominal sternum; tmb, tym-
bal; tym, tympanum.
tymbals consist of a posterior plate and several riblike
bands lying in a membrane and are sometimes com-
pletely exposed above. In the dog-day cicadas (Tibicen
spp.) they are covered above by an abdominal flap. The
hearing organs, or tympana (tym), lie below the tym-
bals in a ventral cavity through which the tymbals or
tymbal spaces are exposed below. This space often has
a yellowish membrane (mem) connecting anteriorly to
the thorax and is covered over ventrally by a pair of
thoracic flaps called opercula (ap). Internally, the last
thoracic segment and up to five abdominal segments
are nearly entirely filled by a large tracheal air sac that
functions as a resonance chamber. A pair of large mus-
cles runs through this air sac from above the tympana
to the large plate of the tymbals, and their contractions
cause the ribs to bend suddenly and produce the
sounds. The air sacs and general body tension, plus
other structures, control the volume and quality of the
sounds. There are also stridulating and wing-banging
groups of cicadas, which produce their characteristic
sounds with their wings, sometimes in both sexes.
Two common types in this family are the dog-day
cicadas (various species) (Figure 22-43) and the peri-
odical cicadas (Magicieada). The dog-day cicadas are
mostly large blackish insects, usually with greenish
markings, that appear each year in july and August.
The periodical cicadas, which occur in the eastern
United States, differ from other eastern species in that
they have reddish eyes and wing veins, they are smaller
than most other eastern species, and the adults appear
in late May and early june. The life cycle of dog-day ci-
cadas is unknown, but two japanese woodland species
require 7 years to mature. The shortest known cicada
life cycle is 4 years, for a grassland species. In dog-day
cicadas, even with long life cycles, the generations
overlap so that some adults appear each year. The \ife
cycle of the periodical cicadas lasts 13 or 17 years, and
in any given area adults are not present each year.
There are at twelve broods of 17-year cicadas and
three of 13-year cicadas. These broods emerge as adults
in different years and have different geographic ranges.
The 17-year cicadas are generally northern and the 13-
year cicadas southern, but there is considerable overo
lap, and both life-cycle types may occur in the same
woods (but would emerge together only once every
221 years). The emergenceof some of the larger broods
is a very striking event, because the insects in these
broods may be extremely numerous-up to 3.6 million
per hectare.
There are seven species of periodical cicadas,
three with a 17-year cycle and four with a l3-year
cycle. The species in each life-cycle group differ in
size, color, and song (see Table 22-l). Each l7-year
species has a similar or sibling species with a l3-year
cycle, from which it can be separated only by differ.
ences in life cycle and distribution. Most broods of
each life-cycle type contain more than one species,
and many contain all three.
Most cicadas insert their eggs in living or dead
twigs of trees and shrubs, some in grasses and forbs.
Living twigs are usually so severely injured by this egg
laying that the terminal pan of the twig dies. The eggs
generally hatch in a month or so (some species overo
winter as eggs), and the nymphs drop to the ground,
enter the soil, and feed on roots, particularly of peren.
nial plants. The nymphs remain in the ground until
they are ready to molt the last (fifth) time. In the case
of the periodical cicadas, this period is 13 to 17 years.
When the last nymphal instar digs its way out of the
ground, it climbs up on some object, usually a tree,and
fastens its claws in the bark, and the final molt then
takes place. The adult stage lasts a month or more.
The principal damage done by cicadas is causedby
the egg laying of the adults. When the adults are nu.
merous, as in years when the periodical cicadas
emerge, they may do considerable damage to young
trees and nursery stock.
Family Membracidae-Treehoppers: Most members
of this group can be recognized by the large pronotum
that covers the head, extends back over the abdomen.
and often assumes peculiar shapes (Figure 22-46),
Many species appear more or less humpbacked. Othe~
have spines, horns, or keels on the prono tum, and
some species are shaped like thorns. The wingsare
largely concealed by the pronotum. These insectsare
rarely more than 10 or l2 mm long.
Treehoppers feed chiefly on trees and shrubs, and
most species feed only on specific types of host planli
Some species feed on grass and herbaceous plantsin
 Keyto the Familiesof Hemiptera 307

Jable22-1 Summaryof the PeriodicalCicadas{Magicicada)a

Characteristics 17 -Year Cycle 13- Year Cycle

Bodylength 27-33 mm Linnaeus' 17 -year cicada, Riley's l3-year cicada,

Propleuraand lateral extensions of pronotum between M. septendecim (L.) M. tredecim Walsh and Riley
eyesand wing bases reddish
Abdominal sterna primarily reddish brown or yellow
Song:"phaaaaaroah," a low buzz, 1-3 seconds in length,
with a drop in pitch at the end (Figure 22-44C)

Bodylength 20-28 mm Cassin's 17-year cicada, Cassin's l3-year cicada,

Propleura and lateral extensions of pronotum between M. cassini (Fisher) M. tredecassini Alexander
eyesand wing bases black
and Moore
Abdominal sterna all black, or a few with a narrow band
of reddish brown or yellow on apical third; this band
often constricted or interrupted medially
Lasttarsal segement with apical half or more black
Song:2-3 seconds of ticks alternating with 1- to
3-second buzzes that rise and then fall in pitch and
intensity (Figure 22-44D)

Bodylength 19-27 mm The liule 17 -year cicada, The liule l3-year cicada,
Propleura and lateral extensions of pronotum between M. septendecula Alexander M. tredecula Alexander and
and Moore Moore
eyesand wing bases black
Abdominal sterna black basally, with a broad apical band
of reddish yellow or brown on posterior half of each
stemum; this band not interrupted medially
Lasttarsal segment entirely brownish or yellowish or,
at most, the apical third black
Song:20-40 short high-pitched phrases, each like a
short buzz and tick delivered together, at the rate of
3-5 per second, the phrases shorter and lacking the
short buzz

'Data[10mAlexander and Moore (1962).

thenymphal stage. The treehoppers have one or two
generationsayear and usually pass the winter in the
eggstage.
Only a few species in this group are considered of
economicimportance, and most of their damage is
causedby egg laying. The buffalo treehopper, Sticto-
cephala bizonia Kopp and Yonke (Figure 22-46C), is a
commonpest species that lays its eggs in the twigs of
appleand several other trees. The eggs are placed in
slitscut in the bark, and the terminal portion of the
twigbeyond the eggs often dies. The eggs overwinter
andhatch in the spring, and the nymphs drop to herba-
ceousvegetation where they complete their develop-
ment,returning to the trees to lay their eggs.
FamilyAetalionidae:Two genera in this family oc-
curin North America: Microcentrus, which is widely
distributed, and Aetalion, which occurs in Florida,
southernArizona, and California. Microcentrus resem-
bles a membracid, but the pronotum has only a narrow
median backward-projecting process that extends a
short distance between the wings and only partly cov-
ers the scutellum (Figure n-13A). lt was formerly
placed in the subfamily Centrotinae of the Membraci-
dae, but Hamilton (1971) transferred it to the family
Aetalionidae. Aetalion resembles a large cercopid, but
lacks spines on the hind tibiae characteristic of that
group. The pronotum extends farther forward over
the head (Figure 22-13B), and the face is vertical. The
beak in the aetalionids extends to the hind coxae. The
beak is shorter in most other hoppers, but is even
longer in some cercopids (extending beyond the hind
coxae in Aphrophora of the Cercopidae). Microcentrus
caryae (Fitch), a widely distributed species, lives on
hickory, oak, and other trees. Aetalion also lives on
trees and is sometimes tended by ants or (in the trop-
ics) meliponine bees (Apidae).
308 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera

Figure
22-46 Treehoppers. A, Campylenchia latipes (Say); B, Thelia bimaculata
(Fabricius);e, Stictocephalabizonia(Koppand Yonke);D, EntyliaconcisaWalker;
E,Archasiagaleata(Fabricius).A, B, D, and E, lateralviews;e, dorsalview.

figure22-47 A froghopper, Philaenus spumarius (L.).
Family Cercopidae-Froghoppers or Spittlebugs:
Froghoppersare small, hopping insects, rarely over
13rnm long, so me species of which vaguely resemble
tioyfrogsin shape (Figure 22-47). They are very sim-
ilarto the leafhoppers, but can be distinguished by the
spioationof the hind tibiae (Figure 22-14A,B). They
Figure22-48 Foam mass of the spittlebug Philaenus spumarius (L.).
Keyto the Familiesof Hemiptera 309
are usually brown or gray. Some species have a charac-
teristic color pattern.
These insects feed on shrubs, trees, and herbaceous
plants, the different species feeding on different host
plants. The nymphs surround themselves with a frothy
mass (Figure 22-48) and are usually called "spittle-
bugs." These masses of foam are sometimes quite abun-
dant in meadows. Each mass contains one or more
greenish or brownish spittlebugs. After the last molt the
insect leaves the foam and moves about actively.
The foam is made from fluid voided from the anus
and from a mucilaginous substance secreted by the epi-
dermal glands on the seventh and eighth abdominal
segments. Air bubbles are introduced into the foam by
means of the caudal appendages of the insect. A spit-
tlebug usually rests head downward on the plant, and
as the foam forms, it flows down over and covers the
insect. It lasts some time, even when exposed to heavy
rains, and provides the nymph with a moist habitat.
The adults do not produce foam.
The most important economic species of spittle-
bug in the eastern states is Philaenus spumarius (L.)
(Figure 22-47), a meadow species that causes serious
stunting, particularly to cIovers. This insect lays its
eggs in late summer in the stems or sheaths of grasses
and other plants, and the eggs hatch the following
spring. There is one generation ayear. There are several
color forms of this species. Most of the spittlebugs at-
 310 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
,.. "
. v,
\
i'i¡n \ \
"j '
JI \\: \
" : I
\.
I ';I! \\
.
'(Jf
\\I;:f-J
\'D B W
e D
A poascafabae (Harris)
E F G H
tack grasses and herbaceous plants, but a few attack
trees; Aphrophorapermutata Uhler and A. saratogensis
(Fitch) are important pests of pine.
FamilyCicadellidae-Leafhoppers: The leafhoppers
constitute a very large group (about 2500 North Amer-
ican species), and they are of various forms, colors, and
sizes (Figure 22-49). They are similar to froghoppers
and aetalionids in the genus Aetalion, but they have
one or more rows of small spines extending the length
of the hind tibiae. They rarely exceed 13 mm long, and
many are only a few millimeters long. Many are
marked with a beautiful color pattern.
Leafhoppers live on almost all types of plants, in-
cluding forest, shade, and orchard trees, shrubs,
grasses, and many field and garden crops. They feed
principally on the leaves of their food plant. The food
of most species is quite specific, and the habitat is
therefore well defined. In many cases a specialist in this
group can examine a series of specimens taken in a
given habitat and can describe that habitat and often
determine the general regio n of the country from
which the specimens carne.
Most leafhoppers have a single generation ayear,
but a few have two or three. The winter is usually
passed in either the adult or the egg stage, depending
on the species.
......
T Figure22-49 Leafhoppers,
A, the potato leafhopper, Em-
(Typhlocy-
binae); B, Xerophloeamcyor
Baker (Ledrinae); C, Draecula-
cephala mollipes (Say) (Cicadelli-
nae); D, Hecalus lineatus (Uhler)
(Hecalinae); E, the beet leafhop-
per, Circulifer tenellus Baker (Del.
tocephalinae); F, Erythroneura
vitis (Harris) (Typhlocybinae);
G, Tylozygus bifidus (Say) (Ci-
cadellinae); H, Oncometopia un-
data (Fabricius) (Cicadellinae),
(Courtesy of the Illinois Natural
History Society.)
There are many economically important pes!
species in this group, and they cause five major types
of injury to plants. (1) Some species remove excessive
amounts of sap and reduce or destroy the chlorophyll
in the leaves, causing the leaves to become covered
with minute white or yellow Spots. With continued
feeding, the leaves turn yellowish or brownish. Ihis
type of injury is produced on apple leaves by various
species of Erythroneura, Typhlocyba, and Empoasca,
(2) Some species interfere with the normal physiology
of the plant, for example, by mechanically plugging the
phloem and xylem vessels in the leaves so that trans.
port of food materials is impaired. A browning of ¡he
outer portion of the leaf, and eventually of the entire
leaf, results. The potato leafhopper, Empoascafabae
(Harris) (Figure 22-49A), causes this type of injury.
(3) A few species injure plants by ovipositing in green
twigs, often causing the terminal portion of the twigs
to die. Various species of Gyponana cause damageor
this sort. Their egg punctures are similar to those of¡he
buffalo treehopper bu t smaller. (4) Many species of
leafhoppers act as vectors of the organisms that cause
plant diseases. Aster yellows, corn stunt, phloem
necrosis of elm, Pierce'sdisease of grape, phony peach,
potato yellow dwarf, curly top in sugar beets, andother
plant diseases are transmitted by leafhoppers, chiefiy
 Keyto the $ubfamilies of Cicadellidae 311

speciesin the subfamilies Agalliinae, Cicadellinae, and
Deltocephalinae.(5) Some species cause stunting and
lealcurlingthat result from the inhibition of growth on
theundersurface of the leaves where the leafhoppers
leed.The potato leafhopper, Empoasca fabae, also pro-
ducesinjury of this type.
Manyspecies of leafhoppers emit from the anus a
liquidcalled "honeydew." It consists of unused por-
tionsof plant sap to which are added certain waste
productsof the insect.
Many of the leafhoppers (as well as some of the
otherhoppers) produce sound (Ossiannilsson, 1949).
Thesesounds are all quite weak; some can be heard if
theinsect is held close to one's ear, whereas others can
onlybe heard when amplified. These sounds are pro-
ducedby the vibration of tymbals located dorsolaterally
allhebase of the abdomen (on the first or second seg-
ment).The tymbals are thin-walled areas of the body
wall,and are not very conspicuous from an external
view,The sounds produced by leafhoppers of the genus
Empoasca (Shawet al. 1974) are of up to fivetypes (de-
pendingon the species): one or two types of "common"
sounds,disturbance sounds, courtship sounds, and
soundsby the female. Most of these sounds are differ-
enlin different species and are believed to playa role in
speciesrecognition by the insects.
Some authorities have considered the leafhoppers
10represent a superfamily (the Cicadelloidea) and di-
videdthem into a number of families. The differences
belweenthese families are not as great as those be-
tweenthe families of Fulgoroidea, and most leafhopper
specialistsprefer to treat the leafhoppers as a single
lamilydivided into subfamilies. There are differences
olopinionas to the leafhopper subfamilies to recognize
andthe names to give them. The arrangement we fol-
lowin this book is outlined here, with other names and
arrangementsin parentheses. Following each subfam-
ily is a list of the genera in that group mentioned in this
book.
Family Cicadellidae
Ledrinae (Xerophloeinae)-Xerophloea
Dorycephalinae (Dorydiinae in part)-
Dorycephalus
Megophthalminae (Ulopinae; Agalliinae in part)
Agalliinae-Aceratagallia, Agallia, Agalliana,
Agalliopsis
Macropsinae-Macropsis
ldiocerinae (Eurymelinae)-Idiocerus
Gyponinae-Gyponana
lassinae (including Bythoscopinae)
Penthimiinae-Penthimia
Koebeliinae-Koebelia
Coelidiinae Oassinae)- Tinobregmus
Nioniinae-Nionia
Aphrodinae-Aphrodes
Xestocephalinae-Xestocephalus
Neocoelidiinae-Paracoelidia
Cicadellinae (Tettigellinae, Tettigoniellinae; in-
cluding Evacanthinae)-Agrosoma, Carneo-
cephala, Cuerna, Draeculacephala, Friscanus,
Graphocephala, Helochara, Homalodisca, Hord-
nia, Keonolla, Neokolla, Oncometopia, Pagaro-
nia, Sibovia, Tylozygus
Typhlocybinae (Cicadellinae)-Empoasca, Ery-
throneura, Kunzeana, Typhlocyba
Deltocephalinae (Athysaninae, Hecalinae Eusceli-
nae; including Balcluthinae)-Acinopterus,
Chlorotettix, Circulifer, Colladonus, Dalbulus,
Endria, Euscelidius, Euscelis, Excultanus,
Fieberiella, Graminella, Hecalus Macrosteles,
Norvellina, Paraphlepsius, Paratanus, Pseudotet-
tix, Scaphoideus, Scaphytopius, Scleroracus, Tex-
ananus

Keyto the Subfamiliesof Cicadellidae

1. Front wings without crossveins basad of apical crossveins (Figure 22-50F);

longitudinal veins indistinct basally; ocelli often absent; apex of first
segment of hind tarsus sharp-tipped; slender, fragile leafhoppers Typhlocybinae p.315
[', Front wings with crossveins basad of apical crossveins (Figure 22-50H);
longitudinal veins distinct basally; ocelli present; apex of first segment of
hind tarsus truncate; usually relatively robust leafhoppers 2
2(1'). Episterna of prothorax easily visible in anterior view,not largely
concealed by genae (Figure 22-50A, eps¡) 3
2', Episterna of prothorax largely or entirely concealed by genae in anterior
view (Figure 22-50B-E,G) 4

UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
312 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera

/ant
/

Figure22-50 Characters of leafhoppers. A, face of Xerophloeaviridis (Fabricius)

(Ledrinae); B, face of Paraphlepsiusirroratus (Say) (Deltocephalinae); C, face of Idioeems
altematus (Fitch) (Idiocerinae); D, face of Tinobregmusvittatus Van Duzee (Coelidiinae);
E, face of Sibovia oeeatoria (Say) (Cicadellinae); F,front wing of Kunzeana marginella
(Baker) (Typhlocybinae); G, face of Paraboloeratusviridis (Uhler) (Hecalinae); H, front
wing of Endria inimica (Say) (Deltocephalinae); 1, hind wing of Macropsisviridis (Fitch)
(Macropsinae); J, head, pronotum, and scutellum of Doryeephlusplatyrhynehus (Osborn),
dorsal view (Dorycephalinae); K, same, lateral view; L, head, pronotum, and scutellum
of Xerophloeaviridis (Fabricius), dorsal view (Ledrinae); M, hind wing of Aeeratagallia
sanguinolenta (Provancher) (Agalliinae). ant, antennae; AP, apical cells; clp, clypeus; clpl,
clypellus; eps" episternum of prothorax; ge, gena; oe, ocellus.
 Keyto the Subfamiliesof Cicadellidae 313

3(2), Ocelli on crown, remote from eyes and from anterior margin of crown
(Figure 22-50L); dorsum covered with rounded pits (Figure 22-49B) ledrinae p.314
3', Ocelli on lateral margins of head, just in front of eyes (Figure 22-50),K);
dorsum not covered with rounded pits Dorycephalinae p.314
4(2'). Ocelli on crown (usually disk of crown) , frontal sutures extending over
margin of crown nearly to ocelli; clypellus broad above and narrowed
below; clypeus usually swollen (Figure 22-50E) Cicadellinae p.315
4'. Without combination of characters in preceding entry 5
5(4'). Frontal sutures terrninating at or slightly above antennal pits, or ocelli
near disk of crown and remote from eyes, or both 6
5', Frontal sutures extending beyond antennal pits to or near ocelli, ocelli
never on disk of crown 11
6(5). Lateral margins of pronotum carinate, moderately long; ledge or carina
above antennal pits transverse or nearly so 7
6'. Lateral margins of pronotum short and not carinate, or only feebly so;
ledge above antennal pits, if present, oblique 9
7(6). Face in profile concave; front wings with appendix very large, first (¡nner)
apical celllarge (equal in area to second and third apical cells combined) Penthimiinae p.314
7'. Face in profile not concave, usually distinctly convex; front wings with
appendix normal or small, first apical cell not enlarged 8
8(7'). Ocelli on crown, usually remote from anterior margin of head Gyponinae p.314
8', Ocelli on anterior margin of crown lassinae p.314
9(6'). Hind wings always present, with 3 apical cells (Figure 22-501, AP);
pronotum extending forward beyond anterior margins of eyes; distance
between ocelli usually greater than twice the distance from ocellus to eye Macropsinae p.314
9'. Hind wingspresentor absent,if presentwith 4 apicalcells
(Figure 22-50M, AP); pronotum not extending forward beyond anterior
margins of eyes; distance between ocelli not more than twice distance
from ocellus to eye 10
10(9'). Face with carinae replacing frontal sutures above antennal pits; western
United States Megophthalminae p.314
lO'. Face without such carinae; widely distributed Agalliinae p.314
11(5'). Dorsum with circular pits; pronotum extending forward beyond anterior
margins of eyes; shining black leafhoppers Nioniinae p.315
11'. Dorsum without such pits; pronotum not extending forward beyond
anterior margins of eyes; color variable 12
12(11'). Distance between ocelli less than distance between antennal pits, or
clypellus much wider distally than basally and extending to or beyond
apex of genae 13
12', Distance between ocelli equal LOor greater than distance between
antennal pits, or clypellus parallel-sided and usually not extending LO
apex of genae 14
13(12). Clypeus long and narrow, of nearly uniform width (Figure 22-50D);
crown not wider than eye; costal margin of hind wings of macropterous
forrns expanded for short distance near base; head narrower than
pronotum Coelidiinae p.315
13'. Clypeus short, broad, wider above (Figure 22-50C); crown wider than
eye; costal margin of hind wings not expanded basally; head usually
wider than pronotum Idiocerinae p.314
314 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera

14(12/). Oeelli on face Koebeliinae p.314

14/. Ocelli on or near margin of head 15
15(14/). Clypeus extended laterally over bases of antennae, thus forming relatively
deep antennal pits; smallleafhoppers with head rounded, eyes small,
clypeus ovate, antennae near margin of eyes, and ocelli distant from eyes Xestocephalinae p.315
15/. Clypeus not extended laterally over bases of antennae to form antennal
pits; variable leafhoppers, but not having combination of characters in
preceding entry 16
16(15/). Distinct ledge or carina above each antennal pit 17
16'. Without ledge or carina above each antennal pit Deltocephalinae p.315
17(16). Ledge above each antennal pit oblique; faee strongly eonvex (viewed
from above) Neocoelidiinae p.315
17/. Ledge above eaeh antennal pit transverse; faee broad and relatively flat Aphrodinae p.315

Subfamily ledrinae: This group is represented in
North America by about eight species of Xerophloea.
They are grass feeders and sometimes beeome pests of
forage erops. They have the dorsum eovered with nu-
merous pits, and the oeelli are on the disk of the erown
(Figure 22-49B).
Subfamily Dorycephalinae: This is another small
group (about nine North American species) of grass
feeders, and they are ehieOy southern in distribu-
tion. They are elongate and somewhat Oattened. The
head is long, with the margin thin and foliaeeous
(Figure 22-50],K).
Subfamily Megophthalminae: The members of this
small group (seven North American species) are
known only from California. Their food plants are un-
known.
Subfamily Agalliinae: This is a fairIy large group
(about 70 North American species) in which the head
is short, the ocelli are on the face, and the frontal su-
tures terminate at the antennal pits. The food habits of
these leafhoppers are rather varied. A few species in
this group act as veetors of plant diseases. For example,
species of Aceratagallia, Agallia, and Agalliopsis serve
as vectors of potato yellow dwarf.
Subfamily Macropsinae: In this group (more than
50 North American species) the head is short and
broad, and the oeelli are on the face. The anterior mar-
gin of the pronotum extends forward beyond the ante-
rior margins of the eyes. The dorsal surface, from the
crown to the scutellum, is somewhat roughened-
rugulose, punetate, or striate. These leafhoppers feed
on trees and shrubs.
Subfamily Idiocerinae:This group (about 75 North
American species) is similar to the Macropsinae, but
the pronotum do es not extend forward beyond the an-
terior margins of the eyes. These leafhoppers also [eed
on trees and shrubs.
Subfamily Gyponinae: This is a large group (more
than 140 North American species) of relatively robust
and somewhat flattened leafhoppers, which have their
ocelli on the crown remo te from their eyes and baek
from the anterior margin of the head. The crown is
variable in shape and may be produced and foliaeeous
or short and broadly rounded in front. Some species
feed on herbaceous plants, and others feed on trees and
shrubs. One species, Gyponana angulata (Spangberg),
acts as a vector of aster yellows, and another, G. lamina
DeLong, acts as a vector of peach X-disease.
Subfamily lassinae: These leafhoppers are relatively
robust and somewhat flattened, with a short head and the
ocelli on the anterior margin of the crown, about midway
between the eyes and the apex of the head. The group is
small (23 North American species), and its members live
chiefly in the West. Uttle is known about their [ood
plants; but some species are known to feed on shrubs.
Subfamily Penthimiinae: This group is represemed
in North America by only two species of Penthimia,
which OCCUTin the East. They are short, oval, and
somewhat flattened. The ocelli are located on the
crown about halfway between the eyes and the midline,
and the front wings are broad with a large appendix.
Their food plants are not known.
Subfamily Koebeliinae:This group is represented in
the United States by fOUTspecies of Koebelia, whieh oe-
CUTin the West and feed on pine. The head is wider
than the pronotum, and the crown is flat with a [olia.
ceous margin and a broad, shallow furrow in the mid-
line. The ocelli are on the face.

Subfamily Coelidiinae: This is a small group (10
NonhAmerican species) of relatively large and robust
leafhoppers.The clypeus is long and narrow and of
nearlyuniform width (Figure 22-50D; in most other
leafhoppers,the clypeus is wider dorsally). The head is
narrowerthan the pronotum, with the eyes large and
thecrownsmall, and the ocelli are on the anterior mar-
~nofthecrown. This group is mainly Neotropical, and
itsknown food plants are shrubs and herbaceous
plants.
Subfamily Nioniinae: This group is represented in
~orthAmericaby a single species, Nionia palmeri (Van
Duzee),which occurs in the southern states. Its food
plantsarenot known. This leafhopper is shining black,
withthe crown short and broad, and with the ocelli on
theanterior margin and distant from the eyes. The an-
teriormargin of the pronotum extends forward beyond
theanterior margins of the eyes, and the anterior part
ofthedorsum bears numerous circular pits.
Subfamily Aphrodinae: This is a small group (six
~onhAmerican species), but its members are common
andwidely distributed. They are short, broad, and
somewhatflattened, with the ocelli on the anterior
margin ofthe crown. The head and pronotum are rugu-
loseor coarsely granulate. Species of Aphrodes are
knownto act as vectors of aster yellows, clover stunt,
andc\over phyllody.
Subfamily Xestocephalinae: This is a small group
species of Xestocephalus) but a widely distrib-
(three
utedone, whose members are small and robust, with
theheadand eyes small. The crown is rounded anteri-
orly,with the ocelli on the anterior margino
SubfamilyNeocoelidiinae: This is a small group (26
Nonh American species), and many of its members are
elongate in formo The face is strongly convex,
rather
andtheocelli are on the crown near the anterior mar-
~nandthe eyes. Some species (Paracoelidia) live on
pine.
SubfamilyCicadellinae: This is a fairly large group
hundred North American species), with many
(nearlya
common species. Most species are relatively large, and
someare rather robust. The ocelli are on the crown,
andthe frontal sutures extend over the margin of the
head nearlyto the ocelli. Some members of this group
verystrikingly colored. One of our largest and most
are
common species is Graphocephala coccinea (Foerster),
is similar in size and shape to Draeculacephala
which
mollipes(Say)(Figure 22-49C), but has the wings red-
d~hstriped with bright green. The nymphs of this
species
are bright yellow. This species is often found on
and other ornamental shrubs. Many species
lorsythia
IDthisgroupserve as vectors of plant disease: species
ofCameocephala,Cuerna, Draeculacephala, Friscanus,
Graphocephala,
Helochara, Homalodisca, Neoholla, On-
cometopia,
and Pagaronia serve as vectors of Pierce's
Keyto the Subfamiliesof Cicadellidae 315
disease of grape; and species of Draeculacephala,
Graphocephala,Homalodisca,and Oncometopiaserve as
vectors of phony peach.
Subfamily Typhlocybinae:This is a large group
(more than 700 North American species, more than
half of which are in the genus Erythroneura) of small,
fragile, and often brightly colored leafhoppers (Fig-
ure 22-49A,F). The ocelli may be present or absent,
and the venation of the front wings is somewhat re-
duced, with no crossveins except in the apical portion.
The food plants are varied. This group includes a num-
ber of pest species in the genera Empoasca, Ery-
throneura, and Typhlocyba.
Subfamily Deltocephalinae:This is the largest sub-
family ofleafhoppers (more than ll50 North American
species), and its members vary in form and food plants.
The ocelli are always on the anterior margin of the
crown, and there is no ledge above the antennal pits.
Many members of this group are important vectors of
plant diseases. Aster yellows is transmitted by species
of Scaphytopius,Macrosteles,Paraphlepsius, and Tex-
ananus. Curly top of sugar beets is transmitted by Cir-
culifer tenellus (Baker). Phloem necrosis of elm is trans-
mitted by Scaphoideus luteolus Van Duzee. Clover
phyllody is transmitted by species of Macrosteles,
Chlorotettix, Colladonus, and Euscelis. Corn stunt is
transmitted by species of Dalbulus and Graminella.
SUPERFAMILY Fulgoroidea-Planthoppers: This is a
large group, but its members are seldom as abundant as
the leafhoppers or froghoppers. The species in the
United States are usually no more than lOor 12 mm
long, but some tropical speciesreach a length of 50 mm
or more. Many of the planthoppers have the head pecu-
liarly modified, with that part in front of the eyes greatly
enlarged and more or less snoutlike (Figure 22-51, es-
pecially G-I).
The planthoppers differ from the leafhoppers in
having only a few large spines on the hind tibiae and
from both the leafhoppers and the froghoppers in hav-
ing the antennae arising below the compound eyes.
The ocelli are usually located immediately in front of
the eyes, on the side (rather than the front or dorsal
surface) of the head (Figure 22-9C). There is often a
sharp angle separating the side of the head (where the
compound eyes, antennae, and ocelli are located) and
the front.
The food plants of these insects range from trees
and shrubs to herbaceous plants and grasses. The
planthoppers feed on the plant juices and, like many
other Auchenorrhyncha and Sternorrhyncha, produce
honeydew. Many of the nymphal forms are ornamented
with wax filaments. Very few planthoppers cause eco-
nomic damage to cultivated plants.
Family Delphacidae:This is the largest family of
planthoppers, and its members can be recognized by
316 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera

A B e D

Figure22-51 Planthoppers. A, OecleusborealisVan Duzee (Cixiidae); B, Stemocranus

dorsalis Fitch (Delphacidae); C, Catonia impunctata (Fitch) (Achilidae); D, Cixius angus-
tatus Caldwell (Cixiidae); E, Acanalonia bivittata (Say) (Acanaloniidae); F, Anormenis
septentrionalis (Spinola) (Flatidae); G, H, and 1, Scolopsperdix Uhler (Dictyopharidae),
dorsal, lateral, and ventral views; J, Libumiella omata (Still) (Delphacidae); K, Apache
degeerii (Kirby) (Derbidae); L, Fitchiella robertsoni (Fitch) (Issidae); M, Cyrpoptus bel-
fragei Still (Fulgoridae). (Courtesy of Osborn and the Ohio Biological Survey.)

the large, flattened spur at the apex of the hind tibiae
(Figure 22-lOC, sp). Most species are small, and many
have reduced wings. The sugarcane leafhopper, Perkin-
siella saccharicida Kirkaldy, which at one time was a
very destructive pest in Hawaii, is a member of this
family.
Family Derbidae:These planthoppers are princi-
pally tropical and feed on woody fungí. Most species
are elongate with long wings and are rather delicatein
build (Figure 22-S1K).
Family Cixiidae:This is one of the larger families
or
planthoppers. Its members are widely distributed, bUI
most species are tropical. Some species are subterranean
feeders on the roots of grasses during their nympbal
stage. The wings are hyaline and frequently ornamented
with spots along the veins (Figure 22-S1A,D).

L
 Keyto the Subfamilies of Cicadellidae 317

Family Kinnaridae:These planthoppers resemble

theCixiidae, but are quite small and have no dark
spots onthe wings. Our six species (Oeclidius)occur in
theSouthwest, but some West Indies species may oc-
curin southem Florida.
FamilyDictyopharidae: The members of this group
arechiefly grass feeders and are generally found in
meadows.The most common eastern members of this
group(Scolops,Figure 22-5IG-I) have the head pro-
longed anteriorly into a long, slender process. Other
dictyopharidshave the anterior portion of the head
somewhattriangularly produced or not at all produced.
FamilyFulgoridae:This group contains some of the A 8
brgestplanthoppers, some tropical species having a
wingspreadof about 150 mm. The largest North Amer-
icanfulgorids have a wingspread of a liule more than Figure22-52 The alder psyllid, Psyllafloccosa (Patch).
25mmand a body length of about 13 mm. Some trop- A, groups of nymphs on alder (these groups form white
icalspecies have the head greatly inflated anteriorly, cottony masses on the twigs, particularly at the base of
producinga peanutlike process. Early entomologists, leaf petioles); B, a newly emerged adult; below the adult is
havingnever seen living specimens, believed this to be the cast skin af the nymph, still covered with the cattony
luminous,thereby giving rise to the name "lantem- secretions characteristic af the nymphs of this species.
fiíes"for these insects. Most North American species
(Iorexample, Figure 22-5IM) have a short head. The
membersof this family can generally be recognized by
thereticulated anal area of the hind wings. quite sedentary. The tarsi are one- or two-segmented,
FamilyAchilidae:These planthoppers can usually and the antennae (when present) are usually long and
berecognized by their overlapping front wings (Fig- filiform. Many members of this suborder are wingless,
ure22-5IC). Most species are brownish, and vary in and some scale insects lack legs and antennae and are
lengthfrom about 4 to lO mm. The nymphs usually not very insectlike in appearance.
liveunder loose bark or in a depression in dead wood. Family Psyllidae-Jumping Plantlice or psyllids:
FamilyTropiduchidae: This is a tropical group, but These insects are small, 2-5 mm long, and usually re-
three specieshave been found in Florida and the fam- semble miniature cicadas in form (Figures 22-52B,
ílyextendsas far west as Louisiana. The most common 22-53, 22-54B). They are somewhat similar to the
isprobably Pelitropis rotulata Van Duzee, which has aphids, but have strong jumping legs and relatively
threelongitudinal keels on the vertex, pronotum, and long antennae. The adults of both sexes are winged,
scutellum,those on the scutellum meeting anteriorly. and the beak is short and three-segmented. The
FamilyFlatidae:These planthoppers have a wedge- nymphs of many species produce large amounts of
shapedappearance when at rest (Figure 22-5IF), and a white waxy secretion, causing them to superficially
rhereare usually numerous crossveins in the costal area resemble the woolly aphids. The jumping plantlice
afthefront wings. Most species are either pale green or feed on plant juices, and as in the case of most of the
darkbrown. They appear to feed chiefly on vines, Stemorrhyncha, the food-plant relationships are quite
shrubs,and trees and are usually found in wooded areas. specific.
Family Acanaloniidae:These planthoppers are
somewhatsimilar to the Flatidae, but have a slightly
differentshape (Figure 22-5IE), and they do not have
many crossveinsin the costal area of the front wings.
Theseplanthoppers are usually greenish, with brown
markingsdorsally.
Family Issidae:This is a large and widely distrib-
utedgroup.Most of them are dark-colored and rather
stockyin build, and some have short wings and a
weevil-likesnout (Figure 22-51L).
SUBORDER Sternorrhyncha:The members of this Figure 22-53 The potato psyllid, Paratrioza cockerelli
suborderare for the most part relatively inactive in- (Sulc). (Caurtesy of Knowlton and Janes and the Ento-
sects,and some (for example, most scale insects) are mological Society af America.)
318 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera

. <=
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Figure22-54 A, galls of Pachypsylla celtidismamma (Riley) on hackberry; B, adult of

Pachypsylla sp., 201/2X.

Two important pest species in this group, the

pear psylla, Cacopsylla pyricola (Foerster), and the
apple sucker, Cacopsylla mali (Schmidberger), have
be en imported from Europe. A western species, the
potato or tomato psyllid, Paratrioza cockerelli (Sule)
(Figure 22-53), transmits a virus that causes psyllid
yellows in potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, and egg-
plants. This disease reduces yield by dwarfing and
discoloring the plant.
The cottony alder psyllid, Psylla Jloccosa(Patch),
is a common member of this group in the Northeast.
The nymphs feed on alder and produce large amounts
of wax, and groups of the nymphs on alder twigs re-
semble masses of cotton (Figure 22-52A). These in-
sects may sometimes be confused with the woolly alder
aphid, Prociphilus tessellatus (Fitch). The psyllid is to
be found on the alder only during the early part of the
summer, but the aphid occurs up until falloThe adults
of the cottony alder psyllid (Figure 22-52B) are pale
green.
A few of the psyllids are gall-making forms.
Speciesof Pachypsyllaproduce small gallson the leaves Figure22-55 "Pupae" of mulberry whiteflies, Tetraleu.
of hackberry (Figure 22-54). mori (Quaintance).
rodes
FamilyAleyrodidae-Whiteflies: The whiteflies are
minute insects, rarely more than 2 or 3 mm long, that
resemble tiny moths. The adults of both sexes are
winged, and the wings are covered with a white dust or early instars are usually called larvae. The next-to-the.
waxy powder. The adults are usually active whitish in- last instar is quiescent and is usually called a pupa.The
sects that feed on leaves. wings are everted at the molt of the last larval instar.
The metamorphosis of whiteflies is somewhat The whiteflies are most abundant in the tropics
different from that of most other Hemiptera. The first- and subtropics, and the most important pest speciesin
instar young are active, but subsequent immature in- the United States are those that attack citrus trees and
stars are sessile and look like scales. The scalelike greenhouse plants. The damage is done by sucking sap
covering is a waxy secretion of the insect and has a from the leaves. One of the most serious pests in this
rather characteristic appearance (Figure 22-55). The group is Aleurocanthus woglumi Ashby, which attacks
wings develop internally during metamorphosis, and the citrus trees and is well established in the West lndies

and Mexico. An objectionable sooty fungus often
grows on the honeydew excreted by whiteflies and in-
terfereswith photosynthesis. This fungus is more
prevalentin the South and in the tropics than in the
North.
FamilyAphididae-Aphidsor Plantlice:The aphids
constitutea large group of small, soft-bodied insects
thatare frequently found in large numbers sucking the
sapfram the stems or leaves of plants. Such aphid
groups often include individuals in all stages of devel-
opmen!.The members of this family can usually be rec-
ognizedby their characteristic pearlike shape, a pair of
corniclesat the posterior end of the abdomen, and the
[airlylong antennae. Winged forms can usually be rec-
ognizedby the venation and the relative size of the
[rontand hind wings (Figure 22-14C). The wings at
restaregenerallyheld verticallyabove the body.
Ihe cornicles of aphids are tubelike structures
arisingfrom the dorsal side of the fifth or sixth ab-
dominalsegment. These cornicles secrete a defensive
fluidoIn some species the body is more or less covered
withwhite waxy fibers, secreted by dermal glands.
Aphidsalso excrete honeydew, from the anus; the hon-
eydew consistsmainly of excess sap ingested by the in-
sect,to which are added excess sugars and waste mate-
rial.Ihis honeydew may be produced in sufficient
quantitiesto cause the surface of objects beneath to be-
comesticky. Honeydew is a favorite food of many ants,
andsome species, such as the corn root aphid, Anu-
WINTER
LaYeggs~
apple twigs
,/
Mate
A Give birth to
AUTUMN
I \
Migrate to
apple ~ winged females
\
Winged females
Winged males
" rI
~ Several generations
of wingless fe males
/
SUMMER
Keyto the Subfamilies of Cicadellidae 319
raphis maidiradicis (Forbes), are tended like cows by
certain species of ants.
The life cycle of many aphids is rather unusual
and complex (Figure 22-56). Most species overwinter
in the egg stage, and these eggs hatch in the spring into
females that reproduce parthenogenetically and give
birth to living young. Several generations may be pro-
duced during the season in this way, with only females
being produced and the young being born alive. The
first generation or two usually consist of wingless indi-
viduals, but eventually winged individuals appear. In
many species these winged forms migrate to a different
host plant, and the reproductive process continues. In
the latter part of the season, the aphids migrate back to
the original host plant species, and a generation con-
sisting of both males and females appears. The individ-
uals of this bisexual generation mate, and the females
lay the eggs, which overwinter.
This method of reproduction can build up enor-
mous populations of aphids in a relatively short time.
The aphids would be a great deal more destructive to
vegetation were it not for their numerous parasites and
predators. The principal parasites of aphids are bra-
conids and chalcidoids, and the most important preda-
tors are ladybird beetles, lacewings, and the larvae of
some syrphid flies.
This family contains a number of serious pests of
cultivated plants. Aphids cause a curling or wilting of
the food plant by their feeding, and they serve as vec-
Hatch to When buds
wingless females burst
\
WI"gl~rKspRING
Give birth to
Migrate to
narrowleaf
/
plantain
Figure22-56 Diagrarn of the lHe history of the rosy
apple aphid, Dysaphis plantaginea (Passerini).
320 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
tors of a number of important plant diseases. Several
diseases are transmitted by aphids, including the mo-
saics of beans, sugarcane, and cucumbers, by species of
Aphis, Macrosiphum, and Myzus; beet mosaic by Aphis
rumicis L.; and cabbage ring spot, crucifer mosaic, and
potato yellow dwarf by Myzus persicae (Sulzer).
The rosy apple aphid, Dysaphis plantaginea
(Passerini), overwinters on apple and related trees and
passes the early summer generations there, then mi-
grates to the narrowleaf plantain as the secondary host.
Later in the season it migrates back to apple trees (Fig-
ure 22-56). The apple grain aphid, Rhopalosiphum
fitchii (Sanderson), has apple as its primary host plant
and migrates in early summer to grasses, including
wheat and oats. Other species of importance are the ap-
pie aphid, Aphis pomi DeGeer; the cotton aphid (or
melon aphid), A. gossypii Glover; the potato aphid,
Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas); the rose aphid,
M. rosae(L.); the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris);
and the cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae (L.). The
largest aphid in the East is the giant bark aphid,
Longistigma caryae (Harris), 6 mm long, which feeds
on hickory, sycamore, and other trees (Figure 22-57 A).
The com root aphid, Anuraphis maidiradicis
(Forbes), is sometimes a serious pest of com, and it has
an interesting relationship with ants. The eggs of this
aphid pass the winter in the nests of field ants, chiefly
those in the genus Lasius. In the spring, the ants carry
the young aphids to the roots of smartweed and other
weeds, where the aphids feed. Later in the season, the
ants transfer the aphids to the roots of como When the
aphid eggs are laid in the fall, they are gathered by the
- --
I
I
A giant willow aphid, Lachnus salignus
ants and stored in their nest for the winter. AlI during
the season, the aphids are tended by the ants, which
transfer them fram one food plant to another. The ants
feed on the honeydew produced by the aphids.
In the woolly and gall-making aphids (Eriosomati-
nae), the comicles are reduced or absent and wax glands
are abundant. The sexual forms lack mouthparts, and
the ovipositing female produces only one egg. Nearlyall
members of this family alterna te between host plants.
The primary host (on which the overwintering eggs are
laid) is usually a tree or shrub, and the secondary hostis
a herbaceous plant. These aphids may feed either on the
roots of the host plant or on the part of the plant above
the ground. Many species produce galls or malfonna-
tions of the tissues of the primary host, but usually do
not produce galls on the secondary host.
The woolly apple aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum
(Hausmann) (Figure 22-58), is a common and impor-
tant example of this group. This species feeds princi-
pally on the roots and bark and can be recognized by
the characteristic woolly masses of wax on its body.
These aphids usually overwinter on elm, and the first
generations of the season are spent on that hos!. In
early summer, winged forms appear and migrate to ap-
pie, hawthom, and related trees. Later in the season
some of these migrate back to elm, where the bisexual
generation is produced and the overwintering eggs are
laido Other individuals migrate fram the branches of
the apple tree to the roots, where they produce gall-like
growths. The raot-inhabiting forms may remain therea
year or more, passing through several generations. Ihis
aphid transmits perennial canker.
2i
c:
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Q.
o
Q;
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'"
'"
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c:
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-c
~ Figure22-57 A, a colonyof
~ apterous females and nymphs of ¡he
giant bark aphid, Longistigma caryae
(Harris); B, a winged female of ¡he
(Gmelin).

Figure22-58 A colony of woolly apple aphids, Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausman).
The woolly alder aphid, Prociphilus tessellatus
(Fitch),
is often found in dense masses on the branches
ofalderand maple. All the generations may be passed
00alder,or the species may overwinter on maple and
migrate
to alder in the summer and then back to maple
inthefall,where the sexual forms are produced. The
speciesmay overwinter in either the egg or the
nymphal stage.
Someof the more common gall-making species in
thisgroupare Colophaulmicola (Fitch), which causes
thecockscomb gall on e!m leaves (Figure 22-59A);
Honnaphis hamamelidis(Fitch), which causes the cone
gall
onthe leaves of witch haze!; Hamamelistes spinosus
Ihimer,which forms a spiny gall on the flower buds of
witchhaze! (Figure 22-59B); and Pemphigus populi-
Iransversus
Riley, which forms a marble-shaped gall on
thepetiolesof poplar leaves (Figure 22-59C).
FamilyAdelgidae-Pine and Spruce Aphids: The
membersof this group feed only on conifers. They
lorm cone-shapedgalls on spruce and, on other hosts,
occur as white cottony tufts on the bark, branches,
twigs,needles, or cones, depending on the species.
Most speciesalternate between two different conifers
Keyto the Subfamilies of Cicadellidae 321
in their \ife history, forming galls only on the primary
host tree (spruce). All the females are oviparous. The
antennae are five-segmented in the winged forms, four-
segmented in the sexual forms, and three-segmented in
the wingless, panhenogenetically reproducing females.
The body is often covered with waxy threads, and
the wings at rest are he!d rooflike over the body. Cu¡
and CU2 in the front wing are separated at the base
(Figure 22-12E).
The eastern spruce gall aphid, Adelgesabietis (L.),
is a fairly common species attacking spruce in south-
eastern Canada and the northeastern pan of the United
States and forming pineapple-shaped galls on the twigs
(Figure 22-60). lt has two generations ayear, and both
generations consist entire!y of females. There is no bi-
sexual generation. Both generations \ive on spruce.
Partly grown nymphs pass the winter attached lO the
base of spruce buds. The nymphs mature into females
the following April or May and lay their eggs at the
base of the buds. The feeding of these females on the
needles of the new shoots causes the needles to swell.
The eggs hatch in about a week, and the nymphs settle
on the needles that have become swollen by the
322 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera

sc:
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."c: Figure22-59 Aphid galls. A, elm
'"
.c:
¡:
cockscomb gall, caused by Colopha u/mi-
'"
~ cola (Fitch); B, spiny bud gall of witch
Q)
c::
hazel, caused by Hamamelistes spinosus
~
B
Shimer; e, leaf petiole gall of poplar,
O§¡ caused by Pemphigus populitransversus
<!
o Riley; D, vagabond gall of poplar, caused
:E
o
by Pemphigus vagabundus Walsh.

mother's feeding. The twig swelling continues and a
gall is formed, and the nymphs complete their devel-
opment in cavities in the gallo Later in the summer,
winged females emerge from the galls and lay their eggs
on the needles of nearby branches. These eggs hatch,
and the nymphs overwinter.
This group contains two genera, Adelges and
Pineus, whose members attack spruce and various
other conifers. Perhaps the most important species in
the West is the Cooley spruce gall aphid, Adelges coo-
leyi (Gillette), which is also widely distributed in east-
ern North America and in Europe. The galls of this
species on spruce are 12-75 mm long and light green
to dark purple, and each chamber in the gall contains
from 3 to 30 wingless aphids. The alterna te host of this
species in the West is Douglas fir, where the insects
form white, cottony tufts on new needles, shoots, and
developing cones. Asevere infestation may causea
heavy shedding of foliage, and the damage, particularly
in Christmas tree areas, may be considerable.
Family Phylloxeridae-Phylloxerans: The antennae
in this group are three-segmented in all forms, and ¡he
wings at rest are held fiat over the body. CUt and Cu¡in
the front wing are stalked at the base (Figure 22-l2C).
These insects do not produce waxy threads, but some
species are covered with a waxy powder. The phyllox.
erans feed on plants other than conifers, and the !ife
history is often very complex.
The grape phylloxera, Daktulosphaira vitifoliae
(Fitch), is a common and economically importaD!
species in this group. This minute form attacks both
the leaves and the roots of grape, forming small galk
on the leaves (Figure 22-61) and gall-like swellingson
the roots. The European grapes are much more suscep-
 Keyto the $ubfamiliesof Cicadellidae 323

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§. <C(¡;
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OU
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'" eO)
-'=
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Figure22-60 Eastern spruce gall, caused by Adelges ~
a,
abictus(L.). <C
o
:;:
o

tibleto the attacks of this insect than are the native Figure22-62 Galls of the hickory gall aphid, Phyllox-
era caryaecaulis (Fitch). A, gall on a hickory leaf; B, two
Americangrapes.
galls cut open lO show the insects inside.
Some of the phylloxerans produce galls on trees.
Onesuchspecies occurring in the East is the hickory gall
aphid,Phylloxera caryaecaulis (Fitch) (Figure 22-62).
These gallsreach a diameter of 16-18 mm, and each con-
tainsa large number of aphids.

$
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~ Figure22-61 Gallson grape leaves
! caused by the grape phylloxera,
g Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (Fitch).
324 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
SUPERFAMILY Coccoidea-Scale Insects: This is a
large group and contains forms that are minute and
highly specialized. Many are so modified that they look
very little like other Hemiptera. Therefore, some au-
thors treat them as a suborder (Coccinea).
The females are wingless and usually legless and
sessile, and the males have only a single pair of wings
or, rarely, are wingless. The adult males lack mouth-
parts and do not feed; the abdomen terminates in one
(rarely two) long, stylelike process (Figure 22-63A);
and the hind wings are reduced to small, halterelike
processes that usually terminate in a hooked bristle.
The antennae of the female may be lacking or may have
up to 11 segments; the antennae of the male have
10-25 segments. Male scale insects look very much
like small gnats, but they can usually be recognized by
the absence of mouthparts and the presence of a style-
like process at the end of the abdomen.
e D
The development of scale insects varies somewhat
in different species, but in most cases it is rather com-
plexo The first-instar nymphs have legs and antennae
and are fairly active insects; they are often called
"crawlers." After the first molt, the legs and antennae
are often lost and the insect becomes sessile, and a
waxy or scalelike covering is secreted and covers the
body. In the armored scales (Diaspididae), this cover-
ing is separated from the body of the insect. The fe-
males remain under the scale covering when they be-
come adults to lay eggs or produce live young there.
The males develop much like the females, except that
the last instar preceding the adult stage is quiescent
and is often called a pupa. The wings develop exter-
nally in the pupa.
Family Margarodidae-Giant Coccids and Ground
Pearls: This family contains about 45 North American
species and includes some of the largest species in the
Figure 22-63 Stages of the oystershell
scale, Lepidosaphesulmi eL.). A, adult
male; B, newly hatched young, or
crawler; C, adult female; D, scale of
female.

superfamily. Some species of Llaveia and Callipappus
mayreacha length of about 25 mm. The name "ground
pearls"comes from the pearl-like appearance of the
waxcysts of females in the genus Margarodes, which
liveon the roots of plants. The cysts of tropical Llaveia
speciesare used in making varnish. The cottony cush-
ionscale, Icerya purchasi Maskell, is an important pest
ofcitrusin the West. Several species in the genus Mat-
sucoccusare pests of pines.
Figure22-64 A, an ensign scale, Orthezia solidaginis
(Sanders),female; B, bur oak scale, Nanokermes pubescens
(Bogue).(A, redrawn from Sanders; B, courtesy of the
OhioAgriculturalResearch and Development Center.)
Figure22-65 The citrus mealybug, Planococcuscitri (Risso).
Keyto the Subfamilies of Cieadellidae 325
Family Ortheziidae-Ensign sea les: The females in
this group are distinctly segmented, elongate-oval, and
covered with hard, white, waxy plates (Figure 22-64A).
Some carry a white egg sac at the posterior end of the
body. These insects may live on almost any part of the
host plant, including roots. There are 31 species of en-
sign scales in the United States, 21 of which are in the
genus Orthezia. One of these, O. insignis Browne, is a
common and important greenhouse pest.
Family Pseudococcidae-Mealybugs: The name
"mealybug" is derived from the mealy or waxy secre-
tions that cover the bodies of these insects. The body
of the female is elongate-oval, segmented, and has
well-developed legs (Figure 22-65). Some species lay
eggs, and others give birth to living young. When eggs
are laid, they are placed in loose, cottony wax. Mealy-
bugs may be found on almost any part of the host
planto
This is a large group, with about 240 species in
North America. There are several important pest
species in this group. The citrus mealybug, Planococcus
citri (Risso), is a serious pest of citrus and also attacks
greenhouse plants. The longtailed mealybug, Pseudo-
coccus longispinus (Targioni- Tozzetti), is often found in
greenhouses, where it attacks a variety of plants. The
obscure mealybug, Pseudococcus affinis (Maskell), is a
widespread pest on both woody and herbaceous plants.
This family includes the tamarisk manna scale,
Trabutina mannipara (Ehrenberg), which is believed to
have produced the manna mentioned in the Bible. This
species feeds on plants in the genus Tamarix, and the
females excrete large amounts of honeydew. In arid re-
gions the honeydew solidifies on the leaves and accu-
326 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
mulates in thick layers to form a sweet, sugarlike ma-
terial called manna.
Family Erioeoecidae-Felt Seales: These insects are
similar to the pseudococcids, but the body is bare or
only lightly covered with wax. The female and her eggs
are often entirely enclosed in a feltlike saco This is a
widely distributed group, with about 55 species in the
United States. The European elm scale, Gossyparia
spuria (Modeer), is a common pest of elms in North
America and Europe. A sooty mold develops on the
honeydew secreted by this insecto The azalea bark
scale, Acanthococcus azaleae (Comstock), is an impor-
tant pest of azaleas. The oak eriococcin, Acanthococcus
quercus (Comstock), is a common pest on oaks in
North America.
Family Cryptoeoecidae-Bark-Crevice Seales: This
family is represented in the United States by two
species of Cryptococcus, which occur in the northeast-
ern states. They are found in bark crevices of beech and
sugar maple.
Family Kermesidae-Gall-Like Seales: The females
in this group are rounded and resemble small galls
(Figure 22-64B). Besides the 13 unplaced and uncer-
tain species, about 22 species occur in the United
States, and they are found on the twigs or leaves of oak.
Family Dactylopiidae-Coehineal Insects: These in-
sects resemble the mealybugs in appearance and habits.
The females are red, broadly oval in shape, and dis-
tinctly segmented, and the body is covered with white
wax. The group is represented in the United States by
three species of Dactylopius, which live on cactus (Op-
untia and Nopalea). A Mexican species, D. coccus
Costa, is an important source of a crimson dye, and is
still cultivated in the Canary Islands and in the tropical
Americas. Mature females are brushed from the cacti
and dried, and the pigments are extracted from their
dried bodies. These insects were commercially more
important until about 1875, when aniline dyes were in-
troduced.
Family Asteroleeaniidae-Pit seales: These insects
are calledpit scalesbecause many of them produce gall-
like pits or depressions in the bark of their hosts. This
group is a small one, with 17 species in the United
States, and they attack a variety of hosts. Some live on
the bark, and others live on the leaves of the host.
Family Ceroeoecidae-Ornate Pit Seales: This group
is represented in North America by five species of Cero-
coccus,which live on a variety of host plants. Cerococ-
cus kalmiae Ferris is occasionally a pest of azaleas and
cranberries. The oak wax scale, C. quercus Comstock,
lives on oak in California and Arizona, and the sugary
secretion and excretion in which it is encased was once
used as chewing gum by Native Americans.
Family Leeanodiaspididae-False Pit Seales: This
group is represented in the United States by about five
species of Lecanodiaspis.Some of these are fairly corn-
mon and are occasionally pests of azalea, holly, and
other ornamentals. They often produce pits and
swellings on twigs.
Family Aclerdidae-Grass Seales: This is a small
family (14 North American species), most of whose
members feed on grasses. These scales usually live be-
neath the leaf sheaths or at the base of the plant, sorne-
times on the roots. Two North American species feed
on Spanish moss, and some tropical species attack or-
chids.
Family Coecidae-soft seales, Including Wax Seales,
and Tortoise seales: The females in this group are
elongate-oval, usually convex but sometimes flat-
tened, with a hard, smooth exoskeleton or a covering
of soft wax. Legs are usually present, and the antennae
are either absent or much reduced. The males may be
winged or wingless.
This is a large group, with about 105 North Amer-
ican species, a number of which are important pests.
The brown soft scale, Coccus hesperidium L., and the
black scale, Saissetia oleae (Olivier), are importan!
pests of citrus in the South. The hemispherical scale,
Saissetia coffeae (Walker), is a common pest of ferns
and other plants in homes and greenhouses. Several
species in this group attack shade and fruit trees. The
tulip-tree scale, Toumeyellaliriodendri (Gmelin), is one
of the largest scale insects in the United States, the
adult female being about 8 mm long. The cottony
maple scale, Pulvinaria innumerabilis (Rathvon), is a
relatively large species (about 6 mm long) whose eggs
are laid in a large, cottony mass that protrudes from the
end of the scale (Figure 22-66). Many soft scales (Fig-
ure 22-67) attack a variety of plants and are often pests
in greenhouses.
Figure 22-66 The cottony rnaple scale, Pulvinaria in-
numerabilis (Rathvon).

:igure22-67 The terrapin scale, Mesolecaniumnigro-
asciatum(Pergande)(Coccidae).
The Chinese wax scale, Ericerus pela Chavannes,
s an interesting and important Oriental species. The
nalessecrete large amounts of apure white wax, which
~asused in making candles. Wax is also produced by
hewaxscales of the genus Ceroplastes. The Indian wax
,cale,C. ceriferus Anderson, produces a wax that is
¡sedfor medicinal purposes.
Family Kerriidae-Lae Seales: The families in this
:roupare globular in form and legless and live in cells
)f resin. Seven species of Tachardiella occur in the
iouthwest,where they feed on desert plants. They all
)roducelac, some of which are highly pigmented.
Most members of this family are tropical or sub-
ropicalin distribution, and one, the Indian lac insect,
Acciferlacca (Kerr), is of considerable commercial
¡alue.It occurs on different plants in Sri Lanka, Tai-
~an,India, Indochina, and the Philippine Islands. The
)odiesof the females be come covered with heavy exu-
lationsof wax or lac and are sometimes so numerous
hat the twigs are coated with lac to a thickness of
)-15mm. The twigs are cut and the lac is melted off,
.efined,and used in the production of shellac and var-
Keyto the subfamiliesof Cicadellidae 327
nishes. About 4 million pounds of this material is har-
vested annually.
Family Phoenicocoecidae-Date scales: This group
is represented in the United States by a single species,
the red date scale, Phoenicococcus marlatti (Cockerell),
which occurs on the date palm in the southwestern
states. lt is usually found at the bases of the leaf peti-
oles or under the fibrous covering of the trunk.
Family Conehaspididae-False Armored Seales: Only
two species in this group occur in the United States:
Conchaspis angraeci Cockerell occurs in California and
Florida, where it lives on orchids. Asceloconchaspis mil-
leri Williams is in southern Florida and feeds on
tietongue (Coccoloba diversifolia]acq.). The females are
similar to those of the Diaspididae, but they have well-
developed legs, and the antennae are four-segmented.
Family Diaspididae-Armored Seales: This is the
largest family of scale insects (about 310 North Ameri-
can species in 86 genera), and it contains a number of
very important pest species. The females are very small
and soft-bodied and are concealed under a scale cover-
ing that is usually free fram the body of the insect un-
derneath. The scale covering is formed of wax secreted
by the insect, together with the excretions and cast
skins of the early instars. The scales vary in different
species. They may be circular or elongate, smooth or
rough, and variously colored. The scale covers of the
male are usually smaller and more elongate than those
of the female. The adult female's body is small, flat-
tened, disklike, and the segmentation is frequently ob-
scure. They lack eyes and legs, and the antennae are ab-
sent or vestigial. The males are winged and have
well-developed legs and antennae.
Reproduction may be bisexual or parthenogenetic.
Some species are oviparaus, and others give birth to
living young. The eggs are laid under the scale cover.
The first-instar young, or crawlers, are active insects
and may travel some distance before finding a suitable
site to settle. They are able to live several days without
food. A species is spread in this crawler stage, either by
the locomotion of the crawler itself or by the crawlers
being transported by wind or on the feet of birds or by
other means. Eventually the crawlers settle down and
insert their mouthparts into the host planto The fe-
males remain sessile the remainder of their lives.
These insects injure plants by extracting sap and,
when numerous, may kill the planto The armo red
scales feed principally on trees and shrubs and may
sometimes heavily encrust the twigs or branches. Sev-
eral species are important pests of orchard and shade
trees.
The San Jose scale, Quadraspidiotus pemiciosus
(Comstock) (Figure 22-68), is a very serious pest. lt
first appeared in California about 1880, probably fram
Asia, and has since spread throughout the United
328 Chapter22 Order Hemiptera

:;;
E
u'"
c:
'"
E
c.
o
ID
>
'"
C>
"O
c:
'"
-5
~
g¡
'"
a::
~
~
~ Figure 22-68 The San Jose scale,
~ Quadraspidiotusperniciosus (Comstock),

States. It attacks a number of different trees and shrubs,
including orchard trees, shade trees, and ornamental
shrubs, and when numerous it may kill the host planto
The scale cover is somewhat circular in shape. This
species gives birth to living young.
The oystershell scale, Lepidosaphes ulmi (L.), is an-
other economically important species. It is so named
because of the shape of its scale (Figure 22-69). This
widely distributed species attacks a number of plants,
including most fruit trees and many ornamental trees
and shrubs. Plants heavily infested are often killed. The
oystershell scale lays eggs that overwinter under the
scale cover of the female.
A number of other armored scales are somewhat
less important than the two just mentioned. The scurfy
scale, Chionaspisjuifura (Fitch), is a common scale with
a whitish scale cover that attacks a number of fruit and
ornamental trees and shrubs. The rose scale, Aulacaspis
rosae (Bouché), is a reddish insect with a white scale and
attacks various types of berries and roses. Heavily in-
fested plants look as though they had been white-
washed. The pine needle scale, Chionaspis pinifoliae
(Fitch), is common throughout the United States and
Canada on pine, and sometimes attacks other conifers.
Several tropical or sub tropical species in this
group auack citrus and greenhouse plants. The Cali-
fornia red scale, Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell), is an im-
portant pest of citrus in California. The female has a
circular scale cover slighdy larger than that of the San
Jose scale.

~'"
u
c:
'"
E
c.
o
Collecting and Preserving Hemiptera
ID
>
'"
C>
"O The aquatic bugs can be collected by means of the
c:
'"
.r=
"
aquatic collecting equipment and methods described in
~ Chapter 35. A few aquatic species, particularly water
g¡
'"
a:: boatmen and giant water bugs, can often be collected at
~
a.~
lights. Examine a variety of aquatic habitats, because
different species occur in different types of situations.
<{
o Terrestrial forms can be collected with a net (particu-
:E
C> larly by sweeping vegetation), at lights, or by examin-
ing such specialized habitats as in leaf liuer, under
bark, and in fungi.
Figure 22-69 The oystershell scale, Lepidosaphes A laboratory squeeze botde of 70% alcohol with a
~ Qfi¡i.., ft.. );X: long exit tube is sometimes useful in capturing active
"""'>:~f o.', ¡' VI
,,-.'.,"
';f:'
"

ground-dwelling bugs such as shore bugs. A hit with a
squin ofalcohol will slow down the insect so that it
canbepicked up with forceps.
Themethods of collecting and preserving Auchen-
orrhynchaand Sternorrhyncha vary with the group
concerned. The active species are collected and pre-
servedmuch like other insects, but special techniques
areusedfor such forms as the aphids and scale insects.
Mostof the active species are best collected by
sweeping. Different species live on different types of
plants;
to secure a large number of species, collect from
asmanydifferent types of plants as possible. The
smallerhoppingspecies can be removed from the net
withan aspirator, or the entire net contents can be
stunned andsorted later. Forms that are not too active
canbe collected from foliage or twigs directly into a
killing
jar, without using a nel. Some of the cicadas,
which spendmost of their time high in trees, can be
collectedwith a long-handled nel. They can be dis-
lodgedwitha long stick in the hope that they willland
netrange,or they can be shot down. Aslingshot
within
loaded
with sand or fine shot can be used to collect ci-
cadasthatareout of reach.
Thebest type of killing bottle for most Hemiptera
~a smallvial such as that shown in Figure 35-2,
whichshould be partly filled with small pieces of
deansingtissue or lens papel. Bring along several
such vials,because large and heavy-bodied speci-
mens shouldnot be put into the same vial with small
auddelicatespecimens. After specimens have been
killed,
take them from the vial and place them in pill-
boxes
that are partly filled with cleansing tissue or
Cellucotton.
Most Heteroptera are preserved dry on pins or
points.Pin the larger specimens through the scutellum,
audthe smaller specimens through the right heme-
lyuon.In pinning a bug, take care not to destroy struc-
on the ventral side of the thorax that will be used
tures
iuidentification.
Most Heteroptera shorter than 10 mm
shouldbe rnounted on points. Mount specimens so
thatthebeak, legs, and ventral side of the body are not
embeddedin glue. The point should not extend be-
yond the middle of the ventral side of the insecto
Cicadas, the various hoppers, whiteflies, and psyl-
Udsare usually mounted dry, on either pins or points.
Ifpinning a larger hopper, pin it through the right
wing.Whiteflies and psyllids are sometimes preserved
inOuidsand mounted on microscope slides for study.
Aphidsthat are pinned or mounted on points usually
shrivel.Preserve these insects in fluids, and mount
themon microscope slides for detailed study.
It is desirable to mount these insects, particularly
thesoft-bodied ones, as soon as possible after they are
Collecting and Preserving Hemiptera 329
captured. A field catch can be stored in 70 or 75% al-
cohol until the specimens can be mounted, but alcohol
fades some colors. Preserve all nymphs in alcohol.
Scale insects can be preserved in two general
ways: The part of the plant containing the scales can
be collected, dried, and mounted (pinned or in a
Riker mount), or the insects can be specially treated
and mounted on a microscope slide. No special tech-
niques are involved in the first method, which is sat-
isfactory if one is interested only in the form of the
scale. The insects themselves must be mounted on
microscope slides for detailed study. The best way to
secure male scale insects is to rear them from colonies
found on the host plants. Very few are ever collected
with a nel.
In mounting a scale insect on a microscope slide,
the insect is removed, cleaned, stained, and mounted.
Some general suggestions for mounting insects on mi-
croscope slides are given in Chapter 35. The following
procedures are specifically recommended for mounting
scale insects:
I. Place the dry scale insect, or fresh specimens that
have been in 70% alcohol for at least 2 hours, in
10% potassium hydroxide and warm at low tem-
perature until the body contents are soft.
2. While the specimen is still in the potassium hy-
droxide, remove the body contents by making a
small hole in the body (at the anterior end or at
the side where no taxonomically important char-
acters will be damaged) and pressing the insect
with a flat spatula.
3. Transfer the specimen to acetic acid alcohol for
20 minutes or more. Acetic acid alcohol is made
by mixing 1 part of acetic acid, 1 part of distilled
water, and 4 parts of 95% alcohol by volume.
4. Stain in acid fuchsin for 10 minutes or more as
needed. Then transfer to 70% alcohol for 5 to
15 minutes to wash out excess stain.
5. Transfer the specimen to 95% alcohol for 5 to
10 minutes.
6. Transfer the specimen to 100% alcohol for 5 to
10 minutes.
7. Transfer the specimen to clove oil for 10 minutes
or more.
8. Mount in Canada balsam.
9. Dry slides for two weeks in a drying oven at 40°C
before permanently labelling and studying.
Aphids shouId be preserved in 80% alcohol and
can often be collected from the plant directly into a vial
of alcohol. Winged forms are usually necessary for spe-
cific identification and should be mounted on micro-
scope slides.
UNNERSIDAD
DECAUJAI
BIBLIOTECA
330 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
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332 Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
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Slater, J. A., and R. M. Baranowski. 1978. How to Know the
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--
23 Order Thysanoptera1.2
Thrips
he thrips are minute, slender-bodied insects 0.5 to
T 5.0 mm long (some tropical species are nearly
13mm long). Wings may be present or absent. When
fullydeveloped, the four wings are very long and nar-
row,with few or no veins, and fringed with long hairs.
Thefringe of hairs on the wings gives the order its
name.
The mouthparts (Figure 23-1) are of the sucking
type,and the proboscis is a stout, conical, asymmetri-
calstructure located posteriorly on the ventral surface
ofthe head. The labrum forms the front of the pro-
boscis;the basal portions of the maxillae forrn the
sides;and the labium forrns the rear. There are three
slylets:one mandible (the left one; the right mandible
isvestigial) and the laciniae of the two maxillae. Both
maxillaryand labial palps are present, but short. The
hypopharynx is a small median lobe in the proboscis.
The mouthparts of thrips have been described as
'punch and suck": The mandible is used to break up
theplant cells, and the two maxillary stylets are joined
10fonn a tube through which the plant liquids or fun-
galspore are sucked and ingested (Heming 1993, Kirk
1997).The food is generally ingested in liquid form,
bUIminute spores are also sometimes ingested.
Theantennae are short and four- to nine-segmented.
Thetarsi are one- or two-segmented, with one or two
I claws, and are bladderlike at the tipoAn ovipositor is
presentin some thrips. In others, the tip of the abdomen
istubularand an ovipositor is lacking.
The metamorphosis of thrips is somewhat inter-
mediatebetween simple and complete (Figure 23-2).
Thefirst two instars have no wings externally and are
'Tbysanoptera: Ihysano, fringe; plera, wings.
'Ibis chapter was edited by Steve Nakahara.
usually called larvae. In at least some cases, the wings
are developing internally during these two instars. In
the suborder Terebrantia, the third and fourth instars
(only the third instar in Franklinothrips) are inactive,
do not feed, and have external wings; the third instar
is called the propupa, and the fourth the pupa. The
pupa is sometimes enclosed in a cocoon. In the sub-
order Tubulifera, the third instar propupa (without
external wings) is followed by two "pupal" instars,
the fourth and the fifth. The stage following the pupa
is the adult. This type of metamorphosis resembles
simple metamorphosis in that more than one pre-
adult instar (except in Franklinothrips) has external
wings. lt resembles complete metamorphosis in that
at least some of the wing development is internal,
and there is a quiescent (pupal) instar preceding the
adult.
The two sexes of thrips are similar in appearance,
but the males are usually smaller. Parthenogenesis oc-
curs in many species. Those thrips that have an ovipos-
itor usually insert their eggs in plant tissues. The thrips
that lack an ovipositor usually lay their eggs in crevices
or under bark. Young thrips are relatively inactive.
Generally there are several generations ayear.
A great many of the thrips are plant feeders, at-
tacking flowers, leaves, fruits, twigs, or buds. They
feed on a wide variety of plants. They are particularly
abundant in the flower heads of daisies and dande-
lions. They destroy plant cells by their feeding, and
some species act as vectors of plant disease. Many
species are serious pests of cultivated plants. A few
thrips feed on fungus spores, and a few are preda-
ceous on other small arthropods. These insects some-
times occur in enormous numbers, and a few species
may bite people. 333
334 Chapter23 OrderThysanoptera

A B

----

-~~--
--
~~/stY-~~~~~ D

md------
e

Figure23-1 Mouthparts of a thrips. A, head, ventro-anterior view; B, head, lateral

view; C, mouthparts, posterior view; D, a maxilla. clp, clypeus; e, compound eye;
lbm, labium; lbr, labrum; md, left mandible; mn, mentum; mx, maxilla; mxp, maxillary
palp; phx, pharynx; smt, submentum; stp, stipes; sty, maxillary stylet. (Redrawn fram
Peterson, 1915.)

A B e D

Figure23-2 The redbanded thrips, Selenothrips rubrocinctus (Giard) (Thripidae).

A, full-grawn larva; B, prepupa; C, pupa; D, adulto (Courtesy of USDA.)
-
Keyto the Families of Thysanoptera 335

brantia. The families in the Terebrantia are separated

of the Thysanoptera
Classification largely by characters of the antennae, panicularly the
number of antennal segments and the nature of the sen-
Thisorderis dividedinto two suborders, the Terebrantia soria on the third and fourth segments. These sensoria
andthe Tubulifera. The Terebrantia currently consist of are in the forro of protruding simple or forked sense
sevenfamilies. They have the last abdominal segment cones; or are flat and circular, or oval, elongate, and ori-
moreor less conical or rounded; the female has an ented either longitudinally or transversely near the apex.
ovipositor; the fore wings have veins and setae, the
Suborder Tubulifera
fringecilia arise from basal sockets, and the surface nor-
mallyhas numerous microtrichia. The Tubulifera cur- Phlaeothripidae
rentlyconsists of two families. They have a tubular last Suborder Terebrantia
abdominalsegment; the females lack an ovipositor, and Adiheterothripidae
theirdistal abdominal segments are shaped like those of Aeolothripidae
males;the fore wings lack veins and setae except on the Fauriellidae
base,the fringe cilia lack basal sockets, and the surface Merothripidae
isbareof microtrichia.Sevenfamiliesof thrips occur in Heterothripidae
NonhAmerica: one in the Tubulifera and six in the Tere- Thripidae

Keyto the Familiesof Thysanoptera

1. Last abdominal segment tubular (Figures 23-3C, 23-4C), female without

an ovipositor; front wings, if present, lack longitudinal veins and setae
except at base, surface bare of microtrichia, fringe cHiawithout basal
sockets (suborder Tubulifera) Phlaeothripidae p. 339
l' Last abdominal segment conical or rounded apically (Figures 23-3A,B,
23-4A,B,D-G), divided ventrally; female with ovipositor (Figure 23-3A,B);
front wings, if present, with longitudinal veins and setae, surface usually
with microtrichia, fringe cilia with basal sockets (suborder Terebrantia) 2
2(1). Antennal segments 3 and 4 each with a conical, simple or forked sense
cone (Figures 23-SD,E, scn; 23-6B); ovipositor curved upward
(Figure 23-3B) 3
2'. Antennal segments 3 and 4 with sensoria not protruding, flat
(Figures 23-SA-C, sa; B-6A); ovipositor curved upward or downward
(Figure 23-3A) 4

'"
A "'ovp------- B e

Figure23-3 Abdominal structures of Thysanoptera. A, apex of abdomen of the pear

thrips, Taeniothripsinconsequens(Uzel) (Thripidae), lateral view, showing the decurved
ovipositor; B, apex of abdomen of Melanothrips (Aeolothripidae), lateral view, showing
the up-curved ovipositor; C, apex of abdomen of Haplothrips hispanicus Priesner
(Phlaeothripidae), dorsal view. ovp, ovipositor. (Modified from Pesson.)
 1
I

336 Chapter23 OrderThysanoptera

Figure 23-4 Thrips. A, gladiolus

E F
thrips, Taeniothripssimplex (Morison)
(Thripidae); B, pear thrips, Taeniothrips
inconsequens (Uzel) (Thripidae); C, liIy
bulb thrips, Liothrips vaneeckei Priesner
(Phlaeothripidae); D, greenhouse
thrips, Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis
(Bouche) (Thripidae); E, Heterothrips
o salicis (Shull) (Heterothripidae);
F, a large-Iegged thrips, Merothrips
morgani Hood (Merothripidae);
G, a banded thrips, Stomatothrips
crawfordi Stannard (Aeolothripidae).
(A, courtesy of the Utah Agricultural
Experiment Station; B, courtesy of
Bailey and the Univeristy of California
Experiment Station; C, courtesy of
Bailey and the California Department
of Agriculture; D, courtesy of USDA;
E-G, courtesy of Stannard and the
G Illinois Natural History Survey:)

3(2). Antennae with segments 3 and 4 each with a conical sense cone
(Figure 23-6B), 9-segmented Adiheterothripidae p. 338
3/. Antennae with segments 3 and 4 each with a slender, simple or forked
sense cone, 6- to 9-segmented (Figures 23-5D,E) Thripidae p.338
4(2/). Antennae segments 3 and 4 each with an apical row or band of small
sensoria encircling segment (Figure 23-5C, sa) Heterothripidae p.338
4/. Antennal segments 3 and 4 without a row or band of small sensoria 5
5(4/). Antenna 8-segmented, segments 3 and 4 with rather large, apical,
tympanum-like sensoria (Figure 23-5A, sa); pronotum with
longitudinal suture on each side; ovipositor reduced; abdominal
segment 10 with pair of trichobothria (Figure 23-6C) Merothripidae p. 338
5/. Antenna 9-segmented, segments 3 and 4 with sensoria oval,
elongate longitudinally or transverse near apex; pronotum without
longitudinallateral sutures; ovipositor well developed, with teeth;
abdominal segment 10 with or without small trichobothria 6
 Keyto the Familiesof Thysanoptera 337

Figure23-5 Antennae of Thysanoptera.

A, Aeolothrips (Aeolothripidae);
B, Merothrips (Merothripidae);
e, Heterothrips (Heterothripidae);
D, Caliothrips (Thripidae); E, Thrips
(Thripidae). sa, sensoria; scn, sense
cone. (Redrawn from Stannard, courtesy
A B e D E of the Illinois Natural History Survey.)

Figure23-6 Characters of
D Thysanoptera. A, antenna of Parre/-
lathrips ullmanae Mound and Marullo
(Fauriellidae); B, antenna of Oligothrips
oreios Moulton (Adiheterothripidae);
e, tergite X of Merothrips(Merothripidae);
D, tergite X of Me/anthrips (Aeolothripi-
dae). (A, courtesy of New York Entomo-
A logical Society; B, courtesy of University
of California Press; e, D, courtesy of The
B Linnean Society of London.)
338 Chapter23 OrderThysanoptera

6(5'). Fore wings broad, tips rounded; sensoria on antennal segments 3

and 4 oval, elongate longitudinally, or linear and either transverse or
oblique near apex (Figures 23-5A, sa); abdominal tergite 10 with pair
of small trichobothria; ovipositor curved upward (Figure 23-3B) Aeolothripidae p.338
6'. Fore wings pointed apically; sensoria on antennal segments 3
and 4 transverse near apex (Figure 23-6A); abdominal tergite 10 without
trichobothria;ovipositorcurveddownward Fauriellidae p. 338

Family Adiheterothripidae: Several members of this
small family were formerly assigned to the Het-
erothripidae. The two species in North America are dis-
tinguished from other families by antennal segments 3
and 4 having a conical sense cone (Figure 23-6B).
Oligothrips oreios Moulton occurs in blossoms of
madrone and manzanita in California and Oregon; Her-
atythrips sauli Mound and Marullo was recently dis-
covered in California.
Family Aeolothripidae: The fore wings in this group
are relatively broad (Figure 23-4G), with two longitu-
dinal veins extending from the base of the wing nearly
to the tip, and usually with several crossveins. The
adults are dark, and often the wings are banded cross-
wise or longitudinally. There are about 62 nominal
species in North America. Most belong in the genus
Aeolothrips, which ineludes several predatory species.
The most common species in this group, Aeolothrips
fasciatus (L.), is about 1.6 mm long, dark brown, with
three white bands on the fore wings. The larvae are yel-
lowish, shading into orange posteriorly. This species
occurs on various plants and is often common in the
flower heads of elover. It feeds on other thrips, aphids,
mites, and other small insects. It is widely distributed
in North America and Europe.
Family Fauriellidae: A recently described species
from California, parrellathrips ullmanae Mound and
Marullo, taken from canyon silktassel, Ganya veatchii
Kellogg (Garryaceae), is the only representative in
North America of this small disjunct family. In total, the
group consists of only five species in four genera. This
family is distinguished from other families in North
America by the 9-segmented antennae with numerous
microtrichia on most segments, a transverse sensoria
near the apex of segments 3 and 4 (Figure 23-6A), the
fore wing is pointed at the apex, and the ovipositor is
curved downward.
Family Merothripidae:The members of this group
may be recognized by the sensoria on the apex of
antennal segments 3 and 4, which is tympanum-like
and usually rather large, a pair of trichobothria on ab-
dominal segment la, two longitudinal sutures on the
pronotum, the large fore and hind femora, and the fre-
quent presence of a hooklike process on the inner apex
of the fore tibia. A common species, Merothrips morgani
Hood (Figure 23-4F), occurs in the eastern United
States under bark, in debris, and in fungi. Merothrips
floridensis Watson also occurs in similar habitats in the
eastern and southern states and in other countries.
Family Heterothripidae:This family is known only
from the Western Hemisphere, and only one genus,
Heterothrips, occurs in North America (Figure 23-4E).
The adults are usually dark, the abdomen has many mi-
crotrichia on the abdominal segments, the fore wing
has two complete rows of veinal setae, and the sensoria
on antennal segments 3 and 4 are small and arranged
in a row or band encireling the apex of the segment.
Several species of Heterothrips occur on trees (buckeye,
oak, and willow) and flowers (azalea, wild rose, and
jack-in-the-pulpit) and in the buds of wild grape.
Family Thripidae-Common Thrips: This family is
the largest in the Terebrantia in North America and
contains most of the species that are of economic im-
portance. The wings are narrower than in the Ae-
olothripidae and are more pointed at the tipo The an-
tennae are six- to nine-segmented, and segments 3 and
4 each have a protruding, simple or forked sense cone.
Most species are macropterous, but may also have
apterous or brachypterous forms. Several species are
predominantly apterous or brachypterous. Most
species feed primarily on plants. Members of the genus
Scolothrips are predaceous, and a few species in other
genera are occasionally predaceous.
The pear thrips, Taeniothrips inconsequens (Uzel)
(Figure 23-4B), attacks the buds, blossoms, young
leaves, and fruits of pears, plums, cherries, and other
plants. The adults are brown with pale wings, 1.2 to
1.3 mm long, and have a distinctive small elaw at the
tip of the fore tarsus. This species has a single genera-
tion ayear and overwinters as a pupa and adult in the
soil. The adults emerge in early spring, feed, then
oviposit on the petioles of leaves and fruits. The young
feed until about june, when they drop to the ground
and burrow into the soil to pupate. This species occurs

inthewestern coastal states and British Columbia, the
Donheastemstates and south to Virginia, and in the
GreatLakes states and provinces. Thrips calcaratus
Uzelis another invasive thrips with a brown col-
oration,fore tarsal tooth, and life cycle all similar to
thatofthe pear thrips. This thrips damages native bass-
wood in the Great Lakes area of Wisconsin and Min-
Desola, and is found eastward to Vermont.
Thegladiolus thrips, Taeniothripssimplex (Morison),
isa serious pest of gladiolus, injuring the leaves and
gready reducing the size, development, and color of the
ilowers.It has a brown body, fore wing, and antenna,
exceptfor a yellow segment 3 (Figure 23-4A). The
oDion thrips, Thrips tabaciLindeman, is a widely dis-
tributedspecies that attacks onions, beans, and many
other plants.It is a pale yellowish or brownish insect
1.0to 1.2 mm long. It vectors the tospovirus causing
tornato spotted wilt disease in tomatoes and other plants.
Hdiothrips haemorrhoidalis (Bouché)(Figure23-4D) is a
tropical species that occurs outdoors in the warmer
pans of the world and is aserious pest in greenhouses
intheNorth. The male of this species is very rare. The
ilowerthrips, Frankliniella tritici (Fitch), is a common
andpolyphagous species in the eastern half of the
United States,and is a pest of fruit trees, flowers, grains,
andtruckcrops. It is slender, usually yellow with light
brown areason the abdominal tergites;in northern ar-
easit may be brown. The most serious thrips pest of
manycrops is the western flower thrips, E occiden-
IIIlis
(Pergande),which occurs throughout North Amer-
iea,either outdoors or in greenhouses. During colder
temperaturesor at higher elevations, it is predomi-
nandy brown, but in warm temperatures it is yellow
withbrownareas on the abdominal tergites.In addition
lOilS feeding damage, it is a vector of several
tospoviruses causing diseases such as the tomato spot-
ledwill.During spring in California, this thrips feeds
00spider mites on cotton plants. The tobacco thrips,
F.fusca(Hinds), is also polyphagous and a vector of
tornatospoued wilt virus on peanuts in the southern
states.It is brown with a light brown fore wing, and is
macropterousor brachypterous. The six-spotted thrips,
Scolothrips sexmaculatus(Pergande), is a liule less than
amillimeterlong and is yellow with three black spots
00each front wing. It is predaceous on plant-feeding
mites.The grain thrips, Limothrips cerealium (Haliday),
isadarkbrown to black thrips, 1.2 to 1.4 mm long, that
feedson cereals and grasses. It is sometimes quite
abundant,forms large flights, and may bite people.
FamilyPhlaeothripidae: This is the largest family of
Thysanoptera,and most species are larger and have a
stouter bodythan the thrips in the suborder Terebran-
tia.One Australian species, Idolothrips marginatus
Haliday, is 10-14 mm long. These thrips are mostly
darkbrownor black, often with light-colored or mot-
Collecting and Preserving Thysanoptera 339
tled wings. Most of them feed on fungal mycelia and
spores, and breakdown products of fungal action. Some
are predaceous, feeding on small insects and mites. A
few are plant feeders, and some of these may be of eco-
nomic importance. The lily bulb thrips, Liothrips va-
neeckei Priesner, is a dark-colored species about 2 mm
long (Figure 23-4C) that feeds on lilies and injures the
bulbs. The Cuban laurel thrips, Gynaikothrips ficorum
(Marcha!), feeds on leaves of Ficus, a tropical plant
grown outdoors and indoors. Feeding by the deve!op-
ing colonies causes curling of the leaves. Haplothrips
leucanthemi (Schrank) is a black thrips that is common
in daisy and red clover flowers. The mullein thrips,
H. verbesci (Osbom), is often found in European
mullein. Haplothrips kurdjumovi Kamy preys on mi te
and moth eggs and is found in the eastem and north-
em states and Canada. The black hunter, Leptothrips
mali (Fitch), is a fairly common predaceous species.
Aleurodothrips fasciapennis (Morgan), which is com-
mon in Florida, is predaceous on whiteflies.
Colleding and Preserving Thysanoptera
Thrips can be found on flowers, foliage, fruits, bark,
and fungi and in debris. The species occurring on veg-
etation are most easily collected by sweeping. They can
be removed from the net by stunning the entire net con-
tents and soning out the thrips later, or the net contents
can be shaken out onto a paper and the thrips picked up
with an aspirator or with a moistened camel's-hair
brush. Dark species are best seen on a light paper, and
light species on a dark paper. If host data are desired,
collect the specimens directly from the host planto The
best way to collect flower-frequenting species is to col-
lect the flowers in a paper bag and examine them later
in the laboratory. The species that occur in debris and
in similar situations are usually collected by means of a
Berlese funne! (Figure 35-5) or by sifting the material
in which they occur. A beating sheet or its equivalent is
very effective for species in all microhabitats.
Thrips should be preserved in liquid and mounted
on microscope slides for detailed study. They can be
mounted on points, but specimens so mounted are
usually not very satisfactory. The best killing solution
is AGA, which contains 8 parts of 95% alcohol, 5 parts
of distilled water, 1 pan of glycerine, and 1 pan of
glacial acetic acid. After a few weeks, transfer speci-
mens from this solution to 60% ethanol for permanent
preservation (Mound and Pitkin 1972). If AGA is not
available, 60% ethanol can be used. Avoid significantly
higher concentrations, beca use they harden the body
and appendages, creating problems with clearing the
specimen and spreading the appendages.
340 Chapter23 OrderThysanoptera
References
Bailey, S. E 1940. The distribution of injurious thrips in the
United States. J. Econ. Entornol. 33(1):133-136.
Bailey, S. E 1951. The genus Aeolothrips Haliday in North
Arnerica. Hilgardia 21(2):43-80.
Bailey, S. E 1957. The thrips of California. Part 1: Suborder
Terebrantia. Bull. Calif. Insect Surv. 4(5):143-220.
Bailey, S. E, and H. E. Cott. 1954. A review of the genus Het-
erothrips Hood (Thysanoptera: Heterothripidae) in North
Arnerica, with descriptions of two new species. Ann. En-
tornol. SocoArner. 47:614-635.
Cott, H. E. 1956. Systernatics of the Suborder Tubulifera
(Thysanoptera) in California. Berkeley: University of
California Press, 216 pp.
Herning, B. S. 1991. Order Thysanoptera. In E W Stehr (Ed.),
Irnrnature Insects, vol. 2, pp. 1-21. Dubuque, lA:
KendalVHunt.
Herning, B. S. 1993. Structure, function" ontogeny, and evo-
lution of feeding in thrips (Thysanoptera). In E C. W
Schaefer and R. A. B. Leschen (Eds.), Functional rnor-
phology of insect feeding. Thornas Say Publications in
Entornology, Praceedings. Lanharn, MD: Entornological
Society of Arnerica, 162 pp.
Huntsinger, D. M., R. L. Post, and E. U. Balsbaugh, Jr. 1982.
North Dakota Terebrantia (Thysanoptera). North Dakota
Insects Schafer-Post Series, no. 14. Fargo, ND: Entornol-
ogy Departrnent, North Dakota State University, 102 pp.
Kirk, W D. J. 1997. Feeding. In T. Lewis (Ed.), Thrips as
Crap Pests. New York: CAB International, 740 pp.
Lewis, T. 1973. Thrips, Their Biology, Ecology and Econornic
Irnportance. New York: Acadernic Press, 350 pp.
Mound, L. A., B. S. Herning, and J. M. Palrner. 1980. Phylo-
genetic relationships between the farnilies of recent
Thysanoptera. Zool. J. Linn. Soco London 69: 111-141.
Mound, L. A., and R. Marullo. 1996. The thrips of Central and
South Arnerica: an introduction (Insecta: Thysanoptera).
Mern. Entornol. Internat. 6:1-487.
Mound, L. A., and R. Marullo. 1998. Two new basal-clade
Thysanoptera frarn California with Old World affinities.
J. New York Entornol. SOCo106:81-94.
Mound, L. A., and K O'Neill. 1974. Taxonorny of the
Merothripidae, with ecological and phylogenetic consid-
erations (Thysanoptera). J. Nat. Hist. 8:481-509.
Mound, L. A., and B. R. Pitkin. 1972. Micrascopic wholernounts
of thrips (Thysanoptera). Entornol. Gaz. 23:121-125.
Nakahara, S. 1994. The genus Thrips Linnaeus (Thysanoptera:
Thripidae) of tl-teNew World. USDA Tech. Bull. 1822:1-183.
Nakahara, S. 1995. Review of the Nearctic species of
Anaphothrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae). Insecta Mundi
9:221-248.
Nakahara, S. 1995. Ewartithrips, new genus (Thysanoptera:
Thripidae) and four new species frarn California. J. New
York Entornol. SOCo103:229-250.
O'Neill, K, and R. S. Bigelow. 1964. The Taeniothrips of
Canada. Can. Entornol. 96:1219-1239.
Pesson, P. 1951. Ordre des Thysanoptera Haliday, 1836
(= Physapoda Burm., 1838) ou thrips. Traité de Zoologie
10: 1805-1869.
Peterson, A. 1915. Morphological studies on the head and
rnouthparts of the Thysanoptera. Ann. Entornol. Soco
Arner.8:20-67.
Sakirnura, K, and K O'Neill. 1979. Frankliniella, redefinition
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Stannard, L. J. 1957. The phylogeny and classification of the
North American genera of the suborder Tubulifera
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Stannard, L. J. 1968. The thrips, or Thysanoptera, of Illinois.
Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. 29:215-552.
Thornasson, G. 1., and R. L. Post. 1966. North Dakota Tubu-
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Fargo, ND: Departrnent of Entornology, Agricultural Ex-
perirnent Station, North Dakota State University, 58 pp.
Vance, T. C. 1974. Larvae of Sericothripini (Thysanoptera:
Thripidae), with reference to other larvae of the Tere-
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Entornol. Inst. 23:1-354.
 24 Order Psocoptera1,2
Psocids
he psocids are small, soft-bodied insects, most of
T which are less than 6 mm long. Wings may be pres-
entor absent, and both long-winged and short-winged
individualsoccur in some species. The winged forms
havefour membranous wings (rarely two, with the
hindwings vestigial). The fore wings are a little larger
thanthe hind wings, and the wings at rest are usually
heldrooflike over the abdomen. The antennae are gen-
eraUyfairly long; the tarsi are two- or three-segmented;
and cerci are lacking. Psocids have mandibulate
mouthparts, and the clypeus is large and somewhat
swoUen.The metamorphosis is simple (Figure 24-1).
Some 85 genera and about 340 species of psocids
are known from the United States and Canada, but
mostpeople see only a few species that live in houses
orother buildings. Most species found in buildings are
winglessand, because they often live among books or
papers,are usually called booklice. The majority of the
psocidsare outdoor species with well-developed wings.
Theylive on the bark or foliage of trees and shrubs,
underbark or stones, or in dead leaves. These psocids
aresometimes called barklice.
Some psocids feed on algae and lichens. Others
feedon molds, cereals, pollen, fragments of dead in-
sects,and similar materials. The term "lice" in the
names"booklice" and "barklice" is somewhat mislead-
ing,because none of these insects is parasitic, although
a few are phoretic on birds and mammals. Relatively
feware louselike in appearance. The species living in
buildingsrarely cause much damage, but are frequently
anuisance.
IPsocoptera:psoco: rub small; ptera, wings (referring to the gnawing
habitsof these insects).
'Ihis chapter was prepared by Edward L. Mockford.
The eggs of psocids are laid singly or in clusters
and are sometimes covered with silk or debris. Most
species pass through six nymphal instars. Some
species are gregarious, living under thin silk webs.
One southern species, Archipsocus nomas Gurney, of-
ten makes rather conspicuous webs on tree trunks
and branches.
Certain psocids (species of Liposcdis and Rhyopso-
cus) have be en found capable of acting as intermedia te
hosts of the fringed tapeworm of sheep, Thysanosoma
ostinioides Diesing.
Classification of the Psocoptera
A number of different classifications have been used for
Psocoptera, and they differ in the principal criteria
used in dividing up the order, the number of families
recognized, and the placement of some genera. The
principal classifications are those of Pearman (1936),
Roesler (1944), Badonnel (1951), and Smithers
(1972). We follow here the arrangement of Badonnel,
with minor revisions.
A synopsis of the Psocoptera in the United States
and Canada is given next, with alterna te names and
arrangements in parentheses. The groups marked with
an asterisk (*) are seldom encountered.
Suborder Trogiomorpha
Lepidopsocidae
Trogiidae (Atropidae)
Psoquillidae (Trogiidae in part)
Psyllipsocidae (Psocatropidae)
Prionoglarididae (Psyllipsocidae, in part)* 341
342 Chapter24 OrderPsocoptera

~~
Ve B
A

Figure
24-1 Deve10pmental stages of the psocid Ectopsocopsiscryptomeriae (Enderlein)
(EclOpsocidae). A, eggs; B, third instar; C, first instar; D, adult female; E, sixth instar.
(Courtesy of Sommerman.)

Suborder Troctomorpha Elipsocidae (Pseudocaeciliidae in part)

Liposcelididae Philotarsidae (Pseudocaeciliidae in part)
Pachytroctidae Mesopsocidae (Pseudocaeciliidae in part)
Sphaeropsocidae (Pachytroctidae in part)* Lachesillidae (Pseudocaeciliidae in part)
Amphientomidae Peripsocidae (Pseudocaeciliidae in part)
Suborder Psocomorpha (Eupsocida) Ectopsocidae (Pseudocaeciliidae in part,
Epipsocidae Peripsocidae in part)
Pseudocaeciliidae
Ptiloneuridae (Epipsocidae in part)*
Caeciliusidae (Caeciliidae, Polypsocidae) Trichopsocidae (Pseudocaeciliidae in part)
Stenopsocidae (Caeciliusidae) Archipsocidae (Pseudocaeciliidae in part)
Amphipsocidae (Stenopsocidae, Polypsocidae) Hemipsocidae (Pseudocaeciliidae in part)*
Dasydemellidae (Amphipsocidae) Myopsocidae
Psocidae
Asiopsocidae (Caeciliusidae) *

Keyto the Familiesof Psocoptera

The families marked with an asterisk (*) are small and are unlike1y to be encountered by
the general collector. This key is based on adults (for a key to nymphs, see Mockford
1987). All psocid nymphs have two-segmented tarsi, either no wing pads or fleshy wing
pads (Figure 24-1E), and no external genitalia (Figure 24-2F). lt is necessary lOmake at
least temporary slide preparations for some parts of this key; see the section on collect-
ing and preserving Psocoptera, at the end of the chapter.

1. Antennae with more than 20 segments; segments never secondarily

annulated; tarsi 3-segmemed (suborder Trogiomorpha) 2
1'. Antennae with 17 or fewer segments; if more than 13 segments present,
some or all flagellar segments secondarily annulated (Figure 24-3A);
tarsi 2- or 3-segmented 6
2(1). Female with ovipositor valvulae of opposite sides separated by a space or
touching only at or near their apices (Figure 24-2A); subgenital plate not
much reduced (Figure 24-2A); in long-winged forms, veins CU2and
lA of fore wing ending together or very close on wing margin
(Figure 24-4B); hind wings with one closed cell; wings never clothed in
scales or dense hairs; venation persistent in short-winged forms 3
 Keyto the Families of Psocoptera 343

~
/7!\ _ S gp

A
B

F tvlv

~ '"
"
". ",
", o,. _" 0,_ 00'

. ~1,:f." ::~.::L':; ; 1: ~..::: V

~ePt
..,"
.
.
',"

en
en
K

Figure24-2 Abdominal structures of Psocoptera. A, Psyllipsocus, female (Psyllipsocidae), terminal abdominal seg-
ments,ventral view; B, Echmepteryx, female (Lepidopsocidae), terminal abdominal segments, ventral view; e, subgeni-
talplate of female Mesopsocus(Mesopsocidae); D, subgenital plate of female Elipsocus (Elipsocidae); E, subgenital plate
andleft ovipositor valvulae of Archipsocus (Archipsocidae); F, lateral view of abdomen of nymph of Amphipsocidae;
G,ovipositor valvulae of Trichopsocus(Trichopsocidae); H, ovipositor valvulae of Peripsocus (Peripsocidae); 1, oviposi-
lorvalvulae of Nepiomorpha (Elipsocidae); J, left ovipositor valvulae of Lachesilla (Lachesillidae); K, comb of 10th
abdominaltergum of Ectopsocusmale (Ectopsocidae); L, phallosome of Peripsocusmale (Peripsocidae); M, phallosome
ofEctopsocusmale (Ectopsocidae). en, endophallus; ept, epiproct; sgp, subgenital plate; tv, transverse vesic1e;vlv¡_J'
ovipositorvalvulae 1-3.
344 Chapter24 OrderPsocoptera

B e

D E
F

stp

J
K

Figure24-3 Head structures of Psocoptera. A, flagellar segments 1 and 2 of Liposcelis

(Liposcelididae); B, labrum of Loneura (Ptiloneuridae); C, labrum of Indiopsocus (Psoci-
dae); D, distal end of lacinia of Speleketor (Prionoglarididae); E, distal end of lacinia of
Psyllipsocus (Psyllipsocidae); F, distal end of lacinia of Asiopsocus (Asiopsocidae); G, dis-
tal end of laciniaof Teliapsocus(Dasydemellidae);H, distal end of laciniaof Valenzuela
(Caeciliusidae); 1, ocular elements of Liposcelis (Liposcelididae); J, lateral view of head of
Teliapsocus; K, lateralviewof head of Mesopsocus (Mesopsocidae).g, galea;md, mandi-
ble; stp, stipes.

2'. Female with ovipositor valvulae of opposite sides touching along ventral
midline (Figure 24-2B); subgenital plate much reduced; in long-winged
forms, veins CU2and lA of fore wing ending separately on wing margin
(Figure 24-4C); hind wing with no closed cells, or if 1 closed cell present
then at least fore wing densely clothed with scales or hairs (Figure 24-4D);
wings reduced in some forms (venation absent in some of these) 4
--

Keyto the Families of Psocoptera 345

Se

B
A

Figure24-4
Front wings of Trogiomorpha and Troetomorpha. A, Speleketor (Prionoglarididae);
B, Psyllipsocus (Psyllipsocidae); C, Echmepteryx, seales and marginal hairs removed
(Lepidopsocidae); D, Echmepteryx, eell R" enlarged, seales and marginal hairs intaet;
E, Embidopsocus(Liposeelididae); F, Nanopsocus (Paehytroetidae).

3(2). Se of fore wing deseribing a eurve and rejoining R¡ distally (Figure 24-4A);
lacinia totally absent or at least laeking terminal tines (Figure H-3D) Prionoglarididae* p.351
3' Segment of Se in fore wing absent from near wing base to base of
pterostigma (Figure 24-4B); lacinia persistent in adult and with terminal
tines (Figure24-3E) Psyllipsocidae p.351
4(2'). Body and fore wings densely clothed in seales or long hairs or both
(Figure 24-4D); fore wings usually well developed, usually pointed
apieally (Figure 24-4C), never redueed to pads extending less than
one fourth length of abdomen lepidopsocidae p. 351
 .....

346 Chapter24 OrderPsocoptera

4'. Body and wings never scaled; fore wings variably developed, frorn fully
developed to nearly absent 5
5(4'). Fore wings well developed or reduced, but always with veins
(Figure 24-5C); hind wings developed or absent Psoquillidae p.351
5'. Fore wings reduced to tiny scales or buttons (Figure 24-5B), never with
veins Trogiidae p.351
6(1'). Antennae ll- to 17-segrnented, with secondary annulations (Figure 24-3A)
(suborderTroctornorpha) 7
6'. Antennae 13-segrnented, lacking secondary annulations (suborder
Psocornorpha) 10

A B

e D

Figure24-5 Short-wingedPsocoptera.A, Neolepolepisoccidentalis(Mockford)(Lepi-

dopsocidae); B, Trogiumpulsatorium (L.) (Trogiidae); C, Rhyopsocusbentonae Sornrnerman
(Psoquillidae); D, Nepiomorpha perpsocoidesMockford (Elipsocidae). gh, gland hair.
 Keyto the Familiesof Psocoptera 347

7(6). Wings, when present, never scaled; either held fIat over back when at rest
with fore wing of one side largely covering that of other side, or fore
wings elytriform; wings frequently reduced or absent 8
7'. Wings always present, not held fIat over back in repose; fore wings clothed
with scales, never elytriform Amphientomidae p. 353
8(7). Fore wings, when present, with complete venation (Figure 24-4F);
mesothorax and metathorax distinctly separate in both winged and
wingless forms Pachytroctidae p.352
8' Fore wings, when present, with venation greatly reduced (Figure 24-4E);
in all apterous forms mesothorax and metathorax indistinguishably fused 9
9(8'). In alate forms, both front and hind wings present, fIat and delicate; eyes
near vertex, hemispherical, compound; in apterous forms, eyes removed
from vertex, each consisting of 2 large elements alone or preceded by 8 or
fewer smaller ocelloids (Figure 24-31); thoracic sterna broad and bearing
setae (Figure 24-6A) liposcelididae p.351
9' In alate forms, fore wings convex, elytriform; in all forms, eyes removed
from vertex, composed of few ocelloids, none greatly enlarged; thoracic
sterna narrow, without setae Sphaeropsocidae* p. 353
10(6'). Head long dorsoventrally; labrum with 2 oblique, strongly sclerotized
ridges internally that are clearly visible externally (Figure 24-3B); wings
usually much redueed; long-winged forms with Rs and M of fore wing not
touehing, eonnected by distinct erossvein (Figure 24-7 A,B) 11
lO'. Head short, wide; labrum internally on either side with only small
sclerotized tubercle, the two sometimes eonneeted by sclerotized areh;
below areh, or between the pair of tubercles lies a clear semicireular area
bordering anterior margin (Figure 24-3C); long-winged forms with Rs
and M of fore wing variable, joined together for short distanee, or at a
point, or by erossvein 12

B
~ pul

Figure24-6 Thoracie struetures

of Psoeoptera. A, thoracie sterna
and leg bases of Embidopsocus
(Liposeelididae); B, tarsal claw
of Teliapsocus(Amphipsocidae);
C, mesosternum of Mesopsocus
(Mesopsocidae); D, mesosternum
of Trichadenotecnum(Psocidae).
D pul, pulvillus; pcb, preeoxal bridge;
tn, troehantin.
348 Chapter24 OrderPsocoptera

A CUlo B
- R,
R, R
4+
M, M,

1A CU2
e CUlo M3
O

R, R2+3
-........
R4+ 5

F
E

R,
R2+3
R4+5
M,
M2
m-cu,.
1A CUlo
L

Figure24-7 Front wingsof Psocomorpha.A, Epipsocus(Epipsocidae);B,Loneura

(Ptiloneuridae); C, Valenzuela (Caeciliusidae); D, Teliapsocus(Dasydemellidae); E, Palmi-
cola, male (Elipsocidae); F,Archipsocus, female (Archipsocidae); G, pterostigma of Ectop-
socus (Ectopsocidae); H, cell CUlaof Lachesilla (Lachesillidae); 1, cell CUJaof TrichopsocuS
(Trichopsocidae); J, Aaroniella (Philotarsidae); K, Indiopsocus (Psocidae); L, Hemipsocus
(Hemipsocidae).
 Keyto the Familiesof Psocoptera 349

U(lO). Fore wing with 1 anal vein (Figure24-7A) or wingsgreatlyreduced;

tarsi 2-segmented Epipsocidae p.353
U'. Fore wingsneverreduced,with 2 anal veins (Figure24-7B); tarsi
3-segmented Ptiloneuridae* p. 353
12(10'). Mandibles at least somewhat elongate, usually concave posteriorly
(Figure 24-3J), the concavity filled by bulging stipes and galea; labrum
broad; preapical denticle never present on tarsal claws (Figure 24-6B) 13
12'. Mandibles short, not decidedly concave posteriorly (Figure 24-3K),
stipes and galea relatively fIat; labrum rounded, closely adhering to
contour of mandibles; preapical denticle present or absent on tarsal claws 17
13(12). Abdomen ventrally with 2 or 3 transverse vesicles capable of being
infIated (Figure 24-2F); lacinial tip variable but not extremely broad
(Figure 24-3G,H) 14
13'. Abdomen ventrally lacking transverse vesicles, lacinial tip very broad
(Figure 24-3F) (Asiopsocus) Asiopsocidae
* p. 353
14(13). Setaeof fore wing veinsrelativelyshort, slantingdistally,mostlysingle-
ranked (Figure 24-7C); pterostigma-rs crossvein present or not in fore wing 15
14'. Setae of fore wing veins relatively long, upright, mostly in more than one
rank (Figure 24-7D), pterostigma-rs crossvein absent 16
15(14). Pterostigma-rs crossvein and m-cula crossvein present in fore wing; hind
wing with marginal setae restricted to cell R3 Stenopsocidae p.353
15'. Pterostigma-rs and m-cula crossveins absent; hind wing with marginal
setae around most of wing Caeciliusidae p. 353
16(14'). Ciliation of hind wing margin restricted to cell R3, sparse; M in fore wing
3-branched Dasydemellidae p.353
16'. Ciliation continuous around most of margin of hind wing; M in fore wing
2-branched (Polypsocus) Amphipsocidae p. 353
17(12'). Wings fully developed or only slightly reduced 18
17'. Wings greatly reduced; venational characters not usable 32
18(17). Mesothoracic precoxal bridges narrow at point of junction with trochantin
(Figure 24-6D), trochantin broad basally, tapering distally 19
18'. Mesothoracic precoxal bridges wide at point of junction with trochantin
(Figure 24-6C), trochantin narrow throughout 21
19(18). Tarsi 2-segmented 20
19'. Tarsi 3-segmented Myopsocidae p. 354
20(19). CUla of fore wing joined directly lO M; M in fore wing 3-branched
(Figure 24-7K) Psocidae p.354
20'. CU1ain fore wing joined lO M by a crossvein; M in fore wing 2-branched
(Figure 24-7L) Hemipsocidae* p.354
21(18'). Margin of fore wing with "crossing hairs" between veins R.¡.s and CUla
(Figure 24-7]) 22
21'. Margin of fore wing without "crossing hairs" 24
22(21). Tarsi 3-segmented Philotarsidae p.353
22'. Tarsi 2-segmented 23
23(22'). Surface of fore wing densely hairy, venation of fore wing obscure
(Figure 24-7F); forms living in colonies under dense webs Archipsocidae p. 354
23'. Surface of fore wing with hairs largely confined lO veins and margin;
venation of both wings distinct; solitary forms living freely or under
sparse webbing Pseudocaeciliidae p. 354
 ..

350 Chapter24 OrderPsocoptera

24(21'). Tarsi 3-segmented 25

24'. Tarsi 2-segmented 26
25(24). Wings bare; subgenital plate with single central, posteriorly directed lobe
(Figure 24-lC) Mesopsocidae p. 354
25/. Wings with obvious hairs on veins and margins; subgenital plate never
with central, posteriorly directed lobe, usually with 2 lobes (Figure 24-20) Elipsocidae p.353
26(24'). Vein Cu¡ in fore wing branched (Cu¡a present) 27
26/. Vein Cu¡ in fore wing simple (CUlaabsent) 29
27(26). Cubitalloop in fore wing low (Figure 24-71); numerous setae on veins
and margins of wings; females with 3 complete pairs of ovipositor
valvulae (Figure 24-2G) 28
27'. Cubitalloop in fore wing higher (Figure 24-7H) or joined to M; setae
sparse or absent on veins and margins of wings; ovipositor valvulae
reduced to a single valvula on each side (Figure 24-2J) Lachesillidae p.353
28(27). Pale, delicate forms found on foliage Trichopsocidae p.354
28/. Oarker-bodied forms found on tree trunks and stone outcrops (males
of Reuterella) Elipsocidae p.353
29(26'). Pterostigma constricted basally (as in Figure 24-7 A-EJ ,K); if M of fore
wing 3-branched, setae sparse or absent on veins and margin of wing;
if M of fore wing 2-branched, setae abundant on veins and wing margin 30
29'. Pterostigma not constricted basally (Figure 24-7G); M of fore wing
3-branched Ectopsocidae p.354
30(29). M in fore wing 2-branched; setae abundant on veins and margin of fore
wing (Notiopsocus) Asiopsocidae* p.353
30/. M in fore wing 3-branched; setae sparse or absent on veins and margin of
fore wing 31
31(30'). Free-living forms (females) with body with numerous "gland hairs,"
that is, hairs widest apically; solitary forms (males) living under dense
webbing; third valvula of ovipositor large, covering most of second in
normal position (Figure 24-21) (Nepiomorpha and Palmicola) Elipsocidae p.353
31/. Body without "gland hairs," forms not living under webs; third valvula of
ovipositor much smaller than second (Figure 24-2H) Peripsocidae p.353
32(17'). Tarsi 3-segmented; only females, all with single central posterior projection
on subgenital plate (Figure 24-2C); large, robust forms with wings reduced
to tiny knobs, length 4-5 mm Mesopsocidae p.353
32/. Tarsi 2-segmented; smaller forms, including males 33
33(32/). Males and females both bearing a conspicuous white, crosslike mark
dorsally on abdomen (Figure 24-50) and body with numerous gland
hairs (Figure 24-50, see couplet 29) (Nepiomorpha) Elipsocidae p.353
33'. Body not marked as in preceding entry; gland hairs, if present, very
restricted in distribution 34
34(33'). Females with 2 pairs of ovipositor valvulae (Figure 24-2E) or none;
subgenital plate evenly rounded on its posterior margin (Figure 24-2E);
males never with transverse comb on posterior margin of abdominal
tergum 10; subtropical and tropical forms living under dense webs Archipsocidae p.354
34'. Females with either 1 pair or 3 pairs of ovipositor valvulae; posterior
margin of subgenital plate variously developed; males with transverse
comb on posterior margin of abdominal tergum 10; either free-livingforms,
forms living in small groups under scanty webbing, or forms living solitarily
under dense webbing 35
 Keyto the Familiesof Psocoptera 351

35(34'). Females, with either 1 or 3 pairs of ovipositor valvulae 36

35'. Males, with phallosome (Figure 24-2L,M) visible through euticle of ninth
abdominal sternum 40
36(35). Ovipositor redueed to single, thumblike valvula on eaeh side
(Figure 24-2]) lachesillidae p. 353
36'. Ovipositor with 3 pairs of valvulae 37
37(36'). Relatively large forms, over 3 mm long; third ovipositor valvula never
greatly redueed; subgenital plate with single eentrallobt" (Camelopsocus
and Blaste) Psocidae p. 354
37'. Smaller forms, less than 3 mm long; third ovipositor valvula sometimes
redueed (Figure 24-2H); subgenital plate variously developed 38
38(37'). Fore winglets relatively large, at least one third length of abdomen; third
ovipositor valvula redueed (Figure 24-2H) Peripsocidae p. 353
38'. Fore winglets mueh smaller or absent; third ovipositor valvula not redueed 39
39(38'). Winglets obvious, deddedly protruding from thorade surfaee; vertex
of head with some eonspieuous setae longer than antennal pedieel Ectopsocidae p. 354
39'. Winglets redueed to slight swellings on thorade surfaee; vertex of head
with only very short setae, none as long as antennal pedicel; forms living
solitarily under dense webbing Elipsocidae p. 353
40(35'). Vertex bearing distinet setae; phallosome with asymmetrieal endophallus
(Figure 24-2M) Ectopsocidae p.354
40'. Vertex with only minute setae or none; phallosome with symmetrieal
endophallus (Figure 24-2L) Peripsocidae p. 353

SuborderTrogiomorpha
Themembers of suborder Trogiomorpha have more
than20 antennal segments, the labial palps are two-
segmented,and the tarsi are three-segmented. Anten-
nalflagellar segments are never seeondarily annulated,
although rings of microtrichia that resemble annula-
tionsare sometimes present.
FamilyLepidopsocidae: These psocids live on trees,
shrubs, and stone outerops. The wings are slender,
usuallypointed apically, and wings and body are usu-
allycovered with seales. The group is primarily tropi-
cal,with 15 species in the United States. Echmepteryx
hageni(Packard) is common on trees and stone out-
cropsthroughout the eastern states.
FamilyTrogiidae:Most members of this familyhave
tbewings reduced, but none are completely wingless.
Speciesof Cerobasis are common on shrubs and trees in
tbeSouthwest. A few species live in buildings: Lepino-
tusinquilinus Heyden is often found in granaries, and
Trogium pulsatorium(L.) livesin houses, barns, and gra-
nariesin the Northeast. Females of some trogiids pro-
ducea sound by tapping the abdomen on the substrate.
Family Psoquillidae:Members of this family may be
fullywinged or have the wings in various stages of re-
duction, but always with distinct venation. Psoquilla
marginepunctata Hagen lives in houses in the South-
east. Species of Rhyopsocus live in dead leaves hanging
on plants and in ground litter in the southern states.
Family Psyllipsocidae: The psyllipsocids are pale-
colored and live in a variety of situations. Psyllipsocus
ramburii Selys-Longchamps lives in damp, dark places
such as cellars and caves. It is common around the
openings of wine and vinegar barreIs. Psyllipsocus ocu-
latus Gurney lives on persistent dead leaves of yucca
plants in arid areas of the Southwest. Both long- and
short-winged individuals oeeur in most species.
Family prionoglarididae:This family is represented
in the United States by the genus Speleketor, medium-
sized, rather pale forms with broad, unmarked wings.
They live in caves and on the skirts of the native palm
Washingtonia filifera in the Southwest.
SUBORDERTroctomorpha:The members of this
suborder have more than 13 but fewer than 20 anten-
nal segments, with the flagellar segments seeondarily
annulated (Figure 24-3A). The labial palpi are two-
segmented, and the tarsi are three-segmented.
Family Liposcelididae:Most members of this group
live under bark, in dead leaves and dead grass, and in
352 Chapter
24 OrderPsocoptera

bird and mammal nests. They are either fully winged
with wings held fiat over the back at rest, or completely
wingless. Several species of Liposcelis live commonly in
buildings. They are found in dusty places where the
temperature and humidity are high, on shelves, in
cracks of windowsills, behind loose wallpaper, and in
similar situations. They are wingless psocids about
1 mm long, with enlarged hind femora (Figure 24-8D).
Liposcelis bostrychophila Badonnel has become a rather
important pest in houses and warehouses in Europe,
Australia, and parts of North America.
Family Pachytroctidae:Only six species in this fam-
ily occur in the United States. Nanopsocus oceanicus
Pearman lives in houses in the Southeast. lt and severa]

E
e
D

~., --.---
/ ~~.

~
'.
~'..
.
el
1. G

Figure24-8 Psocids. A, Valenzuelamanteri (Sommerman), female, lateral view (Caecil-

iusidae); B, Anomopsocusamabilis (Walsh), female, lateral view (Lachesillidae);
C, Valenzuelamanteri, female, dorsal view; D, Liposcelis sp., dorsal view (Liposcelididae);
E, Anomopsocusamabilis, female, dorsal view; F, Psyllipsocus ramburii Selys, short-winged
female, dorsal view (Psyllipsocidae); G, Psocathropossp., lateral view (Psyllipsocidae), el,
clypeus; H, Archipsocusnomas Gurney, short-winged female, dorsal view (Archipsocidae).
(A-C, E, courtesy of Sommerman; F, courtesy of Gurney; D and G reprinted by permis-
sion of Pest Control Technology, National Pest Control Association; A, E, courtesy of the
Entomological Society of Washington; B, E, F, courtesy of the Entomological Society of
America; H, courtesy of the Washington Academy of Science.)
-;. .,;1, ,;ir'} "':~1 c$j t.l~~\ir" ¡"t."
~.'~~;~~!.Ji~,~" :.¡J ; .,;.P~¡k(~'~(~}~1" \ j,~}:~

.:\ :,(f~t~f.Jn!' :.):


speciesof Tapinella live on leaves of native palms in the
Gulfstates.
Family Sphaeropsocidae: These are small psocids
with elytriform fore wings. Two species have been
foundin ground litter in California.
Family Amphientomidae: These psocids resemble
theLepidopsocidae in having the wings and body cov-
ered with scales. They are mainly tropical, but one
speciesof Stimulopalpus, S. japonicus Enderlein, has
beenintroduced from Asia and lives commonly on ce-
mentstructures and stone outcrops in forest areas from
Virginiaand Nonh Carolina west to Arkansas.
SUBORDERPsocomorpha:The antennae in these
psocids usually have 13 segments, never more. The
labialpalps are one-segmented, and the tarsi are two-
orthree-segmented.
FamilyEpipsocidae:This family is represented in the
UnitedStates by four species. Two species of Bertkauia
aremoderately common, one on shaded rock outcrops
andadjacent tree trunks, the other in forest ground lit-
ter.Twospecies of Epipsocus, probably introduced from
theAmerican tropics, occur in southern Florida.
Fami/y Ptiloneuridae: This Neotropical group is
closelyrelated to the Epipsocidae. lt is represented in
theUnited States by a single, rare species occurring on
stoneoutcrops in southern Arizona.
FamilyCaeciliusidae:These are leaf-inhabiting pso-
cidson both conifers and broad-Ieaf trees. Most are
long-winged,but some ground litter species have both
long-wingedand shon-winged females. Five genera are
knownin the United States, with 33 species.
Family Stenopsocidae: These are leaf-inhabiting
psocidssimilar to the caeciliusids, but with the two
crossveinsmentioned in the key and with setae on the
hind wing margin restricted to cell R3. The single
speciesin the United States, Graphopsocus cruciatus
(L.),is common in the southeastern states and on the
PacificCoast from California nonh to Washington. lt
wasprobably introduced from Europe.
FamilyAmphipsocidae:These psocids resemble the
caeciliusids,but are larger with relatively longer hairs
onwings and antennae. They are also leaf inhabitants.
Onlyone species, Polypsocus corruptus Hagen is known
inthe United States.
Family Dasydemellidae: Like the Amphipsocidae,
these are relatively large psocids. Wing setae are
sparser,and those of the hind wing are restricted to the
marginin cell R3. These psocids are found on woody
stemsand dead hanging leaves. The single native
species,Teliapsocus conterminus (Walsh), is found on
bothcoasts, inland to the mountains in both East and
West,around the Great Lakes, and up the Mississippi
Embaymentto southern Missouri. A second species,
Dasydemella sylvestriiEnderlein, native to Mexico,was
taken at a pon of entry in Texas.
Keyto the Familiesof Psocoptera 353
Family Asiopsocidae:These psocids appear to be in-
habitants of twigs of small trees and shrubs. One
species of Asiopsocus, A. sonorensis Mockford and
Garcia-Aldrete, occurs in southern Arizona. The tropi-
cal genera Notiopsocus and Pronotipsocus each have a
representative in southern Florida.
Family Elipsocidae:This family includes forrns with
2- as well as 3-segmented tarsi. Fifteen species in six gen-
era are known from the United States. Cuneopalpus
cyanops (Rostock) was introduced from Europe and has
become established in coastal regions of California and
New York. Four species of Elipsocus, probably introduced
from Europe, live on conifers and broad-Ieaf trees in the
Pacific Northwest. Native species of this genus, some still
undescribed, are found in the Rocky Mountains and
other upland areas, as well as in conifer forests in north-
ern Wisconsin. Propsocus pulchripenis (Perkins), of un-
known origin, is established in some coastal counties of
California. Reuterella helvimacula Enderlein, also known
from Europe, lives on stone outcrops and tree trunks in
several northern states. Species of Palmicola live on
palms, oaks, and conifers in the southeastern states.
Family Philotarsidae: This is one of several families
in which setae of the posterodistal margin of the fore
wing form a series of crossing pairs (Figure 24-7J).
North American species have three tarsal segments. AI-
though only six species are known from the United
States, these insects may become abundant locally in
late summer. Philotarsus kwakiutl Mockford is com-
mon on conifers in the Pacific Northwest; Aaroniella
badonnedi (Danks) is often abundant on trunks and
branches of trees and on stone outcrops in the south-
ern pan of the Midwest.
Fami/y Mesopsocidae: These are relatively large pso-
cids found on branches of coniferous and broad-Ieaf
trees. Only three species of this primarily Old World
family occur in the United States. Mesopsocus unipunc-
tatus (Müller) occurs across the northern United
States, and south in the Appalachians to Nonh Car-
olina and on the Pacific coast to southern California, as
well as in northern Europe, Africa, and Asia. lt is one
of the first psocids to mature in the spring. The female
has very shon wings, and the male is long-winged.
Fami/y lachesillidae: The members of this large
family are inhabitants of persistent dead leaves of a
great variety of plants. Some inhabit foliage of conifers,
and others inhabit grasses. Although 54 species are
now known in the United States, the number of species
in Latin America is much larger.
Family Peripsocidae: This is one of two families in
which there is no cubitalloop in the fore wing; that is,
vein Cu! is simple. The peripsocids are medium-sized
inhabitants of twigs, branches, and trunks of conifers
and broad-Ieaf trees. Some 14 species are now known
in the United States.
UNNERSIDAD
DECALDAS
IBUOTECA
 354 Chapter24 Order Psocoptera
Family Ectopsocidae:This is another family in
which the cubitalloop is absent in the fore wing. These
are relatively small inhabitants of persistent dead
leaves. Ectopsocopsis cryptomeriae (Enderlein) seems to
thrive in agricultural situations where few other pso-
cids exist. It occasionally invades food storage ware-
houses. Thirteen species of ectopsocids occur in the
United States.
FamilyPseudocaeciliidae: This is another familythat
shows pairs of crossing hairs on the posterodistal mar-
gin of the fore wing. North American species have two
tarsal segments. Only three species occur in the United
States, all probably introduced. Pseudocaecilius citricola
(Ashmead) is a common yellow species on citrus trees
in Florida.
FamilyTrichopsocidae: These are pale, delicate, leaf-
inhabiting forms superficially resembling caeciliusids.
Only two species occur in the United States; Trichopso-
cus clarus (Banks) is common in coastal California.
Family Archipsocidae:This is a third family in
which there are pairs of crossing hairs on the pos-
terodistal margin of the fore wing. This tropical family
is restricted in North America to Florida, the Gulf
Coast, and the Atlantic Coast north to South Carolina.
Archipsocids are communal web-spinners. Males are
short-winged, whereas females occur in short- and
long-winged forms. About eight species occur in the
United States.
Family Hemipsocidae:This is primarily a tropical
family, with only two species in the United States, both
in the Southeast. Hemipsocus pretiosus Banks lives on
leaf litter and dead persistent leaves of small palms in
southern Florida.
Family Myopsocidae: Although this group is largely
tropical, it is represented in the fauna of North Amer-
ica by 10 species, all of which are 4-5 mm long and
have mottled fore wings. They live on shaded stone
outcrops and shaded cement structures, such as
bridges, as well as tree trunks and branches.
References
Badonnel, A. 1951. Ordre des Psocopteres. In P. P. Grassé
(Ed.), Traité de Zoologie, vo!. 10, fasc. 2:1301-1340.
Paris: Masson.
Chapman, P. J. 1930. Corrodentia of the United States of
Arnerica. I. Suborder Isotecnornera. J. N.Y. Entorno!. Soco
39:54-65.
Eertrnoed, G. E. 1966. The life history of Peripsocus quadri-
fasciatus (Psocoptera: Peripsocidae). J. Kan. Entorno!.
Soco39:54-65.
Eertrnoed, G. E. 1973. The phenetic relationships of the
Epipsocetae (Psocoptera): The higher taxa and the
species of two new farnilies. Trans. Arner. Entorno!. Soco
99:373-414.
..
lo.
Family Psocidae:This is the largest family in the
United States, with some 75 species. Psocidae are
moderate-sized to large psocids with the cubital loop
always joined to M for a distance in the fore wing. Gen-
erally, they inhabit branches and trunks of various
kinds of trees, foliage of conifers, and shaded rock out-
crops. Cerastipsocus venosus Burmeister is a large, dark-
colored species that forms herds of up to several hun-
dred individuals on tree trunks and branches. lt occurs
throughout the eastern United States.
Collecting and Preserving Psocoptera
Psocids that live outdoors can often be collected by
beating branches of trees and shrubs and sweeping
grasses. Coniferous trees and fallen branches with per-
sistent dead leaves often are sites where psocids are
concentrated. Some species are found under loose
bark, on stone outcrops, in ground litter, and in bird
and mammal nests. Indoor species can be found in old
papers and books, in stored grain and cereal products,
and on wood surfaces in such sites as musty cellars. In-
dividuals can be picked up with an aspirator or a small
brush moistened with alcohol.
Psocids can be preserved in 70-80% alcohol, bUI
some color fading will occur. Specimens mounted on
pins or points keep their colors better, but they shrivel
and must be restored in liquids for study.
lt is often necessary to mount specimens or parts,
such as legs, wings, mouthparts, and terminal abdomi-
nal segments, on microscope slides for study. For this,
parts other than legs or wings should be partially cleared
by soaking in a cold 10-15% aqueous solution of KOH
for several minutes. They can then be washed in water
and mounted in Hoyer's medium (see Chapter 35).
Undigested material in the hindgut must be teased out
with fine needles with the specimen under water.
Garcia Aldrete, A. N. 1974. A classification above species leve!
of the genus Lachesilla Westwood (Psocoptera: Lachesil.
lidae). Folia Entorno!. Mex. 27:1-88.
Garcia Aldrete, A. N. 1999. New North American Lachesilla in
the forcepeta group (Psocoptera Lachesillidae). Rev. Biol.
Trop. 47:163-188.
Gumey, A. B. 1950. Corrodentia. In C. J. Weinrnan (Ed.), Pes!
Control Technology, Entornology Section, pp. 129-163.
New York: National Pest Control Association.
Lee, S. S., and I. W B. Thornton. 1967. The farnily Pseudo-
caeciliidae (Psocoptera)-A reappraisal based on the dis.
covery of new Oriental and Pacific species. Paco Insec~
Monogr. No. 18, 114 pp.
 References 355

Lienhard, C. 1999. Faune de France 83. Psocopteres Euro- Mockford, E. L. 1998. Generic definitions and species assign-
Mediterranéens. Fed. Fran<;. Soco Sci. Nat. Paris, 517 pp. ments in the family Epipsocidae (Psocoptera). Insecta
Lienhard, c., and C. N. Smithers. 2002. Psocoptera (Insecta) Mundi 12:81-91.
World Catalogue and Bibliography. Instrumenta Biodiver- Mockford, E. L. 2000. A classification of the psocopteran fam-
sitatis V. Geneva, Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle, 745 pp. ily Caeciliusidae (Caeciliidae Auct.). Trans. Amer. Ento-
Mockford, E. L. 1957. Life history studies on some Florida in- rno\. Soco 125:325-417.
sects of the genus Archipsocus (Psocoptera). Bull. Fla. Mockford, E. L., and A. B. Gurney. 1956. A review of the pso-
State Mus. 1:253-274. cids, or book-lice and bark-lice, of Texas (Psocoptera). ].
Mockford, E. L. 1959. The Ectopsocus briggsi complex in the Wash. Acad. Sci. 46:353-368.
Arnericas (Psocoptera: Peripsocidae). Proc. Entorno\. Mockford, E. L., and D. M. Sullivan. 1986. Systematics of the
Soco Wash. 61:260-266. graphocaeciliine psocids with a proposed higher classifi-
Mockford, E. L. 1965. The genus Caecílius (Psocoptera: Cae- cation of the family Lachesillidae (Psocoptera). Trans.
ciliidae). Pan 1: Species groups and the North American Amer. Entorno\. Soco 112:1-80.
species of the jJavidus group. Trans. Amer. Entorno\. Soco Mockford, E. L., and D. M. Sullivan. 1990. Kaestneriella
91:121-166. Roesler (Psocoptera: Peripsocidae): New and little-
Mockford, E. L. 1966. The genus Caecilius (Psocoptera: Cae- known species from the southwestern United States
ciliidae). Pan II: Revision of the species groups, and the and Mexico and a revised key. Pan-Paco Entorno\.
Nonh American species of the fasciatus, conjJuens, and 66:281-291.
africanus groups. Trans. Amer. Entorno\. Soco 92: 133-172. New, T. R. 1974. Psocoptera. Roy. Entorno\. Soco Lond. Hand-
Mockford, E. L. 1969. The genus Caecilius (Psocoptera: Cae- books Identif. Brit. Insects 1(7):1-102.
ciliidae). Pan IlI: The Nonh American species of the al- New, T. R. 1987. Biology of the Psocoptera. Oriental Insects
cinus, caligonus, and subjJavus groups. Trans. Amer. Ento- 21:1-109.
rno\. Soco 95:77-151. Pearman,]. V. 1928. On sound production in the Psocoptera
Mockford, E. L. 1971a. Parthenogenesis in psocids (Insecta: and on a presumed stridulatory organ. Entorno\. Mon.
Psocoptera). Amer. Zoo\. 11:327-339. Mag.64:179-186.
Mockford,E. L. 1971b. Peripsocus species of the alboguttatus Pearman,]. V. 1936. The taxonomy of the Psocoptera; pre-
group (Psocoptera: Peripsocidae). ]. N.Y. Entorno\. Soco liminary sketch. Proc. Roy. Entorno\. Soco Lond. Ser. B,
79:89-115. 5(3):58-62.
Mockford, E. L. 1978. A generic classification of family Am- Roesler, R. 1944. Die Gattungen der Copeognathen. Sm. En-
phipsocidae (Psocoptera: Caecilietae). Trans. Amer. En- torno\. Ztg. 105:117-166.
torno\. Soco 104:139-190. Smithers, C. N. 1967. A catalog of the Psocoptera of the
Mockford, E. L. 1987. arder Psocoptera In F. W Stehr (Ed.), world. Austra\. Zoo\. 14:1-145.
Irnmature Insects, pp. 196-214. Dubuque, lA: Smithers, C. N. 1972. The classification and phylogeny of the
KendalVHunt, 754 pp. Psocoptera. Austra\.]. Zoo\. 14:1-349.
Mockford, E. L. 1987. Systematics of Nonh American and Smithers, C. N., and C. Lienhard. 1992. A revised bibliogra-
Greater Antillean species of Embidopsocus (Psocoptera: phy of the Psocoptera (Anhropoda: Insecta). Tech. Rept.
Líposcelidae). Ann. Entorno\. Soco Amer. 80:849-864. Australian Mus. No. 6:1-86.
Mockford, E. L. 1989. Xanthocaecílius (Psocoptera: Caecili- Sommerman, K. M. 1943. Bionomics of Ectopsocus pumilis
idae), a new genus from the Western Hemisphere. 1: De- (Banks) (Corrodentia: Caeciliidae). Psyche 50:55-63.
scription, species complexes and species of the quíllayute Sommerman, K. M. 1944. Bionomics of Amapsocus amabilis
and granulosus complexes. Trans. Amer. Entorno\. Soco (Walsh) (Corrodentia: Psocidae). Ann. Entorno\. Soco
114:265-294. Amer. 37:359-364.
Mockford, E. L. 1993. North American Psocoptera (Insecta). Sommerman, K. M. 1946. A revision of the genus Lachesílla
Flora and Fauna Handbook No. 10. Gainesville, FL: nonh of Mexico (Corrodentia; Caeciliidae). Ann. Ento-
Sandhill Crane Press, 455 pp. rno\. Soco Amer. 39:627-661.

25 Order Phthiraptera1.2
Lice
he lice are small, wingless ectoparasites of birds and
T mammals. These insects formerly were divided into
two separate orders, the Mallophaga (chewing lice) and
Anoplura (sucking lice). The suborder Anoplura con-
tains several species that are parasites of domes tic ani-
mals and two species that attack humans. These insects
are irritating pests, and some are important vectors of
disease. Many chewing lice (suborders Amblycera and
Ischnocera) are pests of domestic animals, particularly
poultry. These lice cause considerable irritation, and
heavily infested animals appear run-down and emaci-
ated. If not actually killed by the lice, they are still easy
prey for disease. Different species of lice attack differ-
ent types of poultry and domestic mammals, and each
species usually infests a particular part of the host's
body. None of the chewing lice is known to attack peo-
pIe. Those who handle birds or other infested animals
may occasionally get the lice on themselves, but the
lice do not stay long. The control of chewing lice usu-
ally involves treating the infested animal with a suit-
able dust or dip. A third suborder of chewing lice, the
Rhynchophthirina, contains only three species, para-
sites of the elephants and some African pigs.
The Anoplura feed on the blood of their host. The
mouthparts of a sucking louse consist of three piercing
stylets that are normally withdrawn into a stylet sac in
the head (Figure 25-1). The mouthparts are highly
specialized and difficult to homologize with those of
other insects. There is a short rostrum (probably the
labrum) at the anterior end of the head, from which the
three piercing stylets are protruded. The rostrum is
eversible and is armed intemally with small, recurved
teeth. The stylets are about as long as the head and,
'Phthiraptera: phthir, !ice; a, without; ptera, wings.
356 'This chapter was edited by Ronald A. Hellenthal
~
..
when not in use, are withdrawn into a long, saclike
structure below the alimentary canal. The dorsal stylet
probably represents the fused maxillae. Its edges are
curved upward and inward to form a tube that serves
as a food channel. The intermedia te stylet is very slen-
der and contains the salivary channel; this stylet is
probably the hypopharynx. The ventral stylet is ¡he
principal piercing organ; it is a trough-shaped structure
and is probably the labium. There are no palps.
When an anopluran feeds, the stylets are everted
through a rostrum at the front of the head. The rostrum
has tiny hooks with which the louse attaches to its host
while feeding. The chewing lice have mandibulate
mouthparts and feed on bits of hair, feathers, or skin01
the host. Ocelli are absent, and eyes are usually re-
duced or absent. The antennae are short and have three
to five segments.
The tarsi of sucking lice are one-segmented and
have a single, large claw that usually fits against a thumb-
like process at the end of the tibia. This forms an efficient
mechanism for hanging to the hairs of the host.
The Phthiraptera undergo simple metamorphosis.
The females of most species lay from 50 to 150 eggs,
nearly always attaching them to the hairs or feathers01
the host. The eggs usually hatch in about a week, and
in most species the developing louse goes through
three nymphal instars.
Classification of the Phthiraptera
Entomologists disagree on the higher classification 01
the liceo Most researchers now recognize a single order,
the Phthiraptera, with four suborders (one being ¡he
and Roger D. Price. Anoplura). The sucking lice clearly form a distinct
 Keyto the Families of Phthiraptera 357

phx eso Ludwig (1982) summarize the evidence for and against
several alternative schemes. The only common element
is that aIllice together form a monophyletic unit whose
sister group is the Psocoptera. Until the phylogeny is
better understood, we wiIl recognize a single order of
lice, the Phthiraptera. We follow here the familial clas-
sification of Kim et al. (1986) within the suborder
Anoplura and follow Price et al. (2003) for the other
suborders. These groups, with synonyms and other
arrangements in parentheses, are as follows:
stys
A Suborder Rhynchophthirina (MaIlophaga in part)
Haematomyzidae-lice of elephants and African
pigs
Suborder Amblycera (MaIlophaga in part)
Gyropidae (including Abrocomophagidae)-lice
of guinea pigs
Trimenoponidae-lice of chinchillas, guinea pigs,
and Neotropical mammals
Boopiidae (Boopidae)-lice of marsupials and dogs
Menoponidae-lice of birds
Laemobothriidae-lice of birds
B
Ricinidae-lice of birds
Suborder Ischnocera (MaIlophaga in part)
Figure25-1 Mouthparts of a sucking louse. A, sagittal Philopteridae (including Heptapsogasteridae)-
sectionof head; B, cross section through rostrum. eso, lice of birds
esophagus; hyp, intermediate stylet (probably hypophar- Trichodectidae-lice of mammals
ynx);lbm,ventralstylet (probablylabium);lbr,rostrum Suborder Anoplura
(probablylabrum); mx, dorsal stylet (probably the fused Echinophthiriidae-lice of seals, sea lions, wal-
maxillae);phx, pharynx; sty, stylets; stys, stylet saco (Re- ruses, and the river otter
drawnfram Snodgrass.) Enderleinellidae (Hoplopleuridae in part)-lice
of squirrels
Haematopinidae-lice of ungulates (pigs, catde,
horses, deer)
phylogeneticbranch and deserve separate recognition Hoplopleuridae-lice of rodents and insectivores
atsomelevel. It is the classification of the chewing lice Linognathidae-lice of even-toed ungulates (cat-
¡hatcauses problems. Kim and Ludwig (l978b, 1982) de, sheep, goats, deer) and canids (dogs,
havehypothesized that the characteristics that distin- foxes, coyotes)
guishlice from their closest relatives, the Psocoptera, Pecaroecidae-lice of peccaries
haveevolved numerous times in paraIlel as a result of Pediculidae-the head and body lice of humans
theectoparasitic niche they occupy; therefore Kim and Polyplacidae (Hoplopleuridae in part)-lice of
Ludwigadvocate recognizing two orders, MaIlophaga rodents and insectivores
andAnoplura. However, the relationships among the Pthiridae (Phthiridae, Phthiriidae)-the crab
suborders of lice are poorly understood. Kim and louse of humans

Keyto the Familiesof Phthiraptera

1. Head prolonged into snout with apical mandibles (parasitic on elephants

and African porcines) (Suborder Rhynchophthirina) Haematomyzidae p. 361
1'. Head not prolonged into snout with apical mandibles 2

..i
358 Chapter25 OrderPhthiraptera

2(1'). Head as wide as or wider than prothorax (Figures 25-2 through 25-4);
mouthparts mandibulate; parasites of birds (with 2 tarsal claws) and
mammals (with 1 tarsal claw) 3
2' Head usually narrower than prothorax (Figures 25-5, 25-6); mouthparts
haustellate; parasites of mammals, with 1 large tarsal claw (Suborder
Anoplura) 10
3(2). Antennae more or less clubbed and usually concealed in grooves;
maxillary palps present (Figure 25-2A and 25-3) (Suborder Amblycera) 4

Figure25-2 A, shaft louse of chickens, Menopon gallinae (L.) (Menoponidae); ventral

view of female; B, cattle-biting louse, Bovicola bovis (L.) (Trichodectidae), ventral view of
female. ant, antenna; mxp, maxillary palp; tel, tarsal claws.

Figure25-3 A, head of Laemobothrion (Laemobothriidae), ventral view; B, head of a

ricinid (Ricinidae), ventral view. ant, antenna; e, eye; md, mandible; mxp, maxillary palpo
 Keyto the Familiesof Phthiraptera 359

Figure25-4 Philopteridae. A, the large turkey louse, Che-

A B lopistes meleagridis (L.), dorsal view; B, Anaticola crassicor-
nis (Scopoli), a louse of the blue-winged teal, ventral view.

Figure25-5 A, the spined rat louse, Polyplax spinulosa (Burmeister), female, ventral
view (Polyplacidae); B, head of the hog louse, Haematopinus suis (L.), dorsal view
(Haematopinidae). opt, ocular point.
 -,

360 Chapter25 OrderPhthiraptera

Figure25-6 Human liceoA, the body louse, female; B, the crab louse, female. 20 x.

3'. Antennae filiform and exposed; maxillary palps absent (Figures 25-2B
and 25-4) (Suborder Ischnocera) 9
4(3). With 1 tarsal claw or none; parasitic on guinea pigs Gyropidae p.361
4'. With 2 tarsaI claws; parasitic on birds, marsupials, and dogs 5
5(4'). With only 5 pairs of abdominal spiracles; parasitic on guinea pigs,
chinchillas, and New World marsupials, except for North American
opossums Trimenoponidae p.361
5'. With 6 pairs of abdominal spiracles 6
6(5/). Antennae 5-segmented and strongly clubbed; legs long and slender;
parasitic on Australian marsupials and dogs Boopiidae p.361
6/. Antennae 4-segmented and less strongly clubbed; legs not particularIy
long and slender; parasitic on birds 7
7(6/). Antennae in grooves on sides of head; head broadly triangular and
expanded behind eyes (Figure 25-2A) Menoponidae p.361
7'. Antennae in cavities that open ventrally; head not broadly triangular and
expanded behind eyes (Figure 25-3) 8
8(7'). Sides of head with conspicuous swelling in front of eye at base of antenna
(Figure 25-3A) laemobothriidae p.361
8'. Sides of head without such swelling (Figure 25-3B) Ricinidae p.361
9(3'). Tarsi with 2 claws; antennae 5-segmented (Figure 25-4); parasitic on birds Philopteridae p.362
9'. Tarsi with 1 claw; antennae usually 3-segmented (Figure 25-2B); parasitic
on mammals Trichodectidae p.362
10(2/). Head with distinct eyes (Figure 25-6) or with subacute ocular points on
sides of head behind antennae (Figure 25-5B, opt) 11
 Keyto the Families of Phthiraptera 361

10'. Head without eyes or prominent ocular points (Figure 25-5A) 14

11(10). Head with eyes but without ocular points (Figure 25-6); parasites of
humans and peccaries 12
11'. Head without eyes but with prominent ocular points (Figure 25-5B, opt);
parasites of ungulates Haematopinidae p.362
12(1l) , Head long and slender, much longer than thorax; southwestern United
States, on peccaries Pecaroecidae p. 362
12', Head about as long as thorax (Figure 25-6); parasites of humans 13
13(12') Abdomen about as long as its basal width, and with prominent lateral
10bes (Figure 25-6B); middle and hind legs stouter than front legs Pthiridae p. 363
13', Abdomen much longer than its basal width, and without laterallobes
(Figure 25-6A); middle and hind legs not stouter than front legs Pediculidae p. 362
14(10'), Body thickly covered with short, stout spines, abdomen with scales;
parasites of seals, walrus, and river otter Echinophthiriidae p. 362
14'. Body with only a few setae, abdomen without scales; parasites of
terrestrial mammals 15
15(14'), Front and middle legs similar in size and shape, both smaller, more
slender than hind legs; parasites of squirrels Enderleinellidae p. 362
15', Front legs smallest of the three pairs, middle and hind legs similar in size
and shape (Figure 25-5A), or hind legs larger; parasites of ungulates,
canids, rodents, and insectivores 16
16(15'). Front coxae widely separated; parasites of even-toed ungulates and canids Linognathidae p. 362
16'. Front coxae contiguous or nearly so; parasites of rodents and insectivores 17
1706'). Hind legs largest of the 3 pairs; sternite of second abdominal segment
extending laterally on each side to articulate with the tergite Hoplopleuridae p. 362
17'. Middle and hind legs similar in size and shape (Figure 25-5A); sternite
of second abdominal segment not extending laterally on each side and
not articulating with tergite Polyplacidae p. 363

Family Haematomyzidae: The three species in this
groupare found on Asian and African elephants, the
warthog, and the African bush pig. Its distinctive elon-
gatedhead is unique among the Phthiraptera. It is
foundboth on wild elephants and those that have long
beenin captivity.
Family Gyropidae: The members of this group are
chieflyconfined to Central and South America. Two
species occur in the United States on guinea pigs.
Pitrnfqueniacoypus Marelli has been collected from
feralnutria in the southeastern United States. Macrogy-
ropusdicotylis (Macalister) lives on the collared pec-
cary.
Family Trimenoponidae: All but a single species
arerestricted to Neotropical rodents and marsupials.
Trimenoponon hispidum (Burmeister) occms on the
guineapig and, with its host, now has a worldwide
distribu tion.
Family Boopiidae:This group is represented in the
United States by one species: Heterodoxus spiniger
Enderlein, which lives on dogs and coyotes in the south-
western states. It is an intermediate host to several inter-
nal parasites of canids. Most members of this family oc-
cm in Australia, where they are parasites of marsupials.
Family Menoponidae:This is a large group whose
members attack birds. Two important pests of poultry
in this group are the chicken body louse, Menacanthus
stramineus(Nitzsch), and the shaft louse, Menopongal-
linae (L.) (Figure 25-2A).
Family laemobothriidae: This is a small group of
very large \ice whose members are parasites of water
birds and birds of prey. Eight species, all in the genus
Laemobothrion, occur in the United States.
Family Ricinidae:This is a small group whose mem-
bers are parasites of birds, including hummingbirds
and passerine birds.

362 Chapter25 OrderPhthiraptera
Family Philopteridae: This is the largest family in
the order and contains species parasitizing a wide vari-
ety of birds. Two important pests of poultry in this
group are the chicken head louse, Cuclotogaster hetero-
graphus (Nitzsch), and the large turkey louse, Chelop-
istes meleagridis (L.) (Figure 25-4A).
Family Trichodectidae: The trichodectids are para-
sites of mammals. Some important pest species in this
group are the catde-biting louse, Bovicola bovis (L.)
(Figure 25-2B); the horse-biting louse, Bovicola (Wer-
neckiella) equi (Denny); and the dog-biting louse, Tri-
chodectes canis (DeGeer).
Family Echinophthiriidae: The five North American
species in this group attack aquatic mammals (seals,
and the sea lion, walrus, and the river otter). At least
some species burrow into the skin of their host.
Family Enderleinellidae: This is a widely distributed
group, with 10 North American species, whose mem-
bers are parasites of squirrels. They may be recognized
by the fact that the front and middle legs are similar in
size and more slender than the hind legs. Most North
American species belong to the genus Enderleinellus.
Microphthirus uncinatus (Ferris), a parasite of flying
squirrels, is shorter than 0.5 mm and is the smallest
louse in this order.
Family Haematopinidae: The lice in this group at-
tack pigs, catde, horses, and deer. They differ from
other sucking lice in having ocular points on the sides
of the head behind the eyes (Figure 25-5B, opt). This
family contains four North American species, includ-
ing the hog louse, Haematopinus suis (L.); the horse-
sucking louse, H. asini (L.); and two species of
Haematopinus that attack catde.
Family Hoplopleuridae: The members of this group
(17 North American species) attack rodents, hares,
moles, and shrews. These lice differ from other Anoplura
attacking these hosts (Polyplacidae) in the form of the
sternite of the second abdominal segment and the rela-
tive size of the different legs (see key, couplet 17).
Family Linognathidae: This group includes 10 North
American species that are parasites of catde, sheep, goats,
deer, reindeer, dogs, coyotes, and foxes. It includes the
dog-sucking louse, Linognathus setosus (OUers); the goat-
sucking louse, L. stenopsis (Burmeister); and the long-
nosed catde louse, L. vituli (L.). The last species differs
from the haematopinids attacking catde in lacking ocular
points on the head.
Family Pecaroecidae: This group includes a single
North American species, Pecaroecus jayvalii Babcock
and Ewing, which occurs in the Southwest on pecca-
ries. This species is the largest North American anoplu-
ran, and can reach a length of 8 mm.
Family Pediculidae: This group includes the head
and body lice of humans, Pediculushumanus capitis
"""
DeGeer and P. h. humanus L., respectively, which are
considered subspecies of a single species, P. humanus.
These lice (Figure 25-6A) are narrower and more elon-
gate than crab liceo The head is only a little narrower
than the thorax, and the abdomen lacks laterallobes.
Adults are 2.5 to 3.5 mm long.
The head and body lice have a similar life his-
tory, but differ somewhat in habits. The head louse
occurs chiefly on the head, and its eggs are attached
to the hair. The body louse occurs primarily on the
body, and its eggs are laid on clothing, particularly
along the seams. The eggs hatch in about a week, and
the entire life cycle from egg to adult requires about
a month. Lice feed at frequent intervals, and individ-
ual feedings last a few minutes. Body lice usually
hang onto clothing while feeding, and often remain
on clothing when it is removed. The head louse is
transmitted from person to person through the ex-
change of combs, ha ir brushes, and caps or hats. The
body louse is transmitted by clothing and bedding,
and at night may migrate from one pile of clothes to
another.
The body louse (also called "cootie" or "seam
squirrel") is an important vector of human disease. The
most important disease it transmits is epidemic typhus,
which may occur in outbreaks in war or famine condi-
tions, sometimes with a high mortality rate. Body lice
become infected by feeding on a typhus patient and can
infect another person a week or so later. Infection re-
sults from scratching the feces of the louse, or the
crushed louse itseU, into the skin. This disease is not
transmitted by the louse bite. Another important louse-
borne disease is a type of relapsing fever that is trans-
mitted by the infected louse being crushed and rubbed
into the skin. Neither the feces nor the bite of the louse
is infective. A third louse-borne disease is trench fever,
which occurred in epidemic proportions during World
War 1, but since then has not be en very important.
People who bathe and change clothes regularly se!-
dom become infested with lice, but when they go for
long periods without doing so and live in crowded con-
ditions, lousiness is likely to be prevalent. The latter
conditions are often common during wartime, when liv-
ing quarters are crowded and people go for long periods
without a change of clothes. If a louse-borne disease
such as typhus gets started in a population that is heav-
ily infested with body lice, it can quickly swell into an
epidemic.
The control of body lice usually involves dusting
people with an insecticide. Clothing must also be
treated, because the eggs are laid on it, and adult lice
often cling to clothing when it is removed. The treat-
ment of clothing usually involves chemical fumigation
or heat sterilization.

Epidemics of typhus have raged in many military
carnpaignsand have often caused more casualties than
actualcombat. Until World War Il, there were no sim-
ple and easily applied controls for body liceo DDT,
whichfirst carne into use during this war, proved ideal
forlouse control. In the fall of 1943, when a typhus
epidernicthreatened Naples, ltaly, dusting thousands
ofpeople with DDT brought the epidemic under com-
pletecontrol in only a few months. In the years since
then,body lice have developed resistance to DDT, and
thisinsecticide is no longer as effective in their control
asit used to be.
FamilyPolyplacidae: This family is the largest fam-
ilyinthe suborder, with 26 North American species. Its
mernbers attack rodents, hares, moles, and shrews.
Sornespecies in other parts of the world attack pri-
mates(monkeys and lemurs).
Family pthiridae:The only member of this family
inNorth America is the crab louse of humans, Pthirus
pubis(L.) (Figure 25-6B), but there is also an African
species (P. gorillae Ewing) that attacks gorillas.
Pthiruspubis is broadly oval and somewhat crab-
shaped, with the daws of the middle and hind
legsverylarge, the head much narrower than the tho-
rax,and the abdominal segments with lateral lobes.
Adults are 1.5 to 2.0 mm long. This louse occurs
chieflyin the pubic region, but in hairy people may
occuralmost anywhere on the body. The eggs (nits)
are attached to body hairs. The crab louse is an
irritating pest, but is not known to transmit any
disease.
References
Clay,1. 1970. The Arnblycera (Phthiraptera: Insecta). Bull.
Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Entorno\. 25:73-98.
Cruickshank, R. H., K. P.Johnson, V. S. Srnith, R. J. Adarns, D.
H. Clayton, and R. D. M. Page. 2001. Phylogenetic analy-
sis of partial sequences of elongation factor 1 alpha iden-
tifies rnajor groups of \ice (Insecta: Phthiraptera). Mo\.
Phylog. Evo\. 19:202-215.
Durden, L. A., and G. G. Musser. 1994a. The sucking lice (In-
secta: Anoplura) of the world: A taxonornic check\ist
with records of rnarnrna\ian hosts and geographical dis-
tribution. Bull. Arner. Mus. Nat. Hist. 218:1-90.
Durden, L. A., and G. G. Musser. 1994b. The rnarnrna\ian
hosts of the sucking \ice (Anoplura) of the world: A
host-parasite \ist. Bull. Soco Vector Eco\. 19:130-168.
Ferris, G. F. 1951. The sucking \ice. Mern. Paco Coast Ento-
rno\. Soco 1:1-321.
Hopkins, G. H. E., and 1. Clay. 1952. A Check List of the
Genera and Species of Mallophaga. London: British Mu-
seurn (Natural History), 362 pp.
Kim, K. e (Ed.). 1985. Coevolution of parasitic arthropods
and rnarnrnals. New York: Wiley, 800 pp.
References 363
Collecting and Preserving Phthiraptera
The only effective way to find lice is to examine their
hosts carefully. Hosts other than domestic animals usually
must be shot or trapped. Lice often are found still at-
tached to museum skins of birds or mammals. Small host
animals collected in the field to be examined later should
be placed in a tightly closed bag. Any lice that fall or crawl
off the host can then be found in the bag. To be certain of
the host relationship, place different species, or preferably
different individuals, of the host in separa te bags.
Examine all parts of the host, because different
species of lice often occur on different parts of the same
host. The best way to locate lice is to go over the host
carefully with forceps, or a comb can often be used to ad-
vantage. The lice sometimes fall off if the host is shaken
over a sheet of paper. Lice may be picked up with forceps
or with a camel's-hair brush moistened with alcohol.
Preserve lice in 70-75% alcohol, along with col-
lection and host data. Use a different vial for the lice
from each host. Collection data (on a label inside the
vial) should indude the host species, the date, the 10-
cality, and the name of the collector.
Lice must be mounted on microscope slides for
detailed study; specimens preserved on pins or points
are unsatisfactory. Specimens to be mounted are first
deared for a day or so in cold KOH. lt is sometimes de-
sirable to stain the specimen before mounting it on a
slide. Kim et al. (1986, pp. 3-5) give detailed directions
for collecting and mounting Anoplura.
Kirn, K. e 1987. Order Anoplura. In F.W. Stehr (Ed.), lrnrna-
ture lnsects, pp. 224-245. Dubuque, lA: Kendall/Hunt,
754 pp.
Kirn, K. e, and H. W. Ludwig. 1978a. The farnily classifica-
tiqn of the Anoplura. Syst. Entorno\. 3:249-284.
Kirn, K. e, and H. W. Ludwig. 1978b. Phylogenetic relation-
ships of parasitic Psocodea and taxonornic position of the
Anoplura. Ann. Entorno\. Soco Arner. 71:910-922.
Kirn, K. e, and H. W. Ludwig. 1982. Parallel evolution,
cladistics, and classification of parasitic Psocodea. Ann.
Entorno\. Soco Arner. 75:537-548.
Kirn, K. e, H. D. Pratt, and e]. Stojanovich. 1986. The suck-
ing \ice of North Arnerica. University Park: Pennsylvania
State University Press, 241 pp.
Lyal, e H. e 1985. A cladistic analysis and classification of
trichodectid rnarnrnal \ice (Phthiraptera: lschnocera).
Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Entorno\. 51:187-346.
Price, M. A., and O. H. Graharn. 1997. Chewing and sucking
\ice as parasites of rnarnrnals and birds. U.s. Dept. Agric.
Tech. Bull. 1849. 309 pp.
364 Chapter25 OrderPhthiraptera

Price, R. D. 1987. Order Mallophaga. In F.W Stehr (Ed.), lm- Wemeck, F. L. 1948-1950. Os Malófagos de Mamiferos. Parte
mature lnsects, pp. 215-223. Dubuque, lA: KendalV I. Amblycera e lschnocera (Philopteridae e parte de Iri.
Hunt, 754 pp. chodectidae), 243 pp. (1948). Parte II: lschnocera (con-
Price, R. D., R. A. Hellenthal, R. L. Palma, K. P.Johnson, and tinua<;ao de Trichodectidae) e Rhynchophthirina. 207 pp.
D. H. Clayton. 2003. The chewing \ice: World check\ist (1950). Rio de Janeiro: Edi<;ao da Revista Brasileira de
and biological overview. Illinois Nat. Hist. Surv. Special Biologia.
Pub!. 24. Champaign, lL: Illinois Natural History Survey,
458 pp.

~
 26 Order Coleoptera1,2
Beetles

he Coleoptera are the largest order of insects, with Most beetle larvae are campodeiform or scarabaeiform,
T about 40% of the known species in the Hexapoda. but some are platyform, some are elateriform, and a few
Morethan a quarter of a million beetle species have are vermiform.
beendescribed, and about 30,000 of these occur in the Beetles may be found in almost every type of habi-
UnitedStates and Canada. These vary in length (in the tat that is inhabited by insects, and they feed on all sorts
UnitedStates) from less than a millimeter up to about of plant and animal materials. Many are phytophagous,
75mm. Some tropical species reach a length of about predaceous, or fungivorous, whereas some are scav-
125mm. The beetles vary considerably in habits and engers and a very few are parasitic. Some are subter-
arefound almost everywhere. Many species are of great ranean in habit; many are aquatic or semiaquatic; and a
economicimportance. few live as commensals in the nests of social insects or
One of the most distinctive features of the mammals. Some of the phytophagous species are free
Coleopterais the structure of the wings. Most beetles feeders on foliage, and others bore into wood or fruits or
havefourwings,with the front pair thickened, leathery, live as leaf miners. Others attack roots, and some feed on
orhard and brittle. Called elytra (singular, elytron), these parts of blossoms or on pollen. Any part of a plant may
frontwings usually meet in a straight line down the mid- be fed on by some type of beetle. Many beetles feed on
dIeof the back and cover the hind wings (hence the or-
dername). The hind wings are membranous, are usually
longerthan the front wings, and at rest are usually folded
upunder the front wings (Figure 26-1). The elytra nor-
mallyserve as protective sheaths and are held motionless
duringflight, which is powered by the hind wings. The
frontor hind wings are greatly reduced in a few beetles.
The mouthparts in this order are of the chewing
type,and the mandibles are well developed. The man-
diblesof many beetles are stout and are used in crush-
ingseeds or gnawing wood. In others, they are slender
and sharp. In the weevils, the front of the head is
drawnout into a more or less elongated snout with the
mouthparts at the end.
The beetles undergo complete metamorphosis. The
larvaevary considerably in form in different families.
Figure26-1 Dorsal view of a ladybird beetle
'Coleoptera: colea. sheath; ptera, wings (referring to the elytra). (Adalia sp.), with the left wings extended. ab, abdomen,
2Thesection on Chrysomelidae was edited by Shawn Clark, and the ant, antenna; e, compound eye; el, elytron; lbr, labrum;
sectionon Curculionoidea was edited by Robert S. Anderson. n" pronotum. 365
366 Chapter26 Order Coleoptera
stored plant or animal products, including many types
of foods, clothing, and other organic materials. One Cal-
ifornian species is infamous for its ability to bore
through the lead sheathing once used on telephone ca-
bles. Many beetles are of value to humans because they
destroy injurious insects or act as scavengers.
The life cycle in this order varies in length from
four generations ayear to one generation in several
years. Most species have one generation ayear. The
winter may be passed in any of the life stages, depend-
ing on the species. Many overwinter as partly grown
larvae, pupa e in chambers in soil, wood, or other pro-
tected situations; and many overwinter as adults. Rela-
tively few species overwinter as eggs.
Sound Production in the Coleoptera
Sound production has been reported in about 50 fami-
lies of Coleoptera, but the sounds are generally rather
weak and have been much less studied than the sounds
of Orthoptera and cicadas. Relatively little is known of
the role these sounds play in behavior.
Beetles produce sounds in four principal ways: (1) in
the course of normal activities such as flying and feed-
ing; (2) by striking some part of the body against the
substrate; (3) by stridulation; and (4) chemically.
Flight sounds, produced by the movements of the
wings, are similar to those produced by other flying in-
sects. Feeding sounds depend on the size of the beetles
and the material fed on, but in some cases these sounds
may be fairly loud. A large wood-boring beetle larva
feeding in a log can sometimes be heard from several
feet away. Feeding sounds, such as those of wood-
boring larvae or grain-feeding beetles, probably play no
role in communication from one beetle to another but
do indica te (communicate) to humans presence (and
feeding) of the insects.
Adult deathwatch beetles (Anobium and Xestobium
spp., family Anobiidae) make sounds by striking the
lower parts of their heads against the walls of their gal-
leries (in wood). In quiet surroundings, these sounds
are quite apparent. In Arizona and California, adults of
Eupsophulus castaneus Horn (Tenebrionidae) cause
some annoyance by tapping their abdomens against
screen doors and windows, producing a surprisingly
loud noise. Another tenebrionid, Eusattus reticulatus
(Say), produces a sound by rapidly tapping the apex of
the abdomen against the ground.
When a click beetle on its back "jumps" (see page
422), there is a distinct clicking sound. It is not clear
whether the click is caused by the body striking the
substrate or the prosternal peg stopping abruptly in the
mesosternal notch.
In the Coleoptera, most sounds, including the
sounds that may be involved in communication, are
produced by stridulation. The stridulatory structures
may be located on almost any part of the body and in.
volve an area bearing a series of ridges (the "file") and
a "scraper," usually a hard ridge, knob, or spine, which
is rubbed against the file. Most stridulatory structures
are on adults, but in a few beetle species the larvae, or
even the pupae, stridulate.
The stridulatory structures in beetles may involve
the head and pronotum (Nitidulidae, Tenebrionidae,
Endomychidae, Curculionidae), head appendages
(usually mouthparts; certain Scarabaeidae), pronotum
and mesonotum (common in the Cerambycidae), leg
and thorax (Anobiidae, Bostrichidae), leg and ab.
domen (some Scarabaeidae), leg and leg (adult and lar-
val Passalidae, Lucanidae, and some Scarabaeidae), ab.
domen and hind wings (Passalidae), and elytra and
abdomen (Hydrophilidae, Curculionidae).
Beetle stridulations are produced in four general
sorts of situations: (1) when the insect is handled orat-
tacked ("stress" sounds); (2) in aggressive situations,
such as fighting; (3) in calling (attracting the opposite
sex); and (4) prior to mating (a "courtship" sound).
Probably most beetles that stridulate produce stress
sounds, and such sounds may help de ter potential
predators. Stress sounds may be the only ones some
beetles produce, whereas other beetles (for example,
the hydrophilid genus Berosus and bark beetles) may
produce other types of sounds.
Another type of sound is produced by ground bee-
tles (Carabidae) of thegenus Brachinus. Two chemica~
held in reservoirs at the end of the abdomen are ex.
pelled at the same time, and mix in the air to createa
chemical reaction releasing heat. This produces a dis.
tinctive popping sound, like a tiny explosion, which
probably deters predators.
Beetle sounds vary in their character, depending
on the species and how the sounds are produced, bUI
most are of a quality that might be described as a chirp,
a squeak, or a rasping sound. Most contain a broad
band of frequencies (Figure 26-2). Stress sounds and
so me aggressive sounds are generally produced at anir.
regular rate of, at most, only a few per second. In call.
ing and courtship sounds, the chirps are produced ala
faster, regular rate, which differs in different species
(Figure 26-2).
The sounds produced by beetles in the genus Bao.
sus (Hydrophilidae) are of two sorts, an alarm sound
and a premating sound. The alarm sound, produced
when the beetle is handled (and sometimes seemingly
at random), consists of irregularly spaced chirps, 1-3
or so per second. The premating sound is a rapid series
of short chirps lasting 0.3 to 3.6 seconds, with the
chirps uttered rapidly at a regular rateo The premating

---- ---
'. .1 ...
1f .. .. l!
.
118_11 l.
... .
. . . ... . .
~., '.
------..--. -----
. f
Time in Seconds
soundsof different sympatric species are different and
arebelieved to act as a species-isolating mechanism.
In Dendroctonus (Curculionidae: Scolytinae), both
sexesstridulate, and the sounds produced are of three
generaltypes: (l) simple chirps (each produced by a
singlemovement of the stridulatory apparatus); (2) in-
terruptedchirps (each produced by a single movement
orthestridulatory apparatus, but interrupted by one or
morebrief moments of silence); and (3) clicks (each a
singlespike of sound, produced by females when alone
in the bark). Stridulation occurs during stress situa-
tions(for example, when a beetle is handled), during
aggression,and during courtship. The sounds made by
remalesin the bark may have a territorial function; that
15,they may limit the density of the burrows. Males
emitinterrupted chirps both while fighting a rival male
andwhen attracted to the gallery of a virgin female. A
remaleresponds 10 male stridulation at the gallery en-
tranceby simple chirps. The courting behavior in the
galleryinvolves the male emitting simple chirps while
theremale is silent.
Uttle is known about auditory mechanisms in bee-
tles.They do not have tympana, but certain chordo-
Classification of the Coleoptera 367
--
-
-. -
Figure 26-2 Audiospectrographs
of the stridulations of three species
of weeviIs: A, Conotraehelus earinifer
Casey; B, C. naso LeConte;
e, c. postieatus Casey.
tonal organs and sensilla are sensitive to vibration.
These organs usually lie on either the legs or antennae.
Classification of the Coleoptera
Coleopterists differ with regard to the relationships of
the various groups of beetles, the groups that should be
given family status, and their arrangement into super-
families. The recent publication of American Beetles
(Amett et al. 2001, 2002) reflects the opinions of more
than 80 contributing specialists. The arrangement of
suborders, superfamilies, and families followed in this
book closely follows the classification presented by
them. Some taxa in that classification depart radically
from the traditional ones, but most are well founded
and were arrived at by modem taxonomic methods. In
a few instances, we chose to combine taxa for ease in
using the key. Many individual authorities give family
status to more groups than we do in this book.
An outline of the groups in the order Coleoptera,
as they are treated in this book, is given here. Names in
368 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

parentheses represent different spellings, synonyrns, or Series Scarabaeiformia

other treatments of the group. Families marked with an Superfamily Scarabaeoidea
asterisk (*) are relatively rare or are unlikely to be Lucanidae-stag beetles
taken by the general collector. Most common names of Passalidae-bess beetles
families are those used in Amett et al. (2001,2002). Diphyllostomatidae *
Ceratocanthidae (= Acanthoceridae) *
Suborder Archostemata
Glaphyridae*
Cupedidae (Cupesidae, Cupidae)-reticulated Pleocomidae-rain beetles*
beetles*
Geotrupidae-earth-boring dung beetles
Micromalthidae-telephone-pole beetles* Ochouaeidae *
Suborder Myxophaga Hybosoridae *
Microsporidae (Sphaeriidae)-minute bog Glaresidae*
beetles* Trogidae-skin beetles
Hydroscaphidae (Hydrophilidae, in part)-skiff Scarabaeidae-scarab beetles
beetles * Series Elateriformia
Suborder Adephaga Superfamily Scirtoidea
Rhysodidae (Rhyssodidae)-wrinkled bark Eucinetidae (Dascillidae, in part)-
beetles plate-thigh beetles*
Clambidae-minute beetles
Carabidae (including Cicindelidae, Paussidae,
Scirtidae (Helodidae, Cyphonidae;
Tachypachidae, Omophronidae)-ground
beetles and tiger beetles Dascillidae, in part)-marsh beetles
Superfamily Dascilloidea
Gyrinidae-whirligig beetles
Dascillidae (Atopidae, Dascyllidae; includ-
Haliplidae-crawling water beetles
ing Karumiidae)-soft-bodied plant
Noteridae (Dytiscidae, in part)-burrowing water beetles
beetles*
Amphizoidae-trout-stream beetles* Rhipiceridae (Sandalidae, in part)-cicada
parasite beetles
Dytiscidae-predaceous diving beetles
Superfamily Buprestoidea
Suborder Polyphaga Buprestidae (including Schizopodidae)-
Series Staphyliniformia metallic wood-boring beetles
Superfamily Hydrophiloidea Superfamily Byrrhoidea
Hydrophilidae (including Hydrochidae, Byrrhidae-pill beetles
Spercheidae, Sphaeridiidae, and Elmidae (Limniidae, Helminthidae)-riffle
Georyssidae)-water scavenger beetles beetles
Sphaeritidae-false clown beetles* Dryopidae (Pamidae)-long-toed water
Histeridae (Niponiidae)-clown beetles beetles
Superfamily Staphylinoidea Lutrochidae-travertine beetle
Hydraenidae (Limnebiidae; Hydrophilidae Limnichidae (Dascillidae, in part)-minute
in part)-minute moss beetles* marsh-loving beetles*
Ptiliidae (Ptilidae, Trichopterigidae; includ- Heteroceridae-variegated mud-loving
ing Limulodidae)-feather-winged bee- beetles
tles and horseshoe crab beetles Psephenidae (including Eubriidae)-water
Agyrtidae (Silphidae, in part)-primitive penny beetles
carrion beetles Ptilodactylidae (Dascillidae, in part)
Leiodidae (Liodidae, Anisotomidae, Lep- Chelonariidae*-turtle beetles
todiridae, Leptinidae, Platypsyllidae Eulichadidae (Dascillidae, in part) *
Catopidae; Silphidae, in part)-round Callirhipidae (Rhipiceridae, in part,
fungus beetles, mammal-nest beetles, Sandalidae, in part)-cedar beetles*
and beaver parasites* Superfamily Elateroidea
Scydmaenidae-antlike stone beetles* Artematopodidae (Eurypogonidae;
Silphidae (Necrophoridae)-carrion Dascillidae, in part) *
beetles Brachypsectridae-the Texas beetle*
Staphylinidae (including Micropeplidae, Cerophytidae-rare click beetles*
Pselaphidae, Scaphidiidae, Dasyceridae, Eucnemidae (Melasidae, Perothopidae)-
Brathinidae)-rove beetles false click beetles
 Classification of the Coleoptera 369

Throscidae (Trixagidae) Endomychidae-handsome fungus beetles

Elateridae (including Plastoceridae and Coccinellidae-ladybird beetles
Cebrionidae)-click beetles Corylophidae-minute fungus beetles
Lycidae-net-winged beetles Latridiidae-minute brown scavenger
Telegeusidae-long-lipped beetles* beetles
Phengodidae-glowworm beetles* Superfamily Tenebrionoidea
Lampyridae-fireflies, lightningbugs Mycetophagidae-hairy fungus beetles
Omethidae-false firefly beetles; false 501- Archeocrypticidae*
dier beetles Ciidae (Cisidae, Cioidae)-minute tree
Cantharidae (Telephoridae, fungus beetles
Chauliognathidae)-soldier beetles Tetratomidae-polypore fungus beetles*
Series Bostrichiformia Melandryidae (including Synchroidae,
Jacobsoniidae-Jacobson's beetles* Anaspididae, and Serropalpidae)-false
Superfamily Derodontoidea darkling beetles
Derodontidae-tooth-necked fungus Mordellidae-tumbling flower beetles
beetles* Ripiphoridae (Rhipiphoridae)-wedge-
Superfamily Bostrichoidea shaped beetles
Nosodendridae-wounded tree beetles* Colydiidae (including Adimeridae, Meryci-
Dermestidae (including Thorictidae)-skin dae, and Monoedidae)-cylindrical bark
beetles beetles
Bostrichidae (including Lyctidae, Psoidae, Zopheridae (including Monommatidae,
Apatidae)-branch and twig borers and Monommidae)-ironclad beetles
powderpost beetles Tenebrionidae (including Alleculidae and
Anobiidae (including Ptinidae and Lagriidae)-darkling beetles
Gnostidae)-death watch and spider Prostomidae-jugular-horned beetles*
beetles Synchroidae
Series Cucujiformia Oedemeridae-pollen-feeding beetles
Superfamily Lymexyloidea Stenotrachelidae (Cephaloidae)-false
Lymexylidae-ship-timber beetles long-horned beetles*
Superfamily Cleroidea Meloidae-blister beetles
Trogossitidae (Ostomatidae, Ostomidae)- Mycteridae (including Hemipeplidae)-
bark-gnawing beetles palm and flower beetles
Cleridae (Corynetidae)-checkered beetles Boridae-conifer bark beetles
Melyridae (Malachiidae, Dasytidae)- Pythidae-dead log bark beetles
soft-winged flower beetles Pyrochroidae (including Pedilidae and
Superfamily Cucujoidea Cononotidae)-fire-colored beetles
Sphindidae-dry-fungus beetles* Salpingidae-narrow-waisted bark
Brachypteridae-short -winged flower beetles
beetles Anthicidae-antlike flower beetles
Nitidulidae-sap-feeding beetles Aderidae (Euglenidae)-antlike leaf
Smicripidae-palmetto beetles beetles*
Monotomidae (Rhizophagidae)- Scraptiidae-false flower beetles
root-eating beetles Polypriidae-the red cross beetle
Silvanidae Superfamily Chrysomeloidea
Passandridae-parasitic flat bark beetles Cerambycidae (including Disteniidae,
Cucujidae-flat bark beetles Parandridae, and Spondylidae)-long-
Laemophloeidae-lined flat bark beetles horned beetles
Phalacridae-shining flower beetles Megalopodidae
Cryptophagidae-silken fungus beetles Orsodacnidae
Languriidae-lizard beetles Chrysomelidae (including Bruchidae,
Erotylidae-pleasing fungus beetles Cassididae, Cryptocephalidae, Hispidae,
Byturidae-fruitworm beetles and Sagridae)-leaf beetles
Biphyllidae-false skin beetles Superfamily Curculionoidea (Rhynchophora)
Bothrideridae-dry bark beetles Nemonychidae (Cimberidae)-pine flower
Cerylonidae-minute bark beetles snout beetles
370 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
Anthribidae (Platystomidae, Brochelidae,
Choragidae, Platyrrhinidae)-fungus
weevils
Belidae-primitive weevils
Attelabidae (Rhynchitidae)-tooth-nosed
snout beetles; leaf-rolling weevils
Brentidae (Brenthidae, including Apionidae
and Cyladidae)-straight-snouted wee-
vils and pear-shaped weevils
lthyceridae-the New York weevil
Curculionidae (including Cossonidae,
Rhynchophoridae, Platypodidae, and
Scolytidae)-snout beetles, troe weevils,
and bark beetles
Characters Used in Identifying Beetles
The principal characters of beetles used in identifica-
tion are those of the head, antennae, thoracic sclerites,
legs, elytra, and abdomen. Occasionally characters
such as size, shape, and color are used. In most cases
the ease of recognizing these characters depends on the
size of the beetle. Some characters require careful ob-
servation, often at high magnification, for accurate in-
terpretation.
Head Characters
The principal head character used involves the devel-
opment of a snout. In the Curculionoidea, the head is
more or less prolonged forward into a snout; the mouth-
parts are reduced in size and are located at the tip of the
snout; and the antennae usually arise on the sides of it.
The basal antennal segment, the scape, often fits into a
groove ((he scrobe;Figure 26-3, agr) on the snout. In
many cases (Figure 26-3), the snout is quite distinct,
occasionally as long as the body or longer. In other
A e
cases (for example, the Scolytinae and Platypodinae),
the snout is poorly developed and not very evident as
such. The families in the Curculionoidea are some-
times placed in a separate group, the Rhynchophora.
These beetles differ from most other members of the
order in having fused guIar sutures (Figure 26-3C).
There is some development of a snout in a few beetles
outside this superfamily, but such beetles have sepa-
rated guIar sutures (Figure 26-4, gs).
Antennae
The antenna of the Coleoptera consists of only three
troe segments, that is, subdivisions characterized by in-
trinsic musculature. The basal segment is the scape,
followed by the pedicel and the flagellum. In most in-
sects, the flagellum is then divided into unmusculated
subsegments, sometimes quite a loto Entomologists tra-
ditionally have recognized that these subsegments dif-
fer from the three troe segments of the antenna, but
nevertheless have called them all "antennal segments."
The subdivisions of the flagellum more properly
should be called flagellomeres. In this chapter we avoid
the term "antennal segment" and refer to them as an-
tennomeres.
The antennae ofbeetles are subject to considerable
variation in different groups, and these differences are
used in identification. The term clubbed, as used in the
key, refers to any condition in which the terminal an-
tennomeres are larger than those preceding them, in-
cluding clavate ((he terminal antennomeres enlarging
gradually and only slightly, as in Figure 2-15D,E); cap-
itate ((he terminal antennomeres abroptly enlarged, as
in Figure 26-5F-I); lamellate (the terminal anten-
nomeres expanded on one side into rounded or oval
plates, as in Figure 26-6A,C-G); and flabellate (the
terminal antennomeres expanded on one side into
long, thin, parallel-sided, tonguelike processes, as in
Figure 26-6B). The distinction between some of these
Figure26-3 Head of a snout
beetle (Pissodes, Curculion-
idae). A, dorsal view; B, lateral
view; C, ventral view. acl,
antennal club; agr, scrobe,
groove in beak for reception of
antenna; bk, beak or snout;
e, compound eye; ge, gena;
gs, guIar suture; lbm, labium;
Ip, labial palp; md, mandible;
m.x,maxilla; mxp, maxillary
palp; sep, scape of antenna.
 Characters Used in IdentifyingBeetles 371

eharacter. The antennomeres between the seape (¡he

basal segment) and the club are sometimes referred to
as the funiculus (or funicle).

Thorade Characters
The pronotum and scutellum are normally the only
thorade areas visible from above. The other thorade
areas are usually visible only in a ventral view. Viewed
from above, the pronotum may vary greatly in shape,
and its posterior margin may be eonvex, straight, or
sinuate (Figure 26-7E-G). Laterally, the pronotum
may be margined (with a sharp, keel-like lateral edge)
or rounded. The surface of the pronotum may be bare
or pubeseent, and it may be smooth or with various
punctures or dents, ridges, grooves, tubercles, or other
features. The underside of the pronotum is called the
hypomeron. The scutellum (¡he mesoscutellum) is
usually visible as a small, triangular sclerite immedi-
ately behind the pronotum, between the bases of the
elytra. Only occasionally is it rounded or heart-shaped,
and sometimes it is concealed.
The chief thoradc characters apparent in a ventral
view that are important in identification are the various
sutures, the shape of certain sclerites, and the particu-
lar sclerites adjacent to the front and middle coxae. A
few beetles (the Adephaga, Myxophaga, and Cupedi-
dae) have notopleural sutures (Figure 26-4, npls),
which separate the pronotum from the propleura. Most
beetles have prosternal sutures (Figure 26-4, stns),
which separa te the prosternum from the rest of the
prothorax. The anterior margin of the prosternum is
Figure 26-4 Ventral view of a ground beetle (Omaseus usually straight. When it is somewhat convex (as in
sp.).ant, antenna; ex, coxa; e, eompound eye; epm¡, Figure 26-8A), it is said to be lobed. The prosternum
proepimeron;epm2'mesepimeron; epm], metepimeron; often has a process or lobe extending backward be-
eps"proepisternum; eps2'mesepisternum; eps], metepi- tween the front coxae, and so me times (for example, in
stemum;fm, femur; g, galea; gs, guIar suture; gu, gula; click beetles, Figure 26-8A) this process is spinelike.
Ig,ligula; Ip, labial palp; md, mandible; mn, mentum; When the sclerites of the prothorax extend poste-
mx,maxilla;mxp, maxillary palp; n" pronotum; npls, noto- riorly around the front coxae, these coxal cavities are
pleuralsuture; pg, postgena; smt, submentum; Sin" said to be closed (Figure 26-7B). When the sclerite im-
prostemum;stn2,mesostemum; stn], metasternum; stns, mediately behind the front coxae is a sclerite of
prostemalsuture; tb, tibia; tel, tarsal claws; tr, troehanter; the mesothorax, these cavities are said to be open (Fig-
trs,transverse suture on metasternum; ts, tarsus; tsp, tib- ure 26-7 A). When the middle coxae are surrounded by
ialspurs; 1-6, ventrites 1-6. sterna and are not touched by any pleural sclerite, these
coxal cavities are said to be closed (Figure 26-7D).
When at least some of the pleural sclerites reach the
middle coxae, these coxal cavities are said to be open
antennal variations (for example, between filiform and (Figure 26-7C).
slightlyclubbed or between filiform and serrate) is not The "click mechanism" consists of a long pros ter-
verysharp, and some eonditions might be interpreted nal intercoxal process with the dorsal or dorsoapical
indifferent ways. This fact is taken into aecount in the surface of the apex notched to fit against a slight pro-
key,as specimens will key out correctly from either al- jection on the anterior margin of the relatively large,
temative at many places in the key. deep midcoxal cavity. In some compact spedes, there is
The number of terminal antennomeres that form a platelike, margined ventral face to the postcoxal por-
the club (in clubbed antennae) often serves as a key tion of the intercoxal process that is tightly received by

..
r 1

372 Chapter26 Order Coleoptera

B D

e E

Figure 26-5 Antennae of

A H
F (H, redrawn fram Kaston.)
Coleoptera. A, Harpalus
(Carabidae); B, Rhysodes
(Rhysodidae); C, Trichodesma
(Anobiidae); D, Arthromacra
(Tenebrionidae); E, Dineutus
(Gyrinidae); F, Lobiopa
(Nitidulidae); G, Dermestes
(Dermestidae); H, Hylurgopi-
nus (Curculionidae);
1, Hololepta (Histeridae).

B Figure 26-6 Antennae of

Coleoptera. A, Nicrophorus
A (Silphidae); B, Sandalus, male
(Rhipiceridae); C, Phyllophaga,
(Scarabaeidae), the terminalseg-
ments expanded; D, same, termi.
nal segments together forminga
club; E, Lucanus (Lucanidae);
F, Odontotaenius (Passalidae);
G G, Trox (Trogidae).
 CharactersUsedin IdentifyingBeetles 373

n, /'

stn,

A B

e o

E F G

Figure26-7 Thoracic structure in Coleoptera. A and B, pros terna showing open (A)
and closed (B) coxal cavities; C and D, mesostema showing open (C) and closed (D)
coxal cavities; E-G, pronota with posterior margin convex (E), straight (F), or sinuate
(G). cxc, coxal cavity; epm" proepimeron; epm2,mesepimeron; eps2,mesepisternum; epsJ,
metepisternum; stn" prostemum; stn2,mesoternum; stnJ, metasternum.
374 Chapter26 Order Coleoptera
A 1-5, ventrites 1-5.
the deeply emarginate mesostemum. In these cases, the
troe apex of the prostemum is hidden in a deep cavity
between the mid coxae.
Leg Characters
The coxae of beetles vary greatly in size and shape. In
some cases they are globose or rounded and project
only slightly. When they are more or less elongate lat-
erally without projecting very much, they are said to be
transverse. Sometimes they are more or less conical and
noticeably project ventrad. A distinct posterior face on
the hind coxa can be seen by viewing the specimen
from the side. A few beetles have a small sclerite, the
trochantin, in the anterolateral portion of the coxal
cavity (Figure 26-9B, tn).
When disturbed, many beetles draw their ap-
pendages in close to the body and "play dead." Such
beetles often have grooves in the body or in certain leg
segments into which the appendages fit when so re-
tracted. Beetles with retractile legs usually have grooves
in the coxae (particularly the middle or hind coxae)
into which the femora fit when the legs are retracted,
and they may have grooves in other leg segments.
The tarsal segment of beetles is divided into un-
musculated units. As in the antenna, these subdivi-
Figure26-8 A, ventral viewor
a click beetle (Agriotes); B, ven-
tral view of the thorax and ab-
domen of a metallic wood-boring
beetle (Chrysobothris). ex, coxa;
cxc, coxal cavity; sp, prosternal
B spine; stn" prostemum; stnz,
mesostemum; stnj, metasternum;
sions are often referred to as "segments," but are more
accurately called tarsomeres. The number and relative
size and shape of the tarsomeres are very important
characters for identifying beetles. It is necessary to ex-
amine the tarsi of almost any beetle one wishes to ron
through the key. The number of tarsomeres in most
beetles varies from three to five. It is usually the same
on all tarsi, but some groups have one less tarsornere in
the hind tarsi than in the middle and front tarsi, and
others have fewer tarsomeres in the front tarsi. The
tarsal formula is an important part of any group de-
scription and is given as 5-5-5, 5-5-4, 4-4-4, 3-3-3, and
so on, indicating the number of tarsomeres on the
front, middle, and hind tarsi, respectively. Most
Coleoptera have a 5-5-5 tarsal formula.
In a few groups, including some very cornmon
beetles, the next to the last tarsomere is very srnall and
inconspicuous. Such a tarsomere may be very difficult
to see unless very carefully examined under high mago
nification. These tarsi thus seem to have one tarsomere
less than they actually have, and are so described in the
key. For example, a five-merous tarsus such as the one
shown in Figure 26-10A is described in the key as "ap-
parently four-merous." A few groups have the basal tar.
somere very small (Figure 26-lOD) and visible onlyir
the tarsus is properly oriented. If the tarsi of a beetle
r CharactersUsedin IdentifyingBeetles 375

Figure 26-9 Leg structure in

Coleoptera. A, thorax of Dennestes
(Dermestidae), ventral view, showing
grooved hind coxae; B, prothorax of
Psephenus (Psephenidae), ventral
view, showing trochantin; C, base
of hind leg of Apion (Brentidae);
D, base of hind leg of Conotrachelus
(Curculionidae); E, hind leg of
Trichodesma (Anobiidae), showing
interstitial trochanter. ex, coxa; exg,
groove in coxa; el, elytron; fm, fe-
- fm- - - mur; n¡, pronotum; stn¡, prosternum;
stn3, metasternum; tb, tibia; tn,
trochantin; tr, trochanter; ts, tarsus;
e D 1, first ventrite.

Figure 26-10 Tarsi of

Coleoptera. A, Megacyllene,
(Cerambycidae); B, Necrobia
(Cleridae); C, Nacerda (Oede-
meridae), hind leg; D, Trichodes
(Cleridae); E, Chilocorus (Coc-
cinellidae); F, Sandalus
(Rhipiceridae); G, Scolytus (Cur-
culionidae); H, Psephenus
(Psephenidae); 1, a latridiid;
J, Parandra (Cerambycidae);
K Platypus (Curculionidae).
/
376 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
A (plural, epipleurae).
V
B e
Figure 26-11 Tarsal claws of Coleoptera. A, toothed
(Coccinellidae); B, pectinate (Tenebrionidae: Alleculi-
nae); C, cleft (Meloidae).
appear to be four-merous and the third tarsomere is rela-
tively large and more or less U-shaped (Figure 26-lOA),
they are generally five-merous, with the fourth tar-
somere very small. If the tarsi appear to be four-merous
and the third tarsomere is slender and not greatly dif-
ferent from the terminal tarsomere, then they either are
actually four-merous or are five-merous with the basal
tarsomere very small.
The pretarsal claws of beetles vary somewhat. In
most cases they are simple, that is, without branches or
teeth, but in some cases they are toothed, pectinate, or
cleft (Figure 26-11).
The Elytra
The elytra normally meet in a straight line down the
middle of the body. This line of union of the elytra is
called the suture. The suture may extend to the tips of
the elytra, or the tips may be slightly separated. The an-
Figure26-12 Base of abdomen, ventral view, showing difference between Adephaga
and Polyphaga. A, tiger beetle (Adephaga); B, pleasing fungus beetle (Polyphaga). CXj,
hind coxa; el, elytron;fm, hind femur; stnj, metasternum; su, transverse metasternaI su-
ture; trj, hind trochanter; 1,2, ventrites 1, 2.
terolateral angles of the elytra are called the humeri.
The elytra usually slope gradually from the suture to
the outer edge. When they are abruptly bent down lat-
erally, the bent-down portion is called the epipleura
The elytra vary mainly in shape, length, and tex-
ture. They are usually parallel-sided anteriorly and ta-
pering posteriorly. Sometimes they are more or less
oval or hemispherical. The elytra of some beetles are
trunca te at the apex. The elytra in some groups are var-
iously sculptured, with ridges, grooves or striae, punc-
tures, tubercles, and the like. In other cases they are
quite smooth. If the elytra appear hairy under low or
medium magnification, they are said to be pubescent.
The elytra of some beetles are quite hard and stiff, and
curve around the sides of the abdomen to some extent.
In others they are soft and pliable and lie loosely on top
of the abdomen without firrnly embracing it.
The Abdomen
The structure of the first abdominal segment differen-
tiates the two principal suborders of the Coleoptera. In
the Adephaga the hind coxae extend backward and bi-
sect the first abdominal stemum so that, instead of ex-
tending completely across the body, this stemum is di-
vided and consists of two lateral pieces separated by
the hind coxae (Figures 26-4 and 26-12A). In the
Polyphaga the hind coxae extend backward a different
distance in different groups, but the first abdominal
stemum is never completely divided, and its posterior
edge extends completely across the body.
The beetle abdomen often has one or two basal
segments highly reduced and visible only by dissec-
tion. Coleopterists call the remaining visible abdomi-
nal stema ventrites, and the numbering begins fram the
base, with ventrite 1 appearing adjacent to the
metathorax. The number of ventrites varies in different
 Keyto the Familiesof Coleoptera 377

groupsand is repeatedly used in the key. In a few cases
(for example, the Buprestidae), the first two visible
sterna are more or less fused together, and the suture
between them is much less distinct than the other ab-
dominalsutures, the connate condition (Figure 26-8B).
Ihis condition can often be detected by (1) a difference
inthe appearance of the suture between those ventrites
thatare connate and those that are not; (2) the absence
of a membrane between the ventrites; or (3) by a re-
duction in the depth of the suture itself, especially me-
dially.The easiest and most certain way to tell is to
viewthe upturned lateral portion of the ventrite that is
held against the elytron. Connate ventrites are obvi-
ouslyimmobile in this view, and they lack the hinged
formof the free, movable sta te. If the sutures between
the abdominal sterna are all equally distinct, then no
segments are said to be fused.
The last abdominal tergum, often called the pygid-
ium, is sometimes exposed beyond the tips of the elytra.
Other Characters
Characters such as size, shape, or color should not
prove particularly difficult. The term base is used to dis-
tinguish the two ends of body parts. When speaking of
an appendage, the base is the end nearest the body. The
base of the head or pronotum is the posterior end, and
the base of the elytra or abdomen is the anterior end.
The subdivisions of the tarsi (tarsomeres) or antennae
(antennomeres) are numbered from the base distad.

Keyto the Familiesof Coleoptera

Ihe phylogeny and classification of beetles is an area of intense research interest, and
therehave been a number of changes since the last edition of this book. The following
keyis largely the generous contribution of Dr. Michael A. Ivie (Montana State Univer-
sity),whose assistance is gratefully acknowledged. The key is rather long, not only be-
causethis is the largest order of insects, but also because there is quite a bit of variation
inmanyfamilies. The key is constructed to take this variation into account and also to
providefor specimens whose characters are somewhat borderline. Many specimens key
outcorrectly from either alternative at certain points in the key. Groups marked with an
asterisk(*) are relatively rare or are not very likely to be taken by the general collector.
Ihiskey is to adults. Keys to larvae are given by Lawrence et al. (1991).

1. Elytra present, complete, short, or reduced to flaplike stubs on the

mesothorax 2
1', Elytra totally absent 193
2(1), Notopleural sutures present (Figure 26-4, npls) 3
2'. Notopleural sutures absent 12
3(2). Hind coxa immovably fused to metasternum, completely dividing first
ventrite (Figures 26-4, 26-12A); elytra smooth with scattered punctures,
microsculptured, simply punctate or striate; body rarely with scales
(Adephaga) 4
3', Hind coxa free, first ventrite extending entirely across venter behind them
(Figures 26-8, 26-12B) 10
4(3). Hind coxa greatly enlarged, a ventral plate concealing trochanter and
basal half of femur,coveringmost of 3 basalventrites (Figure26-19B) Haliplidae p.40S
4' Hind coxa greatly enlarged or not, if hind coxa greatly enlarged, then all
ventrites visible laterally, coxa not concealing trochanter, basal half of
femur or first 3 ventrites (Figures 26-4, 26-17) 5
5(4'). Fore tibia with antenna cleaner on inner apical angle; head with
supraorbital setae 6
S' Fore tibia without antenna cleaner on inner apical angle; head lacking
supraorbital setae 7
378 Chapter26 Order Coleoptera

6(5). Mentum expanded, fused laterally to head capsule, covering ventral

mouthparts completely when mandibles closed, mentum extending
anteriorly beyond other mouthparts to form cutting edge; outer angle
of fore tibia with large, inwardly curved uncus; body cylindrical;
antenna moniliform; head, pronotum and elytra with deep canaliculate
grooves Rhysodidae p.401
6'. Mentum not fused laterally to head capsule or extending beyond other
mouthparts, maxilla and labium with at least palpi visible (Figure 26-4);
outer angle of fore tibia with straight or outwardly curved teeth or spines
(Figure 26-4); head, pronotum, and elytra without deep canaliculate
grooves; body form and antenna variable Carabidae p.401
7(5'). Pedicel of antenna greatly enlarged, offset from main line of antenna,
flagellum very short and compact, not extended beyond hind margin of
head (Figure 26-5E); mid and hind legs very short (Figure 26-17B); eyes
usually divided into 2 isolated parts on each side (Figure 26-17C), rarely
with onlya very narrow procoss (the canthus) extending between upper
and lower portions Gyrinidae p.403
7'. Pedicel of antenna normal, antenna extended beyond hind margin of
head; mid and hind legs not especially short; eyes not divided 8
8(7'). Hind femur and tibia narrow and subcylindrical in cross section; hind
tarsus shorter than tibia and not tapered distally; body not streamlined,
outline of thorax and elytron discontinuous, base of pronotum distinctly
narrower than elytra; length 11-16 mm Amphizoidae p.405
8'. Hind femur and tibia more or less distinctly compressed, especially in
larger species (length ;:::6mm); hind tarsus usually as long or longer
than tibia, distinctly tapering distally; body streamlined, outline of
pronotum and elytron usually conjointly rounded (Figures 26-20A,C);
length 1-40 mm 9
9(8'). Body 1.0-5.0 mm long; fore tarsus with 5 distinct tarsomeres; eyes
usually normally developed Noteridae p.405
9'. Body usually >6 mm long, if smaller, then scutellum visible, or fore
tarsus pseudotetramerous, or compound eyes absent or greatly reduced
in size and indistinct Dytiscidae p.405
10(3') Elytra reticulate with rows of square punctures; body covered in scales;
length > 5 mm Cupedidae p.401
lO'. Elytra glabrous; length <2 mm 11
11(10') Body hemispherical; elytra covering all abdominal terga; abdomen with
3 ventrites; antenna with 11 antennomeres, 9-11 forming club Microsporidae p.401
11'. Body more elongate-oval and depressed dorsoventrally; elytra short,
3-4 abdominal tergites exposed; abdomen with 6-7 ventrites; antenna
with 9 antennomeres, antennomere 9 forming narrow club Hydroscaphidae p.401
12(2'). Antenna with strongly asymmetrical, usually lamellate club of
3-8 antennomeres (Figures 26-6C-G); fore coxa large, strongly
transverse or conical and projecting below prostemum; fore coxal cavity
closed; trochantin concealed (except in Diphyllostomatidae); fore tibia
flattened, with 1 or more teeth on outer edge; tarsi with 5 distinct
tarsomeres, none of which are lobed or densely pubescent 13
12'. Antenna not lamellate, or coxa, tibia, or tarsi not as in preceding entry 24
13(12). Antenna with 11 antennomeres 14
13'. Antenna with fewer than 11 antennomeres 15
 Keyto the Familiesof Coleoptera 379

14(13). Antennal club with 4-7 elongate antennomeres Pleocomidae p.411

14', Antennal club with 3 circular or oval antennomeres Geotrupidae p.412
15(13'). Body capable of being rolled into contractile ball; middle and posterior
tibiae flattened and dilated Ceratocanthídae p.411
15'. Body oblong, not capable of being rolled into ball; middle and posterior
tibiae not significantly flattened and dilated 16
16(15'), Longer apical spur of mid tibia pectinate along one edge Ochodaeídae p.412
16', Longer apical spur of mid tibia simple, not pectinate 17
17(16'). Antennomeres of antennal club not capable of being tightly closed
together (Figures 26-6E-F) 18
17', Antennomeres of antennal club capable of being closed together
(Figures 26-6C,D,G) 20
18(17). Abdomen with 7 ventrites, the first divided by hind coxa; head strongly
constricted behind eyes; fore tibia lacking apical spurs; trochantin exposed;
mid coxa conical and projecting; length 5-9 mm Díphyllostomatidae p.411
18', Abdomen with 5-6 ventrites, the first not divided; head not strongly
constricted behind eyes; fore tibia with 1 or 2 apical spurs; trochantin not
visible; mid coxa not projecting; length 8-60 mm 19
19(18'). Mentum with apex deeply emarginate (Figure 26-13A); mid coxal cavity
closed laterally; body distinctly flattened dorsally (Figure 26-28C) Passalidae p.411
19', Mentum with apex simple, not deeply emarginate (Figure 26-13D);
midcoxal cavity open laterally; body evenly convex dorsally
(Figures 26-28A,B) Lucanidae p.411
20(17'). Antennal club with 3 antennomeres, first hollowed out to receive second Hybosorídae p.412
20', Antennal club with 3-7 antennomeres, first simple, not hollowed out
to receive second (for example, see Figure 26-6C) 21
21(20'). Abdomen with 5 ventrites; dorsal surface roughened or tuberculate, not
shining (Figure 26-29) 22
21', Abdomen with 6 ventrites; dorsal surface variably sculptured, shining
or not 23
22(21). Eyes not divided by canthus; clypeus with sides narrowing apically;
color brown, gray, or black; hind femur and tibia not enlarged, not
covering abdomen (Figure 26-29B) Trogídae p.412
22', Eyes divided by prominent canthus; clypeus with sides subparallel to
divergent anteriorly; color testaceous to light reddish brown; hind femur
and tibia enlarged, covering most of abdomen Glaresidae p.412
23(21'). Elytra shortened and widely divergent at apex (except in Líchnanthe
lupina), not covering pygidium; eighth morphological abdominal segment
with spiracle Glaphyridae p.411
23'. Elytra not shortened or widely divergent at apex, pygidium exposed or
not (Figures 26-29C,D, 26-30, 26-32, 26-33, 26-34); eighth
morphological abdominal segment lacking spiracle Scarabaeidae p.412
24(12'). Hind tarsus with 2-5 tarsomeres, but never pseudotetramerous (third of
5 tarsomeres on hind leg not lobed beneath and enclosing small fourth,
any other configuration possible) (Figures 26-lOC-F,H-K) 25
24', Hind tarsus pseudotetramerous, with apparent penultimate tarsomere
lobed below, enclosing and nearly hiding true fourth tarsomere
(Figures 26-lOA-B,G, 26-87G-I) 26
380 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

Figure26-13 Heads of Coleoptera. A, ventral view, and B, lateral view, of Odontotae-

nius disjunctus (Illiger) (Passalidae); C, Derodontus (Derodontidae); D, Pseudolucanus
(Lucanidae). ant, base of antenna; gs, guIar suture; gu, gula; ho, horn; Ig, ligula; Ip, labial
palp; md, mandible; mn, mentum; mxp, maxillary palp; oc, ocelli; smt, submentum.

25(24). Palps very short, usually immovably fixed and not visible; either head
rostrate, prolonged into a beak (Figure 26-84A) or antenna geniculate
with compact club (Figure 26-94A-C) 27
25'. Palps longer, flexible, and usually evident (for example, see Figure 26-4);
head usually not prolonged into a beak but if rostrate or antenna elbowed
and club compact, then palps longer and flexible 38
26(24'). Hind coxa without exposed posterior face; antenna never straight and
clubbed; often with one of the following: antenna long and simple
(Figures 26-73, 26-74), antenna geniculate and clubbed, head rostrate
(Figures 26-87A,C), or hind femur enlarged 27

." Either hind coxa with distinct posterior face (at least medially) set off
from ventral surface by a carina or flange, or antenna strongly or weakly
clubbed but not geniculate and head not at all rostrate 77
 Keyto the Familiesof Coleoptera 381

27 Antenna usually without distinct club, either filiform, moniliform, serrate

(25,26) . or pectinate (Figures 26-5A-B); head not rostrate; if antenna distinctly
clubbed, then club with 5 or more antennomeres, length of head from
vertex to clypeal margin :5 to width of head just behind eyes 28
27'. Antenna with distinct club with 4 or fewer antennomeres (Figures 26-5H,
26-84B, 26-85A-D, 26-87 A-G); or if antenna moniliform (Figure 26-5B),
then head distinctly rostrate (Figure 26-84A); or if club composed of
5 or more antennomeres, then length of head from vertex to clypeal
margin> width of headjust behind eyes 32
28(27) . Prostemum in front of fore coxae longer than intercoxal process; body
length <5 mm; mandible with dorsal setose cavity, covered by clypeus
when closed; with or without dorsobasal tubercle that fits into side of
clypeus; dorsally flattened; elytra covered with fine, moderately dense,
suberect lOerect setae (Psammoecini) Silvanidae p.431
28'. Prostemum usually shorter than or subequal in length to intercoxal
process; if longer, then body length > 7 mm; mandible lacking dorsal
setosecavityand dorsobasaltubercle;body form and setationvariable 29
29(28'). Antenna usually longer than one half length of body, often inserted
on prominence, capable of being reflexed backward over body
(Figures 26-73, 26-74); tibiae with 2 obvious apical spurs; first
antennomere usually several times longer that second; pygidium never
sclerotizedand exposed;length3-75 mm in North America Cerambycidae p.441
29', Antenna usually less than half length of body, seldom inserted on
prominence, not reflexed back over body; tibiae with 0-2 apical spurs;
length of first antennomere seldom more than 2-3 times length of second;
pygidium of some species sclerotized and exposed; length usually
<12 mm in North America 30
30(29'). All tibiae with 2 distinct apical spurs; front without X-shaped grooves;
mesonotum with or without stridulatory file; ligula large, membranous,
bilobed; aedeagus with median struts and tegmen bilobed 31
30'. Either at least 1 tibia fewer than 2 apical spurs or front with deep
X-shaped grooves; mesonotum without stridulalOry file; ligula normal;
aedeagus without median struts Chrysomelidae p. 445
31(30). Head with short but distinct temple behind eye, set off from narrowed
neck; apex of mandible bidentate; ligula with a single lobe; mesonotum
with stridulatory file Megalopodidae p.445
31'. Head lacking temples, evenly narrowed from behind eyes to neck; apex
of mandible unidentate or bidentate; ligula bilobed; mesonotum without
stridulatory file Orsodacnidae p. 445
32(27'). Antenna geniculate (rarely appearing straight or nearly so), club compact
(Figures 26-87 A, 26-94); hind trochanter not cylindrical, femur
attached obliquely Curculionidae p. 453
32'. Antenna straight, club loose or not evident; if antenna geniculate (very
rare), hind trochanter cylindrical and squarely attached to femur 33
33(32'). Labrum visible and free; second tarsomere not spongy beneath; maxillary
palpi normal 34
33'. Labrum never free; tarsi variable; maxillary palpi rigid 35

34(33). Antenna situated adjacent to eye or la~erallynear base of sho:t

dorsoventrally flat rostrum; apex of thud antennomere reachmg well UNIVERSIDADDECAUJAS
beyond front margin of eye; all tibiae lacking spurs or spurs vestigial; RIRLIO"""ECA
notostemal sutures indistinct to obsolete Anthribid';;'e p.451
382 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

34'. Antenna situated distally on long, cylindrical rostrum; apex of third

antennomere not or barely reaching front margin of eye; all tibiae with
spurs; notostemal sutUres distinct Nemonychidae p.451
35(33'). Either with antenna moniliform and body elongate (Figure 26-84A)
(Brentinae, Cyphagoginae, Trachelizinae); or antenna straight and
clubbed, body pear-shaped, hind trochanter cylindrical, squarely
joined to femur (Apioninae, Nanophyinae); or antenna geniculate,
body pear-shaped and hind trochanter cylindrical, squarely joined to
femur (Nanophyinae); or antenna with 9-10 antennomeres and
body elongate-cylindrical (Figure 26-86) (Cyladinae, Nanophyinae) Brentidae p.453
35'. Antenna straight, not geniculate, with 11 antennomeres, club distinct
(Figures 26-85C-D); hind trochanter triangular or diamond-shaped,
obliquely joined to femur; body form variable 36
36(35'). Gena produced anteriorly on each side, visible in frontal view as large
tooth on each side of apex of rostrum, laterad of mandible; dorsal surface
with obvious, recumbent, scalelike setae; body surface lacking metallic
sheen; length 12 mm or more Ithyceridae p.453
36'. Gena not produced anteriorly; upper surface glabrous or with fine,
hairlike setae; body surface often with distinct metallic sheen; length
variable, mostly <10 mm 37
37(36'). Antenna separated from eye by distance at least equal to width of first
antennomere, positioned laterally on long quadrate rostrum
(Figure 26-85H) or very close to eye at base of short, robust rostrum;
fore tibia with anterior face apically flat, simple, not distinct from rest of
surface; hind femur with dorsal margin slightly to moderately arched;
pygidium oblique to vertical; elytron often with a scutellary striole; body
surface often with distinct metallic sheen Attelabidae p.451
37'. Antenna situated immediately in front of eye at base of long, cylindrical
rostrum; fore tibia with front face with shallow, grooved apical area filled
with short, fine pilosity; hind femur with dorsal margin markedly arched,
paddlelike in shape, femur almost as wide as long; pygidium nearly
horizontal; elytron lacking scutellary striole; body surface lacking metallic
sheen Belidae p.451
38(25'). Length :51.2 mm; antenna long, thin, with loose to indistinct
club; antennomeres each with a whorl of long setae at apex;
wing fringed with long setae that are longer than width of wing or
wing absent Ptiliidae p.408
38'. Length variable, antenna not as in preceding entry, wings rarely with
fringe longer than width of wing 39
39(38'). Head with paired ocelli (Figure 26-13C) 40
39'. Head without paired ocelli (a single median ocellus may be present) 42
40(39). Anterior edge of scutellum abruptly and sharply elevated above
mesoscutum; metepistemum reaching mid coxal cavity and contacting
first ventrite to separate hind coxa from edge of elytron Derodontidae p.424
40'. Anterior edge of scutellum not abruptly elevated, continuous with
mesoscutum; metepistemum variable 41
41(40'). Elytra completely covering abdomen; antenna short, not reaching middle
of pronotum, with 9 antennomeres, club composed of 5 pubescent
antennomeres; ventral surface with very short, dense pubescence
(Ochthebiinae) Hydraenidae p.408
 Keyto the Familiesof Coleoptera 383

41'. One or more abdominal terga usually exposed beyond elytra; antenna
short to long, reaching beyond middle of pronotum in those species with
long elytra; antennal club, if present, not involving 5 antennomeres;
underside of body without short, dense pubscence (Omaliinae) Staphylinidae p.409
42(39'). Elytra very short, leaving 3 or more abdominal tergites exposed
(Figures 26-23A, 26-25B, 26-26, 26-67A) 43
42'. Elytra longer, leaving no more than 1 or 2 abdominal tergites exposed 64
43(42). Hind tarsus with 1 less tarsomere than mid tarsus 44
43'. Mid and hind tarsi with same number of tarsomeres 47
44(43). Body greatly flattened dorsoventrally; abdomen with 5 ventrites
(Inopeplinae) Salpingidae p.440
44'. Body not greatly flattened; abdomen with 6-7 ventrites 45
45(44'). Antenna strongly serrate, pectinate, flabellate, bipectinate, or biflabellate Ripiphoridae p. 435
45'. Antenna, at most, very weakly serrate 46
46(45'). Pretarsal claw with long, acute process or blade arising from base, usually
more than half as long as claw, rarely (Homia) reduced to hyaline spine;
antenna filiform; body corpulent and soft Meloidae p.438
46'. Pretarsal claw simple; antenna weakly clubbed; body cylindrical
(Euaesthetinae) Staphylinidae p.409
47(43'). Eyes large, separated frontally by less than diameter of third antennomere;
wings well developed, folded longitudinally at rest; maxillary palp
complex; antennomeres 9-11less than half the width of antennomeres 3-5
(Atractocerus) lymexylidae p.428
47'. Eyes separated by more than diameter of third antennomere; wings, if
well developed, usually folded transversely; maxillary palpi simple;
antenna not as in preceding entry. 48
48(47'). Scutellary striole present; basal two ventrites connate, suture not
diminished medially; antenna of males pectinate to flabellate or plumose;
serrate in females Buprestidae p.417
48'. Scutellary striole absent; ventrites all free or 4 ventrites connate;
antenna variable 49
49(48'). Antenna with distinct club (Figures 26-5C-I, 26-6A) 50
49'. Antenna not clubbed (Figures 26-5A-B) 553
50(49). Mid tarsus with 2-4 tarsomeres Staphylinidae p.409
50'. Mid tarsus with 5 tarsomeres 51
51(50'). Antenna with 4 apical antennomeres expanded into asymmetrical club,
first shining, other 3 tomen tose (Figure 26-6A); elytra usually with some
combination of black and orange, but occasionally entirely black
(Figure 26-25B); fifth tergite with pair of longitudinal carinae topped by
stridulatory files; 2:12 mm long, usually more than 15 mm
(Nicrophorinae) Silphidae4 p.408

'11a rnistake is made early in the key. the myxophagan family Hydroscaphidae wil\ key out here. These tiny (length 1.0 to 1.2 mm) beetles can
berecognized by the elongate, narrow last antennomere, which does not lit either the "distinct club" or "not clubbed" choice, as well as by the
presence01notopleural sutures,
'Thanatophilus(Silphidae) may key here for individuals with an extended abdomen; it lacks the stridulatory liles of the fifth tergite and' is
8-14rnm long, but otherwise fits here because of the configuration 01 the antennae.
384 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

51'. Antenna not as in preceding entry; fifth tergite without stridulatory files;
color variable; length 13 mm or less, usually < 10 mm 52
52(51'). Antenna with 3 antennomeres; pronotum with antennal pockets
anterolaterally above lateral margins; dorsoventrally flattened, louselike
parasites of beavers (Platypsyllus) Leiodidae p. 408
52'. Antenna with 9-11 antennomeres; pronotum without antennal pockets 53
53(52'). Fore coxal cavity open Staphylinidae p.409
53'. Fore coxal cavity closed 54
54(53'). Lateral margins of pronotum complete, that is, with raised flange running
from anterior to posterior edge of pronotum; abdomen with 5 ventrites Nitidulidae p. 430
54'. Lateral margins of prontum incomplete; abdomen with 6 ventrites
(Cylídrella) Trogossitidae p.428
55(49'), Mid tarsus with 4 or fewer tarsomeres Staphylinidae p. 409
55'. Mid tarsus with 5 tarsomeres 56
56(55'). Mesosternum medially excavated, forming a cavity to receive extended
prosternal process; u.s. Southwest (Cebrioninae) Elateridae p.422
56'. Mesosternum not excavated to receive extended prosternal process;
widespread in distribution 57
57(56'). Antenna with 12 antennomeres; antenna biserrate, bipectinate, or
biramose (Figure 26-46B) Phengodidae p.423
57'. Antenna with fewer than 12 antennomeres; antennal type variable 58
58(57'). Last maxillary and labial palpomeres long, nearly as long as, or longer
than, antenna Telegeusidae p.423
58', Last maxillary and labial palpomeres much shorter than antenna 59
59(58'). Head covered above by pronotum (Figure 26-47A); often with luminous
organs on abdomen Lampyridae p.423
59'. Head visible from above; never with luminous organs 60
60(59'). Anterior edge of scutellum abruptly elevated, with distinct step to
mesoscutum (female Anorus) Dascillidae p.417
60'. Anterior edge of scutellum in same plane as mesoscutum. 61
61(60'). Pronotum with lateral eversible vesicles (Malachiinae) Melyridae p.429
61'. Pronotum without eversible vesicles 62
62(61'). Hind wing rolled cigarlike; median setose cavities present on male
ventrites 3-5; trochantin concealed; scutellum emarginate posteriorly;
<3 mm long Micromalthidae p.401
62'. Hind wing, if fully developed, folded normally; ventrites without setose
cavites; trochantin exposed or concealed; scutellum variable; length variable 63
63(62'). Elytra individually rounded, not meeting apically at suture; mandible
long and narrow Cantharidae p.424
63'. Elytra trunca te, meeting at suture apically; mandible often short and
broad Staphylinidae p.409
64(42'). Apices of penultimate 2 or 3 antennomeres each completely ringed with
microsetose groove (periarticular gutters) (must be viewed distally,
difficult to see in very small specimens or in those with very compact
antennal club); antenna with distinct to indistinct loose club; prothorax
with sharp lateral margins; abdomen with 5-6 ventrites; fore trochantin
exposed or hidden, if hidden and antenna with 11 antennomeres, then
antennomere 8 smaller than 7 or 9 (Figure 26-4) 65
r Keyto the Familiesof Coleoptera 385

64'. Antenna usually lacking periarticular gutters on antennal club; other

characters variable; if complete periarticular gutters present, then fore
trochantin hidden, antenna with 11 antennomeres, and antennomere 8
not smaller than 7 and 9 66
65(64). Hind tibial spurs subequal in length; small (1-6 mm), round to
elongate-oval, shining, granulate or transversely strigulate beetles; elytra
glabrous or pubescent, striate or not; prothorax as broad as elytra; fore
coxa strongly projecting and constricted by coxal cavity; often capable of
retracting into a ball shape by curling head and prothurax under body;
antenna distinctly clubbed, often with 11 antennomeres, 5 of which are
involved in club and antennomere 8 smaller than 7 or 9. Some genera
with lOor 11 antennomeres and with distinct club of 3 or 4 antennomeres;
these with flattened, externally flanged hind femur, apical portion excavate
to receive tibia; tarsal formula highly variable, 3-3-3, 4-4-4, 5-4-4, 5-5-4
or 5-5-5; one genus (Colon) with 11 antennomeres and somewhat
gradually clubbed antenna that lacks small eighth antennomere, elytra
pubescent, with characteristic shape and sutural stria (see also couplet 124) leiodidaes p. 408
65'. Hind tibial spurs distinctly unequal; moderately sized (4-14 mm),
somewhat flattened shining beetles; elytra striate and glabrous;
pronotum somewhat narrowed relative to elytra; fore coxa strongly
projecting or transverse; body not retractile; antenna long, club loose
and indistinct, eighth antennomere never smaller than 7 and 9; femur
simple; tarsi 5-5-5 Agyrtidae p. 408
66(64'). Mid tarsus with 3 apparent tarsomeres, either clearly with 3 tarsomeres
(Figure 26-10I), or second tarsomere strongly lobed and hiding small
penultimate (third) tarsomere (Figure 26-lOE) 67
66'. Mid tarsus with 4 or 5 distinct tarsomeres, or first tarsomere distinctly
lobed, engulfing very small second and small third of 4 tarsomeres, thus
appearing to have 2 or 3 tarsomeres 75
67(66). Mid tarsus pseudotrimerous, with second tarsomere strongly lobed,
hiding small penultimate (third) tarsomere (Figure 26-lOE) 68
67'. Mid tarsus truly with three tarsomeres, second tarsomere not greatly lobed 70
68(67). Fore coxal cavity closed (except in Holopsis);head small, usually covered
by hoodlike pronotum; if head exposed from above, fore coxal cavities
closed; mostly tiny beetles <2 mm Corylophidae p.434
68'. Fore coxal cavity open; head visible from above in front of pronotum;
size variable, up to 11 mm 69
69(68'). Frontoclypeal suture distinctly impressed; all ventrites free; first ventrite
without postcoxallines; pronotum often with sublaterallines
(Figure 26-59C) Endomychidae p. 433
69'. Frontoclypeal suture absent; 2 basal ventrites connate, first ventrite with
postcoxallines; pronotum lacking sublaterallines Coccinellidae p.433
70(67'). Eyes absent (Anommatus) Bothrideridae p.433
70'. Eyes present 71
71(70'). Head gradually narrowed behind eyes, without distinct temples or neck;
fore coxal cavity open; body oval or elongate oval with base of pronotum
subequal in width to elytral base 72

'Threevery aberrant and ecologically restricted genera that lack distinctly clubbed antennae belong here. Glacicavicola is restricted to ice caves
in ldaho and Wyoming and characterized by elongate head, pronotum and elytra, each separately constricted; cuticle translucent, shining; eyes
ahsent.and with elongate. slender legs and antennae. Two genera of Platypsyllinae are associated with mammals and their nests and are charac-
terizedby oval body. strongly flattened dorsoventrally. recumbent pubescence, an occipital crest overlapping anterior margin of pronotum and
eyesabsentor barely indicated.
386 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

71'. Head sharply narrowed behind eyes or temples, with distinct neck; fore
coxal cavity open or closed; body elongate or elongate oval, with base of
pronotum distinctly narrower than elytra 73
72(71). Antennal scape normal, shorter than club; funicle longer than entire club;
posterior edge of last ventrite crenulate (Ostomopsis) Cerylonidae6 p.433
72'. Antennal scape large, subequal to length of club; funicle with
3 antennomeres, shorter than first antennomere of club (Micropsephodes) Endornychidae p.433
73(71'). Abdomen with 6 ventrites; head narrowed immediately behind eyes,
lacking temples; fore coxal cavity open; lateral margin of pronotum
coarsely dentate; trochantin exposed; mid coxal cavity open (Dasycerus) Staphylinidae p.409
73'. Abdomen with 5 ventrites; head behind eyes with distinct temples; fore
coxal cavity open or closed; lateral margin of pronotum simple to finely
dentate or absent; trochantin concealed; mid coxal cavity variable 74
74(73'). Abdomen very short, one half length of metasternum; pronotum not
margined laterally; scutellum not visible; elytron at base with pit at end
of impressed groove; Florida Jacobsoniidae p. 424
74'. Abdomen longer than metasternum; (except Akalyptoischion, California);
lateral margin of pronotum absent to finely dentate; scutellum small but
visible; elytra usually striate; common and widespread latridiidae p.434
75(66'). Antenna with 9 antennomeres, last 5 involved in club; abdomen with
6-7 ventrites; tiny intercoxal sclerite present between hind coxae;
maxillary palp long relative to antenna; ventral surface with water-repellent
pubescence; ::53.0mm length Hydraenidae p.408
75'. Without the preceding combination of characters 76
76(75'). Antenna with 7-9 antennomeres, antennomeres 7-9 usually forming loose,
tomentose club, antennomere 6 often forming a cupule at base of club;
maxillary palp often as long or longer than antenna (Figure 26-22),
always longer than half antennallength; hind coxa with ventroposterior
carina setting off convex posterior face that rotates against anterior
excavation of first ventrite; planes of ventral surface of hind coxa and first
ventrite discontinous; hind trochanter inserted on ventral (not posterior)
surface of coxa (Figure 26-22B), femur held against ventral face of coxa,
not against posterior face of coxa, or flat to abdominal surface when fully
retracted Hydrophilidae p.406
76'. Antenna variable but not as in preceding entry; maxillary palp usually
much shorter than antenna; hind coxa configured differently 77
77 Hind coxa with distinct posterior face (at least medially) set off from
(26',76'). ventral surface by carina or flange, posterior face often excavated; ventral
surface of hind coxa not continuous with first ventrite; hind femur
inserted on posterior face of coxa, held posterior to coxa when retracted;
fore coxal cavity open; mid and hind tarsi with equal number of
tarsomeres 78
77'. Hind coxa without distinct posterior face; hind trochanter often inserted
on ventral surface or on small medial projection of coxa, never received
in coxal excavation and resting ventrad of coxa in retracted position;
ventral surface of hind coxa more or less continuous with first ventrite,
or, if not, then hind tarsus with 1 fewer tarsomere than mid tarsus; fore
coxal cavity open or closed 118

6The myxophagan family Microsporidae will key out here if a mistake is made in couplet 2. They match the antennal characters in this couplel
but lack the crenulation on the last ventrite. These tiny (length 0.5-1.2 mm) beetles can be easily recognized by having only three ventrites
(five in Ostomopsis).
 Keyto the Familiesof Coleoptera 387

78(77). Abdomen with 7-8 ventrites, hind tarsus with 5 tarsomeres 79

78'. Abdomen with 6 or fewer ventrites; hind tarsus with 5 or 4 tarsomeres 84
79(78). Head with median ocellus (Thylodlias) Dermestidae p.424
79'. Head without median ocellus 80
80(79'). Antenna with 12 antennomeres, biramose (male Zarhipis) Phengodidae p. 423
80'. Antenna with 11 antennomeres, simple to uniramose or biramose 81
81(80'). Mid coxae distinctly separated; elytra often reticulate (Figure 26-46A),
at least feebly costate; femur or tibia compressed; pronotum with distinct
longitudinal median carina, groove, or cell, occasionally restricted to base
or disc Lycidae p.422
81'. Mid coxae contiguous or nearly so; elytra not reticulate; femur and tibia
seldom compressed; pronotum rarely with distinct longitudinal median
carina, groove, or cell 82
82(81'), Pronotum extended forward, covering head in dorsal view; 1 or more
ventrites often with luminous organs (most obvious in males); antennal
insertions separated by distance :$ diameter of antennal fossa Lampyridae p.423
82', Head exposed in dorsal view when extended; if covered by pronotum,
then antennae separated by nearly 2X diameter of antennal fossa;
abdomen lacking luminous organs 83
83(82'). Labrum not distinct, membranous and often hidden beneath clypeus;
abdomen with paired glandular openings on lateral edge of tergites;
tarsomere 4 with bifid ventrallobe Cantharidae p.424
83'. Labrum distinct and sclerotized; abdomen lacking paired glandular
openings on tergites; tarsomeres 3 and 4 with bifid ventrallobes Omethidae p.424
84(78'). Posterior angles of prothorax acute, embracing elytral humeri
(Figure 26-45A,C,D); hind tarsus with 5 tarsomeres; 3 or more ventrites
connate; prothorax dorsoventrally mobile relative lOmesothorax;
intercoxal process of prostemum long, notched dorsally, received in deep
mid-coxal cavity as a clicking mechanism; if clicking mechanism cannot
be seen because visible portion of intercoxal process is flat ventrally and
received tightly in deeply emarginate mesostemum, then stemopleural
suture or hypomeron grooved to receive antenna 85
84', Posterior angles of prothorax not acute and embracing elytral humeri,
or rarely somewhat acute and weakly embracing humeri; hind tarsus
with 5 or 4 tarsomeres; ventrites variable; prostemal process variable,
but if large and received in deeply emarginate mesostemum, apex of
prostemal process not notched dorsally nor capable of clicking; if large
prostemal process received tightly in deep mid-coxal cavity and underside
of prothorax grooved to receive antenna, then hind tarsus with
4 tarsomeres 87
85(84). Labrum not extemally visible; abdomen with 5 connate ventrites Eucnemidae p. 421
85'. Labrum free and visible; abdomen with 3-5 connate ventrites 86
86(85'). Antenna indistinctly to distinctly clubbed, apex received in margined
cavity on posterolateral portion of hypomeron, just anterior to retracted
fore leg; metastemum with or without oblique margined groove for mid
tarsus; prostemum with click mechanism hidden by platelike ventral
surface of postcoxal intercoxal process, which fits tightly against
exposed portion of mesostemal cavity; elytra strongly striate and covered
with silky, subrecumbent setae; abdomen with 5 connate ventrites;
length 1-5 mm Throscidae p.422
 -,

388 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

86'. Antenna variable (filiform, serrate, pectinate, etc.), but not clubbed;
antennal groove, if present, at or near sternopleural suture; metasternum
without margined groove for mid tarsus; if click mechanism hidden as
in preceding entry, elytra not strongly striate and setae suberect;
abdomen with 3 or 4 connate ventrites; length 1-60 mm
(Figure 26-45A,C,D) Elateridae p.422
87(84'). Either mid coxal cavity closed laterally,the mesosternum and metasternum
meeting laterad of mid coxa; or antenna elongate, antennomeres 3-8 with
long rami, 9-11 flattened, elongate-serrate; pronotum often hoodhke,
covering head from above (Figures 26-50, 26-53) 88
87'. Mid coxal cavity open laterally, mesosternum and metasternum separated
laterad of mid coxa by the mesepimeron, or mesepimeron and
mesepisternum; antenna not as in preceding entry; pronotum variable 89
88(87). Hind trochanter cylindrical, short to long, squarely attached to femur,
distinctly separating coxa and tibia Anobiidae p.427
88'. Hind trochanter short, triangular, obliquely attached to femur
so that femur and coxa are adjacent or narrowly separated on
one side Bostrichidae p.426
89(87'). Either anterior margin of scutellum with abrupt, carinate elevation that
fits against posterior margin of pronotum, or scutellum absent or not
visible 90
89'. Scutellum visible, anterior margin not abruptly elevated, fitting under
overlapping posterior margin of pronotum 113
90(89). Fore coxa strongly and distinctly projecting below prosternum, one third
or more of dorsoventrallength below intercoxal process; fore coxa usually
conical or transversely conical 91
90'. Fore coxa not or weakly projecting below prosternum; if fore coxa conical,
then lying longitudinally and not or weakly projecting ventrally below
intercoxal process 98
91(90). Tarsi with 4 distinct tarsomeres; hind coxal plates greatly expanded,
hiding most of first ventrite; hind wing, when developed, often fringed
with long setae; length 0.7-2 mm Clambidae p.417
91'. Tarsi with 5 distinct tarsomeres; hind coxal plates distinct but not hiding
most of first ventrite; wing not fringed; size variable 92
92(91'). Antenna with distinct, simple club of 3 antennomeres (Figure 26-5G) 93
92'. Antenna variously constructed, but without a simple club of 3 compact
antennomeres 95
93(92). Elytra truncate; pygidium sclerotized and completely or nearly completely
exposed Sphaeritidae p.407
93'. Elytra complete; pygidium not sclerotized, completely covered or with
only small portion exposed 94
94(93'). Upper surface of body glabrous; body contractile; fore tibia held anterior
to femur, covering antenna in hypomeral cavity when contracted
(Orphilinae) Nosodendridae p.424
94'. Upper surface of body variously pubescent, setose or scaled; body not
strongly contractile; fore tibia held posterior to femur, antennal club not
covered by leg when contracted Dermestidae p.424
95(92'). Base of pronotum crenulate; scutellum usually medially notched on
anterior margin; antennal insertion not elevated; mandible moderate and
evenly curved; labrum large, sclerotized, and dorsal to mandibles Ptilodactylidae p.420

L
 Keyto the Familiesof Coleoptera 389

95'. Base of pronotum simple; anterior margin of scutellum not notched;

dorsal margin of antennal insertion elevated and protuberant;
mandible large, abruptly curved mesad at nearly right angle; labrum
either short and membranous or extending between and below
mandibles 96
96(95'). Empodium hidden betweenbases of clawsor absent;base of pronotum
nearlystraight (Figure26-35C) Dascillidae p.417
96'. Empodiumlarge,one third length of claw;base of pronotum strongly
sinuate around scutellum (Figure 26-36) 97
97(96'). Tarsomeres 1-4 with large, membranous, divided lobes (Figure 26-10F);
antenna lamellate(males)or increasinglyserrateapically(females) Rhipiceridae p.417
97'. Tarsi simple, without ventrallobes; antenna serrate lOpectinate Callirhipidae p.421
98(90'). Head with single median ocellus Dermestidae p.424
98'. Head without ocellus 99
99(98'). Antenna short, not reaching middle of pronotum, scape and pedicel
(antennomeres 1-2) relatively large, lOgether one third or more of total
length; antennomeres 3 lO last transverse; body covered in dense
lOmentum 100
99'. Antenna short lOlong, scape and pedicel (antennomeres 1-2) not
one third of lOtallength; antennomeres 3 to last variable; body
vestiture variable 102
100(99). Head distinctly prognathous, mandibles strongly projecting forward
(Figure 26-43A); fore femur widened medially and armed extemally
with strong spines (Figure 26-43A); mid tarsus with 4 tarsomeres Heteroceridae p.420
100'. Head distinctly hypognathous, mandibles either directed ventrad or
hidden (Figure 26-43B); fore femur simple, neither widened medially
nor armed with large spines; mid tarsus with 5 tarsomeres 101

101(100'). Metastemite with postcoxallines delimiting retractile position of mid

tibia; antenna hidden in subocular groove and cavity between head
and pronotum; body oval Lutrochidae p.420
101'. Metastemite without postcoxallines; subocular groove absent or very
weakly developed, antenna not hidden in pronotum; body nearly
parallel-sided (Figure 26-43B) Dryopidae p.420
102(99'). Scape and pedicel received in deeply excavate pro- and mesostema
between fore and mid coxae; pedicellonger than scape, scape and
pedicel lOgether more than two thirds length of serrate f1agellum;
body strongly contractile, alllegs received in cavities; mid tarsus with
5 tarsomeres, with long lobe on third tarsomere, fourth small and
sometimes difficult to see (pseudotetramerous) Chelonariidae p. 421
102'. Antenna not received in excavation between fore and mid coxa;
antenna not as in preceding entry; mid tarsus usually not
pseudotetramerous 103

103(102'). Head with subgenal ridges that fit against fore coxae when head
def1exed Scirtidae p.417
103'. Head without subgenal ridges, genae not in contact with fore coxae 104
104(103'). Two basal ventrites connate, either with suture between them partially
obliterated medially or, if suture between ventrites 1 and 2 not
medially indistinct, sternopleural sutures at least moderately grooved
lO receive antennae 105
390 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

104'. Ventrites all free, or 3 or 5 ventrites connate; ventrite sutures and

sternopleural sutures variable 106
105(04). Suture between 2 basal ventrites distinct medially; mid tarsus with
small, bisetose empodium; antenna filiform to distinctIy c1ubbed;
body strongly convex Byrrhidae p.417
lOS'. Suture between 2 basal ventrites weak to absent medially (Figure 26--8B);
mid tarsus lacking visible empodium; antenna usually serrate, pectinate,
or flabellate; body weakly flattened dorsoventrally Buprestidae p.417
106004'). Legs retractile, rotated forward in repose, with tibia held anterior lO
femur; fore femur with flange on posterior face covering tibial
excavation, fore tibia grooved to receive tarsus; usually with margined
excavations on propleuron, mesosternite and ventrites to receive legs 107
106'. If legs retractile, fore tibia held posterior to or ventral to femur; fore
femoral flange, if present, located on anterior face 108
107(06). Mentum strongly sc1erotized, expanded, covering labium and maxillae;
head not deflexible; antenna covered by fore legs in broad sternopleural
pocket; ventrites 1 and 2 excavate for hind leg; mid tibia with marginal
spines;length 4-9 mm Nosodendridae p.424
107'. Mentum normal, head usually retractable into pronotum lO anterior
margin of eyes O exception); antenna received in internal prono tal
cavity beneath head, external anterior prono tal cavity or partIy in
sternopleural grooves and partIy under legs against hypomeron;
excavation for hind leg, if present, limited to ventrite 1; margin of
mid tibia not spinose; length 1-2 mm Limnichidae p.420
108006'). Elytra with thumblike process on inner lateral surface near subapical
curve, locking into ventrite (elytra must be separated from side of
abdomen to see this character) Artematopodidae p.421
108'. Elytra without such a locking device 109
109008'). Posterior angles of pronotum with short discal carinae; fore coxal
cavity with narrow lateral extension at pleurosternal suture Brachypsectridae p.421
109'. Posterior angles of pronotum without short discal carinae; fore coxal
cavity broad at pleurosternal suture 110
1l0009'). Propleuron extended mesad behind fore coxa for approximately half
length of trochantin; length 10-15 mm 111
1l0'. Margin of propleuron curved laterad posteriorly, not extended mesad
posterior to fore coxa; length 1-8 mm 112
1l1(1l0). Posterior margin of pronotum crenulate; mid tibial spines subequal in
size, smooth; antenna compressed serrate; tarsomeres simple;
empodium large and setose Eulichadidae p.421
111'. Posterior margin of pronotum simple; mid tibial spines unequal in size,
finely serrate; antenna cylindrical-serrate (Figure 26-35C); tarsomeres
1-4 with large, divided membranous lobes; empodium absent Dascillidae p.417
112010'). Posterior edge of pronotum simple; last tarsomere much longer than
others, usually half or more totallength of tarsus Elmidae p.419
112'. Posterior edge of pronotum crenulate; last tarsomere subequal in
length to first Psephenidae p.420
113(89'). Head with subgenal ridges that fit against fore coxae when head
deflexed; prosternum in front of coxa narrow, shorter than intercoxal
process Scirtidae p.417

L
 Keyto the Familiesof Coleoptera 391

113'. Head without subgenal ridges, genae usually not in contact with fore
coxae; prosternum in front of coxa nearly as long as or longer than
intercoxal process 114
114(ll3'). Hind coxal plate large, platelike, longer medially than metasternite,
hiding most of hind femur, even when fully extended Eucinetidae p.416
114'. Hind coxal plate narrow, forming either a parallel plate or simple
carina; hind femur fully visible 115
115(ll4'). Length of body 4X maximum width; male maxillary palp complex,
multilobate Lymexylidae p.428
115'. Length ofbody S2.5X maximum width; maxillary palp not
branched 116
116(ll5'). Prosternal intercoxal process complete, reaching behind fore coxa to
level of mesosternum; posterior portion of hypomeron not extending
behind fore coxa; elytral epipleuron with an internally carinate edge
complete to suture; head with face narrowed; clypeal margin straight;
3 basal ventrites connate Psephenidae p.420
116'. Prosternal intercoxal process incomplete, not reaching beyond
midpoint of fore coxa; posterior portion of hypomeron variable behind
fore coxa; elytral epipleuron narrowed before reaching suture
(complete in 1 genus); head with face not greatly narrowed; clypeal
margin emarginate; all ventrites free 117
117(116'). Elytra with 9 or 10 punctate striae; posterior portion of hypomeron
extending up to half the distance to mesal edge of fore coxa; length
7-14 mm Agyrtidae p. 408
117'. Elytra without punctate striae, otherwise variable, irregularly punctate
(Figure 26-25B), with complex low sculpture (Figure 26-25A) or up
to 3 carinate costae; posterior portion of hypomeron not extending
behind fore coxa or extending only a short distance mesad of lateral
edge of fore coxa; length 7-45 mm Silphidae p. 408
118(77'). Hind coxae widely separated by broad, truncate intercoxal process of
first ventrite 119
118'. lntercoxal process of first ventrite absent, acute or rounded 121
119(ll8). Mid coxal cavity open laterally, closure involving mesepisterna
(Georissinae) Hydrophilidae p. 406
119'. Mid coxal cavity open or not, if open, then closure solely involving
mesepimeron 120
120(ll9'). Antenna geniculate, club usually of 3 antennomeres; elytra short and
trunca te, exposing two nonflexing terga; body compact (Figure 26-23A) Histeridae p.407
120'. Antenna not obviously geniculate, with or without club; elytra rarely
exposing 2 terga, if 2 terga exposed, then exposed abdominal segments
flexible; body not oval or body cylindrical and compact 121
121 Fore coxa with exposed trochantin 122
(ll8' ,120').
121'. Trochantin concealed or absent 140
122(121). Hind coxa extending laterally to reach elytral epipleuron or side of
body, no visible contact between metathorax and first ventrite 123
122'. Hind coxa not reaching elytron; first ventrite and metathorax visibly
in contact laterad of coxa (Figures 26-8A,B) 128
123(122). Hind tarsus with 5 tarsomeres 124
 -,

392 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

123'. Hind tarsus with 4 tarsomeres 169

124(123). Head with temples and occipital ridge distinct, occipital ridge close!y
fitting against pronotum, constricted behind to a distinct neck
(difficult to see when head is retracted with ridge and temples against
pronotum); e!ytra with strong characteristic sutural stria, no other
striae evident; 11 antennomeres, gradual club of 3-4 antennomeres;
abdomen with 4 (females) or 5 (males) ventrites (Colon, see
couplet 65) leiodidae p. 408
124'. Head without ridge and constricted neck that fits against pronotum;
e!ytra striate or not, but not as in preceding entry; antenna variable;
at least 5 ventrites 125
125(124'). Prosternal process between coxae distinctly e!evated above leve! of
prosternum, apex strongly curved dorsally, reaching leve! of postcoxal
extensions of hypomeron; cervical sclerites absent; antenna not
clubbed;e!ytraglabrousor subglabrous;length 8-20 mm Cerambycidae p.441
125'. Prosternal process not e!evated between coxae nor with apex strongly
curved dorsad; cervical sclerites present; antenna clubbed or not;
e!ytra dense!y to sparse!y setose, subglabrous or glabrous; length
1-24 mm 126
126(125'). Fore coxa not projecting distinctly be!ow intercoxal process, large and
transverse; antenna distinctly clubbed; prothorax with sharp lateral
margins; if fore coxa slightly projecting, then antenna distinctly
clubbed, tarsi not lobed beneath, not bright red Trogossitidae p.428
126'. Fore coxa projecting distinctly be!ow intercoxal process, conical or
transverse; antenna variable; margins of prothorax variable; if fore
coxa are only slightly projecting, then antenna feebly clubbed, tarsi
lobed beneath, body bright red 127
127(126'). Tarsi not lobed beneath; fore coxal cavity strongly transverse; labrum
subtruncate to convex, rounded or acute; eye not emarginate; antenna
rare!y with distinct apical club, and if so, club of 5 or more
antennomeres; e!ytra usually confusedly punctate; pronotum and
abdomen sometimes with eversible glands Melyridae p.429
127'. Tarsi with lobes on multiple tarsomeres; fore coxal cavity circular,
e!ongate or slightly transverse; labrum sub trunca te to concave or
deeply emarginate; eye often emarginate; antenna usually apically
clubbed, club of one or more antennomeres; e!ytra often punctate-
striate; pronotum and abdomen never with eversible glands Cleridae p.428
128(122'). Elytra short, complete!y exposing 1 or more tergites 129
128'. Elytra covering all of abdomen or exposing apex of 1 tergite 132
129(128). Fore coxal cavity broadly open (by more than half width of coxa);
labium with 2 palpomeres; abdominal process truncate; pygidium and
last ventrite longer than preceding 4 combined Smicripidae p.430
129'. Fore coxal cavity closed or narrowly open by less than half width of
coxa; labium with 3 palpomeres or nonarticulated; abdominal process
acute to broadly rounded or absent; pygidium variable 130
130(129'). Labial palps nonarticulated; prosternal process e!evated between fore
coxae and strongly curved dorsally behind Brachypteridae p.429
130'. Labium with 3 palpomeres; prosternal process flat or e!evated between
fore coxae, but not strongly curved dorsally behind 131
Antenna with 10 antennomeres, club of only one antennomere;
¡¡
. .V:)'(H,ÁqOJ
.:. e!ytra >2X as.)óiJ.g
" . as wide (Rhizophaginae)
Monotomidae p.430
."

L
r Keyto the Familiesof Coleoptera 393

m'. Antenna with 10 or 11 antennomeres, club of 3 or more antennomeres;

elytra <2X as long as wide Nitidulidae p.430
132(128'). Mid tarsus with 4 tarsomeres; tarsallobes, if present, small, not
obscuring penultimate tarsomere 133
132'. Mid tarsus with 5 tarsomeres, fifth possibly obscured by enlarged lobe
of fourth (pseudotetramerous) 135
133(132). Lateral margin of pronotum crenulate; antennal insertions concealed
from above (Sphindocis) Ciidae p.434
133'. Lateral margins of pronotum smooth or minutely denticulate; antennal
insertions visible from above 134
134(133'). Body nearly spherical, capable of being rolled into a ball; mandibles
resting against metasternum in retracted position (Cybocephalus) Nitidulidae p.430
134'. Body flattened cylindrical, not at all spherical (Figure 26-60A)
(Mycetophaginae) Mycetophagidae p.434
135(132'). Antenna with 10 antennomeres, 1 involved in club (Rhizophaginae) Monotomidae p.430
135'. Antenna with 10 or 11 antennomeres, if clubbed, club of 2 or more
antennomeres 136
136(135'). Body extremelyflattened;elytranearlyparallel-sided,disc almost
perfectly flat between rounded lateral carinae running from humeri
lo near apex, setting off vertical sides and guttered epipleural margin;
either large (> 10 mm) and red with expanded temples (Figure 26-58A),
or small «5 mm) and dull brown without temples Cucujidae p.431
136'. Body not so distinctlyflattened;elytradistinctlytransverselyarched;
not fitting other combinations in preceding entry 137
137(136'). Dorsal face of mandible with tubercle that fi15into cavity on clypeus,
setose cavity at base, hidden when mandibles are closed (mycangium);
elytra with scutellary striole; antenna with 2 or 3 antennomeres
forming club; body oval to cylindrical Sphindidae p.429
m'. Mandible without dorsal mycangium; elytra without scutellary striole;
antenna and body shape variable 138
138(137'). Mid and hind tarsi with equal numbers of tarsomeres; antenna with
distinct club 139
138'. Hind tarsus with 1 tarsomere less than mid tarsus; antenna distinctly
clubbed or not 169
139(138). Pygidium at least partially exposed, strongly sclerotized, punctate,
distinctly different from other tergites (Figures 26-57 A,B); tibiae
usually spinose or denticulate on external margin Nitidulidae p.430
139'. Pygidium not exposed, not strongly sclerotized, similar lo other tergites
(Figure 26-60B); tibiae smooth on external margin Byturidae p.432
140(121'). Antennal insertions concealed from above by lateral expansion of
frons; three basal ventrites connate, fourth and fifth movable; fore
coxal cavity closed by mesad extension of posterior portion of the
hypomeron; fore coxal process not expanded laterally at apex to
close fore coxal cavity; antenna usually with 11 antennomeres
(rarely with 9 or 10 antennomeres) Tenebrionidae p.436
140'. Without this combinationof characters 141
141(140'). Abdomen with first 4 ventrites connate 142

. 141'. Abdomen with fewer than 4 ventrites connate 143

I UNNERSIOAD
DECALDAI
BIBLIOT'CCA
1
394 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

142(141). Antenna serrate or pectinate; antennal insertion exposed from above;

hind coxa laterally reaching epipleuron; intercoxal process of
prosternum with long, notched, apical projection, received in deep
mesosternal cavity lo form clicking mechanism; last ventrite without
submarginal groove; mentum without setose pit Cerophytidae p.421
142'. Antenna moniliform, clavate, or capitate; antennal insertion concealed
from above; hind coxa not reaching elytron, first ventrite and
metepimeron in contact laterad of coxa and mesad of epipleuron;
prosternal process broad, widened apically; last ventrite usually with
submarginal groove; males often with median setose pit on mentum Zopheridae p.435
143(141'). Hind tarsus wilh 5 tarsomeres, basallarsomere reduced, often difficult
to see, either hidden in apical excavation of hind tibia or shorter than
fourth length of second larsomere and obliquely attached beneath it
(may only be visible from below in oblique distal angle, see
Figure 26-10D); elytra covering pygidium Bostrichidae p.426
143'. First tarsomere usually not so reduced; if so, then pronotum not
hoodlike, head not hypognathous or hind tarsus of 4 tarsomeres,
pygidium exposed 144
144(143'). Mid tarsus with 4 distinct tarsomeres 145
144'. Mid tarsus wilh 5 tarsomeres, or tarsus pseudotetramerous 156
145(144). Mid coxal cavity closed laterally 146
145'. Mid coxal cavity open laterally 152
146(145). Antennal insertion concealed from above 147
146'. Antennal insertion exposed from above 148
147(146). Eyes usually present; if eyes absent, then elytra with flat tUbercles Colydiidae p.435
147'. Eyesabsent,elytrasmoolh (Aglenus) Salpingidae p.440
148(146'). Genae with pair of anteriorly directed horns eXlending beyond labium,
horns visible from above Prostomidae p.437
148'. Genae lacking horns 149
149(148'). Abdomen with 6 ventrites; pronotum usually large, hoodlike, covering
or nearly covering head; pygidium usually exposed; epipleuron
incomplete; frontoclypeal suture absent; length <2 mm Corylophidae p.434
149'. Abdomen with 5 or 6 ventrites, if 6, then length 2:4 mm and
frontoclypeal suture present; pronotum never hoodlike, head visible
from above; pygidium and epipleuron variable 150
150(149'). Antenna long, reaching to or beyond middle of pronotum, club loose;
pronotUm usually with pair of sublateral discal carinae or grooves,
running from base laterad of basal pits (Figure 26-59C); body usually
round to ovoid Endomychidae p.433
ISO'. Antenna short, not reaching beyond middle of pronotUm, club
compact; if pronotum with discal carinae or grooves, then usually in
the form of a median groove or pit and body elongate 151
151(150'). Either posterior margin of last ventrite crenulate or body distinctly
oval, length no more than 2X maximum width; antenna with
8-10 antennomeres; hind trochanter obliquely attached lo femur, but
distinctly separating coxa from femur Cerylonidae p.433
151'. Posterior margin of lasl ventrite never crenulate; body elongate, at least
2.75X maximum widlh; antenna with lO-U antennomeres; hind
trochanter offsel so thal femur and coxa are in contact or nearly so Bothrideridae p.433
 Keyto the Familiesof Coleoptera 395

152(145'). Hind coxaeseparatedby distance>1/2 transversediameter 153

152'. Hind coxaeseparatedby distance<1/2 transverse diameter 154
153(152). Fore coxal cavity narrowly closed;fore and mid coxaestrongly
transverse;mandible tUckedinto cavity when closed,not visible from
side;antennawith 9 antennomeres,last 5 forming club; pronotum not
groovedor carinateon disc;small beetles,<2 rnm long (Orthoperus) Corylophidae p.434
153'. Fore coxal cavity narrowly to widely open;fore and mid coxaecircular
to slightly transverse;mandiblevisible from side;antennawith
8-11 antennomeres,if clubbed,club of 1-3 antennomeres; pronotum
usually with subrnarginal grooves or carinae, especially basally
(Figure 26-59C); size 1-10 rnm, if <2 mm and lacking grooves or
carinae on pronotum (Eidoreus),then antenna with 10-11 antennomeres,
1 or 2 of which form a distinct club Endomychidae p. 433
154(152'). lntercoxal process of first ventrite absent, no pan of ventrite extending
between coxae to contact metasternite; first ventrite lacking rnargined
hind coxalcavities;hind coxaconicaland projecting;bodysoft; small,
triangular pan of true abdominal sternite 2 usually visible laterad of
hind coxa (that is, ventrite 1 small, divided); often colorful, with red,
yellow or metallic blue or green markings; length 5-12 mm (Psoinae) Bostrichidae p.426
154'. lntercoxal process of first ventrite complete; first ventrite with
margined coxal cavities; hind coxa transverse; body fully sclerotized,
ventrite 1 closing anterolateral angle between hind coxa and abdomen;
never metallic; length 0.5-6.5 mm 155
155(154'). Body elongate-oval and somewhat cylindrical; pronoturn usually very
convex in transverse section, edges often directed ventrally; pronoturn
without basal pits or impressions; head or pronotum of male often
with horns or tubercles;antenna with 8-10 antennomeresand club of
2-3 antennomeres;malesoften with pubescentmedianfoveaon first
ventrite; head without distinct temples or neck Ciidae1 p.434
155'. Body oval to elongate-oval,usuallysomewhatdorsoventallydepressed;
pronotum usually weakly convex transversely, edges directed laterally;
pronotumwith 2 basalpits or impressionslaterad of scutellum,
sometimes in posterior marginal groove and difficult to discern; head
and pronotum without horns or tubercles; antenna with 11 antennomeres,
last 2-5 forming club; all ventrites free, without median fovea MycetophagidaeB p.434
156(144'). Abdomen with 6 ventrites; hind tarsus with 5 tarsomeres; terminal
maxillary palpomere (4) shorter and narrower than penultimate;
shape rather characteristic (Figure 26-24B); length 0.6-2.7 mm Scydmaenidae p.408
156'. Abdomen with 4-5 ventrites;hind tarsus variable;terminalmaxillary
palpomere (3 or 4) as wide or wider or as long or longer than
penultimate; size variable 157
157(156'). Pregular area on each side with a lateral-facing surface bearing setose
pit or cavity near end of distinct antennal groove; first ventrite with
postcoxallines Biphyllidae p.433
157'. Pregulararea without lateral-facingsetosepit; antennal groovesand
postcoxallines variable 158

'Onespecies from California has relatively Ilat pronotum with crenulate margins directed laterally, antenna with 11 antennomeres and 3 anten-
nomeresin club, but two basal sternites are connate.
'One rare genus (Iength <2 mm) somewhat cylindrical, with very convex pronotum in transverse section, with head abruptly constricted be-
hindshort temples to fonn distinct neck.
396 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

158(157'). First ventrite much longer than second, measured behind coxa; elytra
without punctate or impressed striae (traces of striae occasionally
visible through cuticle but not expressed on the surface); epipleuron
distinct in basal half, not reaching apex, usually narrowed at level of
third ventrite; gena carinate and projecting ventrally between eye and
mentum; apex of elytra with double suture or "subapical gap" caused
by wide flange of elytral coupling system; elytra complete, exposing at
most tip of last tergite Cryptophagidae9 p.431
158/. Not fitting this combination of characters, either with the first vcntrite
short, elytra striate, epipleuron complete to apex, gena flat between
eye and mentum, or elytra not covering most of pygidium 159
159(158'). Hind trochanter transversely or obliquely attached to femur, but
distinctly separating femur from coxa (Figures 26-9A-E) 160
159/. Hind trochanter obliquely attached to femur, offset so that femur
abuts coxa 169
160(159). Antennal insertions approximated or separated by less than half width
of head behind eyes; pronotum without lateral carinae; hind tarsus
with 5 tarsomeres; hind trochanter elongate, cylindrical (Ptininae) Anobiidae p.427
160/. Without combination of narrowly separated antennal insertions and
no lateral carina on pronotum; other characters variable 161
161(160'). Pronotum with sublaterallines or grooves that extend from base to
anterior margin, or at least beyond midpoint; head usually with
sublaterallines extending from median margin of eye to pronotum;
lateral margins of pronotum smooth, wavy,or with few obtuse angles,
not acutely denticulate or serrate; head not sharply constricted to a
distinct neck; body oval to elongate, subcylindrical to strongly
dorsoventrally flattened Laemophloeidae p.431
161/. Pronotum without sublaterallines or grooves that extend anterad of
middle; head variable; body variable, often rather convex, oval or
rounded; if body flattened and pronotum with sublateral grooves, then
lateral margins of pronotum sharply denticulate, anterior angles
acutely projecting, or head sharply constricted behind small temples 162
162(161/). Mid coxal cavity open laterally 163
162/. Mid coxal cavity closed laterally 165
163(162). Antenna with 10 antennomeres, distinctly clubbed; elytra shortened,
exposing all of pygidium; head abruptly constricted to form neck;
1-4 mm Monotomidae p.430
163/. Not fitting one or more of the characters in the preceding entry 164
164(163/). Mid and hind tarsi with same number of tarsomeres; body elongate,
flattened (Figure 26-58B); head usually with distinct temples before
abruptly constricted neck; fore coxa either closed behind or open;
ir open (Brontinae), elytra transversely flat or slightly concave
between slightly to distinctly raised interstria between stria 6 and 7;
elytron with scutellary striole; base of mandible with dorsal setose pit
(mycangium) hidden beneath clypeus when closed; antenna filiform,
with scape more than 3X length of pedicel Silvanidae p.431
164/. Hind tarsus with 1 less tarsomere than mid tarsus; other characters
variable 169

9Twogenera of tiny « 1.3 mm) cryptophagids (Amydropa, Baja, California, and Hypocoprus,Rocky Mountain region) lack the subgenal carinae.
Hypocoprus has the first two ventrites subequal and the pygidium exposed, whereas Amydropa lacks the double suture on the elytra. The other
characters fit these two rare genera. Amydropa has greatly reduced eyes (lO facets or fewer), and Hypocoprus has distinct temples.
 Keyto the Familiesof Coleoptera 397

165(162'). Body shining, oval and strongly convex; pronotum tightly embracing
elytra (Figure 26-59A), pronotum laterobasally with a translucent,
thin flange that slides over a smooth area on base of humeral angle of
elytron, this area on elytron delimited posteriorIy by a thin carina;
pronotum and elytra with wide propleura and epipleura, lateral
margins sharp, explanate, strongly directed ventrally so that lateral
margins far below level of fore coxa and mesad of epipleural margin,
dorsal surface forming an inverted U in transverse section; pretarsal
claw-toothed or appendiculate Phalacridae p.431
165'. Body usually not so evenly oval; pronotum not as in preceding entry;
lateral margins of pronotum and elytra laterad, not ventrad, of fore
coxa and epipleura; pretarsal claws toothed only in groups with
pronotum narrowed behind 166
166(165'). Mid and hind tarsi with same number of tarsomeres; face often with
beaded lateral margins 167
166'. Mid tarsus with 1 more tarsomere than hind tarsus; face without
beaded lateral margins 169
167(166). GuIar sutures confluent; gena expanded anteriorIy, platelike,
concealing maxilla Passandridae p.431
167'. GuIar sutures separate or absent; gena not so expanded 168
168(167'). Fore coxal cavity usually open behind; terminal maxillary palpomere
narrow, elongate; if fore coxal cavity closed behind, then closed by
mesal extension of hypomeron; length <3 mm and pronotum
somewhatnarrowednear base (Cryptophilus) Languriidae p.431
168'. Fore coxal cavity closed behind by lateral expansion of prostemal
process; terminal maxillary palpomere often hatchet-shaped, or narrow
and elongate; length 3-22 mm Erotylidae p.432
169(123', Last visible segment of abdomen forming a terminal spine
138', 159', (Figure 26-63); body wedge-shaped, humpbacked; head retracted to
164',166'). hypognathous position; hind tibia and tarsus usually with oblique or
transverse, comblike serrate ridges subapically on lateral faces Mordellidae p.434
169'. Abdomen not prolonged into a terminal spine; body otherwise variable;
hind tibia and tarsus without comblike serrate ridges as in preceding
entry; if similar combs are present, then they are apical 170
170(169'). Pretarsal claw with a ventral blade or elongate lobe beneath (reduced
to a large, fused tooth ending about 2/3length of upper blade in
Phodaga,U.S.Southwest);head sharplyor graduallyconstricted
behind eyes to distinct neck 171
170'. Pretarsal claw without ventral blade or elongate lobe beneath, if
claw-toothed or appendiculate, then not as in preceding entry; head
constricted or not 172
171(170). Ventral appendage of pretarsal claw usually lobelike, membranous,
occasionally bladelike and sclerotized; elytra usually meeting along
suture to very near apex, which may be narrowly and separately
rounded; lateral margin of pronotum absent, complete, or indicated
only at base; antenna without club, or with vague to distinct club of
3 antennomeres; mid coxal cavities usually narrowly separated,
occasionally contiguous; maxillae not forming sucking tube; hind
wing with well-developed radial cell; if pronotal margin completely
absent, antenna with at least vague indication of club in last
3 antennomeres and mid coxal cavities narrowly separated; if elytra
broadly separately rounded, pronotum with lateral carina at base Stenotrachelidae p. 438
398 Chapter26 Order Coleoptera

171'. Ventral appendage of pretarsal claw bladelike and sclerotized; elytra

usually diverging along suture before apex, broadly separately rounded
(Figure 26-67 A-F); pronotum lacking marginal carina laterally;
antenna without club of 3 antennomeres; mid coxal cavities contiguous;
maxillae usually normal, sometimes forming a sucking tube; radial
cell absent in hind wing; if elytra meeting on suture to very near apex,
maxillae modified into sucking tube that extends beyond mandibular
apices Meloidae p. 438
172(170'). Base of pronotum with marginal groove that extends laterally onto
hypomeron, ending in a pit near posterior margin of coxa; pronotum
narrowed posteriorly, not margined laterally; head sharply narrowed
behind distinct temples to form narrow neck; elytra sparsely to
densely setose Anthicidae p. 440
172'. Basal groove of pronotum, if present, not ending in pit on hypomeron;
pronotum margined laterally or not; elytra with or without setae,
length variable 173
173(172'). Mid coxal cavity closed laterally 174
173'. Mid coxal cavity open laterally 176
174(173). Basal 3 ventrites connate; antenna with 11 antennomeres,
submoniliform to triangular, filiform, serrate to subflabellate; cervical
sclerites present Mycteridae p.440
174'. Two or no ventrites connate; antenna with 10-11 antennomeres,
moniliform lO capitate; cervical sclerites absent 175
175(174'). Prothorax with pleurosternal suture ending in a large, selOse pit at
anterolateral margin of fore coxal cavity; 2 basal ventrites connate;
antenna with 11 antennomeres; 1.5-3.8 mm; deserts of V.s. West
from ldaho to Mexican border (Cononotus) Pyrochroidae p.440
175'. Prothorax with or without pleurosternal suture, lacking large setose
pit on anterior margin of fore coxal cavity; all ventrites usually free, or
2 basal ventrites connate (Aegíalites); antenna with 10-11 antennomeres;
length 1.5-7 mm; widespread in forests and Pacific beaches (Aegíalites);
if in deserts, antenna with 10 antennomeres (Dacoderus) Salpingidae p.440
176(173'). Body deep, mildly to distinctly wedge-shaped; antenna serrate,
pectinate, or flabellate, often bipectinate or biflabellate; vertex often
inflated and narrowed above eyes in frontal view; vertex usually
extending dorsally above plane of pronotum in lateral view, vertex and
pronotum at least coplanar; tarsí toothed, bifid, or pectinate; maxillary
lobes sometimes styletlike, extending beyond tips of mandibles Ripiphoridae p.435
176'. Body usually not deep and wedge-shaped, if so, then antenna simple
and head coplanar with or slipping under front margin of pronotum;
tarsi variable; maxillary lobes not styletlike 177
177(176'). Pronotum lacking lateral carina 178
177'. Pronotum with lateral carina present, complete or incomplete 182
178(177). Hind coxa extending laterally to elytron or side of body, completely
separating metepisternum and first ventrite 179
178'. Hind coxa not reaching elytron or side of body, metepisternum and
first ventrite in contact laterad of hind coxa 181
179(178). Tarsiappearing4-4-3 (actually5-5-4,pseudotetramerous/
pseudotrimerous); eyes coarsely faceted, appearing hairy, setae
between facets as coarse, long and dense as those on front and sides
of head adjacentto eyes; 1-4 mm Aderidae p.440
 Keyto the Familiesof Coleoptera 399

179/. Tarsi distinctly 5-5-4; eyes with or without setae between facets, if
present, then setae not as coarse, long or obvious as on front and
sides of head adjacent to the eyes; 4-21 mm 180
. Head prognathous, not abruptly constricted to a narrow neck, lacking
180(179')
distinct temples (Figure 26-66A); anterior portion of prostemum
as long or longer than prostemal process Oedemeridae p.438
180/. Head distinctly declined, abruptly constricted to forro narrow neck
behind distinct temples; anterior portion of prostemum shorter than
prostemal process (Eurygeniinae) Anthicidae p.440
181(178'). Elytra distinctly setose; eye emarginate anteriorly; penultimate
tarsomere with large 10bebeneath Pyrochroidae p. 440
181/. Elytra glabrous; eye not emarginate; penultimate tarsomere simple
(Pytho and Priognathus) Pythidae p.440
182(177'). Hind coxa extending laterally to elytra or side of body, completely
separating metepistemum and first ventrite; mid tibial spurs serrate,
pectinate, or pubescent 183
182'. Hind coxa not reaching elytra or side of body, metathorax and first
ventrite at least narrowly closing hind coxal cavity laterally; mid tibial
spurs variable 185
183(182). Head vertically narrowed behind eyes to forro narrow neck, head not
received into prothorax, either bulging beyond prono tal margin, or
fitting closely against prono tal margin so that head in lateral view has
a posterior carina or crest meeting anterior margin of pronotum Scraptiidae p.441
183/. Head gradually narrowed behind eyes, fitting into pronotum in a
telescoping manner 184
184(183'). Tarsus without lobes on penultimate tarsomere; sutural stria deeply
impressed near apex of elytra, distinctly more so than in basal half;
2 basal ventrites connate; hind tibia longer than first tarsomere;
length 7-13 mm Synchroidae p.437
184/. Either tarsus with penultimate tarsomere lobed beneath, or hind tibia
shorter than first tarsomere; if sutural stria deeply impressed near apex,
then also impressed on basal half; length 2-20 mm Melandryidae p.434
185(182'). Fore coxal cavity closed behind; first 2 ventrites connate; body strongly
rounded Archeocrypticidae p.434
185/. Fore coxal cavity open behind; ventrites connate or free; body form
variable, often elongate 186
186(185'). Elytra with sutural and epipleural margins elevated, with strongly
elevated carina running from humeral angle nearly to apex resulting
in distinctly concave elytral disc; pronotum with median 10ngitudinal
elevated carina on basal third, deep transverse grooves with pits at
each end on either side of carina (Ischalia) Anthicidae p.440
186'. Elytra and pronotum without strongly elevated carinae, elytral disc
convex 187
187(186/). Prostemal intercoxal process incomplete or absent, not separating fore
coxae 188
187/. Prostemal intercoxal process complete, fully separating fore coxae 189
188(187). Antenna filiforro; terroinallabial and maxillary palpomeres expanded
apically; prostemum shorter than diameter of fore coxa; mid tibial
spurs pubescent or serrate; tarsi lobed on penultimate tarsomeres
(Osphyinae) Melandryidae p. 434
400 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

188'. Antenna with long, serrate club formed of last 3 antennomeres;

terminal labial and maxillary palpomeres cylindrical; prosternum as
long as fore coxal diameter; mid tibial spurs smooth; tarsi not lobed
(Trimitomerus) Pythidae p.440
189(187'). Tarsi simple, lacking lobes below 190
189'. At least some tarsomeres distinctly lobed below 192
190(189). Median longitudinalline (discrimen) of metasternum short, extended
from hind margin less than half totallength of sclerite; mid coxa
normal, convex and punctate anterior to trochanteral insertion 191
190'. Median longitudinalline (discrimen) of metasternum longer, extended
from hind margin more than half totallength of sclerite; mid coxa
with unique, polished, ventral face anterior to trochanteral insertion Tetratomidae p.434
191(190). Antenna short, not reaching middle of pronotum; apical 3 antennomeres
forming a distinct, rather abrupt club Boridae p.440
191'. Antenna longer, reaching base of elytron; apical antennomeres
somewhat wider than basal antennomeres, but not forming abrupt
club (Sphalma) Pythidae p.440
192(189'). Antenna filiform; setae on elytra very short and indistinct, shorter
than diameter of punctures; elytra uniform in color; California and
Nevada(Tydessa) Pyrochroidae p.440
192'. Antenna strongly serrate; setae on elytra conspicuous, several times
longer than diameter of punctures; elytra reddish with dark markings,
a macula around scutellum and transverse band at apical third, usually
joined by line along suture; south Texas Polypriidae p.441
193(1'). One pretarsal claw; eye reduced to a single ommatidium 194
193'. Two pretarsal claws; compound eye variable: normal, reduced or
with single ommatidium 195
194(193). Gonopore present (females) Phengodidae p.423
194'. Gonopore not present larvalColeoptera
195(193'). Head with median ocellus (female Thylodrius) Dermestidae p.424
195'. Head without median ocellus 196
196(195'). Head prognathous; pronotum expanded anteriorly, extending over
head in retracted position (Phausis,Microphotus)or head retractile
into tubular prothorax (Pterotus);distinctly to slightly dorsoventrally
flattened; antenna with 9 or fewer antennomeres; some species,
possibly all, bioluminescent; widespread (females) Lampyridae p.423
196'. Head hypognathous, not retractile into prothorax; body globular-
cylindrical; antenna with 11 antennomeres; not bioluminescent;
Florida or near ports-of-entry (female Ripidiinae, North American
females unknown) Ripiphoridae p.435

SUBORDERArchostemata:Coleopterists do not
agree on the relationships of the two familieshere con-
sideredas representing the suborder Archostemata.
Mostauthorities consider the Cupedidae a very primi-
tivegroup meriting rank as a suborder, but some (for
example,Arnett 1968) would place the Micromalthi-
daein the suborder Polyphaga because they lack noto-
pleuralsutures. The two families in this suborder are
small(only five North American species) and seldom
encountered.
Family Cupedidae-Reticulated Beetles: This is a
smalland little known group, with four genera, each
withone species, occurring in the United States. All are
denselyscaly, with the elytra reticulate and the tarsi
distinctlyfive-merous. The prosternum extends back-
wardas a narrow process that fits into a groove in the
mesosternum, much as in click beetles. The common
speciesin the eastern United States, Cupes capitatus
Fabricius,is 7-10 mm long and brownish gray. In the
RockyMountains and the Sierra Nevada, the most
commonspecies is Priacma serrata (LeConte), which is
graywith faint black bands across the elytra. These
beetlesare usually found under bark.
Family Micromalthidae: This family includes a sin-
glerare species, Micromalthus debilis LeConte, which
has been taken in several localities in the eastern
UnitedStates and in British Columbia and New Mex-
ico.The adults are 1.8-2.5 mm long, elongate and
parallel-sided,dark, and shiny, with yellowish legs and
an!ennae.The tarsi are five-merous. This insect has a
remarkablelife cycle, with paedogenetic larvae. The
larvaecan reproduce parthenogenetically (both ovip-
arouslyand viviparously). These beetles have been
foundin decaying logs, principally oak and chestnut.
SUBORDER Myxophaga:The suborder contains two
smallfamilies of tiny beetles that live in water or wet
placesand apparently feed on filamentous algae (to
whichthe suborder name refers). The Myxophaga are
distinguishedby the character of the wings and mouth-
partsand by the presence of notopleural sutures. All
havethree-merous tarsi and clubbed antennae. The
twofamilies of Myxophaga are usually keyed out on
thebasisof their having notopleural sutures (from cou-
pIe!2 in the key). The Microsporidaeare very tiny,and
thenotopleural sutures may be very difficult to see, so
wehavealso keyed out this family from couplet 2' (no-
!opleuralsu tures lacking).
Family Microsporidae-Minute Bog Beetles: The
microsporidsare tiny (0.5-0.75 mm long), oval, con-
vex,shining, blackish beetles with a large, prominent
headand capitate antennae that are found in mud and
understones near water, among roots of plants, and in
moss in boggyplaces. They differ from other similarly
shapedbeetles found in these situations in having
three-merous tarsi and in the character of the ab-
j
Keyto the Familiesof Coleoptera 401
domen, in which the first ventrite is a triangular piece
between the hind coxae, the second a narrow trans-
verse band, and the third occupying most of the lower
surface of the abdomen. The group is represented in
the United States by three species that occur in the
eastern states, Texas, Arizona, southern California, and
Washington.
Family Hydroscaphidae-Skiff Beetles: The skiff
beetles are about 1.5 mm long, with three-merous tarsi
and short elytra, and are similar in general appearance
to rove beetles. The antennae are eight-merous, with a
club composed of one antennomere. They live in the
filamentous algae growing on rocks in streams. The
group is represented in the United States by a single
species, Hydroscapha natans LeConte, which occurs in
southern California, southern Nevada, and Arizona.
SUBORDERAdephaga:The members of the subor-
der Adephaga have the hind coxae dividing the first
visible abdominal sternum (Figure 26-12A). The pos-
terior margin of this sternum does not extend com-
pletely across the abdomen, but is interrupted by the
hind coxae. Nearly all the Adephaga have filiform an-
tennae and 5-5-5 tarsi; they have notopleural sutures;
and most are predaceous.
Family Rhysodidae-Wrinkled Bark Beetles: The
members of this group are slender, brownish beetles
5.5 to 7.5 mm long with three fairly deep longitudinal
grooves on the pronotum and with moniliform anten-
nae (Figure 26-14). The prono tal grooves are complete
in Omoglymmius, but are present on only about the
posterior third of the pronotum in Clinidium. These
beetles are usually found under the bark of decaying
beech, ash, elm, or pine. Eight species occur in the
United States, one of each genus in the West, and the
others in the East.
Family Carabidae (including Cicindelidae)-Ground
Beetles and Tiger Beetles: This is the third largest fam-
ily of beetles in North America (¡he Staphylinidae and
Curculionidae are larger), with more than 2,600
species grouped into 189 genera in North America. Its
members exhibit considerable variation in size, shape,
and color. Most species are dark, shiny, and somewhat
flattened, with striate elytra (Figure 26-15).
Ground beetles are commonly found under
stones, logs, leaves, bark, or debris or running about on
the ground. When disturbed, they run rapidly, but sel-
dom fly. Most species hide during the day and feed at
night. Many are attracted to lights. Nearly all are preda-
ceous on other insects, and many are very beneficia!.
The members of a few genera (for example, Scaphino-
tus, Figure 26-15B) feed on snails. The larva e are also
predaceous and live in burrows in the soil, under bark,
or in debris.
The largest and most brilliantly colored ground
beetles belong to the genus Calosoma; these are often
402 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
Figure26-14 A wrinkled bark beetle, Clinidium sculp-
tilis Newman, 14X. (Courtesy of Amett.)
Figure26-15 Ground beetles. A, Calosoma scrutator (Fabricius); B, Scaphinotus guyoti
(LeConte); C, Scarites subterraneus (Fabricius). All figures slightly enlarged. (C, courtesy
of the Illinois Natural History Survey.)
called "caterpillar hunters," because they feed chiefly
on caterpillars, particularly those that attack treesand
shrubs. Most of these beetles are 25 mm or morein
length. When handled, they give off a very disagreeable
odor. Calosoma sycophanta L., a brilliant greenish bee.
tle with a dark-blue pronotum, was introduced frorn
Europe to aid in the control of the gypsy moth. These
beetles are attracted to lights.
The species in the genus Brachinus are called "born-
bardier beetles" because they eject from the anus whal
looks like a puff of smoke. This glandular fluid is ejected
with a popping sound and vaporizes into a cloud when
it comes in contact with the air. The discharge of sorne
species may irritate tender skin. This apparently serves
as a means both of protection and of offense.
A few of the carabids are plant feeders. Adults01
Stenolophus lecontei (Chaudoir), the seed-com beetle,
and Clivina impressifrons LeConte, the slender seed.
com beetle, sometimes attack corn seeds in the soiland
prevent them from sprouting. This behavior occasion.
ally causes considerable damage, especially during cold
springs when germination is delayed.
The members of the genus Omophron,calledround
sand beetles(and formerly placed in a separate family,
the Omophronidae), differ from other carabids in hay.
ing the scutellum concealed. They are small (5-8 rnrn
long), oval convex beetles that live in wet sand along
the shores of lakes and streams. They can be found
running over the sand or burrowing in it (particularly
under stones) and may occasionally be found running
over the surface of the water. They run when disturbed
and seldom fly. Adults and larvae are predaceous, bUI
the larvae occasionally feed on seedlings of crops
planted in moist soil.

Figure26-16 Tiger beetles. A, Cicindela sexguttata (Fabricius); B, C. hirticollis Say,3X.
Tiger beetles (subfamily Cicindelinae) are a fa-
voriteof beetle collectors because of their bright col-
orsand the challenge of capturing them. Some work-
ers regard them as a family separate from the
Carabidae. There are 111 species in four genera of
tigerbeetles in North America, most belonging to the
genusCicindela.
Adult tiger beetles are usually metallic or irides-
centand often have a definite color pattern. They can
usually be recognized by their characteristic shape
(Figure26-16), and most are 10-20 mm long.
Most tiger beetles are active, usually brightly col-
oredinsectsfound in open, sunny situations. They are
oftencommon on sandy beaches. They can run or fly
rapidlyand are very wary and difficult to approach.
Theytake flight quickly, some times after running a few
feet,and usually alight some distance away facing the
pursuer. They are predaceous and feed on a variety
ofsmall insects, which they capture with their long,
sicklelikemandibles. When handled, they sometimes
administera painful bite.
The larvae are predaceous and live in vertical bur-
rowsin the soil in dry paths or fields or in sandy
beaches.They prop themselves at the entrance of their
burrow,with the traplike jaws wide apart, waiting to
capturesome passing insect. The larva has hooks on
tbefifth abdominal tergum, with which it can anchor
¡tseUin its burrow and thus avoid being pulled out
whenit captures large prey. After subduing the prey,
thelarva drags it to the bottom of the burrow, often
0.3m underground, and eats it.
Keyto the Families of Coleoptera 403
Family Gyrinidae-Whirligig Beetles: The gyrinids
are oval black beetles that are commonly seen swimming
in endless gyrations on the surface of ponds and quiet
streams. They are equally at home on the surface of the
water or beneath it. They are extremely rapid swimmers,
swimming principally by means of the strongly flattened
middle and hind legs, which move in synchrony (as in
Dytiscidae). The front legs are elongate and slender (Fig-
ure 26-17). These insects are peculiar in having each
compound eye divided. They have a pair of compound
eyes on the upper surface of the head and another pair
on the ventral surface (Figure 26-17C). The antennae
are very short and somewhat clubbed and their third an-
tennomere is greatly expanded and somewhat earlike
(Figure 26-5E). The two basal abdominal sterna are
fused, and the suture separating them is indistinct.
Adult whirligig beetles are principally scavengers,
feeding chiefly on insects that fall anto the surface of
the water. The larvae (Figure 26-18A) are predaceous,
feeding on a variety of small aquatic animals, and are of-
ten cannibalistic. Many adults give off a characteristic
fruity odor when handled. The adults are often gregari-
ous, forming large swarms on the surface of the water.
The eggs of whirligig beetles are laid in clusters or
rows on the undersides of the leaves of aquatic plants,
particularly water lilies and pandweed. Pupation oc-
curs in mud cells on the shore or on aquatic plants.
Most of the 56 North American species of
whirligig beetles belong to the genera Gyrinus and
Dineutus. The species of Dineutus are 8.5-15.5 mm
long, and the scutellum is hidden (Figure 26-17 A).
404 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

Figure26-17 A whirligig bee-

tIe, Dineutus americanus (Say).
7x. A, dorsal view; B, ventral
e view; e, lateral view.

Figure26-18 Larvae of aquatic beetles.

A, Dineutus (Gyrinidae); B, Peltodytes
(Haliplidae), lateral view; e, Hydrophilus
triangularis (Say) (Hydrophilidae). (Courtesy
B e of Peterson. Reprinted by permission.)

A very common in ponds and quiet streams. The body is
Figure
26-19 A crawling water beetle, Peltodytes eden-
tulus(LeConte), 11X. A, dorsal view; B, ventral view. ex,
hindcoxa.
Family Haliplidae-Crawling Water Beetles: The
haliplidsare small, oval, convex beetles 2.5-4.5 mm
long,that live in or near water. They are usually yel-
lowishor brownish with black spots (Figure 26-19A)
and can be distinguished from similar aquatic bee-
desby their very large and platelike hind coxae (Fig-
ure 26-19B). They are fairly common in and about
ponds,swimming or moving about rather slowly. They
frequentlylive in masses of vegetation on or near the
surfaceof the water. The adults feed chiefly on algae
andother plant materials. The larvae (Figure 26-18B)
arepredaceous. There are 63 species of Haliplidae in
North America. The two common eastern genera in
thisgroup can be separated by the presence or absence
oftwo black spots at the base of the pronotum. These
spotsare present in Peltodytes (Figure 26-19A) and ab-
sentin Haliplus.
Family Noteridae-Burrowing Water Beetles: These
beetlesare very similar to the dytiscids, but have the
scutellum hidden and have two equal claws on the
hindtarsus. They are broadly oval, smooth, brownish
toblack beetles, 1.2 to 5.5 mm long, and are similar to
the dytiscids in habits. The common name of this
grouprefers to the larvae, which burrow into the mud
aroundthe roots of aquatic plants and apparently feed
onalgae. There are 14 species in the United States and
Canada.
Family Amphizoidae-Trout-Stream Beetles: This
familycontains six species in the genus Amphizoa,
threeoccurring in western North America and the
other three in China. These beetles are oval, dark-
colored,and 11.0-15.5 in length. Adults and larvae of
Keyto the Familiesof Coleoptera 405
most species live in the cold water of mountain
streams, where they crawl about on submerged objects
or on driftwood. One species occurring near Seattle
lives in relatively warm, quiet water. The larvae do not
have gills and must obtain oxygen at the water surface.
They frequently crawl out of the water onto twigs or
floating objects. When dislodged, they float until they
can grasp another object, as they apparently do not
swim. The adults swim very liule and often run about
on stream shores at night. Both adults and larva e are
predaceous, feeding largely (if not entirely) on stonefly
nymphs.
Family Dytiscidae-Predaceous Diving Beetles: This
is a large group of aquatic beetles (more than 500
species in 52 genera in North America) that are usually
smooth, oval, and very hard, and the hind legs are flat-
tened and fringed with long hairs to form excellent
paddles. These beetles obtain air at the surface of the
water, but can remain submerged for long periods be-
cause they carry air in a chamber under the elytra.
They often hang head downward from the surface of
the water. These insects may leave the water at night
and fly to lights.
The dytiscids are very similar to another group of
beetles common in fresh water, the Hydrophilidae. The
adults of these two groups may be distinguished by the
structure of the antennae and the maxillary palps and
sometimes by the structure of the metasternum. The
dytiscids have long, filiform antennae and very short
maxillary palps (Figure 26-20), whereas the antennae
of the hydrophilids are short and clubbed, and the
maxillary palps are nearly always as long as or longer
than the antennae (Figure 26-22). The metasternum in
many hydrophilids is prolonged posteriorly into a long
spine (Figure 26-22B). An excellent field character for
separating these two groups is their method of swim-
ming. The dytiscids move the hind legs together, like a
pair of oars, whereas the hydrophilids move the hind
legs alternately, as though they were running through
the water.
Both adults and larva e of the dytiscids are highly
predaceous and feed on a variety of small aquatic ani-
mals, including small fish. The larvae (Figure 26-21)
are often called water tigers.They have long, sicklelike
jaws, which are hollow, and when they auack prey they
suck out its body fluids through the channels in the
jaws. These larvae are very active and do not hesitate to
attack an animal much larger than themselves.
Adult dytiscids vary in length from 1.2 to 40 mm.
Most are brownish, blackish, or greenish. The males of
some species (Figure 26-20B) have peculiar front tarsi
bearing large suction discs used in holding the smooth,
slick elytra of the female for mating. Some of the larger
species have a pale yellow band along the lateral mar-
406 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
A e
B e
gins of the pronotum and elytra (Figure 26-20A). A
few members of this group have tarsi in a 4-4-5 pattern.
SUBORDER Polyphaga:The members of this subor-
der differ from most other beetles in that the first visi-
ble abdominal sternum is not divided by the hind
coxae, and its posterior margin extends completely
across the abdomen. The hind trochanters are usually
small, not large, and are offset toward the midline as in
the Adephaga (Figure 26-12B) , and notopleural su-
tures are lacking. This suborder includes the remaining
families ofbeetles, which vary greatly in the form of the
antennae, the tarsal formula, and other characters.
Family Hydrophilidae-Water Scavenger Beetles:
~vl;~~hrdrop~i~~~~ a~~.oval'.'~,~mewhat convex beetles
Figure 26-20 Predaceous
diving beetles. A, Dytiseus
vertiealis (Say), female, 2x;
B, same, front tarsus of male;
C, Coptotomus interrogatus
(Fabricius), 7X.
Figure 26-21 Larvae of Dytiscidae.
A, Coptotomus; B, head of Dytiscus,
ventral view; C, same, dorsal view;
D, Hydroporus. ant, antenna;
Ip, labial palp; md, mandible;
mx, maxilla; oe, ocelli. (Courtesy or
Peterson. Reprinted by permission.)
that can be recognized by the short, clubbed antennae
and the long maxillary palps (Figure 26-22). Mos!
species are aquatic and are very similar in general ap-
pearance to the Dytiscidae. The aquatic species are
generally black, and they vary in length from a fewmi!.
limeters up to about 40 mm. The metasternum in some
species is prolonged posteriorly as a sharp spine (Fig-
ure 26-22B). This spine may be jabbed into the fingers
of a person who is careless in handling one of thesein.
sects.
The water scavenger beetles differ somewhatfrarn
the dytiscids in habits. They rarely hang head down.
ward from the surface of the water, as the dytiscidsrre.
quently do, and they carry air with them below thewa.

terin a silvery film over the ventral side of the body. In
swimming,the hydrophilids move opposite legs alter-
nately,whereasthe dytiscidsmove opposite legs simul-
taneously,like a frog. The adults are principally scav-
engers,as the common name implies, but the larvae are
usuallypredaceous. The larvae of the water scavenger
beetles(Figure 26-I8C) differ from those of the preda-
ceousdiving beetles in that they have only a single pre-
tarsalclaw (dytiscid larvae have two), and the mandi-
blesare usually toothed. The larvae are voracious and
feedon all sorts of aquatic animals.
The hydrophilids (284 North American species)
arecommon insects in ponds and quiet streams. A
largeand common species, Hydrophilus triangularis
Say,is shining black and about 40 mm long (Figure
26-22).Most hydrophilids are aquatic, but a few (sub-
familySphaeridiinae) are terrestrial and live in dung.
Thesediffer from the aquatic hydrophilids in having
thefirsttarsomere of the hind tarsi rather long, and the
maxillarypalps are usually shorter than the antennae.
The most common dung-inhabiting species is
Sphaeridium scarabaeoides(L.), which has a faint red
spotand a fainter yellow spot on each elytron. Some of
theaquatic species are attracted to lights at night. The
aquaticspecies lay their eggs in silken cases, which are
usuallyattached to aquatic plants. The full-grown lar-
vae[eave the water to pupate in earthen cells under-
ground.
Family Sphaeritidae-False Clown Beetles: This
group is represented in North America by a single
speciesthat lives in carríon, manure, and decaying
fungifram Alaska to northern Idaho and California.
Key to the Families of Coleoptera 407
Figure 26-22 A water scavenger
beetle, Hydrophilus triangularis Sayo
A, dorsal view; B, ventral view.
B ant, antenna; mxp, maxillary palpo
This species, Sphaerites politus Mannerheim, is 3.5-
5.5 mm long and black with a metallic bluish luster. lt
is very similar to so me of the hister beetles, but the an-
tennae are not elbowed, the tibiae are less expanded
and lack teeth externally, and only the last abdominal
segment is exposed beyond the elytra.
Family Histeridae-Clown Beetles, Hister Beetles:
Hister beetles are small (0.5-10.0 mm long), broadly
oval beetles that are usually shining black. The elytra
are cut off square at the apex, exposing one or two api-
cal abdominal segments (Figure 26-23A). The anten-
nae (Figure 26-51) are elbowed and clubbed. The tib-
A
Figure 26-23 A, a hister beetle, Geomyzaprinus goffi
(Ross), 6X; B, a round fungus beetle, Anisotoma globosa
Hatch, 15X. (A, courtesy of Ross and the Entomological
Society of America; B, courtesy of Wheeler and Blackwell
Scientific Publications.)
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
408 Chapter 26 Order Coleoptera
iae are dilated, and the anterior ones are usually
toothed or spined. Hister beetles are generally found in
or near decaying organic matter such as dung, fungi,
and carrion, but are apparently predaceous on other
small insects living in these materials. Some species,
which are very flat, live under the loose bark of stumps
or logs. A few live in the nests of ants or termites. A few
species are elongate and cylindrical; these live in the
galleries of wood-boring insects. When disturbed, the
hister beetles usually draw in their legs and antennae
and become motionless. The appendages fit so snugly
into shallow grooves on the ventral side of the body
that it is often difficult lO see them, even with consid-
erable magnification. Around 435 species occur in the
United States and Canada.
Family Hydraenidae-Minute Moss Beetles: These
beetles are similar to the hydrophilids but differ in hav-
ing six or seven abdominal sterna (only five in the Hy-
drophilidae). They are elongate or oval, dark-colored
beetles, 1.2 to 1.7 mm long, and live in matted vegeta-
tion along stream margins, in wet moss, and along the
seashore. Both larvae and adults feed on algae. There
are 95 species in six genera in North America.
Family Ptiliidae-Feather-Winged Beetles: This
family includes some of the smallest beetles known.
Few exceed 1 mm, and many are less than 0.5 mm
long. The body is oval, the hind wings bear a long
fringe of hairs that often extends out from beneath the
elytra, and the antennae bear whorls of long hairs.
These beetles live in rotting wood, dung, and leaf litter
and feed chiefly on fungus spores. In North America,
27 genera and nearly 120 species are known.
This family includes the horseshoe crab beetles,
formerly placed in the Limulodidae, which are usually
a millimeter or less in length and are somewhat similar
to horseshoe crabs in general appearance. They are
oval in shape, with the elytra short and the abdomen
somewhat tapering, and yellowish to brownish. Hind
wings and compound eyes are absent. These beetles are
found in ant nests, where they usually ride on the ants,
feeding on exudations from their bodies. This group is
a small one (four species in the United States), but is
widely distributed.
Family Agyrtidae-Primitive Carrion Beetles: This is
a small group (ll North American species) formerly
included in the Silphidae. These beetles are 4-14 mm
long, oblong lO elongate in shape, slightly flattened,
and glabrous. They are found in decaying animal or
vegetable matter. There is 1 eastern species; the other
10 occur in the Pacific Coast states.
Family leiodidae-Round Fungus Beetles, Mammal-
Nest Beetles, Beaver Parasites: The leiodids, with about
324 species in 30 genera in North America, are a vari-
able group that was formerly divided into at least
two families. The Leiodinae are convex, shiny, oval
beetles, 1.5 to 6.5 mm long, and brown to black (fig-
ure 26-23B). Many species when disturbed tuck the
head and prothorax under the body and roll into a ball,
thus concealing all the appendages. These beetles live
in fungi, under bark, in decaying wood, and in similar
places. The Catopinae (formerly placed in the family
Leptodiridae) are elongate-oval, somewhat flattened,
brownish to black, pubescent, and 2-5 mm long. They
often have faint cross striations on the elytra and
pronotum, and most have the eighth antennomere
shorter and smaller in diameter than the seventh and
ninth antennomeres. Most of these beetles live in car-
rion, but some are found in fungi, some feed on slime
molds, and others live in ant nests. The highly modi-
fied Glaciacavicola bathyscoides Westcott is known only
from Idaho ice caves.
The mammal-nest beetles and beaver parasites
(formerly classified separately as the Leptinidae and
Platypsyllidae) are brownish, oblong-oval, louselike
beetles, 2-5 mm long, with the eyes reduced or absent.
The species of Leptinus (three in North America) livein
the nests and fur of mice, shrews, and moles and occa-
sionally in the nests of ground-nesting Hymenoptera.
The species of Leptinillus (two in North America) live
in the nests and fur of beavers, one species on the com-
mon beaver (Castor) and the other on the mountain
beaver (Aplodontia). The single species of Platypsylla,
P. castoris Ritsema, is an ectoparasite of the common
beaver.
Family Scydmaenidae-Antlike Stone Beetles: The
members of this group are antlike in shape (Fig-
ure 26-24B), long-Iegged, brownish, somewhat hairy
beetles, 1-5 mm long. The antennae are slightly clavate,
and the femora are often clava te (Figure 26-24B). They
live under stones, in moss and leaf litter, and in ant
nests. These beetles are secretive in habit, but sometimes
fly about in numbers at twilight. There are 217 species
in North America.
Family Silphidae-Carrion Beetles: The common
species in this group are relatively large and often
brightly colored insects that live around the bodies of
dead animals. The body is soft and somewhat flattened,
the antennae are clubbed (clavate or capitate), and the
tarsi are five-merous. Silphids range in length from 3 10
35 mm, but most species are over 10 mm.
Two common genera in this group are Silpha and
Nicrophorus (=Necrophorus).ln Silpha (Figure 26-25A)
the body is broadly oval and flattened, 10-24 mm long,
and the elytra are rounded or acute at the apex and al-
most cover the abdomen. In some species (for example,
S. americana L.), the pronotum is yellowish with a black
spot in the center. In Nicrophorus (Figure 26-25B), the
body is more elongate, the elytra are short and truncate
apically, and most species are red and black. The beet/es
of the genus Nicrophorus are often known as "burying

A B
Figure26-24 A, A short-winged mold beetle,
Trimiomelbadubia (LeConte) (Staphylinidae, Pselaphi-
nae),3QX;B, an antlike stone beetle, Euconnus e/avipes
(Say)(Scydmaenidae), 18X, (Redrawn fram Amett.)
A B
Figure 26-25 Carrion beetles. A, Silphaamericana L; B, Nicrophorus sayi Laporte; 3X.
(Courtesy of Amett.)
Keyto the Families of Coleoptera 409
beetles." They excavate beneath the dead body of a
mouse or other small animal, and the body sinks into
the ground. These beetles are remarkably strong. A pair
may move an animal as large as a rat several feet to get
it to a suitable spot for burying. After the body is buried,
the eggs are laid on it. Both adults and larvae feed on
carrion and are usually found beneath the bodies of
dead animals.
Other species of silphids live in various types
of decaying animal matter. Some live in fungi, a few
live in ant nests, and at least one species, Silpha
bituberosa LeConte, feeds on plant materials. A few
are predaceous on maggots and other animals that
live in decaying organic matter. In some species (for
example, Nicrophorus), the newly hatched larvae are
fed carríon regurgitated by the parent beetles. In the
United States and Canada, there are 30 species in
eight genera.
Family Staphylinidae-Rove Beetles: The rove beetles
(Figures 26-24A, 26-26, 26-27) are slender and elon-
gate and can usually be recognized by the very short ely-
tra. The elytra are usually not much longer than their
combined width, and a considerable portion of the ab-
domen is exposed beyond their apices (Figure 26-26).
There are six or seven visible abdominal sterna, which

410 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
A B
Figure26-26 Rove beetles. A, Lathrobium angulare LeConte, 8X; B, Creophilus maxil-
losus (L.), 4X; C, Sepedophilusscriptus (Hom), 71(2x. (A, courtesy of Watrous; B, cour-
tesy of Campbell.)
Figure26-27 A rave beetle, Scaphidium quadriguttatum
piceum Melsheimer, 7X. (Courtesy of Amett.)
differentiate them fram short-winged Nitidulidae (such
as Conote!us). The hind wings are well developed and,
at rest, are folded under the short elytra. Rove beetles
are active insects and run or fly rapidly. When running,
'1
e
they frequently raise the tip of the abdomen, much as
scorpions do. The mandibles are very long, slender,
and sharp and usually cross in frant of the head. Some
of the larger rove beetles can inflict a painful bite when
handled. Most of these beetles are black or brown.
They vary considerably in size, but the largest are
about 25 mm long.
This is one of the two largest families of beetles,
with 4,153 North American species. These beetles live
in a variety of habitats, but are probably most often
seen about decaying materials, particularly dung or
carrion. They also live under stones and other objects
on the ground, along the shores of streams and the
seashore, in fungi and leaf litter, and in the nests of
birds, mammals, ants, and termites. Most species ap.
pear to be predaceous. The larvae usually live in the
same places and feed on the same things as the adults.
A few are parasites of other insects.
The short-winged mold beetles (subfamily Pse.
laphinae) consists of small yellowish or brawnish bee.
tles, 0.5 to 5.5 mm long (mostly about 1.5), and most
are found under stones and logs, in ratting wood, and
in moss. A few live in ant, termite, and mammal nests.
These beetles have short, truncate elytra and resemble
rave beetles, but have only three tarsomeres (most rove
beetles have more), the pronotum is narrower thanthe
elytra, and the antennae are usually abruptly clubbed

(Figure26-24A). This group, some times considered a
separate family, is large, with 710 species in North
America.The members of one tribe of pselaphines, the
Clavigerini,are peculiar in having two-merous anten-
naeand tarsi with only one claw. These beetles live in
antnests, where the ants "milk" them for a secretion on
whichthe ants feed. Most pselaphines are thought to
bepredators.
The subfamily Dasycerinae includes the genus
Dasycems, which was formerly placed in the familyLa-
tridiidae.It includes only four species in North Amer- .
ica,three eastern and one western. These beetles differ
framthe Latridiidae in having the front coxal cavities
openbehind and the front coxa e contiguous. Their
habitsare similar to those of the Latridiidae.
Family Lucanidae-Stag Beetles: The lucanids are
sometimescalled "pinchingbugs" because of the large
mandiblesof the males (Figure 26-28A). In some males
themandibles are half as long as the body or longer
andare branched like the antlers of a stag (hence the
name"stag beetles"). Stag beetles are closely related to
theScarabaeidae, but the terminal antennomeres (Fig-
ure 26-6E) cannot be held tightly together as in
thescarabs and related families (Figure 26-6C,D,G).
NorthAmerican stag beetles vary in length from about
10--60mm. Most of the larger ones are 25-40 mm long.
Thereare24 speciesin eight genera in the United States
andCanada.
These insects are usually found in woods, but
somespecies live on sandy beaches. The adults are of-
tenattracted to lights at night. The larvae are found in
decayingwood and are similar to the white grubs
foundin grassy soil. They feed on liquid from the de-
caying wood.
.E
C>
.:1:
D apex. These beetles are 13-18 mm long. The North
A B e American species belong to the genus Lichnanthe.
1
Keyto the Familiesof Coleoptera 411
Family Passalidae-BessBeetles:These beetles have
a variety of names: "bessbugs," "bessiebugs," "betsy
beetles," "patent-leather beetles," and "horned passalus
beetles." This family is closely related to the Lucanidae,
but differs in that the mentum of the labium is deeply
notched. Four species occur in the United States. The
most widespread eastern species, Odontotaenius dis-
junctus (Illiger) (Figure 26-28C), is a shining black
beetle, 32-36 mm long, with longitudinal grooves
in the elytra and a characteristic horn on the head (Fig-
ure 26-13B). Odontotaenius jloridanus Schuster is
found in Florida. Two western species of the family
were found in Arizona, but have not been observed
there for many years.
The passalids are somewhat social, and their
colonies live in galleries in decaying logs. The adults
can produce a squeaking sound by rubbing roughened
areas on the underside of the wings across similar areas
on the dorsal side of the abdomen. The larvae also
stridulate. This sound is produced when the insect is
disturbed. Normally, however, it probably serves as a
means of communication. The adults prepare food (de-
caying wood) with their salivary secretions and feed it
to the young.
Family Diphyllostomatidae:This small family con-
sists of three species of Diphyllostoma, all from Califor-
nia. They were originally described in the family Lu-
canidae and differ from all other scarabaeoids in having
seven abdominal ventrites, exposed protrochantin, and
no tibial spurs. The legs and body are very setose. Fe-
males differ from males in having reduced eyes and
vestigial wings. The larvae are undescribed, and little is
known of their ecology and habits.
Family Ceratocanthidae:These beetles are round,
blackish, and 5-6 mm long, with the middle and hind
tibiae greatly dilated and bearing rows of spines along
their en tire length. When disturbed, these beetles draw
in their legs and antennae and form a hemispherical
mass, and in this position they remain motionless.
They live under bark, in rotten logs and stumps, and
occasionally on flowers. Three species occur in the
United States: two species of Gennarostres, which are
widely distributed throughout the East, and Acantho-
cems aeneus MacLeay, which occurs in the Southeast.
Family Glaphyridae:The members of this group
are elongate and brownish and have a very hairy body.
The elytra are short, exposing two or three abdominal
terga. They taper posteriorly and are separated at the
Some occur in the Northeast and some in the West. All
are quite rare.
Family Pleocomidae-RainBeetles:These beetles are
so called because the males fly and seek mates during
the fall rains. The females are wingless. The 26 species

412 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
and 6 subspecies are western in distribution and rela-
tively rare. The larvae live in the soil and feed on the
roots of trees and grasses. The adults live in burrows in
the ground, usually coming out only at dusk or after
a rain. The members of the genus Pleocoma are stout-
bodied, relatively large (about 25 mm long), and rather
pubescent. The burrows of P. fimbriata LeConte are
about 25 mm in diameter and up to 0.6 m in depth.
Family Geotrupidae-Earth-Boring Dung Beetles:
These beetles are very similar to some of the other
dung-feeding scarabs, but have ll-merous antennae.
They are stout-bodied, convex, oval beetles that are
black or dark brown (Figure 26-29A). The elytra are
usually grooved or striate, the tarsi are long and slen-
der, and the front tibiae are broadened and toothed or
scalloped on the outer edges. The elytra completely
cover the abdomen. These beetles vary in length from
5 to 25 mm and are found beneath cow dung, horse
manure, or carrion. Some live in logs or decaying
fungí. The larvae live in or beneath dung or carrion.
They feed on this material and hence are of value as
scavengers. Twelve genera and 28 species of Geotrupi-
dae occur in the Nearctic region.
Family Ochodaeidae: These beetles may be recog-
nized from other scarabaeoids in having the longer api-
cal spur of the hind tibia pectinate along one edge.
There are 35 species in four genera in North America,
and they range in length from 3 to 10 mm. Uttle is
known of the biology, except that large numbers are
sometimes attracted to light. One species, Ochodaeus
musculus (Say), a reddish-brown oval beetle, 5-6 mm
long, with striate elytra, occurs in the northern states.
Family Hybosoridae:These beetles may be distin-
guished from other scarabaeoids by the prominent
mandibles and labrum, the 10-merous antennae with a
3-merous club in which the basal antennomere of the
club is hollowed out to receive the two apical anten-
A B
Figure26-29 Scarabaeoid beetles. A, an earth-boring dung beetle, Geotrupes splendidus
(Fabricius) (Geotrupidae); B, a skin beetle, TroxscabrosusBeauvois (Trogidae); e, male,
and D, female, of a dung beetle, Phanaeus vindex MacLachlan (Scarabaeidae); 11/2X.
lI
nomeres. Two species are known from the United
States, Hybosorus illigeri Reiche, which was introduced
from Europe in the 1840s, and pachyplectrus laevis
(LeConte), a quite rare species that is found in Arizona
and southern California.
Family Glaresidae:This is a srnall family,having15
species in the genus Glaresisin North America. They were
formerly placed in the family Trogidae, but differ from
them in having the eyes divided by a canthus and the hind
femur and tibia enlarged and covering most of the ab-
domen. Adults live in dry, sandy areas and are attracted 10
light. These beetles are small (2.5-6.0 mm long).
Family Trogidae-Skin Beetles: The members of
this group have the dorsal surface of the body very
rough. The second antennomere arises before the tip of
the first instead of from its apex (Figure 26-6G). These
beetles are oblong, convex, dark brown (and often cov-
ered with dirt) , and shaped much like june beetles
(Figure 26-29B). They are usually found on old, dry
animal carcasses, where they feed on the hide, feathers,
hair, or dried tissues on the bones. They represent one
of the last stages in the succession of insects livingin
animal carcasses. Some species live in owl pellets, be-
neath bark, or on roots. When disturbed, these beetles
draw in their legs and lie motionless, resembling dirtor
rubbish, and thus are often overlooked. They overwin-
ter as adults beneath leaves and in debris. Two genera,
Trox with 25 species, and Omorgus, with 16 species, are
generally distributed in the United States and Canada.
Family Scarabaeidae-Scarab Beetles: This group
contains about 1,400 North American species, and its
members vary greatly in size, color, and habits. The
scarabs are heavy-bodied, oval OI elongate, usually
convex beetles, with the tarsi 5-merous (rarely, the
front tarsi are absent) and the antennae 8- to ll-merous
and lamellate. The last three (rarely more) of the an-
tennomeres are expanded into platelike structures tha!
e D
 Keyto the Subfamiliesof the Scarabaeidae 413

maybe spread apart (Figure 26-6C) or united to fonu
acompact terminal club (Figure 26-6D). The front tib-
iaeare more or less dilated, with the outer edge toothed
or scalloped.
The scarabs vary considerably in habits. Many are
dung feeders or feed on decomposing plant materials,
carrion, and the like. Some live in the nests or burrows
of vertebrates or in the nests of ants or termites. A few
feed on fungi. Many feed on plant materials such as
grasses, foliage, fruits, and flowers, and some of these
are serious pests of lawns, golf greens, or various agri-
cultural crops. The larvae are strongly curved and
C-shaped and in many species are the damaging
("white grub") stage.

Keyto the Subfamiliesof the Scarabaeidae

1. Pygidiumcompletelycovered(or nearlyso) by elytra;mostlysmaller

species 0.5-13 mm long) Aphodiinae p.414
1/. Pygidium completely exposed; mostly larger species (longer than 5.0 mm) 2
2(1/). Antennal insertion visible from above; clypeus with sides constricted
medially just before eyes Cetoniinae p.415
2/. Antennal insertion not visible from above; clypeus with sides not
constricted 3
3(2/). Abdominal sternites distinctly narrowed medially; length of all sternites
shorter than length of metasternum; scutellum usually hidden Scarabaeinae p.413
3'. Abdominal sternites not narrowed medially; length of all sternites longer
than length of metasternum 4
4(3/). Claws of both middle and hind tarsi unequal in length and independently
movable; tarsomere 5 apically with ventral, median, longitudinal cleft Rutelinae p.414
4/. Claws of both middle and hind tarsi equal in length and not independently
movable; tarsomere 5 at apex lacking ventral, median, longitudinal cleft,
instead with 2 parallel clefts on either side of middle on ventral side 5
5(4/). Claws of middle and hind tarsi simple; base of pronotum and elytra
subequal in width; apex of hind tibia always with 2 spurs; mandibles
often exposed in dorsal view Dynastinae p.415
5/. Claws of middle and hind tarsi cleft; apex of hind tibia with 1 or 2 spurs.
or spurs absent; mandibles not visible in dorsal view Melolonthinae p.414

Subfamily Scarabaeinae (=Coprinae)-Dung Beetles
andTumblebugs: These beetles are robust, 5-30 mm
long,and feed chiefly on dung. Most are dull black, but
sorne are metallic green. The tumblebugs (principally
Canthonand DeItochilum)are black and about 25 mm
long or less, with the middle and hind tibiae rather
slender, and there are no horns on the head or prono-
turnoOther genera in this subfamily have the middle
andhind tibiae swollen at the tip and often have a horn
on the head. In Phanaeus (Figure 26-29C,D), which is
usuallya little less than 25 mm long, the body is a bril-
liant green with the pronotum golden, and the males
havea long horn on the top of the head. The dung bee-
des in the genera Copris and Dichotomius (= Pinotus)
areblack, with conspicuous striae on the elytra. Copris,
about 18 mm long or less, has eight striae on each
elytron, and Dichotomius (about 25 mm long and very
robust) has seven. Other genera in this subfamily are
generally shorter than 10 mm.
The tumblebugs are usually common in pastures
and are interesting to watch. They chew off a piece of
dung, work it into a ball, and roll this ball a consider-
able distance. They usually work in pairs, one push-
ing and the other pulling, rolling the ball with their
hind legs. The ball is then buried in the soil, and
the eggs are laid in the ball. The larvae are thus as-
sured a food supply, and the burial of the ball provides
protection.
The sacred scarab of ancient Egypt, Scarabaeus
sacer L., is a member of this group and has habits sim-
414 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
ilar to those of the tumblebugs. In Egyptian mythology,
the ball of dung represented the Sun and its movement
across the sky.
Subfamily Aphodiinae-Aphodian Dung Beetles:
Ihis is a fairly large group (over 200 North American
species) of small dung beetles, and some are quite com-
mon, particularly in cow dung. Ihey are usually black,
or red and black. One species, Ataenius spretulus
(Haldeman), has recently be come an important pest of
turf grasses, especially on golf courses.
Subfamily Melolonthinae-June Beetles, Chafers,
and Others: Ihis is a large and widely distributed
group, and all its members are plant feeders. Many
Figure 26-30 Plant-feeding scarabs. A, a june beetle,
Phyllophagaportoricensis Smythe (Melolonthinae), IV,X;
B,Japanese beetle, Popilliajaponica Newman (Rutelinae),
41/,x.
species are of considerable economic importance. The
best-known beetles in this group are the june beetles
or may beetles, some times called "junebugs," which
are usually brown and are common around lights in
the spring and early summer (Figure 26-30A). Most
belong to the genus Phyllophaga (= Lachnostema),
which contains more than 200 eastern species. The
adults feed at night on foliage and flowers. Ihe larvae
(Figure 26-31) are the well-known white grubs that
feed in the soil on the roots of grasses and other
plants. White grubs are very destructive insects and do
a great deal of damage to pastures, lawns, and such
crops as corn, small grains, potatoes, and strawberries.
Ihe life cycle usually requires two or three years to
complete. Ihe greatest damage to field crops occurs
when fields are rotated from grass or meadow to corn,
another grass.
Ihis subfamily also contains the chafers (Macro-
dactylus). Ihe rose chafer, M. subspinosus (Fabricius),
is a slender, tan, long-Iegged beetle that feeds on the
flowers and foliage of roses, grapes, and various other
plants. It often feeds on peaches and other fruits. The
larvae are small, white grubs that live in light soil and
often seriously damage roots. Poultry that eat these
beetles become extremely ill and quite often die.
Most other beetles in this subfamily are robust,
oval, and brownish and resemble june beetles (though
most are smaller). Ihe beetles in the genus Dichelonyx
are elongate and slender, with greenish or bronze ely-
tra and simple pretarsal claws.
Subfamily Rutelinae-Shining Leaf Chafers: The
larvae of these beetles feed on plant roots, and the
adults feed on foliage and fruits. Many adults are very
brightly colored. A number of important pest species
are included in this subfamily.
One of the most serious pests in this group is
the ]apanese beetle, Popillia japonica Newman (Fig-
ure 26-30B). Ihis species was introduced into the
eastern United States on nursery stock from ]apan in
about 1916. Since then, it has spread over a large part
of the eastern United States, where it is a serious pest
on lawns, golf courses, fruits, and shrubbery. Ihe adult
Figure26-31 White grubs (Phyllophaga sp.,
Melolonthinae) .

A \.../ B c
Figure26-32 Plam-feeding scarabs. A, the hermit
flowerbeetle, Osmodenna eremicola Knoch (Cetoniinae),
slightlyenlarged; B, the grape pelidnota, Pelidnota punc-
tata (L.) (Rutelinae), 11/2X;C, a flower beetle, Trichioti-
nustcxanus (Horn) (Cetoniinae), 4 x.
isverypretty. The head and thorax are bright green, the
elytraare brownish tinged with green on the edges, and
thereare white spots along the sides of the abdomen.
Thisspecieshas one generation ayear and overwinters
inthe larval stage in the soil.
Another rather common and destructive species is
thegrape pelidnota, Pelidnota punctata (L). The adult is
25mm or more in length and looks a little like a large
junebeetle,but is yellowishwith three black spots on
eachelytron (Figure 26-32B). Most damage done by
thisspecies is done by the adult. The larvae feed chiefly
inrotting wood.
The members of the genus Cotalpa are usually
largebeetles, uniform green or yellowish above and
darkbeneath. The larvae do considerable damage to
theroots of berries, corn, and grass. One distinctive
speciesin this genus is C. lanigera (L.), 20-26 mm long
andentirely yellow with a metallic luster. It lives on or
nearcatalpa trees.
From Baja California to Utah, the common mem-
bersof the Rutelinae are the black and reddish brown
membersof the genus Paracotalpa. In Texas and Ari-
zonaare found the real jewels of this sub famil y, species
belongingto the genus Chrysina (= Plusiotis). These
largescarabs are a brilliant green, sometimes with
added longitudinallines of metallic golde n color. They
arefavored items among collectors.
Subfamily Dynastinae-Rhinoceros Beetles, Hercules
Beetlesand Elephant Beetles: This group contains some
ofthe largest North American beetles, a few of which
mayreach a length of 65 mm. The dorsal surface of the
bodyis rounded and convex, and the males usually
havehorns on the head or pronotum (Figure 26-33).
Thefemales lack these horns.
Keyto the Subfamiliesof the Scarabaeidae 415
g>
.3
Q)
C> , " ' .. .. c:
:::E ;; "..." ..9
Q)
1
.'
t:if . 1J.
.
v ,
'\...
/ c:a
:::E
.E
.
C>
Figure 26-33 The eastern hercules beetle, Dynastes
tityus (L.); male at left, female at right. About natural size.
The largest Dynastinae are the Hercules beetles
(Dynastes), which occur principally in the southern
states. Dynastes tityus (L.), the eastern species, is 50-
65 mm long and greenish gray mottled with large black
areas. The pronotal horn of the male extends forward
over the head (Figure 26-33). The western species,
D. granti Horn, is similar, but is slightly larger and has
a longer prono tal horno The elephant beetles (Strategus)
are big brown scarabs, 35-50 mm long, that occur from
Rhode Island to Kansas and Texas. They have three
horns on the pronotum in the male (one in the female),
but none on the head. In the rhinoceros beetle, Xylo-
ryctesjamaicensis (Drury), a dark brown scarab a littIe
over 25 mm long, the males have a single large, upright
horn on the head. The females have a small tubercle in-
stead of a horno The larva of this species feeds on the
roots of ash trees. The rhinoceros beetIe occurs from
Connecticut to Arizona. The members of the genus
Phileurus, which are about 25 mm long and have two
horns on the head, occur in the South and Southwest.
The smaller members of this subfamily, particu-
lady the species in the genera Ligyrus and Euetheola,
are often serious pests of corn, sugarcane, and cereal
crops. Both adult and larval stages cause damage.
Subfamily Cetoniinae-Flower Beetles and Others:
The members of this group are principally pollen feed-
ers and are common on flowers. Many live under loose
bark or in debris, and a few live in ant nests. The lar-
vae feed on organic matter in the soil, and some species
damage the roots of plants. This subfamily includes the
goliath beetles of Africa, which are among the largest
insects known. Some species reach a length of 100 mm
or more.
Several genera in this subfamily (including Cotinis,
Euphoria, and Cremastocheilus) have the mesepimera
visible from above, between the hind angles of the
416 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
Figure26-34 A bumble flower beetle, Euphoria inda
(L.) (Cetoniinae), 5X. epm2,mesepimeron.
pronotum and the humeri of the elytra (Figure 26-34).
The members of the genus Cotinis are more than 18 mm
long, and the small scutellum is covered by a median
backward-projecting lobe of the pronotum. Those of
Euphoria and Cremastocheilus are smaller and have a
large, exposed scutellum (Figure 26-34). The green
june beetle, Cotinis nitida (L.), is a common dark-green
beetle nearly 25 mm long. The adults feed on grapes,
ripening fruits, and young corn, and the larvae often se-
riously damage lawn, golf courses, and various crops.
A B
1
I
The beetles in the genus Euphoria are somewhat
bumblebee-like and are often called "bumble flower
beetles." They are brownish yellow and black, are very
pubescent, and act much like bumblebees. These bee-
tles do not extend their elytra in flight. Instead, the hind
wings are extended through shallow emarginations at
the sides of the elytra (Figure 26-34).
Perhaps the least-known and most interesting
members of this subfamily are those in the genus Cre-
mastocheilus. These beetles, which are 9-15 mm long,
are kept captive in ant nests to provide the ants with a
nutritive fluido The ants cling to the beetle's thorax and
gnaw at pubescent glandular areas on the exposed
mesepimera. More than 30 species belonging to this
genus are known in the United States.
In the other common genera of Cetoniinae, the
mesepimera are not visible from above. The hermit
flower beetle, Osmoderma eremicola Knoch, is a brown-
ish black insect about 25 mm long, with the elytra
longer than wide (Figure 26-32A). The larva e feed in
decaying wood, and the adults are frequently found
under dead bark or in tree cavities. The adults emit a
very disagreeable odor when disturbed. In Valgus
and Trichiotinus, the elytra are about as long as wide.
The members of Valgus are small, less than 7.5 mm
long, and are brown and covered with scales. Trichioti-
nus beetles are brightly colored and pubescent (Fig-
ure 26-32C). The adults of these two genera live on
various types of flowers, and the larvae live in decaying
wood.
Family Eucinetidae-Plate-ThighBeetles: The eu-
cinetids are small (2.5-3.0 mm long), oval, convex bee-
tles that have the head deflexed and not visible from
above (Figure 26-35A). There are six visible abdomi-
nal sterna, and the hind coxae are dilated into broad
plates that extend to the elytra and cover most of the
first visible abdominal sternum (hence the common
Figure26-35 A, a plate-
thigh beetle, Eucinetus termi-
nalis LeConte (Eucinetidae),
16x; B, a marsh beetle, Prí-
onocyphon limbatus LeConte
(Scirtidae), 6x; C, a soft-
bodied plant beetle, Dascillus
davidsoni LeConte (Dascilli-
dae), 3X. (Courtesy of
e Amett.)
r
I
I
I Keyto the Subfamilies of the Scarabaeidae
name). Eleven species occur in North America, and
theyare generaIly found under bark or in fungi.
Family Clambidae-Minute Beetles: The clambids
areminute (about 1 mm long), oval, convex, brownish
to black beetles that are capable of tucking the head
and prothorax under the body and rolling into a baIl.
Ihey resemble the leiodids in this respect, but differ
fromleiodids in being pubescent, in having the hind
coxaedilated into broad plates, and in having a fringe
oflong hairs on the hind wings. These beetles live in
decayingplant material. The group is smaIl (12 North
American species), and its members are not often en-
countered.
Family Scirtidae-Marsh Beetles: The scirtids are
ovalbeetles, 2-4 mm long (Figure 26-35B), and live on
vegetation in swampy places and in damp, rotting de-
bris.There are 50 species in North America. Some have
enlarged hind femora and are active jumpers. The lar-
vae,which have long, slender antennae, are aquatic.
Family Dascillidae-Soft-Bodied Plant Beetles: The
dascillids are oval to elongate, soft-bodied, pubescent
beetles,mostly 3-14 mm long. The head is usuaIly vis-
iblefrom above, and some species have relatively large
andconspicuous mandibles (Figure 26-35C). Theyare
mast likely 10 be found on vegetation near water, but
arenot very common. This group contains five North
American species in Arizona and California.
Family Rhipiceridae-Cicada Parasite Beetles: These
are elongate-oval, brownish beetles, 12-24 mm long,
with orange antennae and prominent mandibles (Fig-
ure26-36). The antennae are flabeIlate in the male and
serrate to pectinate in the female. These beetles super-
ficiallyresemble june beetles and are good fliers. The
larvae are parasites of cicada nymphs. This group is
small(five North American species of Sandalus) but is
widelydistributed.
Figure26-36 A cicada parasite beetle, Sandaluspetrophya
Knoch,female (Rhipiceridae), 3x. (Courtesy of Amett.)
417
Family Buprestidae-Metallic Wood-Boring Beetles:
The adults of this group are 3-100 mm (usuaIly less
than 20 mm) in length and are often rather metaIlic-
coppery, green, blue, or black-especially on the ventral
side of the body and on the dorsal surface of the ab-
domen. They are hard-bodied and compactly built and
usuaIly have a characteristic shape (Figures 26-37 and
26-38). Many adult buprestids are attracted to dead or
dying trees and logs and to slash. Others live on the fo-
liage of trees and shrubs. These beetles run or fly
rapidly and are often difficult to catch. Some are colored
like the bark and are very inconspicuous when they re-
main motionless. Many of the larger beetles in this
group are common in sunny situations. There are about
762 North American species of Buprestidae.
Most buprestid larvae bore under bark or in wood,
attacking either living trees or newly cut or dying logs
and branches. Many do serious damage to trees and
shrubs. The eggs are usuaIly laid in crevices in the bark.
The larvae, on hatching, tunnel under the bark, and
some species eventuaIly bore into the wood. The gal-
leries under the bark are often winding and fiIled with
frass. The galleries in the wood are oval in cross section
and usually enter the wood at an angle (Figure 26-39).
Pupation occurs in the galleries. Because buprestid lar-
vae usually have the anterior end expanded and flat-
tened (Figure 26-40), they are often known as "flat-
headed borers." The larvae of some species make winding
gaIleries under the bark of twigs (Figure 26-4lB); others
make galls (Figure 26-41A); and one species girdles
twigs.
The larvae of Chrysobothris femorata (Olivier) at-
tack a number of trees and shrubs and frequently do
serious damage to fruit trees. The larva e of different
species of Agrilus attack raspberries, blackberries,
and other shrubs. Agrilus champlaini Frost makes
gaIls in ironwood (Figure 26-41A), and A. ruficollis
(Fabricius) makes gaIls in raspberry and blackberry.
Agrilus arcuatus (Say) is a twig girdler. The adults
of the genus Agrilus are rather long and narrow (Fig-
ure 26-38C); most are dark-colored with metallic
shades, and some have light markings. The emerald
ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire, an iridescent
green species, was recently introduced into the Mid-
west (Michigan and Ohio at this time) and threatens
to become a major pest of ash. The larvae of the
species of Brachys (Figure 26-37D) are leaf miners.
Most buprestids fly when disturbed, but the beetles in
the genus Brachys draw up their legs, "play dead,"
and faIl off the foliage onto the ground. These smaIler
buprestids are usually found on foliage.
Family Byrrhidae-Pill Beetles:The pill beetles (Fig-
ure 26-42) are oval, convex, and 1.5 to 10.0 mm long.
The head is bent downward and concealed from above,
and the wide hind coxae extend to the elytra. These in-
418 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

Figure26-37 Metallic wood-boring

beetles. A, Chalcophorafortis LeConte,
which breeds in dead white pine;
B, Chrysobothrisfloricola Gory, which
breeds in pine; C, Dicerca lepida
LeConte, which breeds in dead iron-
wood and hawthorn; D, Brachys ovatus
Weber, which mines in oak leaves.
(Courtesy of Knull.)

Figure26-38 Metallic wood-

boring beetles. A, Dicerca
tenebrosa (Kirby), 3 '/2X;
B, Acmaeodera pulchella (Herbst),
óX; C, Agrilus bilineatus (Weber),
e óX. (Courtesy of Knull.)

,.

Figure26-39 Galleries of buprestid larvae.
A B
Figure26-41 A, galls of Agrilus champlainiFrost, in
ironwood(Ostrya);B, the work of Agrilus bilineatuscarpini
Knullon blue beech (Carpinus).
Keyto the Subfamiliesof the Scarabaeidae 419
sects usually live in sandy situations, such as lake
shores, where they can be found under debris. Species
of Byrrhus and Cytilus occasionally damage forest tree
seedlings. When disturbed, they draw in their legs,
with the femora fitting into coxal grooves, and remain
motionless. There are 35 species recorded for the
United States and Canada.
Family Elmidae-Riffle Beetles: These beetles gen-
erally live on the stones or debris in the rimes of
streams. A few species live in ponds or swamps, and a
few are terrestrial. Rime beetles are somewhat cylindri-
cal in shape, with a very smooth or somewhat ridged
elytra (Figure 26-43C), and most are 3.5 mm long or
less. The larvae of most species, which live in the same
situations as the adults, are long and slender. Those of
Phanocerus are somewhat flattened and elliptical. There
are 85 species in the United States and Canada.
Figure 26-40 Larvae of Buprestidae.
A, Chrysobothris trinerva (Kirby);
B, Melanophila drnmmondi (Kirby);
C, Dicercatenebrosa(Kirby); D, Acmaeo-
dera prorsa Fall. Dorsal view at left in
each figure, lateral view at right.
e D (Counesy of U5DA.)
Figure 26-42 A pill beetle, Amphicyrta dentipes Erich-
son, 5X. (Counesy of Amett.)
420 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
A B
FamilyDryopidae-Long-Toed Water Beetles: The
dryopids are elongate-oval, 1-8 mm long, and dull gray
or brown, with the head more or less withdrawn into
the prothorax (Figure 26-43B). The body in some
species is covered with afine pubescence. The anten-
nae are very short, with most antennomeres broader
than long, and are concealed beneath the prosternal
lobe. These beetles usually cling to objects in a stream.
Sometimes they are found crawling around on the bot-
toms of streams or along the shores. The adults may
leave the stream and fly about, especially at night. Most
known larva e are vermiform and live in soil or decay-
ing wood (rather than in water). Thirteen species occur
in North America.
Family Lutrochidae-Travertine Beetle: The small
size (2-6 mm long), dense pubescence, stout body,
very short antennae, and elongate mandibles charac-
terize members of this small family, which contains
three species of Lutrochus in North America. Both
adults and larvae are aquatic and feed on algae and wa-
terlogged wood.
Family Limnichidae-Minute Marsh-Loving Beetles:
The members of this and the two following families
have quite long pretarsal claws (as in Figure 26-lOH),
and the first three visible abdominal sterna are more or
less fused together. The larvae of most species (and
usually also the adults) are aquatic. The limnichids are
small (1-4 mm long), oval, convex beetles whose body
is clothed with fine pubescence. The most common
limnichids (Lutrochus) have 11 antennomeres. These
beetles are usually found in the wet sand or soil along
the margins of streams. There are 28 species in the
United States.
Family Heteroceridae-Variegated Mud-Loving
Beetles: The heterocerids are a group of flattened, ob-
Figure 26-43 A, a varie-
gated mud-Ioving beetle,
Neoheteroceruspallidus (Say)
(Heteroceridae), 9 x;
B, a long-toed water beetle,
Helichus lithophilus (Germar)
(Dryopidae), 8x; C, a rime
beetle, Stenelmis crenata(Say)
(Elmidae), 8x. (Courtesy
e of Amett.)
long, pubescent beetles (Figure 26-43A) that live in
mud or sand along the banks of streams or lakes. Su-
perficially they resemble small scarabs. Most are black-
ish or brownish, with bands or spots of dull yellow,and
are 4-6 mm long. The tibiae are armed with rowsof
heavy, flattened spines. The tarsi are 4-4-4, with tar-
someres 1 and 4 much longer than 2 and 3. The anten.
nae are short, with the last seven antennomeres form-
ing an oblong serrate club. The front and middle tibiae
are greatly dilated and spiny, and are used in burrow-
ing. When the shore is flooded with water splashed up
from the stream, these beetles may often be forcedto
leave their burrows in the stream bank. There are 34
species in the United States and Canada.
Family Psephenidae-Water-Penny Beetles: These
beetles derive their common name from the peculiar
shape of the larva e (Figure 26-44A,B). The larvae
(called "water pennies") are very flat and almost circu-
lar and live on the undersides of stones or other objeclS
in streams and wave-swept shores. Psephenus henicki
(DeKay) is a common eastern species. The adult isa
somewhat flattened, blackish beetle, 4-6 mm long
(Figure 26-44C), which is usually found on stones in
the water or along the shore of the streams where the
larvae live. Fifteen other species, mostly westem, occur
in the United States.
Family Ptilodactylidae:The members of this group
are elongate-oval in shape, brownish, 4-6 mm long,
and the head is generally not visible from above. The
antennae are serrate in the female and pectinate in the
male (antennomeres 4-10 each bear a slender basal
process about as long as the antennomere). The tarsi
are 5-5-5, with the third tarsomere lobed beneathand
the fourth often minute. The ptilodactylids live on veg.
etation, chiefly in swampy places. Some larvae are

A B
Figure26-44 Psephenidae. A, dorsal view, and B, ventral view, of a water penny,
the larva of Psephenus
herricki(DeKay);e, adult water pennybeetle,Psephenusherricki
(DeKay), 8X. tr gills, tracheal gills. (A and B, courtesy of Peterson; e, courtesy of
Arnett.)
aquatic, and others live in moist, dead logs. There are
28species in six genera in North America.
Family Chelonariidae-Turtle Beetles:Only one rare
speciesof chelonariid occurs in the United States, Che-
lonariumlecontei Thomson, which occurs in the South-
east,from North Carolina to eastern Texas and south to
Florida and Louisiana. This insect is oval, convex, 4-
5rnm long, and black with patches of white pubescence
onthe elytra. The legs are retractile. The head is retracted
¡ntothe prosternum, exposing only the eyes and anten-
nae.The basal antennomeres are situated in a prosternal
groove, and the remaining antennomeres extend back
along the mesosternum. The larvae of these beetles are
aquatic,and the adults are found on vegetation.
Family Eulichadidae: This group includes a single
North American species, Stenocolus scutellaris
LeConte, which has previously been included in the
farnily Dascillidae. This species, which occurs in the
mountains of northern California, is 15-26 mm long
and shaped like a click beetle, with a vestiture of fine
hairs. The mandibles are prominent and strongly bent
apically,with the apex scooplike. The larvae, which are
the overwintering stage, live in streams and probably
feedon decaying vegetation.
Family Callirhipidae:The only North American
species in this family is Zenoa picea (Beauvois), an
elongate, dark-brown, shiny beetle, 11-15 mm long. Its
antennae are serrate (males) to pectinate (females).
This is a rare beetle found under logs and bark and is
known from Ohio, Indiana, Pennsylvania, Kansas,
Louisiana, and Florida.
1
Keyto the Subfamiliesof the Scarabaeidae 421
e
Family Artematopodidae: This is a small family
(eight North American species) formerly placed in the
Dascillidae (subfamily Dascillinae), which they
strongly resemble. They are elongate, pubescent bee-
tles, 4.0 to 7.5 mm long, with the head deflexed and
with long, filiform antennae. The tarsi usually have a
small fourth tarsomere, and tarsomeres 2 to 4 are
lobed. Collectors frequently take individuals of Eury-
pogon species by sweeping vegetation.
Family Brachypsectridae- The Texas Beetle: This
family is represented in the United States by a single,
very rare species, Brachypsectra fulva LeConte, a yel-
lowish brown beetle 5-6 mm long, which is sometimes
called the Texas beetle. It resembles a click beetle in
general appearance, but do es not have the prosternal
spine and mesosternal fossa characteristic of the Ela-
teridae. This insect is known from Texas, Utah, Col-
orado, New Mexico, and California.
Family Cerophytidae: This group includes two very
rare species of Cerophytum, one occurring in the East
and the other in California and Oregon. These beetles
are elongate-oblong in shape, somewhat flattened, 7.5
to 8.5 mm long, and brownish to black. The hind
trochanters are very long, nearly as long as the femora.
Adults can "jump" in the same manner as click beetles.
These beetles live in rotten wood and under dead bark.
Family Eucnemidae-False ClickBeetles:This family
(85 species in North America) is very closely related to
the Elateridae. Its members are relatively rare beetles
usually found in wood that has just begun to decay,
chiefly in beech and maple. Most are brownish and
422 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
A B e o
Figure26-45 A, adult, and B, larva, of a click beetle,
Cteniceranoxia (Hyslop) (slightly enlarged); C, the eyed
click beetle, Alaus oculatus (L.) (about natural size);
D, a false click beetle, Anelastes druryi (Kirby), 3X.
(A and B, courtesy of U5DA;D, courtesy of Arnett.)
about 10 mm long or less (Figure 26-45D). The prono-
tum is quite convex above; the antennae are inserted
rather close together on the front of the head; and there
is no distinct labrum. The pretarsal claws are serrate in
the genus Perothops, previously placed in a separate
family. These beetles quiver their antennae almost con-
stantly, unlike the Elateridae. Some, like the click bee-
tles, can click and jump.
Family Throscidae:This is a small group (20 North
American species) of oblong-oval brownish to black bee-
tles that are mostly 5 mm long or less. They are similar
to the elaterids, but more oval. Some (Aulonothroscus
and Trixagus) have clubbed antennae. The prosternum is
lobed anteriorIy and almost conceals the mouthparts.
The prothorax appears rather solidly fused to the
mesothorax, but at least some of these beetles can click
and jump like elaterids. The adults are found chiefly on
vegetation and in leaf litter. They are primarily in litter
in cool weather, but fly or climb onto nearby vegetation
in warm weather. They do not seem to have any prefer-
ences for particular species of plants.
Family Elateridae-ClickBeetles: The click beetles
constitute a large group (about 965 Nearctic species),
and many species are quite common. These beetles are
peculiar in being able to "click" and jump. In most re-
lated groups, the union of the prothorax and mesotho-
rax is such that little or no movement at this point is
.
'rt: ,?:sib~e. The clicking is made possible by the flexible
un'io'n .of the. pmthorax an<;l.mesothorax, and by a
I:l\0s~ernal spine tpat ~ into a groove on the mesoster-
num (Figure 2~Ar
If one of these beetles is placed on its back on a
smooth surface, it is usually"tinable to right itself by
means of its legs. It bends its head and prothorax back-
ward, so that only the extremities of the body are
touching the surface on which it rests. Then, with a
sudden jerk and clicking sound, it straightens out its
body. This movement snaps the prosternal spine into
the mesosternal groove and throws the insect into the
air, spinning end over end. If the insect does not land
right side up, it continues snapping until it does.
The click beetles can usually be recognized by
their characteristic shape (Figure 26-45A,C). The
body is elongate, usually parallel-sided, and rounded at
each end. The posterior corners of the pronotum are
prolonged backward into sharp points or spines. The
antennae are usually serrate (occasionally filiform or
pectinate). Most of these beetles are between 12 and
30 mm long, but a few exceed these limits. The largest
and most easily recognized species is the eyed click
beetle, Alaus oculatus (L.), a mottled-gray beetle with
the pronotum bearing two large, black, eyelike spots
(Figure 26-45C). This species may reach about 40 mm
or more in length. Most elaterids are inconspicuously
colored with black or brown.
AduIt click beetles are phytophagous and live on
flowers, under bark, or on vegetation. Most larvae are
slender, hard-bodied, and shiny and are commonly
called "wireworms" (Figure 26-45B). The larvae of
many species are very destructive, feeding on newly
planted seeds and the roots of beans, cotton, potatoes,
corn, and cereals. Many elaterid larva e live in rotting
logs, and some of these feed on other insects. Pupation
occurs in the ground, under bark, or in dead wood.
Species of Pyrophorus in the southern states and in
the tropics have two light-producing spots on the pos-
terior edge of the prothorax and one on the abdomen.
The light is much stronger than that of the lampyrids,
and a large number flying about at night is a striking
sight.
Members of the subfamily Cebrioninae are clon-
gate, brownish beetles, 15-25 mm long, with hooklike
mandibles extending forward in front of the head.
Some have a quite hairy body. The larvae and females
(which are wingless) live in the ground. The malesare
excellent fliers and are largely nocturnal. All 30 North
American species are southern or southwestern.
Family Lycidae-Net-Winged Beetles: The lycids
(76 North American species) are elongate soft-winged
beetles, 5-18 mm long. They are somewhat similarto
the soldier beetles, but may be readily recognized
by the peculiar network of raised lines on the clytra,
with the longitudinal ridges more distinct than the
transverse ridges (Figure 26-46A). Some westem
species (Lycus) have a distinct snout. The elytra in some
species are slightly widened posteriorIy. The adults live
on foliage and tree trunks, usually in wooded arcas.
They feed on the juices of decaying plant materiaIsand
occasionally on other insects. The larvae are preda-
ceous. One of the more common members of this

A B
Figure26-46 A, a net-winged beetle, Calopterontermi-
nale(Say);B,adult male of a glow-worm,Phengodes
plumosaOlivier; 4x. (Courtesy of Amett.)
groupis Calopteron reticulatum (Fabricius), 11-19 mm
long.The elytra are yellow, with the posterior half and
anarrow cross band in the anterior part black. This in-
sect'spronotum is black, with a yellow margino Most
Iycidsare blackish, but many are brightly colored with
red,black, or yellow. They are apparently distasteful to
predators, and their coloration is mimicked by other
beetles (certain Cerambycidae) and some moths (for
example, certain Arctiidae; Figure 30-82C).
Family Telegeusidae: The Telegeusidae are repre-
sented in North America by two species of small, rare
beetles that occur in Arizona and California. Their
most distinctive character is the form of the maxillary
and labial palps, which have the terminal segment
tremendously enlarged. The tarsi are five-merous, the
A B, a soldier beetle (Chauliognathus); 3.75X.
Keyto the Subfamiliesof the Scarabaeidae 423
antennae are serrate, and the seven or eight abdominal
segments are less than half covered by the short elytra.
The telegeusids are slender and 5-8 mm long, resem-
bling small rove beetles. The hind wings do not fold,
but extend back over the abdomen beyond the tips of
the elytra. Females, which are probably larviform, and
larva e of telegeusids are unknown.
Family Phengodidae-Glowworms: This is a small
group (23 species in North America) of relatively un-
common beetles dosely related to the Lampyridae.
Most are broad and flat, with the elytra short and
pointed and the posterior part of the abdomen covered
only by the membranous, fan-shaped, nonfolding hind
wings (Figure 26-46B). The antennae are usually
serrate, but in some males they may be pectinate
or plumose. These insects vary in length from 10 to
30 mm and are found on foliage or on the ground. The
adult females of all known species are wingless and lu-
minescent, as in the Lampyridae, and look much like
larvae. The larva e are predaceous.
Family Lampyridae-Lightningbugs, Fireflies: Many
members of this common and well-known group have
"tail light"-segments near the end of the abdomen
with which the insects produce light. These luminous
segments can be recognized, even when they are not
glowing, by their yellowish green color. During certain
seasons, usually early summer, these insects fly about
in the evenings and are conspicuous by their blinking
yellow lights.
The lampyrids are elongate and very soft-bodied
beetles, 5-20 mm long, in which the pronotum ex-
tends forward over the head so that the head is largely
or entirely concealed from above (Figure 26-47 A).
The elytra are 50ft, flexible, and rather flat except
for the epipleurae. Most larger members of this group
have luminescent organs, but many smaller ones
do not.
UNNERSIDADDECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
Figure 26-4t'" A, a lightningbug (Photuris);
 424 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
The light emitted by these insects is unique in be-
ing cold. Nearly 100% of the energy given off appears
as light. In electric lights, only 10% of the energy is
light, and the other 90% is given off as heat. Firefly
light is produced by the oxidation of a substance called
luciferin, made in the cells of the light-producing or-
ganso These organs have a rich tracheal supply, and the
insect controls light emission by controlling air supply
to the organs. When air is admitted, the luciferin (in
the presence of an enzyme called luciferinase or lu-
ciferase) is almost instantly oxidized, releasing energy
as light. The flashing of fireflies serves primarily as a
means of getting the sexes together, and each species
has a characteristic flash rhythm. Females of some
predatory species imitate the flashes of other species
and thus lure amorous but hapless males of those
species to their doom.
During the day the lampyrids are usually found on
vegetation. The larva e are predaceous and feed on var-
ious smaller insects and on snails. The females of many
species are wingless and look very much like larvae.
These wingless females and most lampyrid larvae are
luminescent and are often called "glowworms." There
are about 125 species of fireflies in the United 5tates
and Canada, mostly in the East and the 50uth.
FamilyOmethidae-FalseFirefly Beetles, False501-
dier Beetles: The omethids are soft-bodied beetles re-
sembling lampyrids or cantharids, with which they are
sometimes associated. There are 10 species in seven
genera in the United 5tates. Uttle is known about their
ecology or feeding habits. They have been collected on
foliage during the day, and some have been collected
from forest floor debris.
Family Cantharidae-50ldier Beetles: The can-
tharids are elongate, soft-bodied beetles, 1-15 mm
long, that are very similar to the lightningbugs
(Lampyridae), but the head protrudes forward beyond
the pronotum and is visible from above (not concealed
by the pronotum as in the Lampyridae). These beetles
do not have light-producing organs.
Adult soldier beetles are usually found on flowers.
The larvae are predaceous on other insects. One com-
mon species, Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus (DeGeer)
(Figure 26-47B), about 13 mm long, has each elytron
yellowish with a black spot or stripe. Members of other
genera are yelloWÍsh, black, or brown. There are 473
species of soldier beetles in North America.
Family Jacobsoniidae-Jacobson'sBeetles: These
tiny beetles (less than 1 mm long) may be recognized
by the.elongate form, lack of a scutellum, a metaster-
.num as long as or longer than all five ventrites com-
bined, and a one- or two-merous antennal club. Their
relationships with other beetle families are unclear.
Two species of Derolathrus, recently reported from
southern Florida, were caught in flight intercept traps
L L
(Peck and Thomas 1998). At least one seems to have
become established.
FamilyDerodontidae-Tooth-NeckedFungusBeetles:
The derodontids (9 North American species) are small,
usually brownish beetles, 3-6 mm long (Figure 26-48),
and have a pair of ocelli on the head near the inner mar-
gins of the compound eyes (Figure 26-13C). The mem-
bers of the genus Derodontus have three or four strong
teeth or notches along the lateral margins of the prono-
tum. Other genera lack these teeth. The elytra completely
cover the abdomen, and each bears many rows of large
square punctures or polished dark spots. These beetles
live in woody fungi and under the bark of rotting logs.
Laricobius erichsonií Rosenhauer has been introduced
from Europe into Oregon, where it is established as an
important predator of the balsam woolly aphid.
Family Nosodendridae-Wounded Tree Beetles:
This family includes two species of Nosodendron, one
occurring in the East and the other in the West. The
eastern species, N. unicolor 5ay, is an oval, convex,
black beetle 5-6 mm long. It lives in oozing tree
wounds (sometimes in good numbers), under the bark
of dead logs, and in debris. The nosodendrids are sim-
ilar to the Byrrhidae,but the head is visible from above,
and the elytra bear rows of short, yellow hair tufts.
Family Dermestidae-Dermestid or 5kin Beetles:
This group (123 North American species) contains a
number of very destructive and economically impor-
tant species. The dermestids are mostly scavengers and
feed on a great variety of plant and animal products, in-
cluding leather, furs, skins, museum specimens,
woolen or silk materials, rugs, stored food materials,
and carrion. Most of the damage is done by the larvae.
Adult dermestids are small, oval, or elongate-oval,
convex beetles with short clubbed antennae, and they
vary in length from 2 to 12 mm. They are usually hairy
Figure 26-48 A tooth-necked fungus beetle, Derodon- ¡
tus maculatus Melsheimer, 15x. (Courtesy of Amen.) i
I

A B
D E
or covered with scales (Figure 26-49A-C). All adults
except members of the genus Dennestes have a median
ocellus (which is some times very small). They may be
found in the materials mentioned previously, and many
feed on flowers. Some are black or dull-colored, but
many have a characterístic color pattern. The larva e are
usually brownish and are covered with long hairs (Fig-
ure 26-49D-F).
The larger dermestids belong to the genus Der-
mestes.The larder beetle, D. lardarius L., is a common
species in this genus. lt is a little more than 6 mm long
and is black with a light brown band across the base of
the elytra. It feeds on a variety of stored foods, includ-
ing meats and cheese, and occasionally damages the
specimens in insect collections.
Some of the smaller dermestids are often common
in houses and may do seríous damage to carpets, up-
holstery, and clothing. Two common species of this
type are the black carpet beetle, Attagenus megatoma
(Fabricius) and the carpet beetle, Anthrenus scrophular-
iae (L.). Th¡; former is a grayish black beetle, 3.5-
5.0 mm long (Figure 26-49B), and the latter is a pretty
hule black-and-white patterned species, 3-5 mm long
(Figure 26-49A). Most damage done by these species
Keyto the Subfamiliesof the Scarabaeidae 425
e
-
Figure 26-49 Dermestid bee-
tles. A, the carpet beetle, An-
threnus scrophulariae (L.), adult;
B, the black carpet beetle, Atta-
genus megatoma (Fabricius), adult;
C, the furniture carpet beetle,
Anthrenus flavipes LeConte, adult;
D, larva of A. scrophulariae (L.),
dorsal view; E, larva of A. megatoma
(Fabricius), lateral view; F, larva
of A.flavipes LeConte, dorsal
view. (E, courtesy of Peterson;
other figures, courtesy of the
Cornell University Agricultural
F Experiment Station.)
is done by the larvae. The adults are often found on
flowers.
This is one group of insects that every entomology
student will encounter sooner or later. All the student
has to do to get some dermestids is to make an insect
collection and not protect it against these pests. The
dermestids will eventually find the collection and ruin
it. Many species in this group are serious pests in
homes, markets, and food storage places.
This group contains one of the worst stored-
products pests in the world, the khapra beetle, Trogo-
denna granarium Everts. A native of India, this beetle is
frequently intercepted at ports of entry into this coun-
try, and in 1953 it became established in California,
Arizona, and New Mexico. It is now apparently era di-
cated in the United States.
Although many of the dermestids are serious
pests, they are nevertheless of value as scavengers,
helping remove dead organic matter. Some species that
feed on carríon, notably species of Dennestes, have.
been used by vertebrate zoologists to clean skeletons
for study. One species in this family, Thylodrias con-
tractus Motschulsky, is unusual in having filiform an-
tennae and wingless and larviform females.
426 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

Figure 26-50 A bostrichid beetle, Apate monacha

Fabricius. (Courtesy of Wo\cott and the Journal of Agri-
culture of the University of Puerto Rico.)

Family Bostrichidae-Branch and Twig Borers and

Powderpost Beetles: Most beetles in this graup (more
than 70 North American species) are elongate and
somewhat cylindrical, and the head is bent down and
scarcely visible fram above (Figure 26-50), except for
the Lyctinae. The antennae are straight, with a loose
three- or four-meraus club. Most species vary in length Figure 26-51 A board damaged by powderpost beetles,
from 3.5 to 12.0 mm, but one western species, Dinap- and showing exit holes of the beetles.
ate wrighti Horn, which breeds in palms, reaches a
length of 52 mm. Most species in this graup are wood-
boring and attack living trees, dead twigs and branches,
or seasoned lumber. The apple twig borer, Amphicerus
bicaudatus (Say), attacks the twigs of apple, pear,
cherry, and other trees. Rhizopertha dominica (Fabricius),
the lesser grain borer, is a major pest of sto red grain
worldwide.
One species in this family that occurs in the West,
Scobicia declivis (LeConte), is rather unusual in that the
adults would often bore into the lead sheathing once
used to insulate telephone cables. This insect normally
bores in the wood of oak, maple, and other trees. The
beetles would make holes in the sheathing about
2.5 mm in diameter that allowed moisture to enter the
cable, short-circuiting the wires and consequently in- A B
terrupting service. This insect is commonly known as
the "lead-cable borer" or "short-circuit beetle."
The bostrichids in the subfamily Psoinae, which Figure 26-52 A, a spider beetle, Ptinusfur (L.), 5x;
occur principally in the West, differ fram other B, a powderpost beetle, Trogoxylonparallelopipedum
bostrichids in that the head is large and easily visible (Melsheimer), lOx. (Courtesy of Arnett.)
fram above, and the mandibles are large and strang.
The members of the genus Polycaon are 14-28 mm
long, are brawn or black, and often greatly damage or- seasoned wood and reduce it to a powder. Speciesof
chards in California and Oregon by severely pruning Lyctus may completely destray furniture, wooden
the trees. The larvae tunnel thraugh the heartwood of beams (particularly in barns and cabins), tool handles,
these trees, but the adults seldom enter the wood. Psoa and hardwood floors. They live beneath the surface for
maculata (LeConte), 6 mm long, is the "spotted limb months, and timbers fram which the adults have
borer" of California. lt breeds only in dead twigs of emerged may be peppered with tiny holes, as though
trees or shrubs and is usually bluish black or greenish fine shot had be en fired into them (Figure 26-51).
with dense gray hair and with a few large, lighter spots These beetles do not enter wood that is painted or var-
on the elytra. nished. The powderpost beetles are slender and clon-
Members of the subfamily Lyctinae are known as gate (Figure 26-52B), uniformly colored brown to
"powderpost beetles" because they bore into dry and black, and 2-7 mm long; the head is praminent from
 Keyto the Subfamilies of the Scarabaeidae 427

above, and the antennae have a two-merous club.
There are 11 species in North America.
Family Anobiidae-The Death Watch and Spider
Beetles:The anobiids are cylindrical to oval, pubescent
beetles, 1-9 mm long. The head is deflexed and is usu-
ally concealed from above by the hoodlike pronotum.
Most have the last three antennomeres enlarged and
lengthened (Figures 26-5C and 26-53B,D-F). A few
have these antennomeres lengthened but not enlarged,
and a few have serrate or pectinate antennae. There are
464 species known from the Nearctic Region, includ-
ing Mexico.
Most anobiids live in dry vegetable materials such
as logs and twigs or under the bark of dead trees. Oth-
ers pass the larval stage in fungi or in the seeds and
stems of various plants. Some species, such as Xesto-
bium rufovillosum (DeGeer) (Figure 26-53F), are called
"death watch beetles" because they make a ticking
sound as they bore through wood which is audible to
the human ear when conditions are quiet (as at a
wake).
Some of the anobiids are common and destructive
pests. The drugstore beetle, Stegobium paniceum (L.)
(Figure 26-53E), infests various drugs and cereals. The
cigarette beetle, Lasiodenna serricome (Fabricius) (Fig-
ure 26-53C), is common in dried tobacco, museum
specimens, insect collections, and various household
products. In some parts of the United States, it is a

A e
B

o E F

Figure 26-53 Anobiid beetles. A, Eucrada humeralis (Melsheimer); B, the furniture

beetle, Anobium punctatum (De Geer); C, the cigarette beetle, Lasioderma serricome
(Fabricius); D, Trichodesmagibbosa (Say); E, the drugstore beetle, Stegobium paniceum
(L.); F, a death watch beetle, Xestobium rufovillosum (De Geer). The hnes represent
1 mm. (Courtesy ofWhite and the Ohio Biological Survey.)
428 Chapter26 Order Coleoptera
common household pest, infesting paprika, pepper,
chili powder, pet foods, cereals, and other materials.
Some wood-boring species, such as the furniture bee-
tle, Anobium punctatum (DeGeer) (Figure 26-53B),
bore in timbers, woodwork, and furniture; Hemicoelus
gibbicollis (LeCon te) , the Pacific powderpost beetle,
damages buildings along the Pacific Coast from Cali-
fornia to Alaska, feeding chiefly in well-seasoned
wood.
Spider beetles, subfamily Ptininae, are long-
legged, 1-5 mm long, whose head and pronotum is
much narrower than the elytra and appear somewhat
spiderlike (Figure 26-52A). The head is nearly or com-
pletely concealed from above. Many species are minor
pests of stored grain products. Some feed on both plant
and animal products and attack museum specimens.
One species passes its larval stages in rat droppings,
and another (Ptinus califomicus Pic) feeds on the
pollen stored in nests of solitary bees. There are around
69 species of this subfamily in North America.
Family Lymexylidae-Ship-Timber Beetles: This
group is represented in the United States by two rare
species that live under bark and in dead logs and
stumps. They cause much of the pinhole damage in
chestnut and oak. These beetles are long and narrow,
and 9.0 to 13.5 mm long; the head is bent down and
narrowed behind the eyes to form a short neck; the an-
tennae are filiform to serrate; the tarsi are five-merous;
and the maxillary palps in the males are long and fla-
bella te. These beetles are called "ship-timber beetles"
because one European species has been very destruc-
tive to ship timbers. One of the two North American
species, Elateroides lugubris (Say), is commonly called
the "sapwood timberworm"; it lives in fairly fresh
poplar logs.
Family Trogossitidae-Bark-Gnawing Beetles, Ca-
delles: This group (59 species in the United States
and Canada) contains four subfamilies that differ
rather markedly in shape. Members of the largest
subfamily, Trogossitinae, are elongate, with the head
about as wide as the pronotum and with the pronotum
rather widely separated from the base of the elytra
(Figure 26-54). The Peltinae are oval or elliptical, with
the head only about half as wide as the pronotum, and
the pronotum rather closely joined to the base of the
elytra. The Peltinae are very similar to some nitidulids,
but most species have long, erect hairs on the elytra,
whereas the similarly shaped nitidulids have the elytra
bare or with short pubescence. The Trogossitinae are
chiefly predaceous on insects under bark, but the
Peltinae feed chiefly on fungi.
Trogossitids are 2.6 to 20.0 mm long, and most are
brownish or blackish. A few are bluish or greenish. The
cadelle, Tenebroides mauritanicus (L.) (Figure 26-54),
lives commonly in granaries. It is believed to feed both
Figure26-54 A trogossitid beetle, Tenebrioidessp.,
71/2X.
on other insects in the grain and on the grain itself.
Temnochila virescens (Fabricius), a rather common and
widely distributed species, is a bright blue-green beetle
about 20 mm long. It can bite viciously with its pow-
erful mandibles. Adults and larvae of trogossitids are
generally found under bark, in woody fungi, and in dry
vegetable matter.
Family Cleridae-Checkered Beetles: The clerids are
elongate, very pubescent beetles 3-24 (mostly 5-12)
mm long, and many are brightly colored. The pronotum
is usually narrower than the base of the elytra and sorne-
times narrower than the head (Figure 26-55). The tarsi
are five-merous, but in many species the first or the
fourth tarsomere is very small and difficult to see. The
antennae are usually clubbed, but are sometimes serrate,
pectinate, or (rarely) filiform. There are 291 speciesoí
Cleridae in North America.
Most checkered beetles are predaceous as both
adults and larvae. Many are common on or within tree
trunks and logs, where they prey on the larvae of vari-
ous wood-boring insects (chiefly bark beetles). Others
live on flowers and foliage. A few (for example, Iri.
chodes,Figure 26-55E) are pollen feeders in the adult
stage and sometimes also in the larval stage. Trichodes
larvae sometimes develop in the egg pods of grasshop-
pers or in the nests of bees and wasps.
Some authorities have placed some of the clerids,
which have the fourth tarsomere very small and diffi.
cult to see, in a separa te family, the Corynetidae.
These beetles are similar in general appearance and
habits to the other clerids. One species in this group,
Necrobia rufipes DeGeer (Figure 26-55D), the red-
 Key to the Subfamilies of the Scarabaeidae 429

A B e D

E F G H

Figure26-55 Checkered beetles. A, Enoclerus ichneumoneus (Fabricius); B, Monophylla

terminata (Say), female; C, same, male; D, the red-Iegged ham beetle, Necrobia rufipes
(De Geer); E, Trichodesnuttalli (Kirby); F, Corinthiscus leucophaeus (Klug); G, Cyma-
todera undulata (Say); H, Isohydnoceracurtipennis (Newman). The lines represent 1 mm.
(Courtesy of Knull and the Ohio Biological Survey.)

legged ham beetle, is occasionally destructive to FamilySphindidae-Dry-Fungus Beetles:The sphin-

stored meats.
Family Melyridae-Soft-Winged Flower Beetles:
Ihe members of this family (520 species in 58 genera
in North America) are eiongate-oval, soft-bodied bee-
des 10 mm long or less. Many are brightly colored with
brown or red and black (Figure 26-56A). Some
me1yrids (Malachiinae) have peculiar orange structures
along the sides of the abdomen, which may be everted
and saclike or withdrawn into the body and inconspic-
uous. Some meiyrids have the two basal antennomeres
greatly enlarged. Most adults and larvae are preda-
ceous, but many are common on flowers. The most
common North American species beiong to the genus
Collops (Malachiinae); C. quadrimaculatus(Fabricius)
is reddish, with two bluish black spots on each elytron.
dids are broadly oval to oblong, convex, dark brown
to black beetles, 1.5 to 3.0 mm long. They have a
5-5-4 tarsal formula, and the lO-merous antennae ter-
minate in a two- or three-merous club. The sphindids
live in slime molds on dead trees, logs, and stumps
and on dry fungi, such as the shelf fungi on tree
trunks. Nine relatively rare species occur in the
United States.
Family Brachypteridae-Short-winged Flower Bee-
tles: This small family (11 species in United States and
Canada) was formerly treated as a subfamily of Ni-
tidulidae, some members of which they resemble. The
pygidium is exposed, the labial palps are not articu-
lated, and the three-merous antennal club is not well
defined. Larvae develop in seed capsules of various
430 Chapter26 Order Coleoptera
A B
Figure 26-56 A, a soft-winged flower beetle, Malachius
aeneus (L.) (Melyridae), 5x; B, a root-eating beetle, Rhi-
zophagus bipunctatus (Say) (Monotomidae), 1SX. (Cour-
tesy of Amett.)
plants, and the adults feed on pollen and flower petals
of some of the same plants.
Family Nitidulidae-Sap Beetles: The members of
this family (about 165 North American species) vary
considerably in size, shape, and habits. Most are small,
12 mm long or less, and elongate or oval, and in many
the elytra are short and expose the terminal abdominal
segment (Figure 26-57). The antennae usually have a
three-merous club, but some have an annulated termi-
nal antennomere, causing the club to appear four-
merous (Figure 26-57B,C). Most nitidulids are found
where plant fluids are fermenting or souring-for ex-
ample, around decaying fruits or melons, flowing sap,
A B
and some types of fungí. A few live on or near the dried
carcasses or dead animals, and several live in flowers.
Others are very common beneath the loose bark of
dead stumps and logs, especially if these are damp
enough to be moldy.
Two members of the genus Glischrochilus,
G. quadrisignatus (Say) and G. fasciatus (Oliver), both
shiny black with two yellowish spots on each elytron,
are called "picnic beetles." They frequently be come so
abundant at such affairs that, although they cause no
damage, people are driven indoors. Carpophilus
lugubris Murray (Figure 26-57B), the dusky sap beetle,
is a serious pest of sweet corn, especially corn grown
for canning. The larvae feed inside the kernels at the
tip of the ear and are frequently overlooked during the
canning operation.
Family Smicripidae-Palmetto Beetles: Members of
this family closely resemble some of the Nitidulidae
and were previously placed in that family. The truncate
elytra, leaving two abdominal tergites exposed; a free
and prominent labrum; and short, broadly triangular
mandibles are characteristic. The tarsal formula maybe
either 4-4-4 or 5-5-5. Two species of Smicrips represent
this family in North America. Both adults and larvae
have been found in decaying vegetation, leaf litter, and
under bark.
Family Monotomidae-Root-Eating Beetles: These
beetles are small, slender, dark-colored, and 1.5 to
3.0 mm long (Figure 26-56B). They usually live under
bark or in ratten wood. A few species live in ant nests,
and some live in bark beetle galleries, where they feed
on the eggs and young of bark beetles. The antennae
are lO-merous with a 1- or 2-merous club; the last tar-
somere is elongate and the other tarsomeres are short;
the tip of the abdomen is exposed beyond the elytra;
Figure 26-57 Representative
Nitidulidae. A, Conotelus obscu1lls
Erichson, 15X; B, Carpophilus
lugubris (Murray), the dusky
sap beetle, 15X; C, Lobiopa sp.,
e 71/2X.
 Keyto the Subfamiliesof the Scarabaeidae 431

and the first and fifth abdominal stema are longer than
the others. Fifty-five species occur in North America.
Family Silvanidae:Members of this family resemble
cucujids and were previously placed in that family.
They have long, slender, sometimes capitate antennae,
and the head is constricted behind the eyes. The tarsal
formula is 5-5-5. Although the group is mainly tropi-
cal,there are 32 species in 14 genera in North America.
Mostspecies appear to be fungivorous, and several are
important pests of cereal products, including the saw-
toothed grain beetles (Oryzaephilus, Figure 26-58B)
and the foreign grain beetle, Ahasverus advena (Waltl).
Family Passandridae-Parasitic Flat Bark Beetles:
This family was formerly regarded as a subfamily of
Cucujidae. They resemble cucujids, but the confluence
ofthe guIar sutures, expanded genae, and stout monil-
iform antennae will separate this small family from
other flat beetles. There are three widespread species in
twogenera in North America.
Family Cucujidae-Flat Bark Beetles: Most beetles
in this group (three North American species in two
genera), are extremely flat and are either reddish,
brownish, or yellowish. Cucujids are found under the
bark of freshly cut logs, chiefly maple, beech, elm, ash,
and poplar. The only North American species of Cucu-
jus, C. clavipes Fabricius, is uniform red and about
13rnrn long (Figure 26-58A).
Family Laemophloeidae-LinedFlat Bark Beetles:
These beetles are very flat with distinctive sublateral
lineson the head pronotum, and elytra; and with long,
slender antennae. They were formerly considered a
subfamily of Cucujidae, which they closely resemble.
Several species of the genus Cryptolestes are minor
pests of stored grain products, and some are thought to
be predaceous. There are 52 species in 13 genera in
the United States. The family is mainly tropical in dis-
tribution.
Family Phalacridae-Shining Flower Beetles: The
phalacrids are oval, shining, convex beetles, 1-3 mm
long, with clubbed antennae (Figure 26-59A) and usu-
ally brownish. The pollen-feeding adults are sometimes
quite common on the flowers of goldenrod and other
composites. The larvae feed on fungus spores. About
122 species occur in North America.
Family Cryptophagidae-Silken Fungus Beetles:
These beetles (145 species in North America) are
1-5 mm long, elongate-oval in shape, yellowish brown,
and covered with a silky pubescence. They feed on
fungi, decaying vegetation, and similar materials and
usually live in decaying vegetable matter. Some species
live in nests of wasps or bumble bees.
Family Languriidae-Lizard Beetles: The lizard bee-
tles are narrow and elongate, 2-10 mm long, and
usually have a reddish pronotum and black elytra (Fig-
ure 26-58D). The tarsi are 5-5-5, with the fourth
tarsomere very small and tarsomeres 1-3 densely pu-
bescent beneath. The antennae are ll-merous with a
3- to 6-merous club. The adults feed on the leaves and
pollen of many common plants, including goldenrod,
ragweed, fleabane, and clover. The larvae are stem bor-

A B e D

Figure26-58 A, a flat bark beetle, Cucujus clavipes Fabricius (Cucujidae), 4x; B, the
saw-toothed grain beetle, Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.) (Silvanidae), 17X; C, a pleasing
fungusbeetle,Megalodacne heros(Say)(Erotylidae),2'/2X;D, adult of the cloverstern
borer,LanguriamozardiLatreille(Languriidae),6X. (A,courtesy of Amett; B,and D,
courtesyof USDA;C, courtesy of DwightM. DeLong.)

l
432 Chapter 26 OrderColeoptera

A B e

Figure 26-59 A, a shining flower beetle, Phalacruspolitus Melsheimer (Phalacridae),

25X; B, a minute brown scavenger beetle, Melanophthalma americana Mannerheim (La-
tridiidae), 26X; C, a handsome fungus beetle, Endomychus biguttatus Say (Endomychi-
dae), 121/2X.(Courtesy of Amett.)

ers; the larvae of the clover stem borer (Languria mozardi
Latreille) attack clover and sometimes cause consider-
able damage. There are 33 species in North America.
Family Erotylidae-Pleasing Fungus Beetles: The
erotylids are small to medium-sized, oval, and usually
shiny beetles that are found on fungi or may be at-
tracted to sapoThey often live beneath the bark of dead
stumps, especially where rotting fungus abounds.
Some of the erotylids are brightly pattemed with or-
ange or red and black. The species in this group that
have the tarsi distinctly five-merous are by some au-
thorities placed in a separate family, the Dacnidae. The
largest species of dacnids (Megalodacne) are about
20 mm long and are black, with two orange-red bands
across the elytra (Figure 26-58C). In other erotylids
the fourth tarsomere is very small, so that the tarsi ap-
pear four-merous.These beetles are smaller, 8 mm long
or less. There are about 50 North American species,
and some are fairly common insects.
Family Byturidae-Fruitworm Beetles: The byturids
are small, oval, hairy beetles, pale brown to orange and
mostly 3.5-4.5 mm long, with clubbed antennae (Fig-
ure 26-60B). The second and third tarsomeres are
lobed beneath. The group is a small one, with onlytwo

Figure 26-60 A, a hairy fungus

A B
beetle, Mycetophagus punctatus Say
(Mycetophagidae), 8X; B, a froit-
worm beetle, Byturus bakerí Barber
(Byturidae), 8X; C, a minute tree.
fungus beetle, Cis fuscipes Mellie
(Ciidae), 14X. (Courtesy of
e Amett.)

speciesin the United States. The only common eastern
species is Byturus unicolor Say, a reddish yellow to
blackish beetle 3.5 to 4.5 mm long that feeds on the
flowersof raspberry and blackberry. The larva, called
the "raspberry fruitworm," sometimes seriously dam-
agesberries.
Family Biphyllidae-False Skin Beetles: This family
isclosely related to Byturidae. The adults have slender
tarsal lobes on tarsomeres two and three, closed pro-
coxalcavities, and lateral lines on the first abdominal
stemite. They live under bark and apparently feed on
fungí. Three species in two genera, Anchorius and
Diplocoelus,are known from the United States.
FamilyBothrideridae:These beetles were previously
placed in the Colydiidae. Most are long and slender,
with a distinct antennal club and 4-4-4 tarsal for-
mula. The antennal insertions are exposed, and the
trochanters are greatly reduced so that the femur and
coxa are in contact or nearly so. Many species are
predators on wood-boring beetles and others feed on
fungí. There are 18 species in eight genera in North
America.
Family Cerylonidae-Minute Bark Beetles: This
familyincludes a group of genera formerly placed in
the Colydiidae (Cerylon, Philothermus, Euxestus, and
fivegenera in the subfamily Murmidiinae). They are
somewhat more oval and flattened than most colydiids
and2-3 mm long. The antennae are lO-merous with an
abrupt 1- or 2-merous club and are received in a cavity
of the prothorax, and the coxae are widely separated.
Theyare unusual in having piercing-sucking mouth-
parts in the larval stage and in some adults. The 19
North American species in this group are widely dis-
tributed. Cerylon castaneum Say is fairly common un-
der dead bark, but the other species are relatively rare.
Family Endomychidae-Handsome Fungus Beetles:
These are small, oval beetles, mostly 3-8 mm long.
Theyare smooth and shiny and usually brightly col-
A B
Keyto the Subfamilies of the Scarabaeidae 433
ored. They are somewhat similar to the Coccinellidae,
but the head is easily visible from above. The pronotum
is broadly excavated or grooved laterally, with the sides
produced forward (Figure 26-59C), and the pretarsal
claws are simple. Some members of this group (the
Mycetaeinae, with 15 North American species) have
the tarsi appearing four-merous, with the third tar-
somere easily visible. The others (28 North American
species, in four subfamilies) have the third tarsomere
very small, and the tarsi appear three-merous. Most en-
domychids live under bark, in rotting wood, in fungi,
or in decaying fruits and feed on fungus and mold. A
few of the Mycetaeinae are found on flowers. One
species, Mycetaea subterranea (Fabricius), is occasion-
ally a pest in granaries and warehouses, because it
spreads mold infection.
Family Coccinellidae-Ladybird Beetles: The lady-
bird beetles Cladybugs) are a well-known group of
small (0.8-10 mm long), oval, convex, and often
brightly colo red insects containing about 475 North
American species in 57 genera. The head is concealed
from above by the expanded pronotum. They may be
distinguished from the chrysomelids, many of which
have a similar shape, by the three distinct tarsomeres
(chrysomelids appear to have four tarsomeres). Most
ladybird beetles are predaceous, as both larva e and
adults, and feed chiefly on aphids. They are frequently
quite common, particularly on vegetation where
aphids are numerous. Ladybirds hibernate as adults,
frequently in large aggregations, under leaves or in de-
bris. The multicolored Asian ladybird beetle, Harmonia
axyidris (PalIas), is an introduced species that feeds on
aphids and mealybugs. It has attained enormous popu-
lations and often be comes a nuisance pest by entering
buildings during cold weather.
The larva e of ladybird beetles (Figure 26-61C) are
elongate, somewhat flattened, and covered with minute
tubercles or spines. They are usually spotted or banded
Figure26-61 A ladybird beetle, Hippo-
damia convergensGuérin-Méneville.
A, adult; B, pupa; C, larva. The line at the
right of the adult indicates the actual size.
e (Courtesy of USDA.)
434 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
with bright colors. These larvae are often found in
aphid colonies.
Two fairly common phytophagous species in this
group are serious garden pests: the Mexican bean bee-
tle, Epilachna varivestis Mulsant, and the squash beetle,
E. borealis (Fabricius). The Mexican bean beetle is yel-
lowish, with eight spots on each elytron. The squash
beetle is pale orange-yellow, with three spots on the
pronotum and a dozen or so large spots arranged in
two rows on the elytra, plus a large black dot near the
tip of the elytra. These two species are the only large la-
dybird beetles in the United States that are pubescent.
The larvae of these species are yellow and oval in
shape, with forked spines on the body. Both larvae and
adults are phytophagous, and they are often very de-
structive.
Except for the two species of Epilachna, the lady-
bird beetles are a very beneficial group of insects. They
feed on aphids, scale insects, and other injurious in-
sects and mites. During serious outbreaks of aphids or
scale insects, large numbers of ladybird beetles are
sometimes imported into the infested areas to serve as
a means of control. The cottony cushion scale, Icerya
purchasi Maskell, a pest of citrus in California, has be en
kept under control for a number of years by means of
a ladybird beetle, Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant), im-
ported from Australia.
Family Corylophidae-Minute Fungus Beetles:
These beetles are rounded or oval and generally less
than 1 mm long. The tarsi are four-merous, but the
third tarsomere is small and concealed in a notch of the
bilobed third tarsomere, and the tarsi appear three-
merous. The antennae are clubbed, and the club is usu-
ally three-merous. The hind wings are fringed with
hairs. These beetles live in decaying vegetable matter
and iri debris, where they apparently feed on fungus
spores. Sixty-one species occur in North America.
Family Latridiidae-Minute Brown Scavenger Bee-
tles: The latridiids (140 North American species) are
elongate-oval, reddish brown beetles, 1-3 mm long
(Figure 26-59B). The pronotum is narrower than the
elytra, and each elytron bears six or eight rows of punc-
tures. The tarsi are three-merous (Figure 26-101) or
(males) 2-3-3 or 2-2-3. These beetles are found in
moldy material (including sto red food products) and
debris and sometimes on flowers.
Family Mycetophagidae-Hairy Fungus Beetles: The
mycetophagids are broadly oval, flattened, rather hairy
beetles, 1.5-5.5 mm long (Figure 26-60A). They are
brown to black and often brightly marked with reddish
or orange. These beetles live under bark, in shelf fungi,
and in moldy vegetable material. There are 26 species
of mycetophagids in North America. Typhaea stercorea
(L.), the hairy fungus beetle, is a fairly common pest in
sto red products.
Family Archeocrypticidae: This familyis very similar
to Tenebrionidae, with which it was historically associ-
ated. The main character separating them from tene-
brionids is the lateral posterior extensions of the
prosternal process that partially closes the procoxal
cavities. The family is mainly pantropical, with one
species, Enneboeus caseyi Kaszab, occurring in the
southeastern United States south into Central America.
Family Ciidae-Minute Tree Fungus Beetles: The
ciids (Figure 26-60C) are brownish to black beetles,
0.5 to 6.0 mm long, and similar in appearance 10
the bark beetles (Curculionidae: Scolytinae), and
Bostrichidae. The body is cylindrical; the head is de-
flexed and not visible from above; the tarsi are four-
merous (with the first three tarsomeres short and the
fourth long); the antennae terminate in a three-merous
club; and sexual dimorphism is usually evident. These
beetles (84 species in North America) live under bark,
in rotting wood, or in dry woody fungi, often in con-
siderable numbers. They feed on fungi.
Family Tetratomidae-Polypore Fungus Beetles:
Members of this family were formerly associated with the
Melandryidae. The pubescent body, relatively large,
emarginate compound eyes, and front coxae separated by
a prosternal process characterize this small family (26
species in 10 genera in the United States). Most feedon
fungi or under fungus-grown bark. The most common
tetratomids are the oval, black, eastern members of
Penthe, which are 5-15 mm long and common under old,
dead bark: P. pimelia (Fabricius) is entirely black, and
P. obliquata (Fabricius) has a bright orange scutellum.
Family Melandryidae-False Darkling Beetles:The
members of this group (60 North American species in
24 genera) are elongate-oval, somewhat flattened bee-
tles usually found under bark or logs. Some species live
on flowers and foliage, others in fungi. They are mostly
dark-colored and 3-20 mm long. They can usually be
recognized by the 5-5-4 tarsal formula, the open fron!
coxal cavities, and the two impressions near the poste-
rior border of the pronotum (Figure 26-62A).
Family Mordellidae-Tumbling Flower Beetles:
These beetles have a rather characteristic body shape
(Figure 26-63): the body is somewhat wedge-shaped
and humpbacked, the head is bent down, and the ab-
domen is pointed apically and extends beyond the tips
of the elytra. Most mordellids (more than 200 North
American species) are black or mottled gray, and
the body is covered with a dense pubescence. Mostare
3-7 mm long, but some reach 14 mm. These beetles are
common on flowers, especially the composites. They
are quite active and run or fly quickly when disturbed.
Their common name is derived from the tumbling
movements they make in attempting to escape capture.
The larvae live in decaying wood and in plant pith.
Some are predaceous.

Figure26-63 A tumbling flower beetle, Mordella mar-
ginataMelsheimer, I5X.
Famíly Ripiphoridae-Wedge-Shaped Beetles:
These beetles, 4-15 mm long, are similar to the
Mordellidae, but have the abdomen blunt instead of
pointed at the apex. The elytra are more or less pointed
apically and usually do not cover the tip of the ab-
domen. In some species the elytra are quite short. The
antennae are pectinate in the males and serrate in the
females. Adult beetles feed on flowers, particularly
goldenrod, but they are not very common. They are
sometimes found in the burrows of halictid bees. The
larval stages are parasitic on various wasps (Vespidae,
Scoliidae, and Tiphiidae) and bees (Halictidae and Ap-
idae). They undergo hypermetamorphosis similar to
that in the Meloidae. Some females in this family are
Keyto the Subfamiliesof the Scarabaeidae 435
Figure26-62 A, Emmesa labiata (Say) (Me-
landryidae); B, Arthromacra sp. (Tenebrionidae,
Lagriinae); 4X.
wingless and larviform. There are 51 North American
species.
Famíly Colydiidae-Cylindrical Bark Beetles: The
colydiids are hard-bodied, shiny beetles, 1-8 mm long.
Some species are oval or oblong and slightly flattened,
and some are elongate and cylindrical. The antennae
are 10- or ll-merous and terminate in a 2- or 3-merous
club, and the tarsi are 4-merous. These beetles live un-
der dead bark, in shelf fungi, or in ant nests. Many
species are predaceous, others are plant feeders, and a
few species (in the larval stage) are ectoparasites of the
larvae and pupae of various wood-boring beetles.
There are 73 species in North America.
Famíly Monommatidae: The monommatids (Fig-
ure 26-64A) are black oval beetles, 5-12 mm long, and
are flattened ventrally and convex dorsally. They have
a 5-5-4 tarsal formula, with the first tarsomere rela-
tively long. The anterior coxal cavities are open be-
hind, the legs are strongly retractile, and the antennae
terminate in a two- or three-merous club and are re-
ceived in grooves on the underside of the prothorax.
The adults are found in leaf litter, and the larva e live in
rotten wood. The group is a small one, with the six
species occurring in the southern states, from Florida
to southern California.
FamílyZopheridae-Ironclad Beetles:This familyas
now constituted contains elements previously placed
in Tenebrionidae and Colydiidae. The larger ones have
an extremely hard integument and are difficult to pin,
hence the common name. The antennae are short and
stout, and the procoxal cavities are open. There are
nine genera with about 30 species in the United States,
19 in the genus Zopherus. All are western except Phel-
lopsis obcordata (Kirby), which occurs in New England,
Tennessee, and Virginia on shelf fungi.
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
436 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

A B e

Figure26-64 A, a rnonornrnatid beetle, Hypophagus opuntiae Horn, 31/2X; B, a cornb-

clawed beetle, Capnochroafuliginosa (Melsheirner) (Tenebrionidae, Alleculinae), 41(2X;
C, a narrow-waisted bark beetle, Pytho niger Kirby (Pythidae), 4X. (Courtesy of Arnett.)

Family Tenebrionidae-Darkling Beetles: The tene-
brionids are a large and varied group, but can be distin-
guished by the 5-5-4 tarsal fonnula; the front coxal cav-
ities closed behind (Figure 26-7B); the eyes usually
notched; the antennae nearly always ll-merous and
either filifonn or moniliform; and five visible abdomi-
nal sterna. Most tenebrionids are black or brownish
(Figure 26-65), but a few, for example, Diaperis (Fig-
ure 26-65B), have red markings on the elytra. Many are
black and smooth and resemble ground beetles. Some of
the species that feed on the bracket fungi are brownish
and rough-bodied and resemble bits of bark. One such
species, Bolitotherus comutus (Panzer), has two hornlike
protuberances extending forward from the pronotum
(Figure 26-651). The fungus-inhibiting members of the
genus Diaperis are somewhat similar in general appear-
ance to the ladybird beetles (Figure 26-65B). Some of
the tenebrionids are very hard-bodied.
Throughout the arid regions of the United States,
these beetles take over the ecological niche occupied
by the Carabidae in more verdant areas, being very
comrnon under stones and rubbish and beneath loose
bark, and even being attracted to lights at night.
The most distinctive habit of the members of the
extremely large genus Eleodes(Figure 26-65G) is the
ridiculous position they assume when running from
possible danger: The tip of the abdomen is elevated to
an angle of about 45 degrees from the ground, and the
beetles almost seem to be standing on their head as
they run. When disturbed or picked up, they emit a
reddish black fluid with a very disagreeable odor.
Most tenebrionids feed on plant materials of some
sort. A few are common pests of stored grain and flour
and are often very destructive. The beetles in the genus
Tenebrio are black or dark brown and 13-17 rnrn long,
and they feed on grain products in both larval and
adult stages. The larvae are commonly called "meal-
worms" and are quite similar to wirewonns. The mem-
bers of the genus Tribolium are oblong brown beetles,
5 mm or less in length (Figure 26-65E). Both adults
and larvae commonly live in flour, cornmeal, dog food,
cereals, dried fruits, and similar materials.
The members of the subfamily Alleculinae, the
comb-clawed beetles, are small, 5-15 mm long, elongate-
oval, and usually brownish or black with a sornewhat
glossy or shiny appearance resulting from the pubes-
cence on the body (Figure 26-64B). They can be distin-
guished by the pectinate pretarsal claws (Figure 26-11B).
The adults are found on flowers and foliage, on fungi,
and under dead bark. The larvae resemble wirewonns
and live in rotting wood, plant debris, or fungí.
The Lagriinae are slender beetles that can usuallybe
recognized by their characteristic shape (Figure 26-628)
and the elongate apical antennomere (Figure 26-5D).
Theyare 10-15 mm long and dark metallic. The adults
are found on foliage or occasionally under bark. Thelar-
vae breed in plant debris and under the bark of fallen
trees.
The Tenebrionidae is the fifth largest farnily ofbee-
tles, with upward of 1000 North American species,and
many of its members are common insects. MostNorth
American species are western.
 Keyto the Subfamiliesof the Scarabaeidae 437

¿ '.

F"
A B e
\ " '-----' -\! "l-

D E
"- F

G H

Figure 26-65 Darkling beetles (Tenebrionidae), A, Neomida bicomis (Fabricius), 8X;

B, Diaperis maculata (Olivier), óX; C, Helops aereus Germar, 4X; D, Adelina plana (Say),
7X; E, the confused flour beetle, Tribolium confusum du Val, lOX; F, Merinus laevis
(Oliver), P/2x; G, Eleodessuturalis (Say), O.75X; H, Eusattus pons Triplehorn, 3X;
1, Bolitotherus comutus (Panzer), male, 3X. (E, courtesy of USDA;1, courtesy of Liles.)

FamilyProstomidae-Jugular-HornedBeetles: Only Family Synchroidae:These beetles superficially re-

one species of this family, Prostomis mandibularis
(Fabricius) is found in North America. It had been
placed in Cucujidae and is separated largely by larval
characters. A distinguishing feature is its rather large
head with prominent, projecting, stout mandibles. The
larvaeand adults are associated with dead wood.
semble click beetles (Elateridae) in shape, but are het-
eromerous and have open fore coxal cavities. They were
previously placed in Melandryidae. Adults and larvae are
found in decaying wood and under bark, where they
feed on fungi. There are two genera, Synchroa and Mal-
lodrya, each with one species in eastern North America.
438 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
A B
Figure 26-66 A, a false blister beetle, Oxacis trimacu-
lata Champion (Oedemeridae), 3x; B, a fire-colored bee-
tle, DendroídescanadensísLeConte (Pyrochroidae), 3 X.
(Courtesy of Amett.)
Family Oedemeridae-False Blister Beetles: The
oedemerids are slender, soft-bodied beetles, 5-20 mm
long (Figure 26-66A). Many are black with an orange
pronotum, whereas others are pale with blue, yellow,
red, or orange markings. These beetles have a 5-5-4
tarsal formula, and the penultimate tarsomere is dilated
and densely hairy beneath (Figure 26-lOC). The
pronotum is anteriorly broadened and posteriorly nar-
rower than the base of the elytra, and the eyes are often
emarginate. The adults are usually found on flowers or
foliage and are attracted to lights at night. The larvae
live in moist, decaying wood, especially driftwood. The
larvae of the wharf borer, Nacerdesmelanura(L.), feed
in very moist wood such as pilings under wharves, un-
der buildings near water, and in greenhouses; the adult
is 7-15 mm long and reddish yellow with the tips of
the elytra black. There are 87 species in the United
States and Canada.
Family Stenotrachelidae-FalseLonghornBeetles:
These beetles are elongate, convex, and somewhat sim-
ilar to a cerambycid in shape (hence the common
name). They are brownish to dark and 8-20 mm long,
and the head is somewhat diamond-shaped, narrowed
behind the eyes to form a slender neck. They have a 5-
5-4 tarsal formula, the pretarsal claws (of 6 of our la
species) are pectinate, and there is a long (broad to nar-
row) pad under each claw. Uttle is known of the habits
of these beetles, except that the adults are sometimes
found on flowers and the larvae have been found in
very old rotten logs. Ten species are known fram the
United States.
Family Meloidae-Blister Beetles: The blister bee-
tles (more than 400 North American species) are usu-
ally narrow and elongate; the elytra are soft and flexi-
ble; and the pronotum is narrower than either the head
or the elytra (Figure 26-67). These beetles are called
"blister beetles" because the body fluids of the com-
moner species contain cantharadin, a substance that
often causes blisters when applied to the skin.
Several species of blister beetles are important
pests, feeding on potatoes, tomatoes, and other plants.
Two of these are often called the "old-fashioned potato
beetles": Epícauta vittata (Fabricius) (with orange and
black longitudinal stripes) and Epícauta pestífera
Wemer (black, with the margins of the elytra and the
sutural stripe gray; Figure 26-67C). These beetles are
12-20 mm long. The black blister beetle, E. pennsyl-
vanica (DeGeer), is a common black meloid, 7-13 mm
long, that is usually found on the flowers of goldenrod.
The larvae of many blister beetles are considered
beneficial, because they feed on grasshopper eggs. A
few live in bee nests in the larval stage, where they feed
on bee eggs and on the food stored in the cells with the
eggs.
The life history of the blister beetles in the genus
Epicauta is rather complex. These insects undergo hy-
permetamorphosis, with the different larval instars be-
ing quite different in form (Figure 26-68). The firstlar.
val instar, an active, long-Iegged form called a
triungulin, seeks out a grasshopper egg or a bee nest
and then molts. In the species that develop in bee
nests, the triungulin usually climbs on a flower and at-
taches itself to a bee that visits the flower. The bee car-
ries the triungulin to the nest, whereupon the triun-
gulin attacks the bee's eggs. The second instar is
somewhat similar to the triungulin, but the legs are
shorter. In the third, fourth, and fifth instars, the larva
be comes thicker and somewhat scarabaeiform. The
sixth instar has a darker and thicker exoskeleton and
lacks functional appendages. This instar is usually
known as the coarctate larva or pseudopupa, and it is
the instar that hibemates. The seventh instar is small,
white, and active Cthoughlegless) but apparentlydoes
not feed and soon transforms to the true pupa.
The members of the genus Meloe, some of which
are about 25 mm long, have very short elytra that overo
lap just behind the scutellum, and they lack hind wings.
These insects are dark blue or black (Figure 26-ó7A).
They are sometimes called "oil beetles," because they
often exude an oily substance from the joints of the legs
when disturbed.
The blister beetles in the genus Nemognatha are
unique in having the galeae prolonged into a sucking
tube as long as or longer than the body. These beetles
are usually brownish (so me times blackish, or brown
and black) and 8-15 mm long. They are widely dis-
tributed.
 Key to the Subfamilies of the Scarabaeidae 439

B
...A

o E F

Figure26-67 Blister beetles. A, Meloe laevis Leach, 2X; B, the three-striped blister bee-
tle, Epicauta lemniscata (Fabricius), 2X; C, Epicauta pestifera Werner, 2X; D, Cysteodemus
annatus LeCome, 21/2X; E, Tricraniastansburyi (Haldeman), 4X; F, Tegroderaerosaaloga
(Skinner), 2X. (B, and C, courtesy of Baerg and the Arkansas Agricultural Experiment
Station; others, courtesy of Noller and the Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station.)

A B
~
"JiJ
e
.. ..
.
.. ...: ~...
.. -.
. .

D
. . .'..
.

Figure26-68 Larval and pupal

instars of the black blister beetle,
Epicauta pennsylvanica (De Geer),
showing hypermetamorphosis.
A, newly hatched first instar, or triun-
gulin; B, fully fed first instar; C, second
instar; D, third instar; E, fourth instar;
F F, newly molted fifth instar; G, gorged
fifth instar; H, sixth instar (coarctate

~
larva of pseudopupa); 1, sevemh instar;
J, pupa. (Courtesy of Horsfall and
the Arkansas Agricultural Experiment
I J Station.)
440 Chapter26 Order Coleoptera
Most blister beetles are elongate and somewhat
cylindrical, but the species of Cysteodemus, which oc-
cur in the Southwest from Texas to southern Califor-
nia, have broadly oval and very convex elytra, and su-
perficially resemble spiders (Figure 26-6 7D). These
beetles are black, often with bluish or purplish high-
lights, and about 15 mm long.
Family Mycteridae-Palm and Flower Beetles: Some
members of this family (Hemipeplus, two species,
found in Florida and Georgia) strongly resemble cucu-
jids. They are elongate, slender, very flat, yellowish
beetles, 8-12 mm long, with the front coxal cavities
closed. These beetles are found under bark. Other myc-
terids (Mycterinae) have the front coxal cavities open,
and some (for example, Mycterus, about 10 mm long)
have the head extended anteriorly, much like the
broad-nosed weevils. The body is more robust and not
at all flattened. These beetles are generally found under
rocks, in debris, or in vegetation. Both adults and lar-
vae are said to be predaceous. The Mycterinae have
been placed in the Salpingidae, but differ from them in
having the penultimate tarsomere lobed. In the Salp-
ingidae, this tarsomere is slender and similar to the
other tarsomeres.
Family Boridae-Conifer Bark Beetles: These be e-
tles resemble tenebrionids, but have open fore coxal
cavities and distinct lateral prono tal carinae They have
been moved about in several families (e.g., Salpingidae,
Pyrochroidae). Both larva e and adults live under bark.
There are two genera, Boros and Lecontia, each with
one species in the United States.
FamilyPythidae-Dead Log Bark Beetles:This fam-
ily, which is best characterized by larval characters, is
represented in North America by seven species in four
genera; four of the species are in the genus Pytho (Fig-
ure 26-64C). Various researchers have placed these
species in Pyrochroidae, Salpingidae, Boridae, and
Mycteridae. Larvae feed under bark of both conifers
and deciduous trees.
A B
FamilyPyrochroidae-Fire-ColoredBeetles: The py-
rochroids are 6-20 mm long and are usually black,
with the pronotum reddish or yellowish. About 50
species occur in North America, with 30 in the genus
Pedilus (Figure 26-69B). The head and pronotum are
narrower than the elytra, and the elytra are somewhat
broader posteriorly. The antennae are serrate to pecti-
nate (rarely filiform), and in some males almost
plumose (Figure 26-66B), with long, slender processes
on antennomeres 3-10. The eyes are often quite large.
The short-lived adults are found on foliage and flowers
and sometimes under bark. The larvae live under the
bark of dead trees.
Family Salpingidae-Narrow-Waisted Bark Beetles:
This is an extremely variable group and difficult 10
characterize. Most of the 20 North American species of
salpingids are black, elongate, and somewhat flattened.
The adults and larvae are predaceous. The adults live
under rocks and bark, in leaf litter, and on vegetation.
The species of Aegialites, which occur along the Pacific
Coast from California to Alaska, live in rock cracks be-
low the high tidemark along the seacoast. These beetles
are elongate-oval, 3-4 mm long, and black with a
metallic luster. Five species of Elacatis (false tiger bee.
tles) occur in the United States. They were formerly
placed in a separate family and are now considered a
subfamily (Othniinae) of Salpingidae.
Family Anthicidae-Antlike Flower Beetles: These
beetles are 2-12 mm long and somewhat antlike in ap-
pearance, with the head deflexed and strongly con.
stricted behind the eyes, and with the pronotum oval.
The pronotum in many species (Notoxus, Figure 26--69A,
and Mycinotarsus) has an anterior hornlike process ex-
tending forward over the head. Anthicids generally live
on flowers and foliage; some live under stones and logs
and in debris; and a few live on sand dunes. There are
around 230 species in North America.
FamilyAderidae-Antlike Leaf Beetles: The aderids
(48 species in II genera in North America) are reddish
Figure 26-69 A, an antlike flower bee-
tle, Notoxus monodon Fabricius (Anthici-
dae), 12x; B,a pyrochroidbeetle,Pedilus
lugubris Say,5x. (Courtesy of Amen.)

yellowto dark and 1.5 to 3.0 mm. long. They are very
similar to the anthicids, but may be separated by the
coarsely faceted, setose eyes and the head abruptly
constricted at the base.
Famí/y Scraptiidae-False Flower Beetles: Most
scraptiids may be recognized by their soft bodies,
deeplyemarginate eyes, and setose vestiture. They have
been placed variously in Melandryidae, Mordellidae,
andother families. Adults of some species are found on
flowers, and others live under bark. In the North
Americanfauna there are 46 species in 13 genera.
Family Polypriidae- The Red Cross Beetle: A single
species, Polypria cruxrufa Chevrolat, extends into
south Texas. It is a moderate-sized beetle with strongly
serrate antennae, deeply emarginate eyes, and brown
elytra with a reddish cross-shaped mark. Nothing is
known about the biology of this family, and the larva is
unknown.
Family Cerambycidae-Long-Horned Beetles: This
familyis a large one, with about 900 species in 300
generaoccurring in the United States and Canada, and
itsmembers are all phytophagous. Most long-horns are
elongate and cylindrical, with long antennae; the eyes
are usually strongly notched or even completely di-
vided;and many of these beetles are brightly colored.
Theyvary from 3 to 60 mm long. The tarsi appear four-
merouswith the third tarsomere bilobed, but are actu-
ally five-merous. The fourth tarsomere is small and
concealed in the notch of the third, and is often very
difficultto see (Figure 26-lOA). Both the Cerambyci-
dae and Chrysomelidae have this type of tarsal struc-
~
'"
'-'
1:'
'"
E
c.
o
a;>
'"
C>
-o
c:
'"
'5
ro
~
'"
a::
~
B
.~
«
o
o:.c
Figure26-70 GalIeries of the poplar borer, Saperda
calcarata Sayo
Keyto the Subfamilies of the Scarabaeidae 441
ture, and these groups are sometimes difficult to sepa-
rateo They can usually be separated by the characters
given in the key (couplet 29).
Most adult cerambycids, particularly the brightly
colored ones, feed on flowers. Many, usually not
brightly colored, are nocturnal in habit and during the
day may be found under bark or resting on trees or
logs. Many ceramycids make a squeaking sound when
picked up.
Most Cerambycidae are wood-boring in the larval
stage, and many species are very destructive to shade,
forest, and fruit trees and to freshly cut logs. The adults
lay their eggs in crevices in the bark, and the larva e
bore into the wood. The larval tunnels in the wood
(Figure 26-70) are circular in cross section (unlike
most buprestid tunnels, which are oval in cross sec-
tion) and usualIy go straight in a short distance before
turning. Different species attack different types of trees
and shrubs. A few will attack living trees, but most
species appear to prefer freshly cut logs or weakened
and dying trees or branches. A few girdle twigs and
lay their eggs just above the girdled bando Some
bore into the stems of herbaceous plants. The larva e
(Figure 26-71) are elongate, cylindrical, whitish, and
almost legless and differ from the larvae of the
Buprestidae in that the anterior end of the body is not
broadened and flattened. They are often called "round-
headed borers," to distinguish them from the flat-
headed borers (larva e of Buprestidae).
This family is divided into eight subfamilies,
which can generally be separated by the following key:
A
B e
Figure26-71 Cerambycid larvae. A, dogwood twig
borer,Obereatripunctata (Swederus),lateralview;B, twig
pruner, Elaphidionoides villosus (Fabricius), lateral view;
C, linden borer, Saperda vestita Say,dorsal view. (Cour-
tesy of Peterson.)
 '""'r
I
I

442 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

Key to the Subfamilies of Cerambycidae

l. Mandibles chisel-shaped (scalpriform); clypeus oblique to frons: wings

lacking a spur on radiomedial crossvein (Distenia) Disteniinae p.442
1'. Mandibles not as in preceding entry, wings with a spur on the
radiomedial crossvein 2
2(1'). Tarsi distincdy 5-5-5, without pubescent ventral pad; third tarsomere not
dilated, concealing small fourth tarsomere (Figure 26-lOJ); antennap
short, usually not attaining pronotal base 3
2'. Tarsi pseudotetramerous, with ventral pubescent pads; third tarsomere
dilated, concealing true fourth tarsomere (Figure 26-10A); antennae long
to very long, extending well beyond prono tal base 4
3(2). Pronotum with elevated lateral margins; labrum fused with epistoma Parandrinae p.442
3'. Pronotum without lateral margins; labrum free Spondylidinae p.442
4(2'). Head vertical or retracted; genal margin always directed posteriorly Lamiinae p.444
4'. Head obliquely inclined anteriorly or subvertical, genal margin never
directed posteriorly 5
5(4'). Pronotum with elevated lateral margins; labrum fused with epistoma;
fore coxae strongly transverse Prioninae p.442
S'. Pronotum without lateral margins; labrum free; fore coxae usually
globular 6
6(5'). Stridulatory plate of mesonotum large (absent in a few), undivided Cerambycinae p.445
6'. Stridulatory plate of mesonotum divided by a median longitudinal stripe 7
7(6'). Head short, not narrowed behind eyes; second antennomere longer than
broad, nearly half as long as third antennomere Aseminae p.444
7'. Head elongate, narrowed behind eyes; second antennomere not longer
than broad, much less than half as long as third antennomere Lepturinae p.445

Subfamily Disteniinae: Distenia undata (Fabricius)
is the only representative of this subfamily in North
America; it occurs in the eastern states. The mandibles
are chisel-shaped and not serrate on the inner margin,
and the thorax is spined on the sides and the elytra on
the apex. It lives under bark of hickory and oak and on
foliage of wild grape.
SubfamiliesParandrinae andSpondylidinae:Thesebee-
des differ from other cerambycids in having the fourth
tarsomere plainly visible and the tarsi obviously five-
merous (Figure 26-72E). The subfamily Parandrinae
contains three species, two in the genus Parandra. These
beedes are elongate-oval, somewhat flattened, bright red-
dish brown, and 9-18 mm long (Figure 26-73F). They
look a litde like smalllucanids. They live under the bark
of dead pine trees. The larvae burrow in dry, dead wood
of logs and stumps.
The subfamily Spondylidinae contains two
species,SpondylisupiformisMannerheim, which occurs
from the Great Lakes westward, and Scaphinusmuticus
(Fabricius), which occurs in the Southeast. These bee-
des are black, not particularly shiny, and 8-20 rnm
long. Their habits are similar to those of Parandra.
Subfamily Prioninae:This group contains the
largest North American cerambycids, some of which
may reach a length of about 75 mm. The Prioninae dif.
fer from the two preceding subfamilies in having the
tarsi appearing four-merous and from the following
subfamilies in having the pronotum margined laterally.
Most have spines or teeth along the margins of the
pronotum, and some have serrate antennae that con.
tain 12 or more antennomeres. The most cornrnon
species in this group belong to the genus Prionus.
These beedes (Figure 26-74E) are broad and some.
 Keyto the Subfamiliesof Cerambycidae 443

oI
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
ant A e
\
\
\
\ Figure26-72 Characters of Ceram-
bycidae. A and B, dorsolateral views of

U the left compound eye and the base of

the antenna. A, base of antenna
not surrounded by eye (Toxotus,
Lepturinae); B, base of antenna partIy
E surrounded by eye (Elaphidion,
Cerambycinae); C and D, maxillary
o
palps; C, Monochamus (Lamiinae);
D, Anoplodera (Lepturinae); E, hind
tarsus of Parandra (Parandrinae).
B ant, base of antenna; e, compound eye.

Figure26-73 Long-homed
beetIes. A, Anoplodera
canadensis(Olivier) (Lepturi-
B e nae); B, Typocerusdeceptus
Knull (Lepturinae); C, Desmo-
cerus palliatus (Forster) (Lep-
turinae); D, Toxotuscylindri-
collis (Say) (Lepturinae);
E, Eudercespini (Olivier)
(Cerambycinae); F,Parandra
polita Say (Parandrinae);
G, Asemum striatum (L.)
(Aseminae); H, Rhagium
inquisitor (L.) (Lepturinae).
(Courtesy of Knull and the
F G H Ohio BiologicalSurvey.)
 1
444 Chapter26 Order Coleoptera
I

I
I

A Figure 26-74 Long-horned

beetles. A, Goes tigrinus (De
Geer) (Lamiinae), P/2 X ;
B, Eburia quadrigeminata (Say)
(Cerambycinae), 11/2X ;
C, the sugar maple borer,
Glycobius speciosus (Say) (Cer-
ambycinae) (natural size);
D, Necydalis mellita (Say)
(Lepturinae), 2x; E, Prionus
imbricomis (L.) (Prioninae)
(natural size); F, Clytus margin-
icollis Castelnau (Cerambyci-
nae), 3 X. (Courtesy of Knul\
and the Ohio Biological
Survey.)

what flattened, blackish brown, with three broad teeth

on the lateral margins of the pronotum, and 17-60 mm
long (some western members of this genus are even '-
larger). The antennae contain 12 or more anten-
nomeres, and are serrate in the female. The members of
the genus Ergates, which occur in the West, are also
dark brown but have 8 or 10 small spines on each side
of the pronotum, and the eyes are deeply emarginate.
They are 35-65 mm long. Orthosoma brunneum
(Forster), a fairly common eastern species, is long and
narrow, light reddish brown, and 24-48 mm long. lt
has two or three teeth on the lateral margins of the Figure 26-75 The northeastern sawyer beetle, Mono-
pronotum. chamus notatus (Drury), female at left, male at right.
Subfamily Aseminae: The members of this small About 1/2x,
group (22 species in six genera in North America) are
elongate, parallel-sided, somewhat flattened beetles,
usually black (sometimes with the elytra brownish),
and mostly 10-20 mm long, with relatively short an- tical face. They are elongated, parallel-sided, and usually
tennae (Figure 26-73G). Most have the eyes deeply somewhat cylindrical, with the pronotum often a liule
emarginate (the eyes are completely divided in narrower than the base of the elytra (Figures 26-74A,
Tetropium) and partly surrounding the bases of the an- 26-75). This group is a large one, and many speciesare
tennae. The larvae of these beetles principally attack of considerable economic importance.
dead pine trees and pine stumps. The beetles in the genus Monochamus (Figure 26-75)
Subfamily Lamiinae:The members of this subfamily are often called "sawyerbeetles." They are usuallyayer
can be recognized by the pointed terminal segment of 25 mm long and are either black or a mottled gray.The
the maxillary palps (Figure 26-72C) and the rather ver- first antennomere has a scarlike area near the tipoThe

antennae of the males are some times twice as long as
the body. In the females the antennae are about as long
as the body. The larvae feed on evergreens, usually on
freshlycut logs, but they may sometimes attack living
trees.The holes made by the larvae are at least as large
in diameter as a lead pencil, and those of some species
arenearly 13 mm in diameter.
The genus Saperda contains a number of impor-
tant pest species. These beetles are about 25 mm long
and are sometimes strikingly colored. Saperda candida
Fabricius is white, with three broad, brown longitudi-
nal stripes on the back. The larva bores in apple and
other trees and is commonly called the "round-headed
appletree borer." Other important species in this genus
arethe poplar borer, S. calcarata Say, and the elm borer,
S.tridentata Olivier.
The species in the genus Oberea are very slender
and elongate. The raspberry cane borer, O. bimaculata
(Olivier),is black, with the pronotum yellow and bear-
ing two or three black spots. The larvae are often seri-
ouspests in canes of raspberries and blackberries.
The species of Tetraopes are about 13 mm long and
are red with black spots. The compound eyes are di-
videdso that there are apparently two compound eyes
on each side of the head. The red milkweed beetle,
I tetraophthalmus (Forster) is a common species feed-
ingon milkweed.
The twig girdler, Oncideres cingulata (Say), lays its
eggsunder the bark near the tips of living branches of
hickory,elm, apple, and other deciduous trees. Before
the egg is deposited, the beetle gnaws a deep groove
around the twig, girdling it. The twig eventually dies
and drops to the ground, and the larva completes its
development in the twig.
The Asian long-horn beetle, Anoplophora glabripen-
nis (Motschulsky), was recently introduced into the
UnitedStates in wooden packing material. It threatens
to become a major pest of hardwood trees, such as
maple,elm, willow, and poplar.
Subfamily Lepturinae:The long-horns in this group
resemblethose in the Cerambycinae in having the ter-
minalsegment of the maxillary palps blunt or truncate
atthe apex (Figure 26-72D). They differ from the Ce-
rambycinae in having the front coxae conical, and the
basesof the antennae are usually not surrounded by
the eyes (Figure 26-72A). Many Lepturinae have the
elytratapering posteriorly, or the pronotum narrower
thanthe base of the elytra, giving them a rather broad-
shouldered appearance.
A striking eastern species in this group is the el-
derberry long-horn, Desmocerus palliatus (Forster)
(Figure 26-73C). This is a dark blue beetle about
25mm long, with the basal third of the elytra orange-
yellow,and with antennomeres 3-5 thickened at the
Keyto the Subfamilies of Cerambycidae 445
tips. The adult lives on the flowers and foliage of el-
derberry, and the larva bores in the pith of this plant.
Several other species of Desmocerus live on elderberry
in the western states. They are similar in general col-
oration, with the males having brilliant scarlet elytra
and a black pronotum. The females have very dark
green elytra bordered narrowly with red along the
outer margino
This subfamily contains many species found on
flowers. In most the elytra are broadest at the base and
narrowed toward the apex (Figure 26-73A,B,D,H).
Some common genera are Stictopleptura, Typocerus,
Toxotus, and Stenocorus. Most of these beetles are
brightly colored, often with yellow and black bands or
stripes. In many cases the elytra do not cover the tip of
the abdomen. All are excellent fliers.
Subfamily Cerambycinae:This group is a large one,
and its members vary considerably in size and general
appearance. One of the most strikingly marked species
in this subfamily is the locust borer, Megacyllene
robiniae (Forster), the larva of which bores into the
trunks of black locust. The adult is black with bright
yellow markings and is relatively common on golden-
rod in late summer. Another easily recognized species
in this group is Eburia quadrigeminata (Say), a brown-
ish species 14-24 mm long, which has two pairs of
elevated ivory-colored swellings on each elytron (Fig-
ure 26-74B). The members of some genera in this
group (Smodicum and others) are somewhat flattened
and have relatively short antennae. Others (for exam-
pie, Euderces, Figure 26-73E) are small, shorter than
9 mm, and somewhat antlike in appearance.
Family Megalopodidae: This small group, repre-
sented in the United States by nine species of Zeu-
gophora, was formerly considered a subfamily of
Chrysomelidae. The adults are 3-4 mm long and live
chiefly on poplar, hickory, and oak.
Family Orsodacnidae: This small family contains
only four North American species in 3 genera. Orso-
dacne atra (Ahrens), a widely distributed beetle that is
extremely variable in coloration, 7-8 mm long, is
found chiefly on a wide variety of flowers, including
those of willow and dogwood.
Family Chrysomelidae-Leaf Beetles: The leaf beetles
are closely related to the Cerambycidae, both groups
having a similar tarsal structure (Figure 26-IOA) and
both being phytophagous. The leaf beetles usually have
much shorter antennae and are smaller and more oval in
shape than the cerambycids. The chrysomelids in the
United States are almost all shorter than 12 mm; most
cerambycids are larger. Many chrysomelids are brightly
colored.
Adult leaf beetles feed principally on flowers and
foliage. The larvae are phytophagous, but vary quite a
 r
446 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

bit in appearance and habits. Some larvae are free feed-
ers on foliage, some are leaf miners, some feed on
roots, some feed within seeds, and some bore in stems.
Many members of this family are serious pests of culti-
vated plants. Most species overwinter as adults.
The family Chrysomelidae is a large one with ap-
proximately 1,720 North American species assigned to
195 genera. It is divided into a number of subfamilies,
and those occurring in North America may be sepa-
rated by the following key.

Keyto the Subfamiliesof Chrysomelidae

l. Prothorax usually with well-defined lateral bead 2

1/. Prothorax usually without lateral bead 7
2(1). Head opisthognathous, front or vertex projecting strongly forward; tarsal
formula 4-4-4 Hispinae p.450
2/. Head usually prognathous or hypognathous, front or vertex not projecting
strongly forward; tarsal formula 5-5-5, pseudotetramerous, with penultimate
tarsomere minute and usually hidden between lobes of tarsomere 3 3
3(2/). Elytral epipleuron strongly angulate near basal third, excavate behind
angulation for reception of apex of hind femur; pronotum with grooves
at sides of prostemum for reception of antennae Lamprosomatinae p.448
3/. Elytral epipleuron not abruptly excavate near basal third (may be strongly
curved); prostemal grooves for reception of antennae usually absent 4
4(3/). Abdomen with ventrites 2-4 usually greatly shortened medially; body
subcylindrical, compact; head deeply inserted into prothorax; pygidium
usually exposed, vertical Cryptocephalinae p.448
4/. Abdomen with intermediate ventrites not abnormally shortened; head
usually not deeply inserted into prothorax body usually not subcylindrical 5
5(4/). Antennal insertions narrowly separated, usually by a distance less than
length of basal antennomere Galerucinae p.449
5'. Antennal insertions widely separated, usually by distance much greater
than length of basal antennomere 6
6(5/). Fore coxae transverse; ventrallobe of tarsomere 3 usually entire or weakly
emarginate apically Chrysomelinae p.448
6'. Fore coxae globular; ventrallobe of tarsomere 3 deeply bilobed Eumolpinae(in part) p.448
7(1'). Eyes entire, not emarginate near antennal insertions 8
7'. Eyes emarginate near antennal insertions 9
8(7). Pretarsal claws bifid or appendiculate; head without deep median groove
between antennae Eumolpinae
(in part) p.448
8/. Pretarsal claws simple; head usually with deep median groove between
antennae Donaciinae p.447
9(7/). Pygidium broadly exposed; hind femur greatly enlarged, often with large
ventral teeth Bruchinae p.447
9/. Pygidium usually not exposed; hind femur not much larger than fore and
mid femur 10
10(9'). Head with X-shaped groove between eyes; elytra usually not pubescent;
pygidium not exposed Criocerinae p.447
10/. Head without X-shaped groove between eyes; elytra pubescent; pygidium
exposed (but not broadly so) Eumolpinae
(in part) p.448

Figure26-76 The bean weevil, Acanthosce/idesobtectus
(Say)(Chrysomelidae,Bruchinae).The line at the right
representsthe actuallength. (Courtesy of U5DA.)
Subfamily Bruchinae-Seed Beetles: The members
ofthis subfamily (134 species in North America) are
short, stout-bodied beetles, mostly less than 5 mm
long,with the elytra shortened and not covering the tip
ofthe abdomen. The body is often somewhat narrowed
anteriorly(Figure 26-76) and is usually dull grayish or
brownish.The head is produced anteriorly into a short,
broadsnout.
The larvae of most bruchines feed inside seeds
andpupate in the seeds. The adults generally oviposit
on seeds that are fully developed or nearly so, but
someoviposit on the flowers or young fruits. Some
speciesdevelop in stored dry seeds. Some of the seed
beetles, particularly those attacking leguminous
plants,are serious pests. Two common species in this
familyare the bean weevil, Acanthosce/ides obtectus
(Say)(Figure 26-76), and the pea weevil, Bruchus
pisorum(L.). These beetles lay their eggs on the pods
ofbeans or peas, and the larvae bore into the seeds.
Theadults emerge through little round holes cut in
theseed. The bean weevil may breed indoors through-
outthe year in stored dried beans, but the pea weevil
attacksthe peas only in the field and do es not oviposit
ondried peas. These insects cause serious damage in
storedseeds that are not protected. The homemaker
frequentlysees bean weevils for the first time when the
beetlestry to escape through the windows, and can't
figureout where they carne from untillater when he or
shefinds a sack of dried beans full of holes.
Subfamily Donaciinae-Long-Horned Leaf Beetles:
Thesebeetles are elongate and slender, and have long
antennae (Figure 26-77). Most 56 North American
speciesare dark-colored and metallic, 5.5 to 12.0 mm
long,usually black, greenish, or coppery. They are ac-
tive,fast-flying beetles and, in this respect, resemble
thetiger beetles. The long-horned leaf beetles are sel-
dom seen far from water. The adults are generally
..
Keyto the Subfamilies of Chrysomelidae 447
Figure 26-77 A long-horned leaf beetle, Donada sp.
(Chrysomelidae, Donaciinae), 71f2X.
found on the flowers or foliage of water lilies,
pondweed, sedges, and other aquatic plants. The eggs
of many species are laid on the undersides of the leaves
of water lily, in a whitish, crescent-shaped mass near a
small, circular hole cut in the leafby the adulto The lar-
vae feed on the submerged parts of aquatic plants and
obtain air through the plant stems. They pupate in co-
coons that are fastened to vegetation below the water
surface.
Subfamily Criocerinae: The members of this sub-
family have the head narrowed behind the eyes to form
a slender neck, and the punctures of the elytra are
arranged in rowS. Five genera occur in the United
States: Crioceris, Oulema, Neolema, Lilioceris, and
Lema. Some of these beetles are important pests.
The genus Crioceris includes two species, both im-
ported from Europe, which attack asparagus and often
cause serious damage. Both species are about 7 mm
long. The striped asparagus beetle, C. asparagi (L.) has
a red prothorax and light yellow markings on the
bluish green elytra (Figure 26-78A). The spotted as-
paragus beetle, C. duodecimpunctata (L.), is orange,
with six large black spots on each elytron. Adults and
larvae of C. asparagi feed on the new shoots and cause
damage to the growing plant. The larvae of C. duodec-
impunctata feed inside the berries and do not injure the
shoots.
The cereal leaf beetle, Oulema melanopus (L.) is
blue-black with a red pronotum and about 6 mm long
(Figures 26-78B, 26-79A). This serious introduced
pest of grains has now spread throughout much of
448 Chapter26 Order Coleoptera
A B
Figure 26-78 Criocerine leaf beetles. A, the striped as-
paragus beetle, Criocerisasparagi (L.); B, the cerealleaf
beetle, Oulema melanopus (L.). (A, courtesy of the Utah
State Agricultural College; B, courtesy of the Ohio Agri-
cultural Research and Development Center.)
Figure 26-79 Leaf beetles. A, the cerealleaf beetle,
Oulema melanopus (L.) (Criocerinae); B, the striped cu-
cumber beetle, Acalymma vittatum (Fabricius) (Galeruci-
nae); C, the spotted cucumber beetle, Diabroticaundec-
impunctata howardiBarber (Galerucinae); D, a flea beetle
(Galerucinae).
North America. Both adults and larvae feed on the
leaves of grain (and on various other grasses).
About 15 species of Lema occur in the eastern and
southern United States. The most important species is
probably the three-lined potato beetle, L. trilinea
White, which feeds on potato and related plants. This
beetle is 6-7 mm long and reddish yellow with three
broad, black stripes on the elytra.
Subfamily Lamprosomatinae: This is one of the
smallest chrysomelid subfamilies. Only one species,
Oomorphus floridanus (Horn), occurs in the United
States, in south Florida and the Keys.
Subfamily Cryptocephalinae (including Clytrinae and
Chlamisinae)-Case-Bearing Leaf Beetles: The members
of this large subfamily (more than 325 species in the
United States), are small, robust, somewhat cylindrical
beetles that have the head buried in the prothorax al-
most to the eyes. When disturbed, they draw in their
legs, fall to the ground, and remain motionless. Many
of these beetles are dark-colored, often with reddish or
yellowish markings. The larvae are small fleshy grubs
that crawl about dragging a small protective case, usu-
ally made of their own excremento These cases are
shorter than the body, and the posterior portion of the
larva is bent downward and forward in the case. The
larvae of most case-bearing leaf beetles feed on leaves
or in leaf litter The larvae of some species live in ant
nests, where they feed on vegetable debris. Pupation of
these beetles occurs within the case.
Subfamily Eumolpinae (including Synetinae and
Megascelidinae):This is one of the larger chrysomelid
families, with about 145 species in 25 genera in North
America. These are oblong, convex beetles that are of-
ten brown to black. Some are metallic in color or are
yellowish and spotted. The dogbane beetle, Chrysochus
auratus (Fabricius), which lives on dogbane and milk-
weed, is one of the most brilliantly colored of the leaf
beetles. lt is iridescent blue-green with a coppery tinge
and is 8-11 mm long. A closely related species,
C. cobaltinus LeConte, occurs in the West. It is darker
and bluer than C. auratus and is 9-10 mm long.
The western grape rootworm, Bromius obscurus
(L.), causes serious damage to grape crops, mostly in
California, and also occurs in Europe and Siberia.
Throughout most of its range in the United States from
Alaska to New Mexico, its normal host is fireweed.
Similar species found on grapes in the East belong to
the genus Fidia and are small, oval, hairy, and dark
brown to black.
Syneta albida LeConte, which damages the buds of
many kinds of fruit trees along the North Pacific Coast,
is a member of the Tribe Synetini.
Subfamily Chrysomelinae:Most members of this
large subfamily 135 species in North America) are oval,
convex, brightly colored, and 3.5 to 12.0 mm long, and

A B
Figure26-80 The Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa
decemlineata(Say). A, adult; B, larva. (Courtesy of the
UtahAgricultural Experiment Station.)
thehead is sunk into the prothorax almost to the eyes.
TheColorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata
(Say), is the best-known and most important species in
thisgroup. This is a large, yellow beetle striped with
black(Figure 26-80) and is a very serious pest of
potato plants over most of the United States. Appar-
entlythe common name of this insect is inappropriate,
becauseboth the beetle and its native host plants, sev-
eral species of nightshade (Solanum), originated in
Mexico.The beetle did adapt to the cultivated potato
andrapidly spread eastward, but from Nebraska, not
Colorado. Since the introduction of the potato, this
beetlehas spread throughout the United States and has
beentransported to Europe, where it is also a serious
pest. This group also includes the genus Chrysolina,
speciesof which were introduced into the Unites States
fromEurope to control Klamath weed.
Most other species in this subfamily feed on vari-
ouswild plants and are of little economic importance.
Speciesof Labidomera (relatively large red and black
beetles)feed on milkweed; Phratora (metallic blue or
purple) feed on willow and poplar; and Calligrapha
(whitish, with dark streaks and spots) feed on willow,
alder,and other plants.
A B
Keyto the Subfamiliesof Chrysomelidae 449
Subfamily Galerucinae (including Alticinae): The
members of this group are small soft-bodied beetles,
mostly 2.5 to 1l.0 mm long, and many are yellowish
with dark spots or stripes. The spotted cucumber
beetle, Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi Barber (Fig-
ure 26-79C), and the striped cucumber beetle, Aca-
Iymma vittatum (Fabricius) (Figure 26-79B), feed on
cucumbers and related plants. These beetles do serious
damage to cucurbits by their feeding, and they act as
vectors of cucurbit wilt. The wilt bacilli pass the win-
ter in the alimentary tract of the beetles, and new
plants are inoculated when the beetles begin to feed on
them in the spring. The larvae of these two species are
small, white, and soft-bodied and feed on the roots and
underground stems of cucurbits. The larva of the spot-
ted cucumber beetle also feeds on the roots of corn and
other plants and is sometimes called the "southern
corn rootworm."
Two other corn rootworms-the northern corn
rootworm, Diabrotica barberi Smith and Lawrence, and
the western corn rootworm, D. virgifera LeConte-are
serious pests of corn in the Midwest. Both adults and
larvae cause damage, the larva e by feeding on the roots
and the adults by feeding in the silk. The latter activity
prevents pollination and consequent kernel develop-
mento
The elm leafbeetle, Xanthogaleruca luteola (Müller),
is another important pest species in this group. It is a
greenish yellow beetle with a few black spots on the head
and pronotum and a black stripe down the outer margin
of each elytron.
The flea beetles (Tribe Alticini) are small, jump-
ing, leaf beetles that have the hind femora greatly en-
larged. Many are metallic blue or greenish, but others
are brown, black, or black with light markings (Fig-
ure 26-81). A number of the flea beetles are very im-
portant pests of garden and field crops. Epitrix hir-
tipennis (Melsheimer) attacks tobacco; E. cucumeris
(Harris) feeds on potatoes and cucumbers; and E. fus-
cula Crotch feeds on eggplant and tomatoes. These are
Figure26-81 Flea beetles
(Galerucinae, Alticini). A, the po tato
fleabeetle, Epitrix cucumeris(Harris);
B, the spinach flea beetle, Disonychia
xanthomelas (Dalman); C, the egg-
plant flea beetle, Epitrix fuscula
e Crotch. (Courtesy of USDA.)
450 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
small brownish or blackish beetles about 2 mm long.
Altica chalybea Illiger, a blue-black beetle 4-5 mm
long, feeds on the buds and leaves of grape. Adult flea
beetles feed on the leaves of the food plant and eat tiny
holes in them. The leaves of a heavily infested plant
look as if small shot had been fired into them. The lar-
vae usually feed on the roots of the same plant.
The corn flea beetle, Chaetocnema pulicaria
Melsheimer, is a vector of Stewart's disease of corno The
causative organism, a bacterium, overwinters in the ali-
mentary tract of the adult beetle and is transmitted to
seedling corn when the beetle feeds. This disease is espe-
cially important in early-planted sweet corno In some in-
stances entire fields have been destroyed by the disease.
Subfamily Hispinae-Leaf-Mining Leaf Beetles and
Tortoise Beetles: The leaf-mining members of this sub-
family (more than 100 species in the United States) are
4-7 mm long, elongate, and often peculiarly ridged
(Figure 26-82). Most are leaf-mining in the larval
stage, and some are rather serious pests. The locust leaf
miner, Odontota dorsalis (Thunberg), an orange-yellow
beetle with a broad, black stripe down the middle of
the back (Figure 26-82), is a serious pest of black 10-
cust. lts mines are irregular blotches in the terminal
half of the leaflet and, when numerous, may cause con-
siderable defoliation.
Tortoise beetles are broadly oval or circular, with
wide elytra and the head largely or entirely covered by
the pronotum. Some are shaped very much like lady-
bird beetles. Many smaller tortoise beetles (5-6 mm
long) are very brilliantly colo red, often with golden
color or markings; the mottled tortoise beetle, Deloyala
guttata (Olivier), has black markings on a reddish gold
background, and the golden tortoise beetle, Chari-
dotella sexpunctata bicolor (Fabricius), is brilliant gold
Figure 26-82 Adult of the locust leaf miner, Odontota
dorsalis (Thunberg), 7X (Hispinae). (Courtesy of the
Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center.)
Figure 26-83 Tortoise beetles (Hispinae). A-D, the
argus tortoise beetle, Chelymorpha cassidea (Fabricius),
11/2x; E, the eggplant tortoise beetle, Cassida pallidula
Boheman, 5X. A, larva, with the anal fork extended and
covered with fecal material; B, adult; C, pupa, ventral
view; D, pupa, dorsal view. (Courtesy of USDA.)
or bronzy, often with small black spots but without ex-
tensive black mottling. One of the largest members of
this subfamilyis the argus tortoise beetle, Chelymorpha
cassidea(Fabricius), which is 9.5-11.5 mm long and
shaped very much like a box turtle. It is red, usually
with six black spots on each elytron and one black
spot along the suture overlapping both elytra (Fig-
ure 26-83B).
The larvae oftortoise beetles are elongate-oval and
somewhat flattened. At the posterior end of the bodyis
a forked process that is usually bent upward and for-
ward over the body. Cast skins and excrement are at-
tached to this process, forming a parasol-like shield
over the body (Figure 26-83A). The larva e and adults
of tortoise beetles feed principally on morning glories
and related plants.
SUPERFAMILY Curculionoidea:The members ofthis
group are sometimes caBed "snout beetles," as most
have the head more or less prolonged anteriorly intoa
beak or snout. This term is less appropriate (and is sel-
dom used) for the Platypodinae and Scolytinae, be-
cause the snout is scarcelydeveloped in these two sub-
families of the Curculionidae. The Curculionoidea
were formerly placed in a subdivision of the Coleoptera
caBed the Rhynchophora.
Certain other characters besides the development
of a snout distinguish the Curculionoidea from the bee-
tles already described. The guiar sutures are nearlyal-
ways confluent, or lacking, with no gula developed
(Figure 26-3C) (they are short but widely separated in
the Nemonychidae). Prosternal sutures are lacking
(except in the Anthribidae), and in most the palps
are rigid or invisible and the labrum is absent (Fig-

ure26-3A,B). The mouthparts are small and more or
lesshidden in most of these beetles. The mandibles, 10-
catedat the tip of the snout, are usually the only
mouthpartstructures easily visible without dissection.
Ihe tarsi are five-merous, but usually appear four-
merous(¡he fourth tarsomere is very small and hidden
betweenthe lobes of the third). The blind weevils of
the subfamily Raymondionyrninae of the Curculion-
idaehave truly four-merous tarsi.
Ihis is a large and important group ofbeetles, with
morethan 3,500 species occurring in North America.
Practicallyall feed on plant materials, and most of the
larvaeare burrowing in habit, infesting nuts, twigs, and
the like. The larva e are whitish, usually C-shaped,
moreor less cylindrical, and usually legless. A great
manyare of considerable economic importance as
pestsof field or garden crops, of forest, shade, and fruit
trees,or of stored products. Recently, many species
havebeen introduced into North America for the bio-
logicalcontrol of a variety of noxious or pest weeds.
Entomologists differ regarding the classification of
thebeetles in this superfamily. Lawrence and Newton
(1995)group North American species into 7 families,
butAlonso-Zarazaga and Lyal (1999) further subdivide
these into 13 separate families.The more conservative
classificationrecognizing only 7 families is followed
here.
Family Nemonychidae-Pine Flower Snout Beetles:
Ihis is a small group, with only five genera and 15
speciesoccurring in North America. These beetles are
3.0to 4.5 mm long, with the snout about as long as the
prothoraxand somewhat flattened and narrowed at the
base.Ihey differ from other families of Curculionoidea
(exceptAnthribidae) in having the labrum distinct and
thepalps flexible. The larvae of these beetles develop in
thestaminate flowers of various conifers. Adults are
A B
Keyto the Subfamilies of Chrysomelidae 451
usually found on conifers, but may occasionally be
found on plum or peach trees. Kuschel (1989) provides
a key to genera and species.
Family Anthribidae-Fungus Weevils: The an-
thribids are elongate-oval, 0.5-30.0 (usually less than
10.0) mm long, with the beak short and broad and the
antennae not elbowed (Figure 26-84B). Some species
have slender antennae that may be longer than the body
(hence they look a liule like some Cerambycidae), and
others have short antennae with a three-merous club.
The elytra always cover the base of the pygidium, which
is always partly exposed in lateral view but is usually
not visible from above. The adults of this group are usu-
ally found on dead twigs or beneath loose bark. The lar-
vae vary in habits. Some breed in woody fungi; some
breed in the fungi of certain crops (for example, com
smut); some feed in seeds; and a few bore in dead wood.
The introduced coffee bean weevil, Araecerus fascicula-
tus (DeGeer), is an important pest of seeds, berries, and
dried fruits. There are approximately 90 described
species of Anthribidae in the United States and Canada
plus more than 30 that remain to be described.
Family Belidae-Primitive Weevils: Only two
species in this family occur in the United States,
Rhopalotria slossoni (Schaeffer), and R. mollis (Sharp),
both in southem Florida. The adults and larva e feed on
the male cones of arrowroot (Zamia). Adults have non-
geniculate (straight) antennae, the elytra are truncate
(exposing the last one or two tergites), and the front
legs are very robust in males. The role of these beetles
in pollinating cycads has be en studied by Norstog and
Fawceu (1989).
Family Attelabidae-Leaf-Rolling Weevils, Tooth-
Nosed Snout Beetles: This family combines the tradi-
tional Auelabinae and Rhynchitinae despite their dif-
ferent structure and biology.
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
Figure26-84 A, a straight-snouted weevil,
Arrhenodes minutus (Drury) (Brentidae), 4 x;
B, a fungus weevil, Euparius marmoreus
(Olivier) (Anthribidae), 61/2X. (A, courtesy
of Amett; B, courtesy of Pierce and the V.5.
National Museum.)
452 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

Attelabinae, the leaf-rolling weevils, are short and
robust, 3-6 mm long. Most are black, reddish, or black
with red markings. The most interesting characteristic
of this group is their method of laying eggs, from which
their common name is derived. When a female is ready
to oviposit, she cuts two slits near the leaf base, from
each edge to the midrib, and rolls the part of the leaf
beyond these cuts into a neat, solid ball. A single egg is
laid near the leaf tip, usually on the underside, before
the leaf is rolled up. She then gnaws the midrib of the
leaf (at the end of the basal cuts) partiy in two, and the
leaf roll eventually drops to the ground. The larva feeds
on the inner portion of this leaf roll and pupates either
in the roll or in the ground. There are five genera and
7 species of Attelabinae in North America. Most species
live on oak, hickory, or walnut, but one species-
Attelabus nigripes LeConte, red and 3.5 to 4.5 rnm
long)-feeds on sumac, and another-Himatolabus pu.
bescens (Say), 4.5 to 5.5 mm long and dark reddish lO
black-feeds also on alder and hazelnut.
The thief weevil, Pterocolus ovatus (Fabricius), isa
brood parasite of its relatives, the leaf-rolling weevilsin
the Attelabinae. Adults of this small, metallic-blue wee.
vil enter leaf rolls of various attelabines, destroy the
egg, and lay their own egg. The larvae then eats the leaf
roll prepared by the host attelabine.
Rhynchitinae, the tooth-nosed weevils, are so
named because they have teeth on the edges of the
mandibles (Figure 26-851). They are 1.5 to 6.5 rnm
long and usually live on low vegetation. There are

/
tsp
A B e o E F

md "

, "

G H J

Figure 26-85 Characters of snout beetles. A-D, antennae; E-F, tibiae; G-H, heads;
I-J, tip of snout. A, Cylas, female (Brentidae, Cyladinae); B, same, male; C, Rhynchites
(Attelabidae, Rhynchitinae); D, Ithycems (Ithyceridae); E, Attelabus (Attelabidae, Atte-
labinae); F, Rhynchites (Attelabidae, Rhynchitinae); G, Arrhenodes, male (Brentidae,
Brentinae); H, same, female; 1, Rhynchites (Attelabidae, Rhynchitinae); J, Attelabus (Atte-
labidae, Attelabinae). ant, antenna; e, compound eye; md, mandible; tsp, tibial spur.

about45 North American species of these weevils, in
eightgenera. A common species in this group is the
rosecurculio,Merhynchitesbicolor (Fabricius), which
liveson rases. The adult is about 6 mm long and is red,
withthe snout and the ventral side of the body black,
andit appears broad-shouldered. The larvae feed in
rosefruits(hips). Other species in this group breed in
buds,fruits, and nuts. Larvae of the species of Eug-
namptus are dead leaf miners.
Family Brentidae-Straight-Snouted and Pear-
ShapedWeevils: Despite their remarkably different
sizesand appearances, this family combines the tradi-
lionalBrentinae, Apioninae (including Nanophyinae),
andCyladinae.
Brentinae are narrow, elongate, cylindrical beetles,
5.2to 42.0 mm long, usually reddish or brownish and
shining, with the snout projecting straight forward
(Figure 26-84A). The snout is generally longer
andmore slender in the female than in the mal e (Fig-
ure26-85G,H). This group is principally tropical, and
onlysix species in 6 genera occur in North America.
Theonly common eastern species is Arrhenodes minu-
tus(Drury), which usually lives under the loose bark of
deadoak, poplar, and beech trees. The larvae are wood-
boringand sometimes attack living trees.
Members of the Apioninae are small (4.5 mm long
orless), somewhat pear-shaped, and usually blackish,
andthe antennae are usually not elbowed (excepting
Nanophyinaein which antennae are elbowed). Most of
themore than 150 North American species belong to
tbe traditional genus Apion, many of which live on
legumesand composites. The larvae bore into the
seeds,stems, and other parts of the planto Adults of the
introduced hollyhock weevil, A. longirostre Olivier,
leedon the leaves and buds of the hollyhock, and the
larvaefeed on the seeds of this planto The pine gall
weevil,Podapion gallicola Riley, forms galls on the
twigsof pine trees. In recent years, some authors have
subdividedthe large traditional genus Apion into nu-
meroussmaller genera.
The sweet po tato weevil, Cylas formicarius elegan-
tulus(Summers), is an introduced species that lives
principallyin the southern states. This beetle is slen-
der,elongate, antlike, and 5-6 mm long. The pronotum
is reddish brown and the elytra are blue-black (Fig-
ure26-86). The larvae are often called "sweet potato
rootborers."This insect is a serious pest of sweet pota-
loesbecause the larvae bore in the vines and roots, and
theplants are often killed. The larvae may continue to
burrowthrough the tubers after they are harvested, and
adultsmay emerge after the sweet potatoes are in stor-
ageor on the market.
Family Ithyceridae: This family includes a single
spedes, the New York weevil, Ithycerus noveboracensis
(Forster),which lives in eastern North America west to
Keyto the Subfamiliesof Chrysomelidae 453
Figure26-86 The sweetpotato weevil, Cylas fonnicar-
ius elegantulus (Summers), female. (Courtesy ofUSDA.)
Nebraska and Texas. This beetle is shiny black, clothed
with patches of gray and brown pubescence, and has
the scutellum yellowish. It is 12-18 mm long. The
adults of this beetle live principally on the limbs and
foliage of hickory, oak, and beech trees. The larvae de-
velop on the roots of these same trees.
Family Curculionidae-Snout Beetles and True Wee-
vils, including Bark and Ambrosia Beetles: The members
of this family are by far the most commonly encountered
Curculionoidea. They may be found almost everywhere,
and more than 3,000 species in almost 500 genera occur
in North America. They show considerable variation in
size, shape, and the form of the snout. The snout is fairly
well developed in most species, with the antennae aris-
ing about the middle of the snout (Figure 26-3B). In
some of the nut weevils (Figure 26-87C), the snout is
long and slender, as long as the body or longer. Scolyti-
nae, Platypodinae, and some Cossoninae lack a snout.
All members of this family (except a few occurring
in ant nests) are plant feeders in both living and dead
plants, and many are serious pests. Almost every part of
a plant may be attacked, fram the roots upward. The lar-
vae usually feed inside the tissues of the plant, and the
adults drill holes in fruits, nuts, arid other plant parts. .
Most snout beetles, when disturbed, will draw in
their legs and antennae, fall to the graund, and remain
motionless. Many are colored like bits of bark or dirt,
and when they remain motionless they are very diffi-
cult to see. Some snout beetles (for example, Conotra-
chelus, subfamily Molytinae) can stridulate by rubbing
hardened tubercles on the dorsum of the abdomen
against filelike ridges on the underside of the elytra.
These sounds in Conotrachelus (Figure 26-2) are ex-
454 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

D E F G H

Figure26-87 Characters of snout beetles. A, lateral view of body of Odontocorynus

(Baridinae); B, ventral view of abdomen of Tychius (Curculioninae, Tychiini); C, a nut
weevil, Curculiosp., lateral view (Curculioninae); D-F, tarsal claws; D, claws free and
simple (Ophriastes, Entiminae); E, claws connate (Cleonus, Lixinae); F, claws toothed
(Rhyssematus, Molytinae); G-I, tibia and tarsus; G, tibia uncinate (Laemosaccus, Mesop-
tiliinae); H, tibia mucronate (Tychius, Curculioninae, Tychiini); 1, tibia mucronate and
uncinate (Erethistes, Molytinae). el, elytron; epm2'mesepimeron; epS2'mesepisternus;
eps), metepisternum; mu, muero; py, pygidium; stn2, mesosternum; stn), metasternurn;
un, uncus; 1-5, ventrites 1-5.

tremely weak and usually can be heard only by holding American Beetles, in which the Curculionidae are di.
the insect to one's ear. vided into 18 subfarnilies, including Scolytinae and
Coleopterists differ regarding the lirnits of the farn- Platypodinae, now generally regarded as closely related
ily Curculionidae. We follow here the arrangernent in to snout beetles.
 Keyto the Subfamilies of Curculionidae 455

Keyto the Subfamilies of Curculionidae

Ibiskey should serve 10 identify the vast majority of the specimens the general collector
islikelyto encounter. It is difficult to use in some places requiring high magnification
andsometimes, dissections. There have been significant changes to the classification of
Curculionidaesince the last edition of this book. The key and classification used here
followtherecent treatmentof the familyin the book AmericanBeetles(Amett et al.
2001,2002),volume 2. Of most significance is the lower number of subfamilies. This is
largelydue to grouping of traditionally recognized subfamilies together within Cur-
culioninaeand Molytinae.

1. Pregular sutures present; pregular sclerite distinct, located between

median guIar suture and labial articulation; head with rostrum virtually
absent; at least 1 pair of tibiae with denticles or stout socketed setae
along the dorsal (outer) margin 2
l' Pregular sutures absent; pregular sclerite not evident; head with rostrum
variable from very long and cylindrical to short and broad, or (rarely)
nearly absent; tibiae lacking denticles or stout, socketed setae along the
dorsal (outer) margin 3
2(1). Tarsus with tarsomere 1 as long as tarsomeres 2-5 combined; head as
wide as pronotum; pronotum usually with lateral constriction near middle;
antennal club without sutures; lateral denticles on front tibia not socketed Platypodinae p.464
2'. Tarsus with tarsomere 1 not longer than tarsomeres 2 or 3; head narrower
than pronotum, often concealed by pronotum when viewed dorsally;
pronotum not constricted laterally; antennal club with sutures; lateral
denticles on front tibia socketed or (rarely) not Scolytinae p.464
3(1'). Tarsus of 4 subequal tarsomeres; eyes absent; body size small «5 mm);
body generally pale orange-red or pale brown; tibia at inner apical angle
with small tooth much shorter than a pretarsalclaw Raymondionyminae p. 459
3' Tarsus of 5 tarsomeres, but with tarsomere 4 very small and difficult to
see between lobes of tarsomere 3; eyes absent or present, well developed,
or reduced in size and represented by only from 1 to a few facets; body
size variable; body color variable; tibia at apex variable, but if eyes are
lacking or almost so, then tibia with large tooth arising from outer apical
angle 4
4(3'). Tarsus with claws widely separated by dermallobes extended between
them from both dorsal and ventral surfaces at apex of tarsomere 5;
mouthparts with prementum withdrawn into oral cavity, palpi mostly or
entirely concealed; antenna inserted near base of rostrum, with scape long,
projected some distance beyond the hind margin of the eye and not fitting
into antennal scrobe (exceptions: Dryophthorus, Orthognathus, Yuccaborus
have a more distal insertion of the antennae, possess a scrobe, and the
scape does not pass, or only slightly passes, beyond hind margin of eye);
antenna with club of 2 basic parts, with basal glabrous and shining
portion, and apical uniformly pilose portion; funicle with 4, 5, or
6 antennomeres; body surface lacking broad, fiat scales; pygydium formed
of tergite7 in male Dryophthorinae10 p.459

IOInsmall specimens it may be difficult to see the states of the pretarsal claws and the mouthparts. Only two small-sized genera of Dryoph-
thorinae are included here. Dryophthorus can be recognized by an antennal funicle of fOUTantennomeres in combination with the antennal club
character,whereas Sitophilus may be recognized by the form of the apex of the hind tibia, which has a small preapical tooth on the inner mar-
ginin addition to the larger, hooklike tooth at the inner apical angle (the tibiae appearing "pincer-like"), in combination with the antennal
clubcharacter.
456 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

4'. Tarsus with claws single, connate at base or separate, but with dorsal and
ventral surfaces at apex of tarsomere S not extended between bases of
pretarsal claws; mouthparts with prementum visible, not withdrawn, palpi
mostly visible; antenna inserted variously along length of rostrum, usually
some distance from base, with scape short or long, and fitting into antennal
scrobe, but at most only slightly projected beyond the hind margin of the
eye; antenna with club various, but mostly with 3 antennomeres, each
pilose to some extent, basal antennomere not or rareiy shining, subequal
in length to other antennomeres or rareiy variously longer than other
2 antennomeres combined, sutures evident between all antennomeres;
funicle with S, 6, or 7 antennomeres; body surface mostly with some
broad, flat scales or fine, hairlike scales; pygydium formed of tergite 8
in male 5
5(4').11 Male with aedeagus with tectum and pedon separate, tegmen as long as
or longer than aedeagus Cincludingthe apodemes); species associated
with freshwater aquatic habitats, many with dense, varnishlike coating
over scales or with dense water-repellent scales Erirrhinae p.459
S'. Male with aedeagus with tectum and pedon fused, tegmen shorter than
aedeagus (including the apodemes); species associated with various
habitats, most with scales present, various in density, but lacking
varnishlike coating (exception: Bagous, recognized by presence of
prosternal channel) or with scales lacking entireiy 6
6(5').12 Legs with well-deveioped, usually large hooklike tooth at apex of front,
middle and hind tibiae: tooth arising from one of (a) outer apical angle,
(b) from middle of apical margin, or (c) at inner apical angle, but if at
inner apical angle, tooth on hind tibia more or less as long as or longer
than pretarsal claw, and outer curved face of tooth is continuous with
apex of outer tibial margin or connected to it by a distinct, continuous
sharp carina that traverses the apical face of the tibia; apical comb of
setae present or absent, if present, oriented either transverseiy, obliqueiy
or subparallei to the length of the tibia 7
6'. Legs with apex of front, middle and hind tibiae with tooth, if present,
small to moderateiy large (usually larger on front or middle tibiae),
usually smaller than pretarsal claw, arising from inner apical angle and
with outer curved face distinctly separated from, and not continuous
with, outer tibial margin or with carina traversing the apical face of the
tibia; apical comb of setae oriented transverseiy to length of tibia 18
7(6). Mesepimeron strongly ascended, truncated by eiytral humeri and visible
(or nearly so) in dorsal view between pronotum and eiytra; tarsus with
1 (rareiy) or 2 claws Baridinae(majarpart) p.461
7'. Mesepimeron not ascended, not visible in dorsal view between pronotum
and eiytra (exception; Laemosaccus,recognized by short, straight rostrum,
basal margin of eiytra extended over base of pronotum, exposed pygydium,
and small, acute tooth on the inner margin of the front femur); tarsus
with 2 claws 8
8(7'). Rostrum in repose received into ventral channei, which may be limited
to prosternum or extended beyond into meso- or metasternum 9

llUnfortunately, dissection of a male is necessary to see the state of the primary character used here.
llThis is often a difficult character to see clearly and to assess. Some groups (such as many Baridinae and some Curculioninae) are equivocal
and are Ihus considered in both halves of Ihis couplet. In general, laxa associated with woody plants lend lO develop a larger and curved apical
toolh, whereas those associated with herbaceous plants have a less developed toolh or apical spine, or none al alI.
 Keyto the Subfamiliesof Curculionidae 457

8'. Rostrum in reposenot receivedinto ventral channel,but may rest

between front, middle, or hind coxae 14
9(8). Eyes large, elongate-oval, subcontiguous (or nearly so) dorsally, frons
very narrow; eyes situated lOward top front of head, in lateral view with
lower margin of eye clearly situated above level of dorsum of base of
rostrum Conoderinae p.462
9'. Eyes small to moderate in size, more or less rounded, more widely
separated dorsally, frons broad; eyes situated toward sides of head, in
lateral view with lower margin of eye situated near or below level of
dorsum of base of rostrum 10

10(9'). Rostrum very short, not much longer than wide, broad and fiat dorsally, lixinae
subquadrate in form; dorsal vestiture of pronotum and elytra in part bifid (part: Bangasternus) p.463
10'. Rostrum moderately long, many times longer than wide, elongate and
narrow; dorsal vestiture, if present, simple 11

11(10'). Ventral channel extended beyond prosternum into meso- or metasternum Cryptorhynchinae p.462
11'. Ventral channellimited to prosternum (even though rostrum in repose
may overlie meso- or metasternum and some abdominal ventrites) 12

12(11'). Hind tibia with outer face at apex lacking apical comb of setae lateral to
base of apical tooth; body with distinct and dense suberect or erect broad Cossoninae(part: Acamptini,
scales, body of some specimens with cruslOse coating Acamptus) p.462
12'. Hind tibia with outer face at apex with apical comb of setae lateral to base
of apical tooth; body vestiture variable but surface not with crustose
coating 13

13(12'). Body lacking distinct vestiture, with smooth, varnishlike coating over
scales; elytra tuberculate or not; legs elongate, slender; commonly
associated with aquatic habitats Bagoinae p. 461
13'. Body with vestiture of appressed scales or suberect or erect hairlike scales,
lacking smooth, varnishlike coating over scales, or obvious vestiture
lacking; elytra tuberculate or not; legs more robust; rarely associated with
aquatic habitats Molytinae p.463
14(8'). Mouthparts with labial palpi of 3 segments but short, globular, telescoping
and appearing composed of 1 segment, ventrally situated at apex of large
prementum; female with large, paired symbiont sacs attached to vagina
near base of gonocoxites; body size mostly medium lOlarge (>5 mm)
(exception: Microlarinus) lixinae p. 463
14'. Mouthparts with labial palpi of 3 distinct segments but elongate, not
telescoping, dorsally situated at apex of variably sized prementum; female
lacking large, paired symbiont sacs attached to vagina near base of
gonocoxites; body size mostly small to medium «10 mm) 15

15(14'). One or more of mesepisternum, mesepimeron, metepisternum, and

metepimeron with vestiture in form of dense plumose (pectinate) hairs,
rarely hairs may be sparse, fine, and at most bifid only in anterior portion
of metepisternum 16

15'. Mesepisternum, mesepimeron, metepisternum, and metepimeron with

vestiture, if present, simple, not plumose or bifid 17

16(15). Tooth at apex of tibia, large and hooklike, larger than pretarsal claw;
pronotum only slightly narrower than base of elytra in dorsal view; elytra
with basal margin at intervals 2-4 extended anteriorly overlapping base
of pronotum Mesoptilinae p. 463
458 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

16/. Tooth at apex of tibia, small, at most subequal in length to pretarsal claw;
pronotum distinctly narrower than base of elytra in dorsal view; elytra
with basal margin at intervals 2-4 straight, not overlapping base of Curculioninae
pronotum (part: Otidocephalini) p.459
17(15/). Hind tibia with outer face at apex with apical comb of setae lateral to
base of apical lOoth, oriented either transversely, obliquely, or subparallel
to the length of the tibia Molytinae (major part) p. 463
17/. Hind tibia with outer face at apex lacking apical comb of setae lateral lO
base of apical lOoth Cossoninae(major part) p. 462
18(6/). Mandible with prominent scar on outer apical face indicating point of
attachment of deciduous process, or else clothed on outer apical face with
many fine scales or setae, mandibles generally robust and thick; rostrum
short and broad, usually quadrate or subquadrate in form, often expanded
laterally toward apex, not different in males and females in length or form Entiminae (major part) p.462
18'. Mandible lacking scar and therefore lacking deciduous process, either
glabrous or with a few small setae on outer apical face, mandibles
generally less robust, smaller and thinner; rostrum more elongate and
cylindrical, usually as long as or longer than pronotum, or (rarely) shorter
than pronotum, sometimes different in males and females in length 19

19(18'). Rostrum in repose received into distinct ventral channel in prosternum

(rarely into mesosternum) 20

19/. Rostrum in repose not received into ventral channel, but may rest
between front, middle or hind coxae 23

20(19). Rostrum very broad, more or less triangular in dorsal view, fitting into
large, deep emargination in front of front coxae; emargination limited Entiminae (part: Thecesternini,
posteriorly by small, triangular prosternum Thecesternus) p.462
20/. Rostrum more elongate and cylindrical in form, prosternal channel
extended behind front coxae (rarely onto mesosternum) and rostrum
(when in repose) extended between or beyond front coxae 21
21(20/). Antenna with funicle with 5 antennomeres; prothorax lacking postocular Curculioninae (part:
lobes; claws free, simple; dorsum covered with fine, erect hairlike vestiture Mecinini, Cleopomiarus)p.459
21/. Antenna with funicle with 6 or 7 antennomeres; other characters variable 22
22(21/). Pygydium covered by elytra; rostrum longer than pronotum, straight and
slender, abruptly attenuate immediately beyond antennal insertion; Baridinae (part: Madarini,
antenna with antennomere 2 of funicle long, more or less one half length Zygobaridina,
of scape Amercedes) p.461
22/. Pygydium not covered by elytra; rostrum various in length, straight or
slightly curved, more or less of uniform width throughout length, not
abruptly attenuate; antenna with antennomere 2 of funicle short, much
less than one half length of scape Ceutorhynchinae
(part) p.462
23(19/). Mesepimeron strongly ascended, truncated by elytral humeri and visible
in dorsal view between pronotum and elytra; pygydium not covered by
elytra Ceutorhynchinae(part) p.462
23/. Mesepimeron not ascended, not visible in dorsal view between pronotum
and elytra; pygydium mostly covered by elytra 24

24(23/). Tarsus with claws separa te, each with basal process Curculioninae (part) p.459
24/. Tarsus with claws separa te, simple 25

25(24/). Eyes rounded, rostrum mostly very elongate, slender and cylindrical in
cross section; antenna with scape not or just reaching anterior margin
of eye Curculioninae (part) p.459
 Keyto the Subfamiliesof Curculionidae 459

25'. Eyes more or less elongate-oval, rostrum shorter, more robust and
subquadrate in eross seetion; antenna with seape just reaehing or passing
anterior margin of eye 26
26(25'). Pronotum with anterolateral margin with distinet postoeular lobe present Cyclominae p. 462
26'. Pronotum with anterolateral margin straight, simple or postoeular lobe at
most very slightly developed 27

27(26/). Vestiture with at least some bifid seales (limited on some specimens to
thoracie sterna), if bifid seales appear absent, humeri obviously quadrate;
humeri quadrate to subquadrate, rarely rounded, if humeri rounded,
bifid seales are distinet on dorsum Hyperinae p.463
27/. Vestiture simple, laeking bifid seales; humeri rounded Entiminae(part) p.462

Subfamily Dryophthorinae-Billbugs and Grain
Weevils:These beetles are stout-bodied and eylindrieal
and are of varying size. Some of the largest North
Americansnout beetles belong to this group. The an-
tennaearise close to the eyes, and the seape extends
posteriorto the eye (Figure 26-88E). The basal two
thirdsor more of the antennal club are smooth and
shining.One of the largest billbugs is Rhynchophorus
crucntatus (Fabricius), which is 20-30 mm long and
liveson palms. The cocklebur weevil, Rhodobaenus tre-
decimpunctatus(Illiger), a common eastern billbug, is
7-11mm long. It is reddish with small black spots on
theelytra. The genus Sphenophorus (Figure 26-89) in-
eludesthe corn billbugs, which live on various grasses,
includingtimothy and corno The adults feed on the fo-
liageand the larvae bore into the stalks. Among
themost important pests in this group are the granary
weevil,Sitophilus granarius (L.), and the rice weevil,
S. oryzae (L.). These are small, brownish beetles,
3-4 mm long, that auack stored grain (wheat, corn,
rice,and so forth). Both adults and larvae feed on the
grain,and the larva e develop inside the grains.
Subfamily Erirrhininae: This is a small but widely
distributed group. The adults are usually found near
water,as the larvae of many species develop in various
aquaticplants. Many species are good swimmers.
Subfamily Raymondionyminae: This is a small
groupof only three genera of pale, eyeless weevils
foundin California and Oregon. The tarsi of these
smallweevils have only 4 tarsomeres. Adults are col-
lectedin leaf liuer.
Subfamily Curculioninae: This subfamily is a large
assemblageof taxa of questionable relationships. It in-
eludes the tribes Curculionini, Anthonomini, Gym-
netrini,Otidocephalini, Rhamphini, and Tychiini.
The acorn and nut weevils of the genus Curculio
areusually light brown and have a very long, slender
snoutthat may be as long as the body or longer (Fig-
ure 26-87C). With their long snouts, the adults bore
into aeorns and other nuts and lay their eggs in some of
these feeding holes. The larvae develop inside the nut.
There are 27 species in North America; C. nasicus Say
and C. occidentis (Casey) attack hazelnuts, and C. caryae
(Horn), the pecan weevil, is a major pest of pecan.
Nearly 200 species of Anthonomini live in North
America (more than 100 in the genus Anthonomus),
and several are important pests of cultivated plants.
The adults usually feed on fruits and lay their eggs in
some of the feeding pits, and the larvae develop inside
the fruits. The boll weevil, A. grandis Boheman, is a
well-known and serious pest of coUon in the southern
states. It entered the United States from Mexico in
the late 18005 and has since spread over most coUon-
growing sections of the country. The adults are about
6 mm long, reddish to brown, with a slender snout
about half as long as the body. They feed on the fruit or
bolls and flower buds and lay their eggs in the holes
made in feeding. The larvae feed inside the buds and
bolls and eventually destroy them. Other species of eco-
nomic importance in this group are the strawberry wee-
vil, A. signatus Say; the cranberry weevil, A. musculus
Say; and the apple curculio, A. quadrigibbus SayoSome
species are associated with mistletoes. Burke (1976)
published a review of the biology of Anthonomini.
Flea weevils are so called beca use of their jumping
habits. The hind femora are relatively stout. The larvae
mine in the leaves of willow, elm, alder, cherry, and ap-
pie. The group is widely distributed and is represented
in North America by 13 species in three genera: Orch-
estes, Isochnus, and Tachyerges.
The larvae of most Tychiini feed on the seeds of
various legumes, and the adults live on the flowers.
Four species of Tychius, including the clover seed wee-
vil, Tychius picirostris (Fabricius), an important intro-
duced pest of clover in the Northwest, are introduced
into North America.
460 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera

csp
\

agr
,
,

F G H

Figure26-88 Characters of snout beetles. A-G, heads, lateral view; H, tip of snout,
ventral view. A, Anthonomus (Curculioninae, Anthonomini); B, Magdalis (Mesoptiliinae);
C, Listronotus (Cyclominae); D, Pandeletelius(Enteminae); E, Rhodobaenus (Dryophthori-
nae); F, Eudiagogus (Entiminae); G and H, Pantomorus (Entiminae). acl, antennal club;
agr, scrobe; bk, beak of snout; esp, cusp of mandible; e, compound eye;jun, funiculus
(antennal segments between scape and club); md, mandible; poI, postocular lobe of pro-
thorax; sep, scape, the basal antennal segment; ser, scar left on mandible where cusp has
broken off; te, teeth on prothorax.

The antlike weevils are small, shiny weevils whose
prothorax is oval and narrowed at the base, and they
thus resemble ants (Figure 26-90C). Some species de-
veIop in cynipid galls on oak, and some develop in
twigs and stems. This group is a small one (in North
America), and its members, most of which are in the
genus Myrmex, are not very common.
Only seven species in the Mecinini occur in North
America, but some of these are fairly common beetles.
Some species develop in the seed pods of mullein (Ver-
baseum),some develop in the seed pods of Lobelia,and
another deveIops in galls at the base of plamain (Plan-
tago). The six species in the genera Gymnetron and
Mecinus are introduced.
 Keyto the Subfamiliesof Curculionidae 461

Subfamily Bagoinae: Two genera make up this sub-

Figure26-89 Billbugs (Dryophthorinae), 2X. A, the
curlewbug,Sphenophoms callosus (Olivier); B, the maize
billbug,S. maidis Chittenden; C, the timothy billbug,
S,zeae (Walsh). (Courtesy of USDA.)
family in North America, all but one species in the
genus Bagous. Adults are found in aquatic and semi-
aquatic habitats. They have a varnishlike coating on
the body and are very similar in appearance to the
aquatic Erirhininae.
Subfamily Baridinae:This is the largest subfamily of
the Curculionidae, with about 500 North American
species. These beetles are small and stout-bodied (Fig-
ure 16-90B) and can generally be recognized by the
upward-extending mesepimera, which are sometimes
visible from above (Figure 26-87 A). Most species feed
on various herbaceous plants; a few attack cultivated
plants. The potato stalk borer, Trichobaris trinotata
(Say), attacks potato, eggplant, and related plants. The

D E F

Figure 26-90 Snout beetles. A, a white-fringed beetle, Naupactus lcucoloma (Boheman),

31/2X (Entiminae); B, Barinus bivittatus (LeConte) (line = 1 mm) (Baridinae);
C, an antlike weevil, Myrmex subglaber (Schaeffer) (line = 1 mm) (Curculioninae);
D, the alfalfaweevil,Hyperapostica(Gyllenhal)(Hyperinae),5x; E, the bean stalk
weevil, Stemechus paludatus (Casey) (Molytinae); F, the white pine weevil, Pissodesstrobi
(Peck) (insert is about one half natural size) (Molytinae). (A, D, E, and F, courtesy of
USDA;B and C, courtesy of Sleeper.)
462 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
larvae bore in the stems, and the adults feed on the
leaves. Trichobarismucorea (LeCon te) damages tobacco
in the same way. The grape cane gallmaker, Ampelo-
glypter sesostris (LeConte), a stout-bodied reddish
brown beetle, 3-4 mm long, makes galls on grape
shoots. Much research needs to be done on this group
of weevils.
Subfamily Ceutorhynchinae:This is a large and
widely distributed group (over 150 North American
species) and includes some important pests. The grape
curculio, Craponius inaequalis (Say), a blackish, very
broadly oval beetle about 3 mm long, feeds on grape fo-
liage. The larvae develop in grape berries. The iris wee-
vil, Mononychus vulpeculus (Fabricius), attacks iris. The
larvae develop in the seed pods, and the adults feed in
the flowers. Numerous species in the genus Ceu-
torhynchus, including the cabbage curculio, Ceu-
torhynchus rapae Gyllenhal, are pests of cultivated cru-
cifers. A number of species of Ceutorhynchinae live in
aquatic and semiaquatic habitats. Species in the genera
Phrydiuchus, Microplontus, Mogulones, and Trichosiro-
calus have been deliberately introduced for biological
control of pest weeds.
Subfamily Conoderinae: Formerly Zygopinae, this
is a widely distributed group that is represented in
North America by about 40 species. They feed on vari-
ous herbaceous plants, mostly composites, and trees
(including conifers); some are associated with Agave
and some with mistletoes.
This subfamily includes the Tachygonini (toad
weevils). These flattened, odd-Iooking weevils are usu-
ally found on the foliage of oak, elm, or locust. The lar-
vae are leaf miners in these trees. Adults at rest usually
hang downward from the leaves, hanging by means of
their spiny hind femora. They frequently walk about
on the underside of the leaves. This group is repre-
sented in the United States by five species of Tachy-
gonus, which occur from the East to Arizona.
Subfamily Cossoninae-Broad-NosedBark Weevils:
The Cossoninae can usually be recognized by the
broad, short beak and the long, curved spine at
the apex of each front tibia. These beetles are 1.5 to
6.5 mm long, and most are black and shiny. They live
(often in great numbers) under the loose dead bark of
trees and under logs. A few live under driftwood and
along the seacoast. Some are associated with dead, fi-
brous leaves or stems of palms and Agave.
Subfamily Cryptorhynchinae: Many members of this
group (187 North American species) have rough and
tuberculate elytra. At rest the beak is usually drawn
back into a deep groove in the prosternum, which also
extends onto the front portion of the mesosternum.
Adults are usually associated with dead wood, al-
though some are found in living plants and some in
seeds. Species of the genus Tyloderma are found in
.. " 4
L. lA<i~~;~~.t
~,',""¡.r:~! It '';1.,
V-
¡.I.:..
aquatic habitats. Many species are found in leaf litter,
and the southwestern species Liometophilus manni Fall
is associated with ants. Many species are flightless.
Subfamily Cyclominae:Most members of this group
breed in aquatic or subaquatic plants, and the adults are
found near water. A few are pests of vegetables. The veg-
etable weevil, Listroderes costirostris obliquus (Klug), at-
tacks many different vegetables and is an important pest
in the Gulf States and in California. In the large genus
Listronotus (81 species), the carrot weevil, L. oregonensis
(LeConte), is a pest of carrots and other vegetables in
the East. Emphyastes fucicola Mannerheim is an odd-
looking weevil that lives in decaying seaweed on sandy
West Coast beaches.
Subfamily Entiminae-Broad-Nosed Weevils: The
members of this subfamily (which includes the
Otiorhynchini, Naupactini, Tanyrnecini, Thecesternini,
and Tropiphorini) are commonly called the "broad-
nosed weevils," because the snout is generally short and
broad. Most are flightless, with the elytra fused together
along the suture and the hind wings vestigial. This is a
large and widely distributed group (with 124 genera in
24 tribes in North America) containing some important
pests. Some important species in this group are the
white-fringed beetles (three species of Naupactus),
which are serious agricultural pests in the southem
states. These beetles are about 12 mm long, with
whitish elytral edges and with two longitudinal white
stripes on the head and pronotum (Figure 26-90A).
The white-fringed beetles are parthenogenetic; no males
are known. Another injurious species in this group is
the Fuller rose weevil, Naupactusgodmanni (Crotch),
7-9 mm long. lt attacks roses and many greenhouse
plants, as well as citrus and other fruit trees. Like nearly
all broad-nosed weevils, the larvae live in the soil and
feed on the roots of the host plant, and the adults reed
on the leaves. Members of the genus Sitona (mostly pale
in color and 4-5 mm long) attack and seriously damage
clovers. Members of the introduced species in the genus
Otiorhynchus are very common and feed on a variety o[
plants. The strawberry root weevil, O. ovatus (L.), orten
causes serious injury to strawberries, and the black vine
weevil, O. sulcatus (Fabricius), is an important pesto[
yew (Taxus). Thecestemus affinis LeConte, is a duB
black beetle covered with brownish yellow scales and
6.5 to 9.0 mm long. At rest the head and beak are COID-
pletely withdrawn into a large, triangular cavity in the
front of the prothorax. These beetles live under stones
or dried cow dung.
Many Entiminae are found in arid habitats, espe-
cially in the southwestern United States. Some have de-
veloped adaptations for sand dwelling that inc\ude
dense, long hair over the body and broad legs adapted
for digging. This group includes the weevils most often
found at higher elevations.
I
L

Subfamily Hyperinae-CloverWeevils:Most mem-
bersofthissmall group (17 North Americanspecies,all
inthe genus Hypera), feed on various clovers and are
importantclover pests. The alfalfa weevil, H. postica
(Gyllenhal)(Figure 26-90D), and the clover leaf weevil,
H.punctata(Fabricius), feed on the growing tips of the
plantand skeletonize the leaves; H. meles (Fabricius)
feedsin the clover heads. These beetles are dark-colored
and3-8 mm long.
SubfamilyLixinae:The most commonbeetles in this
groupare those in the genus Lixus, which are elongate
andcylindrical, 10-15 mm long, with the curved beak
nearlyas long as the prothorax. They usually live on
weedsnear water. Lixus concavus Say, which breeds in
thestemsof dock, sunflower, and occasionally rhubarb,
iscommonlycalled the "rhubarb curculio." The adult is
blackish,covered with gray pubescence. More than 100
spedesof Lixinae live in North America, 69 in the
genusLixus. Species in a number of genera have been
introducedfor biological control of pest weeds.
Subfamily Mesoptiliinae:These small, cylindrical
weevilscan usually be recognized by the toothlike
processeson the anterior corners of the pronotum
(Figure26-888, te). The larvae attack trees, usually
tunnelingin the twigs or under the bark. A few are
pestsof orchard or shade trees. Species of Magdalis
(25species in North America) are associated with var-
iousconifers and hardwoods.
Subfamily Molytinae: As with the Curculioninae,
thisgroupbrings together a number of taxa previously
placedin other subfamilies (for example, Hylobiini, Pri-
onomerini,Cholini, Lepyrini, Lymantini, and Pisso-
dini).Most notable is the reclassification of a number of
weevilsfram the Cryptorhynchinae as Molytinae. This
includesthe large genus Conotrachelus and its relatives.
Most members of the Molytinae are dark-colored
andof modera te size (Figure 26-91). Several species
(especiallyspecies of Hylobius) are important pests of
pineand other conifers. Species in the important genus
Pissodesare usually brownish and cylindrical, most
Figure 26-91 The pales weevil, Hylobius pales (Herbst)
(Molylinae), 5X (Courtesy ofUSDA.)
.a
Key to the Subfamilies of Curculionidae 463
8-10 mm long (Figure 26-90F); they are also impor-
tant pests of conifers. The larvae tunnel in the terminal
leader of a young tree and kill it, and one of the lateral
branches becomes the terminalleader, giving rise to a
tree with a bend partway up the trunk. Such a tree is of
little value as a source of lumber. The white pine wee-
vil, Pissodesstrobi (Peck), is a common species attack-
ing Eastern white pine.
One of the most important pest species in this
group is the plum curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar
(Herbst) (Figure 26-92), which attacks plum, cherry,
peach, apple, and other fruits. The females lay their eggs
in little depressions they eat in the fruits and then cut a
crescent-shaped incision beside the depression contain-
ing the egg. The larvae develop in the fruits and pupate
in the soil. The adult is about 6 mm long, is dark-
colored, and has two prominent tubercles on each elytron.
The genus Conotrachelus is a large one (63 North Amer-
ican species), and its members are widely distributed.
The larvae develop in various fruits and twigs. Larvae of
species in the genera Odontopus and Piazorhinus are leaf
miners in sassafras, tulip tree, and oak. The bean stalk
weevil, Sternechus paludatus (Casey) (Figure 26-90E) is
also a member of this subfamily.
Figure26-92 The plum curculio, Conotrachelus
nenuphar (Herbst). A, dorsal view; B, lateral view of an
individual feigning death. (Courtesy of Rings and the
Ohio Agricultural Research and Deve10pment Center.)
U,.IVERSIDAD
DECUAS
BIBLIOn:I'A
464 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
Figure 26-93 A pin-hole borer, Platypus wilsoni
Swaine, 12X (Platypodinae). (Courtesy of Amett.)
Subfamily Platypodinae-Pinhole Borers: The bee-
tles in this group are elongate, slender, and cylindrical,
with the head slightly wider than the pronotum (Fig-
ure 26-93). They are brownish and 2-8 mm long. The
tarsi (which are 5-5-5) are very slender, with the first
tarsomere longer than the remaining tarsomeres com-
bined (Figure 26-lOK). The antennae are short and
geniculate and have a large, unsegmented club. The
genus Platypus has recently be en subdivided into four
distinct genera. Only seven species occur in North
America.
These beetles are wood-boring and bore in living
trees, but seldom attack a healthy tree. They attack
both deciduous trees and conifers. The larvae feed on
fungi that are cultivated in their galleries.
Subfamily Scolytinae-Bark Beetles or Engravers,
and Ambrosia Beetles: The scolytines are small, cylin-
drical beetles, rarely more than 6 or 8 mm long, and
usually brownish or black (Figure 26-94). The anten-
nae are short and geniculate and have a large, usually
annulated club. The subfamily contains two groups:
the bark beetles, which feed on the inner bark of trees,
and the ambrosia beetles, which bore into the wood of
trees and feed on an "ambrosial" form of a fungus,
which they cultiva te. Bark beetles differ from ambrosia
beetles in having a large spine or projection at the apex
of the front tibiae.
The bark beetles live within the bark of trees, usu-
ally right at the surface of the wood, and feed on the
succulent phloem tissue. Some species, especially in
.:.
e
Figure26-94 Bark beetles (Scolytinae). A, the pine en-
graver, Ips pini (Say); B, the Douglas fir beetle, Dendroc-
tonuspseudotsugaeHopkins;C, the fir engraver,Scolytus
ventralis (LeConte). (Courtesy of Rudinsky and Ryker,
Oregon State Agricultural Experimental Station.)
Ips and Seolytus, deeply score the sapwood and are of-
ten called "engravers." Although all bark beetles feed
in dying trees, some species may infest living trees, es-
pecially conifers, and kill them. Most economically im-
portant scolytids are in three genera: Dendroctonus, lps,
and Seolytus. The infested tree is killed by the fungi
(called "blue-stain" or "brown-stain") introduced by
the adult beetles and spread by the larvae. As adults
and larvae interrupt the flow of nutrients by feedingin
the phloem, the fungus spreads inward and clogs the
water transport vessels in the sapwood, suppressing
the flow of lethal pitch into the beetle galleries. The de-
structive bark beetles exhibit a remarkable coordina-
tion of their flying population in a tightly synchronized
mass attack, overwhelming the tree's defenses by sheer
numbers. Both males and females respond to a combi-
nation of odors from the resin of the host tree and
chemical signals (aggregation pheromones) from the
 Keyto the Subfamiliesof Curculionidae 465

firstcolonists.Asa result, thousands of beetles may in-

festthe same tree simultaneously.
In monogamous species such as Dendroctonus
pseudotsugaeHopkins, the Douglas fir beetle, the fe-
malebores the gallery, releases pheromone, and accepts
onemale as her mate. In polygamous species such as
lpspini (Say), the pine engraver (Figure 26-94A), the
maledoes the initial boring but constructs only a nup-
tialchamber in which to mate with the several females
heaccepts into his harem. Each female bores her own
egggallery out from the nuptial chamber.
As a female bark beetle constructs her egg gallery,
¡hemale cooperates with her by following along be-
hindher, removing dust from the boring and shoving it
out the entry hole. The female lays her eggs in liule
notchesat intervals along the sides of the gallery. When
theeggs hatch, the tiny, C-shaped, legless larvae begin
eatingtheir way through the phloem at right angles to
theegg gallery. As the larvae grow and molt, moving
fartheraway from the adult gallery, the frass-filled lar-
val mines become larger, forming characteristic pat-
tems (Figure 26-95). When the larvae complete their Figure26-95 Semidiagrammatic drawing of a section
growth, they pupa te at the ends of their mines. The of a log containing galleries of bark beetles (Scolytidae).
adultsemerge through round holes they bore through The bark is cut through two entrance galleries, each with
thebark. After a brood emerges, the surface of an in- its accumulation of fine frass near the outside opening of
festedtree appears peppered with shot holes. the gallery. Three sets of galleries of different age are
Bark beetles have a greater impact economically shown. In the one at the left the larvae are full grown
onthe timber-producing forests of North America than and some have already pupated, and there is one empty
any other group of insects, being credited with the pupal cell with its exit hole at the lower left comer of the
deathof more than 4 billion board feet of sawtimber
cut-away section. Another entrance hole is evidenced by
annually-over 90% of the total insect-caused mortal- the frass accumulation on the bark at the left. (Courtesy
ity.Most tree mortality caused by bark beetles is caused of the Kaston and the Connecticut Agricultural Experi-
byfivespecies of Dendroctonus: the southern pine bee- ment Station.)
de,D.frontalis Zimmerman, in the South; the Douglas
firbeetle, D. pseudotsugae (Figure 26-94B); the western
pinebeetle, D. brevicomis LeConte; the mountain pine
beetle,D. ponderosae Hopkins; and the spruce beetle, 75 years, completely eliminating American elms in
D.obesus (Mannerheim), in the West. Infestations of many urban areas.
barkbeetles are recognized by fading foliage on groups One agriculturally important species of bark
of trees, by reddish brown frass or hardened pitch beetle is the clover root borer, Hylastinus obscurus
tubeson the trunk, or by evidenceof large-scalewood- (Marsham), which often seriously damages clover. The
peckerworK on the bark. Patch killing of trees results larvae tunnel in the roots of clover, killing the plants.
froman aggregation of beetles flying to a source of at- Ambrosia beetles bore into the wood of trees,
tractantpheromone initially in one of the trees. forming galleries in which both adults and larvae live.
Each species ofbark beetle has a characteristic pat- Only living or freshly killed trees, with a high moisture
temof adult and larval galleries and a rigid preference content, are infested. Although these beetles do not eat
fora particular tree species. Many, if not all, scolytines wood, the fungi they cultiva te stain the wood, reducing
transport tree fungi. Destructive species inoculate trees its value. The presence of these beetles can cause entire
withblue- or brown-stain fungi, and ambrosia beetles shiploads of timber or lumber to be refused at a foreign
dependon their fungi for food. The Dutch elm disease, port. The larvae of ambrosia beetles develop in small
transmitted by elm bark beetles, is caused by a fungus cells adjoining the main galleries, and in most species
introduced from Europe with the smaller European the adults feed the larvae. Each species usually feeds on
elm bark beetle, Scolytus multistriatus (Marsham). one particular type of fungus. When the females
Thesebeetles have spread the disease clear across the emerge and fly to another tree, they carry conidia of the
United States, from Boston to Portland, Oregon, in fungus from the natal tree to the new host and intro-
466 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
duce the fungus into the gallery they excavate. After
the eggs hatch, the females care for the larvae until they
are full grown and pupa te, keeping the larval niches
supplied with fresh fungus or "ambrosia," and prevent-
ing the niche from being choked with frass or excess
growth of fungus.
Collecting and Preserving Coleoptera
Because this is such a large and varied group, most
methods discussed in Chapter 35 for collecting and pre-
serving insects are applicable here. Several general col-
lecting procedures, however, can be noted: (l) Many
species can be taken by sweeping in a variety of situa-
tions; (2) many species, often strikingly colored, can be
taken on flowers; (3) a number of species, such as the
carrion beetles and others, can be obtained by means of
References
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Bostrichiforrnia - Cucujiforrnia). Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoo\. Mutchler, 112 pp. (1933). Fourth Supplernent, by R. E.
147:137-183. Blackwelder, 146 pp. (1939). Fifth Supplernent, by R. E.
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 27 Order Neuroptera1.2
Alderflies,Dobsonflies,
Snakeflies,Lacewings,
Fishflies,
Antlions,
andOwlflies

he Neuroptera are soft-bodied insects with four

T membranous wings that usually have a great many Classification of the Neuroptera
crossveinsand extra branches of the longitudinal veins
Some authorities divide the insects here included in the
(hencethe order name). There are generally a number
ofcrossveins along the costal border of the wing, be- order Neuroptera, into three orders: Megaloptera,
tweenthe C and Sc. The radial sector often bears a Raphidioptera, and Neuroptera. Others include the
numberof parallel branches. The front and hind wings Raphidioptera in the Megaloptera. Entomologists gen-
inNorth American species are similar in shape and ve- erally accept that the three together form a mono-
nation and are usually held rooflike over the body at phyletic group, and thus the different classifications are
test.The mouthparts are mandibulate, the antennae are consistent with the principIes of phylogenetic system-
generallylong and have many segments, the tarsi have atics. We are treating these three groups as suborders.
fivesegments, and cerci are absent. An outline of the groups in the order, following
These insects undergo complete metamorphosis. that of Oswald and Penny (1991), is presented here.
Thelarvae are generally campodeiform, with mandibu- Altemative names or spellings are given in parentheses,
latemouthparts. Most larva e are predaceous, but those and groups that are rare or unlikely to be taken by the
ofthe Sisyridae feed on freshwater sponges, and those general collector are marked with an asterisk (*).
ofthe Mantispidae are parasitic in the egg sacs of spi-
Suborder Megaloptera (Sialodea)
ders.The mandibles of Megaloptera and Raphidioptera Sialidae-alderflies
larvaeare relatively short, while those of Planipennia
Corydalidae-dobsonflies and fishflies
larvaeare long and sicklelike. In the Planipennia the
feedingis done by sucking the body fluids of the victim Suborder Raphidioptera (Raphidiodea, Raphidioidea)-
snakeflies
througha narrow channel formed between the mandi-
bleand maxilla. In the Megaloptera and Raphidioptera, Raphidiidae-raphidiid snakeflies
Inocelliidae-inocelliid snakeflies, square-headed
the pupae are naked, but in the Planipennia pupation
snakeflies
occursin a silken cocoon. The silk is produced by the
Malpighiantubules and is spun from the anus. Suborder Planipennia (Neuroptera in the narrow
Adult Neuroptera are found in a variety of situa- sense)
tions, but those whose larvae are aquatic (Sialidae, Superfamily Coniopterygoidea
Corydalidae, and Sisyridae) generally live near water. Coniopterygidae-dusty-wings *
Theadults are rather weak fliers. Most adults are preda- Superfamily Ithonoidea
ceous.Some take only relatively weak prey, and adults lthonidae-ithonid lacewings*
ofthe Megaloptera probably feed liule or not at all. Superfamily Hemerobioidea
Mantispidae-mantidflies
'Neuroptera: neuro, nerve (referring to the wing veins); plera, wings. Hemerobiidae (including Sympherobiidae)-
'Adviceon this chapter was provided by Norman D. Penny. brown lacewings 469
470 Chapter27 OrderNeuroptera

Chrysopidae-common lacewings, green the wing and usually fusing with Rs for a short dis-
lacewings tance. The differences in these two interpretations can
Dilaridae-pleasing lacewings* be summarized as follows:
Berothidae-beaded lacewings*
Polystoechotidae-giant lacewings* Comstock (1940) Carpenter et al. (1940)
Sisyridae-spongillaflies R.¡ R.¡+s
Superfamily Myrmeleontoidea Rs MA
Myrmeleontidae-antlions Basal r-m Base of MA
Ascalaphidae-owlflies M MP
M1+2 MP1+2
Two slightly different interpretations of wing ve- M3+4 MP3+4
nation are encountered in this order, that of Comstock Cu¡ CuA
and that of Carpenter and others. Most present work- CU2 CuP
ers, particularly those studying the Raphidioptera and
Planipennia-following Martynov (1928), Carpenter We have followed Comstock's interpretation in la-
(1936, 1940), and others-believe that an anterior beling our figures of the Megaloptera and have fol-
branch of the media Oabeled MA in our figures) per- lowed the interpretation of Carpenter and others in la-
sists in this order, branching from M near the base of beling our figures of other wings in this order.

Key to the Familiesof Neuroptera

The families marked with an asterisk (*) in this key are relatively rare or are unlikely to
be encountered by the general collectar. Keys to larvae are given by Neunzig and Baker
(1991) and Tauber (1991a, 1991b).

1. Hind wings broader at base than front wings, with enlarged anal area
that is folded fanwise at rest (Figure 27-1A,B); longitudinal veins usually
forking near wing margin; larvae aquatic (suborder Megaloptera) 2
1'. Front and hind wings similar in size and shape, hind wings without
enlarged anal area that is folded fanwise at rest (Figures 27-1C,D, 27-2,
27-3,27-4) 3
2(1). Ocelli present; fourth tarsal segment cylindrical; body usually 25 mm or
more long;wingshyalineor with smokyareas Corydalidae p.475
2', Ocelli absent; fourth tarsal segment dilated and deeply bilobed; body
usuallylessthan 25 mm long;wingsusuallysmoky (Figure27-5) Sialidae p.474
3(1'). Wings with relatively few veins, Rs usually with only 2 branches
(Figure27-3A);wingscoveredwith whitishpowder;minute insects Coniopterygidae* p.476
3'. Wings with many veins, Rs usually with more than 2 branches
(Figures 27-1C,D, 27-2, 27-3B,C, 27-4); wings not covered with whitish
powder; size variable, but usually not minute 4
4(3'). Prothorax elongate (Figure 27-8) 5
4'. Prothorax of normal size, not elongate 7
5(4). Front legs raptorial, arising from anterior end ofprothorax (Figure 27-8B);
mantid-like insects, widely distributed Mantispidae p.477
5'. Front legs not raptorial, arising from posterior end of prothorax
(Figure 27-8A); western United States (suborder Raphidioptera) 6
6(5'). Ocelli present; stigma in front wing with a crossvein; hind wings with
CU2and lA fusedforshort distance,basalm-cu transverse(Figure27-1C) Raphidiidae p.476
6'. Ocelli absent; stigl11¡1
in front wing without crossvein; hind wings with
~:t C\ú,b.and,
lAs~~~tkt~,»asalm-cu oblique(Figure27-lD) Inocelliidae p.476
.lo,. -,
. ,
.;,."..-,1""-'.1
 Keyto the Families of Neuroptera 471

R 1 Rs Se
I : I Se R r-m
I I 1 s
Se + R,
.',
,\
\
¡'Rs
I
'/
:,.-:,.-
;-
MI +2
, CUI.M3 +4
2A: 1ACU2CU1b
M

A B

MA + MP, + 2 Rs
I I \

Se R M
I I
I Rs Rs + MA
I R
1 1 IS

1A~ /
m-eu
CUI MMP A I / 1 A C'U2 / ',,\
Rs + M MA CUI MP3 + 4 MPI +2 MA
e D

Figure27-1 Wings of Neuroptera, A, Sialis (Sialidae); B, Nigronia (Corydalidae);

C, Agulla (Raphidiidae); D, Negha (Inocelliidae), The venation in A and B is labeled
with the interpretation of Comstock (1940), and in C and D with the interpretation of
Carpenter (1936) and others. MA, anterior media; MP,posterior media.

UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
...
472 Chapter27 Order Neuroptera

R,
,
MA

Se

I , . l. I
C";
,~;--.
I
~
MP 1.1\
..
1"""~
Cu, I
MP, + 2
MP lA Cu, ! MP3+4 MP, +2 2 MP 3 + 4
CU2
- R
.
MA Se
I
R4+ 5R2 +3 R,
M,A I! I MA
l' I I - i
R
Rs + MA ,'R2 + 3 4 + 5
/

B
A

Figure27-2 Wings of Neuroptera. A, Ameromicromus (Hemerobiidae); B, Climacia

(Sisyridae); C, Polystoechotes(Polystoechotidae). The venation is labeled with the in ter-
pretation of Carpemer (1940) and others. hv, humeral or recurrent vein; MA, anterior
media; Mp,posterior media.
 Keyto the Familiesof Neuroptera 473

psm

Figure 27-3 Wings of Neuroptera.

A, Coniopteryx (Coniopterygidae);
B, Chrysopa (Chrysopidae). The ve-
nation is labeled with the interpreta-
tion of Comstoek (1940). pscu,
pseudoeubitus; psm, pseudomedia.

R + MA
t
C IRS MAR"MA bln

CuP
CuP + 1A
MPm I Cut
A CuA

1A
B Cup e
R + ~A+ MAMP1+2MA
R, Figure 27-4 Wings of Myrmeleontoidea. A, front
wing of Dendroleon (Myrmeleontidae); B, base
of the same wing as A, enlarged to show detail;
C, base of hind wing of Dendroleon,with most
CuA erossveins not shown; D, front wing of an as-
ealaphid. bln, banksian line; cuJ, eubital fork (fork
CuP + 1A hel of CuA); he!, hypostigmatie or truss eell; mJ, medial
D 'cut fork (fork of MP2)'

7(4'). Antennae clubbed or knobbed; inseets with abdomen long and slender,
resembling dragonflies or damselflies in general appearanee (Figure 27-10)
(superfamily Myrmeleontoidea) 8
7'. Antennae filiform, moniliform, or peetinate, not c1ubbed or knobbed;
usually not partieularly resembling dragonflies or damselflies in appearanee 9
8(7). Antennae about as long as head and thorax together (Figure 27-10);
hypostigmatic eell (eell behind the point of fusion of Se and R¡;
Figure 27-4A, hc1) very long, several times as long as wide; eyes entire Myrmeleontidae p.478
474 Chapter27 Order Neuroptera

8'. Antennae nearly or quite as long as body; hypostigmatic cell short, not
more than 2 or 3 times as long as wide (Figure 27-4D, hcl); eyes entire
(Haplogleninae) or divided horizontally (Ascalaphinae) Ascalaphidae p.479
9(7/). At least some, usually many, costal crossveins forked (Figure 27-2A,C) 10
9/. All (or nearly all) costal crossveins simple (Figures 27-2B and 27-3B) 13
10(9). Front wings apparently with 2 or more radial sectors
(Figure 27-2A: R2,R3,R.+s) Hemerobiidae p.477
lO'. Front wings with only 1 radial sector, which has 2 or more branches
(Figure 27-2C, Rs) 11*
11(10'). Front wings with a recurrent humeral vein (Figure 27-2C, hv),
16-34 mm long 12*
11'. Front wings without a recurrent humeral vein, 9-13 mm long Berothidae* p.477
12(11). Sc and R¡ in front wing fused distally; Rs in front wing with many
branches, crossveins between them forming a fairly distinct gradate vein;
free basal portion of MA in hind wing longitudinal (Figure 27-2C);
widely distributed Polystoechotidae * p. 478
12'. Sc and R¡ in front wing not fused distally; Rs in front wing with only a
few branches, crossveins between them scattered and not forming a
distinct gradate vein; free basal part of MA in hind wing short and
oblique; southern California Ithonidae* p.476
13(9'). Sc and R¡ in front wing not fused near wing tip, Rs appearing unbranched
(Figure 27-3B); wings, at least in life, often greenish; very common insects Chrysopidae p.477
13'. Sc and R¡ in front wing fused or separate apically, Rs appearing branched
(Figure 27-2B); wings not greenish; uncommon insects 14
14(13/). Antennae pectinate in male, filiforrn in female; female with exserted
ovipositor about as long as body; hind wing about as long as front wing
in male, about two-thirds as long as front wing in female; front wing
3.0-5.5 mm long Dilaridae* p.477
14/. Antennae filiforrn in both sexes; female without exserted ovipositor;
hind wing with free basal part ofMA present, longitudinal (Figure 27-2B);
wings elongate-oval, hind wing nearly as long as front wing; front wing
3.4-7.0 mm long Sisyridae p.478

SUBORDER Megaloptera:The members of the sub-

order Megaloptera have the hind wings broader at the
base than the front wings, and this enlarged anal area is
folded fanwise at resto The longitudinal veins do not
have branches near the wing margin, as do those of
many of the other insects in this order. Ocelli may be
present or absent. The larvae are aquatic, with lateral
abdominal gills, and with normal jaws (not elongate
and sicklelike, as in the Planipennia). The pupae are
not in cocoons.
Family Sialidae-Alderflies: The alderflies (Fig-
ure 27-5) are dark-colored insects, about 25 mm long
or less, and are usually found near water. The adults
are generally similar to corydalids, but are smaller and Figure 27-5 An alderfly, Sialis mohri Ross. (Courtesy
lack ocelli. The larvae are aquatic and are usually found of the Illinois Natural History Survey.)

mx
A B e D
under stones in streams. They are predaceous on small
aquaticinsects. The larvae of alderflies (Figure 27-6C)
differfram those of the Corydalidae in that they have a
terminal filament, seven pairs of lateral filaments, and
no hooked anal pralegs. Sialis infumata Newman is a
common eastern species that is about 19 mm long and
has smoky wings. There are 24 species of alderflies in
¡he United States, all in the genus Sialis.
Family Corydalidae-Dobsonflies and Fishflies:
These insects are similar to the alderflies, but are in
general larger (usually over 25 mm long) and have
ocelli. They are soft-bodied, have a rather fluttery
flight,and are usually found near water. Some species
Keyto the Familiesof Neuroptera 475
Figure27-6 Larvae of aquatic
Neuroptera;A, Corydalus
(Corydalidae); B, Chauliodes
(Corydalidae); C, Sialis (Sialidae);
D, Climacia (Sisyridae). ant, an-
tenna; md, mandible; mx, maxilla;
oe, ocelli; sp, spiracle. (Courtesy
of Peterson. Reprinted by
permission.)
are attracted to lights and may be found some distance
fram water. The larvae (Figure 27-6A,B) are aquatic
and usually live under stones in streams. They differ
fram alderfly larvae in that they have a pair of hooked
anal prolegs, no terminal filament, and eight pairs of
lateral filaments. These larvae are some times called
"hellgrammites" and are frequently used as bait by fish-
erman. The jaws can inflict a painful nip.
The largest insects in this group are the dobson-
flies (Corydalus and Dysmicohermes), which have front
wings 50 mm or more long. A common eastern species
(Figure 27-7) has a wingspread of about 130 mm, and
the males have extremely long mandibles. The smaller
Figure27-7 A dobsonfly, Corydalus
cornutus (L.). A, Female; B, head of male
showing the greatly enlarged mandibles;
about natural size.
476 Chapter27 Order Neuroptera
species in this group (front wings less than 50 mm
long) are called "fishflies." Most belong to the genera
Chauliodes, Neohermes, and Nigronia. Dobsonflies and
some of the fishflies have clear wings, but other fish-
flies (species of Nigronia) have black or smoky wings
with a few small, clear areas. Fishflies in the genera
Chauliodes and Nigronia have serrate or pectinate an-
tennae. In the United States there are 24 species in
seven genera of Corydalidae.
SUBORDERRaphidioptera:The insects of the sub-
order Raphidioptera are peculiar in having the protho-
rax elongate, somewhat as in the Mantispidae, but the
front legs are similar to the other legs and arise from
the posterior end of the prothorax (Figure 27-8A).
These insects can raise their head above the rest of the
body, much like a snake preparing to strike. The adults
are predaceous, but can catch only small, weak prey.
The female (which has a long ovipositor) lays her eggs
in clusters in crevices in bark, and the larvae are usu-
ally found under bark. The larvae feed principally on
small insects such as aphids and caterpillars. The
snakeflies occur only in the western states.
Family Raphidiidae:This family is represented in
North America by 17 species of Agulla and 2 of Alena,
which are widely distributed through the West, from
central Texas and California north to British Columbia
and Alberta. They vary in size, with the front wings
ranging from 6 to 17 mm long. Females are usually a
little larger than males.
Family Inocelliidae: This group is represented in
North America by three species of Negha, which occur
from California and Nevada north to British Columbia.
Inocelliids are larger than most raphidiids, with the
front wing varying in length from 11 to 17 mm. They
also have longer and thicker antennae and a larger,
darker pterostigma than raphidiids.
SUBORDER Planipennia:This suborder includes the
dusty-wings, lacewings, antlions, and owIflies. Some
authorities include only these insects in the order Neu-
roptera. The adults lack ocelli, the front and hind
wings (in North American species) are similar in size
and shape, and the longitudinal veins in the wings of-
ten have branches near the wing margino The larvae
have long sicklelike mandibles, and the food is sucked
up through a channel formed between the mandible
and maxilla. Pupation occurs in a silken cocoon.
Family Coniopterygidae-Dusty-Wings: These are
minute insects, 3 mm long or less, and are covered with
a whitish powder. There are 55 species in eight genera
in North America, and most are relatively rare. The lar-
vae feed on small insects and insect eggs.
Family Ithonidae:This family is represented in the
United States by a single, uncommon species, Oliarces
clara Banks, which has been taken in southern Califor-
nia. This insect has a wingspread of 35-40 mm and re-
sembles a Sialis with bleached wings. The larvae are
scarabaeiform and probably feed on creosote bush.
Adults have "hill-topping" behavior and can be en-
Figure 27-8 A, a snakefly, Raphidia adnixa (Hagen);
B, a mantispid, Mantispa cincticomis Banks.

countered on high places in mass emergences. When
alive,adults have greenish-blue bodies.
Family Mantispidae-Mantidflies: These insects re-
semble mantids in having a lengthened prothorax
and front legs enlarged and fitted for grasping prey
(Figure27-8B). They have a wingspread of 25 mm or
so.The larvae of some species (such as Plega) feed pri-
marilyon the larvae of wasps and bees, whereas those
of other species (such as Mantispa and Climaciella)
feedon spider eggs. Mantidflies undergo hypermeta-
morphosis: The first-instar larvae are active and cam-
podeiform, and the subsequent larval insects are
scarabaeiform. These insects are more common in the
50uth. There are 14 species, in seven genera, known
fromthe United States.
Family Hemerobiidae-Brown Lacewings: These in-
sectsresemble common lacewings (Chrysopidae), but
are brownish instead of green and generally smaller,
and they have a different wing venation. The chry-
sopidshave a single distinct radial sector, whereas the
hemerobiids appear to have from two to four or more
(thatis, two to four veins branch off R¡). Most hemer-
obiidsappear to have three or four radial sectors. Some
specieshave a recurved and branched humeral vein in
¡hefront wing. Brown lacewings are generally found in
wooded areas, and are much less common than the
Chrysopidae. The eggs, which are not stalked, are laid
onplants. The larvae are predaceous. This is the third
largest family in the order, with 61 North American
speciesin 6 genera.
Family Chrysopidae-Common Lacewings: This is
¡hesecond largest family in the order (84 North Amer-
icanspecies in 15 genera), and its members are com-
moninsects-usually living in grass and weeds and on
e Natural History Survey.)
Keyto the Families of Neuroptera 477
the foliage of trees and shrubs. Most are greenish, with
copper-colored eyes (Figure 27-9A). The species of Er-
emochrysa (western) are often tan and resemble hemer-
obiids. Some chrysopids give off a rather disagreeable
odor when handled. The larvae of most species are
predaceous, chiefly on aphids, and are sometimes
called "aphidlions" (Figure 27-9B). Some larvae pile
debris on their backs and carry it around. The adults
may be predaceous (such as Chrysopa), feed on pollen
(SUChas Me/eoma), or feed on honeydew (such as Ere-
mochrysa). The eggs are usually laid on foliage, the fe-
male produces a thin, elongate stalk and attaches the
egg at its end (Figure 27-9C). The larva e pupa te in
silken cocoons that are generally attached to the un-
derside of leaves. In late autumn adults of Chrysoperla
migrate in large numbers to the forest, where they
overwinter.
Family Dilaridae-PleasingLacewings: This group
contains two rare North American species. Nallachius
americanus (MacLachlan), which has MP in the front
wing forked near the wing margin, has been recorded
from several eastern states, from Michigan to Georgia;
N. pulche/lus (Banks), which has MP in the front wing
forked near its base, has been recorded from Cuba and
Arizona. Unlike most Neuroptera, these insects com-
monIy rest with the wings outspread and resemble
small moths. The female's ovipositor is a little longer
than her body. Males have plumose antennae. The eggs
are laid in crevices or under bark, and the larvae are
predaceous.
Family Berothidae-BeadedLacewings: This family
is represented in North America by la rather rare
species in the genus Lomamyia. Adults are frequently
attracted to lights at night and resemble slender cad-
B Figure27-9 Adult (A), larva (B), and
eggs(C) of a commonlacewing,Chrysopa
sp. (A and B, courtesy of the Illinois
478 Chapter27 OrderNeuroptera
disflies. In some species the outer margin of the front
wing is somewhat indented just behind the apex, and
the females of some species have scales on the wings
and thorax. The eggs are stalked. The larvae are preda-
ceous on termites.
Family Polystoechotidae-Giant Lacewings: These
lacewings have a wingspread of 40-75 mm. They are
quite rare, and only two species are known in North
America. The more common species, Polystoeehotes
punetatus (Fabricius), is attracted to smoke; this
species has disappeared from the eastern half of the
United States in the last 50 years for unknown reasons.
Even in the West it is becoming more uncommon.
FamilySisyridae-Spongillaflies: The spongillaflies
look very much like tiny, brownish lacewings. They are
usually found near ponds or streams, because the lar-
vae (Figure 27-6D) are aquatic and feed on freshwater
sponges. When full grown, the larvae emerge from the
water and pupa te in silken cocoons attached to objects
near the water. These cocoons are constructed inside
hemispherical cocoon covers.
There are six species of spongillaflies in North
America, three in each of the genera Climacia and
Sisyra. These genera differ in the forking of Rs. Clima-
Figure27-10
cia has a single fork in Rs, located below the
pterostigma (Figure 27-2B), and Sisyra has two forks
in this vein, located well proximad of the pterostigma.
Climacia are pale with dark markings, whereas Sisyra
are a uniform smoky brown.
Family Myrmeleontidae-Antlions: This is the
largest family in the order (92 North American species
in 13 genera). Its members are widely distributed, but
are most abundant in the South and West and a hule
less common in the northern part of the United States.
The adults of this group resemble damselflies, with a
long, slender abdomen (Figure 27-10). They differ
from damselflies in being softer-bodied; in having rela-
tively long, clubbed antennae; and in having quite dif-
ferent wing venation (compare Figures 27-4A and
10-6). They are rather feeble fliers and are often at-
tracted to lights. The wings are clear in some species
and irregularly spotted in others (Figure 27-10).
Antlion larvae, or "doodlebugs," are rounded crea-
tures with long, sicklelikejaws (Figure 27-IIA). Most
(Acanthoclisini and Dendroleontini) either lie in wait
for their prey on the surface of the ground (generally in
sandy areas) or buried just beneath the surface, or they
give chase on the surface. Most larvae move both for-
An adult antlion, Dendroleonobsoletum(Say).
Figure27-11 Larvae of Myrmeleontoidea.
A, Myrmeleon immaculatus DeGeer (Myrmeleonti-
dae); B, Asealoptynx appendiculatus (Fabricius)
(Ascalaphidae). ant, antennae; md, mandible;
rnx, maxilla; oe, ocelli. (Courtesy of Peterson.
Reprinted by permission.)

wardand backward equally well. Some species in this
family (the Myrmeleontini) capture their prey by
meansof pitfalls. They conceal themselves in the bot-
tomof a small, conical pit, made in sand or dust, and
feedon ants and other insects that fall into this pit. The
pits are generally 35-50 mm across and are usually
foundin dry situations such as under cliff overhangs or
under buildings. It is not always easy to dig one of
theselarvae from its pit, because the larvae remain mo-
tionlesswhen disturbed and, when dug up, are covered
witha layer of sand or dust and are easily overlooked.
Antlionlarvae pupa te in the soil, in a cocoon made of
sandand silk.
This group contains several distinctive venational
features,some of which are of taxonomic value: (1) a
characteristic fork in the basal third of the wing Cthe
trigonalfork of Comstock), formed by the forking of
theCuAin the front wing and of MP2 in the hind wing;
(2) the prefork area (the trigonalloop of Comstock),
thearea between MP2 and CuA + lA in the front wing;
(3)the hypostigmatic cell (the truss cell of Comstock),
a long cell behind the point of fusion of Sc and R¡
in the distal part of the wing (Figure 27-4, hcl); and
(4)the presectoral crossveins, those basad of the sepa-
rationof Rs + MA from R¡, extending between Rs+ MA
and MP in the front wing and between Rs+MA and
MP¡ in the hind wing. Some species have a fairly dis-
tinet gradate vein called the banksian Hne, extending
lengthwiseof the wing in the distal half or third of the
wing(Figure 27-4A, bln).
The North American species of antlions are
arrangedin six tribes of the subfamily Myrmeleontinae:
Aeanthoclisini,Brachynemurini, Dendroleontini, Gnop-
holeontini, Myrmeleontini, and Nemoleontini. The
Aeanthoclisini and Gnopholeontini occur only in the
West,but the other four tribes are widely distributed.
Onlythe larvae of the Myrmeleontini construct pitfalls.
FamilyAscalaphidae-Owlflies: These large, dragon-
fly-likeinsects have long, clubbed antennae. They are
fairlycommon in the South and Southwest, but are
quiterare in the North. Most species lay their eggs on
twigs,and a week or so after hatching the larvae climb
downto the ground, where they live in litter. The lar-
vaeof a few species may be arboreal. Some larvae cover
References
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Polskie Pismo Entorno!. 45:537-546.
Aspoek, H., U. Aspoek, and H. Rauseh. 1991. Die Raphid-
ioptera der Erde. Eine monographisehe Darstellung der
Systematik, Taxonomie, Biologie, Oekologie und Coro 10-
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themselves with debris; others have a coloration that
renders them inconspicuous. The larvae are preda-
ceous. They lie in wait for their prey with their large
jaws wide open. The closing of the jaws on a prey is ap-
parently triggered by contact, and the prey is usually
paralyzed within seconds by the bite of the ascalaphid
larva. Pupation occurs in litter, in a silken cocoon, and
lasts from a few weeks to a few months. Some adults
are diurnal, and some are nocturnal. Most North Amer-
ican species fly at dusk, flying up to 10 m above the
ground by the time of complete darkness. The flight of
the adults is strong and dragonfly-like, with periods of
hovering and rapid flight, the adults feeding on small
insects. Adults spend much of their time resting-
usually head down on a vertical twig, with the body
projecting from the twig at about a right angle-thus
resembling a small twig. They apparently cannot fly off
directly from a resting position, but warm up for sev-
eral minutes, vibrating their wings. The adults of some
species develop some color in the wings a few days af-
ter emergence. There are 6 species, in two genera, in
North America.
Collecting and Preserving Neuroptera
Most Neuroptera can be collected with an insect net by
sweeping vegetation. Adults of the Sialidae, Corydali-
dae, and Sisyridae are generally found near the aquatic
habitats (ponds and streams) in which the larva e live.
The best way to collect many Neuroptera, particularly
representatives of the less common groups, is at lights.
Polystoechotidae can be collected by building smoky
tires in remo te areas in late autumn.
Adult Neuroptera are preserved in alcohol, or on
pins or points, or in envelopes. All are relatively soft-
bodied, and pinned specimens often sag or shrivel and
be come distorted. Many pinned specimens need some
support for the abdomen, at least until the insect has
dried. Very small forms can be mounted on points, but
preservation in alcohol is better. Large, elongate forms,
such as dobsonflies and antlions, can be preserved in
envelopes.
gie der rezenten Raphidopteren der Erde, mit einer
zusammenfassender Uebersicht der fossilen Raphid-
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2, 550 pp. Krefeld, Germany: Goeeke and Evers.
Aspoek, U.,). D. Plant, and H. L. Nemesehka!. 2001. Cladis-
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within Neuropterida (Inseeta: Holometabola: Neu-
ropterida: Neuroptera). Syst. Entorno!. 26:73-86.
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Banks, N. 1927. Revision of Nearctic Myrrneleontidae. Bull.
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Bickley, W E., and E. G. MacLeod. 1956. A synopsis of the
Nearctic Chrysopidae with a key to the genera (Neu-
roptera). Proc. Entorno\. Soco Wash. 58: 177-202.
Brooks, S.]., and P. C. Barnard. 1990. The green lacewings of
the world: a generic revision (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae).
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Carpenter, F.M. 1936. Revision of the Nearctic Raphidiodea (re-
cent and fossil). Proc. Arner. Acad.Arts Sci. 71(2):89-157.
Carpenter, F. M. 1940. A revision of the nearctic Hernerobi-
idae, Berothidae, Sisyridae, Polystoechotidae, and Dilari-
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74(7):193-280.
Carpenter, F. M. 1951. The structure and relationships of
aliaras (Neuroptera). Psyche 58:32-41.
Chandler, H. P. 1956. Megaloptera. In R. L. Usinger (Ed.),
Aquatic Insects of California, pp. 229-233. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
Cornstock,]. H. 1940. An introduction to entornology. Ninth
edition. Ithaca, NY: Cornstock Publishing Cornpany, Inc.
1064 p.
Froeschner, R. C. 1947. Notes and keys to the Neuroptera of
Missouri. Ann. Entorno\. SocoArner. 40:123-136.
Glorioso, M.]. 1981. Systernatics of the dobsonfly subfarnily
Corydalinae (Megaloptera: Corydalidae). Syst. Entorno\.
6:253-290.
Gurney, A. B. 1947. Notes on Dilaridae and Berothidae, with
special reference to the irnrnature stages of the Nearctic
genera (Neuroptera). Psyche 54:145-169.
Gurney, A. B., and S. Parfin. 1959. Neuroptera. In W. T.
Edrnondson (Ed.), Freshwater Biology, pp. 973-980.
New York: Wiley.
Henry, C. S. 1977. The behavior and life histories of two
North American ascalaphids. Ann. Entorno\. Soco Arner.
70:176-195.
Hoffrnan,K. M. 2002. Mantispidae. In N. D. Penny (Ed.), A
guide to the lacewings (Neuroptera) of Costa Rica. Proc.
Calif. Acad. Sci. 53(12):161-457.
Johnson,]. B., and K. S. Hagen. 1981. A neuropterous larva
uses an allornone to attack termites. Nature 289:506-507.
Larnbkin, K.]. 1986a. A revision of the Australian Mantispi-
dae (Insecta: Neuroptera) with a contribution to the das-
sification of the farnily. Part 1: General and Drepanicinae.
Austra\.]. loo\., Supp\. Ser. 116:1-142.
Larnbkin, K.]. 1986b. A revision of the Australian Mantispi-
dae (Insecta: Neuroptera) with a contribution to the das-
sification of the farnily. Part 2: Calornantispinae and Man-
tispinae. Austra\.]. loo\., Supp\. Ser. 117: 1-113.
MacLeod, E. G., and K. E. Redborg. 1982. Larval platyman-
tispine rnantispids (Neuroptera: Planipennia): Possibly a
subfarnily of general predators. Neuroptera Int. 2:37-41.
Martynov, A. 1928. Perrnian fossil insects of northeast Eu-
rope. Trav. Mus. Geo\. Acad. Sci. USSR 4:1-117.
Meinander, M. 1972. A revision of the farnily Coniopterygi-
dae. Acta loo\. Fenn. 136:1-357.
Nakahara, W 1965. Contribution to the knowledge of the
Hernerobiidae of western North Arnerica (Neuroptera).
Proc. U.s. Nat. Mus. 116:205-222.
Neunzig, H. H., and]. R. Baker. 1991. Order Megaloptera.ln
F. W Stehr (Ed.), Irnrnature insects, vo\. 2, pp. 112-122.
Dubuque, lA:. KendalVHunt, 975 pp.
Oswald, ]. D. 1993. Revision and dadistic analysis of the
world genera of the farnily Hernerobiidae (Insecta: Neu-
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Oswald,]. D., and N. D. Penny. 1991. Genus-group namesof
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Parfin, S. 1952. The Megaloptera and Neuroptera of Min-
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Parfin, S., and A. B. Gurney. 1956. The spongillaflies with special
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Penny, N. D., C. A. Tauber, and T. de Leon. 2000. A new
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Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 21(3):57-78.
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Trans. Entorno\. Soco Lond. 1924:303-411.
 28 Order Hymenoptera1
Sawflies,ParasiticWasps,Ants,
Wasps,and Bees
rom the human standpoint, this order is probably
F the most beneficial in the entire insect class. It con-
tainsa great many species that are of value as parasites
or predators of insect pests, and it contains the most
important pollinators of plants, the bees. The Hy-
menoptera are a very interesting group in terms of their
biology,because they exhibit a great diversity of habits
and complexity of behavior culminating in the social
organization of the wasps, bees, and ants.
The winged members of this order have four mem-
branous wings. The hind wings are smaller than the
frontwings and have a row of tiny hooks (hamuli) on
theiranterior margin, by which the hind wing attaches
to a fold on the posterior edge of the front wing. The
wings contain relatively few veins, and some minute
forms have no veins at all. The mouthparts are
mandibulate, but in many, especially the bees, the la-
biumand maxillae form a tonguelike structure through
which liquid food is taken (Figure 28-6). The anten-
nae usually contain lOor more segments and are gen-
erallyfairly long. The tarsi usually have five segments.
The ovipositor is generally well developed. In some
casesit is modified into a sting, which functions as an
organ of offense and defense. Because the sting is de-
rivedfrom an egg-Iaying organ, only females can sting.
Themetamorphosis is complete, and in most of the or-
der,the larvae are grublike or maggotlike. The larvae of
mostsawflies and related forms are eruciform and dif-
fer from those of the Lepidoptera in that they have
morethan five pairs of prolegs, lack crochets on these
prolegs, and usually have only a single pair of ocelli.
Thepupae are exarate and may be formed in a cocoon,
lHymenoptera: hymeno, god of marriage; ptera, wings
the union of fron! and hind wings by means of hamuli).
within the host (in the case of parasitic species), or in
special cells.
Sex in most Hymenoptera is associated with the
fertilization of the egg. Fertilized eggs develop into fe-
males, and unfertilized eggs usually develop into
males.
Classification of the Hymenoptera
The order Hymenoptera was traditionally divided into
two suborders, the Symphyta (or Chalastogastra) and
the Apocrita. Nearly all symphytes are phytophagous.
Entomologists now widely accept that the Symphyta is,
in fact, a paraphyletic graup. In the suborder Apocrita,
the basal segment of the abdomen is fused with the
thorax and separated fram the remainder of the ab-
domen by a constriction. The abdominal segment that
is fused with the thorax is called the propodeum. The
resulting four-segmented locomotory tagma is known
as the mesosoma (or trunk). The posterior tagma is the
metasoma (or gaster). The trachanters appear one- or
two-segmented in the Apocrita, and there are no more
than two closed cells at the base of the hind wing (Fig-
ure 28-2). The larvae of most species of Apocrita feed
on other arthropods, although phytophagy has re-
evolved several times.
A synopsis of the order Hymenoptera is given in
the following listo Altemate spellings, synonyrns, and
other arrangements are given in parentheses. The
higher classification of the order is in a state of flux.
The arrangement presented here follows in broad out-
(referring to line that of Brothers (1975), Krombein et al. (1979),
Rasnitsyn (1980), and Goulet and Huber (1993). The 481
 ~

I
482 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
I
groups marked with an asterisk (*) are relatively rare Eupelmidae I
or are unlikely to be taken by a general collector. Torymidae (Callimomidae; including Podagri-
Superfamily Xyeloidea onidae in part)
Xyelidae* Agaonidae (Agaontidae, Torymidae in part)- I
fig wasps*
Superfamily Megalodontoidea Ormyridae
Pamphiliidae (Lydidae)-leaf-rolling and web- Pteromalidae (including Cleonymidae in part,
spinning sawflies* Chalcedectidae, Eutrichosomatidae, and
Superfamily Tenthredinoidea Miscogastridae)
Pergidae (Acorduleceridae) * Eucharitidae (Eucharididae, Eucharidae)
Argidae (Hylotomidae) perilampidae
Cimbicidae (Clavellariidae) Eurytomidae-seed chalcids
Diprionidae (Lophyridae)-conifer sawflies Chalcididae (Chalcidae)
Tenthredinidae-common sawflies Leucospidae (Leucospididae)
Superfamily Cephoidea Superfamily Cynipoidea
Cephidae-stem sawflies Ibaliidae*
Liopteridae*
Superfamily Siricoidea
Anaxyelidae (Syntexidae, Syntectidae)- Figitidae (Alloxystidae, Eucoilidae, Charipi-
dae, Cynipidae in part)
incense-cedar wood wasps*
Siricidae (Uroceridae)-horntails Cynipidae-gall wasps
Superfamily Proctotrupoidea
Xiphydriidae-wood wasps* Pelecinidae
Superfamily Orussoidea Vanhorniidae (Proctotrupidae in part, Serphi-
Orussidae (Oryssidae, Idiogastra)-parasitic dae in part) *
wood wasps* Roproniidae*
Suborder Apocrita (Clistogastra, Petiolata) Heloridae*
Superfamily Stephanoidea Proctotrupidae (Serphidae)
Stephanidae* Diapriidae (including Ambositridae, Belytidae,
Superfamily Ceraphronoidea Cinetidae)
Megaspilidae (Ceraphronidae in part, Superfamily Platygastroidea
Calliceratidae in part) Scelionidae
Ceraphronidae (Calliceratidae in part) Platygastridae (Platygasteridae)
Superfamily Trigonalyoidea Superfamily Chrysidoidea (= Bethyloidea)
Trigonalyidae (Trigonalidae) * Chrysididae (including Cleptidae)-cuckoo
Superfamily Evanioidea wasps
Evaniidae-ensign wasps Bethylidae
Gasteruptiidae (Gasteruptionidae) Dryinidae
Aulacidae (Gasteruptiidae in part) Embolemidae (Dryinidae in part)*
Superfamily lchneumonoidea Sclerogibbidae*
Braconidae (including Aphidiidae) Superfamily Apoidea
lchneumonidae (including Paxylommatidae = Sphecidae (including Ampulicidae, pemphre-
Hybrizontidae) donidae, Astatidae, Crabronidae, Mellinae,
Superfamily Mymarommatoidea Nyssonidae, Philanthidae)-mud-daubers,
Mymarommatidae* thread-waisted wasps
Superfamily Chalcidoidea Melittidae*
Mymaridae-fairyflies Colletidae (incIuding Hylaeidae)-plasterer
Trichogrammatidae and yellow-faced bees
Eulophidae (including Elasmidae) Halictidae-sweat bees
Tetracampidae * Andrenidae (including Oxaeidae)
Aphelinidae (Eulophidae in part, Encyrtidae Megachilidae-Ieaf-cutting bees
in part) Apidae (including Anthophoridae, Nomadi-
Signiphoridae (Encyrtidae in part; dae, Euceridae, Ceratinidae, Xylocopidae,
Thysanidae)* Bombidae)-honey bees, bumble bees, or-
Encyrtidae chid bees, cuckoo bees, digger bees, and
Tanaostigmatidae (Encyrtidae in part)* carpenter bees
 Characters Used Identifying Hymenoptera 483

Superfamily Vespoidea has proved to be a problem. There are two basic ter-
Tiphiidae (including Thynnidae) minologies in use for the venation of the Hy-
Sierolomorphidae * menoptera: a traditional system using terms specific
Sapygidae* for the order (Figure 28-3) and one developed by
Mutillidae Cincluding Myrmosinae)-velvet Ross (1936) that attempted to homologize the vena-
ants tion with that of other insects. In this chapter we gen-
Bradynobaenidae (Mutillidae in part) * erally will use the modification of Ross's system by
Pompilidae (psammocharidae)-spider wasps Richards (1977) to refer to veins (Figures 28-1,
Rhopalosomatidae (Rhopalosomidae) * 28-2). In those groups with very reduced venation
Scoliidae (Chalcidoidea and Proctotrupoidea especially), it is
Vespidae Cincluding Eumenidae, Masaridae)- much simpler to refer to the veins by their relative po-
paper wasps, yellow jackets, hornets, ma- sitions (see Figure 28-19B). We also follow Michener's
son wasps, potter wasps (1944) suggestions regarding the names of some cells,
Formicidae-ants and use the positional terms marginal and submarginal
cclls (Figure 28-3, MC, SM).

Characters
Usedin Identifying
Hymenoptera
WingVenation
Venationalcharacters are used a great deal to separa te
the various groups of Hymenoptera. There are not
manyveins or cells in the hymenopteran wings, but
homologizing this venation with that in other orders
Leg Characters
The leg characters used in identification are chiefly the
number of trochanter segments, the number and form
of the tibial spurs, and the form of the tarsal segments.
The sawflies and some superfamilies of the Apocrita
have two trochanter segments (Figure 28-32A). In
fact, the so-called second trochanter is actually a basal
subdivision of the femur and is never movably articu-
lated distally. In the bees (Apoidea), the first segment

eI
Se,

Figure28-1 Wings of Acantholyda (Pamphili-

idae) showing the venational terminology of
Richards (1977).
484 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera

e, R

Figure28-2 Wings of Myzinum

(Tiphiidae), showing the venational
terminology of Ross (1936) and the
names of cells used in this book.

Figure28-3 Wings of Aean-

tholyda, showing the old system
of terminology (veins are showed
by smallletters, cells by capi-
tals). Veins: a, anal; ae, accessory,
lanceolate, or subanal; axv, axil-
lary; by, basal; e, costal; eu, Cll-
bital; d, discoidal; ic, intercostal;
mdv, median; mv, marginal or ra-
dial; rv, recurrent; sev, subcostal;
sd, subdiscal or subdiscoidal; st,
stigma; te, transverse costal; tcb,
transverse cubitals; tI, transverse
lanceolate; tm, transverse me-
dian; trd, transverse radial or
transverse marginal. Cells: A,
anal; AP, apical or posterior; AX,
axillary; C, costal; D, discoidal;
L, lanceolate; MC, marginal; MD,
median; SM, submarginal; SMD,
submedian. The basal cells (hind
wing) are MD, SMD, and L.
 CharactersUsed Identifying Hymenoptera 485

ofthe hind tarsus is usually much enlarged and flat-
tenedand may in some cases appear nearly as large as
thetibia (Figure 28-15B,C). In some superfamilies, the
sizeand shape of the hind coxae may help separate
families.
AntennalCharacters
visible under a compound microscope. The key refers
to the number of segments in the funicle. These are
usually much longer than the ring segments and easily
distinguished fram them. In those few cases where it is
unclear whether a segment represents a large ring seg-
ment or a small funicular segment, it should be in-
cluded in the count of the latter.

Theantennae of Hymenoptera vary in form, number of ThoracicCharacters

segments,and location on the face. In the Apocrita the
number of antennal segments and, in some cases, the
formof the antennae may differ in the two sexes. In
mostaculeates, the male has 13 antennal segments and
thefemale has 12. In the ants, the antennae are much
more distinctly elbowed in the queens and workers
than in the males. In the Chalcidoidea, the antennal
flagellummay be thought of as consisting of three sec-
tions(Figure 28-25B): an apical clava (eva), the ring
segmentsbasally (rg), and the funicle between the two
(!un).The clava is formed of one to three segments that
aredistinguished by their close association rather than
necessarilyby any expansion. The ring segments (or
anneli)are minute, reduced segments, sometimes only
The thoracic characters used in identifying Hymenoptera
involve principally the forro of the pronotum and of cer-
tain mesothoracic sclerites and sulci. The shape of the
pronotum as seen from above (Figure 28-9A-D) sepa-
rates some families of sawflies, and its shape as seen from
the side separates groups of superfamilies of Apocrita.
The pronotum in the Apocrita may appear in profile
more or less triangular and extending nearly or quite
close to the tegulae (Figure 28-4C: Stephanoidea, Cer-
aphronoidea, lchneumonoidea, Cynipoidea, Evanioidea,
Proctotrupoidea, Platygastroidea, and some Vespoidea),
somewhat quadrate and not quite reaching the tegulae
(Figure 28-4A,B: Trigonalyoidea, Chrysidoidea, Cha1ci-

nt t~
, ,,ax

Figure 28-4 Mesosomatic structures in Hymenoptera, lateral view. A, cha1cidoid (To-

rymidae); B, cuckoo wasp (Chrysididae); C, paper wasp (Vespidae); D, thread-waisted
wasp (Sphecidae). ax, axilla; ex, coxa; emp, epimeron; eps, episternum; n, notum;
n,l, pronotallobe; nt, notaulus; pl, pleuron; pp, prepectus; prd, propodeum; sea, scapula;
se!, scutellum; set, scutum; tg, tegula.
486 Chapter28 OrderHyrnenoptera

doidea, some Vespoidea), or short and collarlike with a

small, rounded lobe on each side (Figures 28-4D and
28-12: Apoidea). Some Apocrita (for example, the Chal-
cidoidea) have a distinct triangular prepectus in the lat-
eral wall of the mesothorax (Figure 28-4 A, pp). The pres-
ence or absence of notauli (Figure 28-4A, nt, sometimes
called parapsidal furrows) and the form of the axillae
(Figure 28-4A, ax) often serve to separate related fami-
lies. Most sawflies (all except Cephidae) have a pair of
cenchri dorsally on or behind the metanotum. These are
rounded and roughened structures that contact scaly
patches on the posterior part of the fore wings and hold
the wings in place when they are folded over the body
(Figure 28-7, cen).
Abdominal Charaders
In the superfamilies Ichneumonoidea, Stephanoidea,
Cynipoidea, and Chalcidoidea, the ovipositor issues
from the metasoma anterior to the apex, on the ventral
side, and is not withdrawn into the body when not in
use (Figure 28-5A). In most of the remaining Apocrita,
the ovipositor issues from the apex of the metasoma
and is withdrawn into the body when not in use (Fig-
ure 28-5B). The shape of the metasoma or of the peti-
ole may separa te related groups in some superfamilies.
Other Charaders
In some wasps, the shape of the compound eyes differs
in different families, with the inner or mesal margins
sometimes strongly emarginate. The mouthpart struc-
tures used to separate groups of Hymenoptera are
chiefly the form of the mandibles and the structure of
the tongue (see Figure 28-6). The tongue provides
some excellent characters for identifying bees and
should be extended when specimens are fresh and still
flexible. The head and thoracic characters that involve
the form of sclerites and sulci are usually easy to see
except when the specimen is very small or very hairy.
In the latter case, it may be necessary to separate or re-
move the hairs. Characters such as the size, shape, or
color of the insect provide easy means of identification
ovp
I
I
B
Figure28-5 Position of the ovipositor in Hymenoptera.
A, last sternite split ventrally, the ovipositor issuing from
anterior to apex of abdomen Ochneumonidae); B, last
sternite not split ventrally, the ovipositor issuing froro
apex of abdomen (Sphecidae). ovp, ovipositor.
in many groups. "Minute" means 2 mm long or less;
small means 2-7 mm long.
The principal difficulties likely to be encountered
in keying out a specimen in this order are caused by the
small size of some specimens. These are either difficult
to see, or the specimens are weakly sclerotized and may
collapse when air-dried. The larger specimens should
not cause much difficulty. We have included here a key
to all the families of Hymenoptera represented in the
United States and Canada, although we realize the stu-
dent is likely to have some difficulty in keying out the
smaller specimens. Counts of the number of anten-
nomeres and tarsomeres are best done by shining the
light below the specimen so that the structure is seen
in silhouette. Groups that are relatively rare or are
small in size and unlikely to be found and retained by
the beginning student are marked with an asterisk (*).

Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera2

The system of venational terminology used by Richards (1977; Figure 28-1) is gener-
ally used in this key. Unless otherwise indicated, all venational characters refer to the
front wing. For those species with highly reduced venation, the positional terms in
Figure 28-19B are used. Cells are named according the the vein forming their anterior
boundary; we continue to use the terms submarginal and marginal cells; cells used in the

'We acknowledge here ¡he generous and significan! con¡ributions 10

¡he chalcidoid portion of ¡he key by G. A. P. Gibson, and 10 ¡he bees
by J. B. Whitfield.
 Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 487

,
Ip
_--Ip
A --91
-91
--flb B
--- flb

Figure28-6 Head and mouthpart

structure in bees. A, mouthparts of
e--- - - hbr Xylocopa (Apidae, Xylocopinae),
--po--- posterior view; B, same, anterior
hbr- view; C, mouthparts of Hylaeus
_smt
(Colletidae, Hylaeinae), posterior
view;D, mouthparts of Sphecodes
(Halictidae), posterior view. ed,
cardo; clp, clypeus; e, compound
eye;flb, flabellum; fr, frons; g, galea;
ge, gena; gl, glossa; hbr, hypostomal
bridge; Ibr, labrum; Ip, labial palp;
'. mxp.- md, mandible; mn, mentum; mxp,
maxillary palp; oe, ocelli; oep, oc-
D ciput; pgl, paraglossa; po, postoc-
ciput; prmt, prementum; smt, sub-
mentum; stp, stipes.

keyare labeled in the accompanying figures. The number of marginal or submarginal

cellsrefers to the number of closed cells. No satisfactory keys to the family level or be-
loware available that treat all Hymenoptera larvae, but Evans (1987) provides the most
up-to-datekeys for most groups. These are especially useful for sawfly larvae.

1. Base of abdomen broadly joined to thorax (Figures 28-7, 28-38 through

28-40), first abdominal tergum divided longitudinally (except Orussidae
and rarely in Tenthredinidae), rarely these halves fused together, but
fusion line visible; thorax with 2 pairs of spiracles, these located near wing
bases and not visible dorsally; trochanters 2-segmented; hind wings nearly
always with at least 3 closed basal cells (B in Figure 28-8); cenchri
(Figure 28-7, een) present (except Cephidae); body never shorter than
2 mm (sawflies) 2
488 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera

<=

]o
--,

~ Figure28-7 Thorax and abdomenof Symphyta,dorsal

~ view. cen, cenchri.

1'. Base of apparent abdomen Cthemetasoma) constricted, more or less

petiolate; first true abdominal tergum incorporated into functional thorax
Cthemesosoma), this therefore with 3 pairs of spiracles, the posterior pair
clearly visible dorsally; trochanters 1- or 2-segmented; hind wings with
2 or fewer closed basal cells (Figures 28-2, 28-13, 28-14, 28-19, 28-20,
28-31, 28-36A-C); cenchri absent; rarely metasoma broadly connected
to mesosoma in minute species (suborder Apocrita) 13
2(1). Antennae inserted under a broad frontal ridge below eyes, just above
mouth (Figure28-9E); 1 submarginalcell (Figure28-8D) Orussidae* p.519
2'. Antennae inserted above base of eyes, near middle of face;
1-3 submarginal cells 3
3(2'). Front tibia with 1 apical spur 4
3' Front tibia with 2 apical spurs 7
4(3). Pronotum in dorsal view wider than long, shorter along midline than
laterally (Figure 28-9D); mesonotum with 2 diagonal fUITOWS extending
anterolaterally from anterior margin of scutellum (Figure 28-9D);
abdomenterminatingin a dorsallylocated,spearlikeplate or spine Siricidae p.518
4'. Pronotum in dorsal view either U-shaped (Figure 28-9B) or more or less
trapezoidal (Figure 28-9A,C); mesonotum without diagonal fUITows;
abdomen not terminating in a dorsally located spear or spine 5
5(4'). Pronotum in dorsal view U-shaped, posterior margin deeply curved, and
very short along midline (Figure 28-9B); costal cell, and usually also
vein Sc2,present (Figure28-8B);abdomencylindrical Xiphydriidae p.519
 Keyto the Families of Hymenoptera 489

Figure 28-8 Wings of Sym-

phyta. A, Cephidae (Cephus);
B, Xiphydriidae (Xiphydria);
C, Xyelidae (Macroxyela);
D, Orussidae (Orussus);
E, Tenthredinidae (Dolerus);
F, Temhredinidae (Amauronema-
tus). B, basal cell; C, costal cell;
MC, marginal cell; se, subcostal
E F vein; SM, submarginal cell.

5'. Pronotum in dorsal view not U-shaped, posterior margin straight or only
slightly curved (Figure 28-9A,C); costal cell present or absent; vein SC2
absent; abdomen more or less flattened laterally 6
6(5'). Costal cell present and distinct; apical spur on front tibiae pectinate
on inner margin; pronotum in dorsal view much wider than long
(Figure 28-9C); California and Oregon Anaxyelidae* p.518
6'. Costal cell absent or very narrow (Figure 28-8A); apical spur on front
tibiae not pectinate on inner margin; pronotum in dorsal view about as
long as or longer than wide (Figure 28-9A); widely distributed Cephidae p.518
7(3'). Antennae 3-segmented, third segment very long (Figure 28-lOE),
sometimes U-shaped Argidae p.517
490 Chapter28 Order Hymenoptera

Figure28-9 Head and thoracie eharaeters of Symphyta.

A-D, dorsal views; E, anterior view. A, pronotum of Har-
tigia (Cephidae); B, pronotum of Xiphydria (Xiphydri-
idae); C, pronotum of Syntexis (Anaxyelidae); D, thorax
of Urocerus(Siricidae); E, head of Orussus (Orussidae).
ant, base of antenna; n¡, pronotum; Sc!2,mesoseutellum;
e E sct2,mesoseutum. (C, redrawn from Ross [1937]).

"
1/

Figure28-10 Antennae of Symphyta.

A, Cimbicidae (Cimba); B, Tenthredinidae
(Leucopelmonus); C, male Diprionidae
(Neodiprion); D, Xyelidae (Macroxyela);
A B e D E E, Argidae (Arge).

7' Antennae with more than 3 segments 8

8(7/). Third antennal segment very long, longer than following segments
combined (Figure 28-10D); 3 (rarely 2) marginal eells and vein Se
present (Figure 28-8C) Xyelidae* p.516
8'. Third antennal segment short (Figure 28-lOA-C); 1 or 2 marginal eells
(Figure 28-8E,F); vein Se usually absent 9
9(8/). Antennae clubbed, with 7 or fewer segments (Figure 28-lOA); large,
robust sawflies resembling bumble bees (Figure 28-38A) Cimbicidae p.517
 Key to the Families of Hymenoptera 491

9'. Antennae filiform (Figure 28-lOB), serrate, or pectinate (Figure 28-10C),

rarely slightly clubbed 10
10(9'). Antennae 6-segmented; anterior margin of scutellum more or less straight Pergidae
* p.516
10'. Antennae with more than 6 segments; anterior margin of scutellum
V-shaped (Figure 28-38B,C) 11
11(10'). Veins Sc and usually Cu¡ and crossvein cu-a present (Figure 28-1);
antennae with 13 or more segments Pamphiliidae* p.516
11'. Veins Sc and Cu¡ absent and crossvein cu-a present (Figure 28-8E,F);
antennae variable 12
12(11'). Antennae 7- to lO-segmented and usually filiform (Figure 28-10B); 1 or
2 marginal cells (Figure 28-8E,F) Tenthredinidae p.517
12'. Antennae with 13 or more segments and either serrate or pectinate
(Figure 28-10C); 1 marginal cell Diprionidae p.517
13(1'). First metasomatic segment (sometimes first 2 metasomatic segments)
bearing a hump or node and strongly differentiated from rest of metasoma
(Figures 28-11, 28-83); antennae usually elbowed, at least in female,
with first segment long; pronotum more or less quadrate in lateral view,
usually not reaching tegulae (Figures 28-11, 28-83); often wingless Formicidae p. 552
13'. First metasomatic segment not as in preceding entry, or antennae not
elbowed; pronotum variable 14
14(13'). Wings well developed 15
14'. Wings vestigial or lacking 106
15(14). Pronotum with a rounded lobe on each side posteriorly that does not
reach the tegula (Figures 28-4D, 28-12); venation usually complete or
nearly so (Figures 28-13, 28-14) (Apoidea) 16

Figure28-11 Ant workers.

A, Ponerinae (Ponera); B, Myrmicinae
(Solenopsis).

Figure28-12 Mesosoma of Hylaeus (Colletidae, Hy1aeinae); lateral

view. aos, anterior oblique sulcus on mesepisternum; n,l, pronotallobe.

.
492 Chapter28 OrderHyrnenoptera

A B

SMD

e D

SMD

jl..........

E F

Figure28-13 Wingsof Apoidea.A,Andrena(Andrenidae,Andreninae);B,panurga

(Andrenidae, Panurginae); e, Sphecodes(Halictidae, Halictinae); D, CoHetes(Colletidae,
Colletinae); E, Hylaeus (Colletidae, Hylaeinae); F, Coelioxys (Megachilidae, Megachili-
nae). jl, jugallobe; MC, marginal cell; SM, submarginal cells.
 Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 493

A B

MC

e o

E F

Figure28-14 Wings of Apoidea. A, Xylocopa (Apidae, Xylocopinae); B, Bombus (Api-

dae, Apinae); e, Melissodes(Apidae, Apinae); D, Apis (Apidae, Apinae); E, Nomada (Api-
dae, Nomadinae); F, Ceratina (Apidae, Xylocopinae). jl, jugallobe; MC, marginal cell;
SM, second submarginal cel!.
494 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera

15'. Pronotum without a rounded lobe on each side posteriorly

(Figure 28-4A-C), or if such a lobe is present (as in Figure 28-34), it
reaches (or nearly reaches) the tegula; venation variable, sometimes
much reduced 22
16(15). Body relatively bare, with all body hairs unbranched; first segment of hind
tarsus similar in width and thickness to the remaining segments and not
longer than the remaining segments combined (Figure 28-15A); metasoma
often petiolate; posterior margin of pronotum (in dorsal view) nearly
always straight Sphecidae p.539
16'. Body usually relatively hairy, with at least some body hairs (especially on
mesosoma) branched or plumose (Figure 28-16); first segment of hind
tarsus usually wider than the remaining segments and generally as long
as or longer than the remaining segments combined (Figure 28-15B-D);
metasoma not petiolate; posterior margin of pronotum (in dorsal view)
usually more or less arcuate 17
17(16'). Jugallobe in hind wing as long as or longer than M+Cu¡ cell
(Figure 28-13A-E,jl); galeae and glossa short 18
17'. Jugallobe in hind wing shorter than M+Cu¡ cell or lacking
(Figures 28-13F, 28-14); galeae and glossa usually long 20
18(17). Glossa truncate, bilobed apically (Figure 28-6C); anterior oblique sulcus
present on mesepisternum (Figure 28-12, aos); frons with one
subantennal sulcus meeting inner side of antennal socket (as in
Figure 28-17C, sas) Colletidae p. 543
18'. Glossa pointed or somewhat rounded apically, not bilobed
(Figure 28-6A,B,D); anterior oblique sulcus often absent from
mesepisternum; frons with one or two subantennal sulci 19
19(18'). Fore wing with first free segment of M strongly arched (Figure 28-13C);
frons with 1 subantennal sulcus meeting inner side of antennal socket
(as in Figure 28-17C); anterior oblique sulcus usually present on
mesepisternum (as in Figure 28-12; aos); facial foveae absent Halictidae p.543

Figure 28-15 Hind legs of Sphecoidea (A) and Apoidea (B-D). A, Sphex (Sphecidae);
B, Apis (Apidae); C, Andrena (Andrenidae); D, Nomada (Apidae). cb, corbicula; mts, first
tarsal segment (metatarsus).
 Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 495

Figure28-16 Scanning electron micrograph showing plumose body hairs of Hylaeus

(Colletidae, Hylaeinae).

Figure28-17 Heads ofbees,

A B
anterior view. A, Andrenidae
(Andrena); B, Megachilidae
(Osmia); C, Apidae (Doeringiella,
Nomadinae). clp, clypeus;jj, facial
fovea; lbr, labrum; sas, subantennal
e su\cus.

19', Fore wing with first free segment of M straight or weakly arched
(Figure 28-13A,B,D-F); frons with 2 subantennal su\ci, one on each side
of antennal socket (Figure 28-17 A); anterior oblique su\cus almost always
absent from mesepistemum; facial foveae, at least in females, present and
distinct, oftenlined with dense, feltlikepile (Figure28-17A) Andrenidae p. 543
20(17/). Galeae and glossa short ("tongue" relatively short); segments of labial
palpi similar and cylindrical (as in Figure 28-6D) Melittidae p. 540
20', Galeae and glossa elongate ("tongue" long); first 2 segments oflabial
palpi elongate and somewhat flattened to form a sheath for the "tongue"
(Figure 28-6A,B) 21
21(20'). Fore wing with 2 submarginal cells (Figure 28-13F); labrum longer than
wide, but with broad articulation with clypeus; subantennal su\ci meeting
outer side of antennal sockets (Figure 28-17B); scopa, when present,
on metasoma (Figure 28-69) Megachilidae p. 544
496 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera

21'. Forewingwith 3 submarginalcells (Figure 28-14A, B), rareiy 2; if 2,

then secondsubmarginalcellmuch shorter than first;labrumusually
wider than long or with narrow articulation with clypeus; subantennal
sulcimeetinginner sides of antennalsockets(Figure28-17C); scopa,
when present, usually on hind legs (rareiy also on metasoma) Apidae p.545
22(15'). Venation slightly to considerably reduced, front wings usually with 5 or
fewer closed cells, and hind wings usually without closed cells
(Figures 28-19, 28-20, 28-31G) 23

22'. Venation complete or nearly so, front wings usually with 6 or more
closed cells and hind wings with at least 1 closed cell
(Figures 28-31A-F,H, 28-33) 83

23(22). Pronotum in lateral view more or less triangular, and extending to

tegulae or nearly so (Figure 28-4C); hind wings nearly always without
a jugallobe 24

23'. Pronotumin lateralviewmore or lessquadrate,and not quite reaching

tegulae(Figure28-4A,B);formswith 3 or more closedcellsin frontwings
usually have a jugallobe in hind wings 46

24(23). Metasoma arising on propodeum between bases of hind coxae or only

slightly above them (as in Figure 28-18A-C); antennae variable 25

24'. Metasoma arising on propodeum far above bases of hind coxae

(Figure 28-18D-F); antennae 13- or 14-segmented 84

25(24). Fore wing with well-developed marginal cell and costal vein absent basally,
without enlarged stigma (Figure 28-19A) 26

25'. Fore wing either without marginal cell (as in Figure 28-19B--E, 28-20A,E)
or costal vein present basally (Figure 28-20B--D,F-H); stigma often
present 33

B
e

Figure28-18 Base of
the metasoma in parasitic
Hymenoptera. A, lchneu-
monidae; B, lchneumonidae;
e, Braconidae; D, Gasterup-
tiidae; E, Aulacidae;
F, Evaniidae. met" first
metasomatic segment; cx3,
F hind coxa; prd, propodeum.
 Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 497

A B

~ \\\\~~~~~
e
-- D

.........

E F

Figure28-19 Wings of
Hymenoptera. A, Cynipidae;
B, Perilampidae; C, Mymaridae;
G D, Diapriidae (Diapriinae);
E, Megaspilidae; F, Bethylidae;
H
G, Ceraphronidae; H, Platy-
gastridae; 1, Ichneumonidae
(PaxyIlomatinae). jl. jugallobe;
mv, marginal vein; pm, postmar-
ginal vein; sm. submarginal vein;
stostigma; sv. stigmal vein.

UNIVERSIDADDECALDAS
a'SLIOTlECA
498 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera

26(25). First segment of hind tarsus twice as long as the other segments combined,
second segment with a long process on outer side extending to tip of fourth
segment (Figure 28-20B); metasoma compressed, longer than head and
mesosoma combined; antennae 13-segmented in female and 15-segmented
in male; 7-16 mm long Ibaliidae* p.533
26'. First segment of hind tarsi much shorter, the second segment without a
long process on outer side; antennae variable, but usually 13-segmented
in female and 14-segmented in male; generally 8 mm long or less 27
27(26'). In lateral view, tergum 4 or 5 of metasoma larger than other segmel1ts Liopteridae p. 534
27'. In lateral view, tergum 2 or 3 of metasoma largest 28
28(27' , Dorsal surface of scutellum with a rounded or oval elevation or keel in
110). center (Figure 28-20D); first segment of Rs far longer than first free
segment of M; second metasomatic tergum longer than third; antennae
11- to 16-segmented, usually 13-segmented in female and 15-segmented
in male Figitidae p. 534
28'. Dorsal surface of scutellum not as as in preceding entry; venation,
metasomatic terga, and antennae variable 29
29(27'). Second metasomatic tergum narrow, tongue-shaped, shorter than third
(Figure 28-20C); first segment of Rs far longer than first free segment
ofM Figitidae* p.534
29'. Second metasomatic tergum not tongue-shaped, or (some Cynipinae)
tongue-shaped, but much longer than third 30

e
Figure 28-20 Characters al
the Cynipoidea. A, metasoma 01
Diplolepis (Cynipidae); B, hind
tarsus of Ibalia (Ibaliidae);
C, metasoma of Callaspida
(Figitidae); D, scutellum of
Figitidae (Eucoilinae), dorsal
view;E, metasomaof Anacharis
(Anacharitinae); F, metasoma01
Figitinae (Figitidae). The meta.
E F somatic tergites are numbered.
 Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 499

30(29'). Petiole of metasoma elongate, in lateral view longer than wide; head
distinctly wider than mesosoma Figitidae p. 534
30'. Petiole short or hidden; head as wide as or narrower than mesosoma 31
31(30'). Pranotum dorsally with a differentiated medial plate; genal carina
well-developed; scutellum sometimes pralonged in spine Figitidae p. 534
31'. Upper surface of pronotum without separate medial plate; genal carina
weak or absent; scutellum without posterior spine 32
32(31'). Head smooth; mid and hind tibia often with 1 apical spur; tarsal claw
without basal tooth Figitidae p. 534
32'. Head with coarse sculpture; mid and hind tibia with 2 apical spurs;
tarsal claw often with basal tooth Cynipidae p. 534
33(25'). Costal vein present in basal portion of fore wing and costal cell absent
(Figure 28-191, 28-21E) 34
33'. Either costal vein absent basally or costal cell well developed 35
34(33). Metasomatic tergites 2 and 3 fused together; Rs and M separated basad
of 2r (Figure 28-21E) Braconidae p. 522
34'. Metasomatic tergites 2 and 3 separated and overlapping; veins Rs and M
not separating until beyond 2r (Figure 28-191) Ichneumonidae* p.523
35(33', Fore tibia with 2 apical spurs; venation highly reduced: no closed cells
110'). in fore wing, stigmal vein distinctly arched toward costal margin, marginal
vein extending from base of wing, submarginal vein absent
(Figure 28-19E,G) (veins rarely absent entirely) (Ceraphronoidea) 36
35'. Fore tibia with 1 apical spur; venation variable, submarginal vein usually
present; in forms with reduced venation the stigmal vein, if present,
either straight or curved away fram costal margin 37
36(35). Middle tibia with 2 apical spurs; large apical spur on fore tibia forked
apically; antennae ll-segmented in both sexes; stigma of fore wing
usually large, semicircular (Figure 28-19E) (rarely linear or wings
veinless in male Lagynodinae) Megaspilidae p. 520
36'. Middle tibia with 1 apical spur; large spur of fore tibia not forked apically;
female antennae 9- or lO-segmented, male antennae 10- or ll-segmented;
stigma of fore wing linear, appearing similar to marginal vein, but
separated fram it by a distinct break (Figure 28-19G) (stigma and stigmal
vein rarely absent) Ceraphronidae p. 520
37(35', Antennal sockets separated fram clypeal margin by distinctly more than
90). 1 diameter of socket (Figure 28-22C, 28-59) 38
37'. Antennal sockets contiguous with dorsal margin of clypeus or separated
fram it by less than 1 diameter of socket (Figure 28-22A,B) 43
38(37). Antennae 10-segmented; hind wings with jugallobe Embolemidae* p. 538
38'. Antennae 11- to 16-segmented; hind wings without a jugallobe
(Figures 28-19D, 28-31G) 39
39(38'). Basitarsus of hind leg distinctly shorter than following segments; fore
wing with Rs forked apically (Figure 28-21A) Pelecinidae p. 535
39'. Basitarsus of hind leg distinctly longer than following segments; fore
wing with Rs not forked or absent entirely 40
40(39'). First antennal segment distinctly elongate, at least 2.5 times as long as
wide; antennae usually arising from a distinct shelf (Figure 28-59);
stigma absent or very small (Figures 28-19D, 28-31G) Diapriidae p. 536
40'. First antennal segment short, at most 2.2 times as long as wide; antennal
shelf absent; stigma present (Figures 28-21D,F-H) 41

...
500 Chapter28 Order Hyrnenoptera

~~ "'- '" ~""

A B
MC
,

':"',"'-"'>"""~~.__.
-----------

e D

G H

Figure28-21 Wings of Hymenoptera. A, Pelecinidae; B, Chrysididae; C, Evaniidae;

D, Proctotrupidae; E, Braconidae (Aphidiinae); F, Roproniidae; G, Vanhorniidae;
H, Heloridae. C, costal cell; jl, jugallobe; M, medial cell; MC, marginal cell; st, stigma.
 Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 501

~ 0 ~ o
0 '1
"o
..
}~
rJ\j)
. . v
D
A
8 e

Figure28-22 Head structure in the Platygastroidea and Proctotrupoidea, anterior view.

A, Scelionidae; B, Platygastridae; C, Proctotrupidae; D, Vanhorniidae.

41(40'). Antenna 13-segmented; medial cell not defined; marginal cell very narrow
(Figure 28-2lD) Proctotrupidae p. 536
41'. Antenna with 14 or 16 segments; medial cell defined (Figure 28-21F,H, M);
marginal cell elongate (Figure 28-21F,H) 42
42(41'). Antenna 16-segmented (including 1 minute ring segment following pedicel);
metasoma slightly wider than high, in lateral view tergites subequal in
height to sternites;medialcelltriangular(Figure28-21H, M) Heloridae p. 536
42', Antenna 14-segmented (without ring segment); metasoma strongly
compressed laterally, in lateral view tergites much higher than sternites;
medialcellpolygonal(Figure28-21F,M) Roproniidae p. 536
43(37'). First antennal segment short and stout, less than 2 times as long as wide;
antenna 13-segmented; mandibles with tips pointing outward, and widely
separated when closed (Figure 28-22D); fore wing with thick stigma,
marginal cell closed (Figure 28-21G) Vanhorniidae p. 535
43'. First antennal segment long and slender, distinctly more than 2.5 times
as long as wide; antenna never with 13-segments; mandibles normal,
touching or crossing when closed; fore wing with stigma absent, marginal
cell never closed 44
44(43'). Second metasomatic tergite distinctly longer than all others, several times
longer than tergite 3 45
44'. Tergite 2 not distinctly longer than others, at most subequal in length
to tergite 3 Scelionidae p. 537
45(44). Fore wing with stigmal and usually postmarginal veins; antennae usually
11- or 12-segmented, rarely 10-segmented Scelionidae p. 537
45', Fore wing without stigmal or postmarginal vein (Figure 28-19H), often
entirely veinless; antenna with 10 or fewer segments Platygastridae p. 537
46(23'). Venation greatly reduced (as in Figure 28-19B), the hind wings without
an incision setting off a jugal or vannallobe; antennae elbowed; mesosoma
usually with a distinct prepectus (Figure 28-4A, pp); trochanters generally
2-segmented (Chalcidoidea) 47
46'. Wings with more veins, the hind wings usually with a lobe (jugal or
vannal) set off by a distinct incision (Figures 28-19F, 28-2IB); antennae
usually not elbowed; trochanters usually 1-segmented (Chrysidoidea) 80
47(46). Hind femora greatly swollen and usually toothed or denticulate beneath
(Figure 28-23E); hind tibiae usually arcuate 48
47', Hind femora not swollen or only slightly swollen, and either not toothed
beneath or with only 1 or 2 teeth 51
 -,
I

502 Chapter28 Order Hymenoptera

I

Figure 28-23 Legs of

e E
Chalcidoidea. A, front leg,
Eulophidae; B, front leg,
Pteromalidae; C, hind leg,
Pteromalidae; D, hind leg,
Eurytomidae; E, hind leg,
Chalcididae; F, middle leg,
Encyrtidae. fm, femur;
F tsp, tibial spur.

48(47). Prepectus reduced and narrow, or almost entirely hidden; lateral angles
of pronotum nearly reaching tegula; color black, brown, to yellow, never
metallic 49
48'. Prepectus normal size, triangular, distinctly separating pronotum from
tegula; color variable, often metallic 50
49(48). Fore wings usually folded longitudinally at rest; ovipositor curved up
over dorsum of female; tegulae elongate Leucospidae p.533
49'. Fore wings not folded longitudinally; ovipositor directed posteriorly;
tegula oval, not elongate Chalcididae p.533
50(48'). Inner margins of eyes diverging ventrally; antennae inserted distinctly
below lower margins of eyes; body generally flattened Pteromalidae p.532
50'. Inner margins of eyes parallel; antennae inserted near to or distinctly
above lower margins of eyes; body convex (Podagrioninae) Torymidae p.532
51(47', Tarsi 3-segmented; wing pubescence often arranged in rows; minute
112'). insects Trichogrammatidae p.530
51'. Tarsi 4- or 5-segmented; wing pubescence usually not arranged in rows;
size variable 52
52(51'). Petiole of metasoma 2-segmented, elongate; surface of fore wing with
netlike reticulations; minute pale-colored species, less than 1 mm long Mymarommatidae
* p.526
52'. Either metasomatic petiole l-segmented or metasoma sessile; fore wing
normal, usually setose, without reticulations; size and color variable 53
53(52'). Bases of antennae widely separated, inserted closer to eyes than to each
other; frons with a distinct transverse sulcus above antennal insertions,
and with a pair of longitudinal sulci along mesal margins of eyes
(Figure 28-24); small to minute species, usually less than 1 mm long Mymaridae p.526
 Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 503

Figure28-24 Head structure in Myrnaridae.

53', Antennal insertions closer to each other than to eyes; frons without such
sulci; size variable 54
54(53'). Tarsi 4-segmented 55
54'. Tarsi 5-segmented 60
55(54). Antennal funicle with 4 or fewer segments (Figure 28-25A,C) 56
55'. Antennal funicle with 5 or more segments (Figure 28-25B) 59
56(55). Hind coxa greatly enlarged and flattened; outer surface of hind tibiae with
short, dark bristles arranged in zigzag lines or otherwise forming a
distinctive pattern (Figure 28-26); fore wings narrow; male antennae
branched Eulophidae p. 531

e Figure28-25 Antennae of Chalci-

doidea. A, Eulophidae; B, Pteromalidae;
C, Trichogrammatidae; D, Myrnaridae.
cva, clava; Jun, funicle; rg, ring segments.

;1
504 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera

c:
s¡
..§
o
--,
c:
'"
E
2;
z

Figure 28-26 Hind tibia of Elasmus sp. (Eulophidae: Elasminae).

56'. Hind coxa subequal in size to middle coxa; outer surface of hind tibia
without bristles forming a pattem; fore wings and male antennae variable 57
57(56'). Mesopleuron convex (as in Figure 28-27A); antennal clava long and
unsegmented (and flagellum appearing to be l-segmented) or body
minute «1 mm) 58

c:
s¡
..§
o
--,
c:
'"
E
2;
z
A B

Figure28-27 Encyrtidae. A, lateral habitus; B, tarsus and apex of tibia of middle lego
 Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 505

57'. Mesopleuron with well-developed groove for reception of middle femur;

antennal clava usually short and divided into 2 or 3 segments; body
rarely < 1 mm Eulophidae p.531
58(57). Axillae meeting along dorsal midline of mesothorax; notauli absent;
small, but > 1 mm long Encyrtidae
* p.531
58'. Axillaeseparatedmedially;notauli present;minute « 1 mm) Aphelinidae* p. 531
59(55'). Notauli usually absent; mesopleuron convex (Figure 28-27 A); midtibial
spur long, thick (Figure 28-27B); middle basitarsal segment usually
densely setose beneath; males and females; large, very common group Encyrtidae p.531
59'. Notauli complete; mesopleuron with groove for reception of middle
femur; midtibial spur short, thin; basitarsus "normal"; males only Tetracampidae
* p. 531
60(54'). Head long, oblong, with a deep longitudinal groove above (Figure 28-52A);
front and hind legs stout, tibiae much shorter than femora, middle legs
slender (females; Florida, California, Arizona) Agaonidae* p.532
60'. Head and legs not as as in preceding entry 61
61(60'). Antennal funicle with 4 or fewer segments 62
61'. Antennal funicle with 5 or more segments 64
62(61). Axillae not separated from scutellum, together forming a narrow transverse
band across mesosoma; propodeum with a median triangular area; middle
tibia with lateral spurs Signiphoridae p.531
62'. Axillae distinctly separated from scutellum; propodeum without a distinct
triangular area; middle tibia with apical spurs only 63
63(62'). Axillae contiguous medially; notauli absent Encyrtidae p. 531
63'. Axillae widely separated medially; notauli present Aphelinidae p. 531
64(61'). Mesopleura large and convex, usually without a femoral groove
(Figure 28-27 A); apical spur of middle tibia generally very large and stout
(Figure 28-27B) 65
64'. Mesopleura with a groove for reception of the femora (Figures 28-28D,
28-29); apical spur of middle tibia not enlarged 67
65(64). Middle coxae inserted in front of midline of length of mesopleuron and
nearly contiguous with fore coxae; prepectus flat; axillae wider than long
and meeting medially Encyrtidae p. 535
65'. Middle coxae usually inserted distinctly behind midline of length of
mesopleuron and widely separated from fore coxae; rarely with middle
coxae inserted near midline of length of mesopleuron, in these cases
prepectus strongly protuberant, covering posterior margin of mesopleuron;
axillae either not meeting medially or longer than wide 66
66(65'). Prepectus inflated and covering posterior portion of pronotum (especially
apparent viewed from below); mesosoma compact; Florida, California,
Arizona Tanaostigmatidae* p.531
66'. Prepectus flat, not protruding over pronotum; mesosoma usually elongate;
widely distributed Eupelmidae p.531
67(64'). Mandibles sickle-shaped, with 1 or 2 teeth on inner side; mesosoma
strongly elevated (Figure 28-28D); axillae contiguous and sometimes
forming a transverse band anterior to scutellum; scutellum sometimes
large and produced posteriorly; metasoma compressed, the second
segment very large Eucharitidae
* p. 533
67'. Mandibles stout, not sickle-shaped, and with 3 or 4 teeth at apex;
mesosoma not elevated; axillae usually separated, and triangular;
scutellum and metasoma variable in shape 68
506 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera

A B

Figure28-28 Chalcidoidea. A, Eulophi.

dae; B, Encyrtidae; C, Eupelmidae;
e D D, Eucharitidae.

68(67'). Metasoma dorsally with transverse rows of deep pits or with strongly
developed transverse crenulae; metasoma of female conical and elongate,
of male oblong; cerci short, sessile; hind tibia with 2 apical spurs, either
with inner spur distinctly longer than outer and usually curved, or both
very long Ormyridae p.532
68'. Metasoma without such sculpture; hind tibiae with 1 or 2 spurs, these
relatively straight and short, often difficult to see 69

69(68'). Prepectus fused with pronotum or rigidly attached to it and anterior

portion of mesepisternum; metasoma with petiole often very small and
inconspicuous, first 2 large terga fused dorsally and covering at least half
the metasoma, metasoma often appearing short and triangular in lateral
view (Figure 28-29B); mesosoma usually coarsely punctate, robust Perilampidae p.533

i
 Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 507

Figure 28-29 Chalcidoidea. A, Chalcidi-

dae;B, Perilampidae;C, Eurytomidae;
D D, Pteromalidae.

69'. Prepectus present as an independent sclerite, not fused with pronotum;

metasoma usually with terga 2 and 3 independent (except some
Pteromalidae); mesosoma usually with fine sculpture dorsally, if coarsely
punctate, then usually longer than high 70

70(69'). Females; metasoma either with ovipositor sheaths as long as or longer

than mesosoma and metasoma combined, or metasoma with ovipositor
sheaths and apical terga greatly elongated to form a distinctive "tail" Torymidae p. 532
70'. Males and females; apical metasomatic terga not elongated, ovipositor
sheaths distinctly shorter than combined length of mesosoma and
metasoma 71
71(70'). Females; ovipositor sheaths at least one-third length of hind tibiae, often
longer; cerci elongate, peglike; hind coxa much larger than fore coxae,
more or less triangular in cross section Torymidae p. 532
71'. Both males and females; ovipositor sheaths usually shorter; cerci very
short, barely raised above surface of metasoma; hind coxa subequal in
size to fore coxa, more or less circular in cross section 72
 -......,

508 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera

72(71'). Males; fore wing with postmarginal vein much shorter than marginal
vein, subequal in length to stigmal vein; hind coxae much larger than
fore coxae, more or less triangular in cross section; inner margins of eyes
parallel in frontal view Torymidae p.532
72'. Males and females; fore wing venation not as as in preceding entry; hind
coxae variable, if large and triangular in cross -section, then inner
margins of eyes diverging ventrally 73
73(72'). Collar of pronotum (the posterior portion, excluding the narrowed,
necklike anterior part) at least half as long as mesoscutum, elongale or
rectangular in dorsal view 74
73'. Prono tal collar less than half length of mesoscutum, or pronotum with
sides converging, bell-shaped 78
74(73). Stigma of fore wing with conspicuous knoblike expansion; funicle
7-segmented; prepectus large, triangular Torymidae p.532
74'. Stigma usually not greatly enlarged; if so, then funicle with 6 or fewer
large segments and prepectus small and inconspicuous 75
75(74'). Head or body partly metallic in color 76
75'. Head and body entirely nonmetallic 77
76(75). Funicle 5-segmented; propodeum depressed or with longitudinal furrow
medially Eurytomidae p.533
76'. Funicle with more than 5 segments or propodeum evenly convex or
flattened Pteromalidae p.532
77(75'). Antennae inserted at or above lower margins of eyes; funicle usually
with 6 or fewer segments, if with more then propodeum with longitudinal
furrow medially Eurytomidae p.533
77'. Antennae inserted below lower margins of eyes; funicle either with
7 segments or propodeum flattened or convex, often with longitudinal
carina medially Pteromalidae p.532
78(73'). Fore tibial spur short, straight, about one-fourth length of basitarsus;
propodeum distinctly setose medially; pronotum as long as or longer
than mesoscutum Tetracampidae* p.531
78'. Fore tibial spur usually distinctly curved, if not, then more than one-fourth
length of basitarsus; propodeum bare; pronotum usually distinctly shorter
than mesoscutum 79
79(78'). Males; apical spur of middle tibiae long, slender; apex of fore tibia with
1 or more short, stout spines on side opposite tibial spur; femoral groove
on mesopleuron with minute, netlike sculpture; mesopleuron often with
light line extending anteriorly from middle coxa Eupelmidae p.531
79'. Males and females; apical spur of middle tibia short and apex of fore tibia
without spines; if otherwise, then femoral groove of mesopleuron with
coarse, netlike sculpture or punctured and light lines absent Pteromalidae p.532
80(46'). Antennae with 22 or more segments and arising low on face; Arizona
(males) Sclerogibbidae* p.538
80'. Antennae with 10-13 segments 81
81(80'). Antennae lO-segmented; front tarsi of female usually pincerlike
(Figure 28-30) Dryinidae* p.538
81'. Antennae 12- or 13-segmented; front tarsi not pincerlike 82
82(81'). Metasoma with 3-5 visible terga, the last one often dentate apically; head
not elongate; body usually metallic blue or green and coarsely sculptured Chrysididae p.537
 Key to the Families of Hymenoptera 509

<=

~
.<:
o
-,
~ Figure28-30 Opened chela of fore leg of female
~ dryinid.

82'. Metasoma with 6 or 7 visible terga; head usually oblong and elongate;
body black Bethylidae p. 537
83(22'). Metasoma arising on propodeum far above bases of hind coxae
(Figure 28-18D-F) 84
83'. Metasoma arising on propodeum between bases of hind coxae or only
slightly above them (as in Figure 28-18A-C) 87
84 Hind wings with a distinct jugallobe (Figure 28-20C); metasoma
(24',83). short, oval to circular and compressed, with a cylindrical petiole
(Figure 28-18F, 28-43) Evaniidae p.521
84'. Hind wings without a distinct jugallobe (Figure 28-31E,F); metasoma
elongate 85
85(84'). Prothorax long and necklike; venation usually complete, the front wings
with a stigma (Figure 28-31E,F); antennae 14-segmented; length over
8 mm; widely distributed 86
85', Prothorax not long and necklike; venation reduced, much as in
Figure 28-19A, the front wings without a stigma; antennae 13-segmented
in female and 14-segmented in male; length less than 8 mm; Texas Liopteridae p. 534
86(85). One m-cu crossvein or none, and 1 submarginal cell or none
(Figure 28-31E); usually black, with relatively short antennae Gasteruptiidae p. 522
86'. Two m-cu crossveins and 1 or 2 submarginal cells (Figure 28-31F);
usually black with a reddish metasoma, and the antennae relatively long Aulacidae p.522
87(83'). Hind trochanters 2-segmented (Figure 28-32A), the distal segment
sometimes poorly defined, rarely the trochanters l-segmented; antennae
with 14 or more segments; hind wings usually without a jugallobe
(Figure 28-31A-D); ovipositor variable, but sometimes long, half as long
as metasoma or longer, and permanently exserted (Figure 28-5A) 88
510 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera

A B

e D
/

~ ~ ,..

E F

Figure28-31 Wings of Hymenoptera. A, !ch-

neumonidae (Megarhyssa); B, Ichneumonidae
cu-a' (Ophion); C, Braconidae; D, Trigonalyidae;

G
~ H
E, Gasteruptiidae; F, Aulacidae; G, Diapriidae
(Belytinae); H, Rhopalosomatidae (Rhopalosoma),
are,areolet;B,basal cell; C, costal cell;MC,mar-
ginal cell.

87'. Hind trochanters l-segmented (Figure 28-32B); antennae usually

12-segmented in females and 13-segmented in males; hind wings usually
with a jugallobe (Figure 28-33); ovipositor short, issuing from apex of
metasoma (usually as a sting), and usually withdrawn into metasoma
when not in use (Figure 28-5B) 92
88(87). Head somewhat spherical, set out on a long neck, and bearing a crown
of teeth; costal cell usually present but narrow; 1 submarginal cell or
none; female with a long ovipositor; length usually over 10 mm Stephanidae* p.520
88'. Head not as as in preceding entry; venation, size, and ovipositor variable 89
89(88'). Costal cell present (Figure 28-31D); ovipositor very short 90
89'. Costal cell absent (Figure 28-31A-C); ovipositor often long 91
90(89), Venation somewhat reduced, with not more than 1 submarginal cell;
antennae 14- or 15-segmented 37*
 Key to the Families of Hymenoptera 511

Figure28-32 Legs of Hymenoptera. A, Ichneumonidae; B, Sphecidae. ex, coxa;

fm, femur; tb, tibia; tr, trochanter; ts, tarsus; tsp, tibial spurs.

1M+CUI

¡~ B
D
e

Figure28-33 Wings of Hymenoptera.

A, Vespidae (Polistes); B, Tiphiidae
1M + CUI (Myzinum); C, Scoliidae (Scolia);
D, Pompilidae; E, Mutillidae (Dasymu-
tilla); F, Mutillidae (Myrmosinae). B,
~ basal cell;jl, jugallobe; MC, marginal
jl
E F cell; SM, submarginal cell.
512 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera

90/. Venation not reduced, with 2 or 3 submarginal cells; antennae with

16 or more segments Trigonalyidae* p.521
91(89/). Two m-cu crossveins (Figure 28-31A,B), or if with only 1, then the
metasoma 3 times as long as rest of body and with tip of propodeum
prolonged behind hind coxae; metasomatic tergites 2 and 3 independent,
overlapping; vein Rs+ M absent, first submarginal and 1M cells confluent;
size variable, from a few millimeters up to 40 mm or more in length
(excluding ovipositor) Ichneumonidae p.523
91/. One m-cu crossvein (Figure 28-31C) or none; first submarginal anJ
1M cells usually separated by vein Rs+ M; metasoma not greatly elongate,
tergites 2 and 3 (at least) fused; propodeum not prolonged behind hind
coxae; mostly small insects, rarely over 15 mm long Braconidae p.522
92(87/). 1M celllong, much longer than 1M+Cu¡ cell, and usually about half as
long as wing (Figure 28-33A); wings usually folded lengthwise at rest;
3 submarginal cells; posterior margin of pronotum (in dorsal view)
U-shaped Vespidae p.549
92'. 1M cell usually shorter than 1M+Cu¡ cell and no more than one -third as
long as wing (Figure 28-33B-F); wings usually not folded longitudinally
at rest; 2 or 3 submarginal cells; posterior margin of pronotum (in dorsal
view) usually straight or slightly arcuate 93
93(92'). Mesopleuron with a transverse sulcus (Figure 28-34, su); hind legs long,
the hind femora usually extending to or beyond apex of metasoma; body
bare Pompilidae p.549
93'. Mesopleuron without a transverse sulcus; legs shorter, the hind femora
usually not extending te apex of metasoma; body often somewhat hairy 94
94(93/). Mesosternum and metasternum together forming a plate divided by a
transverse sulcus, and overlapping bases of middle and hind coxae; the
hind coxae well separated (Figure 28-35A); wing membrane beyond
closed cells with fine longitudinal wrinkles (Figure 28-33C); apex of
metasoma of male with 3 retractile spines; large, often brightly colored
wasps Scoliidae p.549

Figure28-34 A spider wasp (Pompilidae), showing the transverse sulcus (su) across
the mesopleuron.
 Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 513

Figure 28-35 Mesosoma, ventral view.

A
A, Scolia (Scoliidae); B, Tiphia (Tiphi-
idae). ex, coxa; msl, mesostemallobe;
stn2, mesostemum; stnJ' metastemum.

94'. Mesostemum and metastemum not forming such a plate, though there
may be a pair of plates overlying basesof middle coxae (Figure 28-35B);
hind coxae contiguous or nearly so; wing membrane beyond closed cells
usually not wrinkled; apex of metasoma of male without 3 retractile
spines; size and color variable 95

95(94'). Antennae clavate (Figure 28-36D); 2 submarginal cells (Figure 28-36A);

length 10-20 mm; color usually black and yellow; westem United States
(Masarinae) Vespidae p. 549
95'. Antennae not clavate; other characters variable 96

96(95'). Crossvein cu-a more than two-thirds its length distad of first free segment
of M (between M +Cu. and Rs, Figure 28-31H); hind tarsi very long;
flagellar segments of antennae long and slender, each with 2 apical spines;
light brown wasps, 14-20 mm long Rhopalosomatidae * p. 549

~~'jl
......

A
.~
B

Figure28-36 Characters of Vespidae.

A, Wings of Pseudomasaris (Masarinae);
B, wings of Vespa(Vespinae); C, wings of
Euparagia (Euparagiinae); D, antenna of
Pseudomasaris (Masarinae). jl, jugallobe;
o SM, submarginal cell.
514 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera

96'. Crossvein cu-a opposite first free segment of M or nearly so

(Figure 28-33E,F); tarsi not as in preceding entry; flagellar segments of
antennae without apical spines; size and color variable 97
97(96'). Mesosternum with 2 lobelike extensions behind, which project between
and partly cover bases of middle coxae (Figure 28-35B); hind wings
with a jugallobe (Figure 28-2) (Brachycistidinae, Tiphiinae, Myzininae,
Anthoboscinae) Tiphiidae p.547
97'. Mesosternum without such lobes, at most a pair of minute toothlike
projections behind; hind wings with or without a jugallobe 98
98(97'). Apex of 2M+Cu¡ cell produced above, andjugallobe in hind wing
about half as long as 1M+Cu¡ cell (Figure 28-36C); length 6-7 mm;
western United States (Euparagiinae) Vespidae
* p.549
98'. Not exactly as in preceding description 99
99(98'). Hind wings with a distinct jugallobe (Figure 28-33F) 100*
99'. Hind wings without a distinct jugallobe (Figure 28-33E) 104
100(99). Metasomatic segments separated by strong constrictions; eyes usually
not emarginate 101
100'. Metasoma without such constrictions; eyes sometimes emarginate 102*
101(100). Apex of abdomen with an upcurved spine; jugallobe of hind wing
at least half as long as cell M+ Cu¡ (Methochinae) Tiphiidae p.547
101'. Apex of abdomen without an upcurved spine; jugallobe in hind wing
less than one-third as long as cell M+ Cu¡ (Myrmosinae) Mutillidae p.548
102(100'). Body bare, marked with yellow or white; eyes deeply emarginate;
widely distributed (Sapyginae) Sapygidae* p.548
102'. Body usually very hairy; color and eyes variable; western United States 103*
103(102'). Second metasomatic tergum with lateral submarginal felt lines (narrow
longitudinal bands of relatively dense, closely appressed hairs); usually
very pubescent (males) Bradynobaenidae
* p.549
103'. Second metasomatic tergum without lateral felt lines; body and legs
clothed with long, erect hairs; males and females (Fedtschenkia,
California) Sapygidae* p.548
104(99'). Shining black, 4.5-6.0 mm long; second metasomatic tergum without
lateral felt lines (see couplet 103); males without spines at apex of
metasoma; eyes not emarginate mesally; males and females Sierolomorphidae
* p.548
104'. Not shining black, but very hairy and often brightly colored; size
variable but usually over 6 mm long; second metasomatic tergum
usually with lateral submarginal felt lines; usually with 1 or 2 spines
at apex of metasoma 105
105(104'). Middle tibia with 1 apical spur; antennal sockets not produced into
tubercles (western United States) Bradynobaenidae
* p.549
105'. Middle tibia with 2 apical spurs; antennal sockets produced dorsally
into large tubercles (widespread) Mutillidae p.548
106(14'). Antennae with 16 or more segments 107
106'. Antennae with fewer than 16 segments 109
107(106). Hind trochanters l-segmented (rarely 2-segmented); ovipositor issuing
from apex of metasoma and usually withdrawn into metasoma when
not in use; females; Arizona Sclerogibbidae
* p.538
 Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 515

107'. Hind trochanters 2-segmented; ovipositor issuing from anterior

to apex of metasoma and permanently exserted; widely distributed 108*
108(107'). Metasoma petiolate, petiole curved and expanded apically Ichneumonidae
* p. 523
108'. Metasoma not petiolate, or if petiolate, then petiole is not curved or
expanded apically Braconidae
* p. 522
109(106'). Pronotum triangular in lateral view, reaehing tegula posteriorly 110
109'. Pronotum more or less quadrate in lateral view,distinetly separated
from tegula 111
110(109). Metasoma laterally eompressed; ovipositor issuing from anterior to
apex of metasoma and permanently exserted (wingless Cynipoidea) 28
liD'. Metasoma eylindrieal or depressed dorsoventrally, rarely laterally
compressed; ovipositor issuing from apex of metasoma and usually
withdrawn when not in use (wingless Embolemidae, Proetotrupoidea,
Platygastroidea, Ceraphronoidea) 35
lll(109'). First antennal segment elongate, antennae elbowed; prepeetus well
developed and triangular (Figure 28-4A, pp); ovipositor issuing from
anterior to apex of metasoma and permanently exserted (wingless
Chalcidoidea) 112
lll'. Antennae filiform; ovipositor issuing from apex of metasoma, usually
as a sting, and usually withdrawn into metasoma when not in use
(Figure 28-5B) 114
112(1l1). Males; assodated with figs; head prognathous, heavily sclerotized,
often very large; oeelli absent 113
112'. Males and females; head hypognathous, of more normal size; oeelli
present 51
113(1l2). Metasoma mueh drawn out to a point apically or broadened at tip;
antennae short and stout, 3- to 9-segmented (see also eouplet 60) Agaonidae* p. 532
113'. Metasoma not pointed or enlarged apically Torymidae* p. 532
114(111'). Second metasomatie segment with lateral felt lines (see eouplet 103);
body usually very pubescent; antennae usually 12-segmented, rarely
11- or 13-segmented; females 115
114'. Seeond metasomatic segment without lateral felt lines 116*
115(1l4). Pronotum immovably fused to mesoseutum; lateral felt lines on
tergum 2, sternum 2 or both; thorade pleura flattened Mutillidae p. 548
liS'. Pronotum separated from rest of mesosoma by distinet, flexible
artieulation; lateral felt lines present only on tergum 2; thorade pleura
protuberant Bradynobaenidae
* p. 549
lló(1l4'). Antennae lO-segmented Dryinidae* p. 538
lió'. Antennae 12- or 13-segmented 117*
m(1l6'). Antennae arising in middle of faee; hind tarsi very long, nearly as long
as tibiae and femora eombined; first metasomatic segment long and
slender; wings present but very short (Olixon) Rhopalosomatidae
* p. 549
117'. Antennae arising low on faee, near margin of clypeus; tarsi and
metasoma not as in preceding entry 118
118(1l7'). Head elongate, usually longer than wide; front femora usually
thiekened in middle; females Bethylidae* p. 537
118'. Head not elongate, usually oval and wider than high 119

iiI
516 Chapter28 Order Hymenoptera l
119(118'). Mesosternum with 2 lobelike extensions behind covering bases of
middle coxae (Brachycistidinae) Tiphiidae p.547
119'. Mesosternum without such lobes, at most with a pair of minute,
toothlike projections posteriorly 120
120(119'). Mesosoma divided into 3 parts (Methochinae) Tiphiidae p.547
120'. Mesosoma divided into 2 parts, the prothorax being well separated
from the remaining fused segments (Myrmosinae) Mutillidae p.548

The first 12 families in the following discussion are
traditionally classified in the suborder Symphyta. AI-
though this is clearly not a monophyletic group Cthe
Apocrita are most closely related to the Orussidae), this
taxon is still in wide use in the literature. We prefer to
treat this group informally as either symphytes (lowercase)
or sawJlies.
Except for the family Orussidae, symphytes are
phytophagous or xylophagous, and most are external
feeders on foliage. The larvae of the external feeders are
eruciform (Figure 28-37) and differ from the larvae of
the Lepidoptera in having more than five pairs of pro-
legs that lack crochets and usually only one pair of
stemmata. The larvae of a few species bore in stems,
fruits, wood, or leaves (leaf miners). These larva e usu-
ally have reduced or absent prolegs. All symphytes
have a well-developed ovipositor, used in inserting the
eggs into the tissues of the host plant. In the Ten-
thredinoidea and Megalodontoidea, the ovipositor is
somewhat sawlike, hence the common name "sawflies"
for the members of this group.
Most sawflies have a single generation per year and
overwinter as a full-grown larva or as a pupa, either in
a cocoon or in some sort of protected place. Most ex-
ternal feeders overwinter in a cocoon or cell in the soil,
whereas species that bore usually overwinter in their
tunnels in the host plant. Some of the larger species may
require more than one year to complete development.
FamilyXyelidae:The Xyelidaeare medium-sized to
small sawflies, mostly shorter than 10 mm, that differ
from other sawflies in having three marginal cells (Fig-
ure 28-8C) and the third antennal segment very long
(longer than the remaining segments combined) (Fig-
ure 28-100). Unlike all other sawflies except the Pam-
philiidae, the costal cell of xyelids is divided by a lon-
gitudinal vein, the subcosta. The larvae feed on various
trees. Xyela larvae feed on the staminate cones of pine;
those of Pleroneura and Xyelecia bore in the buds and
developing shoots of firs; and other species attack hick-
ory and elm. In the early spring adults can be collected
feeding on the catkins of willows and birches. This
group is small (24 North American species), and none
of its members is of very great economic importance.
Family Pamphiliidae-Web-Spinning and Leaf-
Rolling Sawflies: These sawflies are stout-bodiedand
usually less than 15 mm long. About 75 species occur
in North America. Some larvae are gregarious, and
some feed singly. The gregarious ones live in silken
nests formed by tying several leaves together, and the
solitary ones live in a shelter formed by rolling up a
leaL Members of this group are uncommon, and onlya
few are of much economic importance. Some speciesaf
Acantholyda and Cephalcia are pests of conifers; Neuro-
toma inconspicua (Norton) (a web-spinning species)
feeds on plum; and Pamphilius persicum MacGiIlivray
(a leaf-rolling species) feeds on pea ch.
Family Pergidae: The sawflies in this group (4
North American species) are fairly small and occur
from the eastern states west to Arizona, but are un-
common. Their larvae feed on the foliage of oak and

Figure 28-37 Sawfly larvae. A, Neodiprion lecontei (Fitch) (Diprionidae); B, Allantus

cinctus (L.) (Tenthredinidae). (Courtesy ofUSDA.)
-.,-
r.1r~.I~~ .,.t
.".t'fllJ..k.J . :'J~.'¡'~,
.J '''',

hickory.The North American species belong to the
genus Acordulecera.
Family Argidae:The Argidae are a small group
(about70 North American species) of medium-sized to
small,stout-bodied sawflies, easily recognized by the
characteristic antennae (Figure 28-lOE). Males of a
fewspecies have the last antennal segment U-shaped
or Y-shaped. Most argids are black or dark-colored.
Thelarvae feed chiefly on various kinds of trees, but
AJgchumeralis (Beauvois) feeds on poison ivy, Spha-
cophiluscellularis (Say) feeds on sweet potato, and
Schizocerellapilicornis (Holmgren) mines leaves of Por-
tulaca.
FamilyCimbicidae:The Cimbicidae are large, robust
sawflieswith clubbed antennae. Only 12 species are
foundin the United States and Canada. Some resemble
bumblebees. The most common species is the elm
sawfly,Cimbex americana Leach, a dark blue insect
18-25mm long (Figure 28-38A). The female has four
yellowspots on each side of the abdomen. The full-
grownlarva of this species is about 40 mm long, with
thediameter of a pencil, and is greenish yellow with
blackspiracles and a black stripe down the back. At
restor when disturbed, it assumes a spiral position. Of-
ten,when disturbed, it ejects a fluid, sometimes for a
distanceof several centimeters, from glands just above
Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 517
the spiracles. This species has one generation ayear
and overwinters as a full-grown larva in a cocoon in the
ground. It pupates in the spring, and the adults appear
in early summer. The larvae feed chiefly on elm and
willow. Other species are commonly found feeding on
honeysuckle.
Family Diprionidae-Conifer Sawflies: These
medium-sized sawflies have 13 or more antennal seg-
ments. The antennae are serrate in the female and
pectinate or bipectinate in the male (Figures 28-lOC,
28-38B,C). The larvae (Figure 28-37 A) feed on
conifers. They sometimes do serious damage, and
species of Diprion and Neodiprion have been important
forest pests, especially in Canada and the northern
United States. Forty-five species occur in this area.
Family Tenthredinidae-Common Sawflies: This is a
very large group (about 800 North American species),
and probably 9 out of 10 of the sawflies the general col-
lector is likely to encounter will belong to this family.
The adults are wasplike insects, often brightly colored,
and are usually found on foliage or flowers searching
for host plants, mates, or prey (many of the adults are
predaceous). They are medium-sized to small, rarely
over 20 mm long (Figure 28-39). The larvae (Fig-
ure 28-37B) are eruciform, and most are external feed-
ers on foliage. When feeding, they usually have the
Figure28-38 Sawflies. A, the
elm sawfly, Cimbex americana
Leach, male (Cimbicidae);
B, the redheaded pine sawfly,
Neodiprionlecontei(Fitch),
male (Diprionidae); e, same,
female. (B and e, redrawn fram
USDA.)
UNNERSlDAD
DECAUtAS
518 Chapter28 Order Hymenoptera
I and Kido and Hilgardia.)
body (or the posterior part of it) coiled over the edge
of a leaf. There is usually a single generation ayear, and
the insect overwinters in a pupal cell or cocoon, either
in the ground or in a protected situation.
Sawfly larvae feed chiefly on various trees and
shrubs, and some are very destructive. The larch sawfly,
Pristiphora erichsonií (Hartig), is a very destructive pest
of larch and, when numerous, can cause extensive de-
foliation over large areas. The imported currant-worm,
Nematus ribesií (Scopoli), is a serious pest of currants
and gooseberries.
A few species in this group make galls, and a few
mine leaves. Species of the genus Euura form galls on
willow, one of the most common being a small oval gall
on the stem. The birch leaf miner (Figure 28-39A),
Fenusa pusilla (Lepeletier), which makes blotch mines
in birch, is a serious pest in the northeastern states. It
has two or three generations ayear and pupates in the
ground. The elm leaf miner, Fenusa ulmi Sundevall,
mines in elm leaves and frequently does quite a bit of
damage.
The family Tenthredinidae is divided into eight
subfamilies, separated chiefly on the basis of wing ve-
nation. The two sexes are differently colo red in many
species.
FamilyCephidae-StemSawflies: These are slender,
laterally compressed sawflies (Figure 28-40). The lar-
vae bore in the stems of grasses, willows, and berry
plants. Cephuscinctus Norton bores in the stems of
wheat and is often called the "wheat stem sawfly" (Fig-
ure 28-40C). The adult is about 9 mm long, shining
black, and banded and spotted with yellow. Cephus
Figure 28-39 Common sawflies
(Tenthredinidae). A, the birch leafminer,
Fenusapusilla (Lepeletier), male; B, the
cherry and hawthom sawfly,Profenusa
canadensis (Marlatt), female; e, same,
male; D, the raspberry leaf sawfly,
Príophorus morío (Lepeletier), female.
(A, redrawn from Friend and the
Bulletin of the Connecticut Agricultural
Experiment Station; B and e, redrawn
fram Parrot and Fulton and the Bulletin
of the Geneva, N.Y. Agricultural Expert-
ment Station; D, redrawn fram Smith
cinctus is an important wheat pest in the westem states.
A similar species, C. pygmaeus(L.), occurs in the easl.
Janus integer (Norton) bores in the sterns of currants.
The adult is shining black and about 13 mm long.
There is a single generation ayear, and the insect over-
winters in a silken cocoon inside the plant in which the
larva feeds. Thirteen species are found in Canada and
the United States.
Family Anaxyelidae-Incense-Cedar Wood Wasps:
This family is represented by only a single living
species, Syntexis libocedrii Rohwer, which occurs in
northern California and Oregon. The adult femaleis
black and 8 mm long. The larva bores in the wood01
the incense cedar and Douglas fir, often in trees that
have been weakened, for example, by fires.
Family Siricidae-Horntails: Horntails are fairly
large insects, usually 25 rnm or more long, and thelar-
vae are wood-boring. Both sexes have a homy,
spearlike plate on the last abdominal segment, and the
female has a long ovipositor. Most of the 19 Nonh
American species attack conifers, but the most com-
mon eastern species, Tremex columba (L.), attacks
maple, beech, and other hardwoods. Tremexis a brown
and black insect about 40 rnm long (Figure 28-41A).
The larvae are seldom sufficiently numerous to doa
great deal of damage, and the trees that are attackedare
usually old, weakened, or diseased. Pupation occursin
the burrow made by the larva, which ends near the sur-
face of the wood (Figure 28-41B). Species of siricids
are sometimes aCcidentally transported in wood for
fuel, construction, or furniture and can occasionallybe
found well outside their normal geographic range.
 Keyto the Families of Hymenoptera 519

Figure28-40 Stem sawflies (Cephidae). A, Trachelus

tabidus (Fabricius), male; B, same, female; C, the wheat
stem sawfly,Cephus cinctus Norton, female. (Courtesy of
USDA.)

EQ)
E
c.
o
-¡¡¡
>
Q)
o
-g
'"
.r=
¡:
'"
~
Q)
c::

a
(ij

~e,
«~
0- Q)
.- c:
.r=Q)
ou

A B

Figure28-41 A, An adult horntail, Tremexcolumba (L.); B, horntail pupa in the larval

gallery.

Family Xiphydriidae-Wood Wasps: The wood
waspsare small to moderate-sized (5-23 mm long)
cylindrical insects somewhat similar to the horntails,
but they lack the horny plate at the apex of the ab-
domen. The larva e bore in small, dead limbs and
branches of deciduous trees. There are only 11 North
Americanspecies, all in the genus Xiphydria, and none
isvery common.
Family Orussidae-Parasitic Wood Wasps: This is a
smallgroup of rare insects (9 North American species),
¡headults of which are somewhat similar to horntails
but considerably smaller (8-14 mm long). The larvae
as far as known are parasites of the larvae of metallic
wood-boring beetles (Buprestidae), and possibly other
wood-boring Coleoptera and Hymenoptera. These
wasps seem to be related to the Apocrita, and some au-
thorities have classified them there or in their own sub-
order, the Idiogastra. The adults are on the wing from
early spring to early summer and can be found search-
ing the trunks of dead and dying trees.
SUBORDERApocrita:The Apocrita differ from the
sawflies in having the first abdominal tergum (the
520 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
propodeum) intimately associated with the thorax and
separated by a distinct constrietion from the rest of the
abdomen. The middle tagma of the body (the meso-
soma) is thus four-segmented. In addition, the hind
wings have no more than two basal cells, and the fore
tibiae have a single apieal spur (except the Cer-
aphronoidea). Apocritan larvae are usually grublike or
maggotlike and vary in feeding habits. Most are para-
sitie or predaceous on other insects, and others are
plant feeders. The adults feed chiefly on flowers, sap,
other plant materials, and honeydew. Some of the par-
asitie species occasionally feed on the body fluids of the
host (Figure 28-49B).
A great many species in this suborder are parasitic
in the larval stage on other insects or other arthropods
and, because of their abundance, are very important in
keeping the populations of other insects in check. The
term parasitoid is often used for these insects. Both true
parasites and parasitoids live in or on the body of an-
other living animal Cthehost) during at least part of the
life cycle. A parasite usually does not kill its host or
consume a large part of the host tissues, but the imma-
ture stages of a parasitoid consume all or most of the
host's tissues and eventually kill it. In this sense, para-
sitoids are similar to predators. Most parasitic Apocrita
lay their eggs on or in the body of the host, and many
have a long ovipositor with whieh hosts in cocoons,
burrows, or other protected situations may be reached.
In some cases only a single egg may be laid on the host
(solitary parasitism, except in the case of polyembry-
ony, see later); in others several to many eggs may be
laid on the same host (gregarious parasitism). Pupation
may occur on, in, or near the host, or some distance
from it. Some species are thelytokous; that is, females
develop from unfertilized eggs, and males are rare or
absent altogether. polyembryony occurs in a few
species: A single egg develops into many larvae. Some
of the parasitie species are hyperparasites; that is, they
attack an insect that is a parasite of another insecto
The superfamilies of Apocrita differ in the form of
the pronotum, the character of the ovipositor and an-
tennae, the number of trochanter segments, and the
wing venation. Practieally all the members of the
Stephanidae, Ceraphronoidea, Trigonalyidae, Evan-
ioidea, Ichneumonoidea, Proctotrupoidea, Platygas-
troidea, Chrysidoidea, Tiphioidea, Scoliidae, and
Rhopalosomatidae and most Chalcidoidea and
Cynipoidea are parasites of insects or other arthropods.
The Apocrita evolved from forrns with a piercing
ovipositor similar to that of siricoids, but as a rule the
females of most parasitic and phytophagous species
cannot sting people. In the Chrysidoidea, Apoidea, and
Vespoidea, the ovipositor is modified into a sting,
whose primary function is to inject venom, either to
paralyze its host or prey, or as a defensive mechanism.
Females of these groups can often infliet painful
wounds. In these species (grouped together as the Ac-
uleata), the egg does not pass through the ovipositor
during oviposition, but emerges from its base. The re-
maining Apocrita are grouped by some authorities in a
taxon called either Parasitica or Terebrantes, but this is
a heterogeneous paraphyletie grouping.
The Apocrita encompasses by far the majority of
species of Hymenoptera, with about 16,000 of the ap-
proximately 17,100 North American Hymenoptera
species.
Family Stephanidae: The stephanids are a small
group (8 North American species) of rare insects
that are parasites of the larvae of wood-boring beetles.
The adults are 5-19 mm long, slender, and superfi-
cially resemble the more common iehneumonids (Fig-
ure 28-42A). The head is somewhat spherical, is set
out on a neck, and bears a crown of about five teeth
around the median ocellus. The hind coxa e are long,
and the hind femora are swollen and toothed beneath.
This group is much more common in the tropies, and
most North American species occur in the West.
Stephanids have long been classified in the Ichneu-
monoidea, but they retain many features considered
ancestral for the Apocrita as a whole and are now das-
sified in their own superfamily.
Family Megaspilidae:Both this family and thenext
are unique among the Apocrita in having two foretib-
ial spurs. Together they form the superfamily Cer-
aphronoidea. Winged megaspilids can usually be rec-
ognized by the large semicircular or ellipsoidal stigma
in the fore wing from whieh arises the curved stigmal
vein (Figure 28-19E). A similar venation is foundin
some dryinids, but megaspilids can be distinguished
from them by the triangular shape of the pronotum in
lateral view (Figure 28-42B). Some species are wing-
less or brachypterous; these may be distinguishedfrom
ceraphronids by the presence of two middle tibial
spurs. There are two subfamilies, the Megaspilinaeand
the much rarer Lagynodinae. Very liule is known ofthe
habits of these wasps; they have been reared from
Hemiptera Sternorrhyncha as hyperparasites of other
Hymenoptera, from the larvae of Neuroptera and
Diptera, and from the puparia of flies.Some Lagynodcs
have been collected in ant nests. One common species,
Dendrocerus carpenteri (Curtis), is a hyperparasiteor
the braconid parasites of aphids.
FamilyCeraphronidae: Ceraphronids(Figure28-42C)
are distinguished from other Apocrita by the presence01
two spurs on the apex of the fore tibia and, usuallymore
easily,by theirdistinctivewingvenation(Figure28--19G).
The veins are highly reduced with a long marginalvein,a
linear stigma (separated from the marginal vein bya
break), and the curved stigmal vein. Wingless formsaJt
fairly common and can be distinguished from megaspilids

D (A and D redrawn from Townes
e [1949,1956].)
bythesingle spur on the middle tibia. Very little is known
ofthehosts of ceraphronids, but species have been reared
bothas primary parasites of Diptera, Neuroptera, and
Hemiptera and as hyperparasites of Diptera and Hy-
menoptera. Some have been collected in ant nests, but
theirprecise hosts are unknown. These creatures are fairly
common,but because of their small size they are rarely re-
tainedby collectors. Specimens can be easily found by
sweepingor by sifting soil and leaf litter.
Family Trigonalyidae: The trigonalyids are a small
group(four North American species) of rather rare in-
sects.They are medium-sized, usually brightly colored,
andrather stout-bodied. They look much like wasps
(Figure28-42D), but have very long antennae with 16
ormore segments.
The trigonalyids are parasites of Vespidae or of the
parasites of caterpillars. Some exotic species are pri-
maryparasites of sawfly larvae. Females lay large num-
bersof very minute eggs on foliage. In the case of the
speciesattacking caterpillar parasites, the eggs hatch
wheneaten by a caterpillar, and the trigonalyid larva
attacksthe ichneumonid, tachinid, or other parasite
larvapresent inside the caterpillar. In the species that
Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 521
Figure28-42 A, Megischus bicolor
(Westwood) (Stephanidae), oviposi-
tar truncated; B, Megaspilidae;
C, Ceraphronidae; D, Taeniogonalos
gundlachii (Cresson) (Trigonalyidae).
attack vespid larvae, entomologists think the eggs are
eaten by a caterpillar, which is in turn eaten by a vespid
wasp, which in regurgitating the caterpillar and feeding
it to its young, transfers the trigonalyid larvae from the
caterpillar to the wasp larvae.
SUPERFAMILYEvanioidea: The members of super-
family Evanioidea have the metasoma attached high
above the hind coxae (Figure 28-18D-F), the antennae
are filiform, and 13- or 14-segmented, the trochanters
are 2-segmented, and the venation is generally fairly
complete in the front wings (front wings with a costal
cell). Some (Gasteruptiidae and Aulacidae) superfi-
cially resemble ichneumonids.
Family Evaniidae-Ensign Wasps: The ensign wasps
are black or black and red, somewhat spiderlike in-
sects, 10-25 mm long (Figure 28-43). The metasoma
is very small and oval and is attached by a slender peti-
ole to the propodeum considerably above the base of
the hind coxae (Figure 28-18F); it is carried almost
like a flag (hence the common name for this family).
The ensign wasps are parasites of the egg capsules of
cockroaches and are likely to be found in buildings or
on the forest floor where cockroaches occur.
522 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera

Famí/yBraconidae: This is a large (more than 1,900

North American species) and beneficial group of para-
sitic Hymenoptera. The adults are usually relatively
small (Nearctic species are rarely over 15 mm long).
They resemble ichneumonids in lacking a costal cel!
but differ in that they have no more than one m-cu
crossvein (Figure 28-31C), and the second and third
metasomatic tergites are fused together. Braconid biol-
ogy is very diverse (Figures 28-44, 28-45). The family
contains both ectoparasites and endoparasites, solitary
and gregarious species, primary and secondary para-
g sites, and alllife stages of host, from egg to adult, may
~ be attacked (in the case of species attacking eggs, the
~ adult wasp emerges from the host larva or prepupa).A
§ small number of tropical species from Central and
Z South America and Australia are phytophagous and
form galls. Many species in this family have been of
Figure28-43 An ensign wasp, Prosevaniafuscipes considerable value in controlling insect pests.
(Illiger), female. The classification of the Braconidae is presently
the subject of revision and disagreement. The number
of subfamilies recognized in recent works ranges from
Family Gasteruptiidae: These insects resemble ich- 29 (Sharkey 1993) to 45 (van Achterberg 1993).
neumonids, but they have short antennae and a costal Thirty-two subfamilies are found in the Nearctic region
cell in the front wings, and the head is set out on a slen- (Wharton et al. 1997). The Macrocentrinae, Agathidi-
der neck. They have one submarginal cell or none and nae, Cheloninae, Microgastrinae, and most Rogadinae
one m-cu crossvein or none (Figure 28-31E). They are (Rhogadinae), Gnaptodontinae, Dirrhopinae, Miraci-
generally dark with brown or orange markings. Adults nae, Acaeliinae, Homolobinae, Sigalphinae, Orgilinae,
are fairly common and can be found on flowers, partic- and Cardiochilinae are parasites of lepidopteran larvae.
ularly wild parsnip, wild carrot, and related species. The gregarious forms of the Macrocentrinae all appear
The larvae are parasites of solitary wasps and bees, and to be polyembryonic. The Cheloninae are egg-Iarval
females are often found flying around nesting sites of parasites: The female oviposits into the host egg, and
these hosts, such as dead logs. the parasite matures and emerges from the late larvaor
Family Aulacidae:The aulacids resemble the pupa. Species of Apanteles and related genera (Micra.
gasteruptiids, but they are usually black with a reddish gastrinae) (Figure 28-45C-E) are very common and
metasoma, the antennae are longer, and there are two often familiar, beca use the gregarious larvae of some
m-cu crossveins in the front wings (Figure 28-31F). species emerge in large numbers and spin their
These insects are parasites of the larvae of wood-boring cocoons in a large mass on the body of the host (Fig-
beetles and xiphydriid wood wasps, and adults can be ure 30-78B). The Helconinae, Histeromerinae, Ceno-
found around logs in which the hosts occur. coeliinae, and Doryctinae are parasites of beetle larvae.
SUPERFAMILY Ichneumonoidea: The Ichneumono- attacking chiefly wood-boring beetles. The lchneutinae
idea is a very large and important group, and its mem- attack larva e of sawflies and lepidopteran leaf miners;
bers are parasites of other insects or other invertebrate the Alysiinae and Opiinae attack Diptera. Braconinae
animals. These insects are wasplike in appearance, but have been reared from concealed larvae of severalor-
(with few exceptions) cannot sting humans. The ich- ders of Holometabola. The Euphorinae are very diverse
neumonoids are very common insects and may be rec- biologically: They attack hosts in the orders Lepi-
ognized by the following characters: (l) the antennae doptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, Neu-
are filiform, usually with 16 or more segments; (2) the roptera, and Psocoptera. This subfamily ineludes
hind trochanters are 2-segmented; (3) the costal cell is species that are parasites of adult insects, as well ashy-
absent; (4) the ovipositor arises anterior to the tip perparasites. The Aphidiinae is a well-known group
of the metasoma and is permanently exserted (Fig- that is exclusively endoparasitic in the nymphs and
ure 28-5A; sometimes the ovipositor is very short and adults of aphids. The Neoneurinae are endoparasitesof
do es not protrude far beyond the apex of the meta- worker ants. The Blacinae attack primarily the larvaeof
soma); and (5) the pronotum in lateral view is some- Coleoptera, but species of one tribe have been reared
what triangular. from boreid larvae (Mecoptera).

e (Euphorinae), a parasite of the European
o E, courtesy of Kaston and the Connecticut
Family Ichneumonidae-Ichneumonids: This family
isone of the largest in the en tire Insecta, with more
than3300 described species in North America, and its
membersare almost everywhere. The adults vary con-
siderablyin size, form, and color, but the majority re-
sembleslender wasps (Figures 28-46, 28-47). They
differfrom aculeates in that their antennae are longer
andhave more segments (usually 16 or more antennal
segmentsin ichneumonids and 12 or 13 in most ac-
uleates),and they lack a costal cell in the front wings.
Inmany ichneumonids, the ovipositor is quite long
(Figure28-46A) , often longer than the body, and it
arisesanterior to the tip of the metasoma and is per-
manentlyextruded. In the aculeates, the ovipositor is-
suesfram the tip of the metasoma and is withdrawn
whennot in use. In ichneumonids, the 1M and lR¡
(firstdiscoidal and first submarginal cells) in the front
wingare confluent, owing to the loss of vein Rs+M,
..
Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 523
Figure28-44 Braconidae. A, Coeliodes
dendroctoni Cushman, female (Braconinae),
a parasite of bark beetles (Scolytidae);
B, Meteorus nigricollis Thomson, male
com borer (¡nsert shows cocoon);
C, Macrocentrusancylivorus Rohwer, female
(Macrocentrinae) (¡nsert, lateral view of
metasoma), a parasite of various tortricid
moths; D, Macrocentrusgrandii Goidanich,
female, a parasite of the European com
borer; E, Spathius canadensis Ashmead,
female, a parasite of bark beetles (Scolyti-
dae). (A, courtesy of DeLeon and the New
York Entomological Society; B, courtesy of
Parker and the Entomological Society of
Washington; C and D, courtesy of USDA;
Agricultural Experiment Station.)
and the second submarginal cell (the lRs cel\), lying
opposite the 2m-cu crossvein, is often quite small (Fig-
ure 28-31A, are). This small cell (called the areoleO is
lacking in some ichneumonids (Figure 28-31B). The
ichneumonids (with very few exceptions) differ from
the braconids in having two m-cu crossveins, the bra-
conids having only one or none (Figures 28-21 E,
28-31C). In many species, the two sexes may differ
considerably in size, body form, or even the presence
of wings.
Most ichneumonids are parasitoids; that is, the
larva feeds and develops on a single host that it eventu-
ally kills. A few species, however, are better described as
mobile predators in that they feed on a number of indi-
vidual "hosts" before completing development-for ex-
ample, eggs within a spider egg sac or a hne of small
carpenter bee larvae within a nest. The hosts of ichneu-
monids inelude species in the insect orders Lepi-
524 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera

A
B
Figure 28-45 Braconidae.
A, Microgaster tibia lis Nees,
female (Microgastrinae), a par-
asite of the European corn
borer; B, Chelonus tcxanus
Cresson (Cheloninae), a para-
si te of various noctuid moth
larvae; C, Apanteles diatraeae
Muesebeck, mal e (Microgastri-
nae), a parasite of the south-
western corn borer, Diatraea
D grandiosella Dyar; D, same,
female; E, Apanteles thompsoni
Lyle, female, a parasite of
the European corn borer;
F, Phanomeris phyllotomae
Muesebeck, female (Rogadi-
nae), a parasite of birch lear-
mining sawflies. (A, courtesy
of Vance and the Entomologi-
cal Society of America;
B-F, courtesy of the USDA.)

doptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Neu-
roptera, and Mecoptera, as well as spiders and spider
egg sacs. The host range of individual species is, how-
ever, quite variable, some attacking a wide variety and
others being highly specialized to one or a few host
species. The adult female must locate the host and then
may oviposit on, in, or near it (the last in confined sit-
uations such as galleries within wood), and the larva
may feed on the host from the outside through its cuti-
de (as an ectoparasite), or it may live within the hemo-
coel of the host (as an endoparasite). Most ichneu-
monids are solitary, a single individual developing from
a single host, although some are gregarious. Many
species are hyperparasitic; that is, they are parasitoids of
other parasitoids, usually, ichneumonids, braconids, or
tachinids.
The family Ichneumonidae is divided into 24 sub-
families. In the recent past some entomologists dis-
agreed on the nomendature to be used. In general, the
concepts on ichneumonid systematics developed by
Townes (1969-1971) are widely followed. We use here
the family group names outlined by Fitton and Gauld
(1976, 1978).
The largest ichneumonids in the United Statesand
Canada belong to the subfamilies Rhyssinae and Pirn-
plinae. Some may be 40 mm or more in body length,
and the ovipositor may be twice as long as the body.
These insects attack the larvae of horntails, wood
wasps, and wood-boring Coleoptera. The long oviposi-
tor is used in getting the ichneumonid eggs into the
host's tunnels, and the ovipositor may sometimes pene-
trate 13 mm or more of wood. The laborious processor
plunging the ovipositor deep within the wood takes
several minutes. The egg is greatly deformed as it passes
through the valvulae, but regains its shape after emerg-
ing from the other end. Retraction of the ovipositoris
 Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 525

Figure28-46 Ichneumonidae.
A, Rhysella nitida (Cresson), fe-
male (Rhyssinae); B, Casinaria
ambigua (Townes), female
(Campopleginae) (insert shows
tip of metasoma in lateral view);
C, Phytodietus vulgaris Cresson,
female (Tryphoninae); D, Phobo-
campe unicincta (Gravenhorst),
female (Campopleginae);
E, Tersilochusconotracheli (Riley),
female (Tersilochinae). (A and
C, courtesy of Rohwer; B, cour-
tesy of Walley; D and E, courtesy
of the U.S. National Museum.)

Figure28-47 A hyperparasitic ichneu-

monid, Phygadeuon subJuscusCresson
(Phygadeuontinae). A, adult male;
B, female ovipositing in puparium of the
host. The host of this ichneumonid is a
tachinid fly,Aplomyiopsis epilachnae
(Aldrich), which is a parasite of the
Mexican bean beetle, Epilachna varivestis
Mulsant (see Figure 33-72). (Courtesy of
A B USDA.)
526 Chapter28 Order Hymenoptera
also relatively slow. It is not uncommon to find what
look like thin, black needles protruding from the wood
of a dead tree. These are the ovipositors of females that
either were unable to free themselves or were eaten by
birds while ovipositing. The genus Megarhyssa contains
several very large species that attack horntails. Rhysella
nitida (Cresson) (Figure 28-46A) attacks wood wasps
(Xiphydriidae). Some of the other Pimplinae are para-
sites of lepidopterous larvae, some (especially those in
the tribe Polysphinctini) attack spiders, and some at-
tack wood-boring Coleoptera.
Most ichneumonids in the subfamily Tryphoninae
are parasites of sawflies. Phytodietus vulgaris Cresson
(Figure 28-46C) attacks tortricid moths. Some mem-
bers of this subfamily carry their eggs on the oviposi-
tor, attached by short stalks. When a suitable host is
found, the eggs are attached by a stalk to the cuticle of
the host, and if no host is found, the eggs may be dis-
carded. The parasite larvae usually complete their de-
velopment in the host's cocoon.
The members of the subfamily Phygadeuontinae
are mostly external parasites of pupa e in cocoons. A
few attack wood-boring beetle larvae, a few attack
dipterous larvae, some attack spider egg sacs, and a few
are hyperparasites of braconids or other ichneumonids
(Figure 28-47). The members of the subfamily Ich-
neumoninae are internal parasites of Lepidoptera. They
oviposit in either the host larva or the host pupa, but
always emerge from the host pupa. In most species in
this subfamily, the two sexes appear quite different, and
many are bright, colorful mimics of vespids or pom-
pilids. The Banchinae are internal parasites of caterpil-
lars; the Ctenopelmatinae are chiefly parasites of
sawflies, ovipositing in the host larva and emerging
from its cocoon; the Oxytorinae attack fungus gnats
(Mycetophilidae and Sciaridae); and the Diplazontinae
attack Syrphidae, laying their eggs in the egg or young
larva of the host and emerging from the puparium
of the host. The Campopleginae are parasites of
lepidopterous larvae. Casinaria texana (Ashmead) (Fig-
ure 28-46B) is a parasite of the saddleback caterpillar,
and Phobocampe disparis (Viereck) (Figure 28-46D) is
a parasite of the gypsy moth. The Tersilochinae are
parasites of beetles. Tersi/ochusconotracheli (Riley) (Fig-
ure 28-46E) is a parasite of the plum curculio.
Females of Ophioninae (which are parasites of
caterpillars) have a very compressed metasoma and a
short, very sharp ovipositor. Most ichneumonids when
handled attempt to sting by poking at one's fingers with
their ovipositor, but in most cases this can scarcely be
felt. The ovipositor of the Ophioninae, in contrast, can
actually penetrate the skin, and the effect is much like
a sharp pin prick. Most of these ichneumonids are yel-
lowish to brownish and about 25 mm long. They often
come to lights at night.
Family Mymarommatidae:This small group of rare
species has only recently been discovered in North
America. Their hosts are unknown, but specimens
have been collected in moist woodlands. They appear
similar to the mymarids in having the base of the fore
wing constricted and the venation highly reduced
(even for a chalcidoid). The hind wing is greatly re-
duced to a slender strip bearing hamuli on its apex. Re-
cent authors place the mymarommatids outside the
Chalcidoidea, in their own superfamily, although rec-
ognizing that the two taxa are closely related.
SUPERFAMILYChalcidoidea:The chalcidoids (su-
perfamily Chalcidoidea) constitute a large and impor-
tant group of insects, with about 2,200 described North
American species. Nearly all are very small, and some
are quite minute. Some Mymaridae, for example, are
shorter than 0.5 mm. Chalcidoids are to be found al-
most everywhere, but are so small they are frequently
overlooked-or even discarded-by the beginning stu-
dent. Most are only about 2 or 3 mm long, although a
few (for example, some Leucospidae) may reach 10or
15 mm. The members of this group live in a wide vari-
ety of habitats, and a collector can seldom sweep
through vegetation without coming up with at leasta
few of these insects.
The chalcidoids can generally be recognized by
the reduced wing venation (Figure 28-19B), the anten-
nae are usually elbowed and never contain more than
13 segments, the pronotum is somewhat quadrate and
do es not reach the tegulae, and usually a large, exposed
prepectus is present in the side of the mesosoma(Fig-
ure 28-4A). Most chalcidoids are dark-colored, and
many are metallic blue or green. Body shape varies
greatly in this group (Figures 28-28, 28-29, 28-48
through 28-53), and some have rather peculiar, even
marvelous, shapes. The wings are reduced or lackingin
many species.
Most chalcidoids are parasites of other insects,at-
tacking chiefly the egg or larval stage of the host. Most
hosts are in the orders Lepidoptera, Diptera, Coleop-
tera, and sternorrhynchous Hemiptera. because these
orders contain most of the crop pests, the chalcidoids
are a very beneficial group, helping to keep pest popu-
lations in check. Manyspecies have been imponedinto
the United States to control insect pests. A few chalci-
doids are phytophagous, their larvae feeding inside
seeds, stems, or galls.
This superfamily is divided into a number of fam-
ilies. Some families consist of distinctive-Iooking in-
sects and are easily recognized, but in some casessep-
arating families is rather difficult. To complicate
matters for the student, entomologists dHfer on the
limits of some families.
Family Mymaridae-Fairyflies: Mymarids are al!
parasites of the eggs of other insects. Their hosts in-
 Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 527

A B
Figure28-48 Chalcidoidea.
A, Aphelinus jucundus Gahan,
female (Aphelinidae), a parasite of
aphids; B, Baryscapus bruchophagi
(Gahan) (Eulophidae), a parasite of
the clover seed chalcid, Bruchopha-
gus platypterus (Walker); C, Cen-
trodora speciosissima (Girault),
female (Aphelinidae), a parasite of
cecidomyiids and chalcidoids that
e attack wheat; D, Hemiptarsenus
fulvicollis (Westwood), female
(Eulophidae), a parasite of leaf-
mining sawOies; E, Zarhopalus
inquisitor (Howard), male
(Encyrtidae), a parasite of aphids
and mealybugs; F, Ooencyrtus
kuvanae (Howard), female
(Encyrtidae), an imported egg
parasite of the gypsy moth. (A and
E, courtesy of Griswold and the
Entomological Society of America;
E others, courtesy of USDA.)

Figure28-49 Feeding and

emerging chalcidoids. A, Ptero-
malus (Pteromalidae) oviposit-
ing; B, Pteromalusfeeding at
the tube made by the oviposi-
tor; C, Zarhopalus inquisitor
(Howard) (Encyrtidae) feeding
at an oviposition puncture
A B made in the abdomen of an
aphid; D, adult of Aphelinus
jucundus Gahan (Aphelinidae)
emerging from an aphid;
E, a colony of Euplectruslarvae
(Eulophidae) feeding on a
caterpillar. (A and B, courtesy
of Fulton and the Entomologi-
cal Society of America; C and
D, courtesy of Griswold and
the Entomological Society of
America; E, courtesy of USDA.)
528 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera

, B
A

e '/
"
D

Figure28-50 Cha1cidoidea. A, B, E, F, Eupelmidae; C, D, Perilampidae. A, Eupdmus

allynii (French), female (insert is the metasoma of male), a parasite of the Hessian fly;
B, Anastatusjaponicus Ashmead, an imponed egg parasite of the gypsy moth; C, Perilam-
pus platygaster Say,a hyperparasite attacking Meteorus dimidatus (Cresson), a braconid
parasite of the grape leaffolder, Desmiafuneralis (Hübner) (Pyralidae), lateral view;
D, same, dorsal view; E, Eupdmus atropurpureusDalman, female, a parasite of the
Hessian fly; F,Eupdmus vesicularis (Retzius), female, which attacks insects in the orders
Goleoptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera. (Counesy of USDA.)

-,
.'.~. .. .
 Keyto the Families of Hymenoptera 529

Figure28-51 Chalcidoidea.
A-C, Torymidae; D-G, Eury-
tomidae. A, Torymus varians
(Walker), the apple seed
chalcid, male (insert is a
lateral view of the metasoma);
B, same, female; C, Idio-
e macromerus perplexus
(Gahan), female, a parasite of
the clover seed chalcid (G in
D E
this figure); D, Tetramesa
maderae (Walker), the wheat
strawworm, a wingless fe-
male; E, Tetramesatritici
(Fitch), female, the wheat
jointworm; F,Eurytoma
pachyneuron Girault, female, a
parasite of the Hessian fly and
the wheat jointworm (E in
this figure); G, Bruchophagus
platypterus (Walker), the
clover seed chalcid. (Courtesy
F of USDA.)

UNIVERSIDAD
DECAI.DAS
BIBLIOTECA
B

Figure28-52 The fig wasp Blastophagapsenes (L.). A, female; B, maleo (Courtesy of

Condit and the California Agricultural Experiment Station.)
530 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
D Figure 28-53 Chalcidoidea. A-H, Pteromali-
F subapterous female; G, Callitula bicolorSpinola,
elude species in the orders Odonata, Orthoptera, Pso-
coptera, Thysanoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Lepi-
doptera, and Diptera. They are distinguished from all
other chalcidoids by a series of unique sulci on the
head (Figure 28-24): a set parallel to the inner edges of
the compound eyes on the frons and vertex, and a dis-
tinctive transverse sulcus running between the eyes
above the antennal insertions. In addition, most
species are characterized by the stalked, parallel-sided
Ilind wings and the narrow base of the fore wings (Fig-
ure 28-19C). These insects are all minute, usually less
than l mm in size. Consequently, they are poorIy
known, but they are a common and diverse component
of most insect faunas.
Family Trichogrammatidae:The trichogrammatids
are also insect egg parasites. They are very small. For
example, adults of the genus Megaphragma, parasites of
dae; 1, Chalcididae. A, Asaphes lucens
(Provancher), male, a parasite of aphids;
B, Thinodytes cephalon (Walker), female, a para-
site of the Hessian fly; C, Pteromalus eurymi
Gahan,a parasiteof the alfalfacaterpillar,Colias
eurytheme Boisduval; D, Homopoms nypsius
(Walsh and Riley), female, a parasite of the
Hessian fly; E, Trichomalopsissubaptera (Riley),
female, a parasite of the Hessian fly; F, same,a
male, a parasite of various flies and platy-
gastrids; H, same, female; 1, Conura side
(Walker) a parasite of various Coleoptera, Lepi-
doptera, and Hymenoptera. (A, courtesy ofGris-
wold and the Entomological Society of America;
B-I, courtesy of USDA.)
the eggs of thrips, are no more than 0.18 mm in total
length. Trichogrammatids may be most easily recog-
nized by their three-segmented tarsi. In addition, the
metasoma is broadly auached to the mesosoma, and
the second phragma projects far within it (visiblein
specimens in alcohol); the antennae are short, with
seven or fewer segments (ineluding ring segments);
and the fore wing often has setae arranged in lines
(these last three characters also appear in some other
chalcidoids). The genus Trichogramma, the best known
group, has been widely used as a biological control
agent. It is, however, not as abundant, either in species
or total numbers, as those in the genera Oligosita,Para-
centrobia, and Aphelinoidea. As with most other micro-
hymenoptera, even though very common, this familyis
often overIooked or missed by collectors and is there.
fore relatively hule known.

Famí/y Eulophidae:The Eulophidae are a large
group (more than 500 described North American
species)of rather small insects (1-3 mm long). They
areparasites of a wide variety of hosts, including a
number of major crop pests (Figures 28-48B,D,
28-49E). Their biology is extremely varied, but most
speciesparasitize either the egg or larva of their host.
Eulophids may be recognized by the four-segmented
tarsi(Figure 28-23A) and the axillae extending for-
wardbeyond the tegulae. Some species of Aphelinidae
andEncyrtidae also have four-segmented tarsi. Charac-
tersto distinguish these are included in the key and in
thediscussions of these families. Many eulophids are
brilliandy metallic in color, and the males of many
specieshave pectinate antennae. These wasps are, in
general,rather weakly sclerotized, and the bodies of
specimensoften collapse when dried.
Family Tetracampidae: This rare family seems to
combinefeatures of the larger Eulophidae and Ptero-
malidae.Some male tetracampids have four-segmented
tarsi,but both males and females may be distinguished
framother North American eulophids and pteromalids
bythe dense pilosity on the propodeum. Only two
specieshave been recognized in North America. Dipri-
ocampe diprioni (Ferrire), an egg parasite, was intro-
ducedinto Canada to control the European pine sawfly,
Neodiprionsertifer (Geoffroy) (Diprionidae). Epiclerus
nearcticusYoshimoto occurs in the eastern United
States and Canada.
FamilyAphelinidae: This is a group of very common
butsmallparasites, usually about 1 mm in totallength.
Theyhave been classified at various times in the Eu-
lophidaeand Encyrtidae, but it now seems clear that
theyshould be recognized as an independent family.
Thenumber of antennal segments is reduced to eight
orfewer(not counting the minute ring segments) as in
IheEulophidae, but most species have the tarsi five-
segmented,the metasoma appears broadly attached to
¡hepropodeum (in many cases the second phragma is
visibleand extends well into the metasoma), the
marginalvein is elongate, and the postmarginal and
stigmalveins are reduced. A few encyrtids have four-
segmentedtarsi and reduced antennal segmentation;
aphelinidscan be distinguished from these by their
elongatemarginal vein. Those species of aphelinids
withfive-segmented tarsi Cthe majority) can be distin-
guished from encyrtids by the reduced number of an-
tennalsegments, their small size, reduced stigmal and
postmarginalveins, and the presence of a groove on the
mesopleuronfor receiving the middle femur.
Aphelinids attack a broad range of hosts, which all
seemto be sessile. The best known species are those
¡hat attack scale insects (Hemiptera). A number of
specieshave been very important as agents of biologi-
calcontrol of these scale hosts. Other species have
Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 531
be en reared from aphids; whiteflies; eggs of Hemiptera,
Orthoptera, and Lepidoptera; cecidomyiid pupae; and
as hyperparasites of other Hymenoptera attacking
Hemiptera. The curious phenomenon of adelphopara-
sitism is found in some groups: The females develop as
parasites of scale insects, whereas the males develop as
hyperparasites attacking parasites of scale insects, of-
ten females of their own species! This fairly common
group of parasites is generally not represented in col-
lections beca use they are so small and because the bod-
ies usually collapse when dried.
Family Signiphoridae: The signiphorids are small,
stout-bodied chalcidoids that attack scale insects,
whiteflies, and other sternorrhynchous Hemiptera or
are hyperparasites of the chalcidoids attacking these
Hemiptera. They are rather uncommon but very dis-
tinct creatures beca use of the broad attachment of the
metasoma, the elongate, unsegmented antennal club,
the lateral spurs on the middle tibia, and the triangular
area on the propodeum.
Family Encyrtidae: The Encyrtidae are a large and
widespread group, with some 345 described North
American species. They are usually 1-2 mm long and
can be distinguished from most other chalcidoids by the
broad, convex mesopleura (Figure 28-27 A). In most
chalcidoids, the mesopleura have a groove for the
femora, but encyrtids lack this groove (as do the sig-
niphorids, tanaostigmatids, some aphelinids, and some
eupelmids). The encyrtids differ from the eupelmids in
having the fore and middle coxa e closely approximated,
the mesonotum is convex, and in lacking notauli or
having them incomplete. Most encyrtids are parasites of
sternorrhynchous Hemiptera-aphids (Figure 28-49C),
scale insects, mealybugs, and whiteflies-and they are
very important as biological control agents of these in-
sects. The group also contains species attacking insects
in the orders Neuroptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera,
Coleoptera, and Hymenoptera. Alllife stages, including
eggs, larvae, nymphs, and adults are hosts of various
species. Two genera in particular, Hunterellus and
Ixodiphagus, are remarkable because they parasitize the
nymphal stage of ticks. The genus Ooencyrtus is com-
mon; its species are parasites of the eggs of some
Hemiptera, Neuroptera, and Lepidoptera. Ooencyrtus
kuvanae (Howard) (Figure 28-48F; also known in the
literature as O. kuwanai), for example, has be en intro-
duced as a parasite of the eggs of the gypsy moth. A few
encyrtids are hyperparasites. Polyembryony occurs in á
number of species, with fram 10 to more than 1,000
young developing fram a single egg. .
Family Tanaostigmatidae: Four species in this rare
group have been recorded from Florida, Arizona, and
California. The larvae appear to be gall makers.
Family Eupelmidae: The Eupelmidae are a large
group (88 North American species), and some species
532 Chapter28 Order Hymenoptera
are fairly common. They are similar to the encyrtids,
but they have a flatter mesonotum and have notauli
(Figure 28-50A,B,E,F). Some are wingless or have very
short wings (Figure 28-50E,F). Males of many species
are very similar to, if not indistinguishable from, male
pteromalids.
Many eupelmids are good jumpers and often tum-
ble around after jumping, before gaining a foothold.
Their jumping is accomplished by greatly enlarged leg
muscles that insert on the mesopleuron. The enlarge-
ment of the area of attachment of these muscles ac-
counts for the characteristic convex mesopleuron of
both encyrtids and eupelmids. When eupelmids jump,
the middle legs are literally thrown out of their sockets
and the mesonotum is contorted so strongly that the
head and tip of the metasoma may actually touch over
the back of the animal. Many specimens retain this po-
sition when killed, with the body in a U shape and the
middle legs thrown forward in front of the head. The
species of this group attack a wide variety of hosts, and
a number attack hosts in several different orders.
Species of the most common subfamily, the Eupelmi-
nae, can be collected in a wide variety of habitats. The
less common subfamilies are often seen on dead wood,
presumably searching for wood-boring Coleoptera as
hosts.
FamilyTorymidae: The torymidsare somewhat elon-
gate insects, 2-4 mm long, generally with a long ovipos-
itor. The hind coxae are usually very large, and there are
distinct notauli on the mesoscutum (Figure 28-51A-C).
This group includes both parasitic and phytophagous
species: The Toryminae, Erimerinae, and Monodon-
tomerinae attack gall insects and caterpillars, the Poda-
grioninae attack mantid eggs, and the Idarninae and
Megastigminaeattack seeds.
Family Agaonidae-Fig Wasps:This group is repre-
sented in the United States by two species, Blastophaga
psenes (L.) and Secundeisenia mexicana (Ashmead). The
former occurs in California and Arizona, and the latter
in Florida. Blastophaga psenes (Figure 28-52) was in-
troduced into the United States to make possible the
production of certain varieties of figs. The Smyrna fig,
which is grown extensively in California, produces
fruits only when pollinated with pollen from the wild
fig, or caprifig, and the pollination is done entirely by
fig wasps. The fig wasp develops in a gall in the en-
closed flowers of the caprifig. The blind and flightless
males (Figure 28-52B) emerge first and may mate with
females still in their galls. The female, on emerging
from the gall, collects pollen from male flowers of the
caprifig and sto res it in special baskets (corbiculae).
The female pollinates figs of both types (Smyrna fig
and caprifig), but oviposits successfully only in the
shorter flowers of the caprifig. Fig growers usually aid
Smyrna fig pollination by placing branches of the wild
fig in their cultivated fig trees. When the fig wasps
emerge from the wild fig, they are almost certain to
visit flowers of the Smyrna fig and thus pollinate them.
Family Ormyridae:The Ormyridae are similar lOthe
Torymidae, but have the notauli indistinct or lacking
and have a very short ovipositor. Most species are
metallic blue or green and have distinctive large pits on
the metasomatic segments. They are parasites of gall
insects.
Family Pteromalidae: The Pteromalidae is a huge
group of parasitic wasps (about 340 described North
American species). The bulk of the species are placed
in two large and poorly defined subfamilies, the Misco-
gastrinae and Pteromalinae. In addition, a large num-
ber of small but distinctive groups are usually given
subfamily status (for example, the Spalangiinae, com-
mon parasites of the puparia of flies associated with
dung). Other groups, such as the Perilampidae and Eu-
charitidae, are commonly accorded familial status, but
entomologists recognize these as being closely related
to subgroups within pteromalids. The classification 01
these wasps is in a very immature stage, and a fair
amount of shuffling of taxa should be expected asthe
species and their relationships become better known.
The pteromalids are both morphologically and bi-
ologicallydiverse. It is probably easier to identifythem
by eliminating the other possibilities than to try to
characterize the family. In general, the tarsi have five
segments, the antennal funicle has five or more seg-
ments, and the pronotum, seen in dorsal view, is con-
stricted anteriorly (giving it the shape of a bell, often
referred to as campanulate).Although females of some
families such as Eupelmidae and Torymidae are often
quite distinctive, it may sometimes be difficult,if not
impossible, to distinguish the males from "typical'
pteromalids. The best strategy for identification is to
first run specimens through the key and then checkthe
descriptions and key characters of the other chalcidoid
taxa. The others with five-segmented tarsi are thePer-
ilampidae, Eupelmidae, Encyrtidae, Tanaostigmatidae,
Chalcididae, Leucospidae, Eurytomidae, Eucharitidae,
Agaonidae, Torymidae, Orrnyridae, and Aphelinidae.
Most of these insects are parasitic and attacka
wide variety of hosts. Many are very valuable in the
control of crop pests. Some species attack eggs, larvae,
nymphs, and pupae. Both solitary and gregariouspara-
sites are found, and so me species are hyperparasitic.
Hosts include species in the orders Lepidoptera, Hy-
menoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, and Coleoptera, and
spiders and their egg sacs. A few species form galls.
The adults of some species of pteromalids (and
some other chalcidoids, such as some eulophids)feed
on the body fluids of the host, which exude fram
the puncture made by the parasite's ovipositor(asin
Figure 28-49C). In the case of Pteromalus cerealellae

(Ashmead), which attacks larvae of the Angoumois
grainmoth and in which the larvae are out of reach
ofthe adult pteromalid (in the seed), a viscous fluid is
secreted from the ovipositor and is formed into a
tubeextending down to the host larva. Through this
tube the adult sucks up the body fluids of the host
(Figure28-49A,B).
Family Eucharitidae: The Eucharitidae are rather
distinctive-looking insects with very interesting
habits.They are fair-sized (at least for a chalcidoid),
usuallyblack or metallic blue or green, with the meta-
somapetiolate and the scutellum often spined. The
mesosomaoften appears somewhat humpbacked (Fig-
ure28-28D). These chalcidoids are parasitoids of ant
pupae.The eggs are laid, usually in large numbers, on
leavesor buds, and hatch into tiny, flattened larvae
calledplanidia. These planidia simply lie in wait on
thevegetation or on the ground and attach to passing
ants,which carry them to the ant nest. Once in the ant
nest, the planidia leave the worker ant that brought
themthere and attach to ant larvae. They do little or
nofeeding on the larva e of the ant, but feed after the
larvahas pupated. This family is especially diverse in
speciesand in elaborate structure in the tropics where
antsare most diverse.
Family Perilampidae: The Perilampidae are stout-
bodied chalcidoids with the mesosoma large and
coarselypunctate and the metasoma small, shining,
and triangular (Figures 28-29B, 28-50C,D). Some
species, including the common Perilampus hyalinus
Say,are brilliantly metallic in color and superficially re-
semblecuckoo wasps (Chrysididae); most others are
black. Perilampids are frequently found on flowers.
Somespecies are hyperparasites, attacking the Diptera
andHymenoptera that are parasites of caterpillars and
grasshoppers. Others attack free-living insects in the
orders Neuroptera, Coleoptera, and Hymenoptera
(sawflies).The perilampids, like the eucharitids, lay
theireggson foliage,and the eggs hatch into planidial
larvae (small, flattened, able to go without feeding for
aconsiderable time). These planidia remain on the fo-
liage,attach to a passing host (usually a caterpillar),
andpenetrate into its body cavity. If a hyperparasite en-
tersa caterpillar that is not parasitized, it usually does
notdevelop. If the caterpillar is parasitized, then the
perilampidlarva usually remains inactive in the cater-
pillaruntil the caterpillar parasite has pupated, and
thenattacks the parasite.
FamilyEurytomidae-Seed Chalcidoids: The euryto-
mids are similar to the perilampids in having the
pronotum and mesoscutum coarsely punctate, but dif-
ferin having the metasoma rounded or oval and more
orlesscompressed (Figures 28-29C, 28-51D-G). The
metasomaof males is often strongly petiolate. They can
be distinguished from pteromalids by the quadrate
Key to the Familiesof Hymenoptera 533
shape of the pronotum in dorsal view and by the
coarsely punctate mesosoma. They are usually black,
but may be yellow or even metallic in color. They are
generally more slender in build than the perilampids.
Eurytomids vary in habits. Many are parasitic, but some
are phytophagous. The larvae of species in the genus
Tetramesa (Figure 28-51D,E) feed in the stems of
grasses, sometimes producing galls on the stems. Some are
often serious pests of wheat. The clover seed chalcid,
Bruchophagus platypterus (Walker) (Figure 28-51G),
infests the seeds of clover and other legumes. A few
species are hyperparasitic.
Family Chalcididae:The Chalcididae are fair-sized
chalcidoids (2-7 mm long) with greatly swollen and
toothed hind femora (Figures 28-23E, 28-29A,
28-531). They differ from the leucospids in having the
ovipositor short and the wings not folded longitudi-
nally when at resto Pteromalids in the subfamily Chal-
cedectinae also have enlarged hind femora, but these
species are metallic in color. Chalcidids are usually
black or yellow with various markings, but never
metallic. Similarly, Podagrioninae (Torymidae) have
enlarged hind femora, but like most other chalcidoids,
these have a large and exposed prepectus. The prepec-
tus of chalcidids is quite small and mostly hidden in-
ternally.
The chalcidids are parasites of Lepidoptera,
Diptera, and Coleoptera. Some are hyperparasitic, at-
tacking tachinids or ichneumonids.
Family Leucospidae: The Leucospidae are usually
black- or brown-and-yellow insects, and they are para-
sites of bees and wasps. They are rather uncommon but
may occasionally be found on flowers. They are stout-
bodied; many have the wings folded longitudinally at
rest; and they look a little like a small vespid. The
ovipositor in most species is long and curves upward
and forward over the metasoma, ending over the pos-
terior part of the mesosoma. Like the chalcidids, the
leucospids have the hind femora greatly swollen and
toothed on the ventral side.
SUPERFAMILY Cynipoidea: The members of the su-
perfamily Cynipoidea are mostly small or minute
insects with distinctively reduced wing venation (Fig-
ure 28-19A). Most species are black, and the metasoma
is usually somewhat laterally compressed. The anten-
nae are filiform, the pronotum extends back to the
tegulae, and the ovipositor issues from the anterior to
the apex of the metasoma. In the fore wing, the mar-
ginal cell (cell R¡) is usually well developed. Of the
more than 800 species in this group in the United
States, some 640 (all in the subfamily Cynipinae) are
gall makers or gall inquilines. The others, as far as is
known, are parasites.
Family Ibaliidae: The ibaliids are relatively large
(7-16 mm long) yellow and black insects. They have a
534 Chapter 28 Order Hymenoptera
somewhat elongate metasoma, and the marginal cell in
the fore wing is distinctively elongate. They are para-
sites of horntails (Siricidae) and can most easily be
found on or about logs containing these hosts.
Family Liopteridae:These insects have the meta-
soma petiolate and attached far above the bases of the
hind coxae. Three rare species occur in Texas and Cal-
ifornia. Their immature stages are unknown.
Family Figitidae:This is a diverse group, and its
species are parasites of a variety of groups. Five sub-
families are represented in the North American area.
The Anacharitinae, which have the metasoma dis-
tinctly petiolate and the second tergum longer than the
third (Figure 28-20E), attack the cocoons oflacewings
(Chrysopidae). The Aspiceratinae, in which the second
metasomatic tergum is narrow and much shorter than
the third (Figure 28-20C), attack the pupae of syrphid
flies. The Charipinae are parasites of psyllids
(Hemiptera) and hyperparasites of aphids, attacking
Braconidae and Aphelinidae (Hymenoptera). The Fig-
itinae, in which the second tergum is only slightly
shorter than the third (Figure 28-20F), attack the pu-
pae of Diptera. The subfamily Eucoilinae can be recog-
nized by the rounded, cuplike elevation on the scutel-
lum (Figure 28-20D). This structure is at times quite
elabora te, and the scutellum may also be developed in
a posterior spine. Eucoilines are parasites of the pupae
of flies.
FamilyCynipidae-Gall Wasps:The gall wasps (Fig-
ure 28-54) are a large group, and many species are
quite common. Within the subfamily are species that
are either gall makers or gall inquilines (in rare cases,
Figure 28-54 A ga11wasp, Diplolepis rosae (L.). This
species develops in the mossy rose ga11(Figure 28-55D).
possibly either). Most species of gall makers attack
oaks (Quercus) or members of the rose family
(Rosaceae) (Figure 28-55). The female wasp oviposits
into meristematic tissue that is or will be actively groll.
ing the next spring-for example, buds of twigs, flow-
ers, or leaves. The feeding of the wasp larva somehow
causes a growth reaction in the host plant that formsa
gallo The wasp larva feeds on the elaborated ga11tissue,
pupates within this enclosure, and chews an exit hole
to emerge.The galls themselves come in a wide variety
of forms, the shape being determined by the speciesof
gall wasp feeding within. Many galls are quite largeand
apparent, as in the various types of oak leaf galls,but
some are formed within stems or twigs or even under-
ground on the roots (some wasp species burrow down
more than 1 meter to oviposit on oak roots) , and so
these are not apparent to a casual observer. Manygalls
are dehiscent; that is, they fall off the host plant to the
ground with the gall maker still within. Some galls
even continue to grow after falling!
The life cycles of many gall makers are very com-
plexo Some species are very similar to other Hy-
menoptera: They are bisexual, males and females
emerge from their galls and mate, mated femalesthen
seek out hosts in which to oviposit; fertilized eggsde-
velop into females, unfertilized eggs into males (ar-
rhenotokous parthenogenesis). Cynipids with thistype
of life cycle are typically univoltine and attack awide
variety of plants other than oaks and roses. Some
species with this general type of life cycle have aban-
doned the production of males and reproduce by
means of thelytokous parthenogenesis. In these the
eggs fail to complete meiosis and develop into diploid
females; males are rare or entirely absent.
From this point, yet further complicationsare
found. Somespeciesalternate sexual and asexualgener-
ations. The sexual generation consists of males andfe-
males. These emerge and mate, and the femalessearch
out a host in which to oviposit. However, a11her progeny
develop into females (the so-called agamic generation).
Afterthe agamicgenerationcompletesits larvaldevelop-
ment, the adult wasps emerge, find a host, and oviposit.
Some unfertilizedeggs developinto males of the sexual
generation, some into females. In some species, theoff-
spring of a given agamic female are all males, and an-
other's all develop into females. The genetic mechanisms
by which the sex of the larvae of the sexual generationis
deterrnined are very poorIy understood. The adult wasps
of the sexual and agamic generations are usually verydif-
ferent in morphology and produce different typesofgalls
on different parts of the host planto In some casesthetwo
generationsmust reproduceon differentspeciesofhosts.
As a result, the sexualand agamicgenerationshavetypi-
cally been described as separate species of gall wasps,
sometimes even in different genera.
r
Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 535

Figure28-55 Galls of Cynipidae. A, an oak-apple gall, caused by Amphibolips sp.;

B, another oak-apple gall, cut open to show the interior and the central capsule in which
the gall wasp larva develops; C, the woolly oak gall, caused by Callirhytis lanata (Gillette);
D, the mossy rose gall, caused by Diplolepisrosae (L.). (Redrawn from Felt [1940].)

The inquiline species have somehow lost the abil-

ity to induce the host plant to produce galls. These
wasps oviposit into galls produced by other species,
and their larvae feed on the elaborated gall tissue. The
inquiline larvae do not normally seem to feed directly
on the original gall-making larva, but the latter often
doesnot survive to emerge.
SUPERFAMILY Proctotrupoidea: All the members of
thissuperfamily are parasites, attacking the immature
stagesof other insects. Most are small or minute, and
black,and they may be confused with cynipoids, chal-
cidoids,or some of the aculeates. The smaller members
ofthis group have a much reduced wing venation, but
theymay be distinguished from chalcidoids by the
structure of the mesosoma and ovipositor. The prono-
tumin the proctotrupoids appears triangular in lateral Figure28-56 A pelecinid, Pelecinuspolyturator
viewand extends to the tegulae, and the ovipositor is- (Drury), female, 1'/2X.
suesfrom the tip of the metasoma rather than from an-
teriorto the tipo
Family Pelecinidae: The only North American This insect is a parasite of the larva e of june beetles
speciesin this group is Pelecinus polyturator (Drury), a (Scarabaeidae), and the adults emerge in middle to late
largeand striking insect. The female is 50 mm or more summer.
longand shining black, with a very long and slender FamilyVanhorniidae:This familyis closelyrelated to
metasoma (Figure 28-56). The male, which is ex- the Proctotrupidae and contains only one species in
tremelyrare, is about 25 mm long and has a swollen North America, in the east. Vanhomia eucnemidarum
posteriorpart of the metasoma. Males in the southern Crawford is a parasite of the larvae of eucnemid beetles.
panof the distribution of this species, from Mexico to Vanhomia is characterized by its exodont mandibles-
Argentina,are quite common. When captured, the fe- that is, the apical teeth point laterally rather than
maleswivels her metasomatic segments and thrusts mesally (Figure 28-22D)-and by a long ovipositor
withthe ovipositor, but they rarely penetrate the skin. that is curved forward beneath the body of the female.
536 Chapter28 Order Hymenoptera
Family Roproniidae:This family contains three rare
North American species of Ropronia. The adults are
8-10 mm long and have a laterally fIattened, somewhat
triangular and petiolate metasoma and a fairly com-
plete venation in the front wing (Figures 28-21F,
28-57). The immature stages are parasites of sawfIies.
Family Heloridae:This family contains two species
in North America, Helorus anomalipes Panzer and
H. ruficornis Foerster. These black insects are about
4 mm long, with a fairly complete venation in the front
wings (Figures 28-21H, 28-58). Both are parasites of
the larvae of lacewings (Chrysopidae), and the adult
helorid emerges from the host cocoon.
Figure 28-57 Ropronia gannani Ashmead. (Redrawn
fram Townes [1948].)
Figure 28-58 Helorus anomalipes Panzer female
(Heloridae). (Courtesy of Clancy and the University of
California.)
Family Proctotrupidae:Most Proctotrupidae are3to
6 mm long (some are larger). The Nearctic species canbe
recognized by the large stigma in the front wing, beyond
which is a very narrow marginal cell (Figure 28-2lD). As
far as is known, they are solitary and gregarious parasites
of the larvae of Coleoptera and Diptera. The wasp larvae
consume their host and then pupa te with the end of the
metasoma still inside the remains of the host (this also
occurs in Pelecinidae).
Family Diapriidae:The diapriids are small to minute
insects, most of which are parasites of immature Diptera.
They can usually be recognized by the shelflike protu-
berance, in about the middle of the face, from which the
antennae arise (Figure 28-59). The familycontainsfour
subfamilies. The Ambositrinae are most diverse in the
southern continents of Australia (and New Zealand),
South America,and southern Africa (and Madagascar).
Only a single species extends its range into the Nearctic:
Propsilloma columbianum (Ashmead) is found as far
north as southern Canada. The Ismarinae are recognized
by the absence of the typical diapriid frontal shelf;II
species occur in the United States and Canada and, asfar
as is now known, these are hyperparasites of dryinids.
Most of the approximately 300 North American species
in the familybelong to just two subfamilies, the Diapri-
inae and the Belytinae. The Diapriinae are small to
minute and have very reduced wing venation, with no
closed cells in the hind wings (Figure 28-19D). Mostare
parasites of Diptera, but some are associated with ants
(in a few cases, parasitic on the ants; in many casesen-
tomologists do not know whether the Diapriinaepara-
sitize the ants or other ant associates). The Belytinaeare
usually larger and have a closed cell in the hind wings
(Figure 28-31G). Diapriids are easily collected by
sweeping. The Belytinae are very common in moist,
wooded areas, because they attack fungus gnats (Myce-
tophilidae) and other fIies breeding in fungí.
B
Figure 28-59 Diapriidae. A, Belytinae; B, Diapriinae.

A
SUPERFAMILY Platygastroidea: Only two families
makeup this group, the Scelionidae and Platygastridae.
Ihey were previously classified in the Proctotrupoidea,
but recently have been separated from those families.
Ihe ovipositor of the female is extruded by hydrostatic
pressure in the metasoma, sometimes assisted by mus-
des inserting on the base of the ovipositor.
Family Scelionidae: The Scelionidae are small in-
sectsthat are parasites of the eggs of spiders and insects
in the orders Orthoptera, Mantodea (in the Old World
and Australia), Hemiptera, Embiidina, Coleoptera,
Diptera,Lepidoptera, and Neuroptera. Some have been
successfullyused in controlling crop pests.
The eggs of the hosts of scelionids vary in shapes
andsizes, and the wasps themselves are quite diverse in
body form (Figure 28-60). For example, the genus
Macroteleiaparasitizes the eggs of Tettigoniidae (Or-
thoptera), and the wasps are relatively large and elon-
gate.Baeus, in contrast, attacks the spherical eggs of
spiders,and the wingless females are almost spherical
themselves.Most scelionids have the metasomatic seg-
mentsdivided into a large median sclerite and narrow
laterotergites or laterosternites. These latter structures
interlockto form a sharply angled margin on the meta-
soma.However, several genera of scelionines and the
entiresubfamily Telenominae have reduced or absent
laterosternites and greatly enlarged laterotergites. As a
consequence, the metasoma of these species is rounded
laterally.In most species the antennae are 12-segmented
inboth sexes, but varying degrees of reduction in the
numberof segments are common. Telenomine females
haveeither 11- or 10-segmented antennae. As an ex-
treme,the females of Idris, Baeus, and related genera
have7-segmented antennae with a large, unsegmented
clava.In the females of a number of genera, the first
metasomatic tergum is more or less enlarged into a
hornlikeprotuberance that houses the ovipositor when
itis not in use. The species of this family are very com-
mon,and the greatest diversity of adults can be col-
lectedin spring and late summer when the eggs of their
hostsare available.
Family Platygastridae:The Platygastridae are
minute, usually shining, black insects with very re-
Keyto the Families of Hymenoptera 537
B
Figure28-60 Scelionidae, illustrating
variation in body formo A, Macroteleia;
B, Gryon; e, Baryconus; D, Baeus.
duced wing venation (Figure 28-l9H). In many cases
the wings are completely veinless. The antennae usu-
ally have 10 segments and are attached very low on the
face, next to the clypeus (Figure 28-22B). Most platy-
gastrids are parasites of the larvae of Cecidomyiidae.
Platygaster hiemalis Forbes is an important agent in
control of the Hessian fly. Others attack mealybugs and
other Sternorrhyncha (Hemiptera). Polyembryony oc-
curs in several species in this family, with as many as
18 young developing from a single egg. Several groups,
particularly the genus Inostemma have a horn formed
from the first metasomatic tergum as in scelionids (Fig-
ure 28-618). In some species, this horn extends far
over the mesosoma and its apex fits into a notch in the
posterior part of the head. In others, such as the genus
Synopeas,the second metasomatic sternum is enlarged
into a pouch or hornlike structure within which the
elongate ovipositor is withdrawn when not in use (Fig-
ure 28-6lA).
Family Chrysididae-CuckooWasps: The cuckoo
wasps are small insects, rarely over 12 mm long, that
are metallic blue or green. The body is usually
coarsely sculptured. Some chalcidoids and be es are
similar in size and color, but the cuckoo wasps can be
recognized by the wing venation (Figure 28-2lB)-a
fairly complete venation in the front wing but no
closed cells in the hind wing-and the structure of
the metasoma. In most species, the metasoma consists
of only three or four visible segments and is hollowed
out ventrally. When a cuckoo wasp is disturbed, it
usually curls up in a ball. Most cuckoo wasps are ex-
ternal parasites of full-grown wasp or bee larvae. The
species in the genus Cleptes attack sawfly larvae, and
those in Mesitiopterus attack the eggs of walking-
sticks.
Family Bethylidae:The Bethylidae are small to
medium-sized, usually dark-colored wasps. The fe-
males of many species are wingless and antlike in ap-
pearance. In a few species, both winged and wingless
forms occur in each sexo These wasps are parasites of
the larva e of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera. Several
species attack moths or beetles that infest grain or
flour. A few species sting people.
538 Chapter28 Order Hymenoptera
Figure 28-61 Platygastridae, illustrating some metaso-
matie modifieations to aeeomodate the elongate oviposi-
toroA, Synopeas;B, lnostemma.
Family Dryinidae:The Dryinidae is a fairly small
group (lll species in the Nearctic) of parasitoids of
Hemiptera Auchenorrhyncha. The two sexes are often
quite different in appearanee, and the association can
only be made clear by rearing them. Both males and fe-
males have lO-segmented antennae and are often char-
acterized by their large heads and broad, strongly
toothed mandibles. Most females are remarkable in
that the fore tarsi are developed into chelae used
for grasping and holding the hoppers used as hosts
(Figure 28-30). Female dryinids catch an adult or host
nymph with their chelae, sting and temporarily para-
lyze it, and lay an egg between two thoracic or abdom-
inal segments. The parasitoid larva feeds intemally on
the host, although during most of its development a
part of the larval body protrudes in a saclike structure.
The parasite, when full -grown, leaves the host and
spins a silken cocoon nearby. Polyembryony occurs in
Crovettia theliae (Gahan), which attacks the treehopper
Thelia bimaculata (Fabricius), with 40 to 60 young de-
veloping from a single egg. Many adult females are also
predaceous on leafhoppers. Some dryinid females are
remarkable ant mimics and may be associated with
myrmecophilic hoppers.
Family Embolemidae:This small, rare familyis
sometimes classified with the dryinids. Both have 10-
segmented antennae in both sexes. The antennae of
embolemids arise from a frontal shelf similar to that in
the family Diapriidae. Males are winged, females wing-
less. Two species of embolemids are known from North
America. Ampulicomorpha confusa Ashmead has been
reared from nymphs of Achilidae (Homoptera) feeding
on fungi beneath the bark of fallen logs. Species of Em-
bolemus (outside of North America) have been col-
lected from ant nests that contain aphids or scale
insects.
Family Sclerogibbidae:This family is represented in
North America by a single, very rare species in Arizona,
Probethylus schwarzi Ashmead. A few sclerogibbids (in
other parts of the world) are known to be parasites of
Embiidina.
SUPERFAMILY Apoidea-Bees and SphecoidWasps:
Entomologists differ regarding the taxonomic arrange.
ment of the sphecoid wasps and some of the names
used for them. We follow here the arrangement of
Bohart and Menke (1976), who put the sphecoids ina
single family, the Sphecidae. The classification of bees
is also a point of contention. At one extreme, somere.
searchers place all bees in a single family, Apidae. We
follow the classificationof Michener (2000), in which
the North American bees are classified in six families.
Identification of bees to family is sometimes difficult
because the characters are hidden beneath the dense
body hairs or the tongue is folded beneath the head.
The hairs can be carefully scraped off or pushed aside
with an insect pin, and the tongue can be extended
while the specimen is still fresh and flexible.
Bees are common insects and are found almost
everywhere, particularly on flowers. About 3,500
species occur in North America. Many other speciesof
Hymenoptera can be collected at flowers feedingon
nectar. Bees are unusual in that they visit the flowers
not only for the carbohydrates provided by the nectar,
but also to collect the pollen produced by the plan!
with which to provision their nests. In most speciesthe
larva e feed and develop on a mass of pollen storedin
the cell by the female bee, in contrast to other aeuleates
in which the cells are provisioned with arthropod prey
(the Masarinae in the family Vespidae also provision
their nests with pollen). Nests are typically constructed
in the soil, but a wide variety of natural cavities maybe
used, such as abandoned rodent nests, tree hollows,the
emergence holes of wood-boring beetles, or the hollow
stems of plants. Some species of bees colleet pollen
from only a very narrow range of hosts; others may
visit practically any plant in bloom. Most speciesare
solitary; that is, each female is capable of constructing
a nest and reproducing. These species construct a cel!,
completely provision it with pollen (mass provision.
ing), oviposit on or near the pollen, then close thecell

and begin constructing another. The eusocial bees typ-
ically progressively provision the cells in their nest,
bringing more pollen to the larvae as they grow or pro-
viding them with honey (collected in the form of nec-
lar from flowers and concentrated by evaporation).
The bees are elosely related to the Sphecidae, and
their elosest relatives are probably some subgroup of
Ihe sphecids. Together they form a distinctive group
within the Hymenoptera. Their pronotum terminates
laterallyin rounded lobes that do not reach the tegulae.
Thedistinctive features of the nonparasitic bees largely
concern the transport of pollen (Figures 28-15B,
28--62). Most bees are quite hairy, and as they visit
ftowers, a certain amount of pollen sticks to their
body hairs. This pollen is periodically combed off
with the legs and transported on brushes of hairs
calledscopae(located on the ventral side of the meta-
soma in Megachilidae) or on corbiculae (the broad,
shiny,slightly convex outer surfaces of the hind tibiae,
Figure 28-15B, cb, as in the social Apidae). A few
speciestransport pollen in their crop. The bees that are
kleptoparasites, that is, those that live as "cuckoos" in
thenests of other bees, are usually wasplike in appear-
ance, with relatively little body hair and without a
pollen-transporting apparatus. These can be recog-
Figure28-62 Hind leg of a honey bee, inner surface,
showingthe pollen-transporting apparatus. au, auricle;
ex,coxa;fm, femur; mts, first tarsal segment; pbr, pollen
brush;pr, polIen rake or pecten; tb, tibia; tr, trochanter.
ThepolIen is colIected off the body hairs by the front
andmiddle legs and deposited on the polIen brushes
(pbr)of the hind legs. The polIen on the polIen brush of
oneleg is raked off by the rake (pr) on the other, the
pollenfalIing on the surface of the auricle (au); the clos-
ingof the tarsus on the tibia forces the polIen upward,
whereit adheres 10 the floor of the pollen basket or cor-
bicula(which is on the outer surface of the tibia). As this
processis repeated, first on one side and then on the
other,the polIen is packed into the lower ends of the
pollenbaskets until both are filIed.
Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 539
nized as bees by their more flauened hind basitarsi and
the plumose body hairs.
The maxillae and labium of bees form a tonguelike
structure through which the insect sucks up nectar.
There is some development of such a tongue in other
Hymenoptera, but in many bees the tongue is elongate,
and the bee thus can reach the nectar in flowers with a
deep corolla. The structure of the tongue differs con-
siderably in different bees and provides characters that
are used in elassification.
The two sexes of be es differ in the number of an-
tennal segments and metasomatic tergites. The males
have 13 antennal segments and seven visible metaso-
matic tergites. The females have only 12 antennal seg-
ments and six visible metasomatic tergites.
The pollen-collecting bees play an important
role in pollinating plants. Some higher plants are self-
pollinating, but a great many are cross-pollinated; that
is, the pollen of one flower must be transferred to the
stigma of another. Cross-pollination is brought about
by two principal agencies, wind and insects. Wind-
pollinated plants inelude the grasses (such as the cereal
grains, timothy, and the like), many trees (such as the
willows, oaks, hickories, elms, poplars, and conifers),
and many wild plants. The insect-pollinated plants in-
elude most orchard fruits, berries, many vegetables
(particularly the cucurbits), field crops (such as the
elovers, couon, and tobacco), and flowers. Most polli-
nation is done by bees-often chiefly honey bees and
bumble bees, but a great deal of pollinating is done by
solitary bees. Many growers, by bringing in hives of
honey bees when the plants are in bloom, have been
able to get greatly increased yields of orchard fruits,
elover seed, and other crops that depend on bees for
pollination. Given that the annual value of insect-
pollinated crops in the United States is about $14.6 bil-
lion, elearly the bees are extremely valuable.
Family Sphecidae: Sphecids can be distinguished
from other wasps by the structure of the pronotum: In
dorsal view the posterior margin is straight, and there
is usually a constriction between it and the mesoscu-
tum (forming a collar); laterally the pronotum termi-
nates in a rounded lobe that does not reach the tegula.
Most sphecids have a more or less vertical su1cus on
the mesopleuron, the episternal su1cus. Such a su1cus
is present in most vespoids, but the mesopleural su1cus
in pompilids is transverse (Figure 28-34). In most
sphecids, the inner margins of the eyes are not
notched. This is also the case with the pompilids, but
most vespoids do have notched inner margins of the
eyes.
Sphecid wasps differ from the bees, which have a
similar prono tal structure, in several ways: (1) All the
body hairs are simple (some are branched or plumose
in bees); (2) the basal segment of the hind tarsus is not
particularly widened or flauened (as it is in most bees)
540 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
and has at its base, on the inner side, a brush of hairs
in a slight depression, opposed by a pectinate tibial
spur; (3) sphecids are relatively bare, whereas many
bees are quite hairy; and (4) the posterior margin of the
pronotum in dorsal view is straight (usually slighdy ar-
cuate in bees). Most Sphecidae are moderate-sized to
large, with a complete wing venation, but a few are
quite small. Body length in this family varies from
about 2 to more than 40 mm. Some of the very small
sphecids have a much reduced wing venation, with
only four or five closed cells in the front wing. Nine
subfamilies are found in North America.
The members of this large family (more than 1,100
North American species) are solitary wasps, although
large numbers may some times nest in a small area, and
a few show the beginnings of social organization (a
small number of tropical species are eusocial). They
nest in a variety of situations. Most burrow in the
ground, but some nest in various kinds of natural cav-
ities (hollow plant stems, cavities in wood, and the
like), and some construct nests of mudo Females hunt
for arthropod prey that serves as food for their off-
spring. The prey is stung and paralyzed and then
placed within the nest. In most cases the nest is com-
pletely provisioned before the egg is laid, but in some
cases the female wasp continues to provide new prey
items as her offspring grow (known as progressive pro-
visioning). Some groups of sphecids are restricted to a
particular type of prey as larval food, but a few groups
vary considerably in their selection. A wide variety of
arthropods are used, including Orthoptera, Blattodea,
Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera, Hy-
menoptera, and spiders. A few are kleptoparasitic,
building no nest but laying their eggs in the nests of
other wasps, their larvae feeding on the food stored for
the host larvae.
The subfamily Sphecinae, or thread-waisted
wasps, are very common insects, and most are 25 mm
or more long. Some of the largest North American
sphecids are in this subfamily. The common name
refers to the very slender petiole of the metasoma. The
two genera Sceliphron and Chalybion are commonly
called "mud daubers." They construct nests of mud
and provision them with spiders. These nests usually
consist of a number of cells, each about 25 mm long,
placed side by side. They are common on ceilings or
walls of old buildings. Two species in each of these
genera occur in the Nearctic, the most common being
S. caementarium (Drury) and C. califomicum (Saussure).
The former is blackish brown with yellow spots, yellow
legs, and clear wings, and the latter is metallic blue
with bluish wings. Another common ground-nesting
speciesof Sphecinaeis Sphexichneumoneus(L.), which
is reddish brown with the tip of the metasoma black
(Figure 28-63C).
.~ .....
,~.
The genus Trypoxylon (Crabroninae) includes the
organ-pipe mud daubers (some of which reach a length
of 25 mm or more), which make nests of mud (Fig-
ure 28-64). Other species of this common genus nest
in the ground or in various natural cavities. These
wasps provision their nests with spiders.
Many members of the Crabroninae (Figure 28-65)
are small to medium-sized, rather stocky wasps. They
are fairly common insects, and most are either black
with yellow markings or entirely black. They can usu.
ally be recognized by the large, quadrate head, with the
inner margins of the eyes straight and converging be.
low,and the single submarginal cell. These waspsvary
in their nesting habits. Most nest in the ground, but
so me nest in natural cavities such as hollow stemsor
cavities in wood. The principal prey is flies, but some
take other insects such as beedes, bugs, hoppers, or
small Hymenoptera.
The cicada killers (Nyssoninae: Sphecius) are large
insects (up to 40 mm long) that provision their nests
with cicadas. One common species, S. speciosus
(Drury), is black or rusty, with yellow bands on the
metasoma (Figure 28-66A).
The sand wasps (Nyssoninae) are rather stout.
bodied wasps of moderate size (Figure 28-66B). Thisis
a fairly large group (about 75 North American species),
and its members are common around beaches, sand
dunes, and other sandy areas. They nest in burrows,
and a great many may nest in a small area. In some
species, the adults continue to feed the larvae during
their growth. The adults are very agile and rapid fliers,
and although they can sting, one can walk througha
colony-with the wasps dashing all about-without
being stung. Stictia carolina (Fabricius), an insect
about 25 mm long and black with yellow markings,is
fairly common in the South. It often hunts (or mes
(mosdy Tabanidae) near horses, and it is called the
"horse guard." Other sand wasps are black with yellow,
white, or pale green markings.
The species of the tribe Philanthini (Philanthinae;
Figure 28-66C) provision their nests with bees, princi-
pally halictids, and are usually called "bee-killer
wasps" or "bee wolves." They are common insects (29
North American species). The Cercerini (Philanthinae)
(Figure 28-66D) may be called "weevil wasps," as they
provision with beedes (Curculionidae, Chrysomelidae,
and Buprestidae). They are common insects, and a lit.
de over a hundred species occur in North America.
Family Melittidae:The melittids are small,dark.
colored, rather rare bees, similar in nesting habitsto
the Andrenidae. They differ from other short-tongued
bees (Colletidae, Halictidae, and Andrenidae) in that
the jugal lobe of their hind wing is shorter than the
M+Cu¡ cell. They differ from the Megachilidae and
Apidae (the long-tongued bees) in that the segmentsof
 Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 541

Figure28-63 Sphecid wasps. A, Chlorion aerarium Patton; B, Ammophila nigricans

Dahlbom; C, Sphex ichneumoneus (L.); D, Pemphredoninomatus Sayo

Figure28-64 An organ-pipe mud dauber. A, adult of Trypoxylon clavatum Say,31/2X;

B, nest of T.politum Sayo

UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
542 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera

Figure28-65 A square-headed wasp, Crossocems annulipes (Lepeletier and Brullé)

(Sphecidae, Crabroninae). A, adult, 2x; B, a section of a rotting log in which this wasp
has stored leafhoppers. (Courtesy of Davidson and Landis and the Entomological Society
of America.)

Figure28-66 Sphecidwasps.A, the cicada-killer,Spheciusspeciosus(Drury), about

natural size; B, a sand wasp, Bembix americanus spinolae Lepeletier, slightly enlarged;
e, a bee-killer wasp, Philanthus ventilabris Fabricius, 2X; D, a weevil wasp, Cerceris
clypeata Dahlbom, 2X.

theirlabial palps are similar in size and cylindrical (the
labialpalps of the Megachilidae and Apidae have their
firsttwosegments elongate and flattened). The species
nestin burrows in the soil.
Three subfamilies and 31 species of Melittidae oc-
curin North America: the Macropidinae (with two sub-
marginalcells and a very broad stigma), the Dasypodi-
nae(with two submarginal cells and a narrow stigma),
andthe Melittinae (with three submarginal cells).
Family Colletidae-Plasterer Bees and Yellow-
FacedBees: These bees have the tongue short and ei-
thertruncate or bilobed at the apex (Figure 28-6C).
Thefamily is divided into three subfamilies, the Col-
letinae,Diphaglossinae, and Hylaeinae, and more than
150species are known from North America.
The Colletinae, or plasterer bees, burrow into the
groundto nest and line their burrows with a thin,
translucentsubstance. They are of moderate size and
arequite hairy, with bands of pale pubescence on the
metasoma.There are three submarginal cells, and the
secondm-cu crossvein is sigmoid (Figure 28-13D).
Ninety-sevenspecies of these bees have been recorded
[ramNorth America. The Hylaeinae, or yellow-faced
bees,are small, black, very sparsely hairy bees, usually
with yellow markings on the face (Figure 28-67) and
with only two submarginal cells (Figure 28-13E). They
arevery wasplike in appearance, and the hind legs of
thefemale do not have pollen brushes. Pollen for lar-
valfoodis carried to their nests in the crop, mixed with
nectar,instead of on the body or legs. These bees nest
invarioussorts of cavities and crevices, in plant stems,
orin burrows in the ground. North American species
belongto the genus Hylaeus, and many are very com-
monbees.
c:
~
c: place. Michener (1974), in fact, argues that it is quite
.s=
o
--, likely that in addition to having evolved many times,
c:
E\j eusociality may have been lost just as often by different
<;
z species.
Figure
28-67 A yellow-faced bee, Hylaeus affinis
(Smith)
. (Figure 28-17 A). They nest in burrows in the ground,
Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 543
Family Halictidae:The halictidsaresmall to moderate-
sized bees, often metallic in color, and can usually be
recognized by the strongly arched first free segment of
the medial vein (Figure 28-13C). Most nest in burrows
in the ground, either on level ground or in banks. The
main tunnel is usually vertical, with lateral tunnels
branching off from it and each terminating in a single
cell. Large numbers of these bees often nest close to-
gether, and many bees may use the same passageway to
the outside. More than 500 species of halictids occur in
North America.
Three subfamilies of halictids occur in the United
States: the Halictinae (the largest and most common of
the three subfamilies), the Nomiinae, and the Rophiti-
nae. The Rophitinae differ from the other two subfam-
ilies in that they have only two submarginal cells and
have a short clypeus, usually not longer than the
labrum, and in profile strongly convex and protruding.
The Nomiinae, represented by the genus Nomia, have
the first and third submarginal cells about the same
size. These bees are often of considerable importance
in pollinating plants.
In the Halictinae, the third submarginal cell is
shorter than the first. This group contains several genera
of fairly common bees. In Agapostemon (Figure 28-68B),
Augochloropsis, Augochlorella, and Augochlora, the head
and mesosoma are a brilliant metallic green. These bees
are small, 14 mm long or less, and some bees in the
genus Augochlora are only a few millimeters long. The
other fairly common genera are Lasioglossum and
Sphecodes. Usually their head and mesosoma are black
or dull green. Some members of the genus Lasioglossum
are frequently attracted to people who are perspiring,
and are called "sweat bees." The bees in the genus Sphe-
codes are rather wasplike in appearance, and the entire
metasoma is red. These are parasites (kleptoparasites) of
other bees.
Halictids are extremely diverse in terms of their
social biology, spanning the spectrum from solitary
species, either nesting alone or in congregations, to
primitively eusocial species. The level of social "devel-
opment" seems to be intertwined with poorly under-
stood environmental constraints: Some species show
great differences in social behavior in different parts of
their range or at different times of the year. Eusociality,
per se, is clearly not an evolutionary goal toward which
these bees are inevitably moving, but most likely rep-
resents an adaptive strategy for a particular time and
Family Andrenidae: The andrenids are small to
medium-sized bees that can be recognized by the
two subantennal sulci below each antennal socket
544 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera

--- - ---

A B

<=
§
.<::
o
-,
<=
'"
E
5
z

Figure28-68 Solitary bees. A, Andrena imitatrix Cresson (Andrenidae);

B, Augochloropsismetal/ica (Fabricius) (Halictidae).

and their burrows are similar to those of halictids. nests are made in various places, occasionally in the
Sometimes large numbers of these bees nest close to- ground but more often in some natural cavity, Cre-
gether, usually in areas where the vegetation is sparse. quently in wood. The vast majority of nonparasitic
The approximately 1,200 species of andrenids in species are solitary.
North America are arranged in three subfamilies, the This family is represented in North America only
Andreninae, Oxaeinae, and the Panurginae. The An- by the subfamily Megachilinae. This is a large group
dreninae have the apex of the marginal cell pointed or (more than 600 North American species) of wide-
narrowly rounded and on the costal margin of the spread distribution. Some of the more common genera
wing, and they usually have three submarginal cells of Megachilinae are Anthidium, Dianthidium, Stelis,
(Figure 28-13A). The Panurginae have a trunca te apex Heriades, Hoplitis, Osmia, Megachile, and Coelioxys.
of the marginal cell and usually have only two submar- The bees in the genera Stelis and Coelioxysare para-
ginal cells (Figure 28-13B). The vast majority of sític. One introduced species of Megachile is an impar-
species of Andreninae belong to the genus Andrena (Fig- tant pollinator of alfalfa in the West.
ure 28-68A), which are very common springtime bees.
Most Panurginae belong to the genus Perdita. The Pa-
nurginae are moderate-sized to minute, and many have
yellow or other bright markings. The Oxaeinae are
chiefly tropical and are represented in the Uníted States
by two species each in the genera Protoxaea and Mesox-
aea that occur in the Southwest. These solitary bees are
large and fast-flying and nest in deep burrows in the soil.
Family Megachilidae-Leaf-CuttingBees: The leaf-
cutting bees are mostly moderate-sized, fairly stout-
bodied bees (Figure 28-69). They differ from most
other bees in having two submarginal cells of about
equallength (Figure 28-13F), and the females of the
pollen-collecting species carry the pollen by means of
a scopa on the ventral side of the metasoma rather than
on the hind legs. The common name of these bees is
derived from the fact that in many species the nest cells
are lined with pieces cut from leaves. These pieces are
usually very neatly cut out, and it is not uncommon to
find plants from which these bees have cut circular Figure28-69 A leaf-cutting bee, Megachile latimanus
pieces. A few species in this family are parasítico The Sayo
 Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 545

Figure28-70 Nest of the small carpenter bee, Ceratina

duplaSayo

FamilyApidae-Cuckoo Bees, Digger Bees, Carpen-

ter Bees, Bumble Bees, Orchid Bees, Stingless Bees,
HoneyBees: Until recently, the cuckoo bees, digger
bees,and carpenter bees were placed in the family An-
thophoridae. The North American species of these
long-tongued bees are divided into three subfamilies:
theNomadinae, the Xylocopinae, and the Apinae.
Subfamily Xylocopinae-Carpenter Bees: These
beesdo not have a protuberant clypeus, the front coxae
aretransverse, and the last metasomatic segment lacks
atriangular, platelike area. These bees make their nests
inwood or plant stems. The two North American gen- B
erain this group, Ceratina and Xylocopa, differ some-
whatin habits and differ considerably in size. The
smallcarpenter bees (Ceratina) are dark bluish green
andabout 6 mm long. They are superficially similar to Figure 28-71 A, a large carpenter bee, Xylocopa vir-
someof the halictids, particularly because the first ginica (L.) (Xylocopinae); B, a bumble bee, Bombus pen-
freesegment of the medial vein is noticeably arched, sylvanicus (DeGeer) (Apinae). P/2X.
butthey can be distinguished from a halictid by the
muchsmaller jugallobe in the hind wings (compare
Figures28-13C and 28-14F). These bees excavate the
pithfram the stems of various bushes and nest in the
tunnelsso produced (Figure 28-70). The large carpen-
-.¡-,,"'"
terbees (Xylocopa) are robust bees about 25 mm long, q' ~'
similarin appearance to bumble bees, but the dorsum of ~

theirmetasoma is largely bare (Figure 28-71A), and the

secondsubmarginal cell is triangular (Figure 28-14A).
Thesebees excavate galleries in solid wood.
Subfamily Nomadinae-Cuckoo Bees: All the bees
inthis group are parasites in the nests of other bees.
Theyare usually wasplike in appearance and have rel- <=
ativelyfew hairs on the body. They lack a pollen- ~
..c::
transportingapparatus, the clypeus is somewhat protu- -,o
<=
berant,the front coxae are a little broader than long, '"
E
2;
andthe last metasomatic tergite usually (at least in fe- z
males)has a triangular, platelike area. Some of these
bees(for example, members of the large genus No-
muda) are reddish and of medium or small size. Others Figure 28-72 A cuckoo bee, Doeringiella lunata (Say)
(forexample,Epeolusand Doeringiella,Figure 28-72) (Apidae).
546 Chapter28 Order Hymenoptera

are fair-sized(13-19 mm) and dark-colored,with small ure 28-14B). Bumble bees are very common insects,
patches of pale pubescence. and they are important pollinators of certain kinds of
Subfamily Apinae-Digger Bees, Bumble Bees, clover because of their very long tongues.
Honey Bees, and Orchid Bees: The digger bees resem- Most bumble be es nest in the ground, usually ina
ble the Nomadinae in the form of the clypeus, front deserted mouse nest or bird nest or similar situation.
coxae, and the tergal plate on the last metasomatic seg- The colonies are annual (at least in temperate regions),
ment, but are robust and hairy (Figure 28-73A). The and only the fertilized queens overwinter. Nests are ini-
subfamily includes both parasitic and nonparasitic tiated by solitary, fertilized queens that have overwin-
species. Most of the latter are solitary, but some nest tered. These queens are often very conspicuous in the
communally. Digger bees nest in burrows in the ground spring as they search for a nest site. The first brood
or in banks, and the cells are lined with a thin wax or raised by the queen consists entirely of workers. Once
varnishlike substance. the workers appear, they take over all the duties of the
Bumble bees can usually be recognized by their colony except egg laying. They enlarge the nest, collect
robust shape and black-and-yellow coloration (Fig- food, and store it in saclike "honey pots" built froro
ure 28-71B); a few are marked with orange or white. wax and pollen, and care for the larvae. Later in the
They are relatively large bees, most being 20 mm summer, males and queens are produced, and in the
or more long. The hind wings lack a jugal lobe (Fig- fall all but these queens die.
Some species of Bombus are parasites of other
bumble bees, and some entomologists place them in
the genus Psithyrus. The parasitic females differ froro
those of other Bombus in having the outer surface of
the hind tibiae convex and hairy (usually flat or con-
cave and largely bare). These bees have no worker
caste. The females invade the nests of other bumble
bees and lay their eggs, leaving their young to be reared
by the workers of the host nest.
A The orchid bees are brilliant metallic, often
brightly colored bees that are tropical in distribution.
They have a very long tongue, they have apical spurs
on the hind tibiae, they lack a jugal lobe in the hind
g wings, and the scutellum is produced backward over
..§ the metasoma. The common name arises because the
~ males are attracted to orchid flowers and are importam
~ in their pollination. The males do not feed on this
Z pollen and the orchids do not produce nectar;re-
searchers think that the males may derive precursor
chemicals for a sex pheromone from the flowers. Fe-
males are not attracted to orchids. Both parasitic and
}
r nonparasitic species are found in the subfamily. The
latter include solitary and parasocial species. One
species in this group, Eulaema polychroma (Mocsáry),
has be en recorded from Brownsville, Texas.
Honeybeescan be recognizedby their goldenbrown
B
coloration and characteristic shape (Figure 28-74), Ihe
form of the marginal and submarginal cells in the from
wing (Figure 28-14D), and the absence of spurs on the
hind tibiae. These bees are common and well-knownin-
~ sects, and they are the most important bees in plant polli-
~ nation. They are extremely valuable, as they produce
~ some $300 million worth of honey and beeswax annually,
~ and their pollinating activities are worth 130 to 140times
this amount.
Only a single species of honey bee occurs in North
Figure28-73 A, a digger bee, Anthophora tenninalis America, Apis mellifera L. This is an introduced
Cresson; B, a cuckoo bee, Nomada. species, and most of its colonies are in human-made

Figure28-74 The honey bee, Apis mellifera L., 5X.
hives.Escaped swarms usually nest in a hollow tree.
Thecells in the nest are in vertical combs, two celllay-
crsthick. Honey bee colonies are perennial, with the
queenand workers overwintering in the hive. A queen
maylive several years. Unlike the bumble bee queen, a
honeybee queen cannot start a colony by herself. As in
mostHymenoptera, the sex of a bee is in large part con-
trolledby the fertilization of the egg: Fertilized eggs de-
velapinlo females, and unfertilized eggs develop into
males.Whether a larval honey bee destined to become
afemalebecomes a worker or queen depends on the
sortaf food it is fed. There is normally only one queen
inahoney bee colony. When a new one is produced, it
maybe killed by the old queen, or one of the queens
(usuallythe old queen) may leave the hive in a swarm,
alongwith a group of workers, and build a nest else-
where.The new queen mates during a mating flight
andthereafter never leaves the nest except to swarm.
Themales serve only to fertilize the queen and die in
theact of mating. They do not remain in the colony
long,as they are eventually killed by the workers.
North American honey bees, which have been in-
troducedinto this continent from Europe, are not par-
ticularlyaggressive and are easy to manage. In 1956 an
Africanstrain of the honey bee was brought into south-
cm Brazil with the intention of interbreeding them
withthe European strain. Mated queens and workers
aCcidentallyescaped and established wild colonies.
Keyto the Families of Hymenoptera 547
This strain of the bee has become known as the "killer
bee." Since its introduction this strain has spread over
a large part of South and Central America, and into the
southern United States. These bees produce more
honey than the European strain, but they are very ag-
gressive. At the slightest disturbance they attack people
or animals with great ferocity, often chasing them
100 to 200 meters (sometimes as far as a kilometer).
Both livestock and people have been killed by these
bees. Beekeeping practices in South America have
changed somewhat as a result of the introduction of
this strain: Colonies are now generally removed from
settlements and livestock. Attempts are being made to
reduce the aggressiveness of these be es by crossbreed-
ing and selection.
Honey bees have a very interesting "language," a
means of communicating with one another (see von
Frisch 1967, 1971). When a worker goes out and dis-
covers a flower with a good nectar flow, she returns to
the hive and "tells" the other workers about it-the
type of flower, its direction from the hive, and how far
away it is. The type of flower involved is communi-
cated by means of its odor, either on the body hairs of
the returning bee or in the nectar it brings back from
the flower. The distance and direction of the flower
from the hive are "told" by means of a dance put on by
the returning worker. Many social insects have a "lan-
guage" or a means of communication, but its exact na-
ture is known in relatively few species.
Family Tiphiidae:Most tiphiids are easily recog-
nized by the platelike lamellae that extend over the
bases of the middle coxae. The Tiphiinae is the largest
subfamily, with about 140 North American species, and
its members are fairly common and widely distributed.
They are black, mostly medium-sized, and somewhat
hairy, with short, spiny legs (Figure 28-75A). The lar-
vae are parasites of scarab beetle larvae. One species,
Tiphia popilliavora Rohwer (Figure 28-75A), has been
introduced into the United States to help control the
]apanese beetle. The Myzininae are generally a liule
larger (length up to about 25 mm) and more slender
than the Tiphiinae and are black with yellow markings.
The upcurved spine at the end of the male metasoma
looks like a vicious sting, but is not dangerous. Four-
teen species occur in the United States and Canada,
and so me are fairly common. These wasps are parasites
of the larvae of scarab beetles. The Brachycistidinae are
medium-sized, brownish, somewhat hairy wasps that
are common throughout the West. The females are
wingless and are not seen as often as the males. About
70 species occur in North America, but liule is known
of their immature stages. The Anthoboscinae is repre-
sented by a single species, Lalapa lusa Pate, which oc-
curs in Idaho and California. Nothing is known of its
immature stages. The Methochinae are small, usually
548 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
A B and C, courtesy of Burrell
B cal Society.)
black wasps, in which the females are wingless and
generally much smaller than the males. Five species oc-
cur in the United States and Canada, and they are
widely distributed but uncommon. The Methochinae
are parasites of the larvae of tiger beetles.
Family Sierolomorphidae: The Sierolomorphidaeare
a small (six North American species) but widely dis-
tributed group of shining, black wasps 4.5 to 6.0 mm
long. They are quite rare, and nothing is known of their
immature stages.
Family Sapygidae: The Sapygidae are a small (17
North American species) and rare group. The adults
are of moderate size, usually black spotted or banded
with yellow, and with short legs. They are parasites of
leaf-cutting bees (Megachilidae) and wasps.
Family Mutillidae-Velvet Ants: These wasps are
called "velvet ants" because the females are wingless
and antlike and are covered with a dense pubescence
r- - ----
--
Figure 28-76 A velvet ant, Dasymutilla nigripes (Fabricius). A, male; B, female.
Figure28-75 Tiphiid wasps.
A, Tiphia popilliavora Rohwer,
male (Tiphiinae); B, Neozeloboria
proximus Turner, female
e (Brachycistidinae); C, same,
maleo (A, courtesy of U5DA;
and the New York Entomologi-
(Figure 28-76). In most mutillid females, the mesoso-
matic segments are completely fused to form an im.
movable boxlike structure (in the subfamily Mynnosi.
nae, the prono tal and mesonotal suture is movable).
The males are winged and usually larger than thefe.
males and are also densely pubescent. Most species
have "felt lines" laterally on the second metasomatic
tergum. Felt lines are narrow longitudinal bands ofrel.
atively dense, dosely appressed hairs. The females
have a very painful sting. Some species can stridulate,
and they produce a squeaking sound when disturbed.
Most mutillids whose life histories are known areex.
ternal parasites of the larvae and pupa e of various
wasps and bees. A few attack beetles and flies. Mutil-
lids are generally found in open areas. This groupisa
large one (about 435 North American species), and
most species occur in the South and West, especially
in arid areas.
<=
~,
o
<=
'"
E
2;
z

Family Bradynobaenidae: The bradynobaenids were
formerly classified in the family Mutillidae because
manyof them have the lateral felt lines on the second
metasomatic tergum. The males are winged and the fe-
malesapterous. The males are distinguished from the
mutillids by the presence of a jugal lobe in the hind
wing.The females have a flexible articulation between
thepronotum and mesonotum. Forty-eight species are
found in western North America. The subfamily Ty-
phoctinae is nocturnal, the Chyphotinae are diurna!.
Theirhosts and larval biology are unknown.
Family Pompilidae-Spider Wasps: The pompilids
areslender wasps with long, spiny legs, a pronotum
that is somewhat quadrate in lateral view,and a char-
acteristic transverse sulcus across the mesopleuron
(Figures28-34, 28-77). The more common members
ofthis group are 15-25 mm long, but some western
speciesare 35-40 mm long. Most spider wasps are
dark-colored, with smoky or yellowish wings. A few
arebrightly colored. They are often recognizable be-
cause of their habit of nervously fliuing the wings
whilesearching on foot. (There are a number of pom-
pilidmimics, for example in the Sphecidae and Ich-
neumonidae, that also have this habit.) The adults are
usuallyfound on flowers or on the ground in search of
prey.The larvae of most species feed on spiders (hence
thecommon name), although these are not the only
waspsthat auack spiders. The spider wasps generally
captureand paralyze a spider and then prepare a cell
forit in the ground, in roUen wood, or in a suitable
crevicein rocks. Some spider wasps construct a cell
first,then hunt for a spider to store in the cell. A few
speciesattack the spider in its own cell or burrow and
donot move it after stinging and ovipositing on it. A
fewspecies oviposit on spiders that have been stung by
Figure28-77 A spider wasp, Episyron quinquenotatus
(Say), 21/2 X .
..
Keyto the Families of Hymenoptera 549
another wasp. The spider wasps are fairly common
(290 North American species), and the females have a
very painful sting.
Family Rhopalosomatidae: This group includes
three rare species that occur in the East, Rhopalosoma
nearcticum Brues, Liosphex varius Townes, and Olixon
banksii (Brues). Rhopalosoma nearcticum is 14-20 mm
or more long, is light brown, and superficially resem-
bles ichneumonids in the genus Ophion, but it does
not have the metasoma compressed, the antennae
contain only 12 (female) or 13 (male) segments, and
there is only one m-cu crossvein in the front wing
(Figure 28-31H). Olixon banksii is about 6 mm long
and has greatly reduced wings that extend only to the
tip of the propodeum. The larva e of these wasps at-
tack crickets.
Family Scoliidae: The Scoliidae are large, hairy, and
usually black with a yellow band (or bands) on the
metasoma (Figure 28-78). Larvae of these wasps are
external parasites of the larvae of scarabaeid beetles.
The adults are commonly found on flowers. The fe-
males burrow into the ground to loca te a host. When
they find a grub, they sting it and paralyze it, then bur-
row deeper into the soil and construct a cell around the
grub. Many grubs may be stung without the wasp
ovipositing. Such grubs usually do not recover.
Twenty-three species have been recorded in North
America.
Family Vespidae-Paper Wasps, Yellow Jackets,
Hornets, Mason Wasps, Potter Wasps: This is a rela-
tively large group (325 North American species), and its
members are very common and well-known insects.
Most are black with yellow or whitish markings (Fig-
ure 28-80) or brownish (Figure 28-82A). Some species
are eusocial, and the individuals in a colony are of three
castes: queens, workers, and males. The queens and
workers have a very effective sting. In some species
there is very liule difference between the queens and
workers, but usually the queen is larger.
Figure28-78 Scolia dubia Say (Scoliidae), a parasite of
the green june beetle. (Courtesy of Davis and Luginbill
and the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station.)
550 Chapter28 Order Hymenoptera

The social vespids construct a nest out of a papery

material that consists of wood or foliage chewed up
and elaborated by the insect. The colonies in temperate
regions exist for just a single season. Only the queens
overwinter, and in the spring each queen starts a new
colony. The queen begins construction of a nest (or she
may use a nest built in a previous year) and raises her
first brood, which consists of workers. The workers
then assume the duties of the colony, and thenceforth
the queen do es little more than lay eggs. The larvae are A
fed chiefly on insects and other animals.
Subfamily Euparagiinae: This small and rare group
of vespids is found only in the western United States.
The subfamily contains only one genus, Euparagia,
with six described Nearctic species. This is the sister
group of all other species in the Vespidae, and it is
unique among them in that these insects do not fold
the wings longitudinally at resto One species, E. scute/-
laris Cresson, builds a shallow nest in the soil and pro-
visions its cells with weevillarvae.
Subfamily Masarinae:The members of this subfam-
ily are limited to the western United States. Most mem-
bers of this group are black and yellow wasps, 10-20 mm
long. They differ from other vespids in having only two
submarginal cells and in having clubbed antennae.
They make nests of mud or sand attached to rocks or
twigs and provision their nests with pollen and nectar.
This group is a small one, with only 21 species (14 in
the genus Pseudomasaris) in North America.
Subfamily Eumeninae-Mason and Potter Wasps:
These are solitary wasps and, in terms of numbers of
species, the most abundant vespids (260 species in
North America). They vary considerably in their nest-
ing habits, but most provision their nests with caterpil-
lars. Some species use cavities in twigs or logs for a e
nest, others burrow in the ground, and others make a
nest of mud or clay (Figure 28-79B). Most are black
marked with yellow or white, or entirely black, and Figure 28-79 A, adult, and B, nest, of a potter wasp,
they vary in length from about 10 to 25 mm. Eumenes fraternus Say; C, a mason wasp, Rygchíum dor-
Subfamily Vespinae-Yellow Jackets and Hornets: sale (Fabricius); this species nests in small colonies in
Most of the 18 North American species of Vespinae be- vertical burrows in the ground.
long to the genus Vespula (Figure 28-80B). These wasps
are eusocial, and their nests consist of several to many
tiers of hexagonal paper cells, all enclosed in a papery soma, and are usually reddish or brown marked wi¡h
envelope (Figure 28-81). Some species build their nests yellow (Figure 28-82). They are primitively eusocial;
in the open, attached to branches, under a porch, or be- colonies may be started by individuals or by a small
neath any projecting surface. Other species build their group of females. Their nests (Figure 28-82B) consist
nests in the ground. The most common exposed nests, of a single, more-or-Iess circular, horizontal combof
some of which may be nearly 0.3 m in diameter, are paper cells, suspended from a support by a slender
made by the bald-faced hornet, Dolichovespula maculata stalk. The cells are open on the lower side while ¡he
(L.), an insect that is largely black with yellowish white larvae are growing, and are sealed when the larvaepu-
markings (Figure 28-80A). Most yellow jackets (Fig- pate. The most common North American species in
ure 28-80B) nest in the ground. this subfamily belong to the genus Polistes (17 species).
Subfamily Polistinae-Paper Wasps: The Polistinae In addition, two species of Míschocyttarus occur in ¡he
southern and western United States, one species of
?N)}r~rt~ and s~end~~;.j\~~ .~.~findle-shaped meta-
I."t.. .;.'.~
.........
 Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 551

---

Figure28-80 Vespinae. A, the bald-faced hornet, Dolichovespulamaculata (L.);

B, a yellow jacket, Vespulamaculifrons (Buysson).

Figure28-81 Nests of the bald-faced hornet, Dolichovespulamaculata (L.). A, a nest as

seen from below, showing entrance opening; B, a nest with the lower part of the outer
envelope removed to show a tier of cells.

Figure28-82 A paper wasp, Polistesfuscatus Fabricius. A, adult female; B, adult

at nest.
U~UVERSIDADDECALDAS
S'Bl'
~-r",=CA.
552 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
Brachygastra occurs in southern Texas and southern
Arizona, and two species of Polybia have be en recorded
from Nogales, Arízona.
Family Formicidae-Ants:This is a very common
and widespread group, well known to everyone. The
ants are probably the most successful of all the insect
groups. They occur practieally everywhere in terrestrial
habitats and outnumber in individuals most other ter-
restríal animals. The habits of ants are often very elab-
orate, and a great many studies have been made of ant
behavior.
Although most ants are easily recognized, a few
other insects strongly resemble and mimic ants, and
some winged forms of ants resemble wasps (from
whieh they are derived). One distinctive structural fea-
ture of ants is the form of the pedicel of the metasoma,
whieh is one- or two-segmented and bears an upright
lobe (Figures 28-11, 28-83). The antennae are usually
elbowed (the males may have the antennae fili[orm),
and the first segment is often very long.
All ants are basieally eusocial insects (some para.
sitie species occur), and most colonies contain at
least three castes: queens, males, and workers (Fig-
ure 28-83). The queens are larger than the members
of the other castes and are usually winged, though the
wings are shed after the mating flight. The queen usu-
ally starts a colony and does most of the egg layingin
the colony. The males are winged and usually consid-
erably smaller than the queens. They are short-lived
and die soon after mating. The workers are sterile
wingless females that make up the bulk of the colony.
In the smaller ant colonies, there are usually just the
three types of individuals, but in many of the larger
colonies there may be two or three types within
the worker caste. These may vary in size, shape,or
behavior.
Figure28-83 Castes of an ant
(Fonnica sp.). A, queen; B, male;
C, worker.

Ant colonies vary greatly in size, from a dozen or
moreup to many thousands of individuals. Ants nest in
allsorts of places. Some nest in cavities in plants (in
stems,in nuts or acoms, in galls, and so on); some (for
example, the carpenter ants) excavate galleries in
wood;but perhaps the majority of ants in North Amer-
icanest in the ground. The ground nests of ants may be
smalland relatively simple, or they may be quite large
andelaborate, consisting of a maze of tunnels and gal-
leries.The galleries of some of the larger ground nests
may extend several meters underground. Certain
chambers in such underground nests may serve as
broodchambers, others as chambers for the storage of
food.Most ants shift their brood from one part of the
nestto another as environmental conditions change.
Males and queens in most ant colonies are pro-
ducedin large numbers only at one time of the year,
whenthey emerge and engage in mating flights. Shortly
altermating, the males die. The queen sheds her wings
immediatelyafter the mating flight, locates a suitable
nestingsite, makes a small excavation, and produces
herfirst brood. This first brood, consisting of workers,
isfed and cared for by the queen. Once the first work-
ersappear, they take over the work of the colony-nest
construction, caring for the young, gathering food, and
thelike-and henceforth the queen do es little more
thanlay eggs. The queens of some species may live for
severalyears. There may be more than one queen in
somecolonies. In some species of ants, certain castes
ortypes of individuals may not be produced until the
colonyis several years old. In some species, the queen
goesinto an already established colony. This estab-
lishedcolony may be of her own or of an alien species.
Inthe latter case, her offspring may be spoken of as
"temporary" or "permanent social parasites," as the
casemay be.
The feeding habits of ants are rather varied. Many
arecamivorous, feeding on the flesh of other animals
(livingor dead); some feed on plants; some feed on
fungi;and many feed on sap, nectar, honeydew, and
similarsubstances. Ants in the nest often feed on the
secretions of other individuals, and the exchange of
foodbetweenindividuals (trophallaxis) is common.
Ants produce a number of exocrine secretions that
function in offense, defense, and communication.
Theseare emitted to the outside chiefly through the
openingson the head or at the apex of the metasoma.
Thesting serves as the chief means of offense and de-
fense(Dolichoderinae and Formicinae lack a sting). All
antscan bite, and some bite rather severely. Some ants
giveoff or eject from the anus a foul-smelling sub-
stancethat serves as defense. Many ant secretions act
asalarm substances, some stimulate group activity, and
many(laid down by a foraging individual) serve as an
odortrail that other individuals can follow. Some of
Keyto the Families of Hymenoptera 553
these secretions appear to playa role in caste determi-
nation.
Subfamily Ecitoninae: The Ecitoninae are the army
ants. They are mostly tropical, but one genus (Eciton)
occurs in the southem and southwestern sections of
the United States. These ants are nomadic and often
travel in distinct files or "armies." They are highly
predaceous. The queens in this group are wingless.
Subfamily Cerapachyinae: This subfamily is repre-
sented in North Arnerica by three very rare species in
Arizona and Texas. The colonies are usually small, a few
dozen individuals or less. These ants are predaceous.
Subfamilies Ponerinae,Amblyoponinae,Ectatomminae,
and Procereratiinae: In these poneromorph subfarnilies,
the pedicel is only one-segrnented, but there is a distinct
constriction between the next two segments posterior to
the pedicel (Figure 28-11A). The only common genus
in the East is Ponera. The workers are 2-4 mm long, and
the queens are only a little larger. These ants form small
colonies and nest in rotten logs or stumps or in the soil
beneath various objects. They feed on other insects. In
the tropics, ponerines are important predators.
Subfamily Pseudomyrmecinae: These ants are very
slender and nest in hollow twigs, galls, and other cavi-
ties in plants. They are largely arboreal in habit. The
five North American species are restricted to the south-
em United States.
Subfamily Myrmicinae:This is the largest subfamily
of ants (300 North American species), and its members
can usually be recognized by the fact that the pedicel of
the metasorna has two segrnents (Figure 28-11B). The
members of this group are widely distributed and vary
considerably in habits. The ants in the genera Pogono-
mynnex and Pheidole are often called "harvester ants."
They feed on seeds and store seeds in their nests. The
fungus ants of the genus Trachymynnex feed on fungi
that they cultiva te in their nests. The leaf-cutting ants
(Atta) cut pieces of leaves, carry them to their nests,
and feed on a fungus grown on these leaves. Atta tex-
ana (Buckley) is comrnon in so me parts of the South
and Southwest, and sometimes do es considerable dam-
age by leaf-cutting.
The imported fire ants, Solenopsis invicta Buren
and S. richteri Forel, are important pests in the South-
east. They were introduced into Alabama from South
America in 1918 and have since spread over much of
the Southeast from the Carolinas to Texas. The red im-
ported fire ant, S. invicta, is the more cornmon formo
The black imported fire ant, S. richteri, has a rather
limited distribution in a few of the southeastem states.
These ants are aggressive insects with a painful sting
and, when disturbed, are quick to attack both people
and anirnals. The workers are 3-6 mrn long and red-
dish brown. A mature nest may contain up to 100,000
or more individuals. The nests are hard-crusted'
554 Chapter28 Order Hymenoptera
mounds that may sometimes be as large as a meter high
and a meter acrass and may be constructed on agricul-
turalland, homesites, school yards, and recreational ar-
eas, where they are not only an eyesore but a hazard to
people and animals. On farms the mounds may cause
damage to agricultural machinery, and many workers
are reluctant to work in areas where the ants occur, be-
cause of their painful stings. A related native species,
S. molesta Say,the thief ant, is a common house-infesting
species in the South and Wesl. Ants of the genus Solenop-
sis may be distinguished fram other myrmicine ants by
the fact that the antennae are lO-segmented with a 2-
segmented club.
Subfamily Dolichoderinae:In this subfamily and the
following one, the pedicel of the metasoma consists of a
single segment, and there is no constriction between the
next two segments (as in Figure 28-83). This is a small
graup (19 North American species), and most of its
members occur in the southem part of the United States.
Most are rather small, the workers being less than 5 mm
long. These ants have anal glands that secrete a foul-
smelling fluid, which can sometimes be forcibly ejected
fram the anus for a distance of several centimeters. One
species, the Argentine ant, Linepithema humile (Mayr),
was a common household pest in the southem states be-
fore the imported fire ants appeared.
Subfamily Formicinae:This is the second-Iargest
subfamily of ants (200 North American species), and it
is widespread in distribution. Habits vary considerably
in this graup. The genus Camponotus includes the car-
penter ants, some of which are the largest ants in North
America; C. pennsylvanicus (DeGeer) is a large black
ant that excavates a series of anastomosing galleries in
wood for its nests. Unlike termites, the carpenter ants
do not feed on the wood.
The ants in the genus Polyergus are slave makers
and are entirely dependent on slaves. When a Polyergus
queen starts a new colony, she raids a nest of another
species, usually a Formica, and kills the queen in that
colony. The Formica workers then usually adopt the
Polyergus queen. To maintain the colony, the Polyergus
ants make raids on Formica colonies, killing the work-
ers and carrying off the pupae.
The worker caste of Polyergus is given to fighting,
whereas the slaves take over the activities of nest build-
ing, brood rearing, foraging, and the like. The Polyer-
gus ants are often called Amazons. Polyergus lucidus
Mayr, a brilliant red species, is fairly common in the
eastem United States. The genus Lasius contains a
number of small field ants that make small mound
nests and feed largely on honeydew. Many tend aphids,
storing the aphid eggs thraugh the winter and placing
the young aphids on their food plant in the spring.
Formica is a very large genus, containing about 70
North American species. Many are mound-building
species. The mounds of E exsectoides Forel, a common
species in the eastem United States, are sometimes0.6
to 0.9 m high and 2 or more meters acrass. The United
States varieties of E sanguinea Latreille are slave mak.
ers, somewhat similar in habits to the Amazon ants.
They periodically raid the nests of other speciesof
Formica and carry off worker pupae. Some are eaten,
but others are reared and take their place in the san.
guinea colony. The honey ants of the genus Mynneco.
cystus,which occur in the southwestem United States,
are of interest in that some individuals (termed "re.
pletes") serve as reservoirs for honeydew collectedby
other workers.
Collecting and Preserving Hymenoptera
Most of the general collecting methods described in
Chapter 35 apply to the insects in this order. Speciesof
Hymenoptera are almost everywhere; to secure a large
variety of species, examine all available habitats anduse
all available methods of collecting. Many of the larger
and more showy Hymenoptera are common on flowers.
The parasitic species can be reared fram parasitized
hosts, or they can be taken by sweeping. Passive trap-
ping techniques, such as Malaise traps, flight-intercept
traps, and pan traps are extremely effective in capturing
a wide diversity of species that would otherwise goun.
noticed. A number of species search for hosts or prey
undergraund and are best collected by using Berleseor
Winkler funnels.
Because many of the Hyrnenoptera sting, exercise
care in removing them fram the nel. One way is to get
the insect into a fold in the net and then put this fald
into the killing jar until the insect is stunned. Another
effective method is to get the insect confined in the end
of the net (almost all winged aculeates fly upward to.
ward the light), grasp the end of the net fram the out.
side just below the insect, then reach inside with the
killing jar and evert the end of the net into the jar, put
the top on over the net, and slide the net out between
the jar and lid. Some larger ichneumonids can "sting"
by jabbing with their short, sharp ovipositor. Any large
Hymenoptera should be handled with careoAsidefram
the pain normally associated with a sting, some people
have severe allergic reactions to the venom that can be
life-threatening. Many stinging Hymenoptera feeding
on flowers can be collected directly into a killing jar
without the use of a nel. Most Hymenoptera can be eas-
ily killed using ajar charged with ethyl acetate. In ad.
dition, because they are generally sturdier than
Diptera, for example, Hymenoptera can be killed and
stored in alcohol and then later dried and mounted. Of-
ten, sweeping vegetation and dumping the contents
l
 References 555

intoalcoholis the most time-efficientmethod for eap-
turingmicrohymenoptera (see Chapter 35).
Mount the smaller Hymenoptera on a point, or if
theyare extremely minute, preserve them in liquid or
rnounted on a microseope slide. lt is usually neees-
saryto mount the more minute forms on mieroseope
slides for detailed study. Some of the best eharaeters
for identifying bees are in the mouthparts; so extend
the mouthparts if possible. Orient all specimens,
whether pinned or mounted on points, so the leg
and thoracie eharaeters and venation can be easily
seen.

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Wash. 105:467-483. sity Press, 566 pp.
Ananthakrishnan, T. N. 1984. The Biology of Gall Insects. Frisch, K. von. 1971. Bees, Their Vision, Chernical Senses, and
London: Edward Amold, 362 pp. Language, rey. ed. Ithaca, NY: Comell University Press,
Andrews, F. G. 1978. Taxonorny and host specificity of Nearc- 157 pp.
tic Alloxystinae with a catalog of the world species (Hy- Gauld, l., and B. Bolton. 1988. The Hymenoptera. London:
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556 Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
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 29 Order Trichoptera1,2
Caddisflies
he caddisflies are small to medium-sized insects,
T somewhat similar to moths in general appearance.
The four, membranous wings are rather hairy (and oc-
casionally also bear scales), and at rest they are usually
held rooflike over the abdomen. The antennae are long
and slender. Most caddisflies are rather dull-colored in-
sects, but a few are conspicuously patterned. The
mouthparts are of the chewing type, with the palps
well developed but with the mandibles much reduced.
The adults feed principally on liquid foods. Caddisflies
undergo complete metamorphosis, and the larvae are
aquatic.
Caddisfly larvae are caterpillar-like, with a well-
developed head and thoracic legs and a pair of hook-
like appendages at the end of the abdomen. The ab-
dominal segments some times bear filamentous gills
(Figure 29-1). Caddisfly larva e live in various types
of aquatic habitats. Some live in ponds or lakes, and
others live in streams. Some larvae are case makers,
others construct nets under water, and a few are free-
living.
The cases of the case-making larvae are made of
bits of leaves, twigs, sand grains, pebbles, or other ma-
terials and are of various shapes (Figure 29-8). Each
species builds a very characteristic type of case, and in
some species the young larvae build a case different
from that made by older larvae. The materials used in
making the case are fastened together with silk, or they
may be cemented together. Case-making larvae usually
eat living or dead plant material. The nets of the net-
making species (found in streams) are made of silk
'Trichoptera: tricho, hair; ptera, wings.
'This chapter benefited fram the editing and substantive additions
558 by John C. Morse, Tatyana S. Vshivkov, and David Ruiter.
spun from modified salivary glands and may be trompet-
shaped, finger-shaped, or cup-shaped, with the open
end facing upstream. They are often attached to the
side of a rock or other object over which the water
flows. The larvae spend their time near these nets (ina
retreat of some sort) and feed on the materials caught
in the nets. The free-living caddisfly larvae, which con-
struct neither cases nor nets, are generally predaceous.
The larvae fasten their cases to some object in the
water when they have completed their growth, seal the
opening (or openings) in the case, and pupate in the
case. When the pupa is fully developed, it cuts its way
out of the case with its mandibles (which are well de-
veloped in this stage), swims to the surface, then
crawls out of the water onto a stone, stick, or similar
object, and the adult emerges.
The wing venation of caddisflies (Figures 29-2A,
29-3) is rather generalized, and there are few crossveins.
The subcosta is usually two-branched, the radius five-
branched, the media four-branched in the front wing
and three-branched in the hind wing, and the cubitus
three-branched. The anal veins in the front wing usually
form two Y-shaped veins near the base of the wing. Most
species have a characteristic wing spot in the fork of R..s.
CU2in the hind wing usually fuses basally with lA fora
short distance. In naming the cubital and anal veins in
this order, we follow the interpretation of Ross (1944)
and others rather than that of Comstock (1940). The
veins we call CUloand CU¡bare called CUt and Cu2,re-
spectively, by Comstock, who considers the remaining
veins to be anal veins. In some groups (for example, fig-
ure 29-2A), the basal part of CUt in the front wing ap-
pears like a crossvein.
The majority of the caddisflies are rather weak
fliers. The wings are vestigial in winter in the females
 Order Trichoptera 559

~ /

e
. -~.
.
..

'.
Figure29-1 Caddisfly larvae.
A, Hydroptila waubesiana Betten
(Hydroptilidae), dorsal view at left,
lateral view at right; B, Rhyacophila
fenestra Ross (Rhyacophilidae);
C, Polyeentropus interruptus (Banks)
(Polycentropidae); D, Hydropsyche
simulans Ross (Hydropsychidae).
(Courtesy of Ross and the Illinois
Natural History Survey.)

As
.l/MI

ab

--9 A
-10
cla--- -- aed

Figure29-2 Structure of a caddisfly.

A, dorsal view; B, lateral view. ab,
abdomen; aed, aedeagus; ant, antenna;
asp, apical spur; aw, anterior wart;
da, clasper; ex, coxa; e, compound
eye;fm, femur; Ip, labial palp;
mxp, maxillary palp; n1>pronotum;
nl, mesonotum; "3, metanotum;
De,ocelli; pll, mesopleuron; p13'meta-
pleuron; plw, posterolateral wart;
PN1, postnotum of mesothorax; ptsp,
preapical tibial spur; sdl, mesoscutel-
lum; Sctl, mesoscutum; tb, tibia;
tg, tegula; tr, trochanter; ts, tarsus;
1-10, abdominal segments. (Redrawn
from Ross [1944].)
560 Chapter29 OrderTrichoptera

E
~ G

Figure29-3 Wings of Triehoptera. A, Dibusa angata (Ross) (Hydroptilidae); B, Homo-

plectra doringa (Milne) (Hydropsyehidae); C, front wing of Dolophilodesdistinctus
(Walker) (Philopotamidae); D, Psychomyia nomada (Ross) (Psyehomyiidae); E, front
wing of Agarodes crassicornis(Walker) (Serieostomatidae); F, front wing of Phanocelia
canadensis (Banks) (Limnephilidae); G, hind wing of Helicopsycheborealis (Hagen)
(Helieopsyehidae). (Courtesy of Ross and the Illinois Natural History Survey.)

of one species, Dolophilodes distinctus (Walker). The Psyehomyiidae-tube-making and trumpet-net

eggs are laid in masses or strings of several hundred, ei- caddisflies
ther in the water or on objeets near the water. The Xiphoeentronidae*
adult in many species enters the water and attaehes its Superfamily Philopotamoidea
eggs to stones or other objeets. The eggs usually hatch Philopotamidae-finger-net caddisflies or
in a few days, and in most species the larva requires silken-tube spinners
nearly ayear to develop. The adults usually live about
Superfamily Hydroptiloidea
a month. Adult caddisflies are frequently attracted to
Glossosomatidae (Rhyacophilidae in part)-
lights. saddle-case makers
The ehief biologieal importanee of this group lies
Hydroptilidae-microeaddisflies
in the faet that the larvae are an important part of the
food of many fish and other aquatic animals. Their Superfamily Rhyacophiloidea
eommunities are often used as an indication of the Hydrobiosidae (Rhyacophilidae in part)*
amount of pollution in streams. Rhyacophilidae-primitive eaddisflies
Superfamily Limnephiloidea
Apataniidae (Limnephilidae in part)
Goeridae (Limnephilidae in part)*
Classification of the Trichoptera Limnephilidae-northern eaddisflies
Rossianidae (Limnephilidae in part)
The arrangement of families followed here is that of the Uenoidae (Limnephilidae in part)*
Trichoptera World Checklist (Morse 2001) which ree- Brachycentridae
ognizes 26 families in North Ameriea. This arrange- Lepidostomatidae *
ment, with other arrangements or spellings in paren- Superfamily Phryganeoidea
theses, is outlined as follows. Families that are rare or Phryganeidae-Iarge caddisflies
unlikely to be eneountered by the general collector are Superfamily Leptoceroidea
indicated by an asterisk (*). Odontoceridae
Calamoceratidae
Superfamily Hydropsyehoidea
Dipseudopsidae (Polyeentropodidae in part)* Leptoceridae-Iong-horned eaddisflies
Eenomidae* Molannidae
Hydropsychidae-net -spinning caddisflies Superfamily Serieostomatoidea
Polyeentropodidae (Polycentropidae; Psychomyi- Beraeidae*
ida e in part)-trumpet-net and tube-making Helieopsychidae-snail-case caddisflies
eaddisflies Serieostomatidae*
 Characters Used in IdentifyingTrichoptera 561

size, number, and arrangement, and some of these vari-

Characters
Usedin Identifying
Trichoptera
Thecharacters used in separating families of adult cad-
disfliesare principally those of the head and thoracic
warts, the ocelli, the maxillary palps, the spurs and
spineson the legs, and the wing venation.
The head and thoracic warts, which are of consid-
erable value in separating families, are well-defined
wartlike or tubercle-like structures on the dorsum of
thethorax. They usually bear many larger bristles, dis-
!inctfrom the fine, short clothing hairs elsewhere on
the notum. These bristles are sometimes not confined
towarts, but may be distributed in linear or diffuse se-
tal areas (e.g., Figures 29-4C, 29-4H). They vary in
ations are shown in Figure 29-4. These warts are very
difficult to interpret in pinned specimens, beca use they
are often destroyed or distorted by the pino For this and
other reasons, caddisflies should be preserved in alco-
hol rather than on pins.
The maxillary palps are nearly always five-segmented
in females, but they may contain fewer segments in the
males of some groups. The size and form of particular seg-
ments may differ in different families (Figure 29-5). Some
variation in the spination of the legs is shown in Fig-
ure 29-6. The most important variations are in the num-
ber of tibial spurs, which may vary up to a maximum of
four-two apical and two preapical spurs near the middle
of the tibia. Wing venation is not a very important char-
acter in separating the families of caddisflies.

B
A e

D
G

..
i'::":"

,." t'~'::':'

H
t;E¿
~ ,
fJt} J
K

Figure29-4 Pro- and mesonota of Trichoptera. A, Hydropsyche simulans Ross

(Hydropsychidae); B, Psychomyiajlavida Hagen (Psychomyiidae); C, Ceraclea tarsipunc-
tata (Vorhies) (Leptoceridae); D, Beraeagorteba Ross (Beraeidae); E, Brachycentrus nu-
merosus (Say) (Brachycentridae); F, Helicopsycheborealis (Hagen) (Helicopsychidae);
G, Psilotretafrontalis Banks (Odontoceridae); H, Heteroplectronamericanum (Walker)
(Calamoceratidae); 1, Agarodescrassicomis (Walker) (Sericostomatidae);], Goera
calcarata Banks (Goeridae); K, Theliopsyche sp. (Lepidostomatidae). nj, pronotum;
n2,mesonotum; scl2,mesoscutellum; sct2,mesoscutum. (Courtesy of Ross and the Illinois
Natural History Survey.)
562 Chapter29 OrderTrichoptera

~
~~ C2i-,,~~~~
~D E F

Figure29-5 Maxillary palps of Trichoptera. A, Psilotreta sp., male (Odontoceridae);

B, Dolophilusshawnee Ross, male (Philopotamidae); e, Rhyacophila lobifera Betten, male
(Rhyacophilidae); D, Macrostemumzebratum (Hagen) (Hydropsychidae); E, Banksiola
selina Betten, female (Phryganeidae); F, B. selina, male; G, Cyrnellus marginalis (Banks)
(Psychomyiidae); H, Triaenodeatardus Milne, male (Leptoceridae). (Courtesy of Ross and
the Illinois Natural History Survey.)

,
,,
,,

B
A
F G
o

Figure29-6 Legs of Trichoptera. A, middle tarsus of Beraeagorteba Ross (Beraeidae);

B, middle leg of B. gorteba; C, middle tibia and tarsus of Theliopsyche corona Ross (Lepi-
dostomatidae); D, middle tibia and tarsus of Brachycentrus numerosus (Say) (Brachycen-
tridae); E, middle leg of Molanna uniophila Vorhies (Molannidae); F, middle tarsus of
Agarodescrassicornis (Walker) (Sericostomatidae); G, middle tibia of Agarodes crassicor-
nis. (Courtesy of Ross and the Illinois Natural History Survey.)
 Keyto the Familiesof Trichoptera 563

Keyto the Familiesof Trichoptera

Familiesmarked with an asterisk (*) in the key are small or unlike1y to be encountered
bythe general collector. Keys to larvae are given by Wiggins (l996a, 1996b).

l. Mesoscutellum with posterior portion forming a flat triangular area with

steep sides, and mesoscutum without warts; some wing hairs clubbed;
hind wings narrow and pointed apically, often with a posterior fringe
of hairs as long as wing is wide; antennae short (Figure 29-9F); small
insects, usually less than 6 mm long Hydroptilidae p. 567
1'. Mesoscutellum evenly convex, without a triangular portion set off by
steep sides, or mesoscutum with warts; no wing hairs clubbed; hind wings
usually broader and rounded apically, posterior fringe if present of shorter
hairs; antennae usually as long as or longer than wings; length 5-40 mm 2
2(1'). Ocelli present 3
2'. Ocelli absent 12
3(2). Maxillary palps 5-segmented, fifth segment 2 or 3 times as long as fourth
(Figure 29-5B) Philopotamidae p. 566
3'. Maxillary palps with 3-5 segments, if 5-segmented then fifth segment
about the same length as the fourth 4
4(3'). Maxillary palps 5-segmented, second segment short, often more or less
rounded, about same length as first segment (Figure 29-5C) 5
4'. Maxillary palps with 3-5 segments, if 5-segmented then second segment
slender, longer than first 8
5(4). Second segment of maxillary palps rounded or globose (Figure 29-5C);
wide1ydistributed 6
S'. Second segment of maxillary palps cylindrical, not globose;
V.s. Southwest Hydrobiosidae* p. 567
6(5). Front tibiae with a preapical spur Rhyacophilidae p. 567
6'. Front tibiae without a preapical spur 7
7(6'). Prono tal warts wide1yseparated Glossosomatidae p. 567
7'. Prono tal warts close together but not actually in contact (Palaeagapetus) Hydroptilidae* p. 567
8(4'). Middle tibiae with 2 preapical spurs Phryganeidae p. 569
8'. Middle tibiae with 1 preapical spur 9
9(8'). Costal margin of hind wing with row of stout, hooked setae
(Figure 29-7D); paralabral setae and sclerites absent Uenoidae* p.569
9'. Costal margin of hind wing with fine, inconspicuous setae
(Figures 29-7E-J); paralabral setae or setose sclerites (pIs) present
(Figure 29-7 A) 10
10(9'). Small black or dark gray insects (length of fore wing 3-8 mm), without
color pattern; labrum short, its basal part almost equal to or only slightly
shorter than distal part (Figure 29-7C); anal area of hind wing weakly
deve10ped (Figures 29-7F-J) 11
lO'. Medium to large insects (length of fore wing 12-35 mm), with various
colors and patterns; labrum long, its basal part conspicuously shorter
than its distal part (Figure 29-7B); anal area of hind wing usually broader
(Figure 29-7E) Limnephilidae p. 567
564 Chapter29 OrderTrichoptera

Figure29-7 Head structures and wings of Trichoptera. A, Limnephilus

rhombicus (L.) (Limnephilidae), front of head; B, Dicosmoecusatripes
A
(Hagen) (Limnephilidae), labrum; e, Rossiana montana Denning (Rossian-
idae), labrum; D, Neophylax stolus Ross (Uenoidae), hind wing; E, Lim-
nephilus rhombicus (L.) (Limnephilidae), hind wing; F, Goereilla baumanni
Denning (Rossianidae), hind wing; G, Rossiana montana Denning
(Rossianidae), hind wing; H, Manophylax annulatus Wiggins (Apataniidae),
hind wing; 1,Allomyia bifosa (Ross) (Apataniidae), hind wing; J, Apatania
zonella (Zetterstedt) (Apataniidae), hind wing; K, Austrotinodes mexicanus
Flint (Ecnomidae), front wing; L, Phylocentropusplacidus (Banks)
(Dipseudopsidae), front wing; M, Neureclipsis crepuscularis (Walker)
(Polycentropidae), front wing. D, discoidal cell; pis, paralabral sclerite;
R¡a,first branch of first radial vein; RIb,second branch of first radial vein;
R2>RJ, R" R5'second to fifth radial veins; rs, radial sector crossvein.

B e D

E F G

H J

K
 Keyto the Familiesof Trichoptera 565

11(10). Hind wing fork of R2and R3sessile, arising at or basal of the level of one
or more crossveins (Figures 29-7F,G); hind wing fork of R, and R, distal,
arising well beyond any other wing forks or crossveins (Figures 29-7F,G) Rossianidae p. 568
11'. Hind wing fork of R2and R3absent (Figure 29-7H) or petiolate
(Figures 29-7IJ), arising beyond all crossveins; hind wing fork of R,
and R, more nearly basal, arising at level of other wing forks and
crossveins (Figures 29-7H-J) Apataniidae p. 568
12(2'). Maxillary palps with 5 or more segments 13
12'. Maxillary palps with fewer than 5 segments 19
13(12). Terminal segment of maxillary palps much longer than preceding segment,
with numerous cross striae that the other segments do not have
(Figure 29-5G) 14
13'. Terminal segment of maxillary palps without such cross striae, similar in
structure and length to preceding segment, or some segments with long
hair brushes (Figure 29-5A) 19
14(13). Mesoscutum with a pair of warts 15
14'. Mesoscutum without warts (Figure 29-4A) Hydropsychidae p. 566
15(14), Mesoscutum with a pair of small, rounded warts that are sometimes
touching at midline (Figure 29-4B); widely distributed 16
15', Mesoscutal warts large, somewhat quadrate, continuous along entire
midline of mesoscutum; southern Texas Xiphocentronidae* p. 566
16(15). Front tibiae with a preapical spur, or if this spur absent (Cemotína,
Polycentropodidae) then basal tarsal segment less than twice as long
as longer apical spur 17
16', Front tibíae without a preapícal spur and basal tarsal segment at least
twice as long as the longer apical spur Psychomyiidae p. 566
17(16). R¡ in front wing branched; R2+3not branched (Figure 29-7K); Texas Ecnomidae* p. 566
17'. R¡ in front wing not branched; R2and R3usually branched
(Figures 29-7L,M) 18
18(17'). Fork of R2and R3in front wing originating at radial sector crossvein (rs)
which closes the discoidal cell (O) (Figure 29-7L); eastern V.s. and
Canada Dipseudopsidae * p. 566
18'. Fork of R2and R3in front wing originating well beyond radial sector
crossvein (Figure 29-7M); widely distributed Polycentropodidae p. 566
19(12', Tarsal segments, except basal one, with spines only around apex
13'). (Figure 29-6A); mesoscutum lacking warts and setae Beraeidae* p. 569
19', Tarsal segments with spines arranged irregularly (Figure 29-6F);
mesoscutum with warts or setal areas 20
20(19'). Mesoscutal setae arising in area extending over almost the entire length
of mesoscutum (Figure 29-4C,H) 21
20'. Mesoscutal setae usually confined to a pair ofwarts (Figure 29-4F,G,IJ,K) 23
21(20). Basal segment of antennae at most twice as long as second; dorsum of
head usually with posteromesal ridge Calamoceratidae p. 569
21'. Basal segment of antennae at least 3 times as long as second; dorsum of
head without posteromesal ridge 22
22(21'), Antennae much longer than body; middle tibiae without preapical spurs Leptoceridae p. 569
22', Antennae liule if any longer than body; middle tibiae with 2 preapical spurs Molannidae p. 569
566 Chapter29 OrderTrichoptera

23(20'). Wartson dorsum of head verylarge,extendingfromeyeto midlineand

anteriorly to middle of head; antennae never longer than front wing Helicopsychidae p.569
23'. Warts on dorsum of head smaller,not as in precedingentry,or antennae
1.5timesas long as front wings 24
24(23'). Mesoscutellumwith single,largewart occupyingmost of sclerite
(Figure 29-4GJ) 25
24'. Mesoscutellum with a pair of warts, or if appearing to have only
1 (Lepidostomatidae) then wart occupies only about anterior half of the
sclerite 26
25(24). Mesoscutellar wart occupying most of sclerite (Figure 29-4G); maxillary
palps always 5-segmented Odontoceridae p.569
25'. Mesoscutellar wart elongate and occupying only mesal portion of sclerite
(Figure 29-4]); maxillary palps 5-segmented in female, 3-segmented
in male Goeridae* p.567
26(24'). Pronotum with 1 pair of warts; mesoscutum with deep median fissure
(Figure 29-41) Sericostomatidae* p.567
26'. Pronotum with 2 pairs of warts; median fissure of mesoscutum not as
deep as in preceding entry 27
27(26'). Middle tibiae with an irregular row, middle tarsi with a double row of
spines; middle tibiae with 1-2 preapical spurs situated at about two thirds
tibiallength (Figure 29-6D), or preapical spurs lacking Brachycentridae p.569
27'. Middle tibiae without spines, and middle tarsi with only a scattered few
in addition to apical ones (Figure 29-6C); middle tibiae with 2 preapical
spurs arising from about midlength of the tibia Lepidostomatidae
* p.569

Family Ecnomidae: This is a Neotropical group; one Family Hydropsychidae-Net-Spinning Caddisflies:

species has recently been reported in Texas, Austrotin-
odes texensis Bowles.
Family Polycentropodidae-Trumpet-Netand Tent-
Making Caddisflies: These caddisflies vary in length
from 4 to 11 mm. Most are brownish with mottled
wings. The larva e live in a variety of aquatic situations:
some in rapid streams, some in rivers, and others in
lakes. Some (such as Polycentropus) construct trumpet-
shaped nets that collapse rather rapidly when removed
from the water.
Family Dipseudopsidae-Tube-Making Caddisflies:
Species of the only North American genus (Phylocen-
tropus) construct tubes in the sand at the bottoms of
streams and cement the walls of these tubes to make a
fairly rigid structure.
Family Psychomyiidae-Tube-Making Caddisflies:
The members of this group are very similar to the Poly-
centropodidae. They differ in leg characters, as indi-
cated in the key (couplet 16). The larva e of these cad-
disflies construct silken tubes.
This group is represented
Family Xiphocentronidae:
in North America by three species in southern Texas
and Arizona.
This is a large group (151 North American species),
and many species are fairly common in small streams.
The adults of both sexes have 5-segmented maxillary
palps with the last segment elongate (Figure 29-5D).
Ocelli are absent, and the mesoscutum lacks warts
(Figure 29-4A). Most species are brownish, with the
wings more or less mottled. The larvae live in the parts
of streams where the current is strongest. They con-
struct a caselike retreat of sand, pebbles, or debris and,
near this retreat, construct a cup-shaped net with the
concave side of the net facing upstream. The larva
feeds on materials caught in the net, and pupation oc-
curs in the caselike retreat. These larvae are quite ac-
tive, and if they are disturbed while feeding in the nel,
they back into their retreat very rapidly.
Family Philopotamidae-Finger-Net Caddisfliesor
Silken-Tube Spinners: These caddisflies vary in length
from 6 to 9 mm and last segment of the maxillary palps
is elongate (Figure 29-5B). They are usually brownish,
with gray wings. The winter-emerging females 01
Dolophilodes distinctus (Walker) have vestigial wings,
but females emerging in warmer months have normal
wings. The larva e live in rapid streams and construct
 A
B
E tilidae); C, Limnephilus rhombicus
D E, Oecetiscinerascens (Hagen)
finger-shaped or tubular nets that are attached to
stones. Many such nets are frequendy attached close
together. The larva stays in the net and feeds on the
[ood caught there; pupation occurs in cases made of
pebbles and lined with silk.
Family Glossosomatidae-Saddle-Case Makers: The
adults in this group are usually brownish with the
wings more or less motded, and they vary in length
[ram3 to 13 mm. The antennae are short, and the max-
illarypalps are five-segmented in both sexes. The lar-
vaelive in rapid streams. The larvae make saddlelike or
tunle-shaped cases (Figure 29-8A). These cases are
oval,with the dorsal side convex and composed of rel-
atively large pebbles, and the ventral side is fiat and
composed of smaller pebbles and sand grains. When
these larvae pupate, the ventral side of the case is cut
awayand the upper part is fastened to a stone.
Family Hydroptilidae-Microcaddisflies: This is a
largegroup (263 North American species) of small cad-
disfliesthat are 1.5 to 6 mm long. They are quite hairy
(Figure 29-9F), and most have a salt-and-pepper mot-
tling. The larvae of most species live in small lakes.
These insects undergo a sort of hypermetamorphosis:
Theearly instars are active and do not construct cases,
but the last instar does make a case. The anal hooks are
much larger in the active instars than in the last instar.
- e
Keyto the Familiesof Trichoptera 567
Figure 29-8 Cases of caddisfly
larvae. A, Glossosoma intennedium
(Klapálek) (Glossosomatidae);
F B, Ochrotrichiaunio (Ross) (Hydrop-
(L.) (Limnephilidae); D, Molanna
uniophila Vorhies (Molannidae);
(Leptoceridae); F, Helicopsyche
borealis (Hagen) (Helicopsychidae);
G, Brachycentrus numerosus (Say)
(Brachycentridae); H, Nectop.$yche
albida (Walker) (Leptoceridae);
1, Triaenodestardus Milne (Leptoceri-
dae). (Courtesy of Ross and the
Illinois Natural History Survey.)
The case is usually somewhat purse-shaped, with each
end open (Figure 29-8B).
Family Hydrobiosidae: The only members of this
group in North America are three species of Atopsyche,
which occur in the Southwest. The larva e do not make
cases, and are predaceous.
Family Rhyacophilidae-Primitive Caddisflies: These
insects are very similar to the Glossosomatidae (which
were formerly considered a subfamily of the Rhya-
cophilidae), but they differ in habits. These caddisfiies
do not make cases and are predaceous. This is a fairly
large group, and all but one of its approximately 127
North American species belong to the genus Rhya-
cophila.
Family Goeridae: This a small group that is repre-
sented in North America by 11 species. In these cad-
disflies, the maxillary palps are five-segmented in the
females and three-segmented in the males. The larvae
live in streams and construct cases of small pebbles,
usually with two large pebbles glued to each side act-
ing as ballast.
Family limnephilidae-Northern Caddisflies: This
large family has 239 species in North America. Most
species are northern in distribution. The adults vary in
length from 7 to 23 mm, and most species are brownish
with the wings mottled or patterned (Figure 29-9A).
 568 Chapter29 OrderTrichoptera
B
E F
D male (Hydropsychidae); D, Macroste-
~t\ <' \ . , ",
,oJ'.i.'...:;, ¡he maxillary palps are three-segmented in the males
..(, an.dfive-segmented in the females. The larvae live prin-
..cipally in ponds and slow-moving streams. The cases
are made of a variety of materials, and in some species
the cases made by the young larvae are quite different
from those made by older larvae. The larval stages of
one species in this family, Philocasea demita Ross, which
occur in Oregon, live in moist leaf liuer.
FamilyApataniidae:This familywas recently segre-
gated from the family Limnephilidae and includes 24
e
Figure 29-9 Adult caddisflies.
A, Platycentropus radiatus (Say), male
(Limnephilidae); B, Eubasilissa
pardalis (Walker), female (Phryganei-
dae); C, Hydropsyche simulans Ross,
mum zebratum (Hagen), male (Hy-
dropsychidae); E, Phryganea cinerea
Walker, male (Phryganeidae); F, Hy-
droptila hamata Morton, male (Hy-
droptilidae); G, Triaenodestardus
Milne, male (Leptoceridae). (Courtesy
of Ross and the Illinois Natural
History Survey.)
western species; 7 eastern species; and 3 transconti-
nental, northern-boreal species. Larvae of Apatania are
scrapers that browse on algae and other organic mate-
rial attached on the surface of stones. They graze while
protected in sand cases that are tapered and curved
posteriorly.
FamilyRossianidae:This is another family that was
recently segregated from the family Limnephilidae. It
includes two western species, each in its own genus.
Larvae eat fine bits of organic debris in springs and may

scrapealgae and shred leaves of mosses. Their mineral
casesare tapered and curved.
Family Uenoidae: This small group has 51 North
American species. The larval cases are made of sand
grainsor small pebbles and are long, slender, tapered,
andcurved or resemble the cases of Goeridae.
Family Brachycentridae: Of the 37 North American
speciesin this family, 33 belong to two genera, Brachy-
centrosand Micrasema.The young larvae of Brachy-
centroslive near the shores of small streams, where
they feed principally on algae. Older larva e move to
midstream and attach their cases (Figure 29-8G) to
stones, facing upstream, and feed on both algae and
small aquatic insects. The adults are 6-11 mm long
and dark brown to black, with the wings often tawny
and checkered. The maxillary palps are three-
segmented in the males and five-segmented in the
females.
Family Lepidostomatidae: This group contains two
American genera, Lepidostoma and Theliopsyche, with
68 species (62 of them in Lepidostoma). The females
havefive-segmented maxillary palps, and the maxillary
palpsof the males are three-segmented or have a curi-
ously modified one-segmented structure. The larva e
liveprincipally in streams or springs. Their cases are
mosdy square in cross section and composed of leaf
and bark fragments. The cases of some species are
cylindrical and made of sand grains.
Family Phryganeidae-Large Caddisflies: The adults
of this group are fairly large caddisflies (14-25 mm
long),and the wings are usually mottled with gray and
brown (Figure 29-9B,E). The maxillary palps are four-
segmented in the males (Figure 29-5F) and five-
segmented in the females (Figure 29-5E). The larvae
liveprincipally in marshes and lakes; only a few are
foundin streams. The larval cases are slender, cylindri-
cal, open at both ends, and usually made of narrow
strips of plant materials glued together longitudinally,
usuallyin rings or a spiral.
Family Odontoceridae: The adults in this group are
about 13 mm long, the body is blackish, and the wings
aregrayish brown with light dots. The larvae live in the
rifflesof swift streams, where they construct cylindri-
cal,often curved, cases of sand. When ready to pupate,
large numbers attach their cases to stones, with the
casesglued together and parallel.
Family Calamoceratidae: The adults of this group
are orange-brown or brownish black, with the maxil-
lary palps five- or six-segmented. The larvae live in
both still and rapidly flowing water. The cases of most
speciesare flat and composed of large pieces of leaves
or bark. Larvae of species of Heteroplectron tunnel
through the length of a stick or piece of wood, which
then serves as a case. This group is small (five North
American species), in which two species are eastem
and three occur in the West.
Collectingand PreservingTrichoptera 569
Family Leptoceridae-Long-Horned Caddisflies: These
caddisflies are slender, often pale-colored, 5-17 mm
long, and they have long, slender antennae that are of-
ten nearly twice as long as the body (Figure 29-9G).
This large family includes 112 North American species.
The larvae live in a variety of habitats, and there is con-
siderable variation in the types of cases they make.
Some species make long, slender, tapering cases
(Figure 29-8H,I); some construct cases of twigs (Fig-
ure 29-8E); and some construct comucopia-shaped
cases of sand grains or pieces of freshwater sponge.
Family Molannidae: This group is small (seven
North American species), and the known larvae live on
the sandy bottoms of streams and lakes. The larval
cases are shield-shaped and consist of a central cylin-
drical tube with lateral expansions (Figure 29-8D).
The adults, which are 10-16 mm long, are usually
brownish gray with the wings somewhat motded, and
the maxillary palps are five-segmented in both sexes.
The adults at rest sit with the wings curled about the
body, which is held at an angle to the surface on which
the insect rests.
Family Beraeidae:This family contains only three
North American species, in the genus Beraea, which
occur in the Northeast and in Georgia. The adults are
brownish and about 5 mm long. The larval cases are
curved, smooth, and made of sand grains.
Family Helicopsychidae-Snail-Case Caddisflies:This
family contains the single genus Helicopsyche, with
seven North American species. Adults can usually be
recognized by the short mesoscutellum with its narrow,
transverse warts (Figure 29-4F) and the hamuli on the
hind wings (Figure 29-3G). The adults are 5-7 mm
long and somewhat straw-colored, with the wings mot-
ded with brownish. The larvae construct cases of sand
that are shaped like a snail shell (Figure 29-8F). During
development the larvae live on sandy bottorns, and when
ready to pupate they attach their cases in clusters on
stones. The cases are about 6 mm wide.
Family Sericostomatidae:This is a small group (16
North American species), the larva e of which live in
both lakes and streams. Agarodes and Fattigia are east-
em genera, and Gumaga occurs in the West. The larval
cases are usually tapered, curved, short, smooth, and
composed of sand grains, sometimes also with wood
fragments.
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
Collecting and Preserving Trichoptera
Caddisfly adults are usually found near water. The
habitat preferences of species differ, so to get a large
number of species visit a variety of habitats. The adults
can be collected by sweeping in the vegetation along
the margins of and near ponds and streams, by check-

570 Chapter29 OrderTrichoptera
ing the underside of bridges, and by collecting at lights.
The best way of collecting the adults is at lights. Blue
lights seem more attractive than other colors.
Caddisfly larvae can be collected by the various
methods of aquatic collecting discussed in Chapter 35.
Many can be found attached to stones in the water;
others will be found among aquatic vegetation; and
still others can be collected with a dip net used to
scoop up bottom debris or aquatic vegetation.
Preserve both adult and larval caddisflies in 80%
alcohol. Adults may be pinned, but pinning fre-
quently damages the thoracic warts that are used in
separating families, and most dried specimens are
References
Betten, C. 1934. The caddis flies or Trichoptera of New York
Sta te. N.Y. State Mus. Bull. 292:1-570.
Cornstock,]. H. 1940. An introducion to entornology. Ninth
edition. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornstock Publishing Cornpany,
Inc. 1064 pp.
Denning, D. G. 1956. Trichoptera. In R. L. Usinger (Ed.),
Aquatic Insects of California, pp. 237-270. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
Flint, O. S.,Jr. 1973. Studies ofNeotropical caddisflies. Part 16:
The genus Austrotínodes (Trichoptera: Psychornyiidae).
Proc. Bio!. Soco Wash. 86(11):127-142.
Holzenthal, R. W, and R.]. Blahnik. 1997. Trichoptera, caddis-
l1ies. http://tolweb.orgltree?group=Trichoptera&:contgroup
= Endopterygota. Accessed February 4, 2004. In D. R.
Maddison (Ed.), 2001, Tree of Life Web Project. http://
tolweb.orgltreel#top. Accessed February 4,2004.
Merritt, R. W, and K. W Cummins (Eds.). 1996. An Intro-
duction to the Aquatic Insects of North America, 3rd ed.
Dubuque, lA: KendalllHunt, 862 pp.
Morse,]. C. 1993. A checklist of the Trichoptera of North
America, including Greenland and Mexico. Trans. Amer.
Entorno!. Soco 119:47-93.
Morse,]. C. 1997. Phylogeny of Trichoptera. Annu. Rev. En-
torno!. 42:427-450.
Morse, ]. C. (Ed.). 2001. Trichoptera World Checklist.
http://entweb. clemson.edu/da tabase/tricoptlindex. htrn
(8Jan 2001). Accessed February 4,2004.
Morse,]. c., and R. W Holzentha!. 1996. Trichoptera genera.
In R. W Merritt and K. W Curnmins (Eds.), An Intro-
duction to the Aquatic Insects of North America, 3rd ed.,
pp. 350-386. Dubuque, lA: KendalllHunt, 862 pp.
Nimmo, A. P. 1971. The adult Rhyacophilidae and Lim-
., nephilidae (Trichoptera) of Alberta and eastern British
Columbia and their post-glacial origins. Quaest. Ento-
rno!. 7(1):3"':234.
Pennak, R. W 1978. Fresh-Water Invertebrates of the United
States, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley Interscience, 803 pp.
r
more difficult to identify to species than specirnens
preserved in alcohol. When using lights (for exarnple,
automobile headlights), one can easily collect large
numbers by placing a pan containing about 6 rnrn of
alcohol (or water containing a detergent) directly be-
low the light. The insects eventually fly into the alco-
hol and be caught. Specimens attracted to lights may
also be taken directly into a cyanide jar and then
transferred to alcohol, or they may be picked off the
light by dipping the index finger in alcohol and
scooping up the insect rapidly but gently on the wet
finger. An aspirator is a useful device for collecting
the smaller species.
Ross, H. H. 1944. The caddis flies or Trichoptera of Illinois.
Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 23(1):1-236.
Ross, H. H. 1956. Evolution and Classification of the Mountain
Caddisflies. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 213 pp.
Ross, H. H. 1959. Trichoptera. W T. Edmondson (Ed.),
Fresh-Water Biology, pp. 1024-1049. New York: Wiley.
Ross, H. H. 1967. The evolution and past dispersal of the Iri-
choptera. Annu. Rev. Entorno!. 12:169-206.
Ruiter, D. E. 2000. Generic key to the adult ocellate Lim-
nephiloidea of the Western Hemisphere (Insecta: Iri-
choptera). Misc. Contrib. Ohio Bio!. Surv. No. 5, 22 pp.
Schmid, F. 1970. Le genre Rhyacophila et la famille des Rhya-
cophilidae (Trichoptera). Mem. SOCoEntorno!. Can. No.
66, 230 pp.
Schmid, F. 1980.Les insectes et arachnides du Canada. Partie
7, genera des Trichoptéres du Canada et des états adja.
cents. Direction de la Recheuche, Agriculture Canada,
Ottawa. 1692, 296 pp.
Schmid, F. 1998. Genera of the Trichoptera of Canada and
Adjoining or Adjacent United States. The Insects and
Arachnids of Canada, Part 7. Ottawa: NRC Research
Press, 319 pp.
Smith, S. D. 1968. The Arctopsychinae of Idaho (Trichoptera:
Hydropsychidae). Pan-Paco Entorno!. 44:102-112.
Wiggins, G. B. 1987. Order Trichoptera. In F.W Stehr (Ed.),
Immature Insects, pp. 253-287. Dubuque, lA:
KendalllHunt, 754 pp.
Wiggins, G. B. 1996a. Larvae of North American Caddisfly
Genera (Trichoptera), 2nd ed. Toronto: University 01
Toronto Press, 401 pp.
Wiggins, G. B. 1996b. Trichoptera. In R. W Merritt and K.W
Cummins (Eds.), An Introduction to the Aquatic InseclS
of North America, pp. 309-349. Dubuque, lA: KendalV
Hunt.
Wiggins, G. B. 1998. The caddisfly farnily Phryganeidae (Iri-
choptera). Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 306pp.
 30 Order Lepidoptera1,2
Butterfliesand Moths

he butterflies and moths are common insects and well Most moths have two ocelli, one on each side close to
Tknown to everyone. They are most readily recognized the margin of the compound eye. Some speeies have
bythe scales on the wings (Figure 30-1), which come off sensory organs called chaetosemata near the ocelli.
likedust on one's fingers when the insects are handled. Several families have auditory organs called tym-
Mostof the body and legs are also covered with scales. pana, which are believed to function in the detection of
Ihis order is a large one, with more than 11,500 speeies the high-frequency echolocating sounds of bats. The
occurringin the United States and Canada; its members Pyraloidea and all the Geometroidea except the Sema-
arefound almost everywhere, often in large numbers. turidae have these organs on the anterior sternite of the
The Lepidoptera have considerable economic im- abdomen, whereas in the Noctuoidea these organs are
portance.The larvae of most species are phytophagous, located ventrolaterally on the metathorax.
andmany are serious pests of cultivated plants. A few The members of this order undergo complete
feedon fabrics, and a few feed on stored grain or meal. metamorphosis, and their larvae, usually called cater-
However,the adults of many speeies are beautiful and
muchsought by collectors, and many serve as models
forart and designo Natural silk is produced by a mem-
berof this order.
The mouthparts of a butterfly or moth are usually
fittedfor sucking. A few speeies have vestigial mouth-
partsand do not feed in the adult stage, and the mouth-
partsin one family (the Micropterigidae) are of the
chewingtype. The labrum is small and is usually in the
formof a transverse band across the lower part of
¡heface,at the base of the proboseis. The mandibles are
nearlyalways lacking. The proboseis, when present, is
formedby the appressed, longitudinally groovedgaleae
ofthe maxillae and is usually long and coiled. The
maxillarypalps are generally small or lacking, but the .'
labialpalps are nearly always well developed and usu-
allyextendforward in front of the face (Figure 30-2B).
The compound eyes of a butterfly or moth are rel-
ativelylarge and consist of a large number of facets.

'Lepidoptera:lepido, scale; ptera, wings.

'Ibis chapter was edited by Ronald W. Hodges. with contributions
Figure30-1 A butterfly with a section of the wing en-
fromJerryPowell and Steven Passoa. larged to show the scales. 571
572 Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
pillars, are a familiar sight. Many lepidopteran larvae
have a grotesque or feroeious appearance that makes
some people afraid of them, but the vast majority are
quite harmless when handled. Only a few give off an
offensive odor, and only a very few temperate speeies
have stinging body hairs. The ferocious appearance
probably plays a role in defense by deterring potential
predators.
The larva e of Lepidoptera are usually erueiform
(Figure 30-3), with a well-developed head and a cylin-
drical body of 13 segments (3 thoracic and 10 abdom-
inal). The head usually has six stemmata on each side,
just above the mandibles, and a pair of very short an-
tennae. Each thoracic segment bears a pair of legs, and
abdominal segments 3-6 and 10 usually bear a pair of
prolegs. The prolegs differ somewhat from the thoraeic
legs. They are more fleshy and lack segmentation, and
Figure30-2 Head strueture in
Lepidoptera. A, Synanthedon
(Sesiidae), anterior view; B, same,lat-
eral view; e, Hyphantria (Aretiidae).
ant, antenna; atp, anterior tentorial
pit; e, compound eye;fr, frons;
e Ibr, labrum; Ip, labial palp; mxp, rnax-
illary palp; oe, oeellus; pf, pilifer;
prb, proboseis. (Redrawn from
Snodgrass.)
they usually bear at their apex a number of tiny hooks
called eroehets. Some larvae, such as the measuring-
worms and loopers, have fewer than five pairs of pro-
legs, and some lycaenids and leaf-mining microlepi-
doptera have neither legs nor prolegs. The only other
erueiform larvae likely to be confused with those of the
Lepidoptera are the larvae of sawflies. Sawfly larvae
(Figure 28-37) have only one ocellus on each side, the
prolegs do not have crochets, and generally have more
than five pairs of prolegs. Most sawfly larvae are 25 rnm
long or less, whereas many lepidopteran larvae are con-
siderably larger.
Most butterfly and moth larvae feed on plants, but
different speeies feed in different ways. The larger larvae
generally feed at the edge of the leaf and consume all
but the larger veins; the smaller larvae skeletonize the
leaf or eat small holes in it. Many larvae are leaf miners,
Figure30-3 Larva of Papilio (Papilionidae).
adf, adfrontal area; ant, antenna; ero, crochets;
eper, epicranium; fr, frons; 1,thorade legs;
Ibr, labrum; osm, osmeterium (seent gland);
prl, prolegs; spr, spriracles; st, stemmata.
r
feeding inside the leaf, and their mines can be linear,
trumpet shaped, or blotchlike. A few are gall makers,
and a few bore in the fruits, stems, wood, or other parts
ofthe planto A very few are predaceous on other insects.
The larvae of Lepidoptera have well-developed
silk glands, which are modified salivary glands that
open on the labium. Many larvae use this silk in mak-
ing a cocoon, and some use it in making shelters. Leaf
rollers and leaf folders roll or fold up a leaf, tie it in
place with silk, and feed inside the shelter so formed.
Other larvae tie a few leaves together and feed inside
this shelter. Some of the gregarious species, such as the
tent caterpillars and webworms, make a large shelter
involving many leaves and even entire branches.
Pupation occurs in various situations. Many larvae
forman elaborate cocoon and transform to the pupa in-
sideit. Others make a very simple cocoon, and still oth-
ers make no cocoon at all. Many larvae pupate in some
sortof protected situation. The pupae (Figure 30-4) are
usually obtect, with the appendages firrnly attached to
the body. Moth pupae are usually brownish and rela-
tively smooth, whereas butterfly pupae are variously
colored and are often tuberculate or sculptured. Most
butterflies do not make a cocoon, and their pupa e are
often called chrysalids (singular, chrysalis). The chrys-
alids of some butterflies (Nymphalidae, Danainae,
Satyrinae,and Libytheinae) are attached to a leaf or twig
bythe cremas ter, a spiny process at the posterior end of
the body, and hang head downward (Figure 30-4B). In
other cases (Lycaenidae, Pieridae, and Papilionidae),
the chrysalis is attached by the cremaster, but it is held
in a more or less upright position by a silken girdle
about the middle of the body (Figure 30-4A). Some
moth larvae (certain Sphingidae, Satumiidae, and
Pyralidae)pupate underground. A few moth larvae con-
struct elaborate cocoons, for example, the network co-
coon of Urodus (Urodidae), which is attached to a
branch by a long, silken stalk.
silk
e D
Classification of the lepidoptera 573
Most Lepidoptera have one generation ayear,
usually overwintering as a larva or pupa. A few have
two or more generations ayear, and a few require 2 or
3 years to complete a generation. Many species over-
winter in the egg stage; some overwinter as adults.
Classification of the Lepidoptera
Entomologists have made several arrangements of the
major groups of Lepidoptera. One of the first was the
division of the order into two suborders, Rhopalocera
(butterflies) and Heterocera (moths), based princi-
pally on antennal characters. Later the order carne to
be divided into two suborders on the basis of wing
venation and the nature of the wing coupling: the Ju-
gatae or Homoneura and the Frenatae or Heteroneura;
the Jugatae usually had a jugum (and lacked a frenu-
lum) and a similar venation in the front and hind
wings, whereas the Frenatae usually had a frenulum
(but no a jugum) and a reduced venation in the hind
wings.
Past authorities have recognized two major divi-
sions within the order, the microlepidoptera and the
macrolepidoptera (referring to the insects' average
size). As used in this book (and by most authorities us-
ing these terms), the microlepidoptera include the
Monotrysia and the ditrysian superfamilies Tineoidea,
Gelechioidea, Yponomeutoidea, and Tortricoidea.
Most recent arrangements have separated the Mi-
cropterigidae into a suborder by itself, the Zeugloptera
(some authorities consider this an order, related to the
Lepidoptera and Trichoptera), with the remaining Lepi-
doptera divided into two suborders, the Monotrysia and
the Ditrysia, based principally on the number of genital
openings in the female. This arrangement places the Eri-
ocraniidae, Acanthopteroctetidae, Hepialidae, Nepticu-
sp
Figure30-4 Pupae of Lepi-
sp
doptera. A, Papilio (Papilionidae);
B, Nymphalis (Nymphalidae);
C, Hclicoverpa (Noctuidae),
dorsal view; D, same, lateral
view. cre, cremas ter; sp, spiracle.
(Courtesy of Peterson. Reprinted
by permission.)
574 Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera

loidea, and Incurvarioidea in the Monotrysia and the Ypsolophidae (Hypsolophidae, including Ochsen-
rest in the Ditrysia. heimeriidae)
Some authorities (for example, Common 1975) Plutellidae
believe the Eriocraniidae, Acanthopteroctetidae, and Acrolepiidae *
Hepialidae differ sufficiently from the other groups Glyphipterigidae (Glyphipterygidae)
originally included in the Monotrysia to remove them Heliodinidae (Schreckensteiniidae)
from that suborder and place them in two separate sub- Bedellidae *
orders, the Dacnonypha (for the Eriocraniidae and Lyonetiidae*
Acanthopteroctetidae) and the Exoporia (for the Hepi- Superfamily Gelechioidea
alidae and some related exotic families). Elachistidae (Stenomatidae, Ethmiidae, Azinidae,
Many authors presented a review of the classifica- Depressariidae [Epigraphiidae, Cryptolechi-
tion of the Lepidoptera in Kristensen (1998) that elim- idae, Haemilidae, Thalamarchellidae], Elachis-
inates suborders and treats superfamilies as the basic tidae [Cycnodiidae, Aphelosetiidae], Agonox-
units of higher classification. This classification is ten- enidae [Blastodacnidae, Parametriotidae])
tative in many areas but reflects what is currently Xyloryctidae (Scythrididae)
known about the world fauna. Several rearrangements Glyphidoceridae
have been made since the Hodges et al. checklist Oecophoridae ([Dasyceridae], Stathmopodidae,
(1983), the classification used in this book and out-
[Tinaegeriidae, Ashinagidae])
lined next (with altemate spellings, names, or arrange- Batrachedridae *
ments in parentheses). The families marked with an as- Deoclonidae *
terisk (*) either are very rare or are unlikely to be taken Coleophoridae ([Haploptilidae, Eupistidae],
by a general collector. Momphidae [Lavemidae], Blastobasidae,
Superfamily Micropterigoidea (Micropterygoidea) Pterolonchidae)
Micropterigidae (Micropterygidae)* Autostichidae (Symmocidae)*
Peleopodidae *
Superfamily Eriocranioidea
Eriocraniidae * Amphisbatidae (Oecophoridae, in part)
Cosmopterigidae (Cosmopterygidae, including
Superfamily Acanthopteroctetoidea Walshiidae)
Acanthopteroctetidae* Gelechiidae (Anacampsidae, Litidae, Anomologi-
Superfamily Hepialoidea dae, Anarsiidae)
Hepialidae Superfamily Zygaenoidea
Superfamily Nepticuloidea (Stigmelloidea) Epipyropidae*
Nepticulidae (Stigmellidae)* Megalopygidae (Lagoidae) *
Opostegidae* Limacodidae (Cochliidae, Eucleidae)
Superfamily Incurvarioidea Dalceridae (Acragidae)*
Heliozelidae * Lacturidae *
Adelidae Zygaenidae
Prodoxidae (Incurvariidae, in part) Superfamily Sesiodea
Incurvariidae Sesiidae (Aegeriidae)
Superfamily Tischerioidea Superfamily Cossoidea
Tischeriidae * Cossidae Cincluding Zeuzeridae and Hypoptidae)
Superfamily Tineoidea Superfamily Tortricoidea
Tineidae (Tinaeidae, including Hieroxestidae = Tortricidae Cincluding Cochylidae [Phaloniidae],
Oinophilidae) Sparganothidae, Olethreutidae, and
Acrolophidae Eucosmidae)
Psychidae Cincluding Talaeporiidae)
Superfamily Galacticoidea
Superfamily Gracillarioidea Galacticidae *
Douglasiidae *
Bucculatricidae (Bucculatrigidae) Superfamily Choreutoidea
Choreutidae
Gracillariidae (Lithocolletidae, Phyllocnistidae)
Superfamily Yponomeutoidea Superfamily Urodoidea
Urodidae*
Yponomeutidae (Hyponomeutidae, including
Attevidae, Prayidae, Scythropiidae, and Superfamily Schreckensteinioidea
Argyresthiidae) Schreckensteiniidae

SuperfamilyEpermenioidea
Epermeniidae*
SuperfamilyAlueitoidea
Alueitidae (Omeodidae)
SuperfamilyPterophoroidea
Pterophoridae (including Agdistidae)
Superfamily Copromorphoidea
Copromorphidae *
Carposinidae *
SuperfamilyHyblaeoidea
Hyblaeidae (Noctuidae, in pan)*
SuperfamilyThyridoidea
Thyrididae (Pyralidae, in pan)*
Superfamily Pyraloidea
Pyralidae (including Galleriidae, Chrysaugidae,
Epipaschiidae, and Phyeitidae)
Crambidae (including Schoenobiidae, Nymphuli-
dae, and Pyraustidae)
SuperfamilyHesperioidea
Hesperiidae (including Megathymidae)
Superfamily Papilionoidea
Papilionidae (including Pamassiidae)
Pieridae (Aseiidae)
Lycaenidae (Cupidinidae, Ruralidae, including
Riodinidae = Nemeobiidae = Eryeinidae)
Nymphalidae (Argyreidae, including Heliconi-
idae, Ithomiidae, Libytheidae, Morphidae,
Brassolidae, Danaidae, and Satyridae)
Superfamily Drepanoidea
Drepanidae (including Thyatiridae)*
Superfamily Geometroidea
Sematuridae*
Uraniidae (including Epiplemidae)*
Geometridae
Superfamily Mimallonoidea
Mimallonidae (Lacosomidae, Perophoridae)*
Superfamily Lasiocampoidea
Lasiocampidae
Superfamily Bombycoidea
Bombyeidae (including Apatelodidae = branches (occasionally fewer), but in the hind wing the
Zanolidae) *
Satumiidae (Attaeidae, including
Ceratocampidae = Citheroniidae)
Sphingidae (Smerinthidae)
Superfamily Noctuoidea
Doidae *
Notodontidae (including Heterocampidae, and
Dioptidae)
Noctuidae (Phalaenidae, including Plusiidae,
Agaristidae, and Cuculliidae)
Pantheidae (Noctuidae, in pan)
Lymantriidae (Liparidae, Orgyidae)
CharactersUsedin IdentifyingLepidoptera 575
Nolidae (Noctuidae, in pan)
Arctiidae (including Lithosiidae, Syntomidae =
Amatidae, Ctenuchidae, Eucromiidae,
Thyretidae, Pericopidae)
Characters Used in Identifying
Lepidoptera
The prineipal characters used in identifying adult Lep-
idoptera are those of the wings (venation, method of
wing union, wing shape, and scaling). Other characters
used include the character of the antennae, mouthparts
(principally the palps and proboseis), ocelli (whether
present or absent), legs, male and female genitalia, and
abdomen, and frequently such general features as size
and color.
Wing Venation3
The wing venation in this order is relatively simple, be-
cause there are few crossveins and rarely extra
branches of the longitudinal veins, and the venation is
reduced in some groups. Entomologists differ regard-
ing the interpretation of cenain veins in the lepi-
dopteran wing. Here we follow Comstock's interpreta-
tion (Comstock 1940).
Two general types of wing venation occur in this
order, homoneurous and heteroneurous. In homoneu-
rous venation, the venation of the front and hind wings
is similar; there are as many branches of R in the hind
wing as in the front wing. In heteroneurous venation,
the venation in the hind wing is reduced, and Rs is al-
ways unbranched.
Homoneurous venation occurs in the superfamilies
Micropterigoidea, Eriocranioidea, Acanthopteroctetoidea,
and Hepialioidea. These groups have a simple or two-
branched subcosta, the radius has five branches (occa-
sionally six), the media has three branches, and there are
usually three anal veins (Figure 30-5).
The remaining superfamilies have a heteroneurous
venation. The radius in the front wing usually has five
radial sector is unbranched and R¡ usually fuses with
the subcosta. The basal portion of the media is atro-
phied in many cases, so that a large cell, commonly
called the discal cel!, is formed in the central pan of the
wing. The first anal vein is often atrophied or fused
with A2. A somewhat generalized heteroneurous vena-
tion is shown in Figure 30-6.
'Some au¡horities call¡he mediocubiJal crossvein of the Comstock
(1940) terminology M,. The three branches of the media, according
to Comstock, are M" M" and M,. According to these other authori-
ties, Comstock's CUl and Cu, are CuAl and CuA" his lA is CuPohis
2A is lA, and his 3A is 2A.
576 Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera

Se R,

h Se

CUA2 CuA,

Figure30-5 Homoneurous venation of Sthenopis (Hepialidae). j, jugum.

The veins may fuse in various ways in the het-
eroneuraus graups, and this fusing or stalking is used
in the key. The sub costa in the frant wing is nearly al-
ways free of the discal cell and líes between it and the
costa. The branches of the radius arise fram the ante-
rior side of the discal cell or from its outer anterior
comer. Two or more branches of the radius are fre-
quently stalked, that is, fused for a distance beyond
the discal cell. Certain radial branches occasionally
fuse again beyond their point of separation, thus
forming accessory cells (for example, Figure 30-17 A,
aee). The three branches of the media usually arise
fram the apex of the discal cell in both wings, al-
though MI may be stalked with a branch of the radius
for a distance beyond the apex of the discal cell (Fig-
ure 30-13). The point of origin of M2 fram the apex
of the discal cell is an important character used in
separating different groups: When it arises from
the middle of the apex of the discal cell, as in Fig-
ure 30-20, or anterior to the middle, the vein (Cu)
forming the posterior side of this cell appears three-
branched; when M2 arises nearer to M3 than to MI
(Figures 30-23 through 30-28), then the cubitus ap-
pears four-branched.
Variations in the venation of the hind wing of the
heteroneurous graups involve principally the nature of
the fusion of Sc+ RI and the number of anal veins. In
so me cases R is separa te fram Se at the base of the
wing, and R¡ appears as a crassvein between Rs and Se
somewhere along the anterior side of the distal cel!
(Figure 30-l7B). R¡ also fuses with Se eventually, and
judging fram the pupal tracheation, the vein reaching
the wing margin is Sc (the R¡ trachea is always small);
however, this vein at the margin is usually called
Sc+ R¡. In many cases Se and R are fused basally, or
they may be separate at the base and fuse for a short
distance along the anterior side of the discal cell (Fig-
ures 30-26, 30-27). In the heteroneurous families,
most authorities call the lA of Comstock (1940) CuP;
his 2A as A¡+2;and his 3A as A3'

L

"f:?~,,::~~~::"M_;---
Cu'
A2/ ,
/~~~"h_"_""_",_,_"__,,,_,,,,,
~.......-..._--.._.
A1 +2
Figure 30-6 Generalized heteroneurous venation. The veins shown by dotted lines are
atrophied or lost in some groups. D, discal cell;J, frenulum.
OtherWing Characters
Thewings on each side are made to operate together
byfour general mechanisms: a fibula, a jugum, a frenu-
lum,and an expanded humeral angle of the hind wing.
Afibula is a small, more-or-Iess triangular lobe at the
baseof the front wing on the posterior side (Fig-
ure 30-34B, fib), which overlaps the base of the hind
wing.This mechanism occurs in the Micropterigoidea,
Eriocranioidea, and Acanthopteroctetoidea. A jugum is
a small, fingerlike lobe at the base of the front wing
(Figure30-5, j), which overlaps the base of the ante-
rioredge of the hind wing. This structure occurs in the
Hepialoidea.A frenulum is a large bristle (acanthus) in
malesor a group ofbristles (most females) arising from
¡hehumeral angle of the hind wing and fitting under a
groupof scales (female) or a sclerotized hook (males),
¡heretinaculum near the costal margin (on the lower
surface)of the front wing (Figure 30-6,1). A frenulum
-
CharactersUsedin IdentifyingLepidoptera 577
Se + R,
Rs
CuP
occurs in most of the other superfamilies (except the
butterflies and some moths). Those higher Lepidoptera
that lack a frenulum usually have the humeral angle of
the hind wing more or less expanded and fitting under
the posterior margin of the front wing. A specialized
wing coupling of interlocking spines and wing folding
occurs in the Sesiidae.
The Nepticuloidea, Incurvarioidea, and Tis-
cheroidea have minute, hairlike spines on the wings
(under the scales). These are termed aculeae, and such
wings may be described as aculeate (the aculeae are re-
stricted to the base of the wings in Heliozelidae). The
aculeae can be seen when the scales are bleached or re-
moved. They are not movable at the base.
Most Lepidoptera have more or less triangular
front wings and somewhat rounded hind wings, but
many have more elongate wings. Many smaller mi-
crolepidoptera have lanceolate wings; that is, both
578 Chapter30 Order Lepidoptera
front and hind wings are elongate and pointed apically,
and the hind wings are usually narrower than the front
wings (as in Figure 30-33), often with a broad fringe of
hairlike scales.
HeadCharacters
The antennae of butterflies (Figure 30-7 A,B) are
slender and knobbed at the tip; those of moths (Fig-
ure 30-7C-E) are usually filiform, setaceous, or plu-
mose. The basal segment of the antennae in some of the
microlepidoptera is enlarged, and when the antenna is
bent down and back this segment fits over the eye. Such
an enlarged basal antennal segment is called an eye cap
(Figure 30-29B). Most moths have a pair of ocelli 10-
cated on the upper surface of the head close to the com-
pound eyes (Figure 30-2A, oc). These ocelli often can
be seen only by separating the hairs and scales. The
mouthpart characters most often used in keys are the
nature of the labial and maxillary palps and the pro-
boscis. Certain exotic families do not conform to these
distinctions between moths and butterflies.
Leg Characters
The leg characters of value in identification include the
form of the tibial spurs and the tarsal claws, the presence
or absence of spines on the legs, and occasionally the
A B o E, Callosamia (Satumiidae).
structure of the epiphysis. The epiphysis is a movable
pad or spurlike structure on the inner surface of the
front tibia that is probably used in cleaning the anten-
nae. The front legs are very much reduced in some ofthe
butterflies, particularly the Nyrnphalidae (Danainae,
Satyrinae, and Libytheinae) and males of Riodininae.
Studying Wing Venation in the Lepidoptera
It is often possib1e to see venational details in a butter-
fly or moth without any special treatment of the wings,
or in some cases by putting a few drops of alcohol or
xylene on the wings or by carefully scraping off a few
of the wing scales. However, it is often necessary to
bleach the wings in order to study all details of wing
venation. A method of bleaching and mounting the
wings of Lepidoptera is described here.
The materials needed for clearing and mounting
lepidopteran wings are as follows:
1. Three watch glasses, one containing 95% alcohol,
one containing 10% hydrochloric acid, and one
containing equal proportions of aqueous solutions
of sodium chloride and sodium hypochlorite
(laundry bleach serves fairly well in place of this
mixture)
2. A preparation dish of water, preferably distilled
water
Figure30-7 Antennae of Lepi-
doptera. A, Co/ias (Pieridae);
B, Epargyreus (Hesperiidae);
C, Hemaris (Sphingidae);
D, Drasteria (Noctuidae);
---
Key to the Familiesof lepidoptera 579

3. Slides (preferably 50 by 50 mm), masks, and
binding tape (or cover slips, and gummed labels
with holes cut in the center)
4. Forceps and dissecting needle
Ihe procedure for clearing and mounting
wingsis as follows:
1. Remove the wings from one side of the specimen,
being careful not to tear them or to break any
connections such as the frenulum between the
front and hind wings. The frenulum is less likely
to be broken if the front and hind wings are re-
moved together.
2. Dip the wings in 95% alcohol for a few seconds to
wet them.
3. Dip the wings in 10% hydrochloric acid for a few
seconds.
4. Place the wings in the mixture of sodium chloride
and sodium hypochlorite (or bleach), and leave
them there until the color is removed. Ihis pro-
cess usually requires only a few minutes. If the
wings are slow in clearing, dip them in the acid
again and then retum them to the bleaching
solution.
5. Rinse the wings in water to remove the excess
bleach.
6. Place the wings on the slide, centered and prop-
erly oriented (preferably with the base of the
wings to the left). Ihis procedure is most easily
accomplished by floating the wings in water (for
example, in a preparation dish) and bringing the
slide up from undemeath. Ihe wings should be
oriented on the slide while they are wet.
the 7. Allow the slide and wings to dry. If all the bleach
has not been removed and some is deposited on
the slide, place the slide again in water, carefully
remove the wings, clean the slide, and remount
the wings.
8. Place the mask on the slide around the wings (put
data, labeling, and the like on the mask), put on
the cover slide, and bind. Before binding the slide,
make sure the wings are dry and both slides are
perfectly clean.
Such a slide and the specimen from which the
wings have been removed should always be labeled so
they can be associated. A wing slide of this son will
keep indefinitely and can be studied under the micro-
scope or projected on a screen for demonstration. In the
case of wings 13 mm or less in length, it is better not to
use a mask. Ihe mask may be thicker than the wings,
and the wings may slip or curl after the slide is bound.
Ihe labeling can be put on a small strip of paper that is
attached to the outside of the slide with cellophane
tape. Small wings can also be mounted under a cover
slip, and the cover slip held down with a gummed slide
label with a large hole cut from its center.

Keyto the Families of Lepidoptera

Thiskeyis basedto a considerableextent on wing venation,and sometimesit is neces-

saryto wet or mount the wingsof a speeimento ron it through the key.For the sake of
brevity,the two anterior veins in the hind wing are referred to as Sc and Rs, although
mostof the first vein is usually Sc+ R¡, and the base of the second vein may be R. Keys
10the larvae are given by Forbes (1923-1960), Peterson (1948), and Stehr (1987). Ihe
groupsmarked with an asterisk (*) are relatively rare or are unlikely to be taken by a
generalcollector.
A number of families are based on larval or pupal characters and, therefore, cannot
beplaced properly in a key based on adult morphology. For that reason, two or more
familiesmay key out in the same couplet.

l. Wings present and well developed 2

1'. Wings absent or vestigial (females only) 116
2(1). Front and hind wings similar in venation and usually also in shape; Rs in
hind wing 3- or 4-branched (Figures 30-5, 30-34B); front and hind wings
usually united by jugum or fibula; no coiled proboseis 3*
2'. Front and hind wings dissimilar in venation and usually also in shape;
Rs in hind wing unbranched; no jugum or fibula, front and hind wings
united by frenulum or by expanded humeral angle of hind wing;
mouthparts usually in form of a coiled probo seis 6
 580 Chapter 30 Order lepidoptera

3(2). Wingspread 25 mm or more Hepialidae* p.604

3'. Wingspread 12 mm or less 4*
4(3'). Funetional mandibles present; middle tibiae without spurs; Se in front
wing forked near its middle (Figure 30-34B) Micropterigidae* p.603
4'. Mandibles vestigial or absent; middle tibiae with 1 spur; Se in front wing
forked near its tip 5*
5(4'). Oeelli present; MI in both wings not stalked with R.+5;anal veins in front
wing fused distally; widely distributed Eriocraniidae* p.603
5'. Oeelli absent; MI in both wings stalked with R.+5;anal veins in front wing
separate; western United States Acanthopteroctetidae* p.603
6(2'). Antennae threadlike, swollen or knobbed at tip (Figure 30-7 A,B); no
frenulum; oeelli absent (butterflies and sippers) 7
6'. Antennae of various forms, but usually not knobbed at tip
(Figure 30-7C-E); if antennae are somewhat clubbed, then frenulum is
present; oeelli present or absent (moths) 15
7(6). Radius in front wing 5-branehed, with all branehes simple and arising
from diseal eell (Figure 30-8); antennae widely separated at base and
usually hooked at tip (Figure 30-7B); hind tibiae usually with a middle
spur; stout-bodied inseets (skippers) Hesperiidae p,619
7'. Radius in front wing 3- to 5-branehed, and if 5-branehed, then with some
branehes stalked beyond diseal eell (Figures 30-9 through 30-14);
antennae close together at base, never hooked at tip (Figure 30-7 A);
hind tibiae never with middle spur (butterfljes) 8

,' " . ~.

W~
,
.; . ,~,
4 ,
')l'

Figure30-8 Wings of Hesperiidae.

A A, Epargyreus (Pyrginae); B, Pseudoco-
paeodes (Hesperiinae). D, diseal eell.
r

Keyto the Familiesof Lepidoptera 581

Figure30-9 Wings of Papilion-

idae. A, Papilio (Papilioninae);
B B, Pamassius (Parnassiinae).
hv, humeral vein.

B aJNNERSlDAD
DECMDAS
BIBLIOTECA
Figure30-10 Wings ofbutterflies. A, Danaus (Nymphalidae, Danainae); B, Cercyonis
(Nymphalidae, Satyrinae). hv, humeral vein.
582 Chapter30 Order lepidoptera

Figure 30-11 Wings of

Nymphalidae.A, Speyeria
(Heliconiinae) (discal cell in
hind wing closed by a vesti-
gial vein); B, Limenitis
(Limenitinae) (discal cell in
hind wing open). D, discal
cel!; hv, humeral vein.

M,

M2 Figure 30-12 Wingsof

butterflies. A, Agraulis
(Nymphalidae, Heliconiinae);
.' B, Thecla (Lycaenidae, Lycaen-
inae), maleo The dark spot
near the end of the discal cell,
is a scent gland. hv, humeral
A vein.
 Keyto the Familiesof Lepidoptera 583

Figure30-13 Wings of
Pieridae. A, an orange-tip
(Euchloe); B, a sulphur (Colias).
B hv, humeral vein.

.' .
B

Figure 30-14 Wings of Lycaenidae. A, Lephelisca(Riodininae); B, Lycaena (Lycaeninae).

hv, humeral vein.

~
584 Chapter30 Order Lepidoptera

8(7'). Cubitus in front wing apparently 4-branched, hind wing with single anal
vein (Figure 30-9); hind wing often with 1 or more tail-like prolongations
on posterior margin Papilionidae p.620
8'. Cubitus in front wing apparently 3-branched, hind wing with 2 anal veins
(Figures 30-10 through 30-14); hind wing usually without tail-like
prolongations on posterior margin 9
9(8'). Labial palps very long, longer than thorax, and thickly hairy Nymphalidae
(Figure 30-61C) (Libytheinae)* p.623
9'. Labial palps of normal size, shorter than thorax 10
10(9'). Radius in front wing 5-branched (Figures 30-10 through 30-12, 30-13A);
front legs usually reduced in size 11
lO'. Radius in front wing 3- or 4-branched (Figures 30-13B, 30-14, 30-60);
front legs usually of normal size 14
11(10). A) in front wing present but short, A¡+2appearing to have a basal fork
(Figure 30-1OA); antennae not scaled above; relatively large, brownish Nymphalidae
or orangebutterflies(Figure30-65A) (Danainae) p.623
11'. A) in front wing lacking, A1+2not appearing forked at base
(Figures 30-1OB, 30-11, 30-12A, 30-13A); antennae usually scaled above 12
12(11'). Some veins in front wing (especially Sc) greatly swollen at base
(Figure 30-1OB); front wings more or less triangular; antennae swollen
apically but not distinctly knobbed; small butterflies, usually brownish Nymphalidae
or grayish with eyespots in the wings (Figure 30-64) (Satyrinae) p.6L3
12'. Generally with no veins in front wing greatly swollen at base (Sc in front
wing slightly swollen in some Nymphalidae); wing color and shape, and
antennae, usually not as in preceding entry 13
13(12'). M¡ in front wing stalked with R beyond discal cell (Figure 30-13A);
front legs normal, or only slightly reduced, their claws bifid; small
butterflies, usually white with black or orange markings (orange-tips) Pieridae p.621
13'. M¡ in front wing not stalked with R beyond discal cell; front legs much
reduced, without tarsal claws, not used in walking; usually medium-sized Nymphalidae
to large butterflies, and not colored as in preceding entry (Nymphalinae) p.623
14(10'). M¡ in front wing stalked with R beyond discal cell (Figure 30-13B); small
to medium-sized butterflies, with white, yellow, or orange coloration,
usually marked with black (Figure 30-59) Pieridae p.621
14'. M¡ in front wing usually not stalked with R beyond discal cell
(Figure 30-14); usually not colored as in preceding entry Lycaenidae p.622
15(6'). Wings, especially hind wings, deeply cleft or divided into plumelike lobes
(Figure 30-52); legs long and slender, with long tibial spurs 16
15'. Wings entire, or front wings only slightly cleft 17
16(15). Each wing divided into 6 plumelike lobes Alucitidae* p.616
16'. Front wings divided into 2-4 lobes, hind wings divided into 3 lobes
(except Agdistis) (Figure 30-52) Pterophoridae p.616
17(15'). A part of the wings, especially hind wings, devoid of scales (Figure 30-46);
front wings long and narrow, at least 4 times as long as wide
(Figure 30-47); hind margin of front wings and costal margin of hind
wings with a series of recurved and interlocking spines and wing folds;
wasplike day-flying moths Sesiidae p.612
17'. Wings scaled throughout, or if with clear areas, then front wings are more
triangular; wings without such interlocking spines 18
 Keyto the Familiesof lepidoptera 585

18(17/). Hind wings much broader than their fringe, usually wider than front
wings, never lanceolate; tibial spurs variable, often short or absent 19
18/. Hind wings with fringe as wide as wings or wider, hind wings usually
no wider than front wings, often lanceolate (Figure 30-42); tibial spurs
long, more than twice as long as width of tibia 63
19(18). Hind wing with 3 anal veins behind discal cell 20
19'. Hind wing with 1-2 anal veins behind discal cell 31
20(19). Hind wing with Sc and Rs fused for a varying distance beyond discal cell
or separa te but very closely parallel (Figure 30-15); Sc and R in hind
wing separate along front of discal cell, or base of R atrophied Pyralidae,Crambidae p.617
20'. Hind wing with Sc and Rs widely separate beyond discal cell, base of R
usually well developed 21
21(20'). Sc and Rs in hind wing fused to near end of discal cell or at least fused
beyond middle of cell (Figure 30-16) 22*
21'. Sc and Rs in hind wing separate from base or fused for a short distance
along basal half of cell (Figures 30-17, 30-18) 23
22(21). Wings largely or wholly blackish, thinly scaled; Rs in front wing arising
from discal cell (Figure 30-16A) Zygaenidae* p.612
22'. Wings largely yellowish or white, densely clothed with 50ft scales and
hair; Rs in front wing stalked beyond discal cell (Figure 30-16B) Megalopygidae* p.611
23(21/). Front wing with an accessory cell (Figure 30-17 A, acc) 24
23'. Front wing without an accessory cell (Figure 30-18) 27
24(23). Tibial spurs short, no longer than width of tibia; mouthparts often vestigial 25
24'. Tibial spurs long, more than twice as long as width of tibia; mouthparts
usually well developed 63

R3 _ R4
. R5
MI
M2
M3
CUI
CU2
'"

A'+2

Rs

A'+2

Figure30-15 Wings ofPyraloidea. A, Crambus (Crambidae, Crambinae); B, Pyralis

(Pyralidae, Pyralinae). J, frenulum.

...
586 Chapter30 Order Lepidoptera

Rs
,
M,
M2
M3

.- CU,
CU2
A3 A1+2 CuP
A B

Figure 30-16 A, wings of Malthaca (Zygaenidae); B, wings of Megalopyge (Megalopy-

gidae). f, frenulum.

R, R2 R3
~R4
Rs
M,
M2
M3
Cu,
CU2
CuP
A'+2

Figure 30-17 A, wings of Prionoxystus (Cossidae); B, wings of Bombyx (Bombycidae).

I
acc, accessory cell;f, frenulum. I
I
l
 Keyto the Familiesof Lepidoptera 587

R2 R3
R4
Rs
M,
M2 Se
M3
Cu,
CU2
CuP
Se + R,
Rs M,
M, M2
M2 , M3
, M3
f
Cu,
A3~ Cu, CU2
AH 2 CUpCU2
CuP
A A'+2
B

Figure30-18 A, wings of Euc/ea (Limaeodidae); B, wings of Cicinnus (Mimallonidae);

C, wings of Urania (Uraniidae). J, frenulum.

25(24). Front wing with some branehes of R stalked, aeeessory eell extending
beyond diseal eell (Figure 30-17 A) 26
25', Front wing with no branehes of R stalked, aeeessory eell not extending
beyond diseal eell; antennae bipeetinate; small moths Epipyropidae * p.611
26(25). Front wings sub triangular, about one half longer than wide; wings
densely clothed with 50ft seales and hair; Arizona Dalceridae
* p.612
26'. Front wings more elongate, at least twiee as long as wide; wings more
thinly sealed; widely distributed Cossidae* p.613
27(23'). M2in front wing arising about midway between M¡ and M3' or closer
to M¡, eubitus appearing 3-branehed (Figures 30-17B, 30-188); frenulum
present or absent 28*
27'. M2in front wing arising closer to M3than to M¡, eubitus appearing
4-branehed; frenulum well developed (Figure 30-18A) 30
28(27). M3and Cu¡ in front wing stalked for a short distanee beyond diseal eell; Notodontidae
frenulum well developed; California and Texas (Dioptinae*) p. 635
28'. M3and Cu¡ in front wing not stalked beyond diseal eell; frenulum small
or absent; widely distributed 29*
29(28'). Front wing with R2+3and R.+, stalked independendy of R¡; Se and Rs in
hind wing not eonneeted by a erossvein (Figure 30-188) Mimallonidae* p. 629
29'. Front wing with R2'R3,R., and R, united on a eommon stalk; Se and Rs
in hind wing eonneeted basally by a erossvein (R¡) (Figure 30-178) Bombycidae * p. 631
588 Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera

30(27'). CuP absent in front wing, well developed in hind wing Copromorphidae
* p.616
3D'. CuP weak in both front and hind wings, often developed only near wing
margin (Figure 30-31A,B) (see also 30") Tortricidae p.613
3D". CuP complete in both front and hind wings (Figure 30-18A) Limacodidae p.612
31(19'). Front wing with 2 distinct anal veins 32*
31'. Front wing with single complete anal vein (Figures 30-19B, 30-20
through 30-28) or with A¡ and A2fusing near tip or connected by a
crossvein (Figure 30-19A) 33
32(31). Ocelli present; front wing 3 or more times as long as wide (Harrisina) Zygaenidae* p.612
32'. Ocelli absent; front wing not more than twice as long as wide Hyblaeidae* p.616
33(31'). Front wing with a single complete vein behind discal cell (A¡+2),CuP
at most represented by a fold, A3absent or meeting A¡+2basally so that
Al+2appears forked at base (Figures 30-19B, 30-20 through 30-28) 34
33'. Front wing with A¡ and A2fusing near tip (Figure 30-19A) or connected
by a crossvein Psychidae p.606
34(33). Antennae thickened, spindle-shaped (Figure 30-7C); Sc and Rs in hind
wing connected by a crossvein near middle of discal cell, the 2 veins
closely parallel to end of discal cell or beyond (Figure 30-19B);
stout-bodied, often large moths (wingspread 50 mm or more) with
narrow wings (Figure 30-77) Sphingidae p.634
34'. Antennae variable, rarely spindle-shaped; Sc and Rs in hind wing usually
not connected by crossvein, or if such a crossvein is present, then the
2 veins strongly divergent beyond crossvein 35
35(34'). M2in front wing arising about midway between M¡ and M3,cubitus
appearing 3-branched (Figures 30-18B,C, 30-20 through 30-22), or
(rarely) with M2and M3absent, cubitus appearing to have fewer than
3 branches 36

-' CU2

A1+2
Se+ RI
Rs
M,
Se + R1
M3 Rs
MI
M2
M3
Cu,
CU2
A1+2
A 8

Figure30-19 A, wings of Thyridopteryx (Psychidae); B, wings of Hemaris (Sphingidae).

J, frenulum.
 Keyto the Families of Lepidoptera 589

35'. M2in front wing arising closer to M3than to M¡, eubitus appearing
4-branehed (Figures 30-23 through 30-28) 49
36(35). Se and Rs in hind wing swollen at base, fused to middle of diseal eell,
then diverging; M2and M3in front wing sometimes absent; small,
slender moths Arctiidae(Lithosiinae) p. 640
36'. Se and Rs in hind wing not fused at base, although they may be fused
farther distad or eonneeted by a erossvein 37
37(36'). Antennae dilated apieally; eyes hairy; Arizona Sematuridae
* p. 628
37'. Antennae not dilated apieally, or if so, then eyes bare; widely distributed 38
38(37'). Se in hind wing strongly angled at base, usually eonneeted to humeral
angle of wing by strong braee vein; beyond the bend Se fuses with or
comes close to Rs for a short distanee along diseal eell (Figure 30-20) Geometridae p. 628
38'. Se in hind wing straight or slightly eurving at base, not of the
eonfiguration in preeeding entry 39
39(38'). Frenulum well developed; Se and Rs in hind wing variable 40
39'. Frenulum vestigial or absent; Se and Rs in hind wing never fused but
sometimes touehing at a point beyond base or eonneeted by a erossvein 45
40(39). Se in hind wing widely separated from Rs from near base of wing; M¡ in Uraniidae
front wing stalked with Rs, which is well separated from R, (Epipleminae)* p. 628
40'. Se in hind wing close to Rs at least to middle of diseal eell, often farther 41

Se

Figure30-20 Wings of Geometridae. A, Haematopsis;B, Xanthotype. J, frenulum.

590 Chapter30 Order Lepidoptera

41(40/). M2in hind wing arising nearer to M) than to MI>cubitus appearing

4-branched; MI in hind wing arising from discal cell, not stalked with Drepanidae
Rs beyond cell (Thyatirinae)* p.627
41'. M2in hind wing absent or arising midway between MI and M), or nearer
to MI>cubitus appearing 3-branched; MI in hind wing stalked with Rs for
a short distance beyond discal cell (Figure 30-21) 42
42(41'). M) and CUIin both front and hind wings stalked for a short distance Notodontidae
beyond discal cell; slender, butterfly-like moths; California and Texas (Dioptinae)* p.635
42/. Not exactly fitting the description in preceding entry 43
43(42'). Slender-bodied moths; tympanal hood at base of abdomen; Sc sinuous or
swollen at base Geometridae
* p.628
43/. Stout-bodied moths; no tympanal hood at base of abdomen 44
44(43/). Sc and Rs in hind wing close together and parallel along almost entire
length of discal cell (Figure 30-218); proboseis usually present; front
wings fully scaled; tarsal claws with blunt tooth at base Notodontidae p.635
44'. Sc and Rs in hind wing separating near middle of discal cell
(Figure 30-21A); proboseis lacking; front wings with 1 or 2 small clear Bombycidae
spots near tip; tarsal claws simple (Apatelodinae)* p.631
45(39/). Sc and Rs in hind wing connected by a crossvein (Figure 30-17B);
white moths of medium size Bombycidae* p.631
45/. Sc and Rs in hind wing not connected by a crossvein (Figures 30-18B,C,
and 30-21A); color variable, but not white; size medium to large 46

R4
Rs
M,
M2
M3
,
Cu,
f
CU2
A1+2

Se + R,
,Rs
M,
M2
MJ
Cu,
CU2
A1+2

Figure 30-21 A, wings of Apatdodes (Bombyeidae, Apatelodinae); B, wings of Datana

(Notodontidae). J, frenulum.
 Keyto the Familiesof lepidoptera 591

46(45'). Se and Rs in hind wing separating near middle of diseal eell, at the end
of a long, narrow, basal areole; Rs and MI in hind wing stalked beyond Bombycidae
diseal eell (Figure 30-21A) (Apatelodinae)* p.631
46'. Se and Rs in hind wing separating at base of wing; Rs and MI in hind
wing not stalked beyond diseal eell (Figures 30-18B,C, 30-22) 47
47(46'). M2in hind wing arising closer to MI than to M3 (Figure 30-22);
wingspread25-150 mm Saturniidae p.631
47'. M2in hind wing arising about midway between MI and M3
(Figure 30-18B,C); size variable 48*
48(47'). Hind wing with 1 anal vein (Figure 30-18C); large moths resembling a
swallowtail butterfly; Texas Uraniidae* p.628
48', Hind wing with 2 anal veins (Figure 30-18B); not swallowtail-like
(Figure 30-70); widely distributed Mimallonidae* p. 629
49(35'). All branehes of R and M in front wing arising separately from the usually
open diseal eell (Figure 30-23A); wings generally with clear spots Thyrididae
* p.617
49'. Front wing with some branehes of R or M fused beyond diseal eell
(Figures 30-23B, 30-24 through 30-28) 50
50(49'). Hind wing with humeral veins, without frenulum; CU2in front wing
arising in basal half or third of diseal eell (Figure 30-238) Lasiocampidae p.630
50'. Hind wing without humeral veins, usually with frenulum; CU2in front
wing arising in distal half of diseal eell 51
51(50'). Frenulum absent or vestigial; Se and Rs in hind wing approximated,
usually parallel along diseal eell or fusing beyond middle of eell
(Figure 30-24A); apex of front wings usually sickle-shaped Drepanidae p.627

Figure30-22 Wings of Saturniidae. A, Anisota (Ceratoeampinae); B, Automcris

(Hemileueinae); C, Callosamia (Saturniinae).
592 Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera

51'. Frenulum well developed; Se and Rs in hind wing not as in preeeding

entry; apex of front wings usually not sickle-shaped 52
52(51/). Antennae swollen apically; Se in hind wing fused with Rs for only a short
distanee at base of diseal eell (Figure 30-24B); oeelli present; moths with
a wingspread of about 25 mm, usually blaek with white or yellow spots Noctuidae
in wings (Figure 30-81) (Agaristinae) p. 636
52'. Antennae usually not swollen apieally; Se in hind wing variable; oeelli
present or absent 53
53(52/). Se in hind wing apparently absent (Figure 30-25A); day-flying moths Arctiidae
(Figure 30-82) (Ctenuchinae) p.640
53'. Se in hind wing present and well developed 54
54(53/). Se and Rs in hind wing fused for a varying distanee beyond diseal eell or
separa te but very closely parallel (Figure 30-15); Se and Rs in hind wing
separate along front of diseal eell, or base of Rs atrophied 55*
54'. Hind wing with Se and Rs widely separate beyond diseal eell, base of Rs
usually well developed 56
55(54). Front wings at least twiee as long as wide, costal margin often irregular
or lobed (if straight, M2and M3usually stalked); separation of Se and Rs
in hind wing generally well beyond diseal eell; proboseis sealed; color Pyralidae
variable, rarely white (Chrysauginae)* p.617
55/. Front wings less than twice as long as wide, costal margin straight; M2
and M3not stalked; separation of Se and Rs in hind wing about opposite Drepanidae
end of diseal eell; proboseis naked; white moths (Eudeilínea)
* p.627

Figure30-23 A, wings of Thyris (Thyrididae); B, wings of Malacosoma (Lasioeampi-

dae).j, frenulum; hv, humeral veins.
 Keyto the Familiesof lepidoptera 593

56(54/). Apex of front wings sickle-shaped (Figure 30-24A); Se and Rs in hind

wing separate, more or less parallel along anterior side of diseal eell Drepanidae
(as in Figure 30-24A) (Drepana)* p.627
56/. Apex of front wings not sickle-shaped; Se and Rs in hind wing not as in
preeeding entry (Figure 30-25B), yellow spots or bands in wings,
sometimes with metallic tints; Gulf states and western United States
(Figures 30-26 through 30-28) 57
57(56/). Ocelli present 58
57'. Ocelli absent 60
58(57). Basal abdominal segment with 2 rounded, domelike elevations (tympanal
hoods) dorsolaterally, occupying the length of the segment, separated by
a distance equal to their width; M3and Cu¡ in hind wing usually stalked
(Figure 30-25B); black or brownish moths with white or yellow spots or
bands in wings, sometimes with metallic tints; Gulf states and western Doidae*,Arctiidae pp.635,
United States (Arctiinae*) 640
58/. Tympanal hoods much smaller than in preceding entry or not apparent;
M3and Cu¡ in hind wing not stalked; color variable; widely distributed 59
59(58/). Hind wing with Sc and Rs separating well before middle of discal cell,
Sc not noticeably swollen at base; cubitus in hind wing appearing 3- or
4-branched (Figure 30-27); labial palps extending to middle of front or
beyond; usually dark-colored moths Pantheidae p.639

Rs
MI
M2
M3
CUI
CU2
,/
A1+2

MI
M2
M3
,/
'CUI
CU2
'A1+2

A B

Figure30-24 A, wings of Greta (Drepanidae); B, wings of Alypia (Noctuidae,

Agaristinae). acc, accessory cell;f, frenulum.
594 Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera

59'. Hind wing with Se and Rs usually fused (beyond a small basal areole) to
middle of diseal eell, or if not, then Se swollen at base; eubitus in hind
wing appearing 4-branehed (Figure 30-26); labial palps not exeeeding
middleof front;usuallylight-eoloredmoths Arctiidae p.640
60(57'). Front wings with tufts of raised seales; Se and Rs in hind wing fused
(beyond a small basal areole) to near middle of diseal eell; small moths Nolidae p.640
60/. Front wings smoothly sealed; Se and Rs in hind wing not as in preeeding
entry 61
61(60/). Hind wing with a relatively large basal areole, Se and Rs fused for only
a short distaneeat end of areole (Figure30-28) lymantriidae p.639

Figure30-25 Wings of Aretiidae. A, Cisseps (Aretiinae, Ctenuehini); B, Gnophaela

(Aretiinae, Pericopini). f, frenulum.

Se
R4
Rs
M,
M2
M3
CU1
CU2
'AI+2
BA

Figure30-26 Wings of Aretiidae.

A A, Halisidota; B, Apantesis.
BA, basal areole; f, frenulum.
 Key to the Families of Lepidoptera 595

61', Hind wing with very small basal areole or none, Se and Rs fused for
varying distance along discal cell, at most to middle of cell 62
62(61/). Labial palps short, usually not exceeding middle of face; size variable,
wingspread up to about 40 mm; often brightly colored, reddish, Arctiidae

yellowish, or white (Lithosiinae) p. 640

62'. Labial palps longer, extending to middle of face or beyond; wingspread Noctuidae

20 mm or less; dull-colored moths. (Strepsimaninae) * p. 636

63 Basal segment of antennae enlarged, concave beneath, forming an eye cap
08',24/). (Figure 30-29B) 64

RJ
R4
Rs
MI
M2
MJ
CU1
CU2
A'+2

Figure30-27 Wings of Noctuidae, with

M2 in hind wing present and Cu appear-
A, +2
ing 4-branched (A), and M2in hind wing
absent and Cu appearing 3-branched (B).
A B BA, basal areole.

RJ
R4
Rs R4
M, Rs
M2 M,
MJ M2
CU1 MJ
I CUI
CU2
/ CU2
A'+2 CuP
A'+2

Se + R, UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
,Rs
Rs M, BIBUOTECA
M2
MJ
CUI
CU2
A1+2 Figure30-28 Wings of Lymantriidae.
B A, Orgyia;B, Lymantria. BA, basal areole;
A
D, discal cell;!, frenulum.
596 Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera

A B

--ant-_

-- ---
--- - - - "mxt--- _ _
e D -----prb--E
Figure30-29 Head structure in microlepidoptera. A, Pectinophora (Ge1echiidae), lat-
eral view; B, Zenodoehium (Coleophoridae, Blastobasinae), anterior view; C, Acrolophus
(Acrolophidae), lateral view; D, lateral, and E, anterior views of Tegeticula(Prodoxidae).
ant, antenna; e, compound eye; ee, eye cap; Ip, labial palp; mxp, maxillary palp;
mxt, maxillary tentacle; prb, proboseis. (A, redrawn from Busck; B, redrawn from Dietz.)

63/. Basal segment of antennae not forming an eye cap (Figure 30-29A) 68
64(63). Maxillary palps well developed, conspicuous; wing membrane aculeate
(with minute spines under scales); proboseis scaled 65*
64/. Maxillary palps vestigial; wing membrane not aculeate; proboseis naked
(except Blastobasinae) 66
65(64). Front wing with only 3 or 4 unbranched veins; wingspread usually over
3 mm; often white Opostegidae* p.604
65/. Front wing with branched veins (Figure 30-30A); wingspread 3 mm or
less; often with metallic bands Nepticulidae
* p.604
66(64/). Labial palps miqute and drooping, or absent; ocelli absent Bedellidae*, pp.608,
Bucculatricidae, 606,
. Lyonetiidae* 608
66/. Labial palps of at least moderate size, upcurved or projecting forward;
ocelli present or absent 67
67(66/). Wings pointed at apex; hind wing without discal cell; veins beyond discal
cell in front wing diverging; no stigmalike thickening in front wing
betweenC and R¡;proboseisnaked (Phyllocnistis,etc.) Gracillariidae p.606
 Keyto the Familiesof Lepidoptera 597

A B

Figure30-30 Wings of microlepidoptera. A, Obrussa (Nepticulidae); B, Ho/cacera

(Coleophoridae, Blastobasinae); C, Ochsenheimeria (Ypsolophidae, Ochsenheimeriinae).
J, frenulum. (A, redrawn from Braun; B, redrawn from Comstock 1975 after Forbes, by
permission of Comstock Publishing Co.; C, redrawn from Davis.)

67'. Wings more or less rounded at apex; hind wing usually with a closed
cell; veins beyond discal cell in front wing nearly parallel; front wing Coleophoridae
with stigmalike thickening between C and R¡ (as in Figure 30-30B); (Blastobasinae:
proboscis scaled Calosima)* p. 609
68(63'). Maxillary palps well developed, folded in a resting position
(Figure 30-29D,E) 69
68'. Maxillary palps vestigial or, if present, projecting forward in a resting
position 73
69(68). Head smooth-scaled; Rs, when present, extending to costal margin of
wing; strongly flauened moths; southern United States, Florida to Tineidae
California (Hieroxestinae) * p. 605
69'. Head tufted, at least on vertex, or Rs extending to outer margin of wing;
widely distributed 70
70(69'). Rs in from wing extending to costal margin of wing or absent 71
70'. Rs in from wing extending te outer margin of wing Acrolepiidae
* p.608
71(70). Wing membrane aculeate (see couplet 64); amennae smooth, often very
long; female with piereing ovipositor 72
71'. Wing membrane not aculeate; antennae usually rough, with a whorl of
erect scales on each segmem; ovipositor membranous, retractile Tineidae p. 605
72(71). Folded part of maxillary palps about half as long as width of head;
dark-colored moths Incurvariidae* p. 605
72'. Folded part of maxillary palps about two thirds as long as width of head;
mostly whitish moths prodoxidae p. 604
73(68'). First segmem of labial palps as large as second or larger, palps recurved
back over head and thorax (Figure 30-29C); ocelli absent; proboseis vesti-
gial or absem; moderate-sized, stout, noctuid-like moths with eyes hairy Acrolophidae p. 605
73'. Without the combination of characters in preceding entry 74
74(73'). Distal margin of hind wings concave, apex produced (Figure 30-31C);
proboseis scaled Gelechiidae p.610
598 Chapter30 Order lepidoptera

Se

Rs
M,
M2
M3
CUI
CU2
CuP
A'+2

M2
, M3
C cu,
A1+2 CupU2

Se R,

Figure 30-31 Wings of microlepidoptera. A, and B, Tortrieidae; C, Gelechiidae;

D, Elachistidae (Stenoma, Stenomatinae). f, frenulum.

74'. Hind wings with distal margin rounded or trapezoidal, anal region well
developed, venation complete or nearly so (Figures 30-31A,B,D, 30-32);
proboseis scaled or naked (see also 74") 75
74". Wings lanceolate or linear, pointed or narrowly rounded at apex, anal
region and venation often reduced (Figures 30-33, 30-34A) 90
75(74'). CuP in front wing lacking 76*
75'. CuP present in front wing, at least apically 78
76(75). Third segment of labial palps short and blunt, palps beaklike; Rs rarely
stalked with R." usually extending to outer margin of wing (Cochylinae) Tortricidae p.613
76'. Third segment of labial palps long and slender, usually tapering, palps
generally upturned to middle of front or beyond; Rs in front wing usually
stalked with R." extending to costal margin of wing 77*
 Keyto the Families of Lepidoptera 599

R4
Rs
MI
M2
, M3
C UI
CU2
A1+ 2 CUP A'+2CuP

Sc+ R,
Rs
I
MI
M2
M3
CUI
CU2
CuP
B

Figure 30-32 Wings of microlepidoptera. A, Depressaria(Elachistidae, Depressari-

inae); B, Atteva (Yponomeutidae). acc, accessory cell;J, frenulum.

A B

Figure 30-33 Wings of microlepi-

doptera. A, Bedellia (Bedellidae);
~"
~cUPCU A1+2 'M2+ 3 B, Tínagma (Douglasiidae);
C, Coleophora (Coleophoridae);
D, Gradllaría (Gracillariidae);
E, Tíscheria (Tischeriidae); F,Antíspila
(Heliozelidae). J, frenulum. (Redrawn
from Comstock, by permission of the
Comstock Publishing Co.; A, after
E F Clemens; E and F, after Spuler.)
600 Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera

Figure30-34 Wings of lepi-

doptera. A, Elachista (Elachistidae);
B, Micropteryx (Micropterigidae).
fib, fibula. (Redrawn with permis-
sion from Comstock, J. H. 1940.
An introduction to entomology,9th
ed. Ithaca, NY: Comstock Publish-
A
ing Company.)

77(76'). Hind wing with all 3 branches of M present Copromorphidae

* p.616
77'. Hind wing with M only 1- or 2-branched Carposinidae* p.616
78(75'). Front wing with A3meeting Al+2near its middle; CU2arising at apex of
discal cell, appearing as a continuation of the Cu stem, M unbranched, Ypsolophidae
R,+s stalked (Figure 30-30C); northeastern United States (Ochsenheimeriinae)* p.607
78'. Front wing with A3meeting AI+2near its base, CU2not as in preceding
entry, M usually 2- or 3-branched, R,+s variable; widely distributed 79
79(78'). CU2in front wing arising in basal three fourths of discal cell
(Figure 30-31A,B); third segment of labial palps short and blunt, little if
any longer than wide Tortricidae p.613
79'. CU2in front wing usually arising in distal fourth of discal cell
(Figure 30-31D); labial palps variable, but third segment usually long
and slender 80
80(79'). Labial palps and proboseis well developed 81
80'. labial palps and proboseis vestigial (Solenobia) Psychidae* p.606
81(80). Vertex and upper part of face tufted with dense bristly hairs 82
81'. Upper face (and usually also vertex) smooth, with short scales 83
82(81). Wing membrane aculeate (see couplet 64); antennae longer than wings
in male; female with piereing ovipositor; day-flying Adelidae* p.604
82'. Wing membrane usually not aculeate; antennae generally short; female
with ovipositor membranous and retractile; generally nocturnal Tineidae p.604
83(81'). Rs and MI in hind wing arising close together, stalked or fused
(Figure 30-310) 84*
83'. Rs and MI in hind wing well separated at their origin, at least half as far
apart as at wing margin (Figure 30-32) 85
84(83). Front wings narrowly rounded or pointed apically (Cerostoma) Ypsolophidae* p.607
84'. Front wings broadly rounded or blunt apically (Figure 30-31D) Elachistidae p.608
85(83'). Ocelli very large and conspicuous 86*
85'. Ocelli small or absent 87
86(85). Costa strongly arched; hind wings rounded, only slightly longer than
wide; proboseis scaled basally Choreutidae* p.615
86'. Costa not strongly arched; hind wings usually more or less elongate,
distinctly longer than wide; proboseis naked Glyphipterigidae
* p.608
87(85'). R, and Rs in front wing stalked; proboseis scaled 88*
87'. R, and Rs in front wing not stalked; proboseis naked 89
 Keyto the Familiesof Lepidoptera 601

88(87). Frontwingwith stigmalikethickeningbetweenC and R¡ (Figure30-30B); Coleophoridae

hind wings narrower than front wings (Blastobasinae) p. 609
88'. Front wing without such a stigmalike thickening; hind wings usually as Elachistidae
wide as front wings (Figure 30-32A) (Depressariinae), p.608,
Amphisbatidae, 610,
Peleopodidae* 610
89(87'). M¡ and M2in hind wing stalked 110*
89'. MI and M2in hind wing not stalked Urodidae*, p.615,
Yponomeutidae 607
90(74"). Face and vertex with long, bristly hairs; antennae usually rough, with
1 or 2 whorls of erect scales on each segment; ocelli absent Tineidae p. 605
90'. Face smooth-scaled; antennae variable; ocelli present or absent 91
91(90'). Front wing with closed discal cell 92
91'. Front wing without closed discal cell 115*
92(91). Hind wing without discal cell, with R stem near middle of wing (well
separated from Sc) and with a branch extending to C at about three fifths
the wing length (Figure 30-33B); Rs in front wing free from R.¡but stalked
with M¡; labial palps stout and drooping Douglasiidae
* p.606
92'. Not exactly fitting the description in preceding entry 93
93(92'). Discal cell in front wing somewhat oblique, its apex closer to hind margin
of wing than to front margin, branches of Cu very short (Figure 30-33C) 94
93'. Discal cell in front wing not oblique, its apex not much closer to hind
margin of wing than to front margin, branches of Cu longer
(Figures 30-30B, 30-33D,F, 30-34A) 96*
94(93). Front wing with stigmalike thickening between C and R¡ (Figure 30-30B); Coleophoridae
scape of antenna with a row of long hairs (Blastobasinae) p. 609
94'. Front wing without such a stigmalike thickening; scape of antenna variable 95
95(94'). Front tibiae slender, epiphysis apical or absent; antennae turned forward
at rest Coleophoridae p. 609
95'. Front tibiae stout, epiphysis well developed, at middle of tibia; antennae Batrachedridae *,
turned backward at rest Cosmopterigidae *, p.609,
Coleophoridae 610,
(Momphinae) 609
96(93'). Front wing with 5 veins reaching costal margin beyond Sc 97*
96'. Front wing with 4 or fewer veins reaching costal margin beyond Sc 107*
97(96). Accessory cell in front wing large, at least half as long as discal
cell (Figure 30-33E); vertex with a flat tuft covering base of
antennae Tischeriidae
* p. 605
97'. Accessory cell in front wing smaller, less than half as long as discal cell,
or absent; vertex usually not as in preceding entry 98*
98(97'). Vertexmore or less tufted,or with rough, bristlyhair (Paromix) Gracillariidae* p. 606
98'. Vertex smooth-scaled 99*
99(98'). R¡ in front wing arising basad of middle of discal cell, usually at about
basal third (Figure 30-33D,E) 100*
99'. R, in front wing arising at or beyond middle of discal cell (Figures 30-30B,
30-33F, 30-34A) 102*
100(99). Front wing with stigmalike thickening between C and R¡ (Figure 30-30B); Coleophoridae
R. and Rs stalked (Blastobasinae) p. 609
100'. Front wing without such a stigmalike thickening, R. and Rs usually not
stalked (Figure 30-33D) 101*
602 Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera

101(100'). Third segment of labial palps pointed; maxillary palps folded over Cosmopterigidae
base of proboseis (Limnaecia,
Stagmatophora,
Anoncia) * p.610
101'. Third segment oflabial palps usually blunt; maxillary palps projecting
forward, rudimentary, or absent Gracillariidae* p.606
102(99'). Front wing with R¡ arising distinctly beyond middle of discal cell,
M unbranched; venation of hind wing much reduced; tip of front
wing drawn out to a narrow point Gracillariidae* p.606
102'. Front wing with R¡ arising at about middle of discal cell, M usually
2- or 3-branched; venation of hind wing usually complete; tip of front
wing not as in preceding entry 103*
103(102'). Hind tarsi with more or less distinct groups of bristles near ends of
segments; labial palps usually short, sometimes drooping; proboseis
naked Schreckensteiniidae * p.616
103'. Hind tarsi without such bristles; labial palps long, upcurved, third
segment long and tapering; proboseis scaled 104*
104(103'). R. and Rs in front wing stalked 105*
104'. R. and Rs in front wing not stalked 106*
105(104). Hind wings lanceolate, with complete venation (Borkhausenia) Oecophoridae * p.609
105'. Hind wings usually linear, with venation reduced Cosmopterigidae * p.610
106(104'). Several veins arising from end of discal cell between continuation of Elachistidae
R and Cu stems (Agonoxeninae)* p.608
106'. No veins emerging from end of discal cell between continuation of Gelechiidae (He/ice,
R and Cu stems Theisoa, etc.) * p.610
107(96'). Venation of front wing reduced, with 7 or fewer veins reaching wing
margin from discal cell (Figure 30-33F) 108*
107'. Venation of front wing complete or nearly so, with 8-10 veins
reaching wing margin from discal cell 109*

108(107). Vertex rough-scaled Gracillariidae

( Cremastobombycia,
Phy/lonorycter =
Lithoco/letis) * p.606
108'. Head entirely smooth-scaled Heliozelidae* p.604
109(107'). Vertex more or less tufted; MI and M2in hind wing stalked 110*

109'. Vertex smooth; usually no branches of M in hind wing stalked 111 *

110(89,109). Ocelli present Galacticidae *, p.615,

Plutellidae * 608
110'. Ocelli absent Yponomeutidae
(Argyresthiinae)* p.607
111(109'). R¡ in front wing arising at about two thirds the length of discal cell; Xyloryctidae
9 veins in front wing reaching margin from discal cell (Scythridinae)* p.609
111'. R¡ in front wing usually arising near middle of discal cell or more
basad; 8-10 veins in front wing reaching margin from discal cell 112*
112(111'). Labial palps long, upturned (as in Figure 30-29A); venation offront
wing usually complete, with 10 veins reaching margin from discal cell 113*

112'. Labial palps shorter, of moderate size or small, slightly upturned;

venation of front wing somewhat reduced, with only 8 or 9 veins
reaching margin from discal cell 114*
 Keyto the Familiesof Lepidoptera 603

113(112). Hind tibiae stiffly bristled, usually in tufts at the spurs; ocelli absent;
proboseis naked Epermeniidae* p.616
113'. Hind tibiae without such bristles; ocelli present or absent; proboseis Elachistidae
scaled (Agonoxeninae*),
Coleophoridae
(Momphinae*), p.608,
Cosmopterigidae* 610

114(112'). Front wing with only 1 or 2 veins arising from apex of discal cell;
hind wing with forked vein at apex (Figure 30-34A); proboseis scaled Elachistidae* p.608
114'. Front wing with at least 3 veins arising from apex of discal cell; hind
wing without forked vein at apex; proboseis naked Heliodinidae* p.608
115(91'). Front wings linear, with only 3 or 4 veins Heliodinidae
(Cycloplasis)* p. 608
115'. Front wings lanceolate, with 7 veins reaching margin Heliozelidae
(Coptodisca)* p. 604
116(1'). Moth developing in, and usually never leaving, a sac or case
constructed and carried about by the larva Psychidae p.606
116'. Moth not developing in a sac or case constructed by the larva 117
117(116'). Ocelli present 118*
117'. Ocelli absent 119
118(117). Proboseis present and naked; maxillary palps short, almost concealed;
not aquatic Tortricidae* p.613
118'. Proboseis small and scaled or vestigial; maxillary palps large; wings Crambidae(Nymphulinae,
very small; aquatic moths Acentria)* p.617
119(117'). Stout-bodied, short-legged, usually densely woolly; proboseis absent
or vestigial Lymantriidae p. 639
119'. Slender-bodied, long-legged, hairy or scaly; proboseis present Geometridae p. 628

SUPERFAMILY Micropterigoidea:These moths differ
fromother Lepidoptera in having mandibulate mouth-
parts, with the mandibles well developed and the
galeaeshort and not forming a proboseis. The venation
of the front and hind wings is similar, and a fibula is
present (Figure 30-34B). The larvae have eight pairs of
short, conical prolegs, each bearing a single claw.
Family Micropterigidae-Mandibulate Moths: This
is a small group, with only two North American
speeies, and its members are seldom encountered. One
speeies Epimartyria auricrinella (Walsingham), which
has a wingspread of about 8 mm, occurs in the East.
The larvae feed on mosses and liverworts, and the
adults feed on pollen.
SUPERFAMILY Eriocranioidea:
These moths resemble
the Micropterigidae in having the venation of the front
and hind wings similar. The middle tibiae bear a single
spur (none in Micropterigidae). The females have a
horny, piercing ovipositor. There is a single genital
opening in the female, behind the ninth sternum. Pu-
pation occurs in the ground, and the pupae (which are
exarate) have well-developed mandibles with which
they chew their way out of the cocoon. The larvae are
leaf miners. The adults have vestigial mandibles.
Family Eriocraniidae:These are small moths (wing-
spread 6.0-13.5 mm) that are similar to clothes moths
in general appearance, but they have metallic markings
in the wings. One of the best-known eastern species in
this family is Dyseriocrania auricyanea (Walsingham).
Its larvae make blotch mines in oak and chestnut and
overwinter as pupae in the soil. The moths in this fam-
ily typically fly very early in the year-February in
north Florida and late March in Virginia.
Family Acanthopteroctetidae:These moths resemble
the Eriocraniidae, but can be differentiated by the char-
acters given in the key (couplet 5). This family was es-
tablished by Davis (1978a), with four known species in
the western states from northwestern Montana to
southern California. Acanthopteroctetes unifascia Davis
is a leaf miner in Ceanothus (Rhamnaceae).
604 Chapter30 Order Lepidoptera

when the larva e are young and are often broadened

when the larvae become fully developed. The larvae
usually leave the mines to pupate, spinning cocoonsin
debris on the surface of the soil. A few species in the
'" genus Ectoedemia are gall makers. Most North Amen.
~ can species are in the genus Stigmella (= Nepticula).
c:> Family Opostegidae: The Opostegidae are small
~ moths with linear hind wings and with unbranched ra.
l dius, media, and cubitus of the front wings. The first
segment of the antenna forms a large eye cap. The lar.
vae are miners. This is a small group and contains the
Figure 30-35 A hepialid moth, Sthenopis argenteomac- single genus Pseudopostega, with nine species in North
ulatus Harris, .9x. America.
SUPERFAMILYIncurvarioidea:In this superfamily,
the female has an elongate, piercing ovipositor.
SUPERFAMILY Hepialoidea:These moths have simi- Family Heliozelidae-Shield Bearers: The helio-
lar venation in the front and hind wings, and have a zelids are small moths with lanceolate wings. The hind
well-developed jugum (Figure 30-5). The female has wings have no discal cell (Figure 30-33F). The larvae
two genital openings, but that of the corpus bursae is of the resplendent shield bearer, Coptodisca splen-
very close to the egg pore on segment 9. The larvae are doriferella (Clemens), are both leaf miners and case.
root borers.
bearers. The larvae make a linear mine in apple, wild
FamilyHepialidae-Ghost Moths and Swifts:These cherry, and related trees, and this mine is later
are medium-sized to large moths, with wingspreads of widened. When full grown, the larva makes a casefrom
25-75 mm. Most are brown or gray with silvery spots in the walls of its mine, lines it with silk, and attaches it
the wings (Figure 30-35). The name "swift" refers to the to a limb or to the trunk of the tree. There are two gen-
fact that some of these moths have an extremely rapid erations ayear, with the larvae of the second genera.
flight. They superficially resemble some of the Sphingi- tion overwintering in the cases. The front wings of the
dae. The smaller moths in this family, with wingspreads adult are dark gray at the base, the outer portian bright
of 25-50 mm, belong to the genera Gazoryctria and yellow with brown and silver markings. Thirty-one
Korscheltellus. Most of their larvae bore in the roots of species of heliozelids occur in North America.
herbaceous plants. The larger hepialids belong to FamilyAdelidae-Fairy Moths: In these small,day-
the genus Sthenopis. The larva of S. argenteomaculatus flying moths, the antennae of the males are very long,
(Harris) (Figure 30-35) bores in the roots of alder, and usually more than twice as long as the wings. The lar-
that of S. thule Strecker bares in the roots of willows. vae are leaf miners when young and case makers when
GROUPMonotrysia:Sometimesconsidered a subor- older. They feed on the foliage of trees and shrubs.
der, this group comprises the three superfamilies Nep- There are 18 North American species. The eastem
ticuloidea, Incurvarioidea, and Tischerioidea. Females species usually encountered is Adela caeruleella Walker.
have a single genital opening, located on segment 9. Family Prodoxidae: The moths in this group are or-
The venation of the front and hind wings is different ten white, and the folded part of the maxillary palpsis
(RS is branched in the front wing, but not in the hind about two thirds as long as the width of the head (Fig-
wing); a frenulum is present, and the wings are ac- ure 30-29E, mxp). The best-known moths in this
uleate (except in the Heliozelidae). group are the yucca moths (Tegeticula),of which four
SUPERFAMILY Nepticuloidea:In the adults of this species are known. The yucca is pollinated solely by
group, the antennal scape is expanded and covers the these insects. The female moth collects pollen from the
eye. The cell of the fore wing is open. yucca flowers by means of long, curled, spinelike max-
Family Nepticulidae:The Nepticulidae are minute illary tentacles (palps) and then inserts her eggs into
moths, some species of which have a wingspread of the ovary of another flower. After ovipositing, she
only 3 mm. More than 80 species are known for North thrusts the pollen she has collected onto the stigma or
America. The wing venation is somewhat reduced, and the flower in which the eggs have be en laido This action
the surface of the wings bears spinelike hairs or ac- ensures fertilization and the development of the yucca
uleae. The basal segment of the antenna is enlarged to seeds on which the larva e feed. The perpetuation of the
form an eye cap; the maxillary palps are long; and the yucca is assured, as more seeds are developed than are
labial palps are short. The male has a well-developed needed for the larvae. The bogus yucca moths of the
frenulum, but the frenulum of the female consists of genus Prodoxus lack the maxillary tentacles and cannot
only a few small bristles. Most species in this group are pollinate yuccas. Their larvae feed in the stems or fruits
leaf miners in trees or shrubs. The mines are linear of these plants.

Family Incurvariidae: These small, dark-colored
moths have the wing venation very little reduced and
the wing surface aculeate. The females have a piercing
ovipositor. The larvae of the maple leaf-cutter, Para-
demensia acerifoliella (Fitch), are leaf mining when
young and become casebearers when older. The older
larvae cut out two circular pieces of the leaf and put
them together to form a case. When the larva moves
about, it carries this case with it and looks somewhat
turtlelike. The winter is passed as a pupa inside the
case. The adult moth is a brilliant steel blue or bluish
green with an orange head.
SUPERFAMILY Tischerioidea: In this group, the fore
wing has a closed discal cell and unmodified antennal
scape. Only one family is included.
Family Tischeriidae: The Tischeriidae are small
moths in which the costal margin of the front wing is
strongly arched and the apex is prolonged into a sharp
point. The hind wings are long and narrow, with re-
duced venation (Figure 30-33E). The antennal scape
is unmodified, and the maxillary palps are small or
absent. The larvae of most species make blotch mines
in the leaves of oak or apple trees and blackberry or
raspberry bushes. The apple-Ieaf trumpet miner, Tis-
(hería malifoliella Clemens, is a common species in
the East and often do es considerable damage: The
larva makes a trumpet-shaped mine in the upper sur-
faceof the leaf, overwinters in the mine, and pupates
in the spring. There are two or more generations a
year.About 50 species of Tischeriidae occur in North
America.
SUPERFAMILY Tineoidea:The main synapomorphy
of this superfamily is the presence in females of a pair
of slender, ventral pseudapophyses in AlO. Additional
characters are the presence of erect scales on the frons,
the presence of lateral bristles on the labial palps, and
the haustellum with short, dissociated galeae.
Family Tineidae:Most tineids (about 125 North
American species) are small moths, in which the vena-
tion is rather generalized (or somewhat reduced), Rs
terminating on the costa. The maxillary palps have five
segments and are usually large and folded, and the
labial palps are short. The larvae of many species are
casebearers. Some are scavengers or feed on fungi, and
Keyto the Families of Lepidoptera 605
so me feed on woolen fabrics. The species in this group
that attack clothes and woolens (the clothes moths) are
of considerable economic importance.
The most common clothes moth is the webbing
clothes moth, Tineola bisselliella (Hummel). The adult
is straw colored, without dark spots on the wings, and
has a wingspread of 12-26 mm. The larvae feed on hair
fiber, woolens, silks, felt, and similar materials. They
do not form cases. When full grown, the larva forms a
cocoon of fragments of its food material fastened to-
gether with silk.
Second in importance among the clothes moths is
the case-making clothes moth, Tinea pellionella L. (Fig-
ure 30-36), which forms a case from silk and frag-
ments of its food material. This case is tubular and
open at each end. The larva feeds from within the case
and pupates in it. The adult is brownish, with three
dark spots on each front wing.
The clothes moth of the least importance in the
United States is the carpet moth, Trichophaga tapetzella
(L.), which builds rather long, silken tubes or galleries
to go through certain fabrics, on which it may not feed.
These tubes often have fragments of cloth woven in the
silk. Where this species is found, it is quite destructive.
The adult has a wingspread of 12-24 mm, and the front
wings are black at the base and white in the apical por-
tion.
Some authorities place the genera Phaeoses, Opog-
ona, and Oinophila in the Hieroxestidae (= Oinophili-
dae), but Davis (l978b) places them in the Tineidae.
They are small (wingspread 7.5 to 22.0 mm, mostly
15 mm or less) and usually rather plain-colored. They
differ from most Tineidae in having a smooth-scaled
head and differ from many other microlepidoptera in
having well-developed maxillary palps (two-segmented
and relativelyshort in Phaeoses,five-segmentedand as
long as the labial palps or longer in the other two gen-
era). The moths occur in the southern states, from
Florida to California. Opogona sacchari (Bojer), the ba-
nana moth, has recently become established in south-
ern Florida. lt is destructive to ornamental nursery
plants such as cane (Dracaena spp.) and bamboo.
Family Acrolophidae:This group, the burrowing
webworms, consists of small to medium-sized moths
"C
c:
'"
.<:
¡¡¡
Q)
~~ Figure 30-36 The case-
~c;! makingclothesmoth,
~ ~ Tineapellionella(L.).
~i A, larvae and cases;
i§¿¡ B, adult, 21/2X.
606 Chapter30 Order Lepidoptera
that resemble noctuids. The first segment of the labial
palps is as large as the second or larger (Figure 30-290);
the eyes are usually hairy; and the venation is com-
plete, with three anal veins in both front and hind
wings, and Rs terminating on the termen (distal mar-
gin) or apex. The 48 North American species in this
group are placed in the genus Acrolophus. The larva e
make a tubular web in the ground, sometimes extend-
ing as deep as 0.6 m, into which they retreat when dis-
turbed. They feed on the roots of grasses and also web
the grass blades at the surface. These insects often de-
stroy entire young corn plants.
Family Psychidae-Bagworms: These moths are so
named because of the characteristic bags or cases that
the larvae make and carry about. These bags are easily
seen on trees during the winter after the leaves have
fallen (Figure 30-37). The bags are made of silk and
portions of leaves and twigs. The larvae pupa te in the
bags, and most species overwinter as eggs in the bags.
When the larvae hatch in the spring, they construct
their cases and carry them about as they feed. When
full grown, they attach the case to a twig, close it, and
pupa te inside it.
The adult males of this group are generally small,
with well-developed wings, but the females are wing-
less, legless, and wormlike and normally do not leave
the bag in which they pupated. On emerging the males
fly about and locate a bag containing a female. Mating
takes place without the female leaving the bag, and the
eggs are later laid in the bag.
Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis (Haworth) is a
common species of bagworm, the larvae of which at-
tack chiefly red cedar and arborvitae. The adult males
are small, dark-colored, heavy-bodied moths with
large, clear areas in the wings.
SUPERFAMILY Gracillarioidea:Douglasiidae, Buccu-
latricidae, and Gracillariidae differ from Tineoidea and
Yponomeutoidea by the pupa bearing abdominal tergal
Figure 30-37 Bags of the bagworm, Thyridopteryx
ephemeraeformis(Haworth).
spines, adult males lacking pleurallobes on abdominal
segment 8, frons smoothly scaled, and the labial palps
without bristles.
Family Douglasiidae:The Douglasiidae are leaf mino
ers in the larval stage, and the adults are small moths
with lanceolate hind wings that lack a discal cell (Fig-
ure 30-33B). Rs in the hind wing separates from the
media near the middle of the wing. The ocelli are large.
Only seven species of douglasiids occur in North Amer-
ica. The larvae of Tinagma obscurofasciella (Chambers)
mine in the leaves of plants in the family Rosaceae.
Family Bucculatricidae:These small moths have very
narrow wings. The hind wings are often linear, with
Rs extending through the center of the wing (Fig-
ure 30-33A). Ocelli and maxillary palps are usually
lacking. The frons projects below the eye, the vertex
usually has an erect tuft of scales, the antennal scapeis
enlarged and has a row of scales that partially covers the
eye, and the haustellum is short (1.5X diameter of eye
or less). The larvae are leaf miners or live in webs be-
tween the leaves. The apple bucculatrix, Bucculatrix
pomifoliella Clemens, overwinters in rows of white, lon-
gitudinally ribbed cocoons on the twigs of apple. The
adults emerge in the spring and oviposit on the lower
surface of the leaves. The larvae enter the leaf and make
a serpentine mine on the upper surface. Silken molting
cocoons are made on the surface of the leaf before the
pupal cocoons are formed. Approximately 100 species
of Bucculatrix occur in North America.
Family Gracillariidae-Leaf Blotch Miners: This is a
large group (275 North American species) of small to
minute moths with lance ola te wings. The front wing
usually lacks an accessory cell, and the cilia of the hind
wing are longer (often much longer) than the width of
the wing; and in so me species there is a hump along
the costal margin near the base (Figure 30-330). The
adult moths at rest eleva te the anterior part of the body,
with the wing tips touching the surface on which the
moth rests. The larvae usually make blotch mines, and
the leaf is often folded.
The white-oak leaf miner, Cameraria hamadryadella
(Clemens), is a common eastern species that feeds on
various types of oak. The mines are on the upper surface
of the leaves, and each mine contains a single larva.
Many mines may occur on a single leaf (Figure 30-38A).
The larvae are flattened, with only rudiments of legs and
with an enlarged prothorax. The larva pupates in a deh-
cate cocoon inside the mine. It overwinters as a larva in
dry leaves. The adult moth is white with broad, irregu-
lar, bronze bands on the front wings.
Some species of Phyllocnistis make winding ser-
pentine mines in aspen leaves (Figure 30-38B). The
larva usually starts near the tip of the leaf and mines
toward the base, and it often must go out toward the
edge of the leaf to get across a large vein. It pupates in

2i
c::
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-g
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-5
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Figure30-38 Leaf mines of Gracillariidae. A, the
whiteoakleafminer, Cameraria hamadryadella Clemens;
B,an aspen leafminer, Phyllocnistis sp.
a silken cocoon at the end of the mine, usually at the
basaledge of the leaf.
SUPERFAMILYYponomeutoidea: This somewhat
heterogeneous group of families is characterized by
males having posterior expansions of pleuron 8 that
endose the genitalia. These moths have a naked
haustellum, which separates them from similar-
appearing Gelechioidea.
Famíly Yponomeutidae-Ermine Moths: The Ypono-
meutidae are small and usually brightly patterned
moths with rather narrow wings (Figure 30-39). The
branches of the main veins in the front wing are gener-
allysepara te, and Rs extends to the outer margin of
the wing. Rs and MI in the hind wing are separate
(Figure30-32). The ocelli are absent. The moths in the
genus Yponomeuta have front wings that are white dot-
ted with black. Their larvae feed on rosaceous plants,
such as cherry and apple. The larvae of the ailanthus
webworm, Atteva puncteIla (Cramer), live in a frail
silken web on the leaves of ailanthus and feed on the
leaves. The pupae are suspended in loose webs. The
frontwings of the adult are bright orange, marked with
four transverse bands of lead blue, each enclosing a
rowof yellow spots (Figure 30-39). There are several
formsof this species, with varying amounts of yellow
spotting. The pine needle sheath miner, ZeIleria haim-
bachiBusck, is widely distributed and attacks various
pines,sometimes doing quite a bit of damage. The first-
instar larvae mine in needles, and later instars feed in
thesheath at the base of the needle cluster, severing the
needlesand causing them to be shed. Each larva kills 6
to 10 needle clusters.
Keyto the Familiesof Lepidoptera 607
c::
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oc.
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iij
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,2 c:
ou
.c:
An ermine moth, Atteva sp. (Yponomeu-
tidae), 21/2X.
The moths in the subfamily Argyresthiinae have
narrower wings (hind wings lanceolate, with reduced
venation), and the fused bases ofMI and M2in the hind
wing form a long stalk. The Plutellidae have similar ve-
nation, but have ocelli (lacking in the Argyresthiinae).
The larvae of these moths bore in twigs, buds, and
fruits or are leaf miners, generally attacking various
trees.
The genus Argyresthia contains about 50 species
whose members attack the leaves, buds, and twigs of
various trees. The arborvitae leaf miner, A. thuieIla
(Packard), attacks the leaves of cedar. The adults are
white moths with the fronts wings spotted with
brown and have a wingspread of about 8 mm. Many
members of this group have metallic markings in the
front wings. The adults often rest with the head
against the substrate and the body held up on an
angle.
Famíly Ypsolophidae: Moths in this family have Rs
and MI stalked or coincident in the hind wing, the
ocelli are present, and the head is rough scaled. Yp-
solopha with 33 species and the single species of
Ochsenheimeria constitute the family in North America.
Larvae of Ypsolopha make open webs on many (mainly
woody) plants. Ochsenheimeria is an Old World genus,
one species of which has apparently be come estab-
lished in the Northeast. This species is the cereal stem
moth, Ochsenheimeria vacculeIla F. von Roeslerstamm,
which is a pest of winter wheat and rye in Europe and
may be come a similar pest in the United States. These
are small (wingspread 11-14 mm), slender-bodied
moths, with the front wings a mottled brownish and
the hind wings pale. They can be recognized by the
characters in the key (couplet 78).
These moths oviposit in late summer on straw
piles in the fields, and the eggs hatch in the spring. The
608 Chapter30 Order Lepidoptera
young larvae mine in the leaf blades, and older larvae
burrow into the stems. Pupation occurs between the
leaves of the host plant, and the moths emerge in early
June.
Family Plutellidae-Diamondback Moths: The
Plutellidae are similar to the Yponomeutidae, but they
hold their antennae forward at rest, and MI and M2 in
the hind wings are stalked. They differ from the Yp-
solophidae in having Rs and MI separa te in the hind
wing, and from Acrolepiidae in having M2 and CuAl
separa te in the hind wing. The name "diamondback"
refers to the fact that in the males of Plutella xylostella
(L.) the wings, when folded, show a series of three yel-
low, diamond-shaped marks along the line where the
wings meet. This speeies is a major pest of cabbage and
other cruciferous plants. The larva e eat holes in the
leaves and pupate in silken cocoons attached to the
leaves. There are 20 speeies of plutellids in North
America.
Family Acrolepiidae:These small moths are similar
to the Plutellidae but have the maxillary palps of the
folded type (porrect in the Plutellidae) and smooth
labial palps (with a tuft in the Plutellidae). This group
is a small one, with only three North American speeies.
One of these, Acrolepiopsis incertella (Chambers), oc-
curs in the northern part of the United States, from New
England lO California. lts larva skelelOnizes the leaves
of Smilax or possibly bores in the stems of lilies. The
adult's wings are gray brown, with reddish iridescence
and an oblique white stripe extending from the inner
margin near the base to about the middle of the wing.
Family Glyphipterigidae:The members of this group
are small diurnal moths, 7-15 mm in length, with rel-
atively large ocelli and with the wings shaped much
like those in Figure 30-30B. The larvae feed mostly as
seed borers in sedges and rushes. The most common
North American speeies, Glyphipterix impigritella
(Clemens), is found in the East, and also in the West
from British Columbia to California and Nevada. lts
larva is a stem and leafaxil borer of Cyperus.Thirty-six
speeies of glyphipterigids occur in North America.
Family Heliodinidae:The heliodinids are small diur-
nal moths with hind wings that are very narrow and
lance olate and have a broad fringe; the fore wing has
only five veins arising from the cell behind the apex.
The entire head is smoothly scaled, the ocelli are pres-
ent, and the proboseis is naked. The adult at rest usu-
ally holds the hind legs elevated above the wings. The
family is a small one (20 North American speeies), and
the known larvae vary in habits. The larvae of Cyelo-
plasispanicifoliella Clemensmine in the leavesof panic
grass, forming at first a linear mine that is later en-
larged to a blotch. Members of the genus Heliodines are
brightly colored orange and black day-flying moths
that feed on Mirabilis (four o'clock) in the midwest.
FamilyBedelliidae:The single genus Bedellia, with
two North American speeies, lacks ocelli, has narrow
wings (Figure 30-33A), and has R3-sand M stalkedin
the fore wing. The leaf-mining larva of Bedelliasom.
nulentella (Zeller) may be a pest of Ipomoea.
Family Lyonetiidae:Adults are very similar to those
of Bedelliidae, but the antennal scape is expanded into
an eye cap. The larvae are leaf or twig miners. Pupation
occurs outside the mine. About 20 speeies of lyonetiids
occur in North America.
SUPERFAMILY Gelechioidea: Moths of this largesu-
perfamily have a scaled base of the proboseis, upturned
labial palps, the maxillary palps scaled and folded over
the base of the proboseis, and the head smoothly
scaled; they lack thoraeic or abdominal tympana, and
chaetosemata. Recent study has produced a new classi-
fication based on characters of the immature and adult
stages (Hodges, in Kristensen, 1998).
Family Elachistidae:Speeies of Elachistidae have
lateral condyles between abdominal segments 5 and 6
and 6 and 7 of the pupa. The five subfamilies, with 331
speeies, occur widely in North America.
Subfamily Stenomatinae:These moths are larger than
most microlepidoptera, and the wings (Figure 30-31D)
are relatively broad (Figure 30-40D). The larvae livein
webs on the leavesof oaks and other trees. Antaeotricha
schlaegeri (Zeller) is a fairly common eastern species.The
adult has a wingspread of about 30 mm, and the wings
are grayish white with dark markings. When at rest, this
moth resembles bird excrement. Most species are
Neotropical.
Subfamily Ethmiinae: A few speeies in this group
are plain colored, but most are rather brightly pat-
terned, often black and white. Their larvae feed prin-
eipally on the leaves and flowers of plants in the bor-
age and waterleaf families (Boraginaceae and
Hydrophyllaceae). Ethmia discostrigella (Chambers)
is a defoliator of mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus).
Outbreaks of this insect deplete the winter ranges of
big game in Oregon and other western areas. Most of
the 50 North American speeies of Ethmiinae occur in
the West.
Subfamily Depressariinae: These are small and
somewhat flattened moths, with the wings relatively
broad and rounded apically (Figure 30-40B). The ve-
nation (Figure 30-32A) is complete, with CuP pre-
served in the front wing, R¡ and Rs in the front wing
stalked or coalesced throughout their entire length,
and Rs and MI in the hind wing separate and parallel.
The parsnip webworm, Depressaria pastinacella
(Duponchel), attacks parsnip and related plants. The
larvae web together and feed on the unfolding blossom
heads, and then burrow into the stems to pupate. The
adults appear in late summer and hibernate in pro-
tected situations.

:§. colorfu!. Hofmannophila pseudospretella (Stainton) is a
~ minor household pest, originally from Europe. The lar-
Figure30-40 Miscellaneous microlepidoptera. A, Dia-
phania hyalinata L. (Crambidae, Pyraustinae; adult of the
melonworm); B, Depressaria pastinacella (Duponchel)
(Elachistidae, Depressariinae; adult of the parsnip web-
worm); C, Gnorimoschema gallaesolidaginis (Riley)
(Gelechiidae; a goldenrod gall moth); D, Stenoma algidella
Walker (Elachistidae, Stenomatinae); E, Harrisina ameri-
cana(Guérin) (Zygaenidae; adult of the grape leaf skele-
tonizer); F, Thyris lugubris Boisduval (Thyrididae);
G, Blastobasis glandulella (Riley) (Coleophoridae,
Blastobasinae; the acorn moth); H, Fascista cercerisella
(Chambers) (Gelechiidae); 1, Stagmatophora sexnotdla
(Chamber) (Cosmopterigidae).
Subfamily Elachistinae-Grass Miners: The adults of
thisgroup have lanceolate hind wings that have a well-
formed discal cell. The venation is only slightly re-
duced (Figure 30-34A). This subfamily has 155 North
American species.
Subfamily Agonoxeninae:This is a small but widely
distributed group, many of whose members have pre-
viouslybeen placed in other families. Uttle is known of
their larval habits, but larvae of Chrysochista linneella
(Clerck) feed in the cambium of Tilia, and some Blas-
todacnaare nut and fruit borers.
Subfamily Chimabachinae:This is primarily a Euro-
peangroup, and only one species, Cheimophila salicella
(Hübner), occurs in North America. lt was introduced
into British Columbia, where it is a pest on high-bush
blueberry. This group is considered to be an indepen-
dent family in some classifications. The larvae have the
metathoracic tibiae and tarsi swollen.
Family Xyloryctidae:The subfamily Scythridinae of
this family occurs in North America. According to
Landry (1991), these 41 species known may be less
than 10% of the true extent of the family's diversity. Su-
perficialsimilarity belies extreme structural diversity in
genital characters. Adult moths usually can be recog-
nizedby the extremely smoothly scaled head and labial
palps, ocellus (when present) slightly separated from
Keyto the Familiesof lepidoptera 609
the eye, and ~ and Rs stalked in the fore wing with ~
to anterior margin and Rs to termen. Moths are diurnal
or nocturna!. The larvae of Scythris magnatella Busck
feed on willow herbs (Epilobium), folding over a por-
tion of the leaf for an individual cell.
Family Glyphidoceridae: Glyphidocera, with 10
species, is the only genus of this mainly Neotropical
family in North America. Larvae of Glyphidocera ju-
niperella Adamski feed onjuniperus.
Family Oecophoridae: These moths are often very
vae feed mainly on dead plant tissue, possibly on fungí.
Family Batrachedridae:Adults have slender wings
with a wide fringe on the hind wing. Most of the 24
species belong to the genus Batrachedra. This family
includes the palm leaf skeletonizer, Homaledra sa-
balella (Chambers), which occurs in the southern
states, where its larvae feed on the upper surface of the
leaves of the saw palmetto. A group of larvae make a
delicate silken cover over the injured portion of the leaf
and cover it with their droppings.
Family Deoclonidae: This very small family has one
species in North America, Deoclona yuccasella Busck,
reared the larva from old pods of Yucca whipplei.
Family Coleophoridae:Three of the four subfamilies
have a large number of species. Although abundant,
they are infrequently collected.
Subfamily Coleophorinae-Casebearers: The moths
in this subfamily are small, with very narrow, sharply
pointed wings. The discal cell in the front wing is
oblique, and veins Cu¡ and CU2 (when present) are
very short. There are no ocelli or maxillary palps.
About 150 species, most in the genus Coleophora, oc-
cur in the United States. The larvae are usually leaf
miners when young and casebearers when they be come
larger.
The pistol casebearer, Coleophora malivorella Riley,
is a common pest of apple and other fruit trees. The lar-
vae construct pistol-shaped cases of silk, bits of leaves,
and excrement, which they carry about. By protruding
their heads from these cases, they eat holes in the
leaves. They overwinter as larvae in the cases, and the
moths appear in midsummer.
The cigar casebearer, Coleophora serratella (L.),
also attacks apple and other fruit trees (Figure 30-41).
This species is similar to the preceding casebearer ex-
cept that the young larvae are miners in the leaves for
two or three weeks before making their cases.
Subfamily Blastobasinae:The Blastobasinae are small
moths in which the hind wings are somewhat lanceolate
and narrower than the front wings (Figure 30-30B). The
membrane of the front wing is slightly thickened along
the costa. The larva of the acorn moth, Blastobasis glan-
dulella (Riley) (Figure 30-40G), feeds inside acorns that
610 Chapter30 Order Lepidoptera
Figure 30-41 Larvae (in their cases) of the cigar case-
bearer, Coleophoraserratella (L.), on an apple leaf.
have been hollowed out by the larvae of acorn weevils.
The larvae overwinter in the acorns, and the adults ap-
pear the following summer. Species of Holcocera attack
conifers in the West. The larvae of Zenodochium cocci-
vorella (Chambers) are internal parasites of female gall-
like coccids of the genus Kermes. This species has been
found in Florida. There are 113 North American species
of blastobasines.
SubfamilyMomphinae:These moths are small,with
the wings long and narrow and usually sharply pointed
at the apex. They are very similar to some Elachistinae,
and Cosmopteriginae, and beca use these families are
separated principally by the structure of the male gen-
italia, some genera in these families cannot be sepa-
rated by our key (which is based principally on wing
venation). Most momphines have subtle but colorful
fore wing patterns, especially at the apex of the wing.
Most of the 40 North American species are in the genus
Mompha. Their larvae mainly mine or forro galls on
members of the Onagraceae.
FamilyAutostichidae:The three genera and species
are infrequently collected. Their larvae are scavengers
on plant tissue. Most species occur in dry areas of the
Palearctic from the Mediterranean to China.
Family Peleopodidae:This tropical group occursin
the United States only in the extreme South. Two
species occur in North America.
Family Amphisbatidae:Species of this familywere
included in Oecophoridae. Genital and abdominal
characters serve for recognition of this mainly New
World group. The larvae of Machimia tentoriferella
Clemens roll or tie leaves of species in nearly 20 plant
genera. Adults of Psilocorsis reflexella Clemens are
highly variable in color pattern and genital characters.
Family Cosmopterigidae:This is a fair-sized group
(180 North American species) of small moths that have
long, narrow wings, usually sharply pointed at the apex
(Figure 30-42B). Some species are rather brightly col-
ored. Most of these moths are leaf miners in the larval
stage. The larvae of the cattail moth, Lymnaecia phrag-
mitella Stainton, feed in cattail heads. The pink scav-
enger caterpillar, Pyroderces rileyi (Walsingham) (Fig-
ure 30-42B), feeds in cotton bolls. A somewhat
aberrant member of this group, Euclemensia bassettella
Clemens (placed in the subfamily Antequerinae), is an
internal parasite of female gall-like coccids of the genus
Kermes. Most species of the genus Cosmopterix, which
look similar the world over, are dark-colored with a
golden band near the apex of each front wing.
Family Gelechiidae:This familyis one of the largest
of the microlepidoptera (about 850 North American
Figure 30-42 A, the pink
bollworm, Pectinophora gossyp-
iella (Saunders) (Gelechiidae);
B, adult of the pink scavenger
caterpillar, Pyrodercesrileyi
(Walsingham) (Cosmopterigi-
dae); 4X. lnserts: lateral views
of heads. (Courtesy of Busck
and the USDAJournal of
Agricultural Research.)

Figure30-43 Injury te corn by the Angoumois grain
moth.
species), and many species are fairly common. The
moths are all rather small (Figure 30-40C,H). Veins ~
and Rs in the front wing are stalked at the base (rarely,
they are fused for their entire length), and Al+2 is
forkedat the base. The hind wing usually has the outer
marginsomewhat poimed and recurved (Figure 30-31 C).
Gelechiid larvae vary in habits. Some are leaf miners; a
fewform galls; many roll or tie leaves; and one species
isa serious pest of stored grain.
The Angoumois grain moth, Sitotroga cerealella
(Olivier), is an important pest of stored grain. The larva
feedsin the kemels of com, wheat, and other grains,
and the emerging adult leaves a conspicuous emergence
holeat one end of the kemel (Figure 30-43). The grain
maybecome infested with this insect either in the milk
stage of the growing grain or in storage. Stored grain
maybe completely destroyed by it. The adult moth is
lightgrayish brown with a wingspread of about 13 mm.
The pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella
(Saunders) (Figure 30-42A), is a serious pest of cotton
in the South and Southwest. The larvae attack the
bolls, and losses of up to 50% of the crop are not un-
cornmon in fields that are infested with this insect.
Many species in the genus Gnorimoschema form
galls in the stems of goldenrod, different species at-
tacking different species of goldenrod. The galls are
elongate, spindle-shaped, and rather thin-walled (Fig-
ure 30-44). The larva pupates in the gall, but before
pupating it cuts an opening (not quite completely
through the wall) at the upper end of the gallo When
the adult emerges, it can easily push out through this
opening. Pupation occurs in middle or late summer,
and the adults (Figure 30-40C) emerge and lay their
eggson old goldenrod plants in the fall.The eggshatch
the following spring.
Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller), the potato tuber-
worm, is a pest of potatoes and related plants. The lar-
vae mine in the leaves and bore into the tubers. Aroga
websteri Clarke periodically defoliates and kills sage-
brush over large areas of westem range land. Species in
the genus Coleotechnites are leaf miners in conifers. A
feware sometimes serious pests.
Keyto the Families of Lepidoptera 611
A B
Figure 30-44 Gall of the goldenrod gall moth, Gnori-
moschema sp. (Gelechiidae). A, exterior view; B, a gall
cut open. o, opening; cut by the larva before pupating,
through which the emerging adult escapes.
SUPERFAMILYZygaenoidea: Six families make up
the Zygaenoidea in North America. They are associated
by the late-instar larva having a retractable head. Most
are infrequently collected.
Family Epipyropidae-Planthopper Parasites: These
moths are unique in that the larvae are parasites of
planthoppers (Fulgoroidea) and other Hemiptera
Auchenorrhyncha. The moth larva feeds on the dorsal
surface of the abdomen of the planthopper, under the
wings. These moths are relatively rare, and only a sin-
gle species occurs in the United States. This is Fulgo-
roecía exigua (Edwards), a dark brownish-purple moth
with broad wings, pectinate antennae, and a wing-
spread of 8-13 mm.
Family Megalopygidae-Flannel Moths: These
moths have a dense coat of scales mixed with fine,
curly hairs, which give the insects a somewhat woolly
appearance. They are medium-sized 10 small and usu-
ally brownish in color. The larvae are also hairy, and in
addition to the usual five pairs of prolegs, they have
two pairs that are suckerlike and lack crochets. The lar-
vae have stinging spines under the hairs and can cause
even more irritation than the saddleback caterpillars.
The cocoons are tough and are provided with a lid as
in the Limacodidae. They are usually formed on twigs.
The crinkled flannel moth, Lagoa crispata (Packard), is
a common eastem species. It is a yellowish moth with
brownish spots or bands on the wings and has a wing-
spread of a little over 25 mm. The larva feeds on black-
berry, raspberry, apple, and other plants. This group is
a small one, with only 11 North American species.
612 Chapter30 Order Lepidoptera
Figure 30-45 Adult (A) and larva (B) of the saddleback caterpillar, Sibine stimu/ea
(Clemens). A, 3X. (A, courtesy of Dwight M. DeLong; B, courtesy of Peterson.
Reprinted by permission.)
Family Limacodidae-Slug Caterpillars: These in-
sects are called "slug caterpillars" because the larva e
are short, fleshy, and sluglike. The thoracic legs are
small, there are no prolegs, and the larvae move with a
creeping motion. Many of the larvae are curiously
shaped or conspicuously marked. The cocoons are
dense, brownish, and oval and have a lid at one end
that is pushed out by the emerging adult. The adult
moths (Figure 30-45A) are small to medium-sized, ro-
bust, and hairy and are usually brownish and marked
with a large, irregular spot of green, silver, or some
other color.
One of the most common species in this group is
the saddleback caterpillar, Sibine stimulea (Clemens).
The larva (Figure 30-45B) is green with a saddlelike
brown mark on the back. These larva e have stinging
hairs and can cause severe irritation to the skin. They
feed principally on various trees.
Family Dalceridae:This is a Neotropical group, one
species of which has been reported from Arizona:
Dalcerides ingenita (Edwards). This moth is rather
woolly and resembles a flannel moth. lt has dark yel-
low or orange front wings, orange hind wings, and a
wingspread of 18-24 mm.
Family Lacturidae: The six species of Lactura were
formerly placed in Yponomeutidae. They are mainly
southern. Lactura pupula (Hübner) of the Southeast
has cream-colored fore wings that have black lines an-
teriorly and distally and black spots posteriorly. The
hind wings are uniformly orange.
FamilyZygaenidae-SmokyMoths and Burnets:The
smoky moths are small, gray or black moths, usually
with a reddish prothorax and often with other bright
markings. Some exotic species, such as the European
burnets and some large Chinese species, are often very
colorful. The larvae have tufted hairs, and the more
common North American species feed on grape or Vir-
ginia creeper. The grape leaf skeletonizer, Harrisina
americana (Guérin-Méneville), is a cornmon species in
this group. The adult is a small, narrow-winged, smoky
moth with a reddish collar (Figure 30-40E), and the
larvae are yellow with black spots. A number of these
larvae feed on the same leaf, lined up in a row and back-
ing up as they skeletonize the leaL There are 22 North
American species of smoky moths.
SUPERFAMILYSesioidea:The Sesiidae is the only
family of Sesioidea in America north of Mexico.
Family Sesiidae-Clearwing Moths: The greater
part of one or both pairs of wings in this family lacks
scales, and many species very strikingly resemble
wasps (Figure 30-46). The front wings are long and
narrow, with the anal veins reduced, and the hind
wings are broad, with the anal area well developed
(Figure 30-47). The sesiids have a wing-coupling
mechanism somewhat similar to that in the Hy-
menoptera. Many species are brightly colored, and vir-
tually all are active during the day. The two sexes are
often colored differently, and in some cases they differ
in the amount of clear area in the wings. The larvae
bore in the roots, stems, canes, or trunks of plants or
trees and often cause considerable damage. There are
115 species of sesiids in North America.
The peach tree borer, Synanthedon exitiosa (Say),is
one of the most important species in this family. The fe-
males lay their eggs on the trunks of peach trees near
the ground, and the larvae bore into the tree just below
the surface of the ground, often girdling the tree. There
is one generation ayear, and the larvae overwinter in
 Keyto the Familiesof Lepidoptera 613

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Family Cossidae-Carpenter Moths and Leopard

Figure30-46 The peach tree borer, Synanthedon exi-
[jasa (Say) (Sesiidae), P/2X. A, male; B, female.
their burrows in the tree. The female has the front
wingsfully scaled, and the abdomen is marked with a
broad orange bando The male has both the front and
thehind wings largely clear, and the abdomen is ringed
withseveral narrow yellow bands (Figure 30-46). The
adults are active throughout the summer. The lesser
peachtree borer, S. pictipes (Grote and Robinson), has
similar habits, but the larvae generally bore into the
trunk and larger branches. Both sexes resemble the
maleof S. exitiosa.
The squash vine borer, Melittia cucurbitae (Harris),
isa serious pest of squash and related plants. The lar-
vaebore into the stems and often destroy the planto
This species overwinters as a pupa in the soil. The
adults are a litde larger than those of the peach tree
barer and have olive green front wings and clear hind
wings.The hind legs are heavily clubbed, with a long
fringeof orange scales.
The currant borer, Synanthedon tipuliformis
(Clerck), is a small moth with a wingspread of about
18mm. The larva bores in the stems of currants, and
pupation occurs in the stems. The adults appear in
earlysummer.
Sesiid sex pheromones have been synthesized for
the capture of the males of such pest species as the
peach tree borer, and these pheromones attract almost
allmale sesiids.
Moths: The cossids bore and feed in wood in the larval
stage, and this habit defines the family within the
higher Lepidoptera. The adults are medium-sized and
heavy-bodied, and the wings are usually spotted or
motded. The carpenterworm, Prionoxystus robiniae
(Peck), is a common species that attacks various trees.
The adult (Figure 30-48A) is a motded gray and has a
wingspread of about 50 mm. These insects may some-
times seriously damage trees. The leopard moth, Zeuzera
pyrina (L.), a slighdy smaller moth with the wings pale
and marked with large black dots (Figure 30-48B), has
similar habits. These moths require two or three years
to complete their life cycle. About 45 species occur in
North America.
SUPERFAMILY Tortricoidea: All females in members
of the single family Tortricidae have large, flattened
ovipositor lobes. Vein CuA2 arising well before the end
of the fore wing cell is characteristic of adults.
FamilyTortricidae:This is one of the largest families
of the microlepidoptera, with about 1,200 North Amer-
ican species, and many of its members are common
moths. This group contains a number of important pest
species. These moths are small, usually gray, tan, or
brown, and often have dark bands or motded areas in
the wings, or occasionally colorful with metallic spots.
The front wings are usually rather square-tipped. The
wings at rest are held rooflike over the body. The larvae
vary in habits, but many species roll or tie leaves, usu-
aUy feeding on perennial plants. Many bore into vari-
ous parts of the planto
A tortricid that is an important pest of apples and
other fruits is the codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.)
(Figure 30-49). The adults appear in late spring and
lay their eggs, which are flattened and transparent, on
614 Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera

ilar situations. In the eastern United States a second

generation follows in the late summer, with the full-
grown larvae overwintering in cocoons under the bark
of apple trees and in other protected places.
The oriental fruit moth, Grapholitha molesta
(Busck), is an oriental species that is widely distributed
in the United States. It is a serious pest of peaches and
other fruits. lt has several generations ayear. The lar-
.§' vae of the first generation bore into the young green
~ twigs, and the later-generation larvae bore into the
~ fruits much as the codling moth does. The winter is
t passed as a full-grown larva in a cocoon.
A e::> This group includes a number of important forest
pests. Perhaps the most serious are the spruce bud-
worms: Choristoneura, particularly C. fumiferana
(Clemens) in the East and C. occidentalis Freeman in
the West (Figure 30-50). These insects are very serious
defoliators, feeding on the buds of new foliage, and
they sometimes explode in large outbreaks. Sustained
attacks will kill a tree. The western black-headed bud-
worm, Acleris gloverana (Walsingham), often causes
extensive damage to various conifers in the West (oast
g' states and in western Cana da. lt also sometimes occurs
~ in outbreak numbers. The genus Rhyacionia contains
:;i the pine tip moths-several species whose larvaemine
~~ in the buds and shoots of young pines. The attacked
e::>
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Figure30-48 Cossid moths. A, the carpenter moth,

Prionoxystus robiniae(Peck), P/2X; B, the leopard moth, E
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3X.

the surface of leaves. The young larva e crawl to young

apples and chew their way into the fruits, usually en-
tering by the blossom end. They are light-colored with
a dark head. They complete their development in the Figure30-50 Larva (A) and adult (B) of the spruce
fruits and pupa te in the ground, under bark, or in sim- budworm, Choristoneurafumiferana (Clemens).

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Figure30-51 A, adult of the fmit tree leafroller, Archips argyrospilus (Walker),
2X (Tortricidae); B, adult of the grape berry moth, Endopiza viteana Clemens, 4X
(Tortricidae) .
treesare seldom killed, but they are deformed and their
growthis retarded. The fruit-tree leaf roller, Archips ar-
gyrospilus(Walker) (Figure 30-5IA), is a rather com-
montortricid that makes an unsighdy leaf nest in fruit
andforest trees and often causes serious defoliation.
A number of other species in this family are occa-
sionallydestructive to various crops. The grape berry
moth, Endopiza viteana Clemens (Figure 30-5IB),
[eedsin the larval stage in the berries of grape. It has
twogenerations ayear. The strawberry leaf roller, An-
cyliscomptana(Frólich), attacks the foliage of straw-
berries and often do es severe damage. The black-
headed fireworm, Rhopobota naevana (Hübner), is a
common pest that feeds on clover heads, destroying
unopened buds and decidedly reducing the crop of
seed.This insect has three generations ayear and
passesthe winter as a pupa.
A species in this family that is something of a cu-
riosityis the Mexican jumping-bean moth, Cydia de-
shaisiana(Lucas). The larva lives in the thin-walled
seedsof Sebastiana and, after consuming the inside of
theseed, throws itseU forcibly against the thin wall when
disturbed,causing the jumping movements of the seed.
This family is divided into three subfamilies, the
Chlidanotinae, Tortricinae, and Olethreminae.
The tribe Cochylini (Tortricinae) includes a num-
berof species whose larvae are web-spinners and bor-
ers.Most attack herbaceous plants. The adults are sim-
ilar to other Tortricidae, but vein CuP is completely
lackingin the front wing, and CU2in the front wing
arisesin the apical fourth of the discal cell; MI in the
hind wing is usually stalked with Rs. Aethes rutilana
(Hübner) attacks juniper, tying the leaves together to
[onna tube in which the larva lives. The adult of this
specieshas a wingspread of abom 25 mm, and the front
wings are orange, marked with four brownish cross
bands.
There are 110 North American species of Cochylini,
andonly three of the Chlidanotinae. The latter group is
Keyto the Families of Lepidoptera 615
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primarily tropical, and the North American species are
in the genus Thaumatographa (= Hilarographa).
SUPERFAMILYGalacticoidea: The somewhat anom-
alous small family Galacticidae has one introduced
species in North America.
Fami/y Galacticidae: This family includes the intro-
duced mimosa webworm, Homadaula anisocentra
Meyrick, which is a serious defoliator of mimosa and
honey locust. This insect was first recorded in the
United States in 1942, in Washington, De. Since then
it has spread southward to Florida and westward to
Kansas and Nebraska, and there is a small colony in the
vicinity of Sacramento, California.
SUPERFAMILYChoreutoidea: The single family
Choreutidae has been placed in the Yponomeutoidea,
but the scaled proboscis and very small maxillary palps
are distinctive.
Family Choreutidae:Members of this family are small
diurnal moths, somewhat similar to the Tortricidae in
general appearance but usually more colorful, with rela-
tively broad wings, a scaled proboscis, and large ocelli.
The larvae are mosdy leaf tiers. The apple and thorn
skeletonizer, Choreutes panana (Clerck), is a pest of ap-
pIe trees, especially in British Columbia. It ranges across
southern Canada, going south into New England, Col-
orado, and Oregon. This species also occurs in Europe,
from where it was introduced into North America. Trop-
ical species sometimes come into Florida, and the total
North American fauna of choreutids is about 40 species.
SUPERFAMILY Urodoidea:The mainly tropical fam-
ily Urodidae is the only member of superfamily
Urodoidea in North America.
Family Urodidae:Urodesparvula (Hy.Edwards) oc-
curs in Florida, where it may be common. The larva
feeds on Persea, Bumelia, Hibiscus, and other plants.
The European Wockia aspenpuntella (Bruand) is an in-
troduction to the Northeast.
SUPERFAMILY Schreckensteinioidea:Members of the
single family are similar to heliodinids and stath-
UNNERSIDAD
DECAUJAS
616 Chapter 30 Order Lepidoptera
mopodines in wing shape and the adult habit of hold-
ing the hind legs upward when at rest. They differ in
lacking a scaled proboseis and ocelli.
Family Schreckensteiniidae:
Three speeies of this
family occur in North America. Larvae feed on sumac
and Rubus.
SUPERFAMILY Epermenioidea:This superfamily has
a single cosmopolitan family.
Family Epermeniidae:This is a small group (ll
North American speeies) of moths formerly placed in
the Scythrididae. The posterior margin of the fore wing
usually has one or more triangular groups of scales.
The larvae of Epennenia pimpinella Murtfeldt form
puffy mines in parsley. The pupa is enclosed in a rather
frail cocoon on the underside of a leaf or in an angle of
a leaf stalk.
SUPERFAMILYAlucitoidea: Superfamily Aluei-
toidea, a small, worldwide group has one family in
North America.
Family Alucitidae-Many-Plume Moths: The aluei-
tids resemble the pterophorids, but have the wings split
into six plumelike divisions. Only one named speeies
in this family, Alucita hexadactyla L., occurs in the
United States. The adults have a wingspread of about
13 mm. This insect, which was introduced, occurs in
the northeastern states. Several undescribed speeies of
Alueitidae are in North America.
SUPERFAMILY Pterophoroidea:The single family in
Pterophoroidea occurs almost worldwide.
Family Pterophoridae-Plume Moths: These moths
are small, slender, and usually gray or brownish and
have the wings split into two or three featherlike divi-
sions (Figure 30-52). The genus Agdistis is unusual in
having no wing splits. The front wing usually has two
divisions, and the hind wing three. The legs are rela-
tiveiy long. When at rest, the front and hind wings are
folded close together and are heid horizontally, at right
angles to the body. The larvae of plume moths are leaf
rollers and stem borers, and some occasionally do seri-
ous damage. The grape plume moth, Geina perisceli-
dactylus (Fitch), is common on grape vines. The larvae
Figure 30-52 Plume moths (Pterophoridae). A, Stenoptilodes baueri (Lange), female;
B, S. grandis (Walsingham), female; 2X. (Courtesy of Lange and Hilgardia.)
tie together the terminal portions of the leaves andfeed
inside this shelter. Many plume moths have very spiny
pupae. This is a fair-sized group, with 146 speciesin
North America.
SUPERFAMILYCopromorphoidea:SuperfamilyCo.
promorphoidea is a relatively small group of more than
16 speeies, in two families.
Family Copromorphidae:This is a predominantly
tropical group, with only five speeies occurring in the
United States and Canada. They occur along the Pacific
Coast from British Columbia to Mexico and east to Col.
orado. They are similar to the Carposinidae but differin
having all three branches of M present in the hind wing.
The larva of Lotisma trigonana Walsingham is a fmit
borer in Arbutusand Gaultheria(Ericaceae). The other
speeies in the family are in the genus Ellabella.
Family Carposinidae:The moths in this group have
relativeiy broad wings with raised scale tufts on the
front wings, and there is no M2 (and usually also no
MI) in the hind wings. This group is a small one, with
only II speeies in North America. The larvae whose
habits are known bore into fruits, plant shoots, and the
gummy enlargements of fruit trees. The larvae of the
currant fruitworm, Carposina femaldana Busck, feed
on the fruits of the currant. The infested fruit eventu-
ally drops, and the larva e pupate in the soil.
Famí/y Hyblaeidae: These moths are similar to the
Noctuidae but differ in having two distinct anal veins
in the front wing. This is a tropical group, one species
of which occasionally occurs in the southern states.
This speeies is Hyblaea puera (Cramer), which has the
front wings brownish and the hind wings yellowish
with two dark-brown cross bands. It has a wingspread
of about 26 mm. Hyblaeid larvae in Australia can re-
gurgitate the contents of the gut and squirt them sev-
eral centimeters when disturbed.
SUPERFAMILY Thyridoidea:Thyridoids lack abdom-
inal tympana and have naked tongues, characters
that separa te them from the Pyraloidea. Their larvae
share with hyblaeids the ability to eject the contents
of the gut.

Family Thyrididae-Window-Winged Moths: The
thyrididsare often small and dark-colored and have
clear spaces in the wings (Figure 30-40F). All
branchesof the radius are present, and they arise from
theusually open discal cell (Figure 30-23A). Some lar-
vaeburrow in twigs and stems and cause gall-like
swellings.Others feed on flowers and seeds. The most
commoneastern species is probably Dysodia ocultana
Clemens,which occurs in the Ohio Valley. Dysodia lar-
vaeform leaf rolls with a faint but noticeable foul
smell.Some tropical species are more colorful, and a
fewof these may occur in the Florida Keys.
SUPERFAMILY Pyraloidea-Snout and GrassMoths:
Thesuperfamily Pyraloidea is the third largest in the
order,with more than 1,375 species occurring in the
UnitedStates and Canada. Most pyraloids are small
andrather delicate moths, and all have abdominal tym-
panalorgans and a scaled proboscis. The front wings
areelongate or triangular, with the cubitus appearing
four-branchedand the hind wings usually broad. Veins
Seand R in the hind wing are usually close together
andparallel opposite the discal cell (the base of R is
usuallyatrophied), and are fused or closely parallel for
ashort distance beyond the discal cell (Figure 30-15).
Beeausethe labial palps are often projecting, these
mothsare sometimes called "snout moths."
The members of this superfamily vary greatly in
appearance, venation, and habits. The superfamily
consistsof two families, which are divided into a num-
berof subfamilies, only a few of which can be me n-
tionedhere.
FamilyPyralidae:In this family the praecinctorium
isabsent and the tympanal case is closed medially. Rep-
resentativeNorth American subfamilies are Galleriinae,
Chrysauginae,Pyralinae, Epipaschiinae, and Phycitinae.
Subfamily Galleriinae:The best-known member of
thissubfamilyis the bee moth or wax moth, Gallería
mellonella (L.). The larva occurs in beehives, where it
feedson wax. It often does considerable damage. The
adulthas brownish front wings and a wingspread of
about25 mm.
Subfamily Pyralinae: This subfamily (27 North
Americanspecies) is a group of small moths. The lar-
vaeof most species feed on dried vegetable matter. One
ofthe most important species in this subfamily is the
mealmoth, Pyralis farinalis L. The larva feeds on cere-
als,flour, and meal and makes silken tubes in these ma-
terials.The larvae of the clover hayworm, Hypsopygia
costalis (Fabricius), live in old stacks of clover hay.
Subfamily Phycitinae:The subfamily is a large one
(about400 North American species), and most of the
members have long, narrow front wings and broad
hindwings. The larvae vary considerably in habits. The
best-knownspecies in this subfamily are those that at-
taekstored grain: the Indian meal moth, Plodia inter-
Key to the Families of Lepidoptera 617
Figure30-53 The Mediterranean flour moth, Anagasta
kuehniella (Zeller), 4X.
punctella (Hübner), and the Mediterranean flour moth,
Anagasta kuehniella (Zeller). The former is a gray moth
with the apical two thirds of the front wings dark
brown, and the latter is uniformly gray (Figure 30-53).
Both moths are rather small. The larvae of the Indian
meal moth feed on cereals, dried fruits, meal, and nuts
and spin webs over these materials. They often cause
enormous losses in stored food supplies. The Mediter-
ranean flour moth attacks all types of grain products
and is an important pest in granaries, warehouses, mar-
kets, and homes.
The cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg), has
be en introduced into Australia to control the prickly
pear cactus. This moth has successfully destroyed the
dense cactus growth over many square miles of territory
in New South Wales and Queensland. It now occurs in
the southern United States (Florida, Georgia, South
Carolina), probably as an accidental introduction.
Several species of Dioryctria bore into the cam-
bium of the trunk, branches, and shoots and in the
fresh cones of pines and other conifers. They are espe-
cially damaging to ornamentals and forest plantations,
and the species attacking cones are probably the most
damaging of the insect pests of forest tree seeds. .
Another interesting species in this subfamily is the
coccid-eating pyralid, Laetilia coccidivora Comstock,
the larva of which is predaceous on the eggs and young
of various scale insects.
Family Crambidae:In this family the praecincto-
rium is present and the tympanum is open mesally.
Subfamilies present in North America are the Scopari-
inae, Crambinae, Schoenobiinae, Cybalomiinae, Nym-
phulinae, Evergestinae, Glaphyriinae, and Pyraustinae.
Subfamily Crambinae-Close-Wings or Grass Moths:
These are common moths in meadows, where the lar-
vae (known as "sod webworms") bore into the stems,
crowns, or roots of grasses. Most feed about the base of
grasses, where they construct silken webs. The moths
are usually whitish or pale yellowish brown and, when
at rest, hold the wings close about the body (hence the
618 Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera

Subfamily Nymphulinae: The larvae of most Nyrn-

Figure30-54 The sugarcane borer, Díatraea sacchar-
alis (Fabricius) (Crambidae, Crambinae), 2X. (Courtesy
of U5DA.)
name "close-wing"). An important pest species in this
subfamily is the sugarcane borer, Diatraea saccharalis
(Fabricius) (Figure 30-54), the larva ofwhich bores in
the stalks of sugarcane. Most species in this group be-
long to the genus Crambus and related genera.
phulinae are aquatic, often breathing by means ofgills
and feeding on aquatic plants. The water lily leaf cut-
ter, Synclita obliteralis (Walker), lives on greenhouse
water plants, in cases made of silk. Adult femalesdive
underwater to lay eggs.
Subfamily Pyraustinae:The subfamily is a large
group (more than 375 North American species), and
many of its members are relatively large and conspicu-
ously marked. The most important species in this sub-
family is the European com borer, Ostrinia nubilalis
(Hübner), which was introduced into the United 5tates
abou t 1917 and has since spread over a large part ofthe
central and eastem states. The larvae live in the stalks
of com and other plants and frequently do a great deal
of damage. This species has one or two generationsa
year. lt overwinters in the larval stage. The adult moths
(Figure 30-55) have a wingspread of a liule over
25 mm and are yellowish brown with darker markings,

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com; B, larva; C, adults (male at left, female at right); 2X.

Thegrape leaf folder, Desmia funeralis (Hübner), is a
blackmoth with two white spots in the front wing and
onewhite spot in the hind wing. The larva feeds on
grapeleaves, folding the leaf over and fastening it with
silk.The melonworm, Diaphania hyalinata (L.), is a
glisteningwhite moth with the wings bordered with
black(Figure 30-40A). The larva is primarily a foliage
feederon melons and related plants. Other important
speciesin this subfamily are the pickleworm, Diapha-
nianitidalis (Stoll), and the garden webworm, Achyra
rantalis (Guenée).
SUPERFAMILY Hesperioidea:The single family Hes-
periidaeis included in this superfamily.
Family Hesperiidae-Skippers: The skippers are for
the most part small and stout-bodied, and they get
theirname from their fast and erra tic flight. They differ
fromthe butterflies (Papilionoidea) in that none of the
fiveR branches in the front wings are stalked, and all
arisefram the discal cell (Figure 30-8). The antennae
arewidely separated at the base, and the tips are usu-
alIyrecurved or hooked (Figure 30-7B). Most skippers
atrest hold the front and hind wings at a different an-
gle.The larvae are smooth, with the head large and the
neckconstricted. They usually feed inside a leaf shel-
ter,and pupation occurs in a cocoon made of leaves
fastenedtogether with silk. Most species overwinter as
larvae,either in leaf shelters or in cocoons.
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Keyto the Families of Lepidoptera 619
Nearly 300 species of skippers occur in North
America. Most, including all the eastern species, belong
to two subfamilies, the Pyrginae (Hesperiinae of some
authors) and the Hesperiinae (the Pamphilinae of some
authors). Two other subfamilies, the Pyrrhopyginae and
Heteropterinae, occur in the South and Southwest.
Subfamily Pyrrhopyginae: These skippers have the
antennal club wholly reflexed; that is, the tip of the an-
tenna is bent back before the club. This group is prin-
cipally tropical, but one species, Pyrrhopyge araxes
(Hewitson), occurs in southern Texas and Arizona.
This is a large (wingspread 45-60 mm), dark-colored
skipper with light spots in the front wings, and the
wings are held horizontally when at rest. The larvae
feed on oak.
Subfamily Pyrginae: In the front wings of the
Pyrginae, the discal cell is usually at least two thirds as
long as the wing. M2 arises midway between MI and M)
and is not curved at the base (Figure 30-8A). The mid-
dIe tibiae lack spines. The males of some species have
a costal fold, a long, slitlike pocket near the costal mar-
gin of the front wing, which serves as a scent organ.
Some species have scale tufts on the tibiae. Most skip-
pers in this group are relatively large grayish or black-
ish insects (Figure 30-56A,E,F).
One of the largest and most common species in
this subfamily is the silver-spotted skipper, Epargyreus
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..c: Figure 30-56 Skippers (Hesperiidae).
.O>
A, the silverspottedskipper,Epargyreus
clarus (Cramer) (Pyrginae), underside
of wings, natural size; B, the least skip-
per, Ancyloxipha numitor (Fabricius)
(Hesperiinae), P/2x; C, the Hobomok
skipper, Poanes hobomok (Harris)
(Hesperiinae), P/2x; D, Peck's skipper,
o> Polites peckius (Kirby) (Hesperiinae);
c:
Q) E, checkered skipper, Pyrgus communis
<:)
(Grote) (Pyrginae), P/2x; F, the north-
..c:
<:) (Scudder) (Pyrginae), slightly enlarged.
620 Chapter30 Order Lepidoptera

C> C>
§ I c:
aj . .3
Q)

:t
Cl Cl

"'"
C>
"'"
C>
.§ §
Cl Cl

Figure 30-57 Swallowtail butterflies.

A, the zebraswallowtail,Euryditesmarcellus
C>
c: (Cramer);B, the tigerswallowtail,Papilio
.3
Q)
Cl glaucusL.; C, the blackswallowtail,Papilio
polyxenes asterius Stoll, male; D, the giant
~ swallowtail, Papilio cresphontes Cramer.
¿; About one third natural size.

claros (Cramer). lt is dark brown with a large yellow-
ish spot in the front wing and a silvery spot on the un-
derside of the hind wing (Figure 30-56A). The larva
feeds on black locust and related plants. The species
overwinters as a pupa.
Subfamily Heteropterinae: This group is repre-
sented in North America by only five species (one in
the genus Carterocephalus and four in the genus
Pirona), and they are seldom encountered.
Subfamily Hesperiinae-Tawny Skippers. Giant Skip-
pers: In these skippers the discal cell in the front wings is
less than two thirds as long as the wing. M2 in the front
wings is usually curved at the base and arises nearer to
M3 than to MI (Figure 30-8B). The middle tibiae are of-
ten spined. The tawny skippers (Figure 30- 56B-D) are
usually brownish, with an oblique dark band (often
called the stigma or brand) across the wing of the males.
This dark band consists of scales that serve as outlets for
the scent glands. Giant skippers have a wingspread of
40 mm or more, and the antennal club is not recurved as
in most other skippers. Giant skippers are stout-bodied
and fast-flying. When at rest, they hold the wings verti-
cally above the body. The larvae bore in the stems and
roots of yucca and related plants. Maguey worms are the
larvae of a giant skipper.
SUPERFAMILYPapilionoidea-Butterflies: Charac-
lowtails) are large, usually dark-colored butterflies that
have the radius in the front wing five-branched and
usually have one or more tail-like prolongations on the
rear side of the hind wing (Figure 30-57). The Pamas-
siinae (parnassians) are medium-sized and usually
white or gray with dark markings (Figure 30-58); the
radius in the front wing is four-branched; and there are
no tail-like prolongations on the hind wings.
Subfamily Parnassiinae-Parnassians: The pamas-
sians are medium-sized butterflies that are usually white
or gray with dark markings on the wings (Figure 30-58).
Most have two small, reddish spots in the hind wings.
These butterflies pupate on the ground, among fallen
leaves, in loose, cocoonlike structures. After mating, the
maIe secretes a hard-drying substance over the genital
opening of the female,thus preventing other malesfram
inseminating the same female. The parnassians are prin-
cipally montane and boreal in distribution.
Subfamily Papilioninae-Swallowtails: This group
contains the largest and some of the most beautifully
colo red North American butterflies. In many species
the two sexes are somewhat differently colored. This
.. . . .<~.:
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.

/I~
..
ters of the thorax unite the four families that have '
'..~ . ~..
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about 560 species in North America. Their large size, ... . 11
often conspicuous color patterns, and diurnal habits
make butterflies a prominent element North American
insect fauna. __
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Family Papilionidae-Swallowtails and Parnassians:

Two subfamilies of papilionids occur in North Amer-
ica, the Papilioninae and the Parnassiinae. These are Figure 30-58 A parnassian, Pamassius c/odius baldur
sometimes given family rank. The Papilioninae (swal- Edwards. About two thirds natural size.

i..

group contains the largest butterflies in the world, the
giant birdwings of southeast Asia and Australia, some
ofwhich have a wingspread of about 255 mm. The lar-
vae are usua11y smooth-bodied and have an eversible
scent gland or osmeterium (Figure 30-3, osm). This
gland is everted from the upper part of the prothorax
whenthe larva is disturbed, and gives off a disagreeable
odor. 50me larvae have markings like eyespots at the
anterior end and resemble the head of a sma11 verte-
brate. This resemblance, together with the "forked
tongue" appearance of the scent gland, makes them
seem quite ferocious-though they are actua11y quite
harmless.The chrysalis is attached to various objects by
the cremaster and is held more or less upright by a silk
girdle about the middle of the body (Figure 30-4A).
Thewinter is passed in the chrysalis.
5wa11owtails are widely distributed, but the fol-
lowingspecies are fairly common in the eastem states:
The black swa11owtail, Papilio polyxenes asterius 5to11
(Figure30-57C), is largely black, with two rows of yel-
lowspots around the margin of the wings. The female
hasquite a bit of blue between the two rows of ye110w
spots in the hind wings. The larva feeds on carrot
leaves,parsley, and related plants. The tiger swa11ow-
tail, Papilio glaucus L. (Figures 30-57B, 35-21), is a
large,ye110wswa110wtail with black stripes in the front
wingsand black wing margins. In some individuals the
wings are almost entirely black. The larva feeds on
cherry, birch, poplar, and various other trees and
shrubs. The spicebush swa11owtail, Papilio troilus L., is
blackish,with a row of sma11,ye110wishspots along the
marginsof the front wings and extensive blue-gray ar-
casin the rear half of the hind wings. The larva feeds
on spicebush and sassafras. The zebra swa11owtail, Eu-
rytidesmarcellus(Cramer) (Figure 30-57A), is striped
withblack and greenish white and has relatively long
tails. The larva feeds on pawpaw. This species shows
considerable variation, because the adults emerging in
differentseasons differ slightly in their markings. The
pipe-vineswa11owtail,Battus philenor (L.), is largely
black,with the hind wings shading into meta11icgreen
posteriorly. The larva feeds on Dutchman's-pipe. The
giant swa110wtail or orangedog, Papilio cresphontes
(ramer (Figure 30-57D), is a large, dark-colored but-
Keyto the Familiesof Lepidoptera 621
terfly with rows of large, ye110w spots on the wings.
The larva feeds chiefly on citrus in the 50uth and on
prickly ash in the North.
Family Pieridae-Whites, Sulphurs, and Orange-
tips: The pierids are medium-sized to sma11butterflies,
usua11ywhite or ye110wish in color with black marginal
wing markings. The radius in the front wing is usua11y
three- or four-branched (rarely five-branched in some
orange-tips). The front legs are we11developed, and the
tarsal claws are bifid. The chrysalids are elongate and
narrow and are attached by the cremas ter and by a
silken girdle around the middle of the body. Many
pierids are very common and abundant butterflies and
are sometimes seen in mass migrations.
The 63 North American species of pierids are
arranged in three subfamilies, the Pierinae (whites and
orange-tips), Coliadinae (sulphurs or ye11ows), and
Dismorphiinae. The Dismorphiinae are a tropical
group, only one species of which occasiona11y gets into
southern Texas.
Subfamily Pierinae-Whites and Orange-tips:
These butterflies are usua11y white. There is usua11y a
distinct humeral vein in the hind wing, and the third
segment of the labial palps is long and tapering. One of
the most common species in this group is the cabbage
butterfly, Pieris rapae (L.) (Figure 30-59B), the larva of
which often does considerable damage to cabbage and
related plants. lt has two or more generations ayear
and overwinters as a chrysalis. The pine butterfly,
Neophasiamenapia (Felder and Felder), is a white that
is very destructive to ponderosa pine in the northwest-
ern states.
Orange-tips are sma11, white butterflies with dark
markings (Figure 30-59A). The underside of the wings
is mottled with green, and the front wings of many
species are tipped with orange. These butterflies are
mainly westem. Only two species occur in the East,
and they are relatively rare. The larvae feed on crucif-
erous plants.
Subfamily Coliadinae-Sulphurs or Yellows: These
pierids are ye110wor orange and usua11yhave the wings
margined with black. Rarely, they may be white with
black wing margins. The humeral vein in the hind
wing is lacking (Figure 30-13B) or represented by just
g' Figure30-59 Pierid butterflies.
~ A, an orange-tip, Euchloe creusa lotta
~ Beutenmüller; B, the cabbage butterfly,
~ Pieris rapae (L.). A, slightly enlarged;
~ B, slightly reduced.
622 Chapter30 Order Lepidoptera
a stub, and the third segment of the labial palps is
short. Many species occur in two or more seasonal
color forms. A common butterfly in this group is the
orange sulphur or alfalfa butterfly, Co/ias eurytheme
Boisduval. Most individuals of this species are orange
with black wing margins, but some females are white.
The larva feeds on clovers and related plants and often
do es serious damage to clover crops. The common or
clouded sulphur, C. philodice Godart, is yellow with
black margins. It often can be found in large numbers
around muddy pools along roadsides. The larva feeds
on clovers. The females of these sulphurs have a
broader black marginal band on the wings than do the
males, and there are light spots in this band, particu-
larly in the front wings.
Family Lycaenidae-Coppers, Hairstreaks, Blues,
Harvesters, and Metalmarks: These are small, delicate,
and often brightly colored butterflies, and some are
quite common. The body is slender, the antennae are
usually ringed with white, and a line of white scales en-
circles the eyes. The radius in the front wing is three-
or four-branched (three-branched in some Lycaeninae,
four-branched otherwise). MI in the front wing arises
at or near the anterior apical angle of the discal cell
(except in some Miletinae, see Figure 30-60A), and
there is no humeral vein in the hind wing (except in
the Riodininae; Figures 30-I2B, 30-I4B, 30-60). The
A B
Figure 30-60 Wings of Lycaenidae. A, harvester (Miletinae); B, blue (Lycaeninae).
front legs are normal in the female, but are shorter and
lack tarsal claws in the maleo Lycaenid larvae are flat-
tened and sluglike; many secrete honeydew, which at-
tracts ants, and some live in ant nests. The chrysalids
are fairly smooth and are attached by the cremaster,
with a silken girdle about the middle of the body The
adults are rapid fliers.
The approximately 160 North American speciesof
Lycaenidae are arranged in three subfamilies, Riodini-
nae, Miletinae (Gerydinae, Liphyrinae), and Lycaeni-
nae (Polyommatinae, Theclinae).
Subfamily Riodininae-Metalmarks: The metal-
marks are small, dark-colored butterflies that differ
from other lycaenids in having the costa of the hind
wing thickened out to the humeral angle and in
having a short humeral vein in the hind wing (Fig-
ure 30-I4A). Most species in this group are tropicalor
western, and only three occur in the East. The linle
metalmark, Calephelis virginiensis (Guérin-Méneville),
with a wingspread of about 20 mm, occurs in ¡he
southern states, and the northern metalmark, Cale-
phelis borea/is (Grote and Robinson) (Figure 30-610),
with a wingspread of 25-30 mm, occurs as far north as
New York and Ohio. The little metalmark is fairly
common in the 50uth, but the northern metalmark is
quite rare. The larvae feed on ragwort, thistle, and
other plants.
I
L

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11
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e o o l C, about natural size.
Subfamily Miletinae-Harvesters: The harvesters
differfrom the other lycaenids in having MI in the front
wingsstalked with a branch of R for a short distance
beyondthe discal cell (Figure 30-60A). The wanderer
orharvester, Feniseca tarquinius (Fabricius), is the only
memberof this group occurring in the United States. It
is a brownish butterfly with a wingspread of about
25mm (Figure 30-6lB). The larva is predaceous on
aphidsand is one of the few predaceous lepidopteran
larvae.This species is rather local and uncommon and
(despiteits name) does very hule wandering.
Subfamily Lycaeninae-Coppers, Hairstreaks, Blues:
Thecoppers are small buuerflies that are orange-red or
brown(often with a coppery tinge) with black mark-
ings.The last branch of R in the front wings (R3_S)is
forked(with the branches R3and R.+s) and arises at the
anteriorapical angle of the discal cell (Figure 30-14B).
Thesebutterf1ies generally hve in open areas such as
marshes and meadows and along roadsides.
The American copper, Lycaena phlaeas americana
Harris(Figure 30-61A), is one of the most common
speciesin this group. The adults are quite pugnacious
andoften "buzz" other buuerflies (and even collec-
torsi).The larva feeds on dock (Rumex).
The hairstreaks are usually dark gray or brownish,
withdelicate striping on the underside of the wings
andusually with small, reddish spots in the posterior
panof the hind wings. Usually the hind wings have
two or three hairlike tails. There are only three
branchesof R in the front wing, and the last one is sim-
ple(Figure 30-12B). These butterl1ies have a swift,
daningf1ight and are commonly found in meadows,
alongroadsides, and in other open areas.
Keyto the Familiesof Lepidoptera 623
..c::
C>
.~
o Figure30-61 A, the Americancopper,
Lycaena phlaeas americana Harris (Ly-
caenidae, Lycaeninae); B, the harvester,
Feniseca tarquinius (Fabricius) (Lycaen-
idae, Miletinae); C, a snout butterf1y,
Libytheana bachmanii (Kirtland)
g' (Nymphalidae, Libytheinae); D, the
~ northern metalmark, Calephalis borealis
::;¡¡(Grote and Robinson) (Lycaenidae, Rio-
~ dininae). A, B, and D, slightly enlarged;
One of the most common eastem species is the
gray hairstreak, Strymon melinus Hübner. The larva
bores in the fruits and seeds of legumes, cotton, and
other plants. The great purple hairstreak, Atlides halesus
(Cramer), is the largest eastem species, with a wing-
spread of a hule over 25 mm. It is brilliantly colored-
blue, purple, and black-and quite iridescent. It occurs
in the southem states. The elfins (Incisalia) are small,
brownish, early spring species that lack tails but have
scalloped edges of the hind wings.
The blues are small, dehcate, slender-bodied but-
terflies whose upper surface of the wings is often
blue. The females are usually darker than the males,
and so me species occur in two or more color forms.
The last branch of R in the front wing is forked (as in
the coppers), but arises a hule proximad of the ante-
rior apical angle of the discal cell (Figure 30-60B).
Many larvae secrete honeydew, to which ants are
auracted.
One of the most common and widespread species
in this group is the spring azure, Celastrina argiolus
(L.). This species exhibits considerable geographic and
seasonal variation in size and coloring. The tailed blues
(Everes) have dehcate, tail-hke prolongations on the
hind wings.
Family Nymphalidae-Brush-Footed Butterflies: This
is a fairly large group (about 210 Nonh American species)
and includes many common butterflies. The common
name of the family refers to the fact that the front legs are
much reduced and lack claws, and only the middle and
hind legs are used in walking. The chrysalids are usually
suspended by the cremaster (Figure 30-4B). This family
is divided into eight subfamilies.
624 Chapter 30 Order Lepidoptera

Subfamily Libytheinae-Snout Butterflies: These
small, brownish butterflies have long, projecting palps.
The males have reduced front legs, with only the mid-
dIe and hind legs used in walking, whereas the females
have longer front legs and use them in walking. One
species, Libytheana bachmanii (Kirtland), is common
and widely distributed. This is a reddish brown butter-
flywith white spots in the apical part of the front wings
and with the outer margin of the front wings rather
deeply notched (Figure 30-6IC). The larva feeds on
hackberry.
Subfamily Heliconiinae-Heliconians, Fritillaries:
The heliconians differ from other nymphalids in hav-
ing the humeral vein in the hind wing bent basad
(Figure 30-12A) and the front wings relatively long
and narrow (Figure 30-62). This group is largely
tropical, and only five species occur in the United
States. The most common U.5. heliconian is the zebra
butterfly, Heliconiuscharitonius (L.), a black butterfly
striped with yellow (Figure 30-62A). This species oc-
curs in the Gulf States, but it is most common in
Florida. The chrysalis, when disturbed, wriggles
about in a characteristic manner. A heliconian that
occurs over a large part of the southeastern United
States, extending as far north as New Jersey and Iowa
and with a southwestern subspecies extending into
southern California, is the gulf fritillary, Agraulis
vanillae (L.). This butterfly is bright orange-brown
with black markings (Figure 30-62B). The butterflies
in this group appear to have distasteful body fluids
and are avoided by predators. The larvae feed on var-
ious species of passionflowers.
The fritillaries are brownish butterflies with nu-
merous black markings consisting principally of short,
wavy lines and dots. The underside of the wings is of-
ten marked with silvery spots. Most larger fritillaries
belong to the genus Speyeria (Figure 30-63B). Speyeria
larvae are nocturnal and feed on violets. The smaller
fritillaries, 25-40 mm in wingspread, belong princi.
pally to the genus Boloria. Their larva e also feed on vi-
olets and other plants.
Subfamily Nymphalinae-Anglewings. Crescents,
and Checkerspots: These butterflies have hairy eyes,
and the hind wing is angled or tailed at the end of MJ.
The anglewings (Polygonia) are small to medium-sized
an~ brownish with black markings. The wings are ir-
regularly notched and often bear tail-like projections,
and the distal half of the rear edge of the front wing is
somewhat excavated (Figure 30-63F). The underside
of the wings is darker and looks much like a dead leaf,
and there is usually a small C-shaped silvery spot on
the underside of the hind wing. The larvae feed princi-
pally on nettles, elm, hopvines, and other Urticaceae.
The mourning cloak, Nymphalis antiopa (L.), is a com-
mon butterfly that is brownish-black with yellowish
wing margins (Figure 30-63D); the larva e are gregari-
ous and feed chiefly on willow, elm, and poplar. Thisis
one of the few butterflies that overwinters in the adult
stage, and the adults appear early in the spring.
Crescents and checkerspots are small butterflies
(wingspread mostly 25-40 mm) in which the eyes are
bare and the palps are densely hairy beneath. The cres-
cents (Phyciodes) are small, brownish butterflies with
black markings, and the wings (particularly the from
wings) are margined with black (Figure 30-63C). They
have a wingspread of about 25 mm. The larvae feed prin-
cipally on asters. The checkerspots (Chlosyne) are simi-
lar to the crescents, but they are usually a little larger,
and the darker areas on the wings are generally more ex-
tensive. The larvae feed on asters and related plants.
Another group of nymphalids (sometimes placed
in the subfamily Vanessinae) has the eyes hairy, but the
margin of the hind wing is rounded, not angled or
tailed at the end of M). This group includes the red ad-

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A B

Figure 30-62 Heliconian butterflies (Nymphalidae, Heliconiinae). A, the zebra butterfly,

Heliconiuscharitonius (L.); B, the gulf fritillary,Agraulis vanillae (L.). Slightly reduced.

miral, Vanessa atalanta (L.) (Figure 30-63E), a very
common and widely distributed butterfly. The larva
feedsprincipally on nettles, feeding in a shelter formed
by tying a few leaves together. There are usually two
generations ayear. Two very similar and fairly common
speciesin this group are the painted lady, V.cardui (L.),
and Hunter's butterfly, V. virginiensis (Drury). These
butterflies are orange-brown and brownish black
above,with white spots in the front wings. The painted
ladyhas four small eyespots on the underside of each
hind wing, and Hunter's butterfly has two large eye-
spotson the underside of each hind wing. The larva of
thepainted lady feeds chiefly on thistles, whereas that
ofHunter's butterfly feeds on everlastings.
Subfamily Limenitidinae-Admirals, Viceroy, and
Others:The members of this group are medium-sized
butterflies in which the antennal club is long, and the
humeral vein in the hind wing arises opposite the ori-
ginofRs (Figure 30-1 lB). The viceroy, Limenitis archip-
pus(Cramer), is a common species in this group that
looksverymuch like the monarch. It differsin that it is
slightlysmaller, has a narrow black line across the hind
wings,and has only a single row of white spots in the
blackmarginal band of the wings (Figure 30-63A). The
Key to the Families of Lepidoptera 625
resemblance ofthe viceroy to the monarch is a good ex-
ample of protective (or Batesian) mimicry. The monarch
is "protected" by distasteful body fluids and is seldom
attacked by predators, and the viceroy's resemblance to
the monarch is believed to provide it with at least some
protection from predators. The larva of the viceroy, a
rather grotesque-Iooking caterpillar, feeds on willow,
poplar, and related trees. It overwinters in a leaf shelter
formed by tying a few leaves together with silk. The red-
spotted purple, L. arthemis astyanax (Fabricius), an-
other common species in this group, is a blackish but-
terfly with pale bluish or greenish spots and with
reddish spots on the underside of the wings. The larva,
which is similar to that of the viceroy, feeds on willow,
cherry, and other trees, and it overwinters in a leaf shel-
ter. A similar butterfly, the banded purple, L. arthemis
arthemis (Drury), occurs in the northern states. lt has a
broad white band across the wings.
Subfamily Charaxinae-Goatweed Butterflies: Four
species of Anaea occur in the central and southwestern
parts of the United States. The larva e feed on Croton
(Euphorbiaceae).
Subfamily Apaturinae-Hackberry Butterflies and
Emperors: These butterflies are somewhat similar to
626 Chapter 30 Order lepidoptera
the painted lady, but the dark areas in the front wings
are brownish rather than black, and the eyes are bare.
The larvae feed on hackberry, and adults are generally
found around these trees.
Subfamily Satyrinae-Satyrs, Wood Nymphs, and
Arctics: These butterflies are small to medium-sized,
usually grayish or brown, and they generally have eye-
like spots in the wings. The radius of the front wings is
five-branched, and some of the veins in the front wings
(particularly Se) are considerably swollen at the base
(Figure 30-10B). The larvae feed on grasses. The
chrysalis is usually attached by the cremaster to leaves
and other objects.
One of the most common species in this group is
the wood nymph, Cercyonis pegala (Fabricius), a dark
brown, medium-sized butterfly with a broad, yellowish
band across the apical part of the front wing. This band
contains two black-and-white eyespots (Figure 30-MA).
Another common species is the little wood satyr,
Megisto cymela (Cramer), a brownish-gray butterfly
with prominent eyespots in the wings and with a wing-
spread of about 25 mm (Figure 30-MC). The pearly
eye, Enodia portlandia (Fabricius) (Figure 30-64D), a
brownish butterfly with a row of black eyespots along
the border of the hind wings, is a woodland species
with a quick flight and a habit of alighting on tree
trunks. Among the most interesting species in this
group are the arctics or mountain butterflies (Oeneis),
which are restricted to the arctic region and the tops of
high mountains. A race of the melissa arctic, O. melissa
semidea (Say), is restricted to the summits of the White
Mountains in New Hampshire, and a race of the polix-
,..,,"
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enes arctic, O. polixenes katahdin (Newcomb), occurs
on Mount Katahdin in Maine. The jutta aretic, O.jutta
(Hübner) (Figure 30-64B), is a wide-ranging circum-
polar species that occurs farther south than do most
other arctics. It may be found in the sphagnum bogs of
Maine, New Hampshire, and Michigan in alternate
years.
Subfamily Danainae-Milkweed Butterflies: The
danaines are large and brightly colored butterflies, usu-
ally brownish with black and white markings. The
front legs are very small, without claws, and are not
used in walking. The radius in the front wing is five-
branched; the discal cell is closed by a well-developed
vein; and there is a short third anal vein in the front
wing (Figure 30-10A). The larvae feed on milkweed.
The chrysalids are hung by the cremas ter to leaves or
other objects. The adults are "protected" by distasteful
body fluids, and are seldom attacked by predators.
The most common species in this group is the
monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus (L.), which occurs
throughout the United States and a large part of the re-
mainder of the world. The monarch is an orange but-
terfly with the wings bordered by black. In most of the
black marginal band, there are two rows of small white
spots (Figure 30-65A). The caterpillar is yellowish
green banded with black, with two threadlike ap-
pendages at either end of the body (Figure 30-65B).
The chrysalis is pale green spotted with gold.
The monarch is one of the few butterflies that mi-
grates (see Chapter 4). Large numbers migrate south in
the fall, and the species reappears in the north the fol-
lowing spring. The longest flight known for an adult
.t::
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Figure30-64 Satyrid butter-
flies.A, a wood nymph, Cercyonis
pegala (Fabricius); B, the jutta
arctic, Oeneisjutta (Hübner);
C, the little wood satyr, Megisto
~ cymela (Cramer); D, the pearly
~ eye, Enodia portlandia (Fabricius).
:?: A, slightlyreduced;C, slightly
~¡: enlarged; B and D, about natural
.
C> Slze.
 Keyto the Familiesof Lepidoptera 627

Figure 30-65 The monarch, Danaus plexippus (L.). A, adult male; B, larva. About one
half natural size.

monarch (based on a tagged individual) is more than

1,800miles (2,900 km), from Ontario to Mexico. The
butterflies that migrate south in the fall overwinter in
the south and usually start back north the following
spring.They may reproduce in their wintering grounds
orafter a short northward flight in the spring. The but-
terfliesthat arrive in the northern United States in the
summerare not the same individuals that left there the
preceding fall but are the offspring of individuals that
reproduced in the wintering grounds or en route north
(seeUrquhart 1960). After two summer generations in
the north, the fall generation returns to the same win-
teringgrounds in Mexico, even though it is three gen-
erations removed from that of the previous winter. The
principal wintering grounds for the monarch are in
Mexico,but some winter in Florida (or Cuba) and in
southern California.
The queen, Danaus gilippus (Cramer), a common
species in the southeastern states, is similar to the
monarch but is darker and laeks the dark lines along
the veins. Its larva also feeds on milkweed. A sub-
speciesof the queen oceurs in the Southwest.
Family Drepanidae: The two subfamilies in this
group have adults that are very different in appearanee. B
Ihe hook-tip moths (Drepaninae) are small, slender,
andusually dull eolored and ean generally be reeognized
bythe sickle-shaped apex of the front wings. Internal ab- Figure30-66 A, a hook-tip moth, Drepana arcuata
dominal tyrnpanal organs are present. The eubitus in the Walker, 2X; B, an apatelodid moth, Apate/odes torreJacta
front wings appears four-branehed; in the hind wing, Q. E. Smith), 1'/2X,
Sc+R¡ and Rs are separated along the diseal eell; and the
frenulum is small or absent. The larvae feed on the fo-
liage of various trees and shrubs. The most eommon branehed in the hind wings, and the veins Se+ R¡ and
speciesin this group is Drepana arcuata Walker, a dirty Rs in the hind wings are more or less parallel along the
white moth marked with dark brownish lines and with anterior margin of the diseal eell. They have abdominal
a wingspread of about 25 mm (Figure 30-66A). lt oe- rather than thoracie tyrnpanal organs. The larvae of
curs in the Atlantic states. This group is a small one, this small group (16 North American species) feed on
with only five species in North Ameriea. various trees and shrubs.
The species of the subfamily Thyatirinae are simi- SUPERFAMILYGeometroidea:Three families make
lar to the Noetuidae, but they have the eubitus appear- up the Geometroidea. Two have abdominal tympanal
ing three-branehed in the front wings and four- organs, and all have naked proboscises.
628 Chapter30 Order lepidoptera
Family Sematuridae: This family is represented in
the United States by a single species, Anurapteryx
crenulata Barnes and Lindsey,a Mexican species that
ranges into Arizona. It is the only family of the
Geometroidea that lacks abdominal tympana.
Family Uraniidae:The uraniids have veins Rs and
MI stalked and separa te from R. on the fore wing. The
subfamily Uraniinae is a tropical group, most species of
which are brightly colored and day-flying. A single
species, Uraniafulgens (Walker), has been reported in
Texas. This Neotropical species resembles a swallowtail
butterfly. It is blackish with pale, metallic, greenish
bands on the wings and the tails of the hind wings
whitish, and it has a wingspread of 80-90 mm.
The subfamily Epipleminae is a small group of
moths that are similar in size and general appearance to
the Geometridae but differ in wing venation. They
have Sc+ R and Rs in the hind wing widely separated
from near the base of the wing. The cubitus in the front
wing appears to have three branches. The larvae have
sparse hair and five pairs of prolegs. Eight species of
this group occur in the United States. The moths are
plain colored and have a wingspread of about 20 mm.
Family Geometridae-Measuringworms, loopers,
Geometers: This family is the second largest in the or-
der, with some 1,400 species occurring in the United
States and Canada. The moths in this family are mostly
small, delicate, and slender-bodied. The wings are usu-
ally broad and often marked with fine, wavy lines. The
two sexes are often different in color, and in a few
species the females are wingless or have only rudimen-
tary wings. The geometers are principally nocturnal
and are often attracted to lights. The most characteris-
tic feature of the wing venation is the form of the sub-
costa in the hind wing (Figure 30-20). The basal part
of this vein makes an abrupt bend into the humeral an-
gle and is usually connected by abrace vein to the
humeral angle. The cubitus in the front wing appears
to have three branches. This family, like all the
Geometroidea except the Sematuridae, has tympanal
organs on the abdomen.
The larvae of geometers are the familiar cater-
pillars called "inchworms" or "measuringworms" (Fig-
ure 30-67). They have two or three pairs of prolegs at
the posterior end of the body and none in the middle.
Locomotion is accomplished by placing the posterior
end of the body near the thoracic legs and then moving
the anterior end of the body, thus progressing in a char-
acteristic looping fashion. Many measuringworms,
when disturbed, stand nearly erect on the posterior
prolegs and remain motionless, resembling small twigs.
North American Geometridae are divided into six
subfamilies: Archiearinae, Oenochrominae, Ennomi-
nae, Geometrinae, Sterrhinae, and Larentiinae. The
largest is the Ennominae, which includes about half of
A
3mm.
Figure 30-67 Larvae of Geometridae. A, Pero mor-
risonarius (H. Edwards); B, Nepytía canosaria (Walker);
C, Protoboannía porcelaría índícatoria Walker. (Courtesyof
McGuffin and MacKay, and The Canadían Entomologist.)
the North American species. It differs from the other
subfamilies in having M2 in the hind wings weak or ab-
sent (Figure 30-20B).
This family contains the cankerworms, which feed
on the foliage of various deciduous trees and often
cause serious defoliation. The two common speciesare
the spring cankerworm, Paleacrita vernata (Peck) (En-
nominae), and the fall cankerworm, Alsophila pome-
taria (Harris) (Oenochrominae) (Figure 30-68). The
spring cankerworm overwinters in the pupal stage, and
the female lays its eggs in the spring. The fall canker-
worm overwinters in the egg stage. The larvae of the
spring cankerworm have two pairs of prolegs; the lar-
vae of the fall cankerworm have three pairs. The adult
females of both species are wingless.
Many geometers are common moths, but only a
few can be mentioned here. The chickweed geometer,
Haematopís grataria (Fabricius) (Sterrhinae), is a red-
dish yellow moth with the margins of the wings and
two bands near the margins pink (Figure 30-69B). It
has a wingspread of about 25 mm or less, and the larva
feeds on chickweed. One of the largest moths in this
family is the notch-wing geometer, Ennomosmagnarius
Guenée (Ennominae).It has a wingspreadof 35-50 mm.
The wings are reddish yellow with small, brown spots,
and they shade lo brown toward the outer margin (Fig-
ure 30-69A). The larvae feed on various trees. Many
geometers are light green. One of the common species
of this type is the bad-wing, Dyspteris abortivaria
(Herrich-Schaffer) (Larentiinae) (Figure 30-69D). The
front wings are large and triangular, and the hind wings
r

Keyto the Familiesof Lepidoptera 629

-o
c:
m
..::
¡:
m
~
O>~
::~
mO>
a'=
:iá3
.g
'" E
c.
«E
00>>
.-
..:: O>
00

Figure 30-68 The fall cankerworm, Alsophila pometaria (Harris). A, adult female lay-
ing eggs; B, adult maleoNatural size.

aresmall and rounded. This moth has a wingspread of
a Hule less than 25 mm. The larva rolls and feeds on
grapeleaves.
Several members of this family are important for-
est pests. The hemlock looper, Lambdina fiscellaria
(Guenée) (Ennominae), is a widely distributed species
attacking hemlock and other conifers, and it has oc-
curredin outbreak numbers. The adults resemble those
ofEnnomosmagnarius(Figure 30-69A). The mountain
mahogany looper, Anacamptodes clivinaria profanata
(Barnes and McDunnough) (Ennominae), feeds on
mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus) and bitterbrush
(Purshia)in the Northwest and is very destructive to
both.
A European species in the subfamily Ennominae,
Bistonbetularia(L.), is an example of the phenomenon
known as industrial melanism. In areas of Great Britain
where heavy industry covers tree trunks with soot, the
light-colored individuals of this moth have been re-
placed by dark variants, which elsewhere are relatively
rare. The dark forms have a better chance of escaping
predation when alighting on soot-tovered tree trunks
than do the light-colored formo
SUPERFAMILYMimallonoidea: The only family in
this group is the Mimallonidae. They are mainly
Neotropical.
Family Mimallonidae-Sack-bearers: These insects
are called "sack-bearers" because the larvae make cases
from leaves and carry them about. The group is a small
one, with 4 North American species in three genera
(Lacosoma, Naniteta, and Cicinnus). The moths in the
genus Lacosoma are yellowish in color and about 25 mm
in wingspread, with the distal margin of the front
wings deeply scalloped (Figure 30-70A). Those in the

....
......
A B

Figure 30-69 Geometer moths. A, the notch-wing geometer, Ennomos magnarius

Guenée; B, the chickweed geometer, Haematopis grataria (Fabricius); e, the crocus
geometer, Xanthotype sospeta Drury; D, the bad-wing, Dyspteris abortivaria Herrick-
Schiiffer.A, slightly reduced; B, and D, slightly enlarged; e, about natural size.
630 Chapter 30 Order lepidoptera

:;;
e
u
e
E
'"
c:

WI
..3
Q)
O

-'=
'"
§
O

A
a
'§¡
<!
o
:c
o

Figure 30-71 The eastern tent caterpillar,Malacosoma

§ americanum (Fabricius). Left, egg mass; center, larvae;
~ right, adult female. 1/2X.

B lay their eggs in a bandlike cluster around a twig. Ihe

eggs hatch the following spring. The young that hatch
from a given egg cluster are gregarious and construct a
Figure 30-70 Sackbearer moths (Mimallonidae). tentlike nest of silk near the eggs (Figure 30-72). Ihis
A, Lacosoma chiridota Grote, 21/2x; B, Cicinnus tent is used as a shelter, with the larvae feeding in
melsheimeri Harris, 11(2X. nearby branches. The larvae feed on a number of dif-

genus Cicinnus are reddish gray peppered with small

black dots and with a narrow dark line across the wings,
a wingspread of about 32 mm, and the distal margin of
the front wings evenly rounded (Figure 30-70B). The
one species of Naniteta, N. elassa Franclemont, occurs
in the Southwest.
SUPERFAMILY Lasiocampoidea: The single family is
mainly Neotropical in distribution.
Family Lasiocampidae-Tent Caterpillars, Lappet
Moths, and Others: These moths are of medium size
and have stout bodies, with the body, legs, and eyes
hairy. The antennae are somewhat feathery in both
sexes, but the processes on the antennae are longer in
the maleo There is no frenulum, and the humeral angle
of the hind wing is expanded and provided with
humeral veins (Figure 30-23B). Most of these moths
are brown or gray in color. The larvae feed on the fo-
liage of trees, often causing serious damage. Pupation
occurs in a well-formed cocoon. Thirty-five species of
lasiocampids occur in North America.
The eastern tent caterpillar, Malacosoma ameri-
canum (Fabricius) (Figure 30-71), is a common mem-
ber of this group in eastern North America. The adults
are yellowish brown. They appear in midsummer and Figure 30-72 Tents of the eastern tent caterpillar.

Figure30-73 A lappet moth, Tolype ve/lida (5toll)
(Lasiocampidae).About natural size.
ferent trees, but seem to prefer cherry. The larvae are
black and somewhat hairy and have a yellow stripe
down the middle of the back. When full grown, they
wander off and spin their cocoons in sheltered places.
The forest tent caterpillar, Malacosoma disstria
Hübner, is widely distributed, but is probably more
common in the 50uth and 50uthwest where it some-
times defoliates large areas. The larvae differ from
those of the eastern tent caterpillar in that they have a
row of keyhole-shaped spots (rather than a stripe)
down the middle of the back. The adults are somewhat
paler than those of the eastern tent caterpillar.
The lappet moths (Tolype) are bluish gray with
white markings (Figure 30-73). The common name
refers to the fact that the larvae have a small lobe or
lappet on each side of each segmento The larvae of
I ve/lida (5toll) feed on apple, poplar, and lilac, and
thoseof T. laricis (Fitch) feed on larch. The two species
ofArtace in North America are common in the South
and50uthwest. They are similar to Tolypebut are white
withblack dots.
The largest North American lasiocampids are
speciesof Gloveria, some of which have a wingspread
of80 mm. They occur in the Southwest, and their lar-
vae feed on the foliage of trees and shrubs, especially
oaksand Ceanothus.
SUPERFAMILYBombycoidea: The moths of super-
familyBombycoidea have the prothoracic coxae of the
last-instar larva fused anteriorly, have setae DI of AS
arising from a mesal protuberance, and have R2+ R3
closelyparallel to or fused with the stem of R. + Rs on
the fore wing.
Family Bombycidae-Silkworm Moths: Only a sin-
gle species of the subfamily Bombycinae occurs in
North America, the silkworm, Bombyx mori (L.). This
native of Asia is occasionally reared in the United
States.This insect has long been reared for its silk, and
Keyto the Families of lepidoptera 631
it is one of the most important beneficial insects. After
centuries of domestication, it is now a domestic species
and probably do es not exist in the wild. Many different
varieties of silkworms have be en developed by breed-
ing. About a hundred species are in this subfamily,
most of which occur in Asia.
The adult moth is creamy white with several faint,
brownish lines across the front wings, and it has a
wingspread of about SO mm. The body is heavy and
very hairy. The adults do not feed, they rarely fly, and
usually they live only a few days. Each female lays
300-400 eggs. The larva e are naked, have a short anal
horn, and feed principally on mulberry leaves. They
be come full grown and spin their cocoons in about six
weeks. When used for commercial purposes, the pupae
are killed before they emerge, beca use the emergence of
the moth breaks the cocoon fibers. Each cocoon con-
sists of a single thread about 914 meters long. About
3,000 cocoons are used to make a pound of silk.
Sericulture is practiced in japan, China, Spain,
France, Italy, and Brazil. It was introduced into the
South Atlantic states in colonial times but did not suc-
ceed. The silk has a commercial value of $200 million
to $SOOmillion annually.
Subfamily Apatelodinae: This subfamily is repre-
sented in North America by five species (in two genera,
Apatelodes and Olceclostera). These moths are similar
to the Notodontidae but usually have windowlike dots
near the apex of the front wings. They have a wing-
spread of 40-S0 mm (Figure 30-66B). The larvae feed
on various shrubs and trees and pupa te in the ground.
Family Saturniidae-Giant Silkworm Moths and
Royal Moths: This family includes the largest moths in
North America, and some of the largest lepidopterans
in the world. The largest moths in North America
(Hyalophora) have a wingspread of about ISO mm or
more, and some tropical species of Attacus have a wing-
spread of about 2S0 mm. The smallest saturniids in
North America have a wingspread of about 2S mm.
Many members of this family are conspicuously or
brightly colored, and many have translucent eyespots
in the wings. The antennae are feathery (bipectinate or
quadripectinate) for about half or more of their length
and are larger in the male than in the female. The
mouthparts are reduced, and the adults do not feed.
The females produce a sex pheromone that males can
detect from long distances. Many species fly mostly
during the daylight hours or at dusk.
The larva e of saturniids (Figures 30-74, 30-7SB)
are large caterpillars, and many are armed with con-
spicuous tubercles or spines. Most (Saturniinae and
most Hemileucinae) pupa te in silken cocoons that are
attached to the twigs or leaves of trees and shrubs or
that are formed among leaves on the ground. Some
(Ceratocampinae and some Hemileucinae) pupa te in
632 Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera

ora nge to red

L = 60 :!: mm L = 70 :!: mm
B
@ e

green
I

L = 55 :!:mm red and white

o

Figure30-74 Larvae of Satumiidae. A, cecropia, Hyalophoracecropia(L.); B, promethea,

Callosamiapromethea (Drury); C, luna, Actias luna (L.); D, io, Automeris io (Fabricius);
E, polyphemus, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer). plg, proleg. (Counesy of Peterson;
reprinted by permission.)

the ground without forming a cocoon. Most species
overwinter in the pupal stage and have one generation
a year. A few species in this group have been used for
the production of commercial silk. Some of the Asiatic
species have provided a silk that makes strong and
long-wearing fabrics, but none of the North American
species has proved satisfactory for commercial silk pro-
duction.
The 68 North American species of saturniids are
arranged in three subfamilies, the Ceratocampinae, the
Hemileucinae, and the Saturniinae.
Subfamily Ceratocampinae-Royal Moths: The
members of this group have two anal veins in the hind
wing; the discal cell in the front wing is closed; and M2
in the front wing is stalked with R for a short distance
(Figure 30-22A). The antennae of the male are pecti-
nate in the basal half only. The larvae are armed with
horns or spines and pupate in the ground.
The largest North American member of this group
is the regal or royal walnut moth, Citheronia regalis
(Fabricius) (Figure 29-75A), which has a wingspread
of 125-150 mm. The front wings are gray or olive-
colored, spotted with yellow, and the veins reddish
brown. The hind wings are orange-red, spotted with
yellow; and the body is reddish brown with yellow bands.
The larva (Figure 30-75B) is often called the "hickory
horned devil." When full grown it is 100-130 mm long
and has curved spines on the anterior part of its body.
Although very ferocious in appearance, this caterpillar
is quite harmless. lt feeds principally on walnut, hick-
ory, and persimmon.
The imperial moth, Eacles imperialis (Drury), isa
large, yellowish moth with dark, peppered spots. Each
wing has a pinkish brown diagonal band near the mar-
gin (Figure 30-75C). The larva feeds on various trees
and shrubs. A related species from Mexico, E. oslari
Rothschild, enters the United States in southern Ari-
zona. The moths in the genus Anisota are small, with
wingspreads of 25-40 mm. Most are brownish. The
rosy maple moth, Dryocampa rubicunda (Fabricius), is
pale yellow and banded with pink (Figure 30-75D).
Subfamily Hemileucinae: Some members of this
group (Automeris) have one anal vein in the hind wing,
whereas others have two. The discal cell in the front
wing is usually closed (Figure 30-22B); MI in the front
wing is usually not stalked with R; and the antennae of
the males are pectinate to the tipo Most moths in this
group have a wingspread of about 50 mm.
 Key to the Families of lepidoptera 633

C>
c:
.sQ)
D
::E ::E
.<= .E
C> C>
'§ '§
D D

Figure30-75 Saturniid moths. A, adult, and B, larva of the regal moth, Citheronia re-
galis (Fabricius), !j2X; C, the imperial moth, Eacles imperialis (Drury), P/2X; D, the rosy
maple moth, Dryocampa rubicunda (Fabricius), slightly enlarged; E, the io moth,
Automeris io (Fabricius), male, slightly reduced; F, the buck moth, Hemileuca maia
(Drury), about natural size. A-D, Ceratocampinae; E-F, Hemileucinae.

The io moth, Automeris io (Fabricius), is one of the
most common and the largest in this group. It has a
wingspread of 50-75 mm and is yellow with a large
eyespot in each hind wing (Figure 30-75E). The fe-
maleis usually larger than the male, and its front wings
aredarker (reddish brown). The larva is a spiny green
caterpillar with a narrow reddish stripe, edged below
withwhite, extending along each side of the body (Fig-
ure30-74D). Handle this larva with care, as the spines
sting.
The buck moth, Hemileuca maia (Drury), is a little
smallerthan the io and is blackish with a narrow yellow
bandthrough the middle of each wing (Figure 30-75F).
lt occurs throughout the East; it is not commonly en-
countered, but can be locally abundant. It is largely di-
umal in habit, and its larva (which has stinging hairs)
pupatesin the ground. Hemileuca nevadensis Stretch is a
similar species occurring in the West. Its larva feeds on
willow and poplar. Other species of Hemileuca feed on
other trees or on grasses. Buck moths have a very rapid
flight and are difficult to capture.
The pandora moth, Coloradia pandora Blake, a
western species, is a liule smaller than the io. It is gray
with lighter hind wings, and it has a small, dark spot
near the center of each wing. This species is an impor-
tant defoliator of pines in the West.
Subfamily Saturniinae-Giant Silkworm Moths: The
members of this subfamily have one anal vein in the
hind wing; the discal cell of the front wing may be open
(Figure 30-22C) or closed; and MI in the front wing is
not stalked with R. The antennae of the male are pecti-
nate to the tipo
The largest member of this subfamily in North
America is the cecropia moth, Hyalophora cecropia (L.).
634 Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
.3
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j:;
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A .'1:
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Most individuals have a wingspread of 130-150 mm.
The wings are reddish brown, erossed a little distad of
the middle by a white baI1d. In the middle of each wing
is a ereseent-shaped white spot bordered with red (Fig-
ure 30-76D). The larva (Figure 30-74A) is a greenish
caterpillar that reaches a length of about 100 mm. It
has two rows of yellow tubercles down the baek and
two pairs of large red tubercles on the thoraeie seg-
ments. The eocoons are formed on twigs. Three related
and very similar speeies of Hyalophora oeeur in the
West.
The promethea moth, Callosamia promethea
(Drury), is sometimes ealled the "spieebush silk moth"
beeause its larva feeds on spicebush, sassafras, and re-
lated plan15. This moth is eonsiderably smaller than the
cecropia. The female is patterned a little like the ee-
eropia, but the male (Figure 30-76B) is much darker,
with a narrow, yellowish, marginal band of on the
wings. Males fly during the afternoon and night and,
when on the wing, look a little like a large mourning
cloak butterfly. The eoeoon is formed in a leaf. The
larva prevents the leaf from falling off by seeurely fas-
tening the petiole of the leaf to the twig with silk.
One of the most beautiful moths in this group is
the luna moth, Actias luna (L.), a light green moth with
long tails on the hind wings and with the costal border
of the front wings narrowly bordered by dark brown
(Figure 30-76C). The greenish larva (Figure 30-74C)
feeds on walnut, hickory, and other trees, and forms its
eoeoon in a leaf on the ground.
Another eommon moth in this group is the
polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer), a
Figure 30-76 Giant silkworm moths
~ (Saturniinae). A, the polyphemus, Anther-
~ aea polyphemus (Cramer); B, the promethea,
~ Callosamia promethea (Drury); C, the luna,
t Actias luna (L.); D, the eeeropia, Hyalophora
~ cecropia (L.). A and B, 1/2X; C, 1/3X; D, l/,X.
large, yellowish brown moth with a windowlike spotin
eaeh wing (Figure 30-76A). The larva (Figure 3D-HE)
is similar to that of the luna moth and feeds on various
trees. 115cocoon is formed in a leaf on the ground.
Family Sphingidae-Sphinx or Hawk Moths, Horn-
worms: The sphinx moths are medium sized to large,
heavy-bodied moths with long, narrow front wings
(Figure 30-77). Some have a wingspread of 160 rnmor
more. The body is somewhat spindle shaped, tapering,
and pointed both anteriorly and posteriorly. The an-
tennae are slightly thickened in the middle or toward
the tipo The subcosta and radius in the hind wing are
eonneeted by a erossvein (R1) about opposite the mid-
dIe of the discal eell (Figure 30-19B). The proboseisin
many speeies is very long, some times as long as the
body or longer. There are about 125 speeies of sphin-
gids in Nonh America.
These moths are strong fliers and fly with a very
rapid wing beat. Some are day-fliers, but most are ac-
tive at dusk or twilight. Most feed mueh like hum-
mingbirds, hovering in front of a flower and extending
their proboseis into it. These moths are in faet some-
times ealled "hummingbird moths," and in many
speeies the body is about the size of a hummingbird.
Some speeies (for example, Hemaris) have large areas
in the wings devoid of seales and are ealled "clearwing
sphinx moths." These are not to be eonfused with the
clearwing moths of the family Sesiidae, which are
smaller and more slender and have much more elon-
gate front wings (compare Figures 30-77B and 30-46).
The name "hornworm" derives from the faet that
the larvae of most speeies have a eonspicuous horn or

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CI
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CI
B
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l ~
spinelikeprocess on the dorsal surface of the eighth ab-
dominalsegment (Figure 30-78A). The name "sphinx"
probably refers to the sphinxlike position that some of
¡hese larvae assume when disturbed. The larva e of
mostspeeies pupa te in the ground, in some cases form-
ingpitcherlike pupae (probo seis of the pupa looks like
a handle). Some speeies form a sort of cocoon among
leaveson the surface of the ground.
One of the most common speeies in this group is
¡he tomato hornworrn, Manduca quinquemaeulata
(Haworth). The larva (Figure 30-78A) is a large, green
caterpillar that feeds on tomato, tobacco, and potato.
Thelarva of a similar speeies, M. sexta (L.), feeds on to-
baccoand other plants. The adults of these two speeies
arelargegray moths with a wingspread of about 100 mm.
Thehind wings are banded, and there are five (quin-
quemaculata)or six (sexta) orange-yellow spots along
each side of the abdomen (Figure 30-77C). These
hornworrns often do considerable damage to the plants
onwhich they feed. Hornworms are often attacked by
Figure 30-78 A, the tomato homworm, Manduca quinquemaculata (Haworth);
B, a parasitized homworm; the white objects on the back of this larva are cocoons of
braconid parasites.
Keyto the Families of lepidoptera 635
Figure 30-77 Sphinx or hawk
moths (Sphingidae). A, the white-
linedsphinx,Hyleslineata(Fabricius);
B, a clear-winged sphinx, Hemaris
g>diffinis (Boisduval); C, adult of the
~ tobacco homworrn, Manduca sexta
~ (L.); D, the twin-spot sphinx,
jamaicensis (Drury). A, C,
and D, 1/2X; B, about natural size.
braconid parasites, which form small, white, silken co-
coons on the outside of the caterpillar (Figure 30-78B).
The largest North American sphingids (in terms of
wing surface area) are females of the southwestern
Pachysphinx oecidentalis (Hy. Edwards), with a wing-
spread of up to 160 mm. A tropical speeies, Cocytius
antaeus (Drury), which barely enters North America in
southern Texas and Florida, can be even larger than
p. occidentalis. The smallest North American sphingid
is probably Cautethia grotei Hy. Edwards, which has a
wingspread of just over 30 mm.
SUPERFAMllYNoctuoidea: All noctuoids have tho-
racic tympanal organs, which separate them from all
other Lepidoptera.
Family Doidae: Two southwestern speeies, Doa am-
pla (Grote) and Leuculodes leeteolaria (Hulst) represent
this recently recognized family. The larvae of D. ampla
feed on Euphorbiaceae.
Family Notodontidae {including Dioptidae. Hetero-
campidae)-Prominents and Oakworms: The pro mi-
636 Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
nents are usually brownish or yellowish moths that are
similar to the Noctuidae in general appearance. The
family and subfamily names (not-, back; -odont, tooth)
refer to the fact that some species have backward-
projecting tufts on the hind margin of the wings, which
protrude when the wings are folded (they are usually
folded rooflike over the body when at rest), and the
larvae have conspicuous tubercles on the dorsal surface
of the body. The prominents can be readily distin-
guished from the noctuids by the venation of the front
wing (Figure 30-21B). In the Notodontidae, M2 in the
front wing arises from the middle of the apex of the dis-
cal cell, and the cubitus appears three-branched,
whereas in the Noctuidae, M2 in the front wing arises
closer to MJ, and the cubitus appears four-branched
(Figure 30-27). This family has nearly 140 North
American species.
Notodontid larva e feed on various trees and
shrubs and are often gregarious. When disturbed, they
often elevate the anterior and posterior ends of the
body and "freeze" in this position, remaining attached
by the four pairs of prolegs in the middle of the body.
The anal pair of prolegs is often rudimentary or modi-
fied into spinelike structures.
In this group, most of the brownish moths that
have dark, narrow lines across the front wings belong
to the genus Datana. These are sometimes called
"handmaid moths" (Figure 30-79A). The larvae are
blackish, with longitudinal yellow stripes. The yellow-
necked caterpillar, D. ministra (Drury), feeds on apple
and other trees. The walnut caterpillar, D. intergenima
Grote and Robinson, feeds principally on walnut and
hickory.
The red-humped caterpillar, Schizura concinna
Q. E. 5mith), is a fairly common species in this group.
The larva is black with yellow stripes, with the head
and a hump on the first abdominal segment red (Fig-
ure 30-79B). The adult has a wingspread of a little over
25 mm. The front wings are gray with brown markings,
and the hind wings are white with a small, black spot
along the rear edge. The larva feeds on apple and other
orchard trees and on various shrubs.
The oakworms are a New World group, most mem-
bers of which occur in 50uth America. Only two species
0>1
f~_a
occur in the United 5tates. The only common speciesis
the California oakworm, Phryganidia califomica
Packard, which occurs in California. The adults are
slender moths, pale, translucent brown with dark veins,
and have a wingspread of about 30 mm. The larvaefeed
on oak leaves and often do considerable damage.
Family Noctuidae:This is the largest familyin the
order, with more than 2,900 species in the United
5tates and Canada. These moths are mostly nocturnal
in habit, and most moths attracted to lights at nightbe-
long to this family.
The noctuids are mostly heavy-bodied moths,
with somewhat narrowed front wings and broadened
hind wings (Figures 30-80, 30-81). The labial palps
are usually long, the antennae are generally hairlike
(sometimes brushlike in the males), and some species
have tufts of scales on the dorsum of the thorax. The
wing venation (Figures 30-24B, 30-27) is rather char-
acteristic: M2 in the front wing arises closer to M3than
to MI>and the cubitus appears to have four branches;
the subcosta and radius in the hind wing are separate
at the base but fuse for a short distance at the baseof
the discal cell; and M2 in the hind wing may be present
or absent.
Noctuid larvae are usually smooth and dul\-
colored (Figure 30-82), and most have five pairs of
prolegs. The majority feed on foliage, but some are bor-
ing in habit and some feed on fruits. A number of
species in this group are serious pests of various crops.
The noctuids have a pair of tyrnpanal auditory or-
gans located at the base of the metathorax. (5uch organs
are present in several other families of moths and arein
some cases located on the abdomen.) These organs can
detect frequencies of fram 3 to more than 100 kHz,3and
they appear to function in detecting and evading bats.
Bats can detect prey (and obstacles) in complete dark-
ness by means of a sort of sonar. They emit very high-
pitched clicks (sometimes as high as 80 kHz) and locate
objects from the echoes of these clicks.
The family Noctuidae is divided into a number of
subfamilies, some of which have been given family
3Three kilohertz is in the top octave of the piano; the average upper
limit of hearing in humans is about 15 or 16 kHz.
Figure 30-79 Notodontidae.
A, Datana ministra (Drury);
B, the redhumpedcaterpillar,Schizura
concinna Q. E. 5mith). Natural size.
 Keyto the Families of Lepidoptera 637

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Figure30-80 Noctuid moths. A, adult of the cabbage looper, Triehoplusiani (Hübner);

B, adult of the yellowheaded cutworrn, Apamea amputatrix (Fitch); e, Euxoa exeellens
Grote (adult of one of the cutworms); D, the black witch, Asealaphaodorata (L.); E, Eu-
thisanotiagrata Fabrieius; F, the darling underwing, Catoealacara Guenée; G, adult of the
corn earworrn, Helicoverpazea (Boddie); H, adult of the arrnyworm, Pseudaletiaunipuneta
(Haworth). D, '/3X; F, slightly reduced; the other figures approximately natural size.

rank. We make no attempt here to characterize all
thesesubfamilies, and only mention a few.
Subfamilies Herminiinae. Strepsimaninae. and Hypeni-
nae:These moths are the most primitive noctuids and
are commonly called "quadrifids" (M2 in the hind wing
is well developed, and the cubitus thus appears four-
branched). Many resemble pyralids, but they can be
distinguished by their naked proboseis. Nigetia formos-
alis Walker (Strepsimaninae) is a rather pretty, mottled
moth that is fairly common in the eastern United
States.
Subfamily Catocalinae:This group includes the un-
derwings, relatively large and strikingly colored moths
of the genus Catoeala. They are forest or woodland
638 Chapter30 Orderlepidoptera
Figure 30-81 The eight-spotted forester, Alypia oe-
tomaculata (Fabricius), 1'/2X.
Figure 30-82 Larvae of Noctuidae. A, Catoeala ultronia
Hübner (an underwing); B, the fal! armyworm,
Spodopterafrugiperda Q. E. Smith); C, the armyworm,
Pseudaletiaunipuncta (Haworth).
species, and their larvae feed on the foliage of various
trees. The hind wings are usual!y brightly colored
:;;l~;~\h. c?,ncentric bands ~f .red, ~ellow, or orange (Fig-
ure ~0.:...80F).At rest, ~he hmd wmgs are concealed, and
tbeJroót wirig's ~re co~ch like the bark of the
trees on which these moths usually rest. This group in-
eludes the largest noctuid in the United States, the black
witch, Ascalapha odorata (L.). This is a blackish species
with a wingspread of 100-130 mm (Figure 30-80D). It
breeds in the southern states, where the larvae feed on
various leguminous trees. The adults sometimes ap-
pear in the northern states in late summer. Asealapha
and its relatives are sometimes placed in a separate sub-
family, the Erebinae. Other Catocalinae inelude the
large grass-feeding moths in the genus Mocis,which
occur in the Southeast and in the tropics.
Subfamily Plusiinae-loopers: These insects are
called "loopers" because the larvae have only three
pairs of prolegs and move like measuringworms. The
cabbage looper, Triehoplusia ni (Hübner), is a serious
pest of cabbage, and the celery looper, Anagrapha
falcifera (Kirby), attacks celery. The adults of these
loopers are dark brown, with a wingspread of about
35-40 mm, and nave a small, elongate silver spot in the
middle of each front wing (Figure 30-80A). Many
plusiines have golden or silver metallic markings in the
front wings.
Subfamily Acontiinae: This group contains someof
the most colorful noctuids. Cydosia nobilitella
(Cramer) is a common species in the Southeast and is
often confused with ermine moths in the genus Atteva.
Species of Spragueia are also common in the East and
are usually a mottled orange and black. The small
moths of the genera Tripudia and Cobubatha of the
Southeast are often confused with tortricids. They
can be easily distinguished by their thoracic tympanal
organs.
Subfamily Agaristinae-Forester Moths: The foresters
are usually black with two whitish or yellowish spotsin
each wing, and they have a wingspread of about 25 mm.
The antennae are slightly elubbed. The eight-spotted
forester, Alypia octomaculata (Fabricius), is a common
species in this group (Figure 30-81). The larvae feedon
grape and Virginia creeper and sometimes defoliate them.
There are larger forester moths in the Southwest. The
black and yellow Gerra sevorsa (Grote) of Arizona resem-
bles some arctiids.
Subfamily Amphipyrinae: This subfamily ineludes
the genus Spodoptera (which contains several species
of armyworms) and such colorful diurnal moths as the
western species of Annaphila.
Subfamilies Noctuinaeand Hadeninae:The larvaeof
many species in these groups (and in so me other sub-
families as well) are called "cutworms" because they
feed on the roots and shoots of various herbaceous
plants, and often cut the plant off at the surface of the
ground. The cutworms are nocturnal in habit and hide
under stones or in the soil during the day. The most
important cutworms belong to the genera Agrotis, Eu-
xoa, Feltia, and Peridroma of the Noctuinae and to
Lacinipolia, Nephelodes, and Scotogramma of the
Hadeninae.
The corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) (He-
liothinae), is a serious pest. The larva feeds on a num-
ber of plants, ineluding corn, tomato, and cotton, and is
sometimes called the "tomato fruitworm" or the "cotton
bollworm." When feeding on corn (Figure 30-83), the
larva enters the corn ear on the silks and eats the ker-
nels from the tip of the cob. It burrows in tomato fruits
 Keyto the Familiesof Lepidoptera 639

and Raphia occur in North America. The larvae feed

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Figure30-83 Larva of the com earworm, Helicoverpa
zea (Boddie).
andinto coUon bolls. The adults are light yellowish and
varysomewhat in their markings (Figure 30-80G).
The armyworm, Pseudaletia unipuncta (Haworth)
(Hadeninae), feeds on various grasses and frequently
doesserious damage to wheat and cornoThe common
nameof this insect refers to the fact that the larvae fre-
quentlymigrate in large numbers to a new feeding area.
Themoths are light brown with a single, white spot in
¡hemiddle of each front wing (Figure 30-80H).
Family Pantheidae: This family differs from Noctu-
¡daeby lacking a countertympanal hood and in some
larvalcharacters. Nearly 25 species, mainly Panthea
mainly on woody plants.
Family Lymantriidae-Tussock Moths and Their Rel-
atives: The lymantriids are medium-sized moths that
are similar to the Noctuidae but differ in that they lack
ocelli and have a larger basal areole in the hind wing
(Figure 30-28). In most species (Figure 30-28A), MI
in the hind wing is stalked with Rs for a short distance
beyond the apex of the discal cell. The larvae are rather
hairy and feed chiefly on trees. The tussock, gypsy, and
browntail moths are serious pests of forest and shade
trees. The tussock moths are native species, whereas
the other two were introduced from Europe. There are
32 species of lymantriids in North America.
The white-marked tussock moth, Orgyia leu-
costigma Q. E. Smith) (Figure 30-84), is a common
species throughout most of North America. The males
are gray, with lighter hind wings and plumose anten-
nae, and the females are wingless. The eggs are laid on
tree trunks or branches, usually near the cocoon from
which the female emerged, and the species overwinters
in the egg stage. The larva (Figure 30-84A) can be rec-
ognized by the characteristic tufts or brushes of hairs.
The gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L.), was intro-
duced from Europe into Massachuseus about 1866.
Since then it has become widely distributed through-
out New England and Mid-Atlantic states south to Vir-
ginia, as well as Ohio, Michigan, and Wisconsin and
has caused widespread damage to forest trees. The fe-
males are white with black markings, and the males are
gray (Figure 30-85). The females have a wingspread of
about 40 to 50 mm, and the males are a liule smaller.
The eggs are laid on tree trunks or similar places, in a
mass of the body hairs from the female. They overwin-

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R.
moth, Orgyia leucostigma (Abbott and Smith).
A A, larva; B, adult male; e, adult female. Slightly
o
enlarged.
640 Chapter30 Order Lepidoptera

All are characterized by the presence of a pair of dorsal,

. ..,
Figure 30-85 The gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L.),
'/3X. Male above, fema1ebe1ow.
ter and hatch the following spring. The females are
very weak fliers and seldom travel very far from the co-
coon from which they emerge. The dispersal of the
species is accomplished largely by the young larvae.
The browntail moth, Euproctis chrysorrhoea (L.), is
another serious pest of forest and shade trees that was
introduced from Europe. It first appeared near Boston
in the early 1890s and has since spread throughout
New England. The adults are white, with a wingspread
of 25-35 mm, and they have brownish hairs at the end
of the abdomen. The males are a little smaller than the
females. This species pass es the winter as a larva in a
leaf shelter. Both sexes are winged. The hairs of the
larva, when blown onto human skin, cause an irritat-
ing rash.
The satin moth, Leucoma salicis (L.), is a European
species that appeared in the United States in 1920. It
feeds on poplars and willows and is an occasional pest
of poplars planted as shade trees or windbreaks. After
eversible pheromone glands that are associatedwith
the anal papillae of females. There are more than 260
species in North America.
Subfamily Lithosiinae-Footman Moths: The foot-
man moths are small and slender, and most Nonh
American species are rather dull in color. Some tropi.
cal species, however, are very colorful. The larvaeof
most species feed on lichens. The striped footman
moth, Hypoprepia miniata (Kirby), is a beautiful in-
sect. It has pinkish front wings with three gray
stripes, and the hind wings are yellow and broadly
margined with gray. The lichen moth, Lycomorpha
pholus (Drury), is a small, blackish moth with yellow.
ish wing base (Figure 30-86C). It looks a little like
so me of the lycid beetles. These moths live in rocky
places, and their larvae feed on lichens that grow
on the rocks. Many species of the genus Cistheneare
gray with various red markings or have other color
combinations.
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its introduction it was considered an important pest, ~

but the introduction of some European parasites has
greatly reduced its numbers and importance.
Family Nolidae: This group, which was formerly B
considered a subfamily of Noctuidae, contains small
moths that have ridges and tufts of raised scales on the
front wings. Nola ovilla Grote is fairly common in
Pennsylvania on the trunks of beeches and oaks. The
larva feeds on the lichens growing on the trunks of
these trees. The larva of N. triquetrana (Fitch), a gray
moth with a wingspread of 17-20 mm, feeds on apple,
but it is seldom numerous enough to do much damage. e
The larva of the sorghum webworm, N. sorghiella Riley,
is a pest of sorghum.
Family Arctiidae- Tiger Moths, Footmen Moths, Figure 30-86 Arctiid moths. A, the yellow-collared
Wasp Moths, and Others: Kitching and Rawlins in scape moth, Cissepsfulvicollis (Hübner), P/2 x; B, the
Kristensen 1998 proposed a major rearrangement of Virginia ctenucha, Ctenucha virginica (Charpentier), nat-
this family that recognizes three subfamilies, of which ural size;e, the lichen moth, Lycomorphapholus
only two are found in the United States and Canada. (Drury), P/2x.

Subfamily Arctiinae-Tiger Moths: This group con-
tainsthe majority of the species in the family, and many
arevery common insects. A few are occasionally rather
destructive to trees and shrubs. Many are very colorful
and thus popular with collectors. They are broadly dis-
tributed in temperate and tropical regions.
Most tiger moths are of small to medium size, and
brightly spotted or banded. Some are white or rather
uniformly brownish. The wing venation is very similar
to that in the Noctuidae, but Sc and Rs in the hind
wingare usually fused to about the middle of the dis-
cal cell (Figure 30-26). These moths are principally
nocturnal and, when at rest, hold the wings rooflike
overthe body. The larvae are usually hairy, sometimes
very.The so-called woollybear caterpillars belong to
this group. The cocooo5 are made largely from the
bodyhairs of the larvae.
The tiger moths in the genera Apantesis and Gram-
miahave black front wings with red or yellow stripes,
and the hind wings are usually pinkish with black
spots. One of the largest and most common species in
the genus is G. virgo (L.), which has a wingspread of
about50 mm (Figure 30-87 A). The larva feeds on pig-
weedand other weeds, and winters in the larval stage.
Estigmene acrea (Drury) is another common tiger
moth.The adults are white, with numerous small, black
spots on the wings, and the abdomen is pinkish with
blackspots (Figure 30-87B). The male's hind wings are
yellowish. The larva feeds on numerous grasses and is
sometimes called the "salt-marsh caterpillar."
Figure30-87 Tiger moths (Arctiinae). A, the virgin
tigermoth, Grammia virgo (L.), 3(.X ; B, adult of the salt-
marshcaterpillar, Estigmene acrea (Drury), 11/2X.
Keyto the Families of Lepidoptera 641
One of the best-known woollybear caterpillars is
the banded woollybear, Pyrrharctia isabella Q. E. Smith).
This caterpillar is brown in the middle and black at each
end, and the adult is yellowish brown with three rows of
small black spots on the abdomen. These caterpillars are
often seen scurrying across the roadways in the fall.
They overwinter as larvae and pupate in the spring. The
larva feeds on various weeds. The amount ofblack in the
larva in the fall is thought by some to vary proportion-
ately with the severity of the coming winter.
The larvae of some of the tiger moths feed on trees
and shrubs and often do serious damage. The fall web-
worm, Hyphantria cunea (Drury), is a common species
of this type. The larvae build large webs, often enclos-
ing a limb of foliage, and feed within the web. These
webs are common on many types of trees in late sum-
mer and fallo In North America this species is usually
only a nuisance, but it has been introduced into Eu-
rope, where it has become a serious pest. The adults are
usually white with a few dark spots and have a wing-
spread of about 25 mm. Some are all white, or they may
have varying amounts of black spotting. The larvae of
the hickory tussock moth, Lophocampacaryae (Harris)
(Figure 30-88B), feed on hickory and other trees. The
larva is somewhat similar to that of the tussock moths
in the genus Orgyia. The adults (Figure 30-88A) are
light brown with white spots on the wings.
Figure 30-88 The hickory tussock moth, Lophocampa
caryae Harris (Arctiidae). A, adult, 11/2X; B, larva.
642 Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
Ctenuchas and wasp moths (tribe Ctenuchini) are
small, day-flying moths, some of which are wasplike in
appearance (but not as wasplike as the Sesiidae). Most
species are tropical and very colorful. They can be recog-
nized by the venation of the hind wing (Figure 30-25A):
The subcosta is apparently absent. In the West, some
species of ctenuchas are occasionally seen flying in large
numbers, as if migrating.
Ctenucha virginica (Esper), a common species
in the Northeast, has brownish black wings, a bril-
liant metallic bluish body, and an orange head (Fig-
ure 30-86B). The larva is a woolly, yellowish cater-
pillar that feeds on grasses. The cocoon is formed
largely of the body hairs of the caterpillar. The yellow-
collared scape moth, Cissepsfulvicollis (Hübner), is
somewhat smaller than the ctenucha, with narrower
wings and with the central portion of the hind wings
lighter. Its prothorax is yellowish (Figure 30-86A).
The larva of this species feeds on grasses, and the
adults frequent goldenrod flowers.
Collecting and Preserving Lepidoptera
The order Lepidoptera contains many large and showy
insects, and many students begin their collecting with
these insects. Lepidoptera are generally fairly easy to
collect, but they are more difficult to mount and pre-
serve in good condition than insects in most other or-
ders. Always handle specimens with great care, because
the scales, which give the specimens their color, are
easily rubbed off, and in many species the wings are
easily torn or broken.
Lepidoptera can be collected with a net, or they
can be gotten directly into a killing jar without the use
of a neto A net for collecting these insects should be of
a fairly light mesh, light enough that the specimen can
be seen through the neto Once netted, a specimen
should be placed into a killingjar or stunned as quickly
as possible so it will not damage its wings by fluttering
and attempting to escape. Many collectors prefer to in-
sert the killing jar into the net to get the specimen into
the jar without handling the specimen directly. The
killing jar should be of sufficient toxic strength to stun
the insect quickly. If the specimen is removed to the
killingjar by hand, grasp it carefully through the net by
the thorax, pinch it slightly to stun it, and then place it
in the killing jaro Do not pinch delicate species such as
blues and hairstreaks. Large moths are most easily
killed by injecting alcohol into the thorax with a hypo-
dermic needle (only a few drops are needed).
Many moths can be taken directly into a killing jar
without using a neto Simply place a wide-mouthed jar
over the specimen when it is resting on some flat sur-
face. The killing agent in the jar should be strong
enough to stun the insect quickly, before it can flutter
about too much inside the jar and damage its wings.
Many species, particularly butterflies, frequent
flowers and can be collected while feeding. To obtaina
large number of species, visit a variety of habitats and
collect at all seasons. Many species live only in certain
habitats, and many have a short adult life and are on
the wing only a short time each year.
Many moths are most easily collected at lights, es-
pecially ultraviolet ("black") and mercury vapor lights,
They can be collected by traps, but specimens collected
in this way are often in poor condition unless special
precautions are taken. Traps should have a screen of
%-inch (l-cm) mesh near the bottom to keep large
specimens away fram smaller ones, and there should
be plenty of folded paper and the like to provide hid-
ing places. A strong poison is needed, such as cyanide,
and thus considerable care is needed in operating the
trapo A stun trap could be made by using blocks of ice
in the bottom, with ample provision for keeping
the moisture down. The low temperatures in such a
trap would immobilize the specimens, which could
be removed in the morning or after a few hours of
operation.
Specimens can be collected at lights if there is a
flat, white surface near the light for the insects to land
on. The specimens can be taken directly fram such a
surface into a killing jaro Many interesting species can
be obtained by sugaring (see Chapter 35).
Take precautions to prevent specimens from be-
coming damaged after they are placed in the killingjar.
Don't place large, heavy-bodied specimens in ajar
along with small, delicate ones. Don't let the jar be-
come too crowded. Remove the specimens soon after
they have been stunned, and then place them in paper
envelopes. Small moths are perhaps best killed in small
cyanide vials (such as shown in Figure 35-2A), with
pieces of cIeansing tissue inside to prevent the insects
from touching each other too mucho
The best way to obtain good specimens of many
species is to rear them, from either larvae or pupae,
Suggestions for rearing are given in Chapter 35. By
rearing, the collector not only obtains good specimens,
but also can become acquainted with the larval stages
of different species and the plants on which the larvae
feed.
Specimens of Lepidoptera can be preserved in a
collection in two ways: in paper envelopes (as in the
case of Odonata and some other groups), or spread and
pinned. Use envelopes for temporary storage or in
cases where the collection is large and space is not
available for large numbers of spread specimens. Io
display your collection, the most useful type of mount
is a glass-topped drawer. The best collections of
Lepidoptera have the specimens pinned and spread,
Many collectors find it best to pin the smaller moths in

the field and to spread them later. Moths with a wing-
spread of less than 10 mm should generally be pinned
with a minuten pin and double-mounted as shown in
Figure35-13D.
All Lepidoptera that are pinned or mounted under
glassshould be spread. The beginning student or the
personinterested principally in displaying his or her col-
lectionis advised to spread the specimens in an upside-
downposition (Figure 35-12). The advanced student or
theperson making a large collection should pin them or
keep them in envelopes. Methods of spreading and
mounting Lepidoptera are described in Chapter 35. It
takesa líttle practice to become proficient in spreading
theseinsects,and someof the smallerspecimenswill tax
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 31 Order Siphonaptera1,2
Fleas
leas are small, wingless, holometabolous insects.
F With rare exception, the adults depend for nourish-
ment on the blood of warm-blooded vertebrates. How-
ever, the larvae are relatively free-living and feed on or-
ganic material in the larval habitat. The bodies of adult
fleas (Figure 31-1) tend to be laterally compressed and
usually have caudally directed setae and spines that ex-
pedite forward progress through the vestiture of the
host while resisting the backward movements fre-
quentIy associated with the grooming activities of the
host. Adults have shiny, hairy bodies and range from
light, yellowish brown to almost black.
The adult head capsule may be "fracticipit," with a
complete transverse interantennal groove connecting
the antennal fossae dorsally, or "integricipit," in which
the interantennal groove is absent. lt usually bears a
single frontal tubercle (Figure 31-2A) mesally on the
frontal margin and a variable number of preantennal
setal rows. A pair of eyes may be present, vestigial, or
absent, but when present they arise along the dor-
socephalic margin of an oblique linear depression con-
taining the antennae, called the antennal fossa. In some
groups the dorsal ends of these fossae are fused inter-
nally to form an oval or circular trabecula centralis or
area communis (Figure 31-2A). The dorsal margin of
the antennal fossae usually has a number of small se-
tulae along at least part of its length. The genallobe ex-
tends below and behind the eye and may bear a comb
of two or more spines (Figure 31-1), or lack a comb al-
together (Figure 31-2A). The postocular portion of the
head capsule usually bears one or more rows of preoc-
'Siphonaptera: siphon, a tube; aptera, wingless.
'We are indebted to Dr. Robert E. Lewis for most of the material
648 this chapter. - mesonotal collar (Figure 31-2). The pleural sclerites
.....
I~¡'(~é~;' ,,'~'...J
'. --:~"...
~
cipital setae cephalad of the occipital row. The amen-
nae consist of a basal scape, a pedicel, and a nine-
segmented flagellum, or clavus. Some of the segments
may be at least partIy fused, especially in the femalesof
some species. In males, the mesal surface of the clavus
usually bears a number of T-shaped holding organs
that the male uses to engage with the female's basalab-
dominal sternite during copulation. The feeding appa-
ratus includes a vestigial clypeus and mandibles and
paired, usually four-segmented maxillary palpi arising
on a triangular maxillary lobe. The labium usually has
a 2- to 5-segmented labial palpus, although as many as
la segments are known from species of Chaetopsylla
(Arctopsylla), and as many as 20 in an extralimital
genus belonging to the same family. The feeding fasci-
cle consists of an unpaired epipharyngeal stylet and a
pair of maxillary stylets derived from the laciniae, held
together by the labial palpi. According to Snodgrass
(1946), this condition is unique to the order, because
other insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts have
maxillary stylets derived from the galeae.
The thorax (Figure 31-2) consists of three distincI
and somewhat separa te segments. The pronotum is
well demarcated and may have one to three rows of se-
tae and frequentIy a distinct comb along its caudal mar-
gin. The propleurites and prosternum have 1051their
individual identities and form a composite, L-shaped
structure, called the prostemosome, that is devoid of se-
tae. The mesonotum and mesopleurites are well devel-
oped, but beca use of the lateral compression of Ihe
body, the mesosternum is much narrowed and reduced.
The mesonotum may bear a number of regular or ir-
regular rows of setae and there may be a number of
in pseudosetae along the internal caudal margin of the

Figure31-1 An adult cat (lea, Ctenocephalidesfelis (Bouché) (Pulicidae, ArchaeopsyIli-
nae). (Figure prepared by Roben E. Lewis.)
aredivided into an anterior mesepisternum and a pos-
terior mesepimeron by a subvertical pleural rod. The
caudal margin of the latter is articulated with the fol-
lowingsegment by a lateral link plate arising above the
spirade. The metathorax also is well developed, with a
distinctmetanotum and large, shield-shaped metapleu-
rites. The metanotum bears a smaller ventral, lobe-
shaped lateral metano tal area and the upper portion
mayhave a variable number of regular or irregular se-
tal rows and a few small spinelets on the caudal mar-
gin. The metapleurites usually are divided by a large,
subvertical pleural rod, the dorsal end expanded to
form a cup-shaped "ball and socket" joint with the
metanotum that usually is lined with resilin, a color-
less,rubberlike, elastic protein best developed in those
species that are good jumpers. The anterior metepis-
temum usually is relatively devoid of setae, but the
posterior metepimeron bears a spirade and a number
oflong setae, the arrangement of which is sometimes
usefulin identification.
The legs of most adult fleas are similar in form and
function,allowing the individual to progress by walking
or jumping. Exceptions indude species that attach
themselvesmore or less permanently to their hosts and
thosethat are restricted to the nest or lair of their hosts.
Order Siphonaptera 649
In the former instance, all or part of a leg may be per-
manently lost, whereas in the latter the individual moves
by simply crawling. In typical adults the leg consists of
a large, flattened coxa, a small trochanter, flattened fe-
mur and tibia, and a 5-segmented tarsus, the terminal
segment of which bears three to five pairs of lateral plan-
tar setae and an apical pair of claws called ungues (Fig-
ure 31-1). The configuration of the ungues is evidently
determined by the nature of the host's pelage.
The abdomen of adult fleas consists of eight dis-
tinct segments plus a compound terminal area in
which segmentation is indistinct. Tergum 1 is small
and unmodified, but may bear a few small spinelets on
its caudal margino Abdominal sternite 1 is vestigial in
both sexes. As a result, the first visible sternite is num-
ber 2. Tergites and sternites 2 to 7 are unmodified. The
tergites may have a variable number of se tal rows and
at least the anteriormost segments also may bear mar-
ginal spinelets. The sternites usually only have a single
row of setae, situated in the ventral half of each seg-
ment. The remaining abdominal segments are vari-
ously modified to form the internal and external geni-
talia. The caudal margin of tergum 7 in both sexes
usually has a variable number of antesensilial setae.
Tergum 8 bears a large, spiracular fossa cephalad of the
UNIVERSIDAD
DECAllAS
650 Chapter31 OrderSiphonaptera

Occipital row

Trabecula centralis

Pseudosetae

Mesopleural rod

Figure31-2 Smitipsylla maseri Lewis (an extralimital species), showing structures of

taxonomic importance. A, head and prothorax of male; B, mesothorax and metathorax of
maleo (Figure prepared by Roben E. Lewis.)

circular to oval sensilium, which may be convex, flat, Taxonomic Characters

or slightly concave, depending on the family. In fe-
males these modified segments contribute to the anal
lobes, anal stylets, genital ducts and spermathecae. In
males, tergites 9 to 11 contribute to the anallobes and
claspers, whereas sternites 9 to 10 contribute to the
ventral sternal appendages if they are presento Different
entomologists have variously interpreted the homolo-
gies of the aedeagus (for example, Traub 1950, Peus
1956, Smit 1970), but further study is required before
the structure and function of this complicated struc-
ture are understood across the various families.
As indicated elsewhere, identification of adult fleasat
the species level usually involves analysis of genitalia,
especially those of the males (Figure 31-3A,B). In many
genera the identity of females can only be inferred from
the identification of accompanying males. However,a
number of nongenitalic characters are useful for identi-
fication at the generic level. Most are mentioned in the
introductory section and need not be discussed further.
However, the genitalic structures are much more com-
plicated and require further explanation.

Antesensilial
Sensilium
L setae
Sensilium
e Figure31-3 Smitipsylla maseri Lewis,
Very few features of the female anatomy are useful
in identification. Beyond the usual somatic characters,
theyare found in the abdominal segments 7 to 11 (Fig-
ure31-3C). Externally these include the number of an-
tesensilial setae, the shape of the anal stylet and dorsal
anallobes, the form of the caudal margin of sternite 7
and the setation of tergite and sternite 8. Useful inter-
nal structures, at least in so me species, include the
formof the spermatheca(e) and the shape and degree
ofsclerotization of the genital ducts.
TaxonomicCharacters 651
showing structures of taxonomic impor-
lance. A, B, modified abdominal seg-
ments of male; e, modified abdominal
segments of female. (Figure prepared by
Robert E. Lewis.)
In males the aedeagus is a complicated structure
consisting of a number of parts of uncertain function,
as well as the penis rods, the functional intromittent
organ. Although the families vary considerably with re-
spect to the other genitalic characters, the following is
a general description among the families under consid-
eration. Tergites 9 to 10 are modified into paired clasp-
ing organs (Figure 31-3B), the fixed and movable pro-
cesses. The former are derived from the dorsal portion
of the ventral, handlelike extension of the body o~ the
652 Chapter31 OrderSiphonaptera
clasper, the manubrium. The latter are articulated with
the caudal margin of the manubrium. Sternites 8 to 9
are appendiculate and may be adomed with a variety of
appendages or other modifications. The apex of the
aedeagus also may have various anchoring mechanisms
that ensure the integrity of the union between the male
and female genitalia during coitus. Among the North
American families, one or more of these modified seg-
ments may be reduced or even absent.
Taxonomic characters in the larvae include form
of the mouthparts; shape of the egg burster on the dor-
sum of the head capsule (shed with the first-instar ex-
uvia); shape of the antennae and antennal mound and
its sensory structures; and chaetotaxy of the head cap-
sule, thorax, and abdominal segments. Although legs
are absent, the terminal abdominal segment is provided
with a pair of anal struts that may be used to grasp
fibers in the host's nest. By engaging the substratum
with the mouthparts and pushing with the anal struts,
larvae can move forward rather rapidly.
Classification of the Siphonaptera
Superfamily Ceratophylloidea
Ceratophyllidae
Ceratophyllinae (112): Aetheca (2),
Amalaraeus (2), Amaradix (3), Amonopsyl-
lus (l), Amphalius (l), Ceratophyllus (22),
Dasypsyllus (2), Eumolpianus (7),jellisonia
(2), Malaraeus (3), Margopsylla (1),
Megabothris (8), Mioctenopsylla (2), Mono-
psyllus (1), Nosopsyllus (2), Opisodasys (6),
Orchopeas (15), Oropsylla (13), Pleochaetis
(l), Plusaetis (2), Psittopsylla (l), Rosick-
yiana (l), Tarsopsylla (l), Thrassis (11),
Traubella (2)
Dactylopsyllinae (15): Dactylopsylla (7),
Foxella (l), Spicata (7)
Ischnopsyllidae
Ischnopsyllinae (11): Hormopsylla (1), Myo-
dopsylla (6), Nycteridopsylla (3), Stemo-
psylla (1)
Key to Familiesand Subfamilies of Siphonaptera
1. Middle coxa without an outer internal ridge (Figures 31-1, 31-7); hind
tibia without an apical tooth; sensilium with 8 or 14 pits per side
(family Pulicidae )
l' Middle coxa with outer internal ridge (Figures 31-4 - 31-6); hind tibia
usually with an apical tooth; sensilium usually with more than 16 pits
per side
Leptopsyllidae
Leptopsyllinae (9): Leptopsylla (l), Per-
omyscopsylla (8)
Amphipsyllinae (9): Amphipsylla (3),
Ctenophyllus (l), Dolichopsyllus (1),
Geusibia (1), Odontopsyllus (2),
Omithophaga (1)
Superfamily Hystrichopsylloidea
Ctenophthalmidae
Anomiopsyllinae (9): Anomiopsyllus (9),
Callistopsyllus (l), Conorhinopsylla (2),
jordanopsylla (2), Megarthroglossus (12),
Stenistomera (3)
Ctenophthalminae (3): Carteretta (2),
Ctenophthalmus (l)
Doratopsyllinae (4): Corrodopsylla (3),
Doratopsylla (1)
Neopsyllinae (46): Catallagia (13), Delotelis
(2), Epitedia (7), Meringis (17), Neopsylla
(l), Phalacropsylla (5), Tamiophila (1)
Rhadinopsyllinae (28): Corypsylla(3), Nearc-
topsylla (12), Paratyphloceras (1),
Rhadinopsylla (1l), Trichopsylloides (1)
Stenoponiinae (2): Stenoponia (2)
Hystrichopsyllidae
Hystrichopsyllinae (7): Atyphloceras (3),
Hystrichopsylla (4)
Superfamily Malacopsylloidea
Rhopalopsyllidae
Rhopalopsyllinae (4): Polygenis (3), Rhopalo-
psyllus (l)
Superfamily Pulicoidea
Pulicidae
Archaeopsyllinae (2): Ctenocephalides (2)
Hectopsyllinae (2): Hectopsylla (2)
Pulicinae (4): Echidnophaga (l), Pulex (3)
Spilopsyllinae (5): Actenopsylla (1), Euhoplo-
psyllus (l), Hoplopsyllus (1), Spilopsyllus (2)
Tunginae (2): Tunga (2)
Xenopsyllinae (1): Xenopsylla (1)
Superfamily Vermipsylloidea
Vermipsyllidae
Vermipsyllinae (6): Chaetopsylla (6)
15
2
 Keyto Families and Subfamilies of Siphonaptera 653

0.50mm
e D

E F

Figure31-4 Head and thorax of North American representatives of subfamilies of

!leas. A, Hystrichopsylla dippiei Rothschild (HystrichopsyIlidae); B, Polygenis gwyni
(c. Fox) (RhopalopsyIlidae); C, Ceratophyllus gallinae (Schrank) (CeratophyIlidae, Cer-
atophyIlinae); D, Myodopsylla insignis (Rothschild) CIschnopsyIlidae); E, Foxella ignota
(Baker) (CeratophyIlidae, DactylopsyIlinae); F, Chaetopsylla lotoris (Stewart) (Vermipsyll-
idae). (Figure prepared by Robert E. Lewis.)

2(1'). Anterior tentorial arm present in front of eye; genal and prono tal combs
absent; mesopleural rod not forked dorsally; ventral margin of pronotum
not bilobed; fifth tarsal segment with 4 pairs of plantar bristles; frontal
tubercle arising in a groove, its apex directed forward and upward
(Figure 31-4B) Rhopalopsyllidae p.658
2'. Not with the preceding combination of characters 3
654 Chapter31 OrderSiphonaptera

3(2/). Combs, marginal spinelets, antesensilial bristles, spiniform bristles on

inner side of hind coxae and anal stylets of female all absent (parasites
of carnivores) (Figure 31-4F) Vermipsyllidae p.659
3'. Some or most of the preceding structures present 4
4(3/). Mesonotum with marginal spinelets; dorsal surface of sensilium flat;
females with 1 spermatheca 5
4/. Mesonotum without marginal spinelets; dorsal surface of sensilium more
or less convex; females with 1 or 2 spermathecae 7
5(4). Interantennal suture well developed; genal comb consisting of 2 broad,
blunt spines; eyes absent or vestigial; parasites of bats (Figure 31-4D) Ischnopsyllidae p.659
5/. Interantennal suture usually weak or absent; genal comb never present;
no tentorial arch in front of eye; eye present though occasionally reduced,
or vestigial (Figure 31-4C,E) (parasites of animals other than bats,
mostly of rodents, some birds) (family CeratophyIlidae) 6
6(5/). Eye always present, though somewhat reduced in a few cases, circular or
ovate, its center sometimes almost transparent (Figure 31-4C) (mainly
Holarctic in distribution on rodents and birds) Ceratophyllinae p.658
6/. Eye very much reduced to small, oval and unpigmented (exclusively
Nearctic on pocket gophers; Geomyidae) (Figure 31-4E) Dactylopsyllinae p.658
7(4/). Interantennal suture and genal comb present; eye present, often sinuate;
pronotal comb always present; occipital tuber absent; marginal or
submarginal spinelets present (except in Omithophaga) (Figure 31-5A,B)
(family LeptopsyIlidae) 8
7/. Not with preceding combination of characters 9
8(7/) Head always fracticipit; genal comb always present (Figure 31-5A) Leptopsyllinae p.658
8/. Head always integricipit; genal comb always absent (vestigial in
Omithophaga) (Figure 31-5B) Amphipsyllinae p. 658
9(7') Club of male antenna extending onto the prosternosome, sensilium
strongly convex; females with 2 spermathecae (Figure 31-4A) Hystrichopsyllidae p. 658
9/. Club of male antenna not extending onto the prosternosome; sensilium
not so strongly convex; females with 1 spermatheca (Figure 31-6)
(family Ctenophthalmidae) 10

A
B

Figure31-5 Head and thorax of North American representatives of subfamilies of fleas.

A, Leptopsylla segnis (Schónherr) (Leptopsyllidae, Leptopsyllinae); B, Amphipsylla sibir-
iea (Wagner) (Leptopsyllidae, AmphipsyIlinae). (Figure prepared by Robert E. Lewis.)
 Key to Families and Subfamilies of Siphonaptera 655

A B

e 0.50 mm D

E F

Figure31-6 Head and thorax of Nonh American representatives of subfamilies of

fleas. A, Ctenophthalmus pseudogyrtes Baker (Ctenophthalmidae, Ctenophthalminae);
B, Doratopsylla blarinae C. Fox (Ctenophthalmidae, Doratopsyllinae); C, Anomiopsyllus
montanus Collins (Ctenophthalmidae, Anomiopsyllinae); D, Rhadinopsyllafraterna Baker
(Ctenophthalmidae, Rhadinopsyllinae); E, Neopsylla inopina Rothschild (Ctenophthalmi-
dae, Neopsyllinae); F, Stenoponia americana (Baker) (Ctenophthalmidae, Stenoponiinae).
(Figure prepared by Roben E. Lewis.)

10(9') Labial palpi with at most 2 distinct segments; genal comb well developed,
with at least 9 spines, tergite 1 of abdomen with a well-deveioped comb
(Figure 31-6F) (parasites mainly of small rodents) Stenoponiinae p. 658
10'. Labial palpi with at least 4 segments; genal comb sometimes absent,
when present rarely with as many as 9 spines; abdomen generally without
combs 11

....
656 Chapter31 OrderSiphonaptera

11(10'). Club of antenna with some segments partially or completely fused so as

to appear to consist of only 7 or 8 segments; pleural ridge of metathorax
short, more or less broken up or absent; striarium, if present, on
metepimeron (Figure 31-6D) (mainly on small mammals, especially
rodents) Rhadinopsyllinae p.658
11'. Club of antenna nearly always with 9 distinct segments; pleural ridge of
metathorax complete 12
12(11'). Genal comb absent; pronotum and tergites 2-7 each with only 1 row of
bristles, the anterior row vestigial (Figure 31-6C) (on small rodems) Anomiopsyllinae p.658
12'. Either genal comb well developed or tergites 2-7 each with at least
2 well-developed rows of bristles, or both 13
13(12'). Genal comb of 2 overlapping spines or absent; if absent, with striarium
on basal abdominal segment (Figure 31-6E) (on small rodents) Neopsyllinae p.658
13'. Genal comb of some other type or absent; if absent, striarium also absent 14
14(13'). Genal comb with 4 well-developed and uniformly spaced spines, none
arising behind the eye; sensilium with 13 pits per side (Figure 31-6B)
(mainly on rodents) Doratopsyllinae p.658
14'. Genal comb not as in preceding entry: reduced to 3 or 5 spines,
1 concealed behind another in lateral view, or with 1 spine arising behind
eye; sensilium with more that 13 pits per side (Figure 31-6A) (mainly
on small rodents) Ctenophthalminae p.658
15(1). lnner side of hind coxae without spiniform bristles; sensilium with 8 pits
per side; small fleas with heavily barbed mouthparts 16
15'. lnner side of hind coxae with spiniform bristles; sensilium with 14 pits
per side; larger fleas with mouthparts less barbed 17
16(15). Anterior apical angle of hind coxa projecting ventrad as a broad tooth;
no tooth at base of hind femur; male genitalia with process of the clasper
resembling a pair of opposing claws; spiracles on female abdominal
segments 2-4 minute, vestigial, those on 5-8 much enlarged; tropical
(Figure 31-7F) Tunginae p.659
16'. Anterior angle of hind coxa without apical tooth; hind femur with
large basal tooth; male genitalia with body of clasper short, posteriorly
with 3 processes, 1 large and trapeziform, the others forming a pair of
pincers; female spiracles on abdominal segments 2-7 of equal size
(Figure 31-7E) Hectopsyllinae p.659
17(15'). Club of antenna asymmetrical, the anterior segments foliaceous and
slanting caudad 18
17'. Club of antenna symmetrical, elliptical in outline (Figure 31-7C) Spilopsyllinae p.659
18(17). Pleural rod of mesothorax absent (Figure 31-7 A) Pulicinae p.659
18'. Pleural rod of mesothorax present 19
19(18'). Falx strongly sclerotized; with both a genal and pronotal comb
(Figure 31-70) Archaeopsyllinae p.659
19'. Falx absent or feebly sclerotized; neither genal nor prono tal comb present
(Figure 31-7B) Xenopsyllinae p.659
 Keyto Familiesand Subfamiliesof Siphonaptera 657

A 8

e
D

E 0.30 mm
F 0.30 mm

Figure31-7 Head and thorax of North American representatives of subfamilies of

fleas. A, Pulex irritans L. (Pulicidae, Pulicinae); B, Xenopsylla cheopis (Rothschild) (Puli-
cidae, Xenopsyllinae); e, Euholopsyllusglacialis (Taschenberg) (Pulicidae, Spilopsylli-
nae); D, Ctenocephalidesfelis (Bouché) (Pulicidae, Archaeopsyllinae); E, Hectopsylla
psittaci Frauenfeld (Pulicidae, Hectopsyllinae); F, Tungapenetrans L. (Pulicidae, Tungi-
nae). (Figure prepared by Robert E. Lewis.)
658 Chapter 31 Order Siphonaptera
Family Ceratophyllidae: This is the largest family of
fleas in North America, with 125 species belonging to
28 genera. Given that only 45 genera are recognized in
the world fauna as a whole, this seems to be a relatively
young family, geologically, that is rapidly evolving
(Traub et al. 1983). Using geological evidence, includ-
ing zoogeography, these authors posited that cerato-
phyllids have arisen from leptopsyllid ancestors, that
they coevolved on sciurid hosts during the Oligocene,
and that this took place in what is now the Nearctic re-
gion. The Leptopsyllidae, a more ancient family, are
thought to have arisen and evolved in the Palearctic re-
gion, perhaps from some hystrichopsylloid ancestor.
Subfamily Ceratophyllinae:The 112 species belong-
ing to this subfamily are distributed in 25 genera. A
number are monotypic or with only two or three
species. Many show fairly high degrees of host speci-
ficity, for example, Thrassis species on burrow-dwelling
sciurids, Ceratophyllus species on various birds, and a
number of genera associated with small microtine and
cricetid rodents. Most species are distributed in west-
ern North America, but a few show a true Holarctic dis-
tribution.
Subfamily Dactylopsyllinae: This small subfamily
consists of three genera and 15 species, all restricted to
the Nearctic Region, and specific parasites of pocket
gophers (Geomys and Thomomys species). One species,
Foxella ignota (Baker), has the broadest distribution of
any in the subfamily. It has been divided into a number
of subspecies, most of which are not valid taxa.
Famí/y Ischnopsyllidae:This is an unique group of
fleas consisting of 11 species in four genera. All are ex-
clusively parasites of bats, mostly vespertilionids,
roosting in mines and natural caverns in the rocks. Ev-
idence suggests that the reproductive cycle in this fam-
ily is mainly influenced by seasonal changes, at least in
temperate climates.
Famí/y Leptopsyllidae: Of the 240 species in the
world fauna assigned to this family, only 18 (7%) are
found in North America. Most are in the Palearctic
Region, and the North American species are mainly
restricted to the western part of the continent. One
European species, Leptopsylla segnis (Schónherr) is
cosmopolitan on Mus musculus, the house mouse.
Dolichopsyllus stylosus is a parasite of the mountain
beaver. The majority of other species are associated
with small rodents, especially microtines. Evolution-
ary affinities are discussed briefly under the Cerato-
phyllidae.
Subfamily Leptopsyllinae: Only nine taxa belong to
this subfamily, and one, Leptopsylla segnis Schónherr, is
not native. The remaining eight species belong to Per-
omyscopsylla, parasites of small rodents.
Subfamily Amphipsyllinae:The six genera and nine
species in North America belonging to this subfamily
are mostly parasites of small mammals. Most belongto
typically Palearctic genera, but the "relict" distribution
of Dolichopsyllus and Odontopsyllus species, if that is
what it is, defies logical explanation. Omithophaga
anomala Mikulin is a Holarctic parasite of birds, prob-
ably woodpeckers.
Family Ctenophthalmidae: In North America 112
species are assigned to this taxon, making it the second
largest of the Nearctic families. The six subfamilies as-
signed here are all parasites of small rodents and insec-
tivores.
Subfamily Anomiopsyllinae: One of the 29 North
American members of this subfamily is a parasite offly-
ing squirrels (Glaucomys volans and G. sabrinus) in the
East. The remaining species are western, and most are
associated with small rodents, especially Neotoma
(woodrat) species.
Subfamily Ctenophthalminae: Only three speciesof
this large subfamily are found in the Nearctic region.
The two species of Carteretta parasitize small rodents
in the Southwest. Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes Bakeris
widespread east of the Rocky Mountains on a broad
range of hosts, although it is found primarily on small,
microtine rodents.
Subfamily Doratopsyllinae: The four species as-
signed here are all associated with shrews (Blarina and
Sorex species) as their preferred hosts.
Subfamily Neopsyllinae:This subfamily is well repre-
sented in North America, with 46 recognized species.
The bulk of these occur in the West, with only 5 or 6 dis-
tributed east of the Mississippi River. All are chiefly par-
asites of small rodents: chipmunks, Tamias spp.; ground
squirrels, Spermophilus spp.; cricetid rodents; woodrats,
Neotoma spp.; and deer mice, Peromyscus spp.
Subfamily Rhadinopsyllinae: Most of the 28 mem-
bers of this group are distributed in the West, where
they are parasites of shrews, moles, and small rodents.
Two monotypic genera, Paratyphloceras oregonensis
Ewing and Trichopsylloides oregonensis Ewing, are also
specific parasites of the endangered mountain beaver.
As a group, the species appear to be nest fleas and win-
ter as adults.
Subfamily Stenoponiinae: The two species assigned
here are large fleas found on small rodents, one species
in the East, the other in the West.
Family Hystrichopsyllidae:As defined here, this fam-
ily contains seven Nearctic species that are mainly as-
sociated with small rodents and insectivores. One
species, Hystrichopsylla scheJJeriChapin, is a parasite of
the primitive rodent Aplodontia ruja, the mountain
beaver, distributed from northern California to south-
ern British Columbia. This species bears the distinction
of being the largest flea (8-10 mm long) in the world.
Famí/y Rhopalopsyllidae: Only 4 out of the 122
species belonging to the world fauna occur in North

America. They are parasites of armadillos, opossums,
and various small rodents.
Family Pulicidae:Diverse though this assemblage is,
historically the separa te elements-whether assigned
to the level of family, subfamily, or tribe-have be en ac-
knowledged to be phylogenetically closer to each other
than to other taxa in the order. Currently this family in
the world fauna has 181 species in 27 genera. Of these,
16 are known from North America. They are assigned
to the following subfamilies.
Subfamily Archaeopsyllinae: The only two North
American taxa, Ctenocephalides felis (Bouché) and
C. canis (Curtis), are not native to North America. The
former is a pest of domes tic pets and livestock, and fre-
quently becomes a household pest. In the past decade,
researchers have made major developments in flea con-
trol using juvenile growth hormones, and this has been
the experimental species. The latter taxon is much less
common. Both are known as intermediate hosts of the
dog tapeworm, Dipylidium caninum.
Subfamily Hectopsyllinae: This tropical group is
usually associated with rodents and other small mam-
mals. The North American species Hectopsylla psitta-
cciFrauenfeld is a parasite of cliff swallows (Petrocheli-
donpyrrhonota) in California.
Subfamily Pulicinae:Only four species belonging to
two genera in this family occur in North America. The
sticktight flea, Echidnophaga gallinacea (Westwood),
can be a pest of domestic poultry, but also infests
medium-sized mammals and wild birds. Adults tend to
congregate in areas on the host that are difficult to
groom and may remain attached for extended periods.
PulexporcinusJordan and Rothschild is a common par-
asite of peccaries, Pecari tajacu. The other two species
of Pulex, P. irritans Linnaeus and P. simulans Baker, in-
festa broad range of hosts from small to medium-sized
mammals, and the former is so me times associated with
human habitations.
Subfamily Spilopsyllinae: The five species in this
subfamily belong to four genera. One species is a para-
site of hole-nesting birds on both coasts of North
America. The other four are found on rabbits and
hares. Evidence suggests that at least Spilopsyllus sim-
plex(Baker) and s. inaequalis(Baker) have developed
an elaborate physiological mechanism whereby the re-
productive cycle of the flea depends on the reproduc-
tivecycle of the host. The process is described in detail
byMarshall (981) based on the studies of Rothschild
and her associates with the European rabbit flea, S. cu-
niculi(Dale).
Subfamily Tunginae:Females in this subfamily be-
come permanent parasites during the adult stage.
Whereas adult males are small, short-lived, and evi-
dently do not feed, on attachment females become en-
capsulated by the host's tissues and remain in situ for
Collecting and Preserving Siphonaptera 659
the rest of their lives. Of the two species included here,
Tunga penetran s (L.) and T. monositus Barnes and
Radovsky, only the latter has been established with cer-
tainty in North America (Hastriter 1997). In both
cases, the attachment of the female triggers a response
in the host's tissues, ultimately causing complete en-
capsulation of the flea except for the terminal abdomi-
nal segments, which remain open to the exterior via a
small pore in the capsule. Nourished by tissue fluids
secreted by the host, the abdomen of the female flea en-
larges by as much as 1,000X (about the size of a gar-
den pea), accompanied by the production of large
quantities of eggs, which are discharged through the
pore in the capsule, where they fall to the ground and
begin their development. After a full complement of
approximately 100 eggs has be en produced, the dead
body of the female is usually discharged from the host
by pressure from the surrounding tissues. Females of
T.penetrans usually attach between the toes and under
the toenails in human hosts. The sites, if untreated,
may become septic or cause other medical problems.
Subfamily Xenopsyllinae: Most members of this
subfamily are native to Africa, Asia, or Australia. How-
ever, Xenopsylla cheopis (Rothschild), the Oriental rat
flea, is cosmopolitan, having been transported (by hu-
man agency) on black and Norway rats (Rattus rattus
and R. norvegicus). This flea is generally credited his-
torically with being the major vector of bubonic plague
during the early pandemics in Asia and Europe. Today
it do es not figure prominently in maintaining sylvatic
plague in nature. However, it is an intermedia te host to
the tapeworm Hymenolepis diminuta.
Family Vermipsyllidae: This family contains only
three genera in the world fauna, including 6 species of
the genus Chaetopsylla in North America. All are associ-
ated with various carnivores (for example, raccoons,
foxes, wolves, and bears) and all tend to be distributed
in the colder parts ofthe Nearctic and Palearctic regions.
Collecting and Preserving Siphonaptera
Fleas can be collected fram host animals or from their
nests or lair. The methods suggested for collecting
Phthiraptera also apply to the Siphonaptera.
Fleas should be preserved in 75% ethyl alcohol, al-
though a good alternative is to store them dry in small
vials, held in place by nonabsorbent cotton. Never pre-
serve adults in a formaldehyde-based preservative, be-
cause these tend to fix the tissues in a way that makes
it impossible to properly clear the fleas for study on mi-
croscope slides.
Mammal nests are usually difficult to find, but
once located they may continue lo yield adults for ex-
660 Chapter31 OrderSiphonaptera
tended periods if not permitted to dry out. Bird nests
are usually more easily located, but most nests in open
areas do not contain fleas. The most productive nests
are those in burrows or natural cavities in the ground,
in holes in trees, or mud nests on buildings or cliff
faces. Examine nest material by placing it on a white
background and thoroughly picking it apart. Live fleas
and other nidicolous invertebrates can be picked up
with an aspirator or with a camel's-hair brush wetted
with alcohol. Keep nesting material for a few weeks,
References
Adams, N. E, and R. E. Lewis. 1995. An annotated catalogue
of prirnary types of Siphonaptera in the National
Museurn of Natural History, Srnithsonian Institution.
Srnithson. Contrib. loo!. 560:1-86.
Cheetharn, T. B. 1988. Male genitalia and the phylogeny of
the Pulicoidea (Siphonaptera). Theses loo!. 8:1-221.
Elbel, R. E 1991. Order Siphonaptera. In F. Stehr (Ed.), Irn-
rnature Insects, vo!. 2, pp. 674-689. Dubuque, lA:
KendalllHunt.
Ewing, H. E, and I. Fox. 1943. The !leas of North Arnerica.
Classification, identification, and geographic distribution
of these injurious and disease-spreading insects. U.S.
Dept. Agric. Misc. Pub!. 500:1-143.
Fox, I. 1940. Fleas of Eastern United States. Ames: Iowa State
College Press. 191 pp.
Hastriter, M. W 1997. Establishment of the tungid !lea, Tunga
monositus (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae) in the United States.
Great Basin Nat. 53:281-283.
Holland, G. P. 1985. The !leas of Canada, Alaska and Green-
land. Mern. Entorno!. Soco Can. 130:1-631.
Hopkins, G. H. E, and M. Rothschild. 1953-1971. An IIIus-
trated Catalogue of the Rothschild Collection of Fleas
(Siphonaptera) in the British Museurn (Natural History).
Vo!. 1 (1953): Tungidae and Pulicidae. Vol 2 (1956): Cop-
topsyIlidae, VerrnipsyIlidae, Stephanocircidae, Ischnop-
syIlidae, Hypsophthalrnidae and XipiopsyIlidae [and
Macropsyllidae]. Vo!. 3 (1962): HystrichopsyIlidae
(Acedestinae, . . . ). Vo!. 4 (1966): HystrichopsyIlidae
(Ctentophthalrninae,. . .). Vo!. 5 (1971): (LeptopsyIlidae
and AncistropsyIlidae). London: British Museurn (Nat-
ural History).
Hubbard, C. A. 1947. Fleas ofWestern North Arnerica. Ames:
Iowa State College Press, 533 pp.
Lewis, R. E 1972-1974. Notes on the geographical distribu-
tion and host preferences in the order Siphonaptera.
1972. Pan 1: Pulicidae. 1973. J. Med. Entorno!.
9:511-520. Pan 2: RhopalopsyIlidae, MalacopsyIlidae
and VerrnipsyIlidae. 1974. J. Med. Entorno!. 10:255-260.
Pan 3: HystrichopsyIlidae. J. Med. Entorno!. 11: 147-167.
Pan 4: Coptopsyllidae, PygiopsyIlidae, Stephanocircidae
and Xiphiopsyllidae. J. Med. Entorno!. 11:403-413. Pan
5: Ancistropsyllidae, Chirnaeropsyllidae, Ischnopsyllidae,
Leptopsyllidae and Macropsyllidae. J. Med. Entorno!.
11:525-540. Pan 6: Ceratophyllidae. J. Med. Entorno!. J.
Med. Entorno!. 11:658-676.
preferably in a paper bag or other reasonably porous
container, at room temperature, moisten it periodically
and examine it every few days for newly emerged
adults.
In areas where adults are particularly abundant,
such as yards and outbuildings, adults can be collected
with a white cloth, or you can simply walk about the
area collecting adults as they jump on your clothing. In
the latter case, fleas are most visible on light-colored
clothing.
Lewis, R. E. 1990. The CeratophyIlidae: Currently accepted
valid taxa (Insecta: Siphonaptera). Theses Zool.
13:1-267.
Lewis, R. E. 1993. Fleas (Siphonaptera). In R. P. Lane and R.
W Crosskey (Eds.), Medical Insects and Arachnids, pp.
529-575. London: Chaprnan & Hall.
Lewis, R. E. 1998. Résurné of the Siphonaptera (Insecta) of
the worId. J. Med. Entorno!. 35:377-389.
Lewis, R. E., and T. D. Galloway. 2002. A taxonornic reviewof
the Ceratophyllus Curtis, 1832 of Nonh America
(Siphonaptera: CeratophyIlidae: CeratophyIlinae). J. Vec-
tor Eco!' 26:119-161.
Lewis, R. E., and D. Grirnaldi. 1997. A pulicid !lea in Miocene
arnber frorn the Dorninican Republic (Insecta:
Siphonaptera: Pulicidae). Arn. Mus. Novit. 3205:1-9.
Lewis, R. E., and J. H. Lewis. 1985. Notes on the geographi-
cal distribution and host preferences in the order
Siphonaptera. Part 7: New taxa described between 1972
and 1983, with a superspecific cIassification of the order.
J. Med. Entorno!. 22:134-152.
Lewis, R. E., and J. H. Lewis. 1989. Catalogue of invalid
genus-group and species-group narnes in Siphonaptera
(Insecta). Theses lo o!. 11:1-263.
Lewis, R. E, and J. H. Lewis. 1985. Notes on the geographi-
cal distribution and host preferences in the order
Siphonaptera. Pan 8: New taxa described between 1984
and 1990, with a current cIassification of the order. J.
Med. Entorno!. 30:239-256.
Lewis, R. E, and J. H. Lewis. 1994a. Siphonaptera of North
Arnerica north of Mexico: Verrnipsyllidae and Rhopalop-
syIlidae. J. Med. Entorno!. 31:82-98.
Lewis, R. E., and]. H. Lewis. 1994b. Siphonaptera of North
Arnerica nonh of Mexico: IschnopsyIlidae.]. Med. Ento-
rno!. 31:348-368.
Lewis, R. E., and]. H. Lewis. 1994c. Siphonaptera of North
Arnerica north of Mexico: Hystrichopsyllidae s. str J.
Med. Entorno!. 31:795-812.
Lewis, R. E,]. H. Lewis, and C. Maser. 1988. The Fleas ofthe
Pacific Northwest. Corvallis: Oregon State University
Press, 296 pp.
Marshall, A. G. 1981. The Ecology of Ectoparasitic lnsects.
London: Acadernic Press, 459 pp.
Peus, F. 1956. Siphonaptera. In S. L. Tuxen (Ed.), Taxono-
rnist's Glossary of Genitalia in Insects, pp. 122-131.
Copenhagen: Munksgaard.

Pilgrirn, R L. C. 1991. External rnorphology of !lea larvae
(Siphonaptera) and its significance in taxonorny. Fla. En-
torno\. 74:386-395.
Rothschild, M. 1975. Recent advances in our knowledge of
the order Siphonaptera. Ann. Rev. Entorno\. 20:241-259.
Smit, f G. A. M. 1970. Siphonaptera. In S. L. Tuxen (Ed.),
Taxonornist's Glossary of Genitalia in Insects, 2nd ed.,
pp. 141-156.. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
Smit, f G. A. M. 1982. Siphonaptera. In S. P. Parker (Ed.),
Synopsis and Classification of Living Organisrns, vo\. 2,
pp. 557-563. New York: McGraw-Hil\.
Smit, f G. A. M. 1983. Key to the genera and subgenera of
Ceratophyllidae. In R Traub, M. Rothschild, and]. f
Haddow (Eds.), The Rothschild Collection of Fleas. The
farnily Ceratophyllidae: Key to the genera and host rela-
tionships, with notes on their evolution, zoogeography
and rnedical irnportance, pp. 1-41. Carnbridge, UK:
Carnbridge University Press.
Smit,f G. A. M. 1987. An Il\ustrated Catalogue of the Roth-
schild Collection of Fleas (Siphonaptera) in the British
References 661
Museurn (Natural History). Vo\. 7: Malacopsylloidea
(Malacopsyllidae and Rhopalopsyllidae). Oxford, UK:
Oxford University Press,
Srnit, f G. A. M., and A. M. Wright. 1978. A catalogue of pri-
rnary type-specirnens of Siphonaptera in the British Mu-
seurn (Natural History). London: British Museurn (Nat-
ural History), 71 pp. (Mirneographed).
Snodgrass, R E. 1946. The skeletal anatorny of !leas
(Siphonaptera). Srnithson. Misc. ColI. 104:1-89.
Traub, R. 1950. Siphonaptera frorn Central Arnerica and Mex-
ico. A rnorphological study of the aedeagus with descrip-
tions of new genera and species. Fieldiana Zoo\. Mern.
1:1-127.
Traub, R, M. Rothschild, and]. f Haddow. 1983. The Rothschild
Collection of Fleas. The farnily Ceratophyllidae: Key to the
genera and host relationships, with notes on their evolution,
zoogeography and rnedical irnportance. Carnbridge, UK:
Carnbridge University Press. (distributed by Acadernic
Press, London), 288 pp.
 32 Order Mecoptera1,2
Scorpionfliesand Hangingflies
corpionflies and hangingflies are medium-sized
S (about 9-25 mm long), slender-bodied insects with
the head prolonged below the eyes as a beak, or ros-
trum (Figure 32-1A, 32-2). The rostrum is formed
primarily by elongation of the clypeus. Its posterior
surface consists partiy of the lengthened maxillae and
labium, but the mandibles are not unusually elongate
and are at the lower end of the rostrum. In the rela-
tively uncommon Panorpodidae, the rostrum is
short (Figure 32-5A). Most Mecoptera have four
long, narrow, membranous wings. The front and hind
wings are similar in size and shape and have similar
venation.
The wing venation of Mecoptera is very near the
generalized pattem hypothesized by Comstock (1940)
(see Figure 2-10), with most of the longitudinal veins
and their branches present and with numerous
crossveins. A distinctive venational feature of this order
is the fusion in the hind wing of CUt with M for a short
distance near the wing base, and a similar fusion of CU2
with lA (Figures 32-3, 32-5B). In the front wing of
the Bittacidae, likewise, CUt fuses with M for a short
distance.
The common name scorpionflies is derived from
the genital segment of males of the family Panorpidae,
which is bulbous and often curved forward above the
back, like a scorpion's sting. These insects cannot sting,
however, and are quite harmless.
Scorpionflies undergo complete metamorphosis,
with fairly rapid development of the larva followed
by a prolonged prepupal stage. Pupation occurs in an
'Mecoptera: meco, long; ptera, wings.
662 'This chapter was written by George W. Byers.
oblong cell excavated by the larva in the soil. larvae
of Panorpidae and Bittacidae are eruciform, with
short, pointed prolegs on abdominal segments 1-8
(Figure 32-1B). Those of Panorpodidae and Boreidae
are somewhat scarabaeiform, without prolegs, but
they lack tarsal claws and their middle and hind legs
project laterally more than do the front legs. larval
Panorpidae are unusual among holometabolous
larva e in having compound eyes of approximately
30 ommatidia each. Eyes of bittacid larvae have only
7 ommatidia in a circular cluster, boreids have only 3,
and panorpodids are eyeless. The larva e of Meropei-
dae are unknown.
Mecoptera are judged to be one of the more gen-
eralized orders of Holometabola. Fossil Mecoptera ap-
pear first in strata of lower Permian age, and at that
time Mecoptera were apparentiy one of the majar or-
ders. Many more families and genera are known as fos-
sils than are extant today.
Classification of the Mecoptera
Five families of Mecoptera are represented in North
America, and there are four other families, restricted to
southem South America and the Australian region. The
majority of specimens encountered by general collee-
tors belong to just two families, the Panorpidae and the
Bittacidae. Families of Mecoptera are defined largely on
the basis of wing venation and tarsal structure, but the
classification is supported by details of adult and larval
morphology, feeding habits, and other aspects of the bi-
ology of the insects.
 Classificationof the Mecoptera 663

Figure32-1 A, a male scorpionfly, Panorpa helena Byers; B, larva of a hangingfly

(Bittacus); sp, spiracle. (B, courtesy of Peterson, A. 1951. Larvae of Insects. Part Il.
Coleoptera, Diptera, Neuroptera, Siphonaptera, Mecoptera, Trichoptera. Ann Arbor, MI:
Edwards Bros., 416 pp., reprinted by permission.)

Figure32-2 Head of Panorpa. A, anterior view; B, lateral

view. ant, antenna; atp, anterior tentorial pit; clp, clypeus;
cvs, cervical sclerite; e, compound eye; es, epistomal sulcus;
fr, frons; g, galea; ge, gena; Ibm, labium; Ibr, labrum;
md, mandible; mxp, maxillary palp; oc, ocelli; ocp, occiput;
pg, postgena; sgs, subgenal sulcus; stp, stipes; ver, vertex.
(Redrawn from Ferris, G. F., and B. E. Rees. 1939. The
morphology of Panorpa nuptialis Gerstaecker (Mecoptera:
Panorpidae). Microentomology 4:79-108.)
664 Chapter32 OrderMecoptera

CU1 + M-, 3A

Cu, + M
,

Cu--
Cu/
1Á
3A
1A 1A

Rs

I
Rs
T
I
I
I
I
/
/
/'M
....
/'
y" ,. ",,"'"

Figure32-3 Wings of Mecoptera. A, Panorpa (Panorpidae); B, Bittacus (Bittacidae);

e, base of hind wing of Panorpa;D, base of hind wing of Bittacus; E, front wing of
Merope(Meropeidae).

Keyto the Familiesof Mecoptera

1. Tarsi each with one large claw (Figure 32-4B); tarsi raptoríal, fifth tarsal
segment folding back against founh Bittacidae p.666
1'. Tarsi each with 2 small claws (Figure 32-4A); fifth tarsal segment not
folding back against founh 2
 Keyto the Familiesof Mecoptera 665

Figure32-4 A, tarsus of Panorpa (Panor-

pidae); B, tarsus of Bittacus (Bittacidae);
e, anal appendages of a male Merope
A e (Meropeidae) .

2(1'). Wings reduced to hardened, slender hooks in male and to short, roughly
oval, sclerotized pads in female (Figure 32-6); small (2-7.4 mm), dark
brown to black insects Boreidae p. 667
2'. Wings nearly always well developed and membranous, never sclerotized;
body yellowish brown to brown, rarely blackish, 9-25 mm long 3
3(2'). Wings narrow, 3.5 or more times as long as their greatest width (if wings
reduced, rostrum very short); costal cell without crossveins beyond h
(rarely, 1); M with 4 branches (Figures 32-1A, 32-3A, 32-5B); genital
claspersof malewith bulbousbasalsegment,cheliforrnapicalsegment;
ocelli conspicuous, on raised tubercle 4

gt Cu

A B

Figure32-5 Characters of Brachypanorpa oregonensisMcLachlan (Panorpodidae).

A, face of male, anterior view; B, wings of maleogt, genal tooth.
666 Chapter32 OrderMecoptera

3'. Wings broad, about 2.4 times as long as their greatest width; costal cell
with 10 or more crossveins beyond h; M with 5 or more branches,
venation reticulate (Figure 32-3E); genital claspers of male with long,
slender basal and apical segments (Figure 32-4C); ocelli absent Meropeidae p.666
4(3). Rostrum elongate, more than twice as long as width at base (Figure 32-2);
wings well developed in both sexes, usually pattemed with transverse
bandsor spots;R2 branched Panorpidae p.666
4'. Rostrum short, only slightly longer than width at base (Figure 32-5A);
wings well developed in males, slightly to greatly reduced in females,
uniformly yellowish brown or paler along crossveins; R2not branched Panorpodidae p.666

Family Panorpidae-Common Scorpionflies: In this
family the genital appendages of males are enlarged,
forming a bulblike structure that is carried above
the back, resembling the sting of a scorpion (Fig-
ure 32-1A). The abdomen of the female tapers posteri-
orly and bears two short, fingerlike, apical cerci. Most
of these scorpionflies are dirty yellowish brown, but
some are darker brown to nearly black. Their wings
are usually transversely banded with interspersed
spots, or they may be only spotted. One southeastern
species, Panorpa lugubrís Swederus, is dark reddish
brown with almost totally black wings. Although most
scorpionflies are 10 to 15 mm long, males of Panorpa
nuptialis Gerstaecker, of the south-central United
States, may attain a length of 25 mm. Scorpionflies are
most commonly found on low broad-Ieaf plants at
edges of woods or in open shade beneath deciduous
trees. Both adults and larvae feed primarily on dead in-
sects, less often on other dead animal matter. Adults
occasionally feed on insects trapped in spiders' webs.
Pupation occurs in an oblong cell prepared by the
fourth-instar larva just beneath the soil surface. There
are 54 species known from eastern North America
(southeastern Canada to northern Florida and west-
ward to southern Manitoba and eastern Texas), all in
the Holarctic genus Panorpa. Several species are wide-
spread, such as P. helena Byers (Figure 32-1A), but
most have ecologically and geographically restricted
ranges.
Family Bittacidae-Hangingflies: Bittacids are
slender-bodied, about 12-22 mm long, light yellowish
brown to reddish brown, with long, slender legs and
narrow wings. They resemble large crane flies, particu-
larly in flight. Their wings are narrower near the base
than are those of Panorpidae (Figure 32-3A,B). One
species in central California, Apterobittacus apterus
(MacLachlan), is wingless. Unable to stand on surfaces,
adult bittacids spend most of their time hanging by
their front legs or front and middle legs from stems or
edges of leaves. They are predaceous, capturing their
prey by means of their raptorial hind tarsi, either while
hanging or by flying up plant stems while making
sweeping movements of the hind legs. Prey, grasped by
the hind tarsi, is then held up to the mouthparts,
pierced, and the hemolymph and 50ft parts sucked out.
Their prey indudes small, soft-bodied insects such as
flies, moths, caterpillars, and aphids, and occasionally
spiders. Male hangingflies lure females for mating by
emitting a sex-attractant pheromone from everted vesi-
des on the dorsum of the abdomen and subsequently
offering the female a captured prey insect as a nuptial
meal (ThornhillI978).
Seven species of Bittacus occur in eastem North
America and California.A single species of Orobittacus,
O. obscurus Villagus &: Byers, is known fram central
California. All these bittacids hold the wings alongside
the abdomen when suspended. Hylobittacus apicalis
(Hagen) of the eastern United States hangs with its
wings outspread and, unlike the other species, has con-
spicuously darkened wing tips.
Family Panorpodidae-Short-Faced Scorpionflies:
Three species of Brachypanorpa occur in the southern
Appalachian Mountains and two in montane regions of
the northwestern United States. These dull yellowish
to yellowish brown scorpionflies have a short rostrum
(Figure 32-5A). The genital appendages of males are
enlarged, as in Panorpidae, but are not carried forward
above the back. In one eastern species and two western
species, females have rudimentary wings extending
only to the base of the abdomen, whereas in the other
species in each region the females have wings reaching
the base of the abdomen or slightly beyond. The eye-
less, somewhat scarabaeiform larvae have been found
in soil beneath grassy areas in woods and are presumed
to feed on plant matter. Adults scrape surfaces of
herbaceous vegetation for nourishment.
Family Meropeidae-Earwigflies: A single species,
Merope tuber Newman, occurs in the eastern United

States and adjacent Canada. lt is a dull brownish
insect, 10-12 mm long, somewhat flattened, with rel-
atively broad wings having numerous crossveins
(Figure 32-3E). The male has greatly elongated, for-
cepslike claspers at the apex of the abdomen (Fig-
ure 32-4C). This species ranges from southeastern
Omarío to Georgia and westward to Minnesota and
Kansas. It is secretive in habits and is sometimes
foundbeneath logs and rocks. Once regarded as rare,
it is fairly frequently taken in Malaise traps. Its only
known living relative is a species in southwestern
Australia.
Family Boreidae-Snow Scorpionflies: These small
insects(2 to 7.4 mm long) reach adult form in winter.
Theyare most often seen on the surface of snow be-
causeof their movement and dark, contrasting color.
However,they may also be found in mosses on which
their larvae feed. The slender, hardened, hooklike
wingsof the male are used to grasp the female, which
iscarried on his back, in mating. The family is repre-
semedin eastern North Ameríca by two species, Boreus
brnmalisFitch (Figure 32-6), a shiny black species,
andB. nivoriundus Fitch, which is brown. In the West,
References
Byers,G. W 1954. Notes on North American Mecoptera.
Ann. Entorno\. SocoArner. 47:484-510.
Byers,G. W 1963. The life history of Panorpa nuptialis
(Mecoptera: Panorpidae). Ann. Entorno\. Soco Arner.
56:142-149.
Byers,G. W 1965. Farnilies and genera of Mecoptera. Proc.
12th lnt. Congr. Entorno\. London (1964), p. 123.
Byers, G. W 1973. Zoogeography of the Meropeidae
(Mecoptera).]. Kan. Entorno\. Soco46:511-516.
Byers.G. W 1987. Order Mecoptera. In E W Stehr (Ed.), lrn-
mature lnsects, pp. 246-252. Dubuque, lA: KendalVHunt,
754 pp.
Byers.G. W, and R. Thornhill. 1983. Biology of the Meco-
ptera. Annu. Rev. Entorno\. 28:203-228.
Carpenter,E M. 1931. Revision of Nearctic Mecoptera. Bull.
Mus. Comp. Zoo\. Harvard 72:205-277.
Carpenter,E M. 1931. The biology of the Mecoptera. Psyche
38:41-55.
References 667
Figure32-6 A snow scorpionfly, Boreus
brumalis (Fitch), fernale.
there are eight additional species of Boreus, the most
widespread and common being B. califomicus Packard;
two species of Hesperoboreus; and one of the aberrant
Caurinus.
Collecting and Preserving Mecoptera
Panorpidae and Bittacidae can be readily collected in-
dividually with a net. They are rather weak fliers and
when alarmed ordinaríly fly only a few meters. Sweep-
ing may be effective when the vegetation is not dense,
and is almost necessary to obtain the flightless females
of Brachypanorpa. Boreids may be handpicked from
snow surface or extracted from mosses. Malaise traps
and chemical traps have proved most useful for catch-
ing Merape, and may also trap Panorpa. Bittacidae often
are attracted to lights. Panorpids are usually pinned.
Drying bittacids in paper envelopes or folded paper trí-
angles, then gluing them on points, avoids much
breakage of legs and wings. Preserve boreids in 75%
ethanol or glued onto points.
Cooper, K. W 1972. A southern California Boreus, B. notoper-
ates, n. sp. 1: Cornparative rnorphology and systernatics
(Mecoptera: Boreidae). Psyche 79:269-283.
Cooper, K. W 1974. Sexual biology, chrornosornes, develop-
rnent, life histories and parasites of Boreus, especially of
B. notoperates, a southern California Boreus (Mecoptera:
Boreidae), n. Psyche 81:84-120.
Ferris, G. E, and B. E. Rees. 1939. The rnorphology of
Panorpa nuptialis Gerstaecker (Mecoptera: Panorpidae).
Microentornology 4:79-108.
Hinton, H. E. 1958. The phylogeny of the panorpoid orders.
Annu. Rev. Entorno\. 3:181-206.
Kaltenbach, A. 1978. Mecoptera (Schnabelhafte, Schnabel-
fliegen), Handbuch der Zoologie 4(2) 2/28:1-111. Berlin:
de Gruyter.
Penny, N. D. 1977. A systernatic study of the farnily Boreidae
(Mecoptera). Univ. Kan. Sci. Bull. 51:141-217.
668 Chapter32 OrderMecoptera

Peterson, A. 1951. Larvae oflnsects. Part n. Coleoptera, Diptera, TilIyard, R. J. 1935. The evolution of the scorpion-flies and
Neuroptera, Siphonaptera, Mecoptera, Trichoptera. Ann Ar- their derivatives (Order Mecoptera). Ann. Entorno!. 50c.
bor, MI: Edwards Bros., 416 pp. Arner.28:1-45.
Setty, L. R. 1940. Biology and rnorphology of sorne North Webb, D. W, N. D. Penny, and J. c. Martin. 1975. The
American Bittacidae. Arner. Mid!. Nat. 23(2):257-353. Mecoptera, or scorpionflies, of Illinois. Ill. Nat. Hist.
Thornhill, R. 1978. SexualIy selected predatory and rnating Surv. BulI. 31(7):250-316.
behavior of the hangingfly Bittacus stigmaterus (Meco- WilIrnann, R. 1987. The phylogenetic systern of the Meco-
ptera: Bittacidae). Ann. Entorno!. Soco Arner. 71:597-601. ptera. Syst. Entorno!. 12:519-524.
[cited]

.,~- It -,

.~., ;~, 1:~:t

 33 Order Strepsiptera1
Twisted-WingParasites
he Strepsiptera are minute insects, all of which are
T parasitic on other insects. The two sexes are quite
different; the males are free-living and winged, whereas
the females are wingless and often legless, and in most
species do not leave the host.
Male Strepsiptera (Figure 33-1A-D) are somewhat
beetlelike in appearance, with protruding, raspberry-
like eyes, and the antennae often have elongate pro-
cesseson some segments. The front wings are reduced
to clublike structures that resemble the halteres of the
Diptera. The hind wings are large and membranous,
fanlike,and have a reduced venation (only longitudinal
veins). The adult females of the Old World family Men-
genillidae are free-living (Figure 33-1E) and have a dis-
tinet head, with simple four- or five-segmented anten-
nae, chewing mouthparts, and compound eyes. The
femalesof the parasitic species usually lack eyes, anten-
nae,and legs; the body segmentation is very indistinct;
and the head and thorax are fused (Figure 33-1G). The
metamorphosis is complete.
The life history of the parasitic forms in this order
israther complex and involves hypermetamorphosis. A
male,on emerging, seeks out and mates with a female,
which never leaves its host. The female produces large
numbers-up to several thousand-of tiny larvae,
whieh escape from her body and the body of the host
to the soil or to vegetation. These larvae, sometimes
called triungulins, have well-developed eyes and legs
(Figure 33-1F) and are fairly active insects. They 10-
cate and enter the body of the host. Once there, the
larvamolts into a legless, wormlike stage that feeds in
thehost's body cavity. After several molts, it pupates in-
sidethe last larval skin. The male, on emerging, leaves
itshost and flies about. The female remains in the host,
IStrepsiptera: slrepsi, twisted; plera, wings.
....
with the anterior part of its body protruding between
the abdominal segments of the host. After the young
are produced, the female dies.
Species of Blattodea, Mantodea, Orthoptera,
Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, and Thysanura are hosts of
Strepsiptera. The host is not always killed, but it may
be injured. The shape or color of the abdomen may be
changed, or the sex organs may be damaged. The de-
veloping male strepsipteran usually causes more dam-
age to its host than does the female.
Some entomologists (for example, Crowson 1960)
place the Strepsiptera in the order Coleoptera (usually
as a single family, the Stylopidae), largely because of
the similarity in life history (hypermetamorphosis) be-
tween these insects and Meloidae and Rhipiphoridae.
Most entomologists now recognize the group as a dis-
tinct order. However, their relationship to the other or-
ders of insects is very controversia\.
Until recently, most entomologists considered the
Strepsiptera to be closely related to the Coleoptera.
This conclusion was largely based on the fact that both
orders use the hind wings to power their flight. Recent
studies using characters from DNA sequences have
postulated that the Strepsiptera in fact are most closely
related to the Diptera (for example, see Whiting and
Wheeler 1994, Wheeler et a\. 2001). Whiting (1998)
has reinterpreted the molecular and morphological ev-
idence pertaining to the relationships of the order.
This conclusion is not universally accepted, however.
An altemative interpretation is that the perceived rela-
tionship to Diptera that emerges from a phylogenetic
analysis is the result of methodological problems
Oong-branch attraction, see Carmean and Crespi 1995
and subsequent papers). At present, the strongest hy-
pothesis seems to be the sister group relationship with
Diptera. 669
UNl~ERSIDAD
DECAlDAS
RIAIIOTECA
670 Chapter 33 Order Strepsiptera

Figure 33-1 Strepsiptera. A, Irio-

zocera mexicana Pierce (Coriox-
enidae), male; B, Neostylops shannoni
Pierce (Stylopidae), male; C, Halic-
tophagus oncometopiae (Pierce) (Hal-
e ictophagidae), male; D, Halictophagus
serratus Bohart (Halictophagidae);
o E, Eoxenos laboulbeneiPeyerimhoff
(Mengenillidae), female; F,Stylops
califomica Pierce (Stylopidae), triun-
gulin, ventral view; G, Halictophagus
oncometopiae, female, ventral view.
(A-C, F, and G, courtesy of Pierce;
D, courtesy of Bohart; E, courtesy of
Parker and Smith; A-C, F-G, courtesy
of the U.S. National Museum;
D-E, courtesy of the Entomological
E F G Society of America.)

Keyto the Families of Strepsiptera (Males)

l. Tarsi 2-segmented; antenna 4-segmented, third segment with a long
lateral process Elenchidae p.671
1'. Tarsi 3- to 5-segmented; antenna with 5-7 segments, lateral process
present on third segment, often on additional segments beyond third 2
2(1'). Tarsi 3-segmented; antenna with 6-7 segments Halictophagidae p.671
2'. Tarsi 4- to 5-segmented; antenna with 4-7 segments 3
3(2'). Mandibles absent; tarsi 4- to 5-segmented Corioxenidae p.671
3'. Mandibles present; tarsi 4-segmented 4
4(3'). Antenna with 4-6 segments, segments broad and fiat; parasitic on
Hymenoptera (Apoidea, Sphecoidea, Vespoidea) Stylopidae p.671
4'. Antenna 7-segmented, segments narrow and round; parasitic on ants and,
possibly, Orthoptera and Mantodea Myrmecolacidae p.671

FamilyCorioxenidae:This familyis representedin the
United States by three species. Triozoceramexicana Pierce
occurs in the southern states south into Brazil. It is a par-
asiteof the cydnid Pangaeusbilineatus (Say). Floridaxenos
monroensis Kathirithamby and Peck was recently de-
scribed fram Monroe County, Florida. Loania canadensis
Kinzelbach, fram Canada and the United States, para-
sitizesbugs in the family Cymidae (Kleidocerys).
Family Elenchidae:This graup is represented by the
widely distributed species Elenchus koebelei (Pierce),
found in the southern United States. These insects are
parasites of planthoppers (Delphacidae).
Family Halictophagidae: This is the second-Iargest
family in the order, with about 14 North American
species.Its members are parasites of leafhoppers, plant-
hoppers, treehoppers, and pygmy mole crickets;
species in other parts of the world parasitize cock-
roaches and fIies.
Family Myrmecolacidae:This family is unique in
that the two sexes attack different insect hosts: The
males parasitize ants and the females develop in Or-
thoptera and Mantodea. Two species in the family have
beenrecorded in the United States, Caenocholax:fenyesi
Pierce fram the southern states (Florida west to Ari-
zona), and Stichotrema beckeri (Oliveira and Kogan)
from south Florida. Caenocholax:fenyesi males para-
sitizethe imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren.
References
Bohart, R. M. 1941. A revision of the Strepsiptera with special
reference to the species of North Arnerica. Calif. Univ.
Pub!. Entorno!. 7(6):91-160.
Bohart, R. M. 1943. New species of Halictophagus with a key
to the genus in North Arnerica (Strepsiptera, Halic-
tophagidae). Ann. Entorno!. Soco Arner. 36:341-359.
Carmean, D., and B. J. Crespi. 1995. Do long branches attract
!lies? Nature 373: 234.
Crowson, R. A. 1960. The phylogeny of the Coleoptera.
Annu. Rev. EntornoI. 5:114-134.
Johnson, V 1972. The fernale and host of Triozocera mexicana
(Strepsiptera: Mengeidae). Ann. EntornoI. Soco Arner.
66:671-672.
Kathiritharnby,J. 1989. Review of the order Strepsiptera. Syst.
EntornoI. 14:41-92.
Kathiritharnby, J., and S. B. Peck. 1994. Strepsiptera of south
Florida and the Baharnas with the description of a new
genus and species of Corioxenidae. Can. EntornoI.
126:125-134.
Kinzelbach, R. K. 1970. Loania canadensis n. gen. n. sp. und
die Untergliederung der Callipharixenidae (Insecta:
Strepsiptera). Senckenbergiana BioI. 51: 99-107.
References 671
Family Stylopidae:This is the largest family in the
order, with 70 species in the United States and Canada.
Most of its members are parasitic on be es (Andrenidae,
Halictidae, and Hylaeinae), but some are parasitic on
wasps (Polistinae, Eumeninae, and Sphecinae). The
first-instar larvae of Stylops pacifica Bohart are trans-
ported fram fIowers to the nest of their host, Andrena
caerulea Smith, within the crop of a foraging bee.
Collecting and Preserving Strepsiptera
The most satisfactory way to collect Strepsiptera is to
collect parasitized hosts and to rear the parasites. Bees,
wasps, leafhoppers, planthoppers, and other insects
may harbor Strepsiptera. The parasitized hosts can of-
ten be recognized by the distorted abdomen, and one
end of the parasite sometimes protrudes fram between
two of the abdominal segments. The males of some
species are attracted to lights. Males of Stylops are at-
tracted to virgin females in hosts (bees) that are placed
in screen cages and can be collected on or fIying about
the cages (MacSwain 1949).
Strepsiptera should be preserved in alcohol and,
for detailed study, should be mounted on microscope
slides.
Kinzelbach, R. K. 1971. Morphologische Befunde an Facher-
fluglern und ihre phylogenetische Bedeutung (Insecta:
Strepsiptera). Zoologica 119(1,2):1-256.
Kinzelbach, R. K. 1990. The systernatic position of Strep-
siptera (Insecta). Arner. EntornoI. 36:292-303.
MacSwain, J. W 1949. A rnethod for collecting rnale Stylops.
Pan-Paco EntornoI. 25:89-90.
Pierce, W D. 1964. The Strepsiptera are a troe order, unrelated
to the Coleoptera. Ann. EntornoI. SOCoArner. 57:603-605.
Wheeler, W c., M. Whiting, Q. D. Wheeler, and J. M.
Carpenter. 2001. The phylogeny of the extant hexapod
orders. Cladistics 71:113-169.
Whiting, M. F. 1998. Phylogenetic position of the Strep-
siptera: Review of rnolecular and rnorphological evi-
dence. Int. J. Insect Morpho!. ErnbryoI. 27:53-60.
Whiting, M. F., and W C. Wheeler. 1994. Insect horneotic
transformation. Nature 368:696.
Whiting, M. F., J. M. Carpenter, Q. D. Wheeler, and W C.
Wheeler. 1997. The Strepsiptera problern: Phylogeny of
the holornetabolous insect orders inferred frorn 185 and
285 ribosornal DNA sequences and rnorphology. Syst.
BioI. 46:1-68.
 34 Order Diptera1
Flies
he Diptera constitute one of the largest orders of in-
Tsects, and its members are abundant in individuals and
species almost everywhere. Most Diptera can be readily
distinguished from other insects lo which the term fIy is
applied (sawflies, stoneflies, caddisflies, dragonflies, and
others) by the fact that they have one pair of wings,
namely the front wings. The hind wings are reduced to
small, knobbed structures called halteres,which function
as organs of equilibrium. Occasionally insects in a few
other orders have only one pair of wings (some mayflies,
some beetles, male scale insects, and others), but none,
except male scale insects, has the hind wings reduced to
halteres. The Diptera are sometimes spoken of as "the
two-winged flies," to distinguish them from the ''flies'' in
other orders. In the common names of Diptera, we write
the fIy of the name as a separate word (for example, fmit
fIy), whereas in the common names of flies in other or-
ders, we write the fIy of the name together with the de-
scriptive word (for example, butterfly).
The majority of the Diptera are relatively small and
soft-bodied insects, and some are quite minute, but
many are of great economic importance. On the one
hand, for example, the mosquitoes, black flies, punkies,
horse flies, stable flies, and others are bloodsucking and
are serious pests of humans and animals. Many blood-
sucking flies, and some scavenging flies, such as the
house flies and blow flies, are important vectors of dis-
ease. The causative organisms of malaria, yellow fever,
filariasis, dengue, sleeping sickness, typhoid fever,
dysentery, and other diseases are carried and distributed
by Diptera. Some flies, such as the Hessian fly and the
apple maggot, are important pests of cultivated plants.
On the other hand, many flies are useful as scavengers,
672 'Diptera: di, two; ptera, wings.
others are important predators or parasites of various
insect pests, others help pollinate useful plants, and
some attack noxious weeds.
The mouthparts of Diptera are of the sucking type,
but mouthpart structure varies considerably within the
order. In many flies the mouthparts are piercing; in
others they are sponging or lapping; and in a few flies,
the mouthparts are so poorly developed as to be non-
functional.
The Diptera undergo complete metamorphosis,
and the larvae of many are called maggots. The larvae
are generally legless and wormlike. In the basal families
in the Nematocera, the head is usually well developed
and the mandibles move late rally. In the more derived
families (Brachycera), the head is reduced and the
mouth hooks move in a vertical planeo In some families
of Brachycera, the head of the larva is sclerotized and
more or less retractile, whereas others have no scleroti-
zation of the head at all except for the mouthparts. The
pupae of the Nematocera are of the obtect type,
whereas those of other Diptera are coarctate; that is, the
pupal stage is passed inside the last larval cuticle,
which is called a puparium.
Dipterous larvae live in many kinds of habitats,
but a large proportion live in water-in all sorts of
aquatic habitats including streams, ponds, lakes, tem-
porary puddles, and brackish and alkaline water. The
larvae that feed on plants generally live within some
tissue of the plant, as leaf miners, gall insects, stem
borers, or root borers. The predaceous larvae live in
many different habitats: in water, in the soil, under
bark or stones, or on vegetation. Many species feed
during the larval stage in decaying plant or animal mat-
ter. Some fly larva e live in some rather unusual habi-
tats: one species, Helaeomyia petrolei (Coquillett) (fam-
 Classification of the Diptera 673

ily Ephydridae), lives in pools of crude petroleum. Thaumaleidae (Orphnephilidae)-solitary

Other ephydrids breed in the Great Salt Lake. midges*
Adult Diptera feed on various plant or animal Blephariceromorpha
juices, such as nectar, sap, or blood. Most species feed Blephariceridae (Blepharoceridae,
on nectar, but many are bloodsucking, and many are Blepharoceratidae)-net-winged midges*
predaceous on other insects. Deuterophlebiidae-mountain midges*
Nymphomyiidae *
Bibionomorpha
Anisopodidae (Rhyphidae, Silvicolidae,
Classification
of the Diptera Phryneidae; including Mycetobiidae)-
wood gnats
Axymyiidae (Pachyneuridae in part)
lnvestigation of the phylogenetic relationships within
Bibionidae (including Hesperinidae)-march
the order Diptera is a particularly active and dynamic flies
area. Entomological understanding of interrelation-
ships is rapidly improving and, as a result, the formal Canthyloscelididae (Synneuridae, Hyperosceli-
didae)*
classification is also quite dynamic. A recent summary
Cecidomyiidae (Cecidomyidae, Itonididae)-
of the state of knowledge can be found in Yeates and
gall midges or gall gnats
Wiegmann (1999). We now have strong evidence that
Mycetophilidae (Fungivoridae in part, includ-
a number of the groups traditionally recognized (such
ing Ditomyiidae, Diadociddidae, Keroplati-
asNematocera), are paraphyletic. Within the Brachyc-
era,some monophyletic taxa are well established, but dae, Lygistorrhinidae)-fungus gnats
Pachyneuridae (Cramptonomyiidae)*
manyquestions remain. At this point, it is not possible
to consistently apply formal taxonomic ranks within Scatopsidae-minute black scavenger flies
theorder and still reasonably represent what consensus Sciaridae (Fungivoridae in part)-
doesexist among specialists. Therefore, we present the dark-winged fungus gnats, root gnats
Suborder Brachycera (including Cyclorrhapha and Or-
classification as an indented listing of families, but
largely omit indication of the formal rank that each thorrhapha in part)-short-horned flies
Xylophagomorpha
grouping occupies in a Linnaean hierarchy. Groups
Xylophagidae (Erinnidae; Rhagionidae in part)
marked with an asterisk (*) are relatively rare or are
Stratiomyomorpha
unlikely to be taken by a general collector.
Stratiomyidae (Stratiomyiidae; including
Suborder Nematocera (Nemocera; Orthorrhapha in Chiromyzidae)-soldier flies
part)-long-horned flies Xylomyidae (Xylomyiidae; Xylophagidae in
Tipulomorpha part)
Tipulidae (including Limoniidae, Tabanomorpha (Orthorrhapha in part)
Cylindrotomidae)-crane flies Athericidae (Rhagionidae in part)
Trichoceridae (Trichoceratidae, Pelecorhynchidae (Tabanidae in part,
Petauristidae)-winter crane flies* Xylophagidae in part)*
Psychodomorpha Rhagionidae (Leptidae)-snipe flies
Psychodidae-moth flies and sand flies Tabanidae-horse flies and deer flies
Ptychopteromorpha Vermileonidae (Rhagionidae in part)-worm
Ptychopteridae (Liriopeidae)-phantom crane lions*
flies Muscomorpha
Tanyderidae-primitive crane flies* Nemestrinioidea
Culicomorpha Acroceridae (Acroceratidae, Cyrtidae,
Ceratopogonidae (Heleidae)-biting midges, Henopidae,Oncodidae)-small-headed
punkies, no-see-ums flies*
Chaoboridae (Culicidae in part)-phantom Nemestrinidae-tangle-veined flies*
midges Asiloidea
Corethrellidae (Corethridae) Apioceridae (Apioceratidae)-flower-Ioving
Chironomidae (Tendipedidae)-midges flies*
Culicidae-mosquitoes Asilidae (including Leptogastridae)-
Dixidae (Culicidae in part) robber flies and grass flies
Simuliidae (Melusinidae)-black flies or buf- Bombyliidae-bee flies
falo gnats Hilarimorphidae CRhagionidae in part)*
674 Chapter34 OrderDiptera
Mydidae (Mydaidae, Mydasidae)-
mydas flies
Scenopinidae (Omphralidae)-window
flies*
Therevidae-stiletto flies
Empidoidea
Empididae (Empidae)-dance flies
Dolichopodidae (Dolochopidae)-
long-Iegged flies
Cyclorrhapha-circular-seamed flies
Aschiza
Lonchopteridae (Musidoridae)-
spear-winged flies
Phoridae-humpbacked flies
Pipunculidae (Dorilaidae, Dorylaidae)-
big-headed flies
Platypezidae (Clythiidae)-flat-footed
flies*
Syrphidae-syrphid flies or flower flies
Calypteratae (Calyptratae)-calyptrate
muscoid flies
Anthomyiidae (Anthomyidae; Muscidae in
part)
Calliphoridae (Metopiidae in part)-blow
flies
Fanniidae (Muscidae in part)
Hippoboscidae (Pupipara in part,
Nycteribiidae, Streblidae)-louse
bat flies*
Muscidae-muscid flies: house fly, face fly,
horn fly, stable fly, tsetse flies, and others
Oestridae Cincluding Cuterebridae, Gas-
terophilidae, and Hypodermatidae)-
warble flies and bot flies*
Rhinophoridae (Tachinidae in part)
Sarcophagidae (Stephanosomatidae;
Metopiidae in part)-flesh flies
Scathophagidae (Scatophagidae, Scatomyzi-
dae, Scopeumatidae, Cordyluridae, An-
thomyiidae in part)-dung flies
Tachinidae (Larvaevoridae; including
Phasiidae = Gymnosomatidae,
Dexiidae)
Acalyptratae-acalyptrate muscoid flies
Superfamily Nerioidea
Micropezidae (including Tylidae and
Calobatidae = Trepidariidae)-
stilt-Iegged flies
Neriidae-cactus flies*
Pseudopomyzidae *
Superfamily Diopsoidea
Diopsidae-stalked-eyed flies*
Psilidae-rust flies
Tanypezidae (Micropezidae in part,
Psilidae in part, including
Strongylophthalmyiidae)
Superfamily Conopoidea
Conopidae-thick-headed flies
Superfamily Tephritoidea
Lonchaeidae (Sapromyzidae in pan)
Pallopteridae (Sapromyzidae in pan)-
flutter flies
Piophilidae (including Neottiophilidae)-
skipper flies
Pyrgotidae*
Richardiidae (Otitidae in part, including
Thyreophoridae)*
Tephritidae (Trypetidae, Trupaneidae,
Trypaneidae, Euribiidae)-
fruit flies
Ulidiidae (Otitidae, Ortalidae, Ortalidi-
dae)-picture-winged flies
Platystomatidae (Otitidae in part)-
picture-winged flies
Superfamily Lauxanioidea
Chamaemyiidae (Chamaemyidae,
Ochthiphilidae)-aphid flies
Lauxaniidae (Sapromyzidae)
Superfamily Sciomyzoidea
Coelopidae (Phycodromidae)-seaweed
flies
Dryomyzidae Cincluding Helcomyzidae)*
Ropalomeridae (Rhopalomeridae) *
flies, Sciomyzidae (Tetanoceridae,
Tetanoceratidae)-marsh flies
Sepsidae-black scavenger flies
Superfamily Opomyzoidea
Acartophthalmidae (Clusiidae in pan)
Agromyzidae (Phytomyzidae)-
leaf-miner flies
Anthomyzidae (Opomyzidae in pan)
Asteiidae (Astiidae)
Aulacigastridae (Aulacigasteridae; An-
thomyzidae in part; Drosophilidae in
part) *
Clusiidae (Clusiodidae, Heteroneuridae)
Odiniidae (Odinidae, Agromyzidae in
and part)
Opomyzidae (Geomyzidae) *
Periscelididae (Periscelidae)*
Superfamily Carnoidea
Braulidae (Pupipara in part)-bee lice
Canacidae (Canaceidae)-beach flies*
Carnidae (Milichiidae in part) *
Chloropidae (Oscinidae, Titaniidae)-
grass flies
Cryptochetidae (Chamaemyiidae in pan,
Agromyzidae in part) *
Milichiidae (Phyllomyzidae)
Tethinidae (Opomyzidae in part) *
Superfamily Sphaeroceroidea
Chyromyidae (Chyromyiidae)
L

Heleomyzidae (Helomyzidae, including
Trixoscelididae, Rhinotoridae)
Sphaeroceridae (Sphaeroceratidae, Bor-
boridae, Cypselidae)-small dung flies
Superfamily Ephydroidea
Camillidae (Drosophilidae in part)*
Curtonotidae (Cyrtonotidae; Drosophili-
dae in part)
Diastatidae (Drosophilidae in part)*
Drosophilidae-pomace flies, vinegar
flies, small fruit flies
Ephydridae (Hydrellidae, Notiophilidae)-
shore flies
CharactersUsed in Identifying Diptera
The principal characters used in identifying the
Diptera are those of the antennae, legs, wings, and
chaetotaxy (the arrangement of the bristles, chiefly of
the head and thorax). Occasionally various other char-
acters are used, such as those of the head, and the size,
shape, and color of the insecto
Antennae
The antennae vary quite a bit from family to family, and
lo some extent within a single family. Occasionally they
differ in the two sexes of the same species (for exam-
pie, mosquitoes; see Figure 34-36). Basically, the an-
e
B D
A
Characters Used in IdentifyingDiptera 675
tennae of a fly consist of three segments: the scape Cthe
basal segment), pedicel, and flagellum. In the Nemato-
cera the flagellum is divided into four or more distinct
and movable subdivisions (which we call segments,but
which are sometimes called jIagellomeres). In some of
the Brachycera, the third antennal segment is subdi-
vided, but the divisions are not as distinct as those be-
tween the three basic segments, and such a segment is
said to be "annulated" (Figure 34-1C,D,F). This annu-
lation is sometimes difficult to see unless the antenna
is properly illuminated. In a few cases it can be difficult
to decide whether such an antenna is three-segmented
or many-segmented. The third antennal segment in
many Brachycera bears an elongate process: a style or
an arista. A style is usually terminal and fairly rigid,
whereas an arista is usually dorsal and is bristlelike.
Both styles and aristae can appear segmented, although
the segments (particularly in an arista) are often diffi-
cult to see. An arista can be bare, pubescent, or
plumose. In some of the Muscomorpha, the form of the
second antennal segment can serve to separate differ-
ent groups; for example, the calyptrate and acalyptrate
groups of muscoid flies differ in the form of the second
antennal segment (Figure 34-19A,B).
Legs
The principalleg characters used in separating groups
of flies are the structure of the empodium, the presence
or absence of tibial spurs, and the presence of certain
tibial bristles. The empodium (Figure 34-2, emp) is a
E
Figure34-1 Antennae of
Diptera. A, Mycetophilidae
(Mycomyia); B, Bibionidae
(Bibio); C, Stratiornyidae
(Stratiomys); D, Tabanidae
(Tabanus); E, Asilidae (Asilus);
F,Stratiomyidae (Ptecticus);
G, Calliphoridae (Calliphora);
H, Tachinidae (Epalpus).
ar, arista; sty, style.
676 Chapter34 OrderDiptera

Figure 34-3 Generalized dipteran venation (Comstock-

Needham terminology for the veins), with a comparison
of the major interpretations of the veins behind M2.
A, anal cell; B, basal cells; D, discal cell; MC, marginal
cells; P, posterior cells; SM, submarginal cells.
Figure34-2 Tipof tarsus,dorsalview.A, robber fly,
with the empodium bristlelike; B, horse fly,with the em- Interpretations of the Veins behind M2
podium pulvilliform. emp, empodium; pul, pulvilli; tel, Vein Number Comstocka Tillyardb McAlpine'
tarsal claw; ts, last tarsal segmento 1 M3 M3.. M3
2 M3 M3 M3
3 m-cu M. m-cu
structure arising from between the claws on the last 4 Cu Cu¡ CuA
tarsal segment. It is bristlelike or absent in most flies, 5 Cu¡ M. CuAl
but in a few families (Figure 34-2B) it is large and 6 Cu¡ M. CuAl
membranous and resembles the pulvilli in appearance. 7 CU2 Cu¡ CuA,
The pulvilli are pads at the apex of the last tarsal seg- 8d lA CU2 CuP
ment, one at the base of each claw (Figure 34-2, pul). 9 2A lA Al
A fly can thus have two pads (the pulvilli), three pads 10 3A 2A A,
(the pulvilli and a pulvilliform empodium), or no pads
(pulvilli absent) on the last tarsal segmento Tibial spurs 'The terminology used in this book (from Comstock,j. H., 1940).
are spinelike structures, usually located at the distal bTilIyard, R. j., 1926.
end of the tibia. Preapical tibial bristles are bristles on 'McAlpine et al., 1981. In wings where the M, of Comstock fuses
with the CUI of Comstock, these authors do not recognize an M,; ir
the outer or dorsal surface of the tibia just proximad of
MI.2 is forked they call its branches MI and M" but if it is not
the apex (Figure 34-26B, ptbr). forked they call it M (see Figure 34-4).
dNearly always weak, often completely absent.
Wings
Entomologists make considerable use of wing charac-
ters, especially venation, in identifying flies, and it is of- and an older system in which the principallongitudinal
ten possible to identify a fly to family or beyond by veins are numbered. Most authorities use the Cornstock-
wings alone. Venation in this order is relatively simple, Needham terminology, but not all agree with the
and many families tend toward reduction in number of Cornstock-Needham interpretation, particularly regard-
veins. Sometimes the wing's color, its shape, or character ing the veins posterior to M2. Figure 34-3 shows a gen-
of the lobes at the wing base is useful in identification. eralized dipteran wing, labeled with the Cornstock-
In most fly wings there is an incision on the pos- Needham terminology through M2 and comparing three
terior side of the wing near the base that separates off a major interpretations of the veins posterior to M2. We
small basallobe, called the alula. Distal to the alula is follow the Cornstock-Needham interpretation in this
the anal angle of the wing, and the lobe there is called book, but occasionally use terrns of the older system, es-
the anallobe (Figure 34-4C, al). At the extreme base of pecially for certain wing cells. Table 34-1 compares the
the wing, basad of the alula, there are often two lobes different venational terminologies used for dipteran
called the calypteres (singular, calypter). The one next wing venation, and Figure 34-4 shows some dipteran
to the alula is the upper calypter, and the other one the wings labeled with these terminologies.
lower calypter. The calypteres can vary in size or shape A closed cell is one that does not reach the wing
in different groups. margin (for example, the anal or lA cell in fig-
Two different venational terminologies are com- ure 34-4A, B). When the thickening of the anterior
monly used in this order, that of Cornstock-Needham edge of the wing Cthe costa) ends near the wing tip
 Characters Used in Identifying Diptera 677

Jable34-1 A Comparison of Diptera Venational Terminologies

Comstock Tillyard(1926) McAlpine et al. (1981) Old System
Veins
C C C Costal
Se Se Se Auxiliary
R, R¡ R¡ First longitudinal
R,., R2+' R,., Seeond longitudinal
R.., R.., R.., Third longitudinal
MI., M¡., M1+,or Ma Fourth longitudinal
m-eu base of Mi m-eu Diseal eross vein
Cu Cu CuA Fifth longitudinal
baseof CUt m-eu base of CuAl Fifth longitudinal
CUt Mi CuAl Fifth longitudinal
Cu, CUt CuA, Fifth longitudinal
lAb Cu, CuP
lA lA A¡ Sixth longitudinal
H h h Humeral eross vein
r-m r-m r-m Anterior eross vein
M m m-m Posterior eross vein
M3 M3.i and M, M, Fifth longitudinal
Cells
C C e Costal
Se Se se Subeostal
R R br' First basal
M M bmd Seeond basal
R"R, R¡, R, lb r2 Marginal
R3 R, ,
r3, r2+3 First submarginal
R. R. ri Seeond submarginal
R, R, r
rs, r4+5 First posterior
M, M¡ m¡ Seeond posterior
1stM, 1st M, d (diseal) Diseal
2ndM, 2nd M, m, Third posterior
M3 M, M, Fourth posterior
Cu, Mi eua¡ Fifth posterior
lA Cu, eup Anal
2A lA a¡ Axillary

'Whenno MJ is recognized and this vein is not forked.

'Usuallyweak, often lacking.
'Basalradial cell.
'Basalmedial cel!.
'WhenR,.J is not forked.
'WhenR..5 is not forked.

(as in Figure 34-8B-FJ), the costa is said to extend
onlyto the wing tipo Where there is no abrupt thin-
ningof the anterior margin of the wing near the wing
tip (as in Figure 34-8G-I), the costa is said to con-
tinuearound the wing.
Many muscoid flies have one or two points in the
costawhere sclerotization is weak or lacking, or where
¡hevein appears broken. Such points costal breaks can
occurnear the end of R¡ or the humeral crossvein (Fig-
ures 34-22B and 34-24C-E, cbr). Costal breaks are
best seen with transmitted light. A few muscoids have
a series of long hairs or bristles along the costa beyond
the end of R¡ (Figure 34-22A,H). The costa in such
cases is said to be spinose.
Chaetotaxy
In identifying certain flies, particularly the muscoid
groups, much use is made of the number, size, posi-
tion, and arrangement of the larger bristles on head
678 Chapter34 OrderDiptera

1st
h 9 av , ,Se

CuP br
\ C I

al Al +CUA2
e

Figure34-4 Wings of a horse fly (A and B) and a calyptrate muscoid fly (C), showing
venational terminologies. A, ComslOck-Needham system; B, an older system, in which
the longitudinal veins are numbered; C, the terminology used by McAlpine et aL (1981).
For a key lO the lettering in A and the longitudinal veins in C, see Chapter 2. Labeling in
B: A, anal cell; aev, anterior cross vein; alu, alula; ay, auxiliary vein; axe, axillary cell;
B, basal cells (first and second); C, costal cell; e, costal vein; eal, calypteres or squamae;
D, discal cell; dev, discal crossvein; h, humeral crossvein; MC, marginal cell; P, posterior
cells; pev, posterior crossvein; Se, subcostal cell; SM, submarginal or apical cells (first
and second). Labe1ingin C: al, anallobe; alu, alula; bm, basal medial cell; bm-eu, basal
mediocubital crossvein; br, basal radial cell; cua" anterior cubital cell; eup, posterior
cubital cell; dm, discal medial cell; dm-eu, discal mediocubital crossvein.

Head and Thorade Sutures

and thorax. The terminology used in the chaetotaxy of
flies is illustrated in Figures 34-5 and 34-6. The frontal
bristles (not shown in Figure 34-5) are in the middle
of the front, between the ocellar triangle and the frontal
suture.
The principal head suture used in identifying flies is
the frontal suture (Figure 34-5, fs). This suture is usu-
ally in the shape of an inverted U, extending fram
above the bases of the antennae lateroventrad toward
 CharactersUsedin IdentifyingDiptera 679

ivb

--fa /'
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
-- ---

A av

Figure34-5 Areas and chaetotaxy of the head of a drosophilid fly.A, anterior view;
B, lateral view. af, antennal fossa; ant, antenna; ar, arista; bue, bucea; e, compound eye;
fa, face;fob, fronto-orbital bristles;fr, frons; frl, frontallunule; fs, frontal suture;
fv, frontal vitta; ge, gena; gvp, genovertical or orbital plate; ivb, inner vertical bristle;
ob, ocellar bristle; oe, ocellus; ot, ocellar triangle; ov, oral vibrissae; ovb, outer vertical
bristle; pv, postvertical bristles.

psb

~
hb-t--..
he---
pl, V.
ppb.- /
spr. /
mpb/

Figure34-6 Areas and chaetotaxy of the thorax of a blow fly.A, lateral view; B, dorsal
view. acr, acrostichal bristles; ex, coxa; de, dorsocentral bristles; epm2,mesepimeron; hal,
haltere; hb, humeral bristles; he, humeral callus; hyb, hypopleural bristles; hypl, hy-
popleuron; iab, intra-alar bristles; mpb, mesopleural bristles; n2,mesonotum; nb, noto-
pleural bristles; npl, notopleuron; pab, postalar bristles; pb, posthumeral bristles; pe,
postalar callus; pl¡, propleuron; pl2' mesopleuron; p13'metapleuron; ppb, propleural bris-
tle; psb, presutural bristles; pscl, postscutellum; pt, pteropleuron; ptb, pteropleural bris-
tles; seb, scutellar bristles; scl2,mesoscutellum; spb, supra-alar bristles; spr, spiracle; stb,
stemopleural bristles; stpl, stemopleuron; trs, transverse suture; wb, base of wing.
680 Chapter34 OrderDiptera

Jable 34-2 frontallunule (ir!). The presence of a frontal suture dis-

Comparison of Terminologies
of Thoracic Areas tinguishes the museo id flies from others. In cases
where the complete suture is difficult to see, flieshav-
This Book MeAlpine et al. (1981) ing it can be recognized by the presence of a frontal
lunule above the bases of the antennae.
Symbol Nameof Area Symbol Nameof Area
A transverse suture across the anterior pan of the
hc humeral callus pprn postpronotum mesonotum (Figure 34-6, trs) separates most of the ea-
npl notopleuron npl notopleuron lyptrate from the acalyptrate muscoids. The calyptrate
pscl postscutellum sbsctl subscutellum muscoids usually have sutures in the lateroposterior
pl¡ propleuron prepm proepimeron ponions of the mesonotum, which separa te the posta-
pl2 mesopleuron anepst anepisternum lar calli (Figure 34-6, pc). The acalyptrate muscoids
pt pteropleuron anepm anepimeron
lack these sutures.
stpl sternopleuron kepst katepisternum The terms used by McAlpine et al. (1981) for the
hypl hypopleuron mr meron various thoradc areas are for the most pan different
epm2 mesepimeron ktg katatergite from the terms we use. Hence their terms for most of
the thoradc bristles are a little different from ours. A
comparison of these two terminologies is given in
Table 34-2.
the lower margins of the compound eyes. Dipterists
commonly call this the frontal suture, but it is not the Size
same as the frontal sutures in Figure 2-13. It is actually
a ptilinal suture and marks the break in the head wall In the keys and descriptions in this cbapter, "medium-
through which the ptilinum was evened at the time of sized" means about the size of a house fly or a blue-bottle
the fly's emergence from the puparium. fly. "Small" means smaller, and "large" means larger than
Between the apex of the U and the bases of the an- this size. "Very small" or "minute" means less tban 3 rnm
tennae is a small, crescent-shaped sclerite called the long, and "very large" means 25 mm or more.

Key to the Familiesof Diptera

Some difficulty may be encountered with small or minute specimens, and a microscope
with considerable magnification (90 to 120X) may be necessary for examining such
specimens. Acalyptrate muscoids (which key out from couplet 76) in which the head or
the thoracic bristles are broken off or embedded in glue (specimens on a poim) can be
difficult or impossible to run through the key.
In the following key, farnilies rnarked with an asterisk (*) are relatively rare or are
unlikely to be taken by a general collector. Keys to larvae can be found in McAlpine et
al. (1981).

1. Wings present and well developed, longer than thorax 2

1'. Wings greatly reduced, usually shorter than thorax, or absent 141*
2(1). Wings extremely narrow, pointed apically, with greatly reduced venation
and no closed cells, with a very long fringe; antennal flagellum elongate,
annulated basally, clubbed; eyes separated dorsally but contiguous
ventrally; srnall, aquatic flies, less than 2 rnrn long, slender, pale, weakly
sclerotized; found in rapid streams in Quebec, New Brunswick, and the
Appalachian Mountains south to Alabama Nymphomyiidae* p.715
2'. Without the preceding combination of characters 3
3(2'). Antennae of 6 or more freely articulated segments (Figure 34-1A,B),
in some males very long and plurnose (Figure 34-36B,D);
Rs 1-4 branched, if 3-branched, it is nearly always R2+3that is forked;
palps usually with 3-5 segrnents (suborder Nematocera) 4
 Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 681

3' Antennae of S or fewer (usually 3) segments, third segment sometimes

annulated (appearing divided into subsegments, but not as distinct as the
3 main antennal segments), often bearing a terminal or dorsal style or
arista (Figure 34-1C-H), never long and plumose: Rs 2- or 3-branched
(rarely unbranched), if 3-branched it is nearly always R.+5that is forked;
palps with not more than 2 segments (suborder Brachycera) 31
4(3). Mesonotum with V-shaped suture; legs long and slender
(Figure 3434-28A) 5
4' Mesonotum without V-shaped suture; legs variable 8
S(4). Ocelli present; V-shaped suture on mesonotum incompletely developed
in middle;3Ashort, half as longas 2Aor shorter,and curved Trichoceridae
* p. 707
S'. Ocelli absent; V-shaped suture on mesonotum complete; 3A usually more
than half as long as 2A and relatively straight, or absent 6
6(S'). R S-branched, all S branches reaching wing margin; M3 cell sometimes
(Protoplasa,Figure34-7E) with a crossvein;3Aabsent Tanyderidae* p. 708
6'. R with 4 or fewer branches reaching wing margin; M3cell without a
crossvein; 3A present or absent 7
7(6'). Only 1 anal vein (2A) reaching wing margin (3A absent), and no closed
discal cell (Figure 34-7 A); halteres with small process at base Ptychopteridae p. 708

Se R, R2+3

Se

D
3A 2A CU2 Cu, M3
Se

Figure34-7 Wings of crane flies. A, Bittacomorpha (Pty-

chopteridae); B, Tipula (Tipulidae, Tipulinae); C, Cylindro-
tominae (Tipulidae); D, Limoniinae (Tipulidae); E, Protoplasa
E (Tanyderidae).
682 Chapter34 Order Diptera

7'. Two anal veins reaching wing margin (3A present); R 2- to 4-branched,
closed discal cell usually present (Figure 34-7B-D); halteres without a
process at base Tipulidae p. 707
8(4'). Wings broad, broadest in basal fourth, venation reduced and a fanlike
development of folds present; antennae very long in male, at least
3 times as long as body, 6-segmented; ocelli and mouthparts absent;
western United States Deuterophlebiidae* p.715
8'. Without the preceding combination of characters 9
9(8'). Ocelli present 10
9'. Ocelli absent 22
10(9). A closed discal cell present 11
lO'. No closed discal cell present 13
11(10). Fourth posterior (M) cell open 12
11'. Fourth posterior cell closed; medium-sized, elongate flies resembling
sawflies (Rachicerus) Xylophagidae * p.719
12(11). The two branches of Rs connected by a crossvein; western North America,
Oregon to British Columbia Pachyneuridae
* p. 718
12'. The two branches of Rs not connected by a crossvein (Figure 34-8B); Anisopodidae
widely distributed (Anisopodinae) p.715
13(10'). Venation reduced, with 6 or fewer longitudinal veins (Figures 34-8A,E;
34-9B; 34-lOC,D) 14
13'. Venation not so reduced, with 7 or more longitudinal veins
(Figures 34-8CJ, 34-9C, 34-10A,B) 18
14(13). Tibial spurs present; eyes meeting above bases of antennae (except in
males of Pnyxia, in which the eyes are reduced); antennae 16-segmented,
usually about as long as head and thorax combined; C ending at wing tip,
Rs unbranched, r-m in line with Rs (Figure 34-lOC,D) Sciaridae p.718
14'. Tibial spurs absent; antennae with 15 or fewer segments; other characters
variable 15
15(14'). Antennae relatively short and thick, only a liule longer than head;
C ending before wing tip 16
15'. Antennae longer and slender; C variable 17
16(15). Palps l-segmented; antennae with 12 or fewer segments; C ending at
one half to three fourths the wing length (Figure 34-9B); eyes well
separated below antennae; common insects, widely distributed Scatopsidae p.718
16'. Palps 4-segmented; antennae with 12-16 segments; C ending near wing
tip; eyes narrowly separated to nearly contiguous ventrally; rare insects,
known from Quebec to California, north to Alaska Canthyloscelididae* p.716
17(15'). Antennae as long as or longer than head and thorax combined; C usually
continuing around wing tip though weaker behind; long-legged, rather Cecidomyiidae
delicate flies (Lestremiinae) p.716
17'. Antennae usually shorter than head and thorax combined; C usually
ending at wing tip; body shape variable Ceratopogonidae p.708
18(13'). Legs long and slender, insect resembling a crane fly; anal angle of wing
projecting (Figure 34-8]); wings sometimes with a network of fine lines
between veins Blephariceridae
* p.714
..
,," '. . ..:.,. Without the preceding combination of characters 19
-" 18'f Tibial spurs present; Rs simple or 2-branched 20
"':")"
.....'1" ", -.'
Ir

of Diptera 683
Keyto theFamilies

RI
== h Se RI

Rs
\ -
/
M
Cu
A 2A CU2
B
h ---'--
Se ,RI - Se RI
Rs

RI Rs

Se

h Se

RI
R2
. R3
. M\R4+5
H 2A CU2 CUI 3MI+2

Figure 34-8 Wings of Nematocera. A, Cecidomyiidae; B, Anisopodidae (Si/vicola);

C, Bibionidae (Bibio); D, Simuliidae (Simulium); E, Ceratopogonidae; F, Chironomidae;
G, Psychodidae (Psychoda); H, Dixidae (Dixa); 1, Culicidae (Psorophora);J, Blephariceridae
(Blepharicera). D, discal cell; smf, submedian fold.

UNNERSIDAD
DECMDAI
BIBUOTECA
..
684 Chapter34 OrderDiptera

Se R,

M'+2

e 2A
\ \ I I
A

R, Rs " R2
Se R, + 2
-"'"'- """'-- --P<
_M'+2
'\." T- R4+5
CU2 Cu,
---
B D

Figure 34-9 A, head of Sciara (Sciaridae), anterodorsal view; B, wing of a scatopsid;

C, wing of Myeetobia (Anisopodidae); D, wing ofAxymyia (Axymyiidae). ant, antenna;
e, compound eye; mxp, maxillary palp; oe, ocellus.

Se R,

2A CU2

r-m R, ~
...f.....
".
....

Figure 34-10 Wings ofMycetophilidae (A, B) and Sciaridae (C, D). A, Sciophilinae;
B, Keroplatinae; C, Sciara;D, Pnyxia, maleo

19/. Tibial spurs absent; Rs 3-branched, with R2appearing much like a

crossvein and extending from R2.3to about end of R¡ (Figure 34-9D) Axymyiidae* p.715
20(19). Antennae usually shorter than thorax, rather stout, arising low on face,
below compound eyes; second basal cell (M) present (Figure 34-8C);
anal angle of wing usually well developed Bibionidae p.715
 Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 685

20'. Antennae variable, but usually longer than thorax, arising about middle
of eompound eyes or higher; seeond basal eell and wing shape variable 21
21(20'). Basal eells eonfluent, closed distally by r-m and m-cu; Rs forked
opposite r-m; Sc complete, ending in C; 2A reaehing wing margin Anisopodidae
(Figure 34-9C) (Mycetobia)* p.715
21'. Basal cells variable; Rs simple or forked, if forked the fork is distad of r-m,
or r-m is obliterated by the fusion of Rs and M; Se and 2A variable;
a large and widespread group Mycetophilidae2 p.718
22(9'). C ending at or near wing tip (Figure 34-8A-F) 23
22'. C eontinuing around wing tip, though often weaker behind
(Figure 34-8G-I) 25
23(22) . Wings broad, posterior veins weak (Figure 34-8D); antennae about as
long as head; dark-eolored flies, rarely over 3 mm long, with a somewhat
humpbaeked appearance Simuliidae p.714
23'. Wings narrower and posterior veins stronger (Figure 34-8E,F); antennae
mueh longer than head; habitus usually not as in the preeeding entry 24
24(23'). M usually 2-branehed (Figure 34-8E), M3rarely weak or absent; head
rounded behind; metanotum rounded, without median furrow or keel;
legs of moderate length, hind pair the longest; pulvilli absent; anterior
thoraeie spiracle nearly round; female mouthparts usually with mandibles
and fitted for piereing Ceratopogonidae p. 708
24'. M unbranched (Figure 34-8F); head flattened behind; metanotum
generally with median furrow or keel; legs long, front legs usually the
longest; pulvilli present or absent; anterior thoraeie spiracle distinetly
oval; mouthparts without mandibles, not fitted for piereing Chironomidae p.709
25(22'). First tarsal segment mueh shorter than seeond, tarsi sometimes appearing
4-segmented; small, fragile midges with weakly veined wings, the wings
usually with fewer than 7 longitudinal veins (Figure 34-8A) Cecidomyiidae p.716
25'. First tarsal segment longer than seeond, tarsi clearly 5-segmented; other
characters variable 26
26(25'). Antennae short, about as long as head, 2 basal segments thiek, globose;
wings with 6-7 veins reaehing wing margin Thaumaleidae* p.714
26'. Antennae at least twice as long as head, 2 basal segments not as in the
preceding entry; wings with 9-11 veins reaching wing margin 27
27(26'). Wings broad, pointed apically, usually densely hairy, and often held
rooflike over body at rest; Rs usually 4-branched, M 3-branched
(Figure 34-8G) Psychodidae p. 708
27'. Wings usually long and narrow, or if broad not pointed apically,
and not densely hairy although scales may líe along the wing veins
or wing margin; Rs with 3 or fewer branches, M 2-branched
(Figure 34-8H,l) 28
28(27'). Proboseis long, extending far beyond clypeus (Figure 34-36); scales
present on wing veins and wing margin, usually also on body Culicidae p.710
28'. Proboseis short, barely extending beyond clypeus; no scales on wing
veins or body 29
29(28'). R2+3somewhat arched at base (Figure 34-8H); wing veins with short,
inconspicuous hairs; antennae with short sparse hairs Dixidae p.714

'Hesperodes
johnsoni Coquillett (Keroplatinae), reponed from Massachusetts and New Jersey, lacks ocelli. It is 12 mm long, is a member of the
subfamilyKeroplatinae, and has a wing venation similar to that shown in Figure 34-10B.
686 Chapter34 OrderDiptera

29'. R2+Jnearly straight at base; wing veins with long, dense, conspicuous
hairs; antennae with abundant, long hairs in distinct whorls 30
30(29'). Clypeus with numerous setae; R¡ meeting costal margin near wing apex,
c10ser to R2than to Sc Chaoboridae p.709
30'. Clypeus with very few setae; R¡ meeting costal margin near to apex of Sc
than to R2 Corethrellidae p.709
31(3'). Empodia pulvilliform, tarsi with 3 pads (Figure 34-2B) 32
31'. Empodia bristlelike or absent, tarsi with not more than 2 pads
(Figure 34-2A) 44
32(31). Head unusually small, rare1y more than half as wide as thorax, placed
low down, consisting almost entire1y of eyes (both males and females
are holoptic); body appearing humpbacked (Figure 34-50); calypteres very
large Acroceridae p.721
32'. Head more than half as wide as thorax; eyes never holoptic in female;
calypteres usually small 33
33(32'). Venation peculiar, branches of Rs and M more or less converging to apex
of wing, M¡.2 ending before wing tip (Figure 34-111); wings with a
composite vein extending from base of Rs to wing margin, ending as
M3+Cu¡; tibiae without apical spurs Nemestrinidae
* p.722
33'. Venation normal, branches of Rs and M diverging to wing margin,
branches of M ending well behind wing tip (Figures 34-4, 34-11A,B,
34-12); middle and hind tibiae usually with apical spurs 34
34(33'). C ending before wing tip; branches of R more or less crowded together
near costal margin (Figure 34-11A); R, (or R.., when it is not forked)
ending before wing tip; discal cell (D, Figure 34-11A) short, usually liule
longer than wide; tibial spurs usually absent Stratiomyidae p.719
34'. Without the preceding combination of characters 35
35(34'). Third antennal segment annulated (Figure 34-1C,D,F), or the antennae
appearing to consist of more than 3 segments 36
35'. Third antennal segment more or less globular or oval, not annulated,
usually bearing an e10ngate style 42
36(35). Postscutellum well deve10ped (as in Figure 34-17B); calypteres large and
conspicuous; R, and R, divergent, enc10sing the wing tip (Figure 34-4A,B) 37
36'. Postscutellum not deve10ped or only very weakly deve1oped; calypteres
small or vestigial; R. and R, variable 38
37(36). Both upper and lower calypteres large; first abdominal tergite with notch
in middle of posterior margin and with median suture; anal cell c10sed
(Figure 34-4A,B); antennae usually arising be10w middle of head Tabanidae p.720
37'. Upper calypter large, but lower calypter scarce1ydeve1oped;first abdominal
tergite without median notch or suture; anal cell open; antennae arising
above middle ofli:eaa---- Pelecorhynchidae
* p.720
38(36'). Third antennal segment e1ongate, paralle1-sided or tapering, with several
annulations, and without distinct style 39
38'. Third antennal segment globular or oval, with tenninal style or appearing
to be 2- or 3-segmented 40*
39(38). M3 cellopen (Figure34-12A,B);front tibiae with apicalspur Xylophagidae p.719
39'. M3 cellc10sed(Figure34-12C); front tibiaewithout apicalspurs Xylomyidae p.719
40(38'). Antennae appearing 5-segmented, third segment with short, thick, Rhagionidae
2-segmented terminal style; front tibiae with apical spur; length 2-3 mm (Bolbomyia)* p.720
 Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 687

h Se R, R2+ 3 R4
h Se R, R2 +3

R. Rs
R4
./
M Rs
M M2 '
CU2+ 2A Cu, 3
A B

h Se R,
I ,R2 +3 h Se .
R,
,R4
Rs L: R4
, M.. R
_____ --' , M2 M, S
CU2+ 2A M3 + Cu,
CU2+ 2A M3 + Cu,
e D
h R, R2+3 Se R.. h Se R, R2+3
--
R4
(/
M,+ 2 Rs
M3 + Cu, M2M,
CU2+ 2A
2A + CU2M3 + Cu,
E F

h Se R,

CU2+ 2A
G H

Se '/R2+3 Se ,Ri+2+3
I/R" R4

:'+2 :_,
+cu,
2A CU2
J

Figure34-11 Wings of Brachycera. A, Stratiomyidae; B, Rhagionidae; e, Asilidae

(Efferia); D, Asilidae (Promachus);E, Mydidae (Mydas); F, Therevidae; G, Scenopinidae;
H, Bombyliidae; 1, Nemestrinidae (Neorhynchocephalus);J, Apioceridae (Apiocera).
A, anal cell; D, discal (first M2) cell.
688 Chapter34 OrderDiptera

Rs
M,
! . M2
CU2 + 2A M3 + Cu,

Figure34-12 Wings of Brachycera. A, Xylophagus (Xylophagidae); B, Coenomyia

(Xylophagidae); C, Xylomya (Xylomyidae); D, Atherix (Athericidae).

40'. Antennae not as in the preceding entry, style on third antennal segment
long and slender, and may or may not appear annulated; front tibiae with
or without apical spurs 41*
41(40'). From tibiae with 1-2 apical spurs Xylophagidae (Dialysis)* p.719
41'. Front tibiae without apical spurs Rhagionidae* p.720
42(35'). R¡ cell closed, R2+3meeting Rl at wing margin (Figure 34-12D) Athericidae* p.719
42'. Rl cell open, R2+3meeting C well beyond end of Rl 43
43(42'). Wings narrowed basally,without alula; scutellum bare; slender fiies, about
5 mm long; western United States Vermileonidae* p.721
43'. Wings not so narrow basally;an alula nearly always present; scutellum
hairy; size variable, but mostly over 5 mm long; widely distributed Rhagionidae p.720
44(31'). Coxae widely separated (Figure 34-13A); body somewhat fiattened;
ectoparasites of birds or mammals Hippoboscidae p.731
44'. Coxae close together (ventral view); body usually not particularly
fiattened; not ectoparasitic 45
45(44'). Wings with branches of R strongly thickened and crowded imo anterior
base of wing, behind R, 3-4 weak veins with no crossveins beyond base
of wing (Figure 34-14G); hind legs long, femora fiattened laterally; small,
humpbacked fiies, 1-4 mm long (Figure 34-59) Phoridae p.727
 Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 689

A B

Figure34-13 Thorax structure in muscoids. A, thorax of a hippoboscid (Lynehia),

ventral view; B, thorax of a tachinid (Ptilodexia), lateral view. ex, coxa; e, compound eye;
epm2'mesepimeron; hal, haltere; he, humeral callus; hyb, hypopleural bristles; hypl, hy-
popleuron; npl, notopleuron; pe, postalar callus; pl" propleuron; p12'mesopleuron; pl],
metapleuron; p5cl, postscutellum; pt, pteropleuron; ptb, pteropleural bristles; 5cl2>meso-
scutellum; 5pr, spiracle; 5tn" prostemum; 5tn2,mesostemum; 5tn], metastemum; 5tpl,
stemopleuron; tr5, transverse suture; wb, base of wing. Only the hypopleural and ptero-
pleural bristles are shown in B.

45'. Without the preceding combination of characters 46

46(45'). Wings pointed at apex, with no crossveins except at base (Figure 34-14H);
third antennal segment rounded, with terminal arista; small, slender,
brownish or yellowish flies, 2-5 mm long Lonchopteridae p.727
46'. Wings rounded at apex, almost always with crossveins beyond base of
wing; antennae, size, shape, and color variable 47
47(46'). Rs 3-branched 48
47'. Rs 2-branched or unbranched 55
48(47). The branches of Rs and MI (or MI.2) ending before wing tip
(Figure 34-11E); large, asilidlike flies 49
48'. MI (or M1+2)ending behind wing tip; size and form variable 50
49(48). With 1 ocellus or none; antennae long, appearing 4-segmented, clubbed
(Figure 34-54); widely distributed Mydidae p.724
49'. With 3 ocelli; antennae shorter, about as long as head, appearing
3-segmented, third segment tapering, not clubbed; occurring in arid
regions of the West Apioceridae. p.722
50(48'). Vertex sunken, top of head concave between compound eyes
(Figure 34-51D), eyes never holoptic Asilidae p.723
690 Chapter 34 Order Diptera

h Se Rt R~.. h Se Rt
R2 + 3

Rs
.
\

}
R4+S
Mt +2
A LA M3 + CUt - B 2A M3 + CUt

Se ~t h Se Rt
h ':::::.- '

~-_r_m ~2 \
+3 A~
\

I R~+ 5
I

M3 + CUt Mt + 2 D M3 + CUt

h ,Se R, R2 +3 h~C R,
R2+3

h Se R, Rs

CU2 + 2A

Figure 34-14 Wings of Brachycera. A-C, Empididae; D-F, Dolichopodidae; G, Phori-

dae; H, Lonchopteridae, female; 1, Platypezidae; J, Pipunculidae. A, anal (lA) cell.

50'. Vertex not sunken, the eyes often holoptic in males 51

51(50'). With 5 posterior cells, m-cu present, M) and Cu¡ separa te or fused at
base only (Figure 34-11 F) Therevidae p.725
51'. With 4 or fewer posterior cells, if with 5 (some Caenotus, family
Bombyliidae, Figure 34-56C) then bases of M) and CU1fused and
m-cu absent 52

52(51'). MI.2 ending at or in front of wing tip (Figure 34-11G) or fused distally
with R..s; 3 posterior cells Scenopinidae p.725
r

Key to the Familiesof Diptera 691

52'. MI (or MI.2) endingbehind wing tip; 3 or 4 posterior cells

(Figures 34-11H, 34-14A) 53
53(52'). Anal cell open (Figure 34-9H), or closed near wing margin and apex
acute; body often hairy and robust 54
53/. Anal cell closed far from wing margin (Figure 34-14A) or absent, or if
closed near wing margin apex is not acute; body rarely hairy, usually not
robust Empididae p.725
54(53). Discal cell present; or if absent then R.., and Ml+2are not similarly forked,
wings hyaline or patterned; usually over 5 mm long Bombyliidae p.724
54/. Discal cell absent; R.., and M1+2similarly forked, each fork shorter than
its stem; wings hyaline to pale brown; small flies, usually less than 5 mm
long Hilarimorphidae* p.724
55(47/). Second antennal segment longer than third, third segment with a dorsal
arista Sciomyzidae(Sepedon) p. 739
55'. Second antennal segment not or scarcely longer than third, arista variable 56

56(55/). Hind tarsi, at least in male, nearly always with 1 or more segments
expanded or flattened; wings relatively broad basally, anal angle well
developed; anal cell closed some distance from wing margin, pointed
apically(Figure34-141);M'.2 often forkedapically;no frontalsuture;
arista terminal; small, usually black flies, less than 10 mm long Platypezidae * p.728
56'. Without the preceding combination of characters 57
57(56'). Anal cell elongate, longer than second basal cell, usually pointed apically,
and narrowed or closed near wing margin (Figures 34-14J, 34-15);
no frontal suture; head bristles usually lacking 58

57'. Anal cell usually shorter, closed some distance from wing margin, or
lacking; if anal cell is elongate and pointed apically (Figure 34-22C),
then a frontal suture is present and head bristles are usually present 62

58(57). Proboseis usually very long and slender, often twice as long as head or
longer, often folding; face broad, with grooves below antennae; abdomen
clavate, bent downward at apex (Figure 34-73); R, cell closed, pointed
apically (Figure 34-15D) Conopidae p.735

h SJ?V Se

"

./ M3 + Cu, B
A 2A + CU2

spv r-m h Se
h

-...::,
'. .'
R4 + 5
;M'+2
I
í i 2A + CU2 2A
e CU2 M + Cu, D M3 + Cu,

Figure34-15 Wings of Syrphidae (A-C) and Conopidae (D). A, Eristalis; B, Microdon;

C, Spilomyia; D, Physocephala.A, anal (lA) cell; spv, spurious vein.
692 Chapter34 OrderDiptera

Figure 34-16 Heads of

A B
Diptera, anterior view. A, Syrphi-
dae (Metasyrphus); B, Pipunculi-
dae (Pipunculus); C, Dolichopo-
didae (Dolichopus). e, compound
e eye.

58'. Proboseis short; face narrow, without grooves below antennae; abdomen
and R5 cellvariable 59
59(58'). Rs cell closed; usually a spurious vein crossing r-m between R..s and M¡.2
(Figure 34-15A-C) Syrphidae p.728
59'. Rs cell open, though sometimes narrowed apically; no spurious vein 60
60(59'). Head very large, hemispherical, face very narrow (Figures 34-16B, 34-60);
probo seis small and soft Pipunculidae p.727
60'. Head not unusually large, face normal; proboseis slender and rigid 61
61(60'). R2+3usually very short and ending in R¡, rarely lacking or ending in C
beyond end of R¡; minute flies, 1.2-4.0 mm long, rather stocky in build,
with a humpbacked appearance, usually brownish or grayish; mostly Bombyliidae (Cyrtosiinae
western United States and Mythicomyiinae) p. 724
61'. R2.3ending in C well beyond end of R¡; relatively slender flies, usually
black, size variable Empididae(Hybotinae) p.725
62(57'). Frontal suture absent (Figure 34-16) 63
62'. Frontal suture present (Figures 34-5A, 34-23, 34-27) 65
63(62). Head very large, hemispherical, face very narrow (Figures 34-16B, 34-60) Pipunculidae
(Chalarus)p.727
63'. Head not unusually large; face variable 64
64(63'). The r-m crossvein located in basal fourth of wing, or absent; fork of Rs
usually swollen (Figure 34-14D-F); male genitalia often folded forward
under abdomen (Figure 34-58); body usually metallic Dolichopodidae p.726
64'. The r-m crossvein located beyond basal fourth of wing, fork of Rs usually
not swollen (Figure 34-14B,C); male genitalia terminal, not folded
forward under abdomen (Figure 34-57); body not metallic Empididae p.725
65(62'). Mouth opening small, mouthparts vestigial (Figure 34-17 A); body hairy
but not bristly,insect beelike in appearance, 9-25 mm long; Rs, sometimes
also M¡.2,ending before wing tip (Figure 34-18E,F); bot and warble flies Oestridae* p.732-
65'. Mouth opening normal, mouthparts present, functional; body usually
with bristles; size, R" M1+2variable 66
66(65'). Second antennal segment with a longitudinal suture on outer side
(Figure 34-19A); thorax usually with a complete transverse suture
(Figure 34-19C); lower (innermost) calypter usually large (calyptrate
muscoid flies, except Loxocera, family Psilidae) 67
66'. Second antennal segment without such a suture (Figure 34-19B); thorax
usually without complete transverse suture (Figure 34-19D); lower
calypter usually small or rudimentary (acalyptrate muscoid flies) 76
67(66). Hypopleura and pteropleura with row of bristles (Figure 34-13B); R, cell
narrowed or closed distally 68
 Keyto the Families of Diptera 693

A
B

Figure 34-17 Characters of muscoid flies.

A, head of a horse bot fly (Gasterophilus,
Oestridae), anterior view; B-D, posterior
part of the thorax, lateral view: B, Hypo-
derma (Oestridae); e, a robust bot fly
(Cuterebra, Oestridae); D, an anthomyiid.
e pscl, postscutellum; scl2,mesoscutellum.

M
I Se R
R2 + 3 ,~4 + 5
.-MI +2

A I"U2'" ¿A B
I"U2

Se RI Se RI
___..R2 + 3
--- R2i
- - "'\
R4 + 5
MI+2
3A .L ... r"L -t\U1+2
e CU2 + 2A

Rs eel!
Se R, R2+3

Figure 34-18 Wings of calyptrate muscoid flies. A, Tachinidae; B, Muscidae (Musca);

e, Scathophagidae; D, Fanniidae (Fannia); E, Gasterophilus (Oestridae); F, Oestrus
(Oestridae).
694 Chapter34 OrderDiptera

e D

Figure34-19 Antennae (A, B) and mesonota (C, D) of muscoid nies. A, calyptrate,

showing suture (su) on second segment; B, acalyptrate, which lacks a suture on the
second segment; C, calyptrate; D, acalyptrate. he, humeral callus; npl, notopleuron;
pe, postalar callus; se!, scutellum; su, suture; trs, transverse suture.

67'. Hypopleura usually without bristles; if hypopleural bristles are present,

then there are no pteropleural bristles, or proboseis is rigid and fitted for
piereing, or Rs cell is not narrowed distally 71
68(67). Postscutellumstronglydeveloped(Figure34-13B,pse!);aristausuallybare Tachinidae p.734
68'. Postscutellum not developed or only weakly developed, if weakly
developed (Rhinophoridae) upper half more or less membranous and
concave in profile 69
69(68'). Postscutellum weakly developed; calypteres narrow, their inner margins
bending away from scutellum; M1+2bending forward apically and meeting
R.+s,Rs cell closed Rhinophoridae* p.733
69'. Postcutellum not at all developed; calypteres not as in the preceding entry;
M1+2bending forward distally, but Rs cell narrowly open at wing margin
(as in Figure 34-18A) 70
70(69/). Usually 2 (rarely 3) notopleural bristles, hindmost posthumeral bristle
located laterad of presutural bristle (Figure 34-20A); arista usually
plumose beyond basal half; body often metallic, the thorax rarely or
never with black stripes on a gray background Calliphoridae p.729
70'. Usually 4 notopleural bristles, and hindmost posthumeral bristle located
even with or mesad of presutural bristle (Figure 34-20B); arista generally
plumose only in basal half; body not metallic, the thorax often with black
stripes on a gray background Sarcophagidae p.733
71(67'). Third antennal segment longer than arista (Figure 34-21); oral vibrissae
absent; mesonotum without bristles except above wings Psilidae(Loxocera) p.735
71'. Third antennal segment not lengthened as in preceding entry; oral
vibrissae present; mesonotum with bristles 72
72(71'). Sixth vein (Cu2+ 2A) usually reaching wing margin, at least as a fold
(Figure 34-18C), or if not (some Scathophagidae) then lower calypter
linear and Rs cell not narrowed apically 75
 Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 695

Figure 34-20 Anterior pan of mesonotum of A, a blow fly (Calliphora), and B, a flesh
fly (Sarcophaga).aer, acrostichal bristles; de, dorsocentral bristles; hb, humeral bristles;
he, humeral callus; nz, mesonotum; nb, notopleural bristles; npl, notopleuron; pb,
posthumeral bristles; psb, presutural bristles; trs, transverse suture.

Figure34-21 Head of Loxoeera (Psilidae), lateral view.

72', Sixth vein never reaching wing margin, even as a fold (Figure 34-18B,D);
Rs cell variable, but often narrowed apically (Figure 34-18B) 73
73(72'). Dorsal surface of hind tibia with both preapical bristle and submedian
bristle near its midlength; Cu2+2A,if extended, meeting 3A before margin
of wing (Figure 34-18D) Fanniidae p.731
73'. Dorsal surface of hind tibia with only preapical bristle, usually near apex
but sometimes near two thirds length of tibia; Cu2+2A,if extended, not
meeting 3A 74
74(73'). Hind coxa with row of setae on posterior surface; CUz+2Ashort, ending
less than halfway between its basal origin and wing margin Fanniidae p.731
74'. Hind coxa either without setae on posterior surface, or if present, then
Cu2+2Aextending more than halfway lOwing margin Muscidae p.731
75(72). Scutellum with fine, erect hairs on ventral surface (Figure 34-17D), or if
such hairs absent (Fucelliinae) then crueiate frontal bristles present;
usually 2-4 sternopleural bristles Anthomyiidae p.729
75'. Scutellum without fine hairs on ventral surface; crueiate frontal bristles
absent; usually only 1 sternopleural bristle Scathophagidae p. 733
76(66'). Proboseis very long and slender, often 2 or more times as long as head,
elbowed; second antennal segment longer than first; abdomen often
clavate (Figure 34-73); anal cell usually long and pointed, longer than
second basal cell (except in Dalmannia and Stylogaster; in Stylogaster the
oviposilOr is slender and as long as rest of body) Conopidae p.735
696 Chapter 34 OrderDiptera

76'. Proboseis usually short and stout, rarely longer than head; second
antennal segment usually shorter than first (if longer, then anal cell is
shorter than second basal cel!); anal cell usually very short, or absent 77
77(76'). Sc complete or nearly so, ending in C or just short of it, and free from
R¡ distally (Figures 34-22, 34-23F); anal cell present 78

A "';,$ . ....u1 R M3 + Cu,

R, R2 + 3 A. - Se R,
+
------- ,..-.--..
R4 +5
-m A/
E--\ M, +2 ' +2
M3+ Cu, M3 + Cu,
D

Se R,

Se ebr
Se A, L A,

Figure 34-22 Wings of acalyptrate muscoid flies. A, Curtonotidae (Curtonotum);

B, Piophilidae (Piophila); C, Micropezidae (Taeniaptera);D, Lauxaniidae (Physegenua);
E, Platystomatidae (Rivellia); F, Ulidiiidae (Acrosticta); G, Seiomyzidae (Sepedon);
H, Heleomyzidae (Amoebaleria);1, Dryomyzidae (Neurostena);J, Lonchaeidae (Lonchaea).
A, anal cell; B, second basal cell; cbr, costal break; D, discal (first M2) cell.
 Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 697

ivb

fob .... ar
ar

,
,I
ov
B \ ov/ e
ivb
/,
'" ,
ovbl'" pv'

E F
D
fob ivb

~
ovb

G H J

Figure 34-23 Heads of acalyptrate muscoid flies. A-F, anterior view; G-I, lateral view;
], dorsal view.A, Clusiidae (Clusia); B, Piophilidae (Piophila); C, Heleomyzidae
(Heleomyza); D, Lauxaniidae (Camptoprosopella);E, Chamaemyiidae (Chamaemyia);
F, G, Sciomyzidae (Tetanoeera);H, Lonchaeidae (Lonehaea);1, Neriidae (Odontoloxozus);
], Diopsidae (Sphyraeephala). ar, arista;fob, fronto-orbital bristles; ivb, inner vertical bris-
tles; ob, ocellar bristles; oe, ocellus; orp, orbital plate; ov, oral vibrissae; ovb, outer vertical
bristles; pv, postvertical bristles.

77'. Sc incomplete, not reaching C, often fusing with R¡ distally

(Figure 34-24A,B); anal cell present or absent 109

78(77). Ocelli present; size variable; wings with or without coloring 79

78'. Ocelli absent; medium-sized to large flies, often with considerable

coloring in wings (Figure 34-75) Pyrgotidae* p. 736
79(78). Head more or less produced laterally, with antennae widely separated
(Figure 34-23]); scutellum bituberculate; front femora much swollen Diopsidae* p. 735
698 Chapter34 OrderDiptera

cbr
1, R1

E
R, R

G M3 + Cu,

Figure34-24 Wings of acalyptrate museo id flies. A, Asteiidae (Asteia) (redrawn

from Curran); B, Tephritidae; C, Chloropidae (Epichlorops);D, Ephydridae (Ephydra);
E, Agromyzidae (Agromyza); F,Chamaemyiidae (Chamaemyia); G, Hippoboscidae
(Lynchia); H, Milichiidae. A, anal cell; B, second basal cell; cbr, costal break; D, discal
(first M2) cell.

79'. Head not so produced laterally, antennae close together; scutellum and
front femora usually not as in preceding entry 80

80(79'). Posterior thoracic spiracle with 1 bristle or more (Figure 34-25D, spbr);
head spherical; abdomen elongate, narrowed at base (Figure 34-82);
palps nearly always vestigial (except in Orygma) Sepsidae p.739

80'. Posterior thoracic spiracle without bristles; head and abdomen usually
not as in the preceding entry; palps usually well developed 81

81(80'). Dorsum of thorax flattened; legs and abdomen conspicuously bristly

(Figure 34-80); seashore species Coelopidae p.738
 Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 699

A B

Figure 34-25 Thorax of mus-

coid flies, lateral view. A,
Scathophagidae (Seathophaga);
B, Anthomyiidae (Anthomyia);
C, Muscidae (Musea); D, Sepsidae
(Themira). ex, coxa; hal, haltere;
he, humeral callus; hypl,
hypopleuron; n2,mesonotum;
pl" propleuron; p12,mesopleu-
ron; pl3, metapleuron; pt, ptero-
pleuron; ptb, pteropleural bris-
des; spbr, spiracular bristle;
spr, spiracle; stb, sternopleural
bristles; stpl, sternopleuron;
trs, transverse suture; wb, base of
wing.

81'. Dorsum of thorax convex, if rather flattened then legs are not bristly;
widely distributed 82
82(81'). Eyes prominently bulging and vertex sunken; femora, especially hind
femora, enlarged; medium-sized tropical flies, usually dark brown with
yellowish markings and the wings not patterned; recorded from Florida,
Arizona, and New Mexico 83*
82'. Eyes not prominently bulging and vertex not sunken; femora, size, color
variable, but usually not as in preceding entry; widely distributed 84
83(82). A series of crossveins between C and R2+3;R¡ ending close to Sc; Rs cell
not narrowed distally; Arizona and New Mexico Ulidiidae* p.738
83'. No crossveins between C and R2+3;R¡ ending far beyond Sc; Rs cell not
narrowed distally; Florida Ropalomeridae * p. 739
84(82'). Oral vibrissae present (Figure 34-23A,C, ov) 85

84'. Oral vibrissae absent (Figure 34-23F-I) 92

85(84). Costa spinose (Figure 34-22A,H) 86

 700 Chapter34 OrderDiptera

85'. Costa not spinose 88

86(85). Second basal and discal cells confluent (Figure 34-22A, B+D); arista
plumose Curtonotidae* p.741
86'. Second basal and discal cells separated (Figure 34-22B, B and D); arista
usually not plumose 87
87(86/). Postverticals diverging; anal vein (2A) reaching wing margin; 4 or Piophilidae
5 sternopleurals; 2 pairs of fronto-orbitals; ocellar triangle large (Actenoptera)* p.736
87/. Postverticals converging; other characters usually not as in preceding entry Heleomyzidae p.741
88(85/). Second basal and discal cells confluent (as in Figure 34-22A, B+D);
postverticals lacking Aulacigastridae* p.740
88'. Second basal and discal cells separated (Figure 34-22B, B and D);
postverticals present 89

89(88/). Two to 4 pairs of fronto-orbitals; second antennal segment usually with

angular projection on outer side (Figure 34-23A); arista subapical; color
variable Clusiidae p.740
89'. At most 2 pairs of fronto-orbitals (Figure 34-23B); second antennal
segment without angular projection on outer side; arista subbasal
(Figure 34-23B); usually shining black or metallic bluish 90
90(89/). Postverticals diverging (Figure 34-23B); 2A not reaching wing margin
(Figure 34-22B) Piophilidae p.736
90'. Postverticals converging; 2A variable 91*
91(90'). 2A reaching wing margin; 1 pair of fronto-orbitals Heleomyzidae(Borboropsisand
Oldenbergiella,westernCanada
and Alaska)* p.741
91'. 2A not reaching wing margin; 2 pairs of fronto-orbitals; widely distributed Chyromyidae* p.741
92(84'). Sc apically bent forward at almost a 90-degree angle and usually ending
before reaching C (Figure 34-24B); C broken near end of Sc; wings
usually patterned (Figures 34-76A, 34-77) Tephritidae p.737
92'. Se apically bent toward C at a less abrupt angle and usually reaehing C
(Figure 34-22F); C not broken near end of Sc; wings variable 93
93(92'). C broken only near humeral crossvein; postverticals widely separated and
diverging Acartophthalmidae* p.739
93'. C entire, broken only near end of Se, or broken both near humeral
erossvein and end of Se; postverticals variable 94
94(93'). R, eell closed or mueh narrowed apically (Figure 34-22C); slender flies,
the legs usually long and slender 95

94'. R, eell open, usually not narrowed apically; body shape and legs variable,
but usually not as in preeeding entry 97
95 Arista apical (Figure 34-231), southwestern United States
(94,116). Neriidae* p.735
95'. Arista dorsal; widely distributed 96
96(95/). Head in profile higher than long, eyes large, distinctly higher than long;
anal eell rounded apically; no sternopleural bristles Tanypezidae* p.735
~ák96/. Head in profile as long as or longer than high, eyes smaller, not mueh
~" "'>,
higher than long; anal eell square or pointed apically; 1 sternopleural
f.\.:... bristle or none Micropezidae p.734
97(94/). Some or all tibiae with 1 or more preapical dorsal bristles (Figure 34-26B);
C entire (Figure 34-22D,G,I); body usually light-eolored, at least in part 98
 Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 701

Figure34-26 A, hind tarsus

of Copromyza (Sphaeroceri-
dae); B, middle leg of
Tetanocera(Sciomyzidae);
C, hind leg of Agathomyia
(Platypezidae); D, wing of
Leptocera (Sphaeroceridae). ex,
coxa;fm, femur;fmb, femoral
bristle; mts, first tarsal segment;
ptbr, preapical tibial bristles;
tb, tibia; tr, trochanter; ts, tarsus;
A e I-V, tarsalsegments 1-5.

97'. Tibiae usually without preapical dorsal bristles; if such bristles are
present then either ovipositor is long and sclerotized, or R¡ is setulose
above, or the vein forming end of the anal cell is bent (Figure 34-22F);
C entire or broken near end of Sc; color variable 100

98(97) . Postverticals converging (Figure 34-23D); 2A short, not reaching

wing margin (Figure 34-22D); small flies, rarely over 6 mm long lauxaniidae p. 738
98'. Postverticals parallel, diverging, or absent; 2A reaching wing margin,
at least as a fold; size variable 99
99(98'). Femora with bristles, and a characteristic bristle usually present near
middle of anterior face of middle femur (Figure 34-26B); R¡ ending
at middle of wing (Figure 34-22G); antennae usually projecting
forward and the face generally produced (Figure 34-23G) Sciomyzidae
* p. 739
99'. Femoral bristles not developed; R¡ ending beyond middle of wing
(Figure 34-221); antennae usually not projecting forward Dryomyzidae* p.739
100(97'). CU2bent distad in middle, anal cell with acute distal projection
posteriorly (Figures 34-22F and as in 34-24B); wings usually pattemed Ulidiidae p. 738
100'. CU2straight or curved basad, anal cell without acute distal projection
posteriorly (Figure 34-22E); wing color variable 101
101ClOO'). Costa broken near end of Sc 102
101'. Costa not broken near end of Sc (Figures 34-22E,F and 34-24F) 106
102(101). Second abdominal segment usually with lateral bristles; femora often
thickened and spinose; wings usually pattemed Richardiidae
* p. 737
102'. Second abdominal segment without lateral bristles; femora not
thickened 103
103Cl02'). With 1 to several upcurved bristles below compound eye; 3-5 pairs of
lateroclinate fronto-orbitals; postverticals diverging; seashore species Canacidae* p.740
103'. Without upcurved bristles below compound eye; fewer than 3
(usually 1) pair oflateroclinate fronto-orbitals; postverticals parallel
or diverging; widely distributed
U'A'VERSIDADDE CALDAS
104(103'). Head hemispherical in profile, eyes large, oval or semicircular
(Figure 34-23H); third antennal segment elongate (Figure 34-23H); BIBLIOTECA
postverticals diverging; 2A usually sinuate; small, shining, blackish
flies with broad, flat abdomen; female with lancelike ovipositor lonchaeidae p. 736
702 Chapter34 OrderDiptera

104'. Head more or less rounded in profile, eyes smaller, rounded or slightly
oval; postverticals parallel or slightly divergent; 2A not sinuate;
pale-colored fIies, or with yellow or reddish markings 105*
105(104'). Costa spinose (as in Figure 34-22A); eyes oval; Arizona and
California (Omomyia) Richardiidae
* p.737
105/. Costa not spinose; eyes round; southern United States and Canada Pallopteridae
* p.736
106(101/). Postverticals converging (Figure 34-23E) or absent; R¡ bare above;
small fIies, usually gray Chamaemyiidae p.738
106'. Postverticals diverging or absent; R¡ bare or setulose above; small to
medium-sized fIies, usually dark and shining 107
107(106'). Eyes horizontally oval, about twice as long as high; length 1.5-2.5 mm;
grayish fIieswith yellowish markings on sides of thorax and abdomen,
and on front; recorded from New Mexico, Oregon, New Brunswick, Chamaemyiidae
and Newfoundland (Cremifania)
* p.738
107'. Without the preceding combination of characters 108
108(107'). Anal cell relatively long, its anterior side more than one fourth as long
as posterior side of discal cell (Figure 34-22E); sternopleural bristles
lacking; R¡ setulose above Platystomatidae p.738
108/. Anterior side of anal cellless than one fourth as long as posterior side
of discalcell;sternopleuralbristlesusuallypresent; R¡ bare or setulose
above Ulidiidae p.738
109(77'). Sc apically bent forward at almost a 90-degree angle and ending before
reaching C (Figure 34-24B); C broken near end of Sc; anal cell usually
with acute distal projection posteriorly (Figure 34-24B); wings usually
patterned (Figures 34-76A, 34-77) Tephritidae p.737
109/. Sc and anal cell not as in preceding entry; wing color variable 110
110(109'). Basal segment of hind tarsi short, swollen, shorter than second
segment (Figure 34-26A) Sphaeroceridae p.741
110/. Basal segment of hind tarsi normal, not swollen, longer than second
segment 111
111(110'). Third antennal segment large, reaching almost to lower edge of head;
arista absent, but a short spine or tubercle at apex of third antennal
segment; eyes large, vertically elongate; small, dark-colored fIies, less
than 2 mm long; California Cryptochetidae
* p.741
111'. Third antennal segment not as in preceding entry, arista present 112
112(111/). Rw short, ending in C close to or with R¡ (Figure 34-24A);
postverticals diverging Asteiidae* p.740
112'. R2+3longer, ending in C well beyond R¡ and beyond middle of wing
(Figure 34-24C-F); postverticals variable 113
113(112/). Costa entire, with neither a humeral nor a subcostal break
(Figure 34-24F) 114
lB'. Costa with at least a subcostal break, sometimes also with a humeral
break (Figure 34-24D) 118
114(113). Ocellar bristles present, although sometimes weak; arista variable 115
114'. Ocellar bristles absent; arista pubescent) Aulacigastridae
(Stenomicra)* p.740
115(114). Anal cell and 2A present, distinct 116
115'. Anal cell and 2A atrophied, incomplete, or absent 117*
116(115). Rs cell narrowed apically; legs long, slender 95
r

Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 703

116'. R5cell not narrowed apically; legs usually not long and slender Chamaemyiidae p. 738
117(115'). R¡ joining C in basal third of wing; R5cell slightly narrowed distally;
postverticals weak or absent; arista variable Asteiidae(Leiomyza)* p. 740
117'. R¡ joining C near middle of wing; R5cell not narrowed distally;
postverticals short, diverging; arista plumose Periscelididae* p. 740
118(113'). Costa broken only near end of Sc or R¡ (Figure 34-24C,E) 119
118'. Costa broken near end of Sc or R¡, and also near humeral crossvein
(Figure 34-24D) 130
119(118). Anal cell present (Figure 34-24E); ocellar triangle variable 120
119'. Anal cell absent (Figure 34-24C); ocellar triangle large (Figure 34-27 A) Chloropidae p.741
120(119). Costa spinose (as in Figure 34-22A,H); oral vibrissae present;
postverticals converging; orbital plates long, reaching nearly to leve!
of antennae; usually with 2 pairs of fronto-orbitals that are reclinate
or lateroclinate Ulidiidae* p. 738
120'. Costa not spinose; other characters variable 121
121(120'). Oral vibrissae present 122
121'. Oral vibrissae absent 128
122(121). Ocellar triangle large (as in Figure 34-27 A); 3-5 pairs of lateroclinate
fronto-orbitals; postverticals diverging; fiies living along the seashore Canacidae
* p. 740

ovb

A e

D E F

Figure34-27 Heads of acalyptrate muscoid flies, anterior view. A, Chloropidae (Diplo-

toxa); B, Tethinidae (Tethina); C, Opomyzidae (Opomyza); D, Agromyzidae (Agromyza);
E, Ephydridae (Ephydra); F, Milichiidae (Milichia). ar, arista;./b, frontal bristles; fob,
fronto-orbital bristles; ivb, inner vertical bristles; ob, ocellar bristles; ot, ocellar triangle;
ov, oral vibrissae; ovb, outer vertical bristles; pv, postvertical bristles.
704 Chapter34 OrderDiptera

122'. Oeellar triangle small; other eharaeters variable 123

123(122'). Wings strongly narrowed at base, anal angle not distinet Opomyzidae
(Geomyza)*
p.740
123'. Wings not so narrow at base, and with distinet anal angle 124
124(123'). Postvertieals diverging 125
124'. Postvertieals eonverging or absent 126
125(124). Wings patterned; preapical tibial bristles usually present; 2 reclinate
and 1 inclinate pairs of fronto-orbitals Odiniidae* p.740
125'. Wings hyaline, not patterned; preapical tibial bristles absent;
fronto-orbitals usually not as in preeeding entry Agromyzidae p.739
126(124'). All fronto-orbitals direeted outward (Figure 34-27B) Tethinidae* p.741
126'. Some or all fronto-orbitals reclina te, none direeted outward 127
127(126'). Mesopleura bare Anthomyzidae3 p.740
127'. Mesopleura setulose Chyromyidae* p.741
128(121'). Sternopleural bristles present; sometimes with spur in apical seetion
of MI.2 extending into seeond posterior eell Opomyzidae* p.740
128'. Sternopleural bristle absent; Ml+2without a spur in apical seetion 129
129(128'). Mesopleura with large bristle in addition lOfine hairs; usually
2 notopleural bristles Tanypezidae* p.735
129'. Mesopleurawithout large bristle, with fine hairs only; 1 notopleural bristle Psilidae p.735
130(118'). Anal eell present; postverticals usually well developed and eonverging;
oral vibrissae usually present 131
130'. Anal eell absent; postvertieals and oral vibrissae variable 139
131(130). Oeellar bristles present, well developed; frons never with a bright
orange band; arista variable 132
131'. Oeellar bristles absent or very weak; frons with bright orange band Aulacigastridae
near anterior margin; arista plumose (Aulacigaster)
* p.740
132(131). Middle tibiae with preapical dorsal bristle; faee tubereulate; arista bare Heleomyzidae
or pubeseent, not plumose (Cinderella)
* p.741
132'. Middle tibiae usually without preapieal dorsal bristle; faee not
tubereulate; arista variable, but often plumose 133
133(132'). All fronto-orbitals similarly oriented; arista with short pubeseenee;
postvertieals slightly eonverging; Arizona and Utah Pseudopomyzidae
* p.735
133'. Fronto-orbitals not similarly direeted; arista variable, but often
plumose; postvertieals variable; widely distributed 134
134(133'). At least 1 pair of fronto-orbitals bent inward (Figure 34-27F); oral
vibrissae sometimes weak 135
134'. No fronto-orbitals bent inward; oral vibrissae well developed 136
135(134). Genae broad, with a row of bristles in middle; proboseis short and stout Carnidae* p.741
135'. Genae usually narrow, jf broad then bristles eonfined to lower margin;
proboseis variable, but often slender Milichiidae p.741
136(134'). Costa spinose (Figure 34-22A); arista with long plumose setae;
proclinate fronto-orbital arising below reclina te fronto-orbital Curtonotidae* p.741
136'. Costa usually not spinose, or if spinose (Diastatidae) bristles short,
extending beyond middle of wing; fronto-orbitals variable 137
137(136'). Costa spinose, bristles short, extending nearly to wing tip; proclinate
fronto-orbital arising above reclina te fronto-orbital; arista with short
plumose setae Diastatidae
* p.741
3The Pseudopomyzidae will key out here if one cannot see the costal break near the humeral crossvein.
 Keyto the Families of Diptera 705

137/. Costanot spinose;proclinatefronto-orbital usually arising below

reclinatefronto-orbital; aristawith long plumosesetae 138
138(137/). Sternopleural bristle present; body not metallie; anal eell well
developed, closed apically; widely distributed, eommon flies Drosophilidae p. 741
138/. Sternopleural bristle absent; body metallic; anal eell poorly developed,
open apieally; Ontario Camillidae* p.741
139(130/). Faee strongly eonvex, usually without oral vibrissae (Figure 34-27E);
postverticals, if present, diverging Ephydridae p. 742
139/. Faee somewhat eoneave; oral vibrissae and postvertieals variable 140*
140(139/). Arista plumose; tibiae with preapical dorsal bristle; body metallie;
Ontario Camillidae* p. 741
140'. Arista slightly pubeseent, not plumose; middle tibiae without preapical
dorsal bristle; widely distributed Carnidae* p.741
141(1/). Antennal flagellumelongate,annulated basally,and clubbed; eyes separated
dorsally but eontiguous ventrally; small aquatic flies, less than 2 mm
long, slender, pale, weakly sclerotized; found in rapid streams in Quebee,
New Brunswick, and Appalaehian Mountains south lOAlabama Nymphomyiidae * p.715
141/. 142*
Without the preeeding eombination of eharaeters
142(141/). Antennaewith 6 or more freelyartieulatedsegments;palpsusually
with 3-5 segments (Nematoeera) 143*
142'. Antennae eonsisting of 3 or fewer segments; palps not segmented
(Braehyeera) 150*

143(142). Mesonotum with a V-shaped suture (as in Figure 34-28) Tipulidae p. 707
143'. Mesonotum without a V-shaped suture 144*

144(143'). Compoundeyeeonsistingof a singlefaeet;oeelliabsent;head and

thorax small, well sclerotized, abdomen thick, weakly sclerotized,
indistinetly segmented; antennae thiek, 8-segmented; length 3.4 mm; Cecidomyiidae
found in leaf litter in Virginia (Baeonotus)* p.716
144/. Without the preeeding eombination of eharaeters 145*
145(144/). At least 1 oeellus present 146*
145'. Oeelli absent Chironomidae (C/unio,
Florida; Eretmoptera,
California)* p.709
146(145). Tibiae with apieal spurs 147*
146'. Tibiae without apieal spurs 148*
147(146). Seutellum and halteres present; tarsal claws simple; wings present Scatopsidae
but only about half normal size; abdomen normal-sized (Coboldia)* p.718
147'. Seutellum, halteres, and wings absent; tarsal claws variable; abdomen
sometimes greatly swollen Cecidomyiidae* p. 716
148(146/). Eyesmeetingabovebases of antennae Sciaridae (some females
of Bradysia and
Epitapus)* p. 718
148'. Eyes not meeting above bases of antennae 149*

149(148') . Palps 1-segmented; length about 2 mm Sciaridae (females of

pnyxia)* p.718
149'. Palps with 3 or more segments; length at least 4 mm Mycetophilidae (females
of Baeopterogyna, Yukon
Territory and Alaska; and
so me Boletina, widely
distributed)* p.718
 706 Chapter34 OrderDiptera

150(142'). Thorax very short, in dorsal view less than half as long as head,
resembling abdominal segments; scutellum absent; parasitic on
honey bee Braulidae
* p.740
150'. Thorax at least as long as head, differing from abdominal segments;
scutellum present; habits variable, but not parasitic on honey bees 151*
151(150'). Coxae widely separated (Figure 34-13A); abdominal segmentation
sometimes obscure; tarsal claws toothed; ectoparasites of bats, birds,
or mammals Hippoboscidae
* p.731
151'. Coxae usually contiguous; abdominal segmentation distinct; tarsal
cIaws simple; usually not ectoparasitic, but sometimes (Carnidae)
associated with nestling birds 152*
152(151'). Frontal suture and frontallunule present 153*
152'. Frontal suture and frontallunule absent 160*
153(152). First segment of hind tarsi short and swollen, shorter than second
segment (Figure 34-26A) Sphaeroceridae
* p.741
153'. First segment of hind tarsi not swollen, longer than second segment 154*
154(153'). Propleuron with a vertical ridge (some
Chloropidae
Conioscinella)
* p.741
154'. Propleuron without a vertical ridge 155*
155(154'). Face strongly convex Ephydridae(some
femalesof Hyadina
andNastima)* p.742
155'. Face concave 156*
156(155'). Postverticals present; at least 2 pairs of fronto-orbitals 157*
156'. Postverticals absent; only 1 pair of fronto-orbitals Opomyzidae
(some
Geomyza)
* p.740
157(156). Postverticals parallel or nearly so; gena with a pair of strong bristles
in middle; assoeiated with birds Carnidae(Carnus)* p.741
157'. Postverticals converging; gena without a row of strong bristles in
middle; not assoeiated with birds 158*
158(157'). Some or all tibiae with a preapical dorsal bristle; frons without strong
fronto-orbitals on lower half 159*
158'. Tibiae without preapical dorsal bristles; frons with 2 pairs of strong Anthomyzidae(some
fronto-orbitals on lower half Anthomyza)* p.740
159(158). Arista plumose; frons with a pair of procIinate fronto-orbitals Drosophilidae(mutant
Drosophila)* p.741
159'. Arista bare or with short pubescence; no procIinate fronto-orbitals
(some Lutomyia) Heleomyzidae
* p.741
160(152'). Antennae apparently consisting of a single, globular segment with a
3-segmented arista; hind femora laterally flattened (some females) Phoridae
* p.727
160'. Antennae with obviously 2 or 3 segments; arista, if present,
2-segmented; hind femora not flattened 161*
161(160'). Vertex convex; compound eyes bare; proboseis elongate and projecting Empididae
(Chersodromia)
* p.725
161'. Vertex excavated; compound eyes pubescent; proboseis short and Dolichopodidae
(females
retracted of someCampsicnemus)*
p.726

L
 Keyto the Families of Diptera 707

SUBORDERNematocera-Long-HornedFlies: This
suborder contains a little less than one third of the North
American species of flies (nearly 5300), in 24 of the 108
families. lts members can be recognized by their many-
segmented antennae, which are usually long. Most ne-
matocerans are small, slender, and long-Iegged and are
mosquito-like or midgelike in appearance. The wing ve-
nation varies from very complete (Tanyderidae) to
greatly reduced (for example, the Cecidomyiidae). This
suborder contains the only Diptera that have a 5-
branched radius. The larvae, except in the Cecidomyi-
idae, have a well-developed head, with toothed or
brushlike mandibles that move laterally. Most live in wa-
ter or in moist habitats. The pupae are obtect.
The Nematocera are generally recognized to be a B
paraphyletic group, out of which the Brachycera arose.
We continue to use the term Nematocera here beca use
A
it remains commonly used in entomology.
This group contains many fiies of considerable
economic importance. Many are bloodsucking and se-
rious pests of humans and animals (mosquitoes,
Figure34-28 A crane fly (Tipula sp., familyTipuli-
punkies, black flies, and sand flies), and some of these
serve as disease vectors. A few fiies in this suborder dae). A, adult; B, larva. (B, courtesy ofJohannsen and
the Comell University Agricultural Experiment Station.)
(some Cecidomyiidae) are important pests of culti-
vated plants. The aquatic larvae of the Nematocera are
an important food of many freshwater fishes.
Family Tipulidae-Crane Flies: This family is the fiies belong to the Tipulinae. These are characterized
largest in the order, with approximately 1600 known by having the terminal segment of the maxillary palps
species in North America. Many crane flies are com- slender and longer than the penultimate segment, and
mon and locally abundant insects. They may be mis- the antennae normally have 13 segments. The Limoni-
taken for large mosquitoes, but even those with elon- inae is a very large group of crane flies with nearly
gatemouthparts cannot bite. A few are smaller than the 1,000 species described from the United States and
smallest mosquitoes. The legs are usually long and Canada. Nearly all small crane fiies (but a few
slender (Figure 34-28) and are easily broken off. The large ones and many of medium size) belong to the
body is usually elongate and slender, and the wings are Limoniinae, in which veins R¡ and R2.) are not fused
long and narrow. Some crane flies are quite large: (Figure 34-7D) and R2 often has the form of a short
Holorusia grandis (Bergroth) of the western states, has crassvein between R¡ and R), or is absent. Their habits
a body length sometimes exceeding 35 mm and a are very similar to the Tipulinae, with both aquatic and
wingspan of nearly 70 mm. Many species have clouded terrestrial forms. Typically, the larvae are found associ-
or patterned wings. Tipulids differ from Trichoceridae ated with decaying organic matter fram plants and
in lacking ocelli, from Tanyderidae in having four or fungi. Small, wingless, spiderlike species of Chionea
fewerbranches of the radius, and from Ptychopteridae may be found on snow in winter. However, some with
in having two anal veins (Figure 34-7). long, slender mouthparts (for example, subgenus Ger-
Crane fiies live chiefiy in damp habitats with anomyia of the large genus Limonia) take nectar fram
abundant vegetation. There are, however, grassland various fiowers. The subfamily Cylindrotominae is a
species and even a few in deserts. Larvae of many small group of crane fiies, with only nine species
speciesare aquatic or semiaquatic. Others live in the recorded from North America. These are not commonly
soilor in fungi, mosses, and decaying wood. Most eat collected, but can be recognized by the fusion of veins
decomposing plant matter, but certain aquatic groups R¡ and R2+)well before the wing tip (Figure 34-7C).
arepredaceous. Larvae of a few species feed on roots of Larvae can be found in mosses or liverworts, or so me-
youngplants and if abundant may damage rangelands times in leaves of higher plants.
andseedling crops. Adult crane fiies usually live only a Family Trichoceridae-Winter Crane Flies: The tri-
fewdays, and probably most do not feed. chocerids are medium-sized fiies that resemble the
British and American taxonomists have tradition- crane fiies in the family Tipulidae. They differ from
allygrouped the two subfamilies Cylindrotominae and the tipulids in having ocelli. They are usually seen in
Limoniinae together with this family. Most large crane the fall or early spring, and some can be seen on mild
708 Chapter34 OrderDiptera
days in winter. Adults can be found outdoors, some-
times in large swarms, or in caves, cellars, or similar
dark places. The larvae live in decaying vegetable matter.
Family Psychodidae-Moth Flies and Sand Flies:
The psychodids are small to minute, usually very hairy,
mothlike flies. The most common speeies (Psychodi-
nae) hold the wings rooflike over the body. The adults
live in moist, shady places, and they are sometimes
abundant in drains or sewers. The larvae live in decay-
ing vegetable matter, mud, moss, or water. The larvae
of Maruina (Psychodinae), which occur in the West,
live in fast-flowing streams.
This family is represented in the United States by
112 species, arranged in four subfamilies: Psychodinae,
Trichomyiinae, Phlebotominae, and Bruchomyiinae. In
the Psychodinae the eyes have a median extension ex-
tending above the base of the antennae. The other three
subfamilies have the eyes oval, without a median ex-
tension. The Trichomyiinae differ fram the Phlebotom-
inae and Bruchomyiinae in Rs having three branches,
with only one longitudinal vein between the two
forked veins in the wing. In the Phlebotominae and
Bruchomyiinae Rs has four branches, with two veins
between the two forked veins in the wing (as in Fig-
ure 34-8G). The Phlebotominae differ from the Bru-
chomyiinae in having a long proboseis. Most North
American psychodids (95 speeies) are in the subfamily
Psychodinae. The Trichomyiinae contains only 3
speeies, the Phlebotominae 13, and the Bruchomyiinae
only 1 (which occurs in Florida).
Most psychodids are harmless to humans, but
those in the subfamily Phlebotominae, often called
"sand flies," are bloodsucking. These occur in the
southem states and in the tropics. Sand flies act as vec-
tors of several diseases in various parts of the world:
pappataei fever (caused by a virus) in the Mediter-
ranean regio n and in southem Asia; kala-azar and ori-
ental sore (caused by leishmania organisms), which oc-
A B
cur in South America, northem Africa, and southem
Asia; espundia (caused by a leishmania), which occurs
in Somh America; and Oroya fever or verruga peruana
(caused by a bartonella organism), which occurs in
South America.
Family Ptychopteridae-Phantom Crane Flies:These
crane flies are similar to the tipulids, but they have only
one anal vein reaching the wing margin and lack a
closed discal cell. A fairly common speeies in this fam-
ily, Bittacomorpha clavipes (Fabrieius), has the long legs
banded with black and white, and the basal segmentof
the tarsi is conspicuouslyswollen.These fliesoftendrift
with the wind, with their long legs extended. Bittaco-
morpha and Bittacomorphella have clear wings, and M1.2
is not forked (Figure 34-7 A). In Ptychoptera, which re-
semble large fungus gnats, the wings are usually pat-
temed, and M1+2is forked. This is a small group,with
only 16 North American speeies. The larvae live in de-
caying vegetable matter in marshes and swampy ponds.
Family Tanyderidae-Primitive Crane Flies: Ihis
group is represented in North America by four species,
of which one, Protoplasafitchii Os ten Sacken, occursin
the East. The tanyderids are medium-sized insects with
banded wings, and their larval stages live in wet, sandy
soil at the margins of large streams.
Family Ceratopogonidae-Biting Midges, Punkies,
or No-see-ums:These flies are very small but are often
serious pests, particularly along the seashore or along
the shores of rivers and lakes, because of their blood-
sucking habits. Their small size is responsible for the
name "no-see-ums," and their bite is out of all propor-
tion to their size. Many speeies in this group attack
other insects and suck blood fram the insect host asan
ectoparasite. Punkies have be en reported from man-
tids, walkingsticks, dragonflies, alderflies, lacewings,
certain beetles, certain moths, crane flies, and mosqui-
toes. Some of the larger speeies prey on smaller insects.
Some speeies (Figure 34-29B) have spotted wings.
Figure34-29 The little gray punkie, Culicoides
furens (Poey) (Ceratopogonidae). A, larva;
B, adult female;about 25x. (Courtesyof Dove,
Hall, and Hull, and the Entomological Society
of America.)

Most punkies that attack people belong to the genera
Culicoídesand Leptoconops.These insects apparently
do not travel far from the place where the larvae live,
and one can often avoid punkie attacks by simply mov-
ing a few yards away.
Punkies are very similar to the midges (Chirono-
midae), but are generally stouter in build, with the
wings broader and held fiat over the abdomen (usually
held more or less roofiike in the Chironomidae), and
the wings are often strongly patterned (usually clear in
Chironomidae). This large group has about 580 North
American speeies.
The larvae of punkies are aquatic or semiaquatic,
living in sand, mud, decaying vegetation, and the wa-
ter in tree holes. Those living along the seashore ap-
parently breed in the intertidal zone. The feeding
habits of the larvae are not well known, but they are
probably scavengers.
Family Chaoboridae-Phantom Midges: These in-
sects are very similar to mosquitoes, but differ in having
a short proboscis and fewer scales on the wings. They do
not bite. The larvae (Figure 34-30A,B) are aquatic and
predaceous, and their antennae are modified into pre-
hensile organs. The larvae of Chaoborus (Figure 34-30A)
A B
Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 709
Figure34-30 Larvae of phantom (A-B)
and (C) dixid midges. A, Chaoborus
JIavicans(Meigen); B, Mochlonyx cinctipes
(Coquillet); e, Dixa aliciaeJohannsen.
(Courtesy ofJohannsen and the Comell
University Agricultural Experiment
Station.)
are almost transparent, giving rise to the name "phantom
midges" for this group. The larvae of some speeies (for
example, Mochlonyx, Figure 34-30B) have a breathing
tube and are very similar to mosquito larvae in appear-
ance. Others (such as Chaoborus) do not have a breath-
ing tube. The larvae live in various sorts of pools and are
sometimes very abundant. They frequently destroy large
numbers of mosquito larvae. The group is small (15
North American speeies), but its members are fairly com-
mon insects.
Family Corethrellidae: This is mainly a tropical
group, with only five speeies in the United States and
Canada. It is often classified within the Chaoboridae,
from which it can be distinguished by the sparsely se-
tose clypeus and by R¡ terminating away from the apex
of the wing, closer to Se than to R2.
FamilyChironomidae-Midges: These insects are al-
most everywhere. They are small (1-10 mm long), del-
icate, and somewhat mosquito-like in appearance (Fig-
ure 34-31C), but they lack scales on the wings, do not
have a long proboseis (they do not bite), the front legs
are usually the longest, and the metanotum has a keel
or furrow. The males usually have plumose antennae.
Midges often occur in huge swarms, usually in the
Figure34-31 A midge, Chironomus
plumosus (L.). A, egg mass; B, pupa, lateral
view, with larval skin not completely shed;
e e, adult maleo (Courtesy of Branch.)
710 Chapter34 OrderDiptera
A B
Figure34-32 Pupa (A) and larva (B) of Chironomus
tentans (Fabricius). (Courtesy ofJohannsen and the Cor-
nell University Agricultural Experiment Station.)
evening, and the humming of such a swarm can often
be heard from a considerable distance.
This group is large, with about 1,090 North Ameri-
can species. The larvae of most midges (Figure 34-32B)
are aquatic, and live in all sor15of aquatic habita15. Some
B
live in decaying matter, soil, under bark, and similar
habita15 that are wet and rich in organic matter. Manyof
the aquatic forms live in tubes or cases that they make
from fine particles of the substrate cemented together
with salivary secretion. The larvae of many speciesare
red (because hemoglobin is present in the hemolymph)
and are known as bloodworms. Midge larvae swimby
means of characteristic whipping movements of the
body, something like the movemen15 of mosquito larvae.
Midge larvae are often very abundant, and are an impor-
tant item of food for many freshwater fish and other
aquatic animals.
Family Culicidae-Mosquitoes: This familyis a
large, abundant, well-known, and important groupof
flies. The larval stages are aquatic, and the adults can
be recognized by the characteristic wing venation (Fig-
ure 34-81), the scales along the wing veins, and the
long proboseis. Mosquitoes are very important from
the standpoint of human welfare because the females
are bloodsucking, many speeies bite people, and they
serve as vectors in the transmission of severalimpor-
tant and dangerous human diseases.
Mosquito larvae (Figure 34-33A,C), or wrigglers,
live in a variety of aquatic situations-in ponds and
pools of various sor15, in the water in artificial contain-
ers, in tree holes, and in other situations-but each
speeies usually lives only in a particular type ofaquatic
habitat. The eggs (Figure 34-34) are laid on the surface
of the water, either in "raf15" (Culex) or singly (Anophe-
les), or near water (Aedes). In the latter case the eggs
usually hatch when flooded. The larvae of most species
feed on algae and organic debris, but a few are preda-
ceous and feed on other mosquito larvae. Mosquitolar-
vae breathe prineipally at the surface, usually through
a breathing tube at the posterior end of the body.The
Figure34-33 Larvae and pupa of
mosquitoes. A, larva of Culex pipiensL.;
B, pupa of C. pipiens; C, larva of Anophe-
les punctipennis (Say). (After Johannsen,
courtesy of the Comell University Agri-
cultural Experiment Station.)
 Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 711

larva e of Anopheles lack a breathing tube and breathe

through a pair of spiracular plates at the posterior end
of the body.
Mosquito pupae (Figure 34-33B) are also aquatic
A and, unlike most insect pupae, are quite active and are
often called tumblers. They breathe at the surface of
the water through a pair of small, trumpetlike struc-
tures on the thorax.
Most adult mosquito es do not travel far from the
B water in which they spent their larval stage. Aedes ae-
gypti (L.), the vector of yellow fever and dengue, sel-
dom travels more than a few hundred yards from where
Figure34-34 Eggs of mosquitoes. A, egg raft of Culex it emerges. Some species of Anopheles can range as far
restuansTheobald; B, egg of Aedes taeniorhynchus as a mile from where they emerge. In contrast, so me of
(Wiedemann); C, egg of Anopheles quadrimaculatus Say, the salt-marsh mosquitoes-for example, Aedessollici-
showing floats. (Courtesy of USDA, after Howard, Dyar, tans (Walker) (Figure 34-35A)-can be found many
and Knab.) miles from the larval habitat. Adult mosquitoes usually

Figure34-35 Common mosquitoes.

A, the saltmarsh mosquito, Aedes sollici-
tans (Walker); B, a woodland mosquito,
Aedes stimulans (Walker); C, the house
mosquito, Culex pipiens L.; D, Anopheles
punctipennis (Say). (Courtesy of Headlee
and the New Jersey Agricultural Experi-
ment Station.)
712 Chapter34 OrderDiptera
prb -___ -------
mxp--------
o prb, proboseis.
are active during the twilight hours or at night, or in
dense shade. Many spend the day in hollow trees, un-
der culverts, or in similar resting places. Some adults
overwinter in such places. Only the female mosquitoes
are bloodsucking. The males (and occasionally also the
females) feed on nectar and other plant juices.
The sexes of most mosquitoes can be easily de ter-
mined by the form of the antennae (Figure 34-36).
The antennae of the males are very plumose, whereas
those of the females have only a few short hairs.
In most mosquito es other than Anopheles (see later),
the maxillary palps are very short in the female (Fig-
ure 34-36A) but in the male are longer than the pro-
boseis (Figure 34-36B).
Most of the mosquitoes discussed here (139 of the
166 speeies recorded from North America) belong to
Figure34-36 Head structure in mosquitoes,
showing sex characters. A, Aedes, female;
B, same, male; C, Anopheles, female; D, same,
maleo ant, antenna; rnxp, maxillary palp;
four genera: Anopheles, Aedes, Psorophora, and Culex.
These genera contain the speeies that are most impor-
tant from the human point of view.AduItsof Anopheles
are rather easily distinguished: the maxillary palpsare
long in both sexes (Figure 34-36C,D) and clubbedin
the male (usually short in females of the other genera);
the scutellum is evenly rounded (trilobed in the other
genera); and the wings are usually spotted (not soin
the other genera). The wing spotting in Anopheles is
due to groups of differentIy colored scales on Ihe
wings. An Anopheles mosquito in a resting position
holds the body and proboseis in a straight hne andat
an angle to the surface on which the insect is resting
(Figure 34-37A,B). Some speeies seem almosllo
"stand on their head" in a resting position. Adultsof
the other genera hold the body in a resting position

A B
Figure34-37 Resting positions of mosquitoes. A, B, Anopheles; e, Culex (Redrawn
from King, Bradley, and MeNee!.)
more or less parallel 10 the surface, with the proboscis
bent down (Figure 34-37C). Adults of Psorophora have
agroup of bristles (the spiracular bristles) immediately
in front of the mesothoracic spiracle, whereas those of
Acdcs and Culex lack spiracular bristles. Psorophora
mosquitoes are relatively large and have long, erect
scaleson the hind tibiae. The best character to separate
adultsof Aedesand Culexis the presence (Aedes)or ab-
sence (Culex) of postspiracular bristles (a group of
bristles immediately behind the mesothoracic spira-
de). The tip of the abdomen of a female Aedes is usu-
allypointed, with the cerci protruding, and the thorax
oftenhas white or silvery markings. In Culex the tip of
the female abdomen is generally blunt, with the cerci
retracted, and the color of the thorax is usually dull.
The larvae of Anopheles differ from those of
other mosquitoes in lacking a breathing tube (fig-
ure34-33C), and at rest they he parallel to the surface
ofthe water (Figure 34-38A). The larvae of the other
three genera have a breathing tube (Figure 34-33A),
andat rest they hold the body at an angle to the surface
ofthe water (Figure 34-38B). Culex larvae have several
pairs of hair tufts on the breathing tube, and the tube
Figure34-38 Feeding positions of mosquito larvae. A, Anopheles; B, Culex. (Counesy
of U5DA.)
Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 713
e
is relatively long and slender. Larvae of Aedes and
Psorophora have only a single pair of hair tufts on the
breathing tube. The larva e of Aedes and Psorophora
usually differ in the sclerotization of the anal segment
Cthe sclerotization going completely around the seg-
ment in Psorophora but usually not complete in Aedes).
The breathing tube in Aedes larvae is relatively short
and stout.
Anopheles larvae hve chiefly in ground pools,
marshes, and places where there is considerable vege-
tation. The other mosquito es breed in many places, but
the most abundant Aedes and Psorophoramosquitoes
breed in woodland pools and salt marshes, and Culex
in artificial containers. The woodland species that are
so troublesome early in the season are largely species of
Aedesand have a single brood ayear. Many species that
breed in large bodies of water, borrow pits, or artificial
containers can continue breeding through the season
as long as weather conditions are favorable.
Mosquitoes act as vectors of several very human
important diseases: malaria, caused by protists of the
genus Plasmodium and transmitted by certain species of
Anopheles; yellow fever, caused by a virus and trans-
714 Chapter34 OrderDiptera

mitted by Aedesaegypti (L.); dengue, caused by a virus

and transmitted by Aedes aegypti (L.) and other species
of Aedes; filariasis, caused by a filarial worm (Nema-
toda) and transmitted chiefly by species of Culex; and
certain types of encephalitis, caused by a virus and
transmitted by various species of mosquitoes (chiefly
species of Culex and Aedes). The recently introduced
West Nile fever is caused by a virus and transmitted by
a wide variety of mosquito es, primarily species in the
genus Culex, that have fed on infected birds.
Control measures against mosquitoes can be
aimed at the larva e or at the adults. Measures aimed at
the larvae can involve eliminating or modifying the lar-
val habitats (for example, drainage) or treating the lar-
val habitat with insecticides. Measures aimed at the
adults may be preventives (protective clothing, screen-
ing, and the repellents) or insecticides (sprays or
aerosols) .
Family Dixidae: The dixids are small, slender,
mosquito-like flies with long legs and antennae. The
wings lack scales, and the base of R2+3is somewhat B
arched (Figure 34-8H). The adults do not bite. The lar-
vae (Figure 34-30C) are aquatic and somewhat similar
to the larvae of Anopheles mosquitoes, but do not have Figure34-39 A black fly,Símulium nigricoxumStone.
an enlarged thorax (cL Figure 34-33C). They feed at A, female; B, maleo (Courtesy of Cameron and the Cana-
the surface of the water like anopheline larvae, but the dian Department of Agriculture.)
usual position is with the body bent into a U, and they
move by altemately straightening and bending the
body. The larvae feed on microorganisms and decayed are most frequently encountered near the streams
organic matter. The group is a small one (45 North where the larva e live, but may live at considerabledis-
American species), but its members are fairly common. tances fram streams.
Family Simuliidae-Black Flies or Buffalo Gnats: The black flies in the United States are not known
The black flies are small, usually dark-colored insects to be vectors of any disease of humans, but in Africa,
with short legs, broad wings, and a humpbacked ap- Mexico, and Central America certain species in this
pearance (Figure 34-39). The females are bloodsuck- group act as vectors of onchocerciasis, a diseasecau5ed
ing. These insects are vicious biters and are serious by a filarial worm (Nema toda) and characterizedby
pests in some sections of the country. The bites often large subcutaneous swellings.In some casestheworms
cause considerable swelling and sometimes bleeding. get into the eyes and cause partial or complete blind-
Black flies some times attack livestock in such numbers ness.
and with such ferocity as to cause the death of the live- Family Thaumaleidae:The members of this family
stock, and there are records of human deaths caused by are small (3-4 mm long), rather stocky flies withthe
these insects. Black flies are represented by approxi- head situated low on the thorax, and reddish yellowor
mately 165 species; they have a wide distribution, but brownish. Twenty-four species occur in the United
are most numerous in the north temperate and subarc- States, three in the East and the others in the We5t.
tic regions. The adults usually appear in late spring and They are quite rare. The adults are usually foundalong
early summer. streams in which the larvae live.
Black fly larvae live in streams, where they attach FamilyBlephariceridae-Net-WingedMidges:These
to stones and other objects by means of a disclike insects are long-Iegged, mosquito-like or tipulid-like
sucker at the posterior end of the body. The larvae insects, 3-13 mm long. They differ from the cranefiies
(Figure 34-40C,G) are somewhat club-shaped, are (Tipulidae) in lacking the V-shaped suture on the
swollen posteriorly,and move about like a measuring- mesonotum. They sometimes have a network of fine
worm. Their locomotion is aided by silk spun from lines between the wing veins, the anal angle of the
the mouth. They pupa te in cone-shaped cases (Fig- wing is well developed, and the base of M) is lacking
ure 34-40B,E) attached to objects in the water. These (Figure 34-8J). The adults are found near fast-flowing
larvae are sometimes extremely abundant. The adults streams but are not common. The larvae live in 5wift

B G
water,clinging lO rocks by means of a series of ventral
suckers.
FamilyDeuterophlebiidae-Mountain Midges: These
midgesare peculiar in having broad, fanlike wings, and
themales have extremely long antennae (about four
timesas long as the body). 5ix species of Deuterophlebia
areknown from the West (Colorado to California,
northto Alberta), where the larvae live in swift-fiowing
streams.
Family Nymphomyiidae: Two species are known
fromthe Nearctic region, Nymphomyia dolichopeza
Courtney,from the southern Appalachians of Georgia,
NorthCarolina and 50uth Carolina; and Nymphomyia
walheri (Ide), which has been collectedin streams from
Quebec and New Brunswick to Alabama. The species
are characteristically found in pristine mountain
streams,with the larvae living on stones and among
aquaticmosses and other vegetation. During oviposi-
tion,the copulating male and female crawl underwater
toan oviposition site. While there, the wings are often
brokenoff, but the mechanism for this is unknown.
Theonly other known species in the family are found
ineast Asia from India to ]apan and the Russian Far
East.
FamilyAnisopodidae-WoodGnats: This is a small
groupofgnats (nine North American species) that are
usuallyfound in moist places on foliage. 50me species
occasionallylive in large swarms consisting entirely of
males.The larvae live in or near decaying organic mat-
ter,fermenting sap, and similar materials, and the
adultsare often attracted to fiowing sapo Two subfami-
liesoccur in North America, the Mycetobiinae and
Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 715
Figure34-40 Immature stages of a
black fiy.A-E, Simulium nigricoxum
SlOne; F-G, S. pictipes Hagen. A, pupa,
ventral view; B, pupal case; C, larva,
dorsal view; D, pupa, dorsal view;
E, pupa in pupal case; F, pupa, lateral
view; G, larva, lateral view. (A-E, cour-
tesy of Cameron and the Canadian
Department of Agriculture; F-G, cour-
tesy of Johannsen and the Cornell
University Agricultural Experiment
Station.)
Anisopodinae. The Mycetobiinae lack a discal cell, and
the two basal cells are confiuent beca use of the absence
of the base of M (Figure 34-9C). The Anisopodinae
have a discal cell, and the two basal cells are separated
by the base of M (Figure 34-8B). The Mycetobiinae
contains a single, rare, but widely distributed species,
Mycetobia divergens Walker. The most commonly en-
countered wood gnats are members of the Anisopodi-
nae, which often have faint spots on the wings.
Family Axymyiidae:This family includes two North
American species, Axymyia furcata McAtee, which oc-
curs in the East, and another species ofAxymyia that
has been found in Oregon. These are medium-sized,
stout-bodied fiies, resembling so me of the march flies
(Bibio) in appearance, with short antennae and charac-
teristic wing venation (Figure 34-9D). The larvae live
in cavities in moist, rotting wood. These insects are rel-
atively rare, and little is known of the habits of the
adults.
Family Bibionidae-March Flies: The march fiies are
small to medium-sized, usually dark-colored, hairy or
bristly flies, with short antennae that arise low on the
face (Figure 34-41). Many have a red or yellow thorax.
The wings often have a dark spot near the end of R¡
(Figure 34-8C). The adults are most common in spring
and early summer, and are sometimes abundant. The
larvae live in decaying organic matter and among plant
roots.
One member of this family, Plecia nearctica Hardy
(Figure 34-41), which occurs in the Gulf 5tates, some-
times (usually in May and 5eptember) congregates in
enormous swarms. Cars driving through such swarms
716 Chapter34 OrderDiptera
Figure34-41 A mating pair of "lovebugs," Plecia nearctica Hardy, a species of march
fly. (Courtesy of Dwight Bennett.)
become spattered with these flies, which can clog radi-
ator fans and cause the car to overheat, or spatter the
windshield and obscure the driver's vision. If they are
not soon cleaned off, they may damage the car's finish.
Because pairs are often seen in copulo, these insects are
commonly called "lovebugs." They are a particular
problem in the northern part of peninsular Florida and
in other Gulf states.
The subfamily Hesperininae is represented in
North America by only a single species, Hesperinus bre-
vifrons Walker. It is recorded from Alaska, Canada, and
the western and northeastern United States. Some en-
tomologists recognize the subfamily as a separate fam-
ily, and it can be distinguished by the elongate anten-
nae and the branched Rs.
Family Canthyloscelididae:These rare fliesaresimi-
lar to the Scatopsidae. They differ in having the four-
segmented palps (one-segmented in the Scatopsidae).
The larvae live in decaying wood. Two species occurin
North America. They have been collected from Quebec
to California and north to Alaska.
Family Cecidomyiidae-GallMidges or Gall Gnats:
The gall midges are small (mostly 1-5 mm long),deli-
cate flies with long legs and usually long antennaeand
with a reduced wing venation (Figures 34-8A, 34--42,
34-43A). This group is a large one, with some 1,200
North American species, about two thirds of whichare
gall makers. Larvae of the others feed on plant (without
producing galls) or livein decayingvegetationor wood,
or in fungi. A few are predaceous on other small insects.
Figure34-42 The Hessian fly,Mayetiola destructor
(Say). A, male; B, female. (Courtesy ofUSDA.)
 Keyto the Families of Diptera 717

Figure34-43 A, a cecidomyiid,
Aphidolestes meridiona/is Felt (which
is predaceous on aphids); B, a dark-
winged fungus gnat, Sciara sp.,
15X. (A, courtesy ofUSDA.)

The larva e of gall midges are tiny maggots, with a pate and the adults emerge in the spring. These adults
smalland poorly developed head and minute mouth- oviposit on wheat, and the larvae feed between the leaf
parts.The last larval instar of most species has a char- sheath and the stem, weakening the shoot or even
acteristic T-shaped or clove-shaped sclerite on the killing it. The larva e pass the summer in a puparium,
ventral side of the prothorax called the "breastbone" and the adults emerge in the fall and lay their eggs on
or "sternal spatula." Many of the larvae are brightly
colored-red, orange, pink, or yellow.
The galls formed by gall midges live on all parts of
plantsand are usually very distinctive. Many species of
gallmidges form a characteristic gall on a particular
panof a particular species of plant. In some galls, such
asthe pine-cone willow gall and the maple leaf spot
(Figure34-44), only one larva develops. In others,
suchas the stem gall of willow, many larvae develop.
Paedogenesis (reproduction by larva e) occurs in
severalgenera of gall midges. In Miastor metraloas
Meinert,the larvae of which live under bark, daughter
larvaeare produced inside a mother larva, and they
eventuallyconsume it and escape. These larvae may
producemore larvae in a similar manner, through sev- A
eralgenerations, and the last larvae pupate.
One of the most important pest species in this
groupis the Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor (Say), Figure34-44 Galls of cecidomyiids. A, the pine-cone
whichis a serious pest of wheat (Figure 34-42). This willow gaIl, caused by Rhabdophagastrobiloides (Osten
insectoverwinters as a full-grown larva in a puparium, Sacken); B, the maple leaf spot, caused by Cecidomyia
underthe leaf sheaths of winter wheat. The larvae pu- ocellaris Osten Sacken. (Redrawn from Felt.)
718 Chapter34 Order Diptera
the leaves of winter wheat. The damage to winter
wheat can often be avoided by delaying the planting of
wheat so that by the time the wheat has sprouted, the
adult Hessian fiies have emerged and died.
Other species of economic importance in this fam-
ily are the clover fiower midge, Dasineura leguminicola
(Lintner), which is a serious pest of red clover through-
out the United States; the chrysanthemum gall midge,
Rhopalomyia chrysanthemi (Ahlberg), a pest of chrysan-
themums grown in greenhouses in various parts of the
country; and the alfalfa gall midge, Asphondylia web-
steri Felt, which is sometimes a serious pest of alfalfa in
the Southwest.
North American gall midges are grouped in three
subfamilies, the Lestremiinae, porricondylinae, and
Cecidomyiinae. The Lestremiinae usually have ocelli;
the basal tarsal segment longer than the second; and
MI+2is presento The other two subfamilies lack ocelli
and usually also MI+2'and the first tarsal segment is
much shorter than the second or the tarsi have fewer
than five segments. In the Cecidomyiinae, h the basal
section of Rs is very weak or lacking, whereas in the
Porricondylinae the basal section of Rs is present and
as strong as the other veins. The gall-making ce-
cidomyiids are in the subfamily Cecidomyiinae. The
larvae of the other two subfamilies live in decaying
vegetation or wood, in fungi, or in plant tissues with-
out producing galls. The larvae of some of the Ce-
cidomyiinae also live in fungi or in plant tissues with-
out producing galls, and a few are predaceous.
The subfamily Lestremiinae includes Baeonotus
microps Byers, which was originally placed in a family
by itself, the Baeonotidae. This species lacks wings,
halteres, and ocelli; the compound eyes are single-
faceted; and the abdomen is large and indistinctly seg-
mented. This insect was collected in forest soil, be-
neath oak leaf litter, in Virginia.
Family Mycetophilidae-Fungus Gnats: The fungus
gnats are slender, mosquito-like insects with elon-
gated coxae and long legs (Figure 34-45). They are
usually found in damp places where there is an abun-
dance of decaying vegetation or fungi. The group is a
large one, with more than 700 described North Amer-
ican species, and many of its members are common
insects. Most fungus gnats are about the size of mos-
quitoes, but a few are 13 mm or more long. The lar-
vae of most species live in fungi, moist soil, or decay-
ing vegetation. Some species are pests in mushroom
cellars. The larva e of the Keroplatinae spin mucous
webs. Some of these are fungus feeders, and others are
predaceous. Some of the predaceous larvae, such as
Orfelia fultoni (Fisher) (Figure 34-45), are lumines-
cent. Some adults of the Keroplatinae, including some
of the largest North American fungus gnats, feed on
flowers.
Figure 34-45 A fungus gnat, Oifeliafultoni (Fisher),
8X. (Courtesy of Fulton and the Entomological SocielY
of America.)
The recognition of the Sciaridae as a separate fam-
ily renders the Mycetophilidae a paraphyletic group.As
such, the current subfamilies-Ditomyiinae (6 species
in two genera), Diadocidiinae (4 species in one genus),
Bolitophilinae (20 species in one genus), Lygistorrhin-
inae (1 species), Manotinae (l species) and Keroplati-
nae (82 species in twelve genera)-should probablybe
recognized at the level of family.
Family Pachyneuridae: This group includes a single
North American species, Cramptonomyia spenceri
Alexander, which occurs in the Northwest (Oregon,
Washington, and British Columbia). This is a mediurn-
sized, long-Iegged, slender, tipulid-like fly. The wings
have a crossvein between the branches of Rs, a closed
discal cell, and a dark spot near the end of R¡,and Ihe
antennae are slender and about as long as the headand
thorax combined. This is a rare fly, and its immature
stages are unknown. The larvae of other genera in the
family live in rotten wood.
FamilyScatopsidae-Minute BlackScavengerFlies:
These flies are black or brownish, usually 3 mm longor
less, and have short antennae. The veins near the costal
margin of the wing (C, R¡, and Rs) are heavy, whereas
the remaining veins are quite weak, and Rs ends
at about one half to three fourths the wing length(Fig-
ure 34-9B). The larvae breed in decaying materialand
excremento The group is a small one (76 North Ameri-
can species), but its members are sometimes fairly
abundant.
Family Sciaridae-Dark-Winged Fungus Gnats,
Root Gnats: These gnats are closely related and similar
to the Mycetophilidae (Figure 34-43B), but have
the eyes meeting above the bases of the antennae(Fig-
ure 34-9A) (except in Pnyxia), and the r-m crossveinis
in line with and appears as a basal extension of Rs(Fig-
ure 34-lOC,D). The sciarids are usually blackishin-
sects and generally live in moist, shady places. Thelar.

vaeof most species live in fungi, and some occasionally
become pests in mushroom cellars. The larvae of a few
species attack the roots of plants. One species, the
potato scab gnat, Pnyxia scabiei (Hopkins), attacks
potatoes and serves as the vector of potato scab. The fe-
males of P. scabiei have extremely short wings and no
halteres. Sciarids are fairly common insects, with 170
speciesknown from the United States and Canada.
SUBORDERBrachycera:This suborder includes
79 of the 104 families and nearly 14,000 of the ap-
proximately 20,000 known species of North American
Diptera. Most of its members are relatively stout-
bodied, and they vary greatly in size. The antennae
usually have three segments, but the third segment is
sometimes divided into subsegments, and it often bears
astyle or an arista.
The suborder Brachycera is divided into four in-
fraorders, the Xylophagomorpha, Stratiomyomorpha,
Tabanomorpha, and Muscomorpha. Some classifica-
tions of the Diptera limit the suborder Brachycera to
the 19 families in the Xylophagomorpha, Stratiomy-
omorpha, Tabanomorpha, and the superfamilies
Nemestrinoidea, Asiloidea, and Empidoidea; the re-
maining60 families of Muscomorpha are then grouped
in a third suborder, the Cyclorrhapha. Here the Cy-
clorrhapha are treated as a monophyletic group within
the Muscomorpha. All the Cyclorrhapa have two-
branched Rs, none has an annulated third antennal
segment,and nearly all have an arista on the third an-
tennalsegment. The remaining Brachycera (except the
Dolichopodidae, many Empididae, and some Stra-
tiomyidae, Bombyliidae, and Acroceridae) have three-
branched Rs, with R..s forked (in few Asilidae it may
appearthat R2.) is forked; see Figure 34-11D).
The pupa e of Brachycera are coarctate. In the
graups outside of the Cyclorrhapa, the adult emerges
frama T-shaped opening at one end. In the Cyclor-
rhapathe adult emerges from a circular opening at one
end(hence the name), and the members of this group
are often called "circular-seamed flies." Adults push
outthe end of the puparium with a structure called the
ptilinum,a sac that is everted from the front of the
head,above the bases of the antennae. After emer-
gence,the ptilinum is withdrawn into the head. In the
Calyptratae and Acalyptratae (a monophyletic group
calledthe Schizophora), the break in the head wall
throughwhich the ptilinum was everted is marked by
thefrontal suture (also called the ptilinal suture). This
sutureis lacking in the Aschiza, itseU probably a para-
phyleticgroup.
FamilyXylophagidae:Xylophagids are relatively un-
commonflies of medium to large size. They are black,
sometimesmarked with yellow, or all reddish yellow.
Theyusually live in wooded areas, and feed on sap or
nectar.The larvae live in the soil (Coenomyia), under
Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 719
bark (Xylophagus), or in decaying logs (Rachicerus).
The flies in the genus Xylophagus are slender and ich-
neumonidlike, but other xylophagids are more robusto
Coenomyia ferruginea (Scopoli) is large (14-25 mm
long) and usually reddish or brownish, with the eyes
pubescent and the second to fifth posterior cells about
as wide as long (Figure 34-12B). The flies in the genus
Rachicerus are peculiar in having the antennae many-
segmented and serrate or somewhat pectinate. The
fourth posterior (M)) cell is closed, the eyes are emar-
ginate just above the antennae, and these insects are
5-8 mm long. Other xylophagids are 10 mm long or
less, and are quite rare.
Family Stratiomyidae-Soldier Flies:This is a fairly
large group (more than 260 known North American
species), most of which are medium-sized or larger Cto
about 18 mm long) and usually found on flowers.
Many species are brightly colored and wasplike in ap-
pearance. The larvae live in a variety of situations:
Some are aquatic and feed on algae, decaying materials,
or small aquatic animals; some live in dung or other
decaying materials, some live under bark, and others
are found in other situations.
In some species of soldier flies (for example, Stra-
tiomys, Figure 34-46A) , the abdomen is broad and fIat;
the wings at rest are folded back together over the ab-
domen; and the antennae (Figure 34-IC) are long,
with the third segment distinctly annulated. In other
species (such as those in the genus Ptecticus), the ab-
domen is elongate, usually narrowed at the base; and
the third antennal segment (Figure 34-IF) appears
globular, with an arista, and the annulations are very
indistinct. Most soldier fIies are dark-colored, with or
without light markings, but some species are yellowish
or light brown. The members of this family are most
easily recognized by their wing venation: The branches
of R are rather heavy and are crowded together in the
anterior part of the wing, the wing membrane beyond
the closed cells has fine, longitudinal wrinkles, and the
discal cell is small (Figure 34-11A).
Family Xylomyidae:These are rather slender, wasp-
like flies, 5-15 mm long, rather brightly colored with
pale markings on blackish background. The most com-
mon fIies in this small group (11 North American
species) are the species of Xylomyia, which are slender
and ichneumonidlike. They differ from xylophagids
in the genus Xylophagus (which are very similar in ap-
pearance) in having the M) cell closed (Figure 34-12C).
The xylomyids are usually found in wooded areas.
The larvae live under bark, and are predaceous or
scavengers.
FamilyAthericidae:These flies were formerly placed
in the Rhagionidae, but differ from those in that family
in lacking spurs on the front tibiae and in having the R¡
cell closed at the wing margin (Figure 34-12D). This
720 Chapter34 Order Diptera
Figure 34-46 Soldier fIies. A, Stratiomys laticeps Loew; B, Hermatia illucens (L.).
(B, courtesy of USDA.)
group is a small one, with only five North American
species, and its members are not common. They are
usually found in the vegetation bordering streams. The
eggs are usually laid on the underside of bridges or on
vegetation above a stream, and the larvae on hatching
fall into the stream, where they live in the riffles and
feed on midge larvae and other aquatic insects. In the
case of Atherix (widely distributed), the female remains
on her egg mass and eventually dies there, and other fe-
males may lay eggs on this same mass until a ball of
considerable size is formed-consisting of eggs and
dead females. Females of Suragina concinna (Williston),
which occurs in southwest Texas and Mexico, are
bloodsucking, feeding on people and cattle.
Family Pelecorhynchidae: This group includes eight
rare North American species: seven species of Glutops
and one species of Pseudoerinna. The species of Glutops
are shorter than 10 mm, and have ~ and 2A relatively
straight; Pseudoerinna jonesi (Cresson) is 13-15 mm
long, and has ~ and 2A somewhat sinuate. A few
species of Glutops occur in the East, but the other
species in the family are westem. The larvae live in the
wet soil of swamps and stream banks, and are preda-
ceous; the adults of a few species feed on fiowers.
Family Rhagionidae-Snipe Flies: Snipe fiies are
medium-sized to large, with the head somewhat
rounded, the abdomen relatively long and tapering,
and the legs rather long (Figure 34-47). Many species
have spotted wings. The body may be bare or covered
with short hair. Most snipe fiies are brownish or gray,
but some are black with spots of white, yellow, or
green. They are common in woods, especially near
moist places, and are usually found on foliage. Both
adults and larvae are predaceous on a variety of small
insects. Most snipe fiies do not bite, but several species
of Symphoromyia are comrnon biting pests in the west.
em mountains and coastal areas.
This group includes the genus Bolbomyia, whichis
sometimes placed in the Xylophagidae. It is a minute
fiy, 2-3 mrn long, dull black with smoky wings,and
with characteristic antennae (see couplet 40 of key).
Some other genera, formerIy included in the Rhagion-
idae, are placed in other families:Atherix in the family
Athericidae, Vermileo in the family Vermileonidae,and
Dialysis in the family Xylophagidae.
Family Tabanidae-Horse Flies and Deer Flies:
About 350 species of tabanids occur in North America,
and rnany are quite cornrnon. They are medium-sized
to large, rather stout-bodied fiies. The femalesare
bloodsucking and are often serious pests of livestock
and people. The males feed chiefiy on pollen and nec.
tar and are often found on fiowers. The two sexesare
very easily separated by the eyes, which are contiguous
in the males and separated in the females. The eyesare
often brightly colo red or iridescent. The larvae ofmost
species are aquatic and predaceous, and the adultsare
generally encountered near swamps, marshes, ponds,
and other situations where the larvae live. Mosthorse
flies are powerful fliers, and sorne species apparently
have a fiight range of several kilometers.
The two most cornmon genera of tabanids,which
include some 180 of the 317 North Americanspecies,
are Tabanus and Chrysops. In Tabanus the hind tibiae
lack apical spurs, the head is somewhat hemispherical
(slightly concave posteriorIy in the female), and the
third antennal segment (Figure 34-48A) has a tooth.
like process near the base. Tabanus is a large genus,
with about a hundred North American species,and

Figure34-47 Snipe fiies. A, a common snipe fiy,
Rhagiomystaceus(Macquart);B,a blood-suckingsnipe
fly,Symphoromyia atripes Bigot. (B, courtesy of Ross and
the Entomological Society of America.)
it ineludes some important pests. One of the largest
fliesin the genus is T atratus Fabrieius, a black insect
25 mm or more long (Figure 34-49E). The so-called
greenheads, fiies about 13 mm long, with green eyes
and a yellowish brown body, are often serious pests on
bathingbeaches. In Chrysops the hind tibiae have a
pical spurs, the head is more rounded, the calypteres
are smaller, and the third antennal segment (Fig-
ure 34-48B) is elongate and lacks a toothlike basal
process. Most members of this genus are about the size
of a house fly or a little larger, brown ar black, with
dark markings on the wings (Figure 34-49A,B). These
Keyta the Families of Diptera 721
A B
Figure 34-48 Antennae of tabanids. A, Tabanusatratus
Fabricius; B, Chrysopsfuliginosus Wiedemann.
tabanids, called deerjlies, are usually encountered near
marshes or streams, and they frequently buzz around
one's head or get in one's hair.
The eggs of tabanids are usually laid in masses on
leaves or other objects near or over water. Most speeies
overwinter in the larval stage and pupate during the
summer. Goniops chrysocoma Osten Sacken is often
found in forests; the female remains with her egg mass,
guarding them until they hatch.
Some of the tabanids, particularly certain speeies
of Chrysops, serve as vectors of disease. Tularemia and
anthrax (and possibly other diseases) can be transmit-
ted by tabanids in the United States, and in Africa a dis-
ease caused by the filarial worm Loa loa (Cobbald) is
transmitted by deer flies.
Family Vermileonidae-Worm Lions: This group in-
eludes small (about 5 mm long), slender, nearly bare
flies with stylate antennae, slender legs, and a long,
slender abdomen. The wings are narrowed at the base,
without an alula or a developed anal angle. The larvae
of these flies construct pitfall traps in the sand, and
they use these in capturing prey (very much as antlions
do; see Chapter 27). The adults feed on nectar. Only
two speeies, in the genus Vermileo, occur in the United
States, from Colorado to New Mexico to California.
The vermileonids are similar to the Rhagionidae, with
which they were once elassified, but differ in having
the wings more narrowed at the base and in having api-
cal spurs on the front tibiae.
Family Acroceridae-Small-Headed Flies: These are
rather rare flies of small to medium size with a some-
what humpbacked appearance and with a very small
head (Figure 34-50). Some have a long, slender pro-
baseis and feed on flowers. Others have no proboseis
and apparently do not feed in the adult stage. The lar-
vae are internal parasites of spiders. The eggs are laid
in large numbers on vegetation and hatch into tiny, flat-
722 Chapter34 Order Diptera
I
l'
E F
tened larvae called planídía. The planidia eventually at-
tach to and enter the body of a passing spider. Pupation
occurs outside the host, often in the host's web.
Family Nemestrinidae-Tangle-Veined Flies: These
are medium-sized, rather stout-bodied flies, with a
somewhat aberrant wing venation (Figure 34-111).
Some are hairy and beelike in appearance. They live in
open fields of fairly high vegetation. They hover persis-
tently, and are very fast fliers. Some species live on flow-
ers. The group is a small one (6 North American
species), and its members are relatively rare. Most
Figure 34-49 Horse and deer mes
(Tabanidae). A, Chrysops univittatus
Macquart; B, Chrysops pikei Whitney;
C, Tabanus sulcifrons Macquart; D, Tabanus
quinquevittatus Wiedemann; E, Tabanus
atratus Fabricius; F, Tabanus !incola
Fabricius. (Courtesy of Schwardt andHall
and the Arkansas Agricultural Experiment
Station.)
species are western. The species whose larvae are known
are parasites of other insects:speciesof Trichopsidea
par-
asitize grasshoppers, and species of Hinnoneuraattack
scarabaeid beetle larvae. Nemestrinids are often impor-
tant in controlling grasshopper populations.
Family Apioceridae-Flower-Loving Flies: Iheseare
relatively large, elongate flies that resemble some of¡he
robber flies (for example, Figure 34-51B,C), but the)'
do not have the top of the head hollowed out between
the eyes, and they have a different wing venation (Mi
and the veins anterior to it ending in front of the wing

Figure34-50 A small-headed fly, Ogcodessp.
tip; see Figure 34-11J). This group is a small one (59
North American species), and its members are rather
rare. They occur in the arid regions of the West, where
they are often found on flowers.
e (C, courtesy ofUSDA.)
Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 723
Fami/y Asilidae-Robber Flies and Grass Flies: This
is a large group, with approximately a thousand North
American species, many of which are quite common.
The adults can found in a variety of habitats, but each
species usually lives in a characteristic type. Adults are
predaceous and attack a variety of insects, including
wasps, bees, dragonflies, grasshoppers, and other flies.
They often attack an insect as large as or larger than
themselves. Most asilids capture their prey on the
wing, but the grass flies (Leptogastrinae) usually attack
resting insects. Some of the larger robber flies can in-
flict a painful bite if carelessly handled.
In robber flies, the top of the head is hollowed out
between the eyes (Figure 34-51D), the face is more or
less bearded, and they have a stout thorax with long,
strong legs. Most are elongate, with a tapering ab-
domen (Figure 34-51B,C), but some are stout-bodied,
very hairy, and resemble bumble be es or other Hy-
menoptera (Figure 34-51A). Still others are very slen-
der, almost damselfly-like (Figure 34-52). The larvae
live in soil, decaying wood, and similar places and feed
chiefly on the larvae of other insects.
The family Asilidae is divided into four subfami-
lies, the Leptogastrinae, Laphriinae, Dasypogoninae,
and Asilinae. The Leptogastrinae have been placed in a
separate family by some authorities. They are very slen-
der and elongate (Figure 34-52), and they generally live
Figure 34-51 Robber flies.
A, Laphria lata Macquart;
B, Efferia sp.; C, Promachus
D vertebratus (Say); D, head
of Efferia, anterior view.
 724 Chapter 34 OrderDiptera

Figure 34-52 A grass fly,Psilonyx annulatus (Say).

71j2X(Leptogastrinae, Asilidae).

in grassy areas, where they feed on small, soft-bodied,

usually resting prey.
FamilyBombyliidae-Bee Flies:This is a large group
(about 900 known North American speeies), and its
members are widely distributed. Bee flies are fairly
common insects, probably more common in the arid
areas of the Southwest than elsewhere. Most are stout-
bodied, densely hairy flies of medium to large size. A A
few are slender and not very hairy, and some are very
small (some Mythicomyiinae are only 1.2 mm long).
Many have a long, slender proboseis.
The classification of bee flies is an area of active re-
search and likely revision in the future. The Mythi-
comyiinae are recognized by some as a distinct family.
Some authorities place one speeies in North America,
Apystomyia elinguis Melander, from California, in its
own family, the Apystomyiidae.
Bee flies are found on flowers or hovering over or
resting on the ground or grass in open sunny places. Figure 34-53 Bee flies. A, Poecilanthrax alpha (Osten
They often visit water holes in arid regions. The wings Sacken); B, P.signatipennis (Cole). (Courtesy of Coleand
at rest are usually held outstretched. Most speeies are the New York Entomological Soeiety.)
very fast fliers, and when caught in an insect net, they
buzz much like bees. Many have banded or spotted
wings (Figure 34-53). gravel-bottomed streams. The immature stages are
Bee fly larvae, as far as known, are either parasitic unknown.
on the immature stages of other insects (Lepidoptera, Fami/y Mydidae-Mydas Flies: The mydas fliesare
Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, and Neuroptera), very large, elongate flies, with long, four-segmented ano
or predaceous on grasshopper eggs. tennae. Mydas heros (Perty), from Brazil and Colombia,
Family Hilarimorphidae: The hilarimorphids are is 54 mm long and is one of the largest dipterans
small (1.8 to 7.2 mm long), robust, dark-colored known. There are 51 North American speeies in this
flies, with the wings hyaline to pale brown. There are family, and most are western. The speeies most likelyto
26 speeies, all in the genus Hilarimorpha, in North be encountered in the East is Mydas clavatus (Drury),
America. They are widely distributed, but rare. which is black with the second abdominal segmentye!.
Adults have been collected on willows along narrow, low or orange (Figure 34-54). Little is known ofthe
;
I

L
r
habitsof themydas flies, but the larvae live in decaying
wood and are predaceous. The adults are probably also
predaceous.
FamilyScenopinidae-Window Flies: The window
"ies are rather uncommon flies of medium or small size
and are usually blackish. The common name is derived
frorn the fact that one species, Scenopinus fenestralis
(L.) (Figure 34-55), is sometimes common on win-
dows.The larva of this species is said to feed on the lar-
vaeof carpet beetles. The larvae of other species feed
on decaying wood and fungi. This is a fair-sized group,
with 139 North American species, most of which occur
in the West.
Figure34-55 A window Oy,Scenopinusfenestralis (L.).
(Redrawnfrom USDA.)
Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 725
Figure 34-54 A rnydas Oy,
Mydas clavatus (Drury).
FamilyTherevidae-Stiletto Flies: These flies are of
medium size, are usually somewhat hairy or bristly,
and often have a pointed abdomen (Figure 34-56A,B).
They are superficially similar to some robber flies, but
the top of the head is not hollowed out between the
eyes. This is a fair-sized group (about 141 North Amer-
ican species), but the adults are not common. Theyare
most likely to be found in dry, open areas such as
meadows and beaches. Uttle is known of the feeding
habits of the adults, but they are probably plant feed-
ers. The larvae are predaceous and usually live in sand
or decaying wood.
Family Empididae-Dance Flies: The dance flies are
so named because the adults sometimes occur in
swarms, Oying with an up-and-down movement. This
group is a large one (more than 760 North American
species), and many species are fairly common. All are
small, and some are minute (length 1.5 to 12.0 mm).
Most are dark-colored, but none are metallic. Most
have a large thorax and a long, tapering abdomen. The
male genitalia are terminal and often are rather con-
spicuous (Figure 34-57).
Dance flies are found in a variety of situations,
usually in moist places where there is an abundance of
vegetation. They are predaceous on smaller insects
(some are important predators of mosquito es) , but
they often frequent flowers and feed on nectar.
Many species of dance flies have rather interesting
mating habits. The males sometimes capture prey and
 726 Chapter34 OrderDiptera

Figure34-56 A, Psilocephalaaldrichi Coquillet, female (Therevidae); B, same, male;

C, Caenotusinomatus Cole, female (Bombyliidae). (Courtesy of Cole and the V.s. National
Museum.)

use it to attract females. Some species of Hilaraand

Empis that occur in the Northwest construct balloons,
which they carry about as a means of attracting fe.
males. These balloons can be made of silk (spun froro
the basal segment of the front tarsi) or of a frothyma.
terial from the anus, and they usually contain prey.
Dance fly larvae live in a great variety of situations:
In the soil, decaying vegetation, or dung, under bark,
or in water. All are probably predaceous.
FamilyDolichopodidae-Long-LeggedFlies:Thedoli.
chopodids are small to minute flies that are usually
metallic: greenish, bluish, or coppery. They are superfi.
cially similar to many of the muscoid flies (Schizophora)
but lack a frontal suture and have a rather characteristic
wing venation (Figure 34-14D-F): The r-m crossveinis
very short or absent and is located in the basal fourthof
the wing, and there is often a swelling of Rs where
it forks. The male genitalia are usually large and con.
spicuous and folded forward under the abdomen (Fig.
ure 34-58). In the female the apex of the abdomenis
pointed. The legs of the males are often peculiarlyoma.
, .' . . . Figure34-57 A dance fly (Empididae), IOX. mented. Members of the genus Melanderia, which occur
ifJ .~oI,
~'" O
~(.
.
,. '0'
If

Keyto the Families of Diptera 727

Figure34-58 A long-legged fly,Dolichopuspugil Loew,

maleo

along the Pacific Coast, have the labellar lobes of the la-
bium modified into mandible-like structures.
This group is a large one (more than 1,275 North
American species), and its members are abundant in Figure34-59 A humpbacked fly (Phoridae), sox.
many places, particularly near swamps and streams, in
woodlands, and in meadows. Many species live only
in a particular type of habitat. The adults are predaceous of the larva e are rather varied. Some live in decaying
on smaller insects. The adults of many species engage animal or vegetable matter; some live in fungi; some
in rather unusual mating dances. The larvae live in wa- are internal parasites of various other insects; and some
ter or mud, in decaying wood, in grass stems, and un- live as parasites or commensals in the nests of ants or
der bark. Not much is known of their feeding habits, termites. A few of the species that live in ant or termite
but at least some are predaceous. The larvae of the nests (and some others as well) have reduced wings or
genus Medetera live under bark and are predaceous on lack them entirely. More than 370 species occur in
bark beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Scolytinae). North America.
Family Lonchopteridae-Spear-Winged Flies: The Family Pipunculidae-Big-Headed Flies: The mem-
members of this group are slender, yellowish or brown- bers of this group are small flies with the head very
ish flies less than 5 mm long, with wings somewhat large and composed mostly of eyes (Figure 34-60).
pointed at the apex and with a characteristic venation The wings are somewhat narrowed basally, and the anal
(Figure 34-14H). They are usually fairly common in cell is usually long and closed near the wing margin
moist, shady, or grassy places. The larvae live in decay-
ing vegetation. Males differ from females in venation:
The M3 cell is closed in the female (Figure 34-14H)
and open in the maleo Males are extremely rare, and
these flies are probably parthenogenetic. This family
contains only four North American species, in the
genus Lonchoptera.
Family Phoridae-Hump-Backed Flies: The phorids
are small or minute flies that are easily recognized by
the humpbacked appearance (Figure 34-59), the char-
acteristic venation (Figure 34-14G), the laterally flat-
tened hind femora, and erratic manner in which they Figure34-60 A big-headed fly,Tomosvaryellasub-
ron. The adults are fairly common in many habitats but virescens (Loew), female. (Courtesy of Knowlton and the
most abundant about decaying vegetation. The habits
Utah Agricultural ExperimentaNNERSIDAD DECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
728 Chapter34 OrderDiptera
(Figure 34-14J). The group is of moderate size (128
North American species), but its members are seldom
common. The larvae are parasites of various hoppers,
chiefly leafhoppers and planthoppers.
Family Platypezidae-Flat-FootedFlies: These flies
are so named because of the peculiarly shaped hind tarsi,
which are usually flattened or otherwise modified (Fig-
ure 34-26C). The tarsi are generally more flattened in
females than in males. The flat-footed flies are small,
usually black or brown, and live on low vegetation in
damp woods. They often ron about on leaves in an er-
ratic, zigzag fashion. The males sometimes swarm in
groups of up to 50 or more, the swarms dancing in the
air a meter or so above the ground, with the hind legs
hanging down. Females enter these swarms to select
mates. If the swarm is disturbed, as by a swinging net,
the flies scatter and reform the swarm again a little
higher up (out of net reach). Adults of the genus Mi-
crosania are attracted to smoke, and are often caBed
"smoke flies." The larvae of flat-footed flies live in fungi.
FamilySyrphidae-Hover Fliesor Flower Flies:This
is a large group (about 870 North American species),
and many species are very abundant. Syrphids can be
found almost everywhere, but different species live in
different types of habitats. The adults are often com-
mon about flowers and frequently do a great deal of
hovering. Different species vary quite a bit in appear-
ance (Figure 34-61), but (with a few exceptions) they
can be recognized by the spurious vein in the wing be-
tween the radius and the media (Figure 34-15A-C,
spv). Many are brightly colored and resemble various
bees or wasps. Some look much like honey bees, oth-
ers like bumble bees, and others like wasps, and the re-
semblance is often very striking. None of the syrphids
bite or sting.
Syrphid larvae vary considerably in habits and ap-
pearance (Figure 34-62). Many are predaceous on
aphids, others live in the nests of social insects (ants,
termites, or bees) , others live in decaying vegetation or
rotting wood, others live in highly polluted aquatic
habitats, and a few feed on growing plants. The larvae
of Eristalis (Figure 34-62D,E), which live in highly
polluted water, have a very long breathing tube and are
commonly called "rattailed maggots." The adults of
this genus (Figure 34-61D) resemble bees. Rattailed
maggots are sometimes responsible for intestinal myia-
sis in humans.
Calyptratae and Acalyptratae-Muscoid Flies or
Schizophora: The muscoid flies, with 56 familiesand
nearly 7,000 known North American species, makeup
about one third of the order, and are to be found almost
everywhere. They can be recognized by the presenceof
a frontal suture (Figure 34-5A,fs) on the lower pan of
the front of the head, arching up over the base of the
antennae. Most are relatively stout-bodied, with some-
what reduced wing venation (Figures 34-22, 34-24)
and characteristic bristles on the head and thorax
(which provide taxonomic characters).
Many of the muscoid flies are small, and identify-
ing them is often difficult. Moreover, the distinction
Figure 34-61 Syrphid flies.
A, Didea fasciata Macquart;
B, Syrphus torvus Osten Sacken;
C, Allograpta obliqua (Say);
D, Eristalis tenax (L.). (A, B, cour.
tesy of Metcalf and the Maine
Agricultural Experiment Station;
C, D, courtesy of USDA.)

csp
A
between families is often not very clear, and different
authorities have placed many genera in different fami-
lies.Some species (for example, the two species of La-
theticomyia, here placed in the family Pseudopomyzi-
dae)were originally described as being of uncertain
familyposition.
The muscoids fall into two main groups, the Aca-
Iyptratae (45 families, Micropezidae through Ephydri-
dae) and the Calyptratae (10 families, Anthomyiidae
through Tachinidae). These names refer to the devel-
opment of the calypteres, which are large and well de-
veloped in most calyptrates and very small in the aca-
Iyptrates. These two groups also differ (with a few
exceptions) in the structure of the second antennal seg-
ment (Figure 34-19A,B) and the sutures on the dorsal
sideof the thorax (Figure 34-19C,D) (see key, couplet
66). Each of these groups contains more than 3,400
NorthAmerican species.
Calyptratae-Calyptrate Muscojd Fijes: These flies
livenearly everywhere, often in large numbers. Some
of the calyptrate groups are fairly distinct and easily
recognized,but others are not, and there are differences
ofopinion about the taxonomic placement of some.
For purposes of identification, the families in this
sectioncan be divided into four groups:
1. Flat and leathery, with the coxae separated, and
winged or wingless; ectoparasites of birds and
mammals: Hippoboscidae
2. Robust, hairy, beelike, with the mouthparts re-
duced (bot and warble fiies): Oestridae
Keyto the Families of Diptera 729
Figure34-62 Larvae of syrphid fiíes.
O A, Mierodon sp., 50X; B, Pipizafemoralis
Loew, 50x; C, Syrphus vittafrons Shannon,
31/2X;D, E, Eristalis spp. (D, 2x;
E, 3.5X). bt, breathing tube; esp, caudal
spiracle; gi, gills. (Courtesy of Peterson;
reprinted by permission.)
3. Somewhat similar to a house fiy in general appear-
ance, usually with no hypopleural or pteropleural
bristles, and the R5 cell usually parallel-sided:
Scathophagidae, Anthomyiidae, Fanniidae, and
Muscidae
4. Similar to group 3, but with hypopleural and
pteropleural bristles, and the R5 cell narrowed or
closed distally: Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae,
Rhinophoridae, and Tachinidae
Fami/y Anthomyiidae: This is a large group (more
than 600 North American species), and most are black-
ish and about the size of a house fiy or smaller. They
differ from the Muscidae in having the anal vein
(Cu2+2A) reaching the wing margin, at least as a fold.
Most Anthomyiidae have fine hairs on the underside
of the scutellum (Figure 34-17D). Those Anthomyi-
idae that lack these hairs (Fucelliinae) have cruciate
frontal bristles and usually four sternopleural bristles,
and they have the costa spinose. Most of the An-
thomyiidae are plant feeders in the larval stage, and
many of these feed on the roots of the host plant; some
(Figure 34-63) are serious pests of garden or field
crops. The larvae of the Fucelliinae, a small group oc-
curring chiefiy in the West and in Canada, are aquatic
and predaceous.
Family Calliphoridae-Blow Fijes: Blow fiies are to
be found practically everywhere, and many species are
of considerable economic importance. Most blow fiies
are about the size of a house fiy or a liule larger, and
many are metallic blue or green (Figure 34-64). Blow
730 Chapter34 Order Diptera

:;;
E
u'"
<=
'"
§.
o
Q;
>
'"
c:>
-g Figure 34-63 A, mines of the
'"
.r=
<-> spinach leafminer, Pegomya hyoscyami
<;;
(Panzer) (Anthomyiidae); B, adult fe-
'"
a:
ro
male of the seedcornmaggot,Hylemya
a platura (Meigen) (Anthomyiidae), sx.

A . «5,
E
o
c:>
(A, courtesy of the Ohio Agricultural
Research and Development Center;
B, courtesy of U5DA.)

fiies are very similar to fiesh fiies (Sarcophagidae), and
some authorities put the two graups in a single family,
the Metopiidae. Blow flies are often metallic in color
and have the arista of the antennae plumose at the tip,
whereas fiesh fiies are blackish with gray thoracic
stripes (Figure 34-65A) and have the arista bare or
only the basal half plumose. Blow fiies usually have
two (rarely three) notopleural brisdes, and fiesh fiies
usually have four (Figure 34-20).
Most blow fiies are scavengers, the larvae living in
camon, excrement, and similar materials. The most
common species are those that breed in camon. These
species lay their eggs on bodies of dead animals, and the
larvae feed on the decaying tissues of the animal. To
most people a dead animal teeming with maggots
Figure 34-64 A blow fly,Lucilia illustris (Meigen).
(mosdy the larvae of blow fiies) is a nauseating thing,
but these insects are performing a valuable service in
helping to remove dead animals fram the landscape. The
larvae of some of the species that breed in camon, par-
ticularlyPhaeniciasericata(Meigen)and Phonniaregina
(Meigen), when reared under aseptic conditions, have
been used in treating such diseases as osteomyelitis in
humans. However, many of these fiies may act as me-
chanical vectors of various diseases. Dysentery fre-
quendy accompanies high blow-fiy populations.
Flies in this family are the "house flies" of the
western United States, especially the Southwest. They
are far more common than Musca in houses in that par!
of the country.
Some blow flies lay their eggs in open sores of ani-
mals or people. In some cases the larvae feed only onde-
caying or suppurating tissue, but in other cases theycan
attack living tissue. The screwworm fiy,Cochliomyiaho-
minivorax (Coquerel) (Figure 34-65B) , is a speciesin
the latter category. It lays its eggs in wounds or in ¡he
nostrils of its host, and its larvae can cause considerable
damage. In recent years the number of screwworm flies
in the South and Southwest has been greatly reducedby
releasing large numbers of sterile male fiies. The females
mate only once, and if a femalemates with a sterilemale,
its eggs fail to hatch.
When fiy larvae become parasitic on humans or
animals, the condition is spoken of as myiasis. Flies
such as the screwworm can develop in surface wounds
and cause cutaneous myiasis or in the nasal cavitiesand
cause nasal myiasis. A few other flies in this group have
been known to develop in the human intestine and
cause intestinal myiasis. Myiasis in humans is relatively
r

Key to the Families of Diptera 731

A B

Figure34-65 A, a fiesh fIy,Sarcophagahaemorrhoidalis

(Fallén); B, the screwworm fiy,Cochliomyia hominivorax Figure 34-66 The sheep ked, or sheep-tick, Melopha-
(Coquerel) (Calliphoridae). (Courtesy of USDA.) gus ovinus (L.). (Courtesy of Knowlton, Madsen, and the
Utah Agricultural Experiment Station.)

rarein the United States and Canada, and it is probably differ from the Anthomyiidae in having the anal vein
moreor less accidental. In the South and Southwest, it (CU2+2A) short and not reaching the wing margin, and
hasbeen very important in domestic animals. some have the Rs cell narrowed apically. The house fiy,
FamilyFanniidae:This is a small familyof four gen- Musca domestica L., breeds in filth of all kinds and is of-
eraand 112 species, most in the genus Fannia. Most of ten very abundant. It is a vector of typhoid fever, dysen-
its species differ from muscids in having 3A curved tery, yaws, anthrax, and some forrns of conjunctivitis. It
outward distally, so that CU2+ 2A if extended would does not bite. The face fiy, Musca autumnalis DeGeer, is
meetit (Figure 34-18D). This group is sometimes con- an important pest of catde. It gets its name from its habit
sidereda subfamily of Muscidae. These fiies look very of clustering on the face of catde (Figure 34-67). The
much like small house fiies, and in some areas are a stable fly and horn fly are biting flies; but unlike mos-
moreimportant household pest than Musca domestica
L.The larvae breed in excrement and various types of
decayingmaterials.
Family Hippoboscidae-LouseFlies and Bat Flies:
Thisgroup includes both winged and wingless forms.
Mostof the winged forms are dark brownish and some-
what smaller than house flies. They are most likely to
befound on birds. These fiies are easily recognized by
theirfIat shape and leathery appearance. They are the
onlyfIies likely to be found on living birds. The sheep
ked,Melophagus ovinus (L.) (Figure 34-66), is a fairly
W* , . a;
<:
.- uO)
cornmonwingless louse fiy. It is about 6 mm long and <:
O)
reddishbrown, and the adult is a parasite of sheep.
- ..
E
c.
o
The bat flies are ectoparasites of bats. They can be
winged,wingless, or can have the wings reduced in
size.Some species have no ocelli, and the compound
-
.
" ,
Qj
>
'"
O)

"O
c:
'"
-5
eyes are small or absent. The five species in the genus
Basiliaare small, wingless, and spiderlike with the
... '" ..
O)
a::
headfolded back into a groove on the dorsum of the
thorax.The compound eyes are small and two-faceted.
S.'"
: ..
a

Only11 species of bat fiies occur in North America, . ..-1' «6,

o
andthey are very seldom encountered. They occur in ... \r.... "".. :.c:
'"
the50mh and West.
Family Muscidae:This is a large group (620 known
NorthAmerican species), and its members are almost Figure 34-67 Face fiies, Musca autumnalis DeGeer, on
everywhere.Many are important pests. The Muscidae a cow.
732 Chapter34 OrderDiptera

forward apically and ends either in ~+5 (Oestrus,

Figure 34-18F) or in the wing margin in front of the
wing tip (Cuterebra, Hypoderma, and Cephenemyia), and
m is well distad of r-m. Species of Cuterebra have a
strongly projecting scutellum, and the postscutellum is
not developed (Figure 34-13C), whereas Hypoderma,
Oestrus, and Cephenemyia have a scutellum that is quite
~ short, and the postscutellum is usually well developed
~ (Figure 34-17B). In Hypoderma the apical portion of
5' M1+2(the part bcyond m) extends almost straight to the
~ wing margin (Figure 34-70B), whereas in Cephenemyia
~ the apical portion of Ml+2continues in the same direc-
~ tion a short distance beyond m, then bends forwardat
:~ a right angle and extends to the wing margin (muchas
== in Figure 34-18A).
Gasterophilus, the horse bot flies, are very similar
to honey bees in appearance (Figure 34-70A). The lar-
Figure 34-68 The stable fly,Stomoxys calcitrans (L.).
vae infest the alimentary tract of horses and are often
serious pests. Three species occur commonly in the
United States, Gasterophilus intestinalis (DeGeer),
G. nasalis (L.), and G. haemorrhoidalis (L.). A fourth
species, G. inermis (Brauer), is very rare. In G. intesti-
nalis the eggs are laid on the legs or shoulders of the
horse and are taken into the mouth when the animal
licks these parts. In G. nasalis the eggs are usually laid
on the underside of the jaw, and the larva e are believed
to make their way through the skin into the mouth.In
Figure 34-69 Two common museids, showing the dif-
G. haemorrhoidalisthe eggs are laid on the lips ofthe
ference in the shape of the proboseis. Left, stable fly;
horse. The larvae develop in the stomach (jntestinalis),
right, house fly.(Courtesy of the Illinois Natural History duodenum (nasalis), or rectum (haemorrhoidalis).
Survey.)
When ready to pupate, they pass out of the alimentary
tract in the feces and pupate in the ground.
Speciesof Cuterebra,the robust bot flies,arelarge,
quitoes, horse flies, and others, both sexes bite. The sta- stout-bodied, rather hairy flies that resemble bees. The
ble fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Figure 34-68), is very larvae are parasites of rabbits and rodents. One tropical
similar to the house fly in appearance (Figure 34-69). lt species in this subfamily,Dermatobiahominis (L.) (Fig-
breeds chiefly in piles of decaying straw. The horn fly, ure 34-70D), attacks livestock and occasionally peo-
Haematobia irritans (L.), which is similar to the house fly pie. This species lays its eggs on mosquitoes (princi-
in appearance but smaller, is a serious pest of catde that pally mosquitoes in the genus Psorophora).The eggs
breeds in fresh cow dung. hatch, and the larvae penetrate the skin when themos-
FamilyOestridae-Bot Flies and WarbleFlies:The quito feeds on livestock or humans. Stable flies and
members of this group are robust, hairy, and somewhat other muscids may also serve as carriers of D. hominis
beelike. The mouth opening is small, and the mouth- eggs to humans.
parts are vestigial or lacking (Figure 34-17 A). The lar- The ox warble flies, Hypoderma bovis (L.) and
vae are endoparasites of mammals, and some are im- H. lineatum (de Villers), are serious pests of caule.A
portant pests of livestock. third species of Hypodermais a parasite of caribou.The
The 41 North American species in this family are eggs of these flies are usually laid on the legs of cattle,
arranged in six genera: Cuterebra (26 species), Gas- and the larvae penetrate the skin and migrate, oftenby
terophilus (4 species), Hypoderma (3 species), Oestrus way of the esophagus, to the back, where they develop
(1 species), Cephenemyia (6 species), and Suioestrus in swellings or "warbles" just under the skin. When
(1 species). full grown, they escape through the skin and pupatein
Gasterophilus differs from the other oestrids in the ground. Adult ox warble flies are very fast fiiers,
having M1+2straight and reaching the wing margin be- and although they do not bite or injure the cattle when
hind the apex of the wing, and m is about opposite r-m they oviposit, they are very annoying to cattle. Oxwar-
(Figure 34-18E). In the other oestrids Ml+2 bends ble can seriously affect the health of catde, andthe

e D
holes made in the skin by the escaping larvae reduce
!he value of the hide when it is made into leather.
The only Nearctic species of Oestrus is the sheep
bot fly,Oestrus ovis L. (Figure 34-70C). The sheep bot
fiyis viviparous and deposits its larvae in the nostrils of
sheep (rarely, also in humans). The larvae feed in the
frontal sinuses of the sheep. The genus Cephenemyia
inc\udes six species that are parasites of cervids (deer,
moose, elk, and so forth). Finally, Suioestrus cookii
Townsend is a parasite of pigs.
Family Rhinophoridae:These flies are similar to the
tachinids (with which they were formerly classified)
bu! differ in having a weakly developed postscutellum
and narrow calypteres. The eyes are sometimes hairy.
Thegroup is a small one, with only four North Ameri-
canspecies. Melanophoraroralis (L.), which occurs in
!heEast, is probably the most common species. lt is a
parasiteof isopods.
Family Sarcophagidae-Flesh Flies: Flesh flies are
verysimilar to some blow flies, but are generally black-
ish with gray thoracic stripes (never metallic) (Fig-
ure34-65A). The adults are common insects and feed
on various sugar-containing materials such as nectar,
sap,fmit juices, and honeydew. The larvae vary con-
Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 733
Figure 34-70 Bo! and warble flies
(Oestridae). A, a horse bot fly,Gas-
terophilus intestinalis (DeGeer), female;
B, ox warble fly,Hypodenna lineatum
(de Villers), female; C, sheep bot fly,
Oestrus ovis L., female; D, human bot fly
or torsalo, Dennatobia hominis (L., jr.),
female. (Courtesy of USDA.)
siderably in habits, but nearly all feed on so me sort of
animal material. Many are scavengers, feeding on dead
animals. Some are parasites of other insects (especially
various beetles and grasshoppers). A few are parasites
of vertebrates, usually developing in skin pustules, and
some of these occasionally infest humans. Many
species (most of the Miltogramminae) lay their eggs in
the nests of various bees and wasps, where their larvae
feed on the materials with which these nests are provi-
sioned.
Family Scathophagidae-Dung Flies: The members
of this group are very similar to the Anthomyiidae (the
family in which they are sometimes placed), but differ
in having no fine hairs on the underside of the scutel-
lum, usually just one stemopleural bristle, and no cru-
ciate frontal bristles.
Probably the most common members of the
Scathophagidae are yellowish and quite hairy (see Fig-
ure 4-5), and their larvae live in dung. Other species are
dark-colored, and the larvae live in a variety of situations:
Some are plant feeders (a few of these are leaf miners),
some feed in rotting seaweeds, and some are aquatic. The
Scathophagidae are a large group (149 North American
species) and contain many common species.
734 Chapter34 OrderDiptera
FamilyTachinidae:This family is the second largest
in the order (at least in Nonh America), with about
1,350 known North American species, and its mem-
bers are to be found almost everywhere. lt is a group
very valuable to humans, because the larval stages are
parasites of other insects, and many species aid in
keeping pest species in check.
Tachinids are usually relatively easy to recognize.
Both the hypopleural and the pteropleural bristles are
developed, and the postscutellum is prominent (Fig-
ure 34-13B). The terga usually overIap the ventral
sclerites of the abdomen, and the abdomen generally
has a number of very large bristles in addition to
the smaller ones. The first posterior (Rs) cell is
narrowed or closed distally, and most species have the
arista bare. Many tachinids are very similar in general
appearance to muscids and flesh flies (Fig-
ures 34-71, 34-72A). Many are large, bristly, and bee-
like or wasplike in appearance.
Tachinids attack many different groups of insects,
and although most tachinids are more or less restricted
to panicular hosts, a few can develop in a wide variety
of hosts. Most tachinids attack the larvae of Lepidoptera,
sawflies, or beetles, but some attack Hemiptera, Or-
thoptera, and some other orders, and a few attack other
arthropods. A number of tachinids have been imponed
into the United States to help control introduced pests.
Figure 34-71 Tachinid mes.
A, Euphoroccra claripcnnis
(Macquart); B, Winthcmia quadri-
pustulata (Fabricius); C, Archytas
marmoratus (Townsend); D, Da-
illa vcntralis (Aldrich). (Courtesy
of USDA.)
Most tachinids deposit their eggs directly on the
body of their host, and it is not at all uncommon tofind
caterpillars with several tachinid eggs on them. On
hatching, the tachinid larva usually burrows into its
host and feeds intemally (Figure 34-72B). When fully
developed, it leaves the host and pupates nearby.Some
tachinids lay their eggs on foliage. These eggs usually
hatch into peculiar flattened larvae called planidia,
which remain on the foliage until they can attach toa
suitable host when it passes by. In other species thatlay
their eggs on foliage, the eggs hatch when they arein-
gested (along with the foliage) by a caterpillar. Ihe ta-
chinid larvae then proceed to feed on the intemal or-
gans of the caterpillar. An insect attacked by tachinids
is practically always killed eventually.
Acalyptratae-Acalyptrate Muscoid Flies: Ihis isa
large and diverse group (3,500 species). Manyaresmall
in body size and traditionally pose a challenge to the
student for identification. The monophyly of Acalyp-
tratae is not well established, and it may well represent
a paraphyletic group.
Family Micropezidae-Stilt-Legged Flies:Ihe mem-
bers of this group are small to medium-sized elongate
flies with very long legs. The first posterior (Rs)cellis
narrowed apically, and the anal cell is often long and
pointed (Figure 34-22C). The adults are found near
moist places. Only 33 species occur in Nonh America,
r
Figure34-72 The bean beetle tachinid, Aplomyiopsis epilachnae (Aldrich). A, adult;
B, a bean beetle larva dissected to show a larva of this tachinid inside it. (Courtesy of U5DA.)
but the group is abundant in the tropics, where the lar-
vaelive in excremento
Family Neriidae-Cactus Flies: This group is repre-
sented in the United States by two species occurring in
the Southwest. The most common species, Odontolox-
oro longicornis (Coquillett), ranges from southern
Texas to southern California. It is slender, medium-
sized,and grayish with brown markings, and it has long,
slenderlegs and long, porrect antennae (Figure 34-231).
The larvae breed in decaying cacti, and the adults are
usuallyfound only on such cacti.
Family Pseudopomyzidae: The flies in this group
that occur in the United States, Latheticomyia tricolor
Wheelerand L. lineata Wheeler, are 2.5 to 3.5 mm long
and black with yellow areas on the head, thorax, and
legs.The front coxae are long and slender, nearly as
longas the tibiae. The front femora have a few strong
bristlesventrally in the distal half, and the hind femora
havea single bristle at about three fourths their length.
Thewings are hyaline, the anal cell is well developed,
2Adoes not reach the wing margin, and the second
basaland discal cells are confluent. They have been
taken during late twilight, at banana-baited traps, in
Arizonaand Utah.
Family Diopsidae-Stalk-Eyed Flies: This group is
largelytropical, and only two species, Sphyracephala
brevicornis(Say) and S. subbifasciata Fitch, occur in
Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 735
North America. Most of the tropical species have the
eyes situated at the ends of long stalks, but North
American species have relatively short eyestalks (Fig-
ure 34-23J). Adults are blackish and about 4.5 mm
long, with the front femora distinctly swollen. This
species has been reared in the laboratory (from eggs
laid by overwintered adults), but little is known of its
life history in the field. The larvae feed on wet organic
matter and probably live in sphagnum bogs. Adults are
usually found in or near such habitats, often on skunk
cabbage.
Family Psilidae-Rust Flies: The psilids are small to
medium-sized flies, usually rather slender, with long
antennae. They have a peculiar ridge or weakening
across the basal third of the wing. In the genus Loxo-
cera, the third antennal segment is very long and slen-
der (Figure 34-21). The larvae live in the roots or galls
of plants, and one species, Psila rasae (Fabricius), the
carrot rust fly, often does considerable damage to car-
rots, celery, and related plants.
Family Tanypezidae: The Tanypezidae are medium-
sized flies with rather long and slender legs. They live
in moist woods and are quite rare. Only three species
occur in the United States (in the Northeast), and
nothing is known of their immature stages.
FamilyConopidae-Thick-HeadedFlies:The conopids
are medium-sized, brownish flies, many of which super-
736 Chapter34 Order Diptera

Figure 34-73 A thick-headed fly,Physocephalafurcil-

lata (Williston).

fieially resemble small thread-waisted wasps (Fig-

ure 34-73). The abdomen is usually elongate and slen-
der basally, the head is slightly broader than the thorax,
and the antennae are long. All species have a very long
and slender proboseis. In some speeies the proboseis is B
elbowed. The wing venation (Figure 34-15D) is similar
lo that in the Syrphidae (Figure 34-15A-C), but there is
no spurious vein. Conopids can be distinguished from Figure 34-74 A, adult of the cheese skipper, Piophila
syrphids lacking a spurious vein by their long, slender casei (L.) (Piophilidae); B, a leaf-rniner fly, Cerodontha
proboseis. In one genus (Stylogaster), the abdomen is dorsalis (Loew) (Agrornyzidae). (Courtesy of U5DA.)
slender and, in the female, terminates in a very long
ovipositor that is as long as the rest of the body. The
adults are usually found on flowers. The larvae are en- name "skipper" refers to the fact that the larvaecan
doparasites, chiefly of adult bumble bees and wasps, and jump. This family ineludes Actenoptera hilarella
the flies usually oviposit on their hosts during flight. (Zetterstedt), formerIy placed in the family Neottio-
Family Lonchaeidae:The lonchaeids are small, shin- philidae. This European speeies has been wídelyre-
ing, blackish flies, with the abdomen in dorsal view ported from Canada and the sta te of Washington.
oval and somewhat pointed apically. They live chiefly FamilyPyrgotidae:The pyrgotids are ratherelongate
in moist or shady places. The larvae are mostly sec- flies of medium to large size, and they often havecon-
ondary invaders of diseased or injured plant tissues. A siderable coloring in the wings. The head is prominent
few feed on pine cones, fruits, or vegetables. The group and rounded, and there are no ocellí (Figure 34-75).
contains about 120 North American speeies, and the This is a small group (nine North American species),
adults are not very common.
FamilyPallopteridae-Flutter Flies:The nine North
American speeies in this group are rare and poorIy
known. They are medium-sized flies that usually have
pictured wings and live in moist, shady places. The lar-
vae of North American speeies are unknown, but the
larvae of European speeies are plant feeders in flower
buds and stems or live under the bark of fallen trees,
where they prey on wood-boring beetle larvae.
FamilyPiophilidae-Skipper Flies:The skipper flies
are usually less than 5 mm long and are rather metallic
black or bluish (Figure 34-74A). The larvae are mostly
scavengers, and some live in cheese and preserved
meats. The larva e of the cheese skipper, Píophila caseí Figure 34-75 Pyrgota undata Wiedemann (Pyrgotidae).
(L.), are often serious pests in cheese and meats. The (Courtesy of USDA.)

A e
and its members are not very common. The adults are
mostly nocturnal and are often attracted to lights, and
the larvae are parasites of adult june beetles.
FamilyRichardiidae: This is a smallgroup (lO North
American species) of uncommon to rare flies about
which little is known. Most species have be en taken at
fruit-baited traps, and one species of Omomyia has
been taken on yucca. In Omomyia the costa is spinose
and the males are very hairy. These flies are known
from Arizona and New Mexico. Most species in this
family have patterned wings.
Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 737
Figure 34-76 The apple maggot,
Rhagoletispomonella (Walsh)
(Tephritidae). A, adult female, 7X;
B, female puncturing skin of apple
preparatory to depositing an egg;
C, section of an apple showing an
egg inserted at a, and a young mag-
got tunneling into the pulp at b;
D, an egg (greatly enlarged).
(Courtesy of U5DA.)
Family Tephritida~Fruit Flies:The members of this
group are small to medium-sized flies that usually have
spotted or banded wings, the spotting often forming com-
plicated and attractive patterns (Figures 34-76, 34-77).
They can be recognized by the structure of the subcosta,
which apically bends forward at almost a right angle and
then fades out. In most species the anal cell has an acute
distal projection posteriorly (Figure 34-24B). The adults
are found on flowers or vegetation. Some species have the
habit of slowly moving their wings up and down while
resting on vegetation and are often called "peacock flies.»
Figure 34-77 Fruit flies (Tephritidae).
A, Peronyma sarcinata (Loew); B, Acidog-
ona melanura (Loew); C, Zonosemata
electa (Say); D, Paracantha culta
(Wiedemann). (Courtesy of U5DA.)
738 Chapter34 Order Diptera

Figure 34-79 A picture-winged fly,Euxesta stigmatis

Hendel, 6 x (Ulidiidae). (Courtesy of Wolcott and the
Joumal of Agriculture of the University of Puerto Rico.)

Figure 34-78 Gall of goldenrod gall fly,Eurostasp.

(Tephritidae), cut open to show the larva. (Courtesy of temed wings, and they vary considerably in color. They
the Illinois Natural History Survey.) can usually be distinguished from other acalyptrate
muscoids by the complete subcosta, the lack of oral
vibrissae, the postverticals converging, and the preapi-
This group is a large one (300 North American species), cal tibial bristles. The group is a fairly large one (158
and rnany species are quite common. North American species), and its members are com-
The larvae of most tephritids feed on plants, and mon in moist, shady places. The larvae live in decaying
some are rather serious pests. The larva of Rhagoletis vegetation.
pomone/la (Walsh), usually called the "apple maggot," Fami/y Coelopidae-Seaweed Flies: The members
tunnels in the fruits of apple and other orchard trees of this family are medium-sized to small flies, usuaIly
(Figure 34-76). Other species in this genus attack dark brown or black, and have the dorsum of the tho-
cherries. The Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata rax conspicuously flattened and the body and legs very
(Wiedemann), attacks citrus and other fruits, and often bristly (Figure 34-80). These flies live along the
threatens to become a serious pest in the South. Species seashore and are particularly abundant where various
of the genus Eurosta form stem galls on goldenrod
(Figure 34-78). The galls are rounded and thick-
walled, with a single larva in the center. In the fall, the
larva cuts a tunnel to the surface, overwinters as a larva
in the gall, and pupates in the spring. In the larval
stage, a few of the tephritids are leaf miners.
Families Ulidiidae and Platystomatidae-Picture-
Winged Flies:The picture-wingedfliesare a largegroup
of small to medium-sized flies that usually have their
wings marked with black, brown, or yellowish, and
their body is often shining and metallic (Figure 34-79).
They are usually found in moist places and are often
very abundant. Uttle is known of their larval stages,
but some feed on plants and occasionally damage cul-
tivated plants, and some live in decaying materials.
These groups are most abundant in the tropics, but
there are 133 species of Ulidiidae and 41 species of
Platystomatidae in North America.
Famíly Chamaemyiidae-Aphid Flies: The chamae-
myiids are small flies that are usually grayish, with
black spots on the abdomen. The larva e of most species
are predaceous on aphids, scale insects, and mealy-
bugs. One species has been reared from birds' nests.
Fami/yLauxaniidae:Lauxaniids are small, relatively
robust flies, rarely over 6 mm long. Some have pat- Figure 34-80 A seaweed fly,Coe/opa sp. (Coelopidae).
lIf
seaweeds have washed up. The larvae breed in the sea-
weed (chiefly kelp) in tremendous numbers, mainly
just above the high tidemark in seaweed that has begun
to rol. The adults swarming over the seaweed often at-
tract large numbers of shore birds, which feed on them.
Seaweed flies feed on flowers and sometimes cluster so
thickly on the flowers near the shore that a single
sweep of a net can yield a hundred or more individu-
als. Four of the five North American species occur
along the Pacific Coasl. The other, Coe/opa frígida
(Fabricius), occurs along the Atlantic Coast from
Rhode Island north.
FamilyDryomyzidae: This is a small group (ll North
American species) of relatively rare flies that are similar
to the Sciomyzidae. Three species in two genera (He/-
comyza and Heterocheila, formerly placed in the family
Helcomyzidae) occur along the Pacific coast from Ore-
gon to Alaska. Their larvae live in rotting seaweed. The
remaining species in the family are widely distributed
and are usually found in moist woods. Their larvae live
in decaying organic matter.
Family Ropalomeridae:This is a small group of
about 30 species, most occurring in Central and South
America. They are of medium size and usually brown-
ish or grayish, with the first posterior (Rs) cell narrowed
apically, the femora thickened, and the hind tibiae often
dilated. The only North American species, Rhytidops
florídensis (Aldrich), occurs in Florida, where adults are
usually found around fresh palm exudates.
Family Sciomyzidae-Marsh Flies:The marsh flies
are small to medium-sized flies that are usually yellow-
ish or brownish and have the antennae extending for-
ward (Figure 34-81). Many species have spotted or
pattemed wings and a characteristic bristle near the
middle of the anterior face of the middle femur. This is
Figure34-81 A marsh fly,Tetanoceravicina Macquart
(Sciomyzidae),71/2X.
Keyto the Families of Diptera 739
Figure 34-82 A black scavenger fly (Sepsidae), 15X.
a fair-sized group (nearly 191 North American
species), and many species are common insects. They
usually live along the banks of ponds and streams and
in marshes, swamps, and woods. The larvae feed on
snails, snail eggs, and slugs, generally as predators.
Family Sepsidae-Black Scavenger Flies: The sep-
sids are small, shining blackish flies (sometimes with a
reddish tinge) that have the head spherical and the ab-
domen narrowed at the base (Figure 34-82). Many
species have a dark spot along the costal margin of the
wing near the tipo The larvae live in excrement and var-
ious types of decaying materials. The adults are com-
mon flies and are often found in considerable numbers
near materials in which the larvae breed.
Family Acartophthalmidae: This family is repre-
sented in North America by two rare species that have
been taken on rotten fungi and carrion from Massa-
chusetts to Oregon and Alaska. One of these, Acartoph-
thalmus nigrínus (Zetterstedt), is about 2 mm long and
is black with the front coxae and halteres yellow.
FamilyAgromyzidae-Leaf-MinerFlies:These fliesare
small and usually blackish or yellowish (Figure 34-74B).
The larvae are leaf miners, and the adults occur almost
everywhere. Most species are more easily recognized by
their mines than by the insects themselves. Phytomyza
aquilegivora Spencer is a fairly common species that
makes a serpentine mine in the leaves of wild columbine
(Figure 34-83B). Agromyza parvicomis Loew makes
a blotch mine in com and several species of grasses.
Phytoliríomyza clara (Melander) mines in the leaves of
catalpa (Figure 34-83A). Most agromyzids make serpen-
tine mines, that is, narrow, winding mines that increase
in width as the larva grows. This is the largest family of
acalyptrate muscoids, with over 700 North American
species.

740 Chapter34 OrderDiptera
B
Family Anthomyzidae:These flies are small and
somewhat elongate, and some species have pictured
wings. This is a fairly small group (lO North American
species), but its members are sometimes fairly common
in grass and low vegetation, especially in marshy areas.
The larvae live in marsh grasses and sedges.
Family Asteiidae: This family contains small to
minute flies (usually 2 mm long or less), most of
which can be recognized by the distinctive venation
(Figure 34-24A): R2+3ending in the costa close to R¡.
In Leiomyza, R2+3ends well beyond R¡, at about three
fourths the wing length. Only 18 species occur in
North America, and little is known of their habits.
Family Aulacigastridae:This group includes seven
relatively rare species. Aulacigaster leucopeza (Meiger)
is a small, blackish fly,about 2.5 mm long, with its face
banded with white, brown, and orange. Adults live on
(and larva e breed in) sap flows from tree wounds. The
other species are yellowish to brownish and are gener-
ally found in grasses.
Family Clusiidae:The clusiids are small (mostly
3-4 mmlong) and relatively uncommon flies in which
the wings are often smoky or marked with brown, es-
pecially apically. The body color varies from pale yel-
low to black. In some species the thorax is black dor-
sally and yellowish laterally. The larvae, which live in
decaying wood and under bark, can jump, much like
the larvae of skipper flies.
Family Odiniidae:This is a small group of uncom-
mon flies, formerly placed in the family Agromyzidae.
They differ from the Agromyzidae in having preapical
tibial bristles and pattemed wings. The adults live at
--
Figure 34-83 Leafmines of agromyzidfijes.
A, the catalpa leaf-miner, Phytoliriomyza clara
(Me1ander); B, the columbine leaf-miner, Phyto-
myza aquilegivora Spencer. (Courtesy of the Ohio
Agricultural Research and Deve10pment Center.)
fresh sap flows on trees, about woody fungi, on rouing
tree trunks and stumps, and in similar places. Eleven
species occur in the United States, most of them in the
Eas t.
Family Opomyzidae: The opomyzids are small 10
minute flies that are usually found in grassy areas.The
known larvae feed in the stems of various grasses. Only
13 species occur in North America, and most of these
occur in the West or in Canada; none is common. Ten
species of opomyzids are in the genus Geomyza, which
has wings much narrowed at the base, without an alula
and with no development of an anallobe.
Family Periscelididae:The three North American
species in this family are widely distributed but rare.
They are usually found around the sap flowingfroID
tree wounds. One species has been reared fram fer-
menting oak sapo
Family Braulidae-Bee Lice: This family containsa
single species, Braula coeea Nitzsch, which occurs in
various parts of the world but is quite rare in North
America. It is wingless and 1.2 to 1.5 mrii long andis
found in bee hives, usually attached to the bees. The
adults apparently feed on nectar and pollen at the bee's
mouth.
Family Canacidae-Beach Flies: The canacidsare
small flies that resemble the ephydrids in appearance
and habits, but they have only a single break in the
costa, they have an anal cell, and the ocellar triangleis
quite large (as in Figure 34-27 A). Adults of the seven
rare North American species live along the seashoreon
both the East and West Coasts. The larvae live in theal-
gae washed up on the shore.

Family Carnidae:This small group (16 North Amer-
ican species) was formerly considered a subfamily of
the Milichiidae. These fiies can be separated from the
Milichiidae by the characters in the key (couplet 135).
One species, Carnus hemapterus Nitzsch, is a blood-
sucking ectoparasite of birds.
Family Chloropidae-Grass Flies: The chloropids are
small, rather bare flies, and so me species are bright yel-
low and black. They are very common in meadows and
other grassy places, although they can be found in a va-
riety of habitats. The larva e of most species feed in
grass stems, and some are serious pests of cereals. A
few are scavengers, and a few are parasitic or preda-
eeous. Some of the chloropids (for example, Hip-
pelates), which breed in decaying vegetation and excre-
ment, are attracted to animal secretions and feed on
pus, blood, and similar materials. They are particularly
attracted to the eyes and are some times called "eye
gnats." These fiies can act as vectors of yaws and pink-
eye. This is a fairly large group, with 290 North Amer-
ican species.
Family Cryptochetidae: The flies in this group are
somewhat similar to black fiies (Simuliidae) and have
habits similar to those of eye gnats (Hippelates, family
Chloropidae: see preceding paragraph). They can usu-
ally be recognized by the enlarged third antennal seg-
ment, which reaches nearly to the lower edge of the
head and which lacks an arista but bears at its apex a
short spine or tubercle. As far as known, the larvae are
parasites of scale insects in the family Margarodidae.
This is principally an Old World group of fiies, and
only one species, Cryptochetum iceryae (Williston), oc-
curs in the United States. It was introduced into Cali-
fornia from Australia in the 1880s to control the cot-
tony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi. This fiy is about
1.5 mm long and stout-bodied, with dark, metallic
blue head and thorax and shiny green abdomen. The
introduction was successful. This fiy is probably a
more important natural enemy of the cottony cushion
seale than the ladybird beetle, Rodolia cardinalis,
whieh was also introduced from Australia to control
this scale insecto
Family Milichiidae: The milichiids are small flies,
usuallyblack or silvery, and are sometimes fairly com-
mon in open areas. The larva e generally live in decay-
ingplant or animal materials. Many have a slender pro-
boseis. This group is small, with 43 North American
speeies.
Family Tethinidae: Most tethinids are seashore
speeies, living in beach grass, in salt marshes, and
around seaweed washed up on the shore. The majority
are found along the Pacific Coast. The inland species
livemainly in alkaline areas. This is a small group (27
NorthAmerican species), and its members are uncom-
monfiies.
.Al
Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 741
Family Chyromyidae:This is a small (nine North
American species) but widely distributed group of usu-
ally uncommon flies. Adults are usually taken on win-
dows or on vegetation, and some have been reared
from birds' nests and rotting wood.
Family Heleomyzidae:The heleomyzids are a fairly
large group (145 North American species) of small to
medium-sized flies, most of which are brownish. Many
superficially resemble marsh fiies (Sciomyzidae), but
they have well-developed oral vibrissae, converging
postvertical bristles (Figure 34-23C), spinose costa
(Figure 34-22H), and smaller and less prominent an-
tennae. The adults are usually found in moist shady
places. The larvae of most species live in decaying
plant or animal matter or in fungi.
Family Sphaeroceridae-Small Dung Flies: The
sphaerocerids are very small, black or brown fiies that
can usually be recognized by the character of the hind
tarsi (Figure 34-26A). Many have the longitudinal
veins somewhat shortened and not reaching the wing
margin (Figure 34-26D). This is a fair-sized group
(250 North American species) whose members are
common in swampy places near excremento They often
live in large numbers about manure piles. The larvae
live in excrement and refuse.
Family Camillidae: These fIies resemble the
Drosophilidae, but they are metallic, lack stemopleural
bristles, they have the anal cell open apically. One
species, Camilla glabra (Fallén), has been reported
from Ontario. Nothing is known of its biology.
Family Curtonotidae:This group is represented in
North America by a single species, Curtonotum helvum
(Loew), which occurs in the East. This species is
about 6 mm long, Drosophila-like in appearance, and
light yellowish brown with dark brown markings.
It lives in high grass in moist places. The larva is
unknown.
Family Diastatidae:This is a small (six North Amer-
ican species) but widely distributed group whose mem-
bers resemble the Drosophilidae but are usually dark-
colored. They are relatively rare, and little is known of
their habits.
Family Drosophilidae-Pomace Flies or Small Fruit
Flies: These flies are 3-4 mm long and usually yellow-
ish (Figure 34-84), and they are generally found
around decaying vegetation and fruits. This group is
large (182 North American species), and many species
are very common. The pomace flies are often pests in
the household when fruits are presento The larvae of
most species live in decaying fruits and fungí. The lar-
vae actually feed on the yeasts growing in the fruits. A
few species are ectoparasitic (on caterpillars) or preda-
ceous (on mealybugs and other small Hemiptera) in
the larval stage. Several species in this group, beca use
of their short life span, giant salivary-gland chromo-
742 Chapter34 OrderDiptera
Figure34-84 A pomace fly,Drosophilasp., 20x.
somes, and ease of culturing, have be en used exten-
sively in studies of heredity.
Family Ephydridae-ShoreFlies: This is a large
group (463 North American species), and some species
are quite common. Shore flies are small to very small.
Most are dark-colored, and a few have pictured wings.
The adults are found in moist places: marshes, the
shores of ponds and streams, and the seashore. The lar-
vae are aquatic, and many species live in brackish or
even strongly saline or alkaline water. One western
species, Helaeomyia petrolei (Coquillett), breeds in
pools of crude petroleum. These flies often occur in
enormous numbers. Pools along the seashore can
sometimes be alive with the adults, which walk or clus-
ter on the surface of the water (for example, Ephydra
riparia Fallén; Figure 34-85). Along the shore of Great
Salt Lake, ephydrids can arise from the ground in
clouds, and a few sweeps of a net can yield a cupful. At
one time the Native Americans gathered the puparia
from the lake and ate them.
Figure34-85 A shore fly,Ephydra riparia Fallén.
A, adult, 10x; B, larva, 4X. bt, breathing tube; prl, pro-
legs. (B, courtesy of Peterson; reprinted by permission.)
Collecting and Preserving Diptera
The general methods of collecting Diptera are similar
to those of collecting other insects. To obtain a largeva-
riety, one must collect in a variety of habitats. Manyof
the smaller species can be best collected by sweeping,
putting the entire catch into the killing bottle, and ex-
amining it carefully later. Traps such as that shown in
Figure 35-6B, using various types of baits, are useful
collecting devices.
Most Diptera, particularly the smaller specimens,
should be mounted within a few hours after they are
captured because they dry quickly and are likely to be
damagedin mounting if they have dried out verymucho
Many of the smaller and more delicate specimens, such
as midges, mosquitoes, and similar forrns, should be
handled very carefully in order lO avoid rubbing offthe
minute hairs and scales, which are often important in
identification, particularly if the specimen is ever iden-
tified to species. The only way to get good specimensof
many of these delicate forms is to rear them and toget
them iTItoa killing jar without using a nel.
The larger Diptera are preserved on pins, and the
smaller specimens are mounted on points, minuten
pins, or microscope slides. In pinning a fly, particu-
larly the muscoids, it is important that the bristleson
the dorsum of the thorax be kept intact; insert thepin
to one side of the midline. lf the specimen is too small
to pin this way, mount it on a poinl. Specimens
mounted on a point should be on their right side, with

the wings together above the body and lying along the
point, and the body at right angles to the point (Fig-
ure 35-13). If a specimen lo be mounted on a point
dies with its wings bent down, the wings can often be
snapped into the vertical position by gently squeezing
References
Alexander, C. P. 1967. The crane flies of California. Bull.
Calif. Insect Surv. 8:1-269.
Amaud, P.H.,]r. 1978. A Host-Parasite Catalog ofNorth Amer-
ican Tachinidae (Diptera). USDA Misc. Pub\. 1319,860 pp.
Ashe, P. 1983. A catalogue of chironornid genera and subgen-
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Bickel, D.j. 1982. Diptera. In S. B. Parker (Ed.), Synopsis and
Classification of Living Organisrns, pp. 563-599. New
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Blanton, F. S., and W W Wirth. 1979. The sand flies (Culi-
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pods of Florida and Neighboring land Areas 10:1-204.
Borkent, A. 1993. A world catalogue of fossil and extant
Crethrellidae and Chaoboridae (Diptera), with a listing of
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Borkent, A., and W W Wirth. 1997. World species of biting
rnidges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). Bull. Arner. Mus.
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Brown, B. V. 1992. Generic revision of Phoridae of the Nearc-
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Mern. Entorno\. Soco Can. 164:1-144.
Carpenter, S. j., and W j. la Casse. 1955. Mosquitoes of
North Arnerica (North of Mexico). Berkeley: University
of California Press, 360 pp.
Cole, F.R. 1969. The Flies of Western North Arnerica. Berke-
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Courtney, G. W 1991. Phylogenetic analysis of the Blephar-
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Courtney, G. W 1994. Biosysternatics of the Nyrnphornyiidae
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and Geographical Inventory of World Blackflies (Diptera:
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Curnrning, j. M., B. j. Sinclair, and D. M. Wood. 1995. Ho-
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Henry Tripp, Mount Vernon, NY, 1965)
de Meyer, M. 1996. World catalogue of Pipunculidae
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DeSalle,R., and D. Grirnaldi. 1992. Characters and the sys-
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 35 Collecting, Preserving,
and Studying Insects
O ne of the best ways to learn about insects is to go
out and collect them. Handling specimens and
preparing collections will reveal many things that can-
not be communicated in textbooks. Many people find
collecting insects extremely interesting, because it pro-
vides not only the satisfaction that comes from being in
the field, but also the satisfaction of learning at first
hand. The student can develop much more interest in
insects by collecting and handling them than by merely
looking at pictures or preserved specimens. Seeing
specimens alive enables the student to learn about their
habitats, habi15, and behavior-information often as
valuable as morphological characters in determining
their taxonomic position. Perhaps the greatest compli-
ment that any entomologist, even a crusty professor,
can receive is lo be caIled a good field worker.
Whenand Where to Collect
In collecting insec15-as with almost any activity-
time and effort expended are directly correlated with
proficiency gained. The uninitiated can stroIl through
habita15literaIly swarming with insec15 and be totally
unaware of their presence. Few outdoor activities
sharpen powers of observation and perception, test pa-
tience and skill, and provide never-ending sources of
wonder and pleasure as weIl as collecting insec15 does.
Insec15 can be found practicaIly everywhere and
usuaIly in considerable numbers. The more kinds of
places you look for them, the greater the variety you
can collect. The best time to collect is in summer, but
insects are active from early spring until late faIl, and
many can be found in hibernation during the winter.
Insects are active the year round in southern areas of
the United States. The adul15 of many species have a
short seasonal range, so anyone who wan15 to get the
greatest variety should collect throughout the year. Be-
cause different species are active at different times of
the day, at least some kinds of insec15 can be collected
at any hour. Bad weather conditions, such as rain or
low temperature, reduces the activity of many insects,
making it more difficult to find or collect them, but
others are little affected and can be collected in any
kind of weather. If you know where to look, you can
find insects in the average community at any hour of
the day, any day of the year.
Because many kinds of insects feed on or frequent
plan15, vegetation provides one of the best places for
collecting. Insec15 can be picked, shaken, or swept off
the plant with a net. Different species feed on different
kinds of plan15, so examine aIl sor15 of plants. Every
part of the plant may harbor insec15: Most will proba-
bly be on the foliage or flowers, but others may be on
or in the stem, bark, wood, fruits, or roots.
Various types of debris often harbor many kinds of
insec15. Some species can be found in the leaf mold and
litter on the surface of the soil, particularly in woods or
areas where the vegetation is dense. Others can be
found under stones, boards, bark, and similar objec15.
Still others can be found in rotting or decaying mater-
ial of aIl sor15, such as fungi, decaying plants, the bod-
ies of dead animals, rotting fruits, and dung. Many in-
sec15 in these situations can be picked up with the
fingers or forceps. Others can be obtained by sifting
debris.
Insects can be found in or around buildings or on
animals or humans. Many use buildings, cavities under
buildings, culver15, andUiNNERSíbAD sDEeéA1W5
BIBLIOTECA
746 Chapter 35 Collecting,Preserving,and StudyingInsects
some species are most easily collected in such situa-
tions. Other insects found in buildings feed on cloth-
ing, furniture, grain, food, and other materials. Insects
that attack animals are usually found around those an-
imals, and a person interested in collecting species that
attack humans can often get them with little effort-
simply by letting the insects come to the collector.
On warm evenings, insects from various sources
are attracted to lights and can be collected at street or
porch lights, on windows or screens of lighted rooms,
or at lights put up especially to attract them. This
is one of the easiest ways of collecting many types of
insects.
Many nocturnal insects, however, are not attracted
to lights. You must search for them at night and capture
them by hand. Examining tree trunks, leaves and other
vegetation, fallen logs, rock faces, and other habitats at
night will reveal a sizable arthropod fauna, unsus-
pected by those who only collect in daylight. Flash-
lights and lanterns of various sorts are use fuI for night
collecting, but the best sort of light is a headlamp. Not
only does it leave both hands free (you'll often wish
that you had three or four extra arms and hands), but
its beam also focuses your attention on smaller arcas
and sharpens your perception: The lamp illuminates
only the arca where you are looking. Get a headlamp
with an elastic headband and operated by a 6-volt bat-
tery attached to the belt, available at almost any big
outdoor gear store.
A great many insects-only the immature stages in
some cases, and all stages in others-are found in
aquatic situations. Different types of aquatic habitats
harbor different species, and different insects can be
found in different parts of any particular pond or
stream. Some are found on the surface, others live on
aquatic vegetation, others are attached to or are under
stones or other objects in the water, and still others
burrow in the sand or muck of the bottom. Many
aquatic insects can be collected by hand or with for-
ceps. Others are most easily collected with various
types of aquatic collecting equipment.
The adults of many species are best obtained by
collecting the immature stages and rearing them. This
process involves collecting cocoons, larvae, or nymphs
and maintaining them in some sort of container until
the adults appear. lt is often possible to get better spec-
imens by this method than by collecting adults in the
field.
Although many people view insects simply as
pests to be removed or killed, remember that many
statutes classify them as wildlife. Further, a number of
species are formally designated as endangered or
threatened and, as such, are protected not only from
collecting but also habitat disturbance. It is usually
necessary to procure permits from authorities to col-
lect insects on public lands, such as state and national
parks and forests. The requirements for such docu-
ments vary widely, and gene rally parks have greater re-
strictions. Obtain and submit applications for the nec-
essary permits well in advance of a collecting trip.
Transporting wildlife or wildlife products, including
insects, across state and international boundaries is
also regulated. For species listed in the Appendices of
the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species (CITES:', permits are required for impon or
export. Any legitima te retailer selling imported insects
should be able to provide the buyer with documenta-
tion that the specimens were collected legally in the
country of origino Imports of wildlife into the United
States must also be declared to the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service (FWS). Travelers entering or return-
ing to the United States may interact with a numberof
agencies, each with distinct arcas of authority and in-
terest. The typical routine is that the specimens arede-
clared on the entry form; a customs agent then directs
the traveler to the inspectors from the USDA (U.S.De-
partment of Agriculture). Declaration of importation
to FWS is then made by filing the appropriate fonn.
All the laws and regulations involved are constantly
under review and revision, and it is the responsibility
of the importer (the traveler) to know and follow
them.
A common complaint heard regarding the bUf-
geoning growth of regulations and paperwork in con-
nection with insect collecting is that a car drivingdown
the road kills large numbers of insects without anyper-
mit required. The dedicated student of entomology,
however, is effectivelyprevented from collecting,even
though the negative effect on the insect population is
likely to be negligible. Remember, though, these laws
and regulations are designed to control and prevent the
real and ongoing decimation of wildlife populations, by
both legal and illegal means, and the job of enforce-
ment agents is not to individually interpret these rules,
but to enforce them. Opportunities for comments on
proposed regulations regularly arise, and concerned in-
dividuals should make their legitimate concerns
known to the appropriate agencies. The fact that com-
ment periods are open for a set of regulations is com-
monly disseminated widely on the list-serves that serve
the entomological community.
Collecting Equipment
The minimum equipment necessary to collect insectsis
your hands and some sort of container for the speci-
mens collected. However, you can do much better with
a net and killing jar, or better yet with a backpack or

shoulder bag containing some additional equipment.
For general collecting, it is best to have at least the fol-
lowing items:
1. Insect net
2. Killing jars
3. Pillboxes containing cleansing tissue
4. Envelopes, or paper for making envelopes
5. Vials filled with preservative
6. Forceps
7. 10 x hand lens
8. Sheet of plain white paper
Some of these items, particularly the killing jars,
pillboxes, envelopes, and vials of preservative, are most
easily carried in a backpack or fanny pack. Forceps and
hand lens can be attached to a string around your neck
and carried in a shirt pocket. Strictly speaking, a hand
lens is not a means of collecting, but it is useful for ex-
amining insects in the field.
Other items of value for some types of collecting
are as follows:
9. Aspirator
10. Beating umbrella or sheet
11. Sifter
12. Traps
13. Aquatic collecting equipment
14. Headlamp (for night collecting)
15. Sheath knife
16. Camel's-hair brush
Insed Net
Insect nets can be purchased fram a supply house or
can be homemade. Homemade nets are fairly easy to
make and are much less expensive. However, a good
cornrnercial net generally survives physical abuse
much better. Handles made of aluminum are both light
and strong. The length of the handle is generally about
3 feet, but some modular designs let the user increase
the length up to 10 feet (or more). Collapsible heads al-
low the entire net to be stored very compactly. How-
ever, the flexibility in the rim may make such nets less
suitable for sweeping through heavy vegetation. A net
ror general collecting should have mesh open enough
Collecting Equipment 747
that an insect can be seen through it. Finer weaves are
necessary for smaller insects.
A net used with care willlast a long time. Keep it
away fram stout thorns and barbed wire (to avoid tear-
ing), and keep it dry. Insects caught in a wet net are sel-
dom fit for a collection, and moisture eventually rots
the net fabrico
When collecting with a net, you can work in either
of two general ways: You can look for particular insects
and then swing at them, or you can sweep (simply
swing the net back and forth, usually through vegeta-
tion). The former method is usually used for collecting
the larger insects and often demands a certain amount
of speed and skill. The latter method produces a much
greater quantity and variety of insects, although it may
occasionally damage some delicate specimens.
When a particularly active insect is caught, use cer-
tain precautions to prevent the insect from escaping be-
fore it can be transferred to the killing jaro The safest
method is to fold the net over with the insect in the bot-
tom of the net (Figure 35-1). Then grasp the insect
through the net (provided it is not one that stings) and
transfer it to the killing bottle. If the insect is one that
stings (when in doubt, assume that it doessting), there
are three ways to transfer it to the killing bottle: (1) You
can put the fold of the net containing the insect into the
killing bottle until the insect is stunned, then pick the in-
sect out of the net and put it into the bottle. (2) You can
grasp the insect through the net with forceps, rather than
with your fingers, and transfer it to the bottle. (3) You
can get the insect into a fold of the net, stun it by pinch-
ing the thorax, and then transfer it to the killing bottle.
The first method is probably the best.
Sweeping is the best way for the general collector to
obtain the greatest number and variety of insects. After
sweeping, you may wish to save the entire catch or only
certain specimens. It is preferable to transfer the entire
catch to the killing jar and later discard any specimens
you don't want. The best way to save the entire catch is
to shake the insects into the bottom of the net and then
place this part of the net in the killing jar (a wide-
mouthed jar is best), which is then closed until the in-
sects are stunned. Then dump the net contents onto a
sheet of paper (in a protected area out of the wind), re-
Figure35-1 An insect net turned lOprevent escape of
captured specirnens.
748 Chapter35 Collecting,Preserving,
andStudyingInsects
move by hand the larger pieces of vegetation or other de-
bris, and dump the remainder into the killing jaro Once
you have emptied the results of sweeping onto the sheet
of paper, you can pick out the specimens (in the field)
that you want to save, but it is better to save the entire
catch and do the sorting after retuming fram the field. If
you examine the results of sweeping under a binocular
micrascope, you may find (and save) many interesting
insects that would otherwise be overlooked.
Another way to get the results of sweeping (or an
individual insect) fram the net to the killingjar is to in-
sert the killing jar into the net. This pracedure may
save time compared with the method just described,
but it seldom gets al! the material taken in sweeping,
and sometimes individual insects may escape. Work
the insects into the bottom of the net with a few
swings, and pinch off the net just above them. Then
hold the tip of the net up (many insects tend to move
upward to escape), insert the killing jar into the net
(with the lid removed), quickly move it past the
pinched-off point, and work the specimens into the jaro
The jar may be capped fram the outside long enough to
stun the insects, or you can work it to the open end of
the net (with the lid over the jar outside the net), then
remove the lid fram the outside and cap the jar. Some
insects may escape with this method, but a little expe-
rience minimizes the losses.
Sweeping is often the only practical method of
capturing small or minute insects. Because of their size,
however, these specimens tend to dry out very rapidly,
and the appendages, particularly the antennae, are sub-
ject to extensive breakage. One way to avoid this prab-
lem is to dump the entire contents of the net into a
plastic bag (a l-gallon food storage bag works well)
filled about a quarter to a third full of water and with
one or two draps of liquid detergent (or any other sur-
factant) added. The detergent reduces the surface ten-
sion of the water so that the insects are quickly wetted
and drawn. Specimens may be kept in the water for pe-
riods up to several hours. As soon as possible, however,
thoroughly wash them in fresh water and then transfer
them to 70% alcohol. This transfer can be made as the
specimens are sorted (the same day they are caught). If
you don't have enough time right away, you can pour
the catch fram the plastic bag into small mesh bags
(made of the same fine material as the sweeping net).
Then close the mesh bag with a twist tie, and place it
in a container of alcohol. After 24 hours, drain the bag
and place it in fresh alcohol. You can then sort speci-
mens at your leisure. This method works well for col-
lecting minute parasitic Hymenoptera and small bee-
des, for example, but it may not be apprapriate for
some other graups. Small flies may have the taxonom-
ically important brisdes braken off, and many mirids
lose their hind legs when placed in alcohol.
Killing Bottles
If the insect is to be preserved after it is captured, it
must be killed in such a way that it is not injured orbro-
keq. Some sort of killing botde is thus required. Bottles
of various sizes and shapes can be used, depending on
the type of insects involved, and a number of different
materials can be used as the killing agent. In the fieldit
is generally desirable to have two or three killing botdes
of different sizes for insects of different types. Always
use a separate jar for Lepidoptera, because other insects
(especially beedes) may damage their delicate wings
and beca use their wing scales come off and adhereto
other insects (making them look dusty). lt is desirable
to have one or more small bottles (perhaps 25 mmin
diameter and 100-150 mm in length) for small insects
and one or more larger botdes for larger insects.Corked
botdes are preferable to screw-capped botdes, but either
type will do. Wide-mouthed bottles or jars are better
than narrow-necked ones. All killing bottles, regardless
of the killing agent used, should be conspicuously la-
beled "POISON,"and all glass bottles should be rein-
forced with tape to prevent shattering and spilling ofthe
poisonous chemicals.
Several materials can be used as the toxic agentin
a killing botde. The traditional killing jar, preferredby
many entomologists, uses cyanide. Such bottles kill
quickly and last a long time, whereas most other mate-
rials kill more slowly and do not last as long. However,
cyanide is extremely poisonous. But with certain pre-
cautions, botdes made with it can be just as safeasbot-
des made with some other killing agent.
Cyanide botdes can be made in two generalways
(Figure 35-2). Those made with small vials have a plug
of cotton and a piece of cardboard to hold the cyanide
in the bottle, whereas those made with larger jars have
plaster of paris holding the cyanide in the bottle,
Sodium or potassium cyanide is the cyanide usedin
most cyanide bottles. Calcium cyanide is sometimes
used in killing botdes made with small vials.
A calcium-cyanide killing bottle is made as shown
in Figure 35-2A. Pack the cotton and cardboard down
tighdy, and put some pinholes in the cardboard. Io re.
duce the hazard of breakage, reinforce the bottom and
rim of the botde with tape. If the killing botde is
capped with a large cork, it may be convenient to put
the cyanide in a hole in the bottom of the cork and
keep it there with a plug of cotton and a coveringof
cloth. Calcium cyanide is a dark gray powder that isof.
ten used as a fumigan lo lt is extremely poisonous,It
should be handled with great care, and only peoplefa-
miliar with its praperties should use it. This typeof
botde is ready for use as soon as it is prepared.
A cyanide bottle made with plaster of parístakes
longer to prepare but lasts longer. A bottle made witb

POISON
-
' U Cardboard Plaster (Set)
Cotton Plaster (Dry)
t
I.. Calcium
cyanide
Potassium
cyanide
A B
calcium cyanide lasts a month or two, whereas one
made with sodium or potassium cyanide and plaster
lasts ayear or two. The potassium (or sodium) cyanide
should be in finely granular or powdered form, and the
botde is made as shown in Figure 35-2B. After pouring
in the wet plaster, leave the botde uncorked, preferably
outdoors in a safe and ventilated place, until the plas-
ter has thoroughly set and dried (a day or two). Then
cork it, tape the bottom, put on a POlSONlabel, and af-
ter another day or so for the cyanide to penetrate the
now-dried plaster, it is ready for use.
Other materials that have been used as killing
agents in insect bottles include ethyl acetate, carbon
tetrachloride, and chloroform. Ethyl acetate is the least
dangerous of the three. Bottles using these materials
are made by putting so me sort of absorbing material in
the botde and soaking it with the agent. Cotton makes
a good absorbent material, but if it is used cover it with
a piece of cardboard or screen, or the insects become
entangled in the cotton and are difficult or impossible
to remove without damage. If ethyl acetate or carbon
tetrachloride is used, the absorbent material can be
plaster of paris that has been mixed with water, poured
into the bottom of the botde, and allowed to set and
thoroughly dry. Killing botdes made with these materi-
als do not last very long and must be recharged fre-
quently. Carbon tetrachloride and chloroform are poi-
sonous, and people should avoid breathing the fumes.
Ethyl acetate is relatively nontoxic to humans (it is an
ingredient of nail polish).
The efficiency of a killing botde depends to a large
extent on how it is used. Never leave it uncorked any
longer than is necessary to put insects in or take them
CollectingEquipment 749
Figure35-2 Cyanide botdes. A, small botde made
up with calcium cyanide; B, large botde made up
with plaster of paris.
out. The escaping gas reduces its strength, and an un-
corked botde (particularly one made with cyanide) is a
hazard. Keep the inside of the botde dry. Botdes some-
times "sweat"; that is, moisture from the insects (and
sometimes from the plaster) condenses on the inside of
the botde, particularly if exposed to bright sunlight.
Such moisture ruins delicate specimens. It is a good
idea to keep a few pieces of cleansing tissue or other ab-
sorbent material in the botde at all times, to absorb
moisture and to prevent the insects from getting badly
tangled up with one another. Change this material fre-
quendy, and wipe out the botde periodically. A botde
that has been used for Lepidoptera should not be used
for other insects unless it is first cleaned to remove
scales that would get on new insects put into the botde.
Other Types of Collecting Equipment
Aerial nets such as those already described are standard
collecting equipment for most work, but many other
devices are use fuI in certain situations or for collecting
certain types of insects. Some of the more important of
these are described here. With a little ingenuity, the
collector will be able to devise many others.
Aspirator. This is a very useful device for capturing
small insects, particularly if you want to keep them
alive. Two types of aspirators are shown in Figure 35-3.
Sucking through the mouthpiece draws small insects
into the vial (A) or tube (B), and a cloth over the inner
end of the mouthpiece tube prevents the insects from
being sucked into the mouth. Nevertheless, the cloth
will not significandy impede the passage of microor-
ganisms or fungal spores that may be present in large
750 Chapter35 Collecting.Preserving,
andStudyingInsects
A State University Press.)
numbers on the substrate. With a series of these vials
or tubes, an insect-filled one can be removed and re-
placed and with an empty one, and collecting can pro-
ceedwith minimal interruption.
BeatingUmbrella. Many insects that live on vegeta-
tion feign death by dropping off the plant when it is
jarred slightly. The collector can take advantage of this
habit by placing a collecting device underneath a plant
and then jarring the plant with a stick. The insects that
fall onto the collecting device beneath usually continue
to play dead and can be easily picked up. The best de-
vice for this sort of collecting is a beating umbrella
(Figure 35-4E), an umbrella frame covered with white
Figure35-4 A collapsible net and beating umbrella.
The net (A) may be collapsed (O), the handle removed
and unjoimed (C), and all these parts placed in a carry-
ing bag (B). The beating umbrella (E) has a hinged joim
in the handle and is held in the position illustrated when
in use. (From OeLong and Oavidson 1936, courtesy of
the Ohio State University Press.)
Figure35-3 Aspirators. A, vial type;
B B, tube type. (B, from OeLong and
Oavidson 1936, courtesy of The Ohio
muslin or light canvas. A white sheet, or even an open
insect net, may also be used to catch insects jarred off
a planto
Sifters. Many small and unusual insects that occur
in trash and leaf litter are most easily collected by sift-
ing. The simplest collecting procedure is to take a
handful of material and sift it slowly onto a large
piece of white cloth, plastic, or cardboard. The tiny
animals falling onto the white surface reveal thero-
selves by their movement and can be picked up with
an aspirator or a wet brush. The material can alsobe
sifted onto a white cloth from a small box with a
screen bottom.
One of the most effective ways to get insects and
other animals out of soil, debris, or leaf litter is touse
a Berlese funnel (Figure 35-5). This is an ordinary,
usually large, funnel containing a piece of screen or
hardware cloth, with a killing jar or container ofalco-
hol below it. The material to be sifted placed on the
screen, and an electric light bulb is placed abovethe
funnel. As the upper part of the material in the funnel
dries, the insects and other animals move downward
and eventually fall into the container below the funnel,
where they are killed. A Berlese funnel is the bestde-
vice for collecting debris-inhabiting insects, mites,
pseudoscorpions, and small spiders.
Anyone using a Berlese funnel will notice that
many of the animals collected (for example, the
springtails and many of the mites) remain on the sur-
face of the alcohol. The fact that many soil- and debris-
inhabiting animals float on alcohol or water makesit
possible to get many of these animals out of suchroa-
terials by putting the material in water. Manyanimals
come to the surface of the water, where they can bere-
moved and placed in alcohol.
A Winkler funnel is similar in principie 10a
Berlese funnel, but is made of fabric in a slightly differ-

Material to be sifted is placed here
Screen or
hardware
cloth
I U rConta¡nerOf
D .1'0001
Figure35-5 A Berlese funnel. The funnel can be sup-
poned by a ringstand, or by three or four legs attached
near the middle of the funnel. The light bulb can be that
of an ordinary gooseneck lamp, or it can be in a metal
cylinder put over the top of the funnel. The material to
be sifted is placed on the screen.
cnt shape. It is much lighter and easier to transport in
the fieid.
Traps. Traps are an easy and often very effective
method of collecting many types of insects. A trap is
any device, often containing something to which the
insects are attracted, that is so arranged that once the
insects get into it, they cannot get out. The attractant
used and the general form of the trap are determined
by the type of insects you want to collect. Space does
not permit a description here of many types of traps,
but a few can be mentioned. The ingenious collector
can devise many that are not described.
A trap or other device using light as the attractant
frequently yieids insects in a quantity and quality not
obtained by any other type of collecting. Black-light,
ultraviolet, and mercury-vapor bulbs often attract more
Collecting Equipment 751
insects (or at least certain types of insects) than do or-
dinary light bulbs.
A light trap for insects may be made in such a way
that insects coming to the trap are diverted, by a series
of baffles, into a cyanide jar or container of alcohol
(Figure 35-6D). Such a trap catches a lot ofinsects, but
the specimens often are not in very good shape. Better
specimens in better condition can be collected by sim-
ply waiting at a light and getting desired insects di-
rectly into a killing bottle or aspirator as they settle on
something near the light (for example, a wall, screen,
or sheet).
A particularly effective device that is very popular
is the Malaise trap, named for Dr. René Malaise of Swe-
den (Figure 35-6C). Many modifications of this trap
have be en deveioped, but they are all essentially tent-
like structures of fine netting into which flying insects
wander. The underlying principIe of this type of trap is
that insects usually move upward in attempting to es-
cape, and in the Malaise trap they eventually en ter a
collecting apparatus at the top of the trap and are killed
in ajar of alcohol or one charged with cyanide or ethyl
acetate. Such traps often turo up rare, unusual, or eiu-
sive insects not taken by collectors using conventional
methods. Directions for building Malaise traps are
given by Townes (1972).
Traps of the type shown in Figure 35-6B are use-
fuI for catching flies that are attracted to decaying ma-
terials such as meat and fruits. If the trap is visited fre-
quently, the specimens it catches can be retrieved in
good condition. Varying the bait produces a more var-
ied catch.
Pitfall traps of the type shown in Figure 35-6A are
useful for catching carrion beetles and other insects
that do not fly readily. Such a trap may be made of a
large plastic container, preferably with a few holes
punched in the bottom to prevent water from accumu-
lating in it, and with some sort of screen over the bait
to permit easy removal of the insects caught. The trap
is sunk into the ground with its top at ground leve!. In-
sects attracted by the bait will fall into the can and be
unable to get out. The bait may be a dead animal, a
piece of meat that will eventually decay, fruit, molasses,
or some similar materia!. Here again, varying the bait
yieids a more varied catch.
Pan traps are similar in some respects to shallow
pitfall traps. Place the pan (or bowl or any type of shal-
low container) on or sink it in the ground, and half-fill
it with water to which a few drops of a liquid detergent
have be en added to reduce surface tension. Yellow pans
are especially attractive to many species. The insects
are either attracted to or inadvertently stumble into the
trap, are wetted, and drown. Remove the catch from
the pan with a small aquarium dip net. Traps contain-
ing only water must be tended every day to remove the
752 Chapter35 Collecting,Preserving,and StudyingInsects

"
--//
Opening___
-
r-
r-
r-:
r-
1;

A
><
Container >"
fór bait- - -
---1:: f-
B

Light
bulb
Center
pole- - ,,
,,
,,
,,
,-'
-- ....-....
...........
Baffle

e o

Figure 35-6 Insect traps. A, pitfall trap, consisting of a can sunk in the ground; B, fly
trap, a cylindrical screen cage with a screen cone at the bottom; bait is placed in a con-
tainer below the center of the cone, and flies attracted to the bait eventually go through
the opening at the top of the cone into the main part of the trap, from which they can be
removed through the door at the top; e, Malaise trap, a square, tentlike structure sup-
ported by a central pole, with screen or c\oth baffles across the diagonals, and a killing
jar at the top; D, light trap; specimens attracted to the light are funneled into the killing
jar at the bottom.

insects before they decompose. Various preservatives
can be added to the water to significantly delay de-
composition. Filling the trap with water saturated with
salt is an economical but somewhat bulky alternative
(a great deal of salt is required). ASO-50 solution of
propylene glycol (a food additive) and water also
works well. Ethylene glycol, once commonly used in
such traps, is easily accessible, particularly as ano
tifreeze, but should be avoided because it is attractive
and toxic to mammals. Traps that will not be tendedfor
several days generally require some sort of roof over
them (such as a suspended sheet of plastic) to keepthe
killinglpreservative solution from being diluted by
rainwater. Before placing them in alcohol, carefullyand
r
thoroughly rinse specimens in water. This is intended
to remove any surfactant from the specimen as weIl as
any material that the insect voided from its digestive
tract when killed. Such materials coagulate on expo-
sure to alcohol and are difficult or impossible to re-
move later. Pan traps are especiaIly effective in catch-
ing minute insects that are found close to the ground
where it is difficult to sweep.
Flight-intercept traps are in so me ways a combi-
nation of Malaise and pan traps. Some insects, espe-
ciaIly smaIl ones, never reach the collecting apparatus
at the lop of a Malaise. They may crawl through the
netting, fly off it before reaching the top, or fall off
the trap to the ground. To catch these, place a trough,
pan, or similar device filled with a killinglpreservative
fluid (such as those described earlier) beneath a
single panel of fine netting spread across the flight
path of the insects. A knock-down insecticide can be
"painted" onto the fabric to capture specimens that
may land on the netting. Designs for this type of trap
can be found in Peck and Davies (1980) and Masner
and Goulet (1981).
Household insects that do not fly,such as silverfish
and cockroaches, can be trapped in an open-topped
baited box. Place a box 100 or 125 mm deep on the
floor, provide it with a ramp from the floor to the top
of the box, and bait it with dog biscuits, crackers, or
some similar materials. Coat the upper 50 to 75 mm of
the box on the inside with petroleum jeIly, so insects
that get into the box can't crawl out.
Many insects can be caught by "sugaring," that is,
preparing a sugary mixture and spreading it on tree
trunks, stumps, or fence posts. Various mixtures may
be used, but one containing something that is ferment-
ing is probably the best. It may be made with molasses
or fruit juices and a little stale beer or rum.
AquaticCollectingEquipment. Many aquatic insects
can be collected with fingers or forceps when you are
examining plants, stones, or other objects in the wa-
ter, but many more can be collected by using a dip
net, strainer, dipper, or other device. A dip net can be
made like an aerial net, but the collecting bag should
be shallower (no deeper than the diameter of the
rim) and much stronger. The handle should be heavy,
and the rim should be made of 6- or 9-mm metal rod
and securely fastened to the handle. The pan of the
bag that is attached to the rim should be of canvas,
and it is desirable to have an apron of the same ma-
terial extending down over the front of the bag. The
rim need not be circular. Many collectors prefer to
have the rim bent in the form of the letter O, to be
able to drag it flat across the bottom. The bag may be
made of heavy marquisette or bolting cloth. Strainers
of the tea type, with a rim from 50 to 150 mm in di-
Collecting Equipment 753
ame ter, are useful for aquatic collecting if they are
not subjected to hard use. Dip nets or strainers can
be used lo collect free-swimming forms, forms on
vegetation, and forms burrowing in the sand or muck
of the bottom. A good catch can often be obtained in
streams by placing the net or strainer at a narrow
place in the current and then turning over stones or
disturbing the bottom upstream from the neto Re-
trieving insects from the muck and debris collected
in a net or strainer is not always easy, because most
of them are not noticed until they move. A good way
to locate them is to dump the contents of the net into
a large, white, enameled pan with some water.
Against the white background, the insects can be
more easily located and picked out. The best device
for collecting small free-swimming forms such as
mosquito larvae or midge larva e is a long-handled
white enameled dipper. Small larva e are easily seen
against the white background of the dipper and can
be removed with an eye dropper.
OtherEquipment. The collector should have a sheet of
plain white paper for transferring the results of sweep-
ing from the net to the killing jar (as noted earlier). A
large, heavy knife is useful for prying up bark, cutting
open gaIls, or digging into various materials. A vial of
insect pins is useful for pinning together mating pairs
before they are put into the killing jaro A notebook and
pencil should always be a part of the collector's gear.
Collecting certain types of insects often requires special
items of equipment. The amount and type of equip-
ment a collector uses depend entirely on the sort of col-
lecting he or she expects to do.
A global positioning system (GPS) receiver is fast
becoming a required piece of equipment for the serious
colleclor. This device calculates the latitude, longitude,
and altitude by comparison of the radio signals re-
ceived from a constellation of sateIlites in orbit. Under
the best conditions, a GPS unit can achieve an accuracy
measured in centimeters. This is valuable for surveying
applications, but is generaIly not required for collecting
purposes. Under normal conditions, accuracies of
:t:30 meters are easily achieved and sufficient. Mea-
surements of elevation are generaIly less accurate and
the error more significant from a biological point of
view. Elevation is probably still best measured by an al-
time ter. One note of caution: The GPS unit wiIl report
its position to a very high level of apparent accuracy. As
a rule of thumb, 1 degree of latitude or longitude at the
equator is equivalent to 100 km, 1 minute = 1.7 km,
and 1 second = 27 m. Although a GPS unit will gladly
report a position in decimal degrees such as 48°
29.7345' N, that last digit implies an accuracy of ap-
proximately :t:17 cm, a value that is neither correct nor
biologically relevant.
754 Chapter35 Collecting.Preserving.
andStudyingInsects
Remember that the radio signals from the satellites
are affected by a variety of environmental conditions
and, if high accuracy is desired, then take and average
a number of measurements, or use a differential GPS
(in which the readings from a mobile unit are com-
pared to a fixed receiver at a well-known location). Fi-
nally, calculation of the geographic position depends
on an internal mathematical representation of the
shape of the Earth, a geodetic datum. Record the datum
used along with the latitude and longitude.
Handling the Catch
A collector must learn by experience how long it takes
for the killing botdes to kill an insect. Some insects are
killed quickly, whereas others are very resistant to the
killing agent. A mosquito in a strong cyanide botde will
be killed in a few minutes, whereas some of the snout-
no sed beedes may remain alive in the same botde for
an hour or two. Keep the catch in the killing botde un-
til the specimens are killed, but not much longer. Some
insects become discolored if left in too long, particu-
larly in a botde containing cyanide. It is advisable lo re-
move insects within an hour or two after they are
killed.
Specimens removed from the killing botde in the
field can be placed in pillboxes or paper envelopes for
temporary storage. The pillboxes should contain some
sort of absorbent material, such as cleansing tissue,
that will reduce the bouncing around of the specimens
during transportation and absorb excess moisture. Pa-
per envelopes, either ordinary letter envelopes or tri-
angular envelopes like that shown in Figure 35-7, are
excellent for temporary storage of large-winged insects
such as butterflies, moths, or dragonflies. These trian-
gular envelopes can be made quickly from a sheet of
notebook paper, and specimens will remain in good
condition in them. Collecting data (se e later) can be
written on the outside before putting in the specimen.
Many insects can be killed by dropping them di-
recdy into 70-90% ethyl or isopropyl alcohol, where
they can be stored nearly indefinitely. This method is
used exclusively for many insects, such as very minute
forms that are to be mounted on microscope slides for
detailed study (springtails, lice, fleas, and some
Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera) and many soft-
bodied insects that may shrivel when mounted dry
(camel crickets, termites, mayflies, stoneflies, caddis-
flies, and others). In contrast, adult Lepidoptera and
üdonata should not be placed in alcohol. If the facili-
ties are available, the field catch can be sto red tem-
porarily in a refrigerator, or it can be frozen and kept
for an extended periodo Any collector will soon learn
Figure35-7 Folding triangular paper envelopes forin-
sect specimens. Fol\ow steps A, B, and C. (From DeLong
and Davidson, courtesy of The Ohio State University
Press.)
the best way to kill and preserve the various kinds o[
insects.
Process each day's catch as soon as possible. If
specimens are to be pinned in the field, do the pinning
before they be come too stiff to handle without break-
ing off appendages. Many small insects dry extremely
quickly. Process insects that are to be stored in paper
envelopes (such as üdonata and Lepidoptera) while
they are still 50ft enough to fold the wings above the
body. Put specimens to be preserved in alcohol into the
alcohol as soon as possible after they are killed, or kill
them direcdy in it. Use a relatively large volume of al-
cohol, or after a day transfer the specimens into fresh
alcohol to counteract the diluting effect of the insects'
body fluids. Although alcohol significandy reduces the
rate of decomposition, it does not stop it entirely. Spec-
imens stored in alcohol continue to deteriorate over
time, particularly in color. For this reason, keep mate-
rial stored in alcohol in the dark and in cold condi-
tions, such as a freezer.
lt is extremely important to associate each lot o[
insects collected with a data label indicating at leastthe
place and time of the collection and the name of the
collector. Any other relevant data, such as elevation,
habitat, collecting method, and what the insect wasdo-
ing, should also be included. A specimen without such
data may perhaps be better than no specimen at all-
but not much! A specimen with incorrect data is even
worse and creates problems for later researchers, espe-
cially systematists who place considerable importance
on the data accompanying specimens. In most in-
stances, only the collector can supply such data, and
the longer he or she waits to label the catch, the greater

the chance for errors in the labeling. lt is advisable to
not only include the information with the sample col-
lected, but also to record the data in your own bound
notebook. There, any additional details on the collec-
tion can be saved without limits on writing space. See
the later section on labeling for guidelines for prepar-
ing the data labels that should accompany each insect
specimen.
Mounting and Preserving Insects
Insects can be mounted and preserved in various ways.
Most specimens are pinned, and, once dried, these
keep indefinitely. Specimens too small to pin can be
mounted on points, on tiny minuten pins, or on mi-
croscope slides. Large and showy insects, such as but-
terflies, moths, grasshoppers, dragonflies, and others,
may be mounted in various types of glass-topped dis-
play boxes. Preserve soft-bodied forms (nymphs, lar-
vae, and many adults) in fluids.
Relaxing
Mount all insects as soon as possible after they have
been collected. If they are allowed to dry, they become
brittle and are easily broken in the process of being
mounted. Specimens stored in pillboxes or envelopes for
a long time must be relaxed before they are mounted.
Relaxing may be accomplished with a relaxing chamber
or a special relaxing fluid, or sometimes hard-bodied in-
sects such as beetles can be relaxed enough to pin by
dropping them in hot water for a few minutes.
A relaxing chamber can be made of any wide-
mouthed can or jar that can be made airtight. The bot-
tom of the jar is covered with wet sand or cloth (prefer-
ably with a little phenol added to prevent mold); the
insects are put in the jar in open, shallow boxes; and
the jar is tightly closed. Special jars for this purpose
can also be obtained from supply houses. The collector
must learn by experience how long it takes to relax an
insect, but after a day or two in such a chamber speci-
mens are usually sufficiently relaxed to mount.
Entire specimens, or parts thereof, can often be re-
laxed by dipping them in a relaxing fluid for several
minutes. The formula for this fluid (sometimes known
as Barber's fluid) is as follows:
50 mI
95% ethyl alcohol
Water 50 mI
Ethyl acetate 20 mI
Benzene 7 mI
Another way to relax a specimen is to inject tap
water into it with a hypodermic syringe (with a 20- or
Mounting and Preserving Insects 755
25-gauge needle). Insert the needle into the thorax un-
der the wings, and completely fill the thorax with wa-
ter. This method is particularly useful for Lepidoptera
(except small ones) that have been kept in paper en-
velopes. After injection return the specimen to the en-
velope for 5 to 20 minutes, after which it should be re-
laxed enough to mount.
Cleaning Specimens
It is seldom necessary to clean specimens, and it is usu-
ally better not to. A little dirt is preferable to a damaged
specimen. Cleaning specimens is most likely to be de-
sirable when they have been collected from mud, dung,
or a similar material, some of which has stuck to the
specimens. The easiest way to remove this material is
to put the specimens in alcohol or in water to which a
detergent has been added. If the material to be removed
is greasy, cleaning fluid can be used.
Dust, lint, Lepidoptera scales, and the like can be
removed by means of a camel's-hair brush, either dry or
dipped in a cleaning fluido This method can also re-
move films of oil or grease that so me times exude from
pinned specimens. Ultrasonic cleaners clean specimens
quickly and thoroughly. Take care not to overdo ultra-
sonic cleaning, as the vibrations eventually break most
specimens apart.
Pinning
Pinning is the best way to preserve hard-bodied in-
sects. Pinned specimens keep well, retain their normal
appearance, and are easily handled and studied. The
colors often fade when the insect dries, but this fading
is difficult to avoid under any circumstances. Bright
colors are generally better preserved if the specimens
are dried rapidly.
Common pins are undesirable for pinning insects.
They are too thick, too short, and they rust. Insects
should be pinned with a special type of steel pin
known as an insect pino These pins are longer than
common pins, they can be obtained in various sizes
Cthicknesses), and they should not rust. Insect pin
sizes range fram 00 to 7. Number 2 or 3 pins are best
for general use; the smaller sizes (that is, smaller in di-
ame ter) are too slender for all but specialty purposes.
Size 7 pins are longer than the other sizes (and will not
fit in some insect boxes or drawers); these pins are
used in pinning very large insects, such as some tropi-
cal beetles.
Insects are pinned vertically through the body as
shown in Figures 35-8 and 35-9. Bees, wasps, flies,
bu tterflies , and moths are pinned through the thorax
between the bases of the front wings. With flies and
wasps, insert the pin a little to the right of the midline.
Pin bugs through the scutellum (Figure 35-8C), a lit-
756 Chapter35 Collecting,Preserving,
andStudyingInsects
e o E pinning blocks (Figure 35-10); a common type (Fig-
Figure35-8 Methods of pinning insects. A, lateral
view of a pinned grasshopper; black spots in the other
figures show location of pin for flies (B), bugs (C),
grasshoppers (D), and beetles (E). (Courtesy of the
Illinois Natural History Survey.)
tle to the right of the midline if the scutellum is large.
Grasshoppers are usually pinned through the posterior
part of the pronotum, just to the right of the midline
(Figure 35-8D). Pin beetles, earwigs, and large hop-
pers through the right fore wing, about halfway be-
tween the two ends of the body (Figure 35-8E). The
pin should go through the metathorax and emerge
through the metasternum (see Figure 26-4) so as not
to damage the bases of the legs. Dragonflies and dam-
selflies are best pinned horizontally through the tho-
rax, with the left side uppermost. This method reduces
the space necessary to house the collection, and a spec-
Figure35-9 Pinning Lepidoptera. These insects are
pinned through the center of the thorax, in both moths
(A) and butterflies (B). (Courtesy of the Illinois Natural
History Survey.)
imen so pinned can be studied just as easily as one
pinned vertically. If the specimen does not have wings
together above its back when it dies, move the wings
into that position and put the specimen into an enve-
lope for a day or so until it has dried enough for the
wings to remain in this position. Then carefully pin it
through the upper part of the thorax, be10w the base of
the wings.
The easiest way to pin an insect is to hold it be-
tween the thumb and forefinger of one hand and insert
the pin with the other. Mount all specimens at a uni-
form height on the pin, about 25 mm above the poiD!,
but leave enough of the pin above the insect (for ex-
ample, with heavy-bodied insects) to permit a comfort-
able finger hold. Uniformity can be obtained with a
pinning block. There are a number of designs of
ure 35-lOA) consists of a block of wood in which three
small holes have been drilled to different depths, usu-
ally 25, 16, and 9.5 mm.
T
I
A I
30mm
I
I
I
I
30mm
B I
I
~
+j
Figure35-10 Pinning blocks. These can be rectangu-
lar pieces of wood containing holes drilled to different
depths (A), or blocks shaped like stair steps, with holes
drilled to the bottom (B). The block of the type shownin
A usually has the holes drilled to depths of 25, 16, and
9.5 mm. After placing a specimen or label on the pin, in-
sert the pin into the appropriate hole until it touches
bottom-into the deepest hole for the specimen, the
middle hole for the label bearing the locality and date,
and the last hole for any additionallabel. For thick-
bodied insects, leave enough room above the insect to
grasp the pino (From DeLong and Davidson 1936, cour-
tesy of The Ohio State University Press.)

If the abdomen sags when the insect is pinned, as
it sometimes does, stick the pinned specimen on a ver-
tical surface with the abdomen hanging down and
leave it there until it dries. If the insect is pinned on a
horizontal surface, place a piece of stiff paper or card-
board on the pin beneath the insect to support it until
it dries. Another alternative is to support the abdomen
from below with a pair of crossed pins.
The appendages of a pinned insect need not be in
a lifelike position (although the appearance of the col-
lection is greatly improved if they are), but it is desir-
able to have them project out from the body slightly so
they can be easily examined. The legs should be ex-
tended enough so that all parts are easily visible, and
the wings should be extended out from the body so
that the venation can be seen. Pinned bees that have
the tongue extended are easier to identify than those
with the tongue folded tightly against the underside of
the head. The most important point to remember is
that all such manipulations of the specimen are best
done while the insect is still fresh and flexible.
Entomologists use various types of mounting
boards to position the appendages of insects while they
dry. These can be made of balsa wood, cork, Styrofoam,
cardboard, or any 50ft material that allows a pin to be
inserted deeply enough for the lower surface of the
specimen to rest on a flat surface. Pins can then be used
to arrange the legs, antennae, or other parts in any po-
sition desired and hold them there until the specimen
dries. Once you become familiar with the characters
used in identification in various groups, you can
arrange and prepare your specimens accordingly.
A sheet of cork, balsa wood, or other 50ft material
is very useful for temporary storage of pinned insects
until they can be sorted and put into boxes. If you plan
to use such temporary storage, be sure to read the sec-
tion on collection pests.
Spreading Insects
When the specimen is pinned, the position of the legs
or wings does not greatly matter as long as all parts can
be easily seen and studied. With moths, butterflies, and
possibly some other insects, and in the case of insects
mounted in display boxes (see the following), the
wings should be spread before the insect is put into the
collection. The method of spreading depends on
whether the specimen is mounted pinned or unpinned,
and the position into which the wings should be put
depends on the type of insects.
An insect that is lO be part of a pinned collection
is spread on a spreading board (Figure 35-11). Spread-
ing boards can be obtained from a supply house or
made at home. An insect to be mounted under glass, as
in a Riker or glass mount, may be spread on any flat
Mounting and PreservingInsects 757
:_ 1/4"
¡
1/2"
Figure35-11 The spreading board, showing dimen-
sions, details of construction (inset), and a spread speci-
men. The wings of the specimen can be held in place by
a single, broad strip of paper as shown on the left wings,
or by a narrower strip and pins as shown on the right
wings. (Courtesy of the Illinois Natural History Survey.)
surface such as a piece of corrugated cardboard or a
sheet of cork or balsa wood. When using a spreading
board, the insect is ordinarily spread dorsal side up,
and the pin is left in the insect. A specimen spread on
a flat surface for a Riker mount is spread in an upside
down position, and the pin is not left in the body of the
insect.
There are standard positions for the wings of a
spread insecto In the case ofbutterflies and moths (many
figures in Chapter 30) and mayflies (Figure 9-1), the
rear margins of the front wings should be far enough for-
ward so there is no large gap at the side between the
front and hind wings. With grasshoppers, dragonflies,
damselflies, and most other insects, the front margins of
the hind wings should be straight across, with the front
wings far enough forward that they just clear the hind
wings. The front and hind wings of a butterfly or moth
are always overlapped, with the front edge of the hind
wing under the rear edge of the front wing. With other
insects the wings are usually not overlapped.
The actual process of spreading an insect is rela-
tively simple, through it requires a little practice to be-
come proficient. Great care must be taken to not dam-
age the specimen. Butterflies and moths must be
handled with particular care to avoid rubbing off the
scales on the wings; handle these insects with forceps.
If the specimen is to be mounted on a spreading board,
it is first pinned (like any other pinned insect), and
then the pin inserted in the groove of the spreading
board until the base of the wings is flush with the sur-
758 Chapter35 Collecting,Preserving,and StudyingInsects
face of the board. If the specimen is to be upside down
on a fIat surface, the pin is inserted into the thorax
from underneath, and the insect is pinned on its back
on some fIat surface. It is often advisable to place pins
along each side of the body to prevent it from swinging
out of line.
The steps in spreading a butterfIy are shown in
Figure 35-12. Move the wings into position by pins
and hold them there by strips of paper or other mater-
ial pinned to the board, and orient the antennae and
hold them in position by pins. Maneuver the wings by
pins from near the base of the wing, along the front
margino The veins are heavier at this point, and there is
D E
less likelihood of tearing the wing. Do not put the pin
through the wing if you can avoid it, because doing so
leaves a hole. The specimen should be fastened down
securely, and it may sometimes be necessary to use
more strips of paper than are shown in Figure 35-12.
This figure illustrates a method of spreading an insect
upside down on any fIat surface, and the final step in
this process is to hold the body down with forceps and
carefully remove the pin (G). If the specimen is spread
on a spreading board, the steps are similar, but the pin
is left in the specimen.
The length of time it takes a spread specimen to
dry depends on the size of the specimen and such other
F
Figure 35-12 5teps in spreading a butterfIy upside
down on a fIat surface. A, position before starting to
raise the wings; B, the front wing on one side raised;
C, the front wing on the other side raised, with the
hind margins of the front wings in a straight line;
D, the hind wing on one side raised; E, the hind wing
on the other side raised; F, the antennae oriented and
held in position by pins; G, removing the pin from
the body of the butterfIy.
If

Mounting and Preserving Insects 759

A B e D

Figure35-13 Methods of mounting minute insects. A, a bug on a point, dorsal side

up; B, a fly on a point, left side up; C, a beetle mounted dorsal side up, attached by its
side to the bent-down tip of the point; D, a mosquito mounted on a minuten pino

factors as temperature and humidity. No general state-
ment of time required can be made; you learn this by
experience. To determine whether the specimen is
ready to be removed from the spreading board, touch
the abdomen gently with a pin: If the abdomen can be
moved independently of the wings, the specimen is not
yet dry; if the body is stiff, the specimen can be re-
moved. Some of the larger moths may take a week or
more to dry thoroughly. In every case, take care that
not to lose the data on the specimen. A data label can
be pinned alongside the specimen when it is spread.
In camp work or in the lower school grades, for
example, mounting in a Riker mount or similar display
is preferable to spreading a pinned specimen. Such
specimens are more easily displayed and are less sub-
ject to breakage. However, spread specimens in good
scientific collections are always pinned. Circumstances
determine what type of spreading method to use.
can be cut with scissors or, preferably, they can be cut
with a special type of punch (obtainable from supply
houses).
Puuing an insect on a point is a very simple process.
The point is put on the pin, the pin is grasped by the
sharp end, and the upper side of the tip of the point is
touched to the glue and then touched to the insect. Use
as liule glue as possible (so that body parts are not cov-
ered by it), and the specimen should be correctly ori-
ented on the point. The standard positions of an insect
mounted on a point are shown in Figure 35-13A-C.

Mounting Smalllnsects
lnsects too small to pin can be mounted on a card or
point (Figures 35-13A-C, 35-14), on a minuten pin
(Figure 35-13D), on a microscope slide, or they can be
preserved in liquido Most small specimens are mounted
on points.
Points are elongated, triangular pieces of light
cardboard or heavy paper, about 8 or 10 mm long and
3 or 4 mm wide at the base. Remember that a well-
prepared insect collection can last for centuries. Many
types of paper do not have such longevity, becoming
yellow and brittle in only a few short years. Therefore,
points should be made of good-quality, acid-free, Figure35-14 A method of mounting long, slender in-
archival paper. The point is pinned through the base, sects that are too small to pin; such insects are mounted
and the insect is glued to the tip of the point. Points on two points.
760 Chapter35 Collecting,Preserving,
andStudyingInsects
If the insect is put on the point dorsal side up (A), the
point should not extend beyond the middle of the body.
lt is important not to embed in glue body parts to be ex-
amined for identification. Beetles mounted on points
should always have the ventral side of the body visible.
The glue used in mounting insects on points
should be quick-drying and should be quite hard when
it sets. Preferably, it should be soluble in water or alco-
hol so that specimens can be easily removed if neces-
sary (for example, for dissection or slide mounting.)
Glue, used with care, is also useful in repairing broken
specimens and replacing broken-off wings and legs.
Shellac gel is a good glue for points. It can be pur-
chased from a supply house or made following the in-
structions in Martin (1977).
Drying Specimens
Small specimens dry quickly in open air, but some-
times you may want to hasten the drying of larger in-
sects artificially. Large specimens eventually dry in the
open air, but it is not advisable to leave them exposed
for very long because of the probability of damage by
dermestids, ants, or other pests. A chamber with one or
more light bulbs can be used for rapid drying. A simple
drying chamber can be made from a wooden box with
a door on one side. Slats can be placed on the sides of
the box to allow mounting or spreading boards to be
arranged at various distances from the heat source (the
light bulbs). To allow moisture to escape, vent such
boxes with a few small holes in the side or topo
Many soft-bodied arthropods (insect larvae, spi-
ders, and others) can be dehydrated by critical-point
drying, freeze-drying, vacuum drying, or chemical dry-
ing. These techniques yield specimens that are not par-
ticularly fragile, show no distortion and very liule color
loss, and subsequently show no indication of reabsorp-
tion of water or decomposition. After dehydration they
are pinned and stored like any other pinned insect. The
equipment and procedures used in critical-point drying
are discussed by Gordh and Hall (1979), freeze-drying
methods are described by Woodring and Blum (1963)
and by Roe and Clifford (1976), and those for vacuum
drying are described by Blum and Woodring (1963).
A recently developed method for chemical drying
that has become popular is to use HMDS (hexamethyl-
disilazane). This highly caustic chemical should be
used only in laboratories equipped with proper ventila-
tion, preferably a fume hood. The method is generally
as follows: (l) Specimens are dehydrated by passing
them through higher and higher alcohol concentra-
tions. Typically, a sample in 70% ethanol is transferred
to a 95% solution for at least two hours; the sample is
then transferred to a fresh solution of 95% ethanol. Af-
ter two hours, the specimens are transferred to absolute
alcohol for at least two hours, followed by transfer to a
fresh vial of 100% ethanol. After the final two hours in
the absolute alcohol, the liquid is removed as com-
pletely as possible and replaced with HMDS. After
20 minutes, the HMDS is removed and replaced with
fresh HMDS. Finally the specimens are placed on filter
paper and, with good ventilation, preferably in a hood,
are allowed to air-dry. The times quoted vary widely de-
pending on the nature of the specimens, the amount of
water in the initial sample, and the quality of the chem-
icals used. Experiment to find the timing that works
best for your material.
Preserving Insects in Fluids
Any type of insect can be preserved in fluido Insects can
be preserved in fluid temporarily until one has an op-
portunity to pin them, and many collectors prefer to
store their collections in fluid rather than dried in en-
velopes or pillboxes. However, specimens preserved in
fluids are usually not as easily examined as those on
pins or points, and in general any insect that can be
preserved dry should be mounted on a pin or point.
Preservation in fluids is the standard means of
preservation for the following: (l) soft-bodied insects
(for example, mayflies, caddisflies, stoneflies, midges,
and others), which would shrivel and be come distorted
if pinned and allowed to air-dry; (2) many very small
insects, which are best studied in detail when mounted
on a microscope slide (for example, lice, fleas, thrips,
Collembola, and others; (3) insect larvae and most in-
sect nymphs; and (4) arthropods other than insects.
The fluid generally used for preserving insects and
other arthropods is ethyl alcohol (70-80%). The
preservation or fixation of tissues is better for many
forrns if certain other substances are added to the alco-
hol. The most commonly used modifications of ethyl
alcohol are the following:
Hood's soIution:
95 mI
70-80% ethyl alcohol
5 mI
Glycerin
Kahle's soIution:
95% ethyl alcohol 30 mI
Formaldehyde 12 mI
Glacial acetic acid 4ml
Water 60 mI
Alcoholic Bouin's soIution:
80% ethyl alcohol 150 mI
Formaldehyde 60 mI
Glacial acetic acid 15 mI
Picric acid 1g
Although these solutions are "classically" used, we
must stress the dangers associated with some of the
r
chemicals, particularly formaldehyde (a carcinogen)
and picric acid (which is explosive when dry).
Ethyl alcohol (and the modifications just men-
tioned) can also be used as a killing agent for many in-
sects and other arthropods, but it is unsatisfactory as a
killing agent for insect larvae. The killing agents com-
monly used for larvae are the following:
KAAD mixture:
95% ethyl alcohol 70-100 ml
Kerosene 10ml
Glacial acetic acid 20ml
Dioxane lOml
XA mixture:
95% ethyl alcohol 50ml
Xylene 50ml
If KAAD is used, reduce the amount of kerosene
for soft-bodied larvae such as maggots. larvae killed in
either of these mixtures are ready for transfer to alco-
hol for storage after 1/2to 4 hours. In the transfer to al-
cohol, change the alcohol after the first few days, be-
cause it becomes diluted by the body fluids of the
animal put in it. Any of these killing agents are likely
to remove the bright colors of larvae, especially greens,
yellows, and reds. All known killing and preserving
fluids are likely to destroy some colors.
A problem always encountered when specimens
are preserved in fluids is the evaporation of the fluido
Stopper the vials with rubber, neoprene, or polyethyl-
ene (not cork), and it is advisable to use oversized
stoppers that do not extend very far into the bottle.
Screw-cap vials are satisfactory if the cap is tight-
fitting. Polyseal caps or inserts are very effective in re-
ducing evaporation from screw-cap vials. Procaine
vials or tubes (usually available free from any dentist)
make ideal temporary containers for many small forms.
All containers should be well filled with fluid and
should be examined at least once or twice a year so that
evaporated fluid can be replaced. Evaporation may be
retarded by covering the stoppers with some sort of
sealing material such as Para film. Another method is to
place a number of small, stoppered vials in a large jar
with a rubber gasket.
Mounting on Microscope Slides
Many small arthropods (lice, fleas, thrips, midges,
mites, and others), and often such isolated body parts
as legs or genitalia, are best studied when mounted on
microscope slides. Material so mounted is generally
transferred to a slide from preserving fluid, and the
mount may be either temporary or permanent. Use
temporary mounts for material that is to be returned to
the preserving fluid after study. Such mounts may last
anywhere from a few minutes to many months, de-
Mounting and PreservingInsects 761
pending on the mounting medium used. Use perma-
nent mounts for material that is not to be returned to
the preserving fluid after study. Despite their name,
such mounts do not last indefinitely, but may remain in
good condition for many years. Specimens mounted on
microscope slides for class use are usually mounted as
permanent mounts. Specimens of particular taxonomic
value, which one would like to keep indefinitely,
should be kept in fluids and mounted for study only in
temporary mounts.
Many small or soft-bodied specimens may be
mounted directly in a mounting medium, but others
(especially dark-colored or thick-bodied specimens or
such structures as genitalia) must be "cleared" before
mounting. The clearing process removes tissue from
within the specimen as well as some of the pigmento
Generally it do es not render a specimen truly clear or
transparento Some mounting media have an inherent
clearing action. Several substances may be used specif-
ically as clearing agents, but the most commonly used
are probably potassium hydroxide (KOH), lactic acid,
and Nesbitt's solution. KOH can be used for almost any
arthropod or arthropod structure. Nesbitt's solution is
often used for clearing such small arthropods as mites,
lice, and Collembola. After clearing in KOH, wash the
specimen in water (preferably with a little acetic acid
added) to remove or neutralize any excess KOH. Spec-
imens in lactic acid should be thoroughly washed with
water. The subsequent treatment of the specimen de-
pends on the type of medium in which it is mounted.
Specimens cleared in Nesbitt's solution can be trans-
ferred directly to some mounting media, but with other
media specimens must be run through certain reagents
first.
KOH used for clearing is a 10-15% solution. The
formula for Nesbitt's solution is as follows:
Nesbitt's solution:
Chloral hydrate 40 g
Concentrated HCl 2.5 mL
Distilled water (more for lightly 25-50 mL
sclerotized specimens)
Note that chloral hydrate is a controlled substance
and is available only for restricted use.
KOH can be used cold or warm, or the specimen
may be boiled in it. Boiling is faster but may sometimes
distort the specimen. Clearing in cold KOH requires
from several hours to a day or more. The same specimen
may be cleared in a few minutes by boiling. Nesbitt's so-
lution is usually used cold, and the clearing may require
from a few hours to a few days.
Small specimens may be mounted on a regular mi-
croscope slide without any special support for the glass
coverslip other than the mounting medium itself.
larger or thicker specimens should be mounted on a
762 Chapter35 Collecting.Preserving,
andStudyingInsects

depression slide or with some sort of support for the for this purpose; one very commonly used is acid
cover glass, to keep it level and to prevent the specimen fuchsin. The procedure to follow in using this stain on
from being flattened. The support for a cover glass on scale insects is outIined in Chapter 22.
an ordinary microscope slide may consist of small
pieces of glass or a piece of fine wire bent into a loop. Studies of Insed Genitalia
Some specimens are best studied in a depression slide
Many taxonomic studies of insects involve a detailed
or a small dish without a cover glass so that the speci-
men can be maneuvered and examined from different study of the external genitalia, particularly those of the
maleo The genitalia are sclerotized structures that can
angles. If a cover glass is added, most specimens are
sometimes be studied in the dried insect without any
mounted dorsal side up. Fleas are usually mounted
special treatment of the specimen, but in most cases
with the left side up, and many mites are commonly
they are partIy or largely internal and must be removed
mounted ventral side up.
and cleared for detailed study.
The media most often used for temporary slide
Procedures to follow in removing and clearing
mounts are water or alcohol, glycerin, and glycerin
genitalia vary depending on the type of insect. In sorne
jelly. Water and alcohol evaporate rapidly, and mounts
cases the insect (if mounted dry) can be relaxed, either
with these materials generally last only a few minutes
by the use of a relaxing fluid (see earlier discussion) or
unless more of the medium is added. Temporary slides
by placing the specimen in a relaxing chamber for a
made with glycerin or glycerin jelly are much better
time, and genitalia may be removed with a small dis-
and last a relatively long time. They can be made semi-
secting needle and then cleared in KOH. In other cases
permanent by "ringing" (putting a ring of asphaltum,
the abdomen (or the apical part of it) must be removed
nail polish, or a similar material around the edge of the
and cleared in KOH, and the genitalia are dissected out
cover glass). With glycerin jelly, a bit of the jelly is put
after clearing. Clearing may be accomplished in a few
on the slide and liquefied by heat. Then the specimen
minutes by boiling, or it may be accomplished by leav-
is added and oriented, and a cover glass is put on. This
ing the genitalia in the KOH for a longer period at
material cools to a solid jelly. Specimens mounted in
room temperature. In the latter case, clearing may re-
glycerin jelly can be unmounted by reversing the pro-
quire from a few hours to a few days, depending on
cess. Specimens can be put into glycerin or glycerin
how heavily sclerotized these structures are. Lactic acid
jelly directIy from water or alcohol.
is generally more gentIe as a clearing agent than KOH.
The media used for permanent slide mounts are of
Overclearing renders the genitalia transparent, fragile,
two general types: those with a water base, and resins.
and difficult to study. Such genitalia are more easily
Specimens can be mounted in water-based media di-
studied if stained with borax carmine after clearing.
rectIy from water or alcohol. Such mounts are some-
After the genitalia are cleared, they are washed in
what less permanent than resin mounts, but their life
water with a little acetic acid added (about 1 drop per
can be prolonged by ringing. Specimens mounted in a
50 cm3 of water) and placed in small dishes of glycerin
resin (natural or synthetic) must first be dehydrated (by
for study. They can be mounted on microscope slides,
running through successively increasing concentrations
but this approach permits a study from only one angle.
of alcohol: for example, 70, 95, and 100%), and then
through xylol and into the resin. The most commonly
In small dishes they can be turned and studied frarn
any angle desired.
used resin is Canada balsam. There are many water-
After the study is completed, the genitalia are
based media, but the following is one of the best:
stored in micravials of glycerin (vials about 10-12 rnrn
Hoyer's chloral hydrate (Berlese's fluid): in length), and these vials are kept with the specirnens
Water 50 mL fram which the genitalia were removed. If the genitalia
Gum arabic 30 g carne fram a pinned specimen, the vial is put on the pin
Chloral hydrate (see earlier comments) 200 g (lhe pin going thraugh the stopper of the vial) below
Glycerin 20 mL the specimen. Genitalia removed from a specirnen
must be handled in such a way that they can alwaysbe
The gum arabic should be ground-up crystals or
associated with the specimen from which they carneas
powder, not flakes. Filter this mixture through glass
wool before use. well as its collecting data.
All permanent slide mounts take some time to dry.
They should be kept horizontal (cover glass up) during
Labeling
drying and are best stored in slide boxes in this same The scientific value of an insect specimen depends to a
position. large extent on the information regarding the date and
It is sometimes desirable to stain an insect before locality of its capture and also on such additional in-
it is mounted. A number of different stains are suitable formation as the name of the collector and the habitat
f

Mounting and Preserving Insects 763

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USA, Arizona, Cochise Co.
Sear Ck. Huachuca Mt$.
USA, Arizona, Cochise Co.
Bear Ck. Huachuca MIs.
USA, Arizona, Coc:hise Ce.
Bear Ck. Huachuca MIs.
USA, Afizona, Cochise Co.
Bear Ck. Huachuca Mts.
ica, that the country is not listed and the label begin
18,iv.1994 N.F.Johnson 18.iv.1994 N.F.Johnson 18.iv.1994 N.F.Johnson 18.iv.1994 N.F.Johnson
sweeping sweeping sweeping sweeping with the sta te or province in which the specimen was
31"22.8'N 11 O"21.S'W 31"22.8'N 110"21.S'W 31"22.S'N 110"21.S'W 31.22.8'N 110021.S'W
USA, Arizona. Cochise Co.
Bear Ck. Huachuca Mts.
USA, Arizona, Cochise Co.
Bear Ck. Huachuca Mis.
USA, Artzona, Cochise Co.
Bear Ck. Huachuca MIs.
USA, Arizona, Cochise Co.
Sear Ck. Huachuca Mis.
collected. Ineluding the country adds little to the
18.iv.1994 N.F.Johnson 18.1y.1994 N.F.Johnson 18.iv.1994 N.F. Johnson 18.iv.1994 N.F. Johnson
sweeping sweeping 8Weeping sweeping amount of text on the label and certainly helps prevent
31"22.8'N 11 0"21.8'W
USA, Arizona. Cochise Co.
Bear Ck. Huachuca MIs.
31"22.8'N 11 0"21.8'W
USA, Arizona, Cochise Co.
31"22.8'N 110"21.8'W
USA, Arizona, Cochise Co.
31°22.S'N 11 0"21.8'W
USA, Arizona, Cochise Oo. any future ambiguity. Specification of the collecting 10-
Bear Ck. Huachuca Mis. Bear Ck. Huachuca Mis. Bear Ck. Huachuca MIs.
18.iv.1994 N.F. Johnson
sweeping
18.iv.1994 N.F. Johnson
swe&ping
18.iv.1994 N.F.Johnson
sweeping
18.1v.1994 N.F. Johnson
sweeping
cality should use a place name that other people can
31"22.8'N 110"21.8'W
USA, Arilona, Coc:tIise Co.
31"22.8'N 110"21.8'W
USA, Atizona, Coc:tIise Co.
31"22.8'N 110"21.8'W
USA, Arizona, Coc:tIise Co.
31G22.8'N 110"21.8'W
USA, Atizona. Coc:tIise Co.
reasonably be expected to find and use, and may in-
Bear Ck. Huachuca Mis. Bear Ck. Huac:huca MIs. Bear Ck. Huachuca MIs. Bear Ck. Huac:huca MIs.
18.iv.1994 N.F. Johnson
swe&ping
18.1v.1994 N.F. Johnson
sweeping
18.1v.1994 N.F. JOhnson
sweeping
18.iv.1994 N.F. Johnson
sweeping
elude an offset, such as "7 km S of West Bloomfield on
SR56."
Traps are commonly operated for more than one
Figure 35-15 Example of a word-processed document day, and the date the traps were set and the date emp-
for collecting labels. The labels are set in 4-point type. tied is indicated by the range in days. Conventions for
writing dates vary widely, and data recorded as, for ex-
ample, 4/8/35 may mean April 8, 1935, to one person,
or food plant in or on which the specimen was col- but 4 August 1935, to another. This problem can be
lected. The beginning student may look on such label- easily avoided by using roman numerals to represent
ing as an unnecessary and tedious chore, but the time the month of the year: 4.viii.l935. We also recommend
always comes when data on a specimen are indispens- that the year be specified using four digits.
able. An insect collector should always label his or her The name of the collector is, arguably, the least
specimens with place and date as the minimum important da tu m on a label. In some cases, however, it
amount of data for a specimen. Additional data are de- may be very helpful from a historical point of view or
sirable, but optional. to enable you to go back to the collector for more in-
The label should follow this format and order: ge- formation. Gn occasion you will find labels with either
ographic coordinates, collecting locality, date(s) of col- the abbreviation "coll." or "leg."-meaning collector or
lection, name of collector, collecting method, habitat donor respectively.
or behavioral notes. For example, see Figure 35-15. Supplementary information commonly in eludes
The place of collection is by far the most important in- the method by which the specimens were collected, for
formation on this label. example, swept, Malaise; the general habitat, such as
The geographic data are, admittedly, redundant, "dry stream bed"; or behavioral notes such as "feeding
but specifying both the coordinates as well as indicat- on goldenrod flowers." Specimens that are reared from
ing where the locality is, politically, makes the label plant material, other arthropods, and those collected
easier to read and use. The coordinates are recorded to from a vertebrate host commonly have the abbreviation
a 10th of a minute of latitude and longitude. As dis- "ex: oo."to indica te that the specimen carne "from" that
cussed earlier, the accuracy recorded and actually host. Although useful, it is usually better to give more
achieved varies for many reasons. A 10th of a minute specific information, such as "reared from mature larva
is, roughly, 100-200 m, and is a reasonable level for of Papilio sp."
most purposes. Some prefer to record UTM coordinates Data labels can be printed by hand with a fine-
rather than lat/long. UTM, Universal Transverse Mer- pointed pen, but it is more effective to print them with
cator, is a projection, that is, an algorithm for repre- a laser or ink-jet printer. The printer quality affects the
senting the Earth in the two dimensions of a map. The quality, particularly longevity, of the labels produced.
units reported are meters, which, together with a pair In general, labels produced with a laser printer should
of base numbers-the false northing and false easting- not be exposed to ethyl acetate. Four-point type is gen-
uniquely indica te the position of a point on the planet. erally a good compromise between making the label
In some ways it is more convenient than degrees/ small and keeping it legible. When large numbers of
minutes/seconds, because the units of latitude and lon- identicallabels are needed, as is common when sweep-
gitude are equal. The surface of the Earth is divided ing or using a trap, using the copy and paste functions
into a number of zones to minimize distortions in the of a word processor ensures that all the labels are iden-
projection process. Converting UTM to lat/long requires tical. Generally, print no more than 6 lines of data on a
that you know in which zone the coordinates occur. single label. If more space is needed, use a second label
Any capable GPS unit can easily switch between record- rather than making a wide or long label. If the label is
ing coordinates in degrees/minutes/seconds, decimal de- hand-written, use indelible ink.
grees, or UTM. The appearance of a collection of pinned insects is
The specification of collecting locality begins from greatly influenced by the nature of the labels. Small,
a general level, the country, and becomes increasingly neat, properly oriented labels add much to the aes-
more specific. lt has been traditional, in North Amer- thetic value of the collection. Labels should be on fairly
764 Chapter35 Collecting,Preserving,
andStudyingInsects
~s
S~~~
~,,~~
~~~~,"'""'"
Figure35-16 The identification label, giving the scien-
tific name of the insect and the name of the person iden-
tifying the specimen.
stiff white paper and preferably not larger than 6 by
19 mm. The paper should be good quality and acid-free.
Place labels at a uniform height on the pin, parallel to
and undemeath the insect. If only one label is used,
place it about 16 mm above the point of the pino If
more than one label is used, the uppermost one should
be at this distance above the point. Orient the labels so
that all read from the same side. We prefer that they
read from the left side (Figure 35-16), but some peo-
pIe prefer that they read from the right side. For speci-
mens mounted on points, the label should extend par-
allel to the point (Figure 35-13A,B) and be offset from
the pin like the point. If there are two or more labels on
the pin (for example, one for the locality, date, and col-
lector, and another for the host plant), the labels
should be parallel and arranged to be read from the
same side.
This discussion applies to labels containing data
conceming the locality, date, and collector, and not to
labels identifying the insects. Identifying labels are dis-
cussed next, under "Housing, Arrangement, and Care
of the Collection."
Labels for specimens preserved in fluids should be
written on a good grade of rag paper with India or
other waterproof ink, or printed as just described, and
placed inside the container with the specimen(s). La-
bels for specimens mounted on microscope slides are
attached to the upper surface of the slide, on one or
both sides of the cover glass.
Housing, Arranging, and Caring
for the Collection
The basic considerations in housing, arranging, and
caring for an insect collection are the same whether the
collection consists of a few boxes of specimens or thou-
sands of museum drawers containing millions of spec-
imens. The specimens in a collection must be system-
atically arranged and protected from museum pests,
light, and moisture. The general arrangement of a col-
lection depends principally on its size, the purpose for
which it is intended, and the method used in preserv-
ing the specimens (pinned, in envelopes, in liquid, on
slides, and so on).
Keep pinned insects in dust-proof boxes having a
soft bottom that will permit easy pinning. Several types
of insect boxes may be purchased from supply houses.
The most commonly used type is made of wood, about
230 by 330 by 60 mm in size, with a tight-fitting lid
and an inner bottom of sheet cork, composition board,
or foam plastic. Such boxes usually cost from $10 to
$25. The better boxes of this type are called Schmiu
boxes. Satisfactory low-cost pinning boxes can be
made of cigar boxes or heavy cardboard boxes by lin-
ing the bottoms with sheet cork, balsa wood, foam
plastic, or soft corrugated cardboard. This bottom ma-
terial should be glued in place or cut so that it fits very
tightly into the box.
For a small collection housed in one or a few
boxes, an arrangement similar to that shown in fig-
ure 35-17 is suggested. It is unlikely that anyone except
the specialist will have the specimens in his or her col-
lection identified further than to family, and for many
collectors, particularIy a beginner, it may be difficult
enough to carry the identification that faroThe simplest
arrangement, therefore, is to have the specimens
arranged by order and family, with the order label (con-
taining the order name and common name) on a sepa-
rate pin and the family label (containing family and
common names) either on a separate pin or on the pin
of the first insect in a row of specimens in that family.
There are various ways of arranging the specimens in a
small collection, but the arrangement should be neat
and systematic, and the labels should be easily seen.
Most large institutions and many private collectors
house their collections in uniform glass-topped mu-
seum drawers that fit into steel cabinets. Specimens
may be pinned directly into the cork or foam plastic
bottoms in such drawers, but usually they are pinned
 Housing,Arranging,and Caringtor the Collection 765

g'
o
-¡¡;
C>
~
~ Figure35-17 A synoptic insect
~ collection.

in small unit trays of various sizes that fit snugly in the
drawers (Figure 35-18). The unit tray system facili-
tates rapid expansion and rearrangement of the collec-
tion without the need to handle individual specimens,
which is time-consuming and hazardous to the speci-
mens. The unit trays are of a convenient size to fit un-
der a dissecting microscope, so that unless it is neces-
sary to examine the ventral surface of a specimen, the
specimen can be examined without being removed
from the tray, thus reducing the chance of breakage.
In larger collections, such as those of specialists or
those in museums, where the specimens are identified
to species, the species determination is usually put on
a plain white or bordered label placed low on the pin
against the bottom of the box. This label contains the
complete scientific name (genus, species, subspecies
if any), the name of the describer, the name of the per-
son making the determination, and the date (tradition-
ally the year only) the determination was made (Fig-
ure 35-16). In large collections where each drawer
contains a series of unit trays (Figure 35-18), each tray
usually contains specimens of just one species.
Many insect collectors eventually become inter-
ested in and concentrate their efforts on a particular or-
der, family, or genus. By contacts and exchanges with
other collectors interested in that group, a collector
may build up a sizable collection and be in a position
to contribute lO knowledge of that group through sci-

'"
c:
o
-¡¡;
C>
~
~ Figure 35-18 A drawer of a large
~ insect collection.
766 Chapter35 Collecting,Preserving,
andStudyingInsects

\ 11
:;;:
1::
'"
'"§

Figure35-19 An illustrative collection, showing some common pests of vegetables.

entific publication. Some collectors prefer to specialize

on insects from a particular habitat (aquatic insects, .

~
; ...
wood borers, flower-frequenting insects, gall insects,
leaf miners, and so on), medically important insects, in-
sect pests of particular types of plants (Figure 35-19),
.,. -..
.".
-.'-.-/
.
Í\
beneficial insects, or those with particular habits (preda-
tors, parasites, scavengers, and so on). The possibilities ~= ~=
are many. ~ ' "'"

We believe that everyone interested in entomol- t7V\r

= . .

ogy, regardless of the field in which he or she is pri-

marily interested, should concentra te on a particular
taxonomic group. A certain satisfaction comes with a
thorough knowledge of even a small group of animals,
and such study can prove to be very interesting for a
person whose major interest or occupation is in an-
other field.
Display Mounting
Many collectors may wish to keep their collection in
containers where the insects can be easily displayed.
Several types of mounts are useful for this purpose. A
pinned collection can be easily displayed if it is
mounted in glass-topped boxes or in glass-doored
wall cabinets. In the latter case, cover the back of the
cabinet with a material that will permit easy pinning.
Butterflies, moths, and many other insects can be dis-
played in Riker mounts-boxes in which the insects
are directly under the glass top, on cotton batting
(Figure 35-20). Cases somewhat similar to Riker
mounts, but without the cotton and with glass on the
A B
~Glass
.:;0\:~"'/~~~=')'~~:}~~ Cotton
e
Figure 35-20 Riker mount. A, front view; B, back
view; C, sectional view showing a specimen in placeun-
der glass on cotton.
top and bottom (Figure 35-21A), are useful for dis-
playing one or a few specimens (that is, one or a few
in each mount). lt is also possible to endose speci-
mens between sheets of plastic or to embed specimens
in plastic.

Supporting glass
Specimen
Top glass
B
\
Bottom Glass
A Riker mount (Figure 35-20) is a couon-filled
cardboard box with most of the lid removed and re-
placed with glass, and with the glass top holding the
insects in place on the coUon. Riker mounts may be of
almost any size (0.3 by 0.4 m is about the largest size
that is practica!) and are about 19 to 25 mm deep. They
can be bought fram supply houses. When placing
large-bodied insects in a Riker mount, tease a liule hole
in the coUon with forceps for the insect body. After the
specimens are in the box, put the lid is back on and fas-
ten it with pins or tape.
Housing,Arranging,and Caringfor the Collection 767
Figure35-21 All-glass mount. A, completed
mount; B, sectional view of mount.
Glass mounts are similar to Riker mounts, but
without the coUon and with glass on the top and bot-
tom (Figure 35-21). They are excellent for displaying
individual moths, buuerflies, or other insects.
Protecting the Collection
All insect collections are subject to auack by dermestid
beetles, ants, and other museum pests, and if the col-
lection is to last any length of time, certain precautions
must be taken to protect it fram these pests. Various
768 Chapter35 Collecting,Preserving,and Studying Insects
materials may be used for this purpose, but one mate-
rial commonly used is naphthalene (in flake or ball
form). Naphthalene flakes can be put into a small card-
board pillbox that is firrnly attached to the bottom of
the insect box (usually in one comer) and has a few pin
holes in it. Paradichlorobenzene (PDB) can also be
used, but it volatilizes more rapidly than naphthalene
and must be renewed at more frequent intervals. Also,
health concems are associated with long-terrn expo-
sure to a chlorinated hydrocarbon such as PDB. To pro-
tect specimens in Riker mounts, sprinkle naphthalene
flakes under the cotton when making the mount.
Check a collection periodically to make sure that
plenty of repellent is presento If boxes or drawers are
stored in tight cabinets that are not opened frequently,
the repellent should last a long time.
Note that paradichlorobenzene and naphthalene
are only repellents, and although they will keep out po-
tential pests, they will not kill pests already in the col-
lection. If you find a box or drawer infested with pests,
fumiga te it to destroy these pests. Heating boxes, cases,
or mounts to 150°F (66°C) or higher for several hours
(if the boxes are such that the heat will not damage
them) will destroy any dermestids or other pests they
may contain. Similarly, rapidly reducing the tempera-
ture to - 30°F (- 35°C) and holding the specimens at
that temperature for several days is also effective, al-
though slower. Because of concerns about long-terrn
human exposure to chemicals, many large institutional
collections are moving toward freezing as a means of
sanitation. Many good collections have been ruined by
pests because the collector failed to protect them.
Packing and Shipping Insects
A dried insect on a pin is such a fragile object that it
would seem almost impossible to ship a box of pinned
insects through themail and have it arrive at its desti-
nation with the specimens intacto But it can be done if
a few simple rules are followed. The preparation of
specimens for shipment largely depends on the treat-
ment they are likely to receive in transit: They will be
tumed upside down and sideways and subjected to se-
vere and repeated jarring. Therefore, the two most im-
portant considerations are to make certain that all pins
are firrnly ancho red, so that they cannot work loose
and bounce around and break specimens, and that the
box in which they are pinned is placed in a larger box,
surrounded by packing material to cushion the blows
the package will invariably receive.
Note that we are concemed here with the trans-
porting or shipping of deadinsects. Before transporting
or shipping living insects, check with quarantine offi-
cials and the postal authorities.
Insert pinned specimens firrnly into the bottom of
the insect box, preferably with pinning forceps. The
bottom of the box should be of a material that will hold
the pins firrnly. Brace large specimens with extra pins
to prevent them from swinging around and damaging
other specimens. Use extra pins to brace and support
long appendages, or a long abdomen. Place a sheet of
cardboard cut to fit the inside of the box (with a slot
cut out along one side to facilita te removal) over the
top of the pinned specimens, and fill the space between
this and the lid of the box with cotton batting, Cellu-
cotton, a plastic bubble sheet, or a similar material.
This arrangement keeps the pins fram being dislodged
during shipment. Never include vials of insects in a box
of pinned specimens, regardless of how firmly the vials
may seem to be fastened in the box. The rough han-
dling the average box gets when in transit may dislodge
even the most "firrnly" attached vial and destroy the
specimens.
If a box of pinned insects contains specimens from
which the genitalia (or other parts) have been removed
and stored in a microvial on the pin below the insect,
take special precautions to make sure these vials do not
come loose and damage specimens in the box. Inser!
pins containing such vials far enough so that the vial
rests on the bottom of the box. The vial is then held in
a fixed position by insect pins, one placed at the end of
the vial and two other crossed over the middle of the
vial.
When shipping specimens preserved in fluids,
take measures to protect the specimens in the contain-
ers. The containers should be completely filled with
fluid, and it is sometimes desirable to add cotton or
some similar material in the container to keep the spec-
imen from bouncing about. Small and delicate larvae,
such as mosquito larvae, should be in vials so com-
pletely filled with fluid that there is not even an air
bubble in the vial. An air bubble in a vial can have the
same effect on a specimen as a solid object in the vial
would have. One method of removing all air bubbles is
to use glass tubes stoppered with rubber stoppers, fi\l-
ing the vial containing the specimens to the brim and
then carefully inserting the stopper with a pin along-
side it (to allow excess fluid to escape). When the stop-
per is in place, remove the pino
If two or more containers of insects in fluid are
packed in the same box, wrap them in wide strips of
Cellucotton, bubble wrap, or some similar 50ft material
so that no two vials are in contacto The most common
preservative fluids contain either ethanol or iso-
propanol, both of which are classified as flammable liq-
uids. A number of regulations govem the shipping of
such liquids, either by the postal services or commer-
cial courier services. At the time of this writing, alco-
hol cannot be sent in intemational mail or by domestic
airmail. Alcohol may be sent within the United States
r
by surfacemail as long as packaging and mailing re-
quirements are mel. You should contact private com-
panies for their own regulations.
Insects in glass or Riker mounts can ordinarily
withstand considerable jolting without damage, but
take care that the glass of these mounts does not get
broken. Pack such mounts in an abundance of 50ft
packing material, and make sure no two of them touch
each other in the box.
Insect material mounted on microscope slides
should be shipped in wooden, plastic, or heavy card-
board slide boxes, preferably boxes in which the slides
are insened into grooves and are on edge in the box.
Place strips of a 50ft material between the slides and the
lid of the box, so that the slides do not bounce about.
Dried specimens in envelopes or pillboxes should
be packed in such a way that the specimens do not
bounce around inside the box. Pad pillboxes inside
with Cellucotton to immobilize the specimens, and fill
boxes containing envelopes with cotton or Cellucotton.
Boxes containing pinned insects, insects in fluids,
microscope slides, or dried insects in envelopes or pill-
boxes that are to be sent through themail should be
wrapped in paper, to keep out fragments of packing
material, and packed inside a larger box. Choose the
outer box so as to allow at least 50 mm of packing ma-
terial (excelsior, shredded paper, cotton, Styrofoam
chips, and so fonh) on all sides of the smaller box. This
packing material should not be so loose as to allow the
inner box to rattle around or so tight that the cushion
effect is losl.
Whenever material is shipped through the mail,
send an accompanying letter to the addressee, notify-
ing him or her of the shipment, and include a copy of
the letter in the package. Packages of dead insects sent
through themail are usually marked "Dried (or Pre-
served) Insects for Scientific Study." It is well to mark
such packages for gentle handling in transit, although
such marking does not always ensure that they will not
get rough treatmenl. Material shipped to points inside
the United States should be insured, though it may be
difficult to place an evaluation on some material. The
statement "No Commercial Value" on a box shipped
from one country to another will facilitate the box get-
ting through customs.
Workwith Living Insects
Anyone studying insects who does nothing but collect,
kill, and mount these animals and study the dead spec-
imens will miss the most interesting pan of insect
study. The student who takes time to study living in-
sects will find that they are fascinating and often amaz-
ing little animals. Living insects can be studied in the
Workwith LivingInsects 769
field or in captivity. Many are very easy to keep in cap-
tivity, where they can be studied more easily, and often
at closer range, than in the field.
Keeping Living Insects in Captivity
Relatively liule equipment or attention is required to
keep an insect alive in captivity for a short periodo In-
sects can be brought in from the field, kept in a cage of
some son for a day or so, and then released. Rearing
adult insects from their immature stages or maintain-
ing cultures of insects through one or more genera-
tions usually requires more equipment and attention.
However, many types of insects are fairly easy to rear
or culture.
Rearing adult insects from immature stages is an
excellent way to leam about their habits and life histo-
ries. The activities of insects in cages can generally be
more easily observed, and cenainly observed to a
greater extent, than insects in the field. Many insects
collected as immatures and reared will be found to
have be en parasitized, and the parasites will emerge
rather than the host insect, particularly in the case of
caterpillars.
Cages tor Insects. Almost anything can serve as a suit-
able cage for keeping insects in captivity for a short
time or for rearing some types of insects. The simplest
type of cage is a glass (or clear plastic) jar of some son
covered with gauze held in place with a string or rub-
ber band (Figure 35-22A). The jar may vary in size
from a small vial up to a large (4-liter or larger) jar, de-
pending on the size and numbers of the insects. In
some cases food, water, or other materials necessary to
the well-being of the insects can simply be placed in
the bottom of the jaro Such containers are also suitable
for aquaria. Mosquitoes, for example, can be reared in
vials that hold only a few cubic centimeters of water.
Cages suitable for rearing some types of insects or
for display can be made of cardboard, gauze, and clear
plastic. Any small cardboard box can be used. Its size
depends on the size of the insect it is to contain. Holes
cut in the ends and covered with gauze provide ven ti-
lation; clear plastic or glass in the front provide visibil-
ity; and the top can be covered with glass, clear plastic,
or an opaque lid.
A more permanent type of cage can be made of
window screen with a wood or metal framework. The
bottom 25 mm or so of a large metal can with a cylin-
der of screen inserted in it (Figure 35-23B) makes a
good cage. Cages of wood and screen can be made with
the opening at the top, like a lid, or with a door on one
side. If the cage is to be used for fairly active insects
and it is necessary to get into the cage frequently, pro-
vide it with a sleeve (Figure 35-23A).
When rearing a plant-feeding insect, and the plant
on which it feeds is not too large, you can rear the in-
770 Chapter35 Collecting.Preserving,and StudyingInsects

Gauze
/String or
~ rubber
band Adhesive
tape

Glass
jar
'-. Jar 01
water

A
Bottom 01
tin can B

Plastic
cylinder

Cardboard
box

Figure 35-22 Some types of insect

cages. A, jar cage; B, cylindrical screen
cage; e, "flowerpot" cage; D, an emer-
e D genee box.

/ Wood trame
Cord. serving as a
shou Ider strap
I
I

::II
!
/;I
Screen /

::11 / /
g~~S'

/
Wood or // Figure 35-23 Insect cages.
heavy cardboard/ A, sleeve cage; B, a field car-
A B rying cage.
f

Workwith LivingInsects 771

A Figure 35-24 Methods of caging

insects in the field. A, tanglefoot bar-
rier on a leaf, for small nonflying in-
sects; B, cage of plastic and gauze for
caging insects on their food plant.
B (A, courtesy of Davidson.)

sect in a "flowerpot" cage (Figure 35-22C). The plant

is planted in a flowerpot or a large can, and a cylinder
of glass, plastic, or screen is placed around the plant
and covered at the top with gauze. Filter
An emergence box such as shown in Figure 35-22D paper
works well for rearing adults from larvae living in debris,
soil, excrement, and other materials. The material con-
taining the larvae is placed in the box, which is then
closed tightly. When the adults emerge, they are attracted
by the light coming into the box through the vial, and go
into the vial.
The best way to rear some insects is to leave them
in their habitat in the field and cage them there. Many Figure 35-25 Method of providing water for caged
types of cages can be constructed around an insect in insects.
the field. In the case of a plant-feeding insect, a cage
consisting of a roll of clear plastic or fine screen, with
midity are satisfactory and must provide enough food
gauze at each end, can be placed around that pan of the
and water. Many insects, such as leaf-eating caterpil-
plant containing the insect (Figure 35-24B), or a cage
made of window screen on a wooden framework can be lars, must be regularly provided with fresh food. Add
fresh leaves every day or so, or find some way to keep
built about pan of the plant. Many plant-feeding in-
large amounts of foliage fresh in the cage for several
sects can be confined on a certain pan of a plant by
days at a time. If the insect needs water, the water may
means of barriers of some son, such as Tanglefoot
be provided by means of a beaker invened in a petri
bands (Figure 35-24A). Aquatic insects can be reared
dish (Figure 35-25); by a vial full of water, plugged
in cages of screen submerged in their habitat. The
with cotton, and lying on its side in the cage; by a
screen should be fine enough to prevent the escape of
sponge soaked with water; or by some similar means.
the insect but coarse enough to allow food material to
entero Some EasilyReared Insects. Some of the easiest insects
Cages made of heavy cardboard or wood, gauze, to rear indoors are those that normally live indoors, for
and plastic can easily be fitted with a shoulder strap example, the insects that attack flour, meal, or other
and used to bring living material from the field into the stored food products. They can be kept and reared in
laboratory or classroom. With a carrying cage such as the original container of the food material or in a glass
the one shown in Figure 35-23B, large materials can be jar covered with fine gauze. It is usually not necessary
put into the cage by lifting the lid, or single insects can to provide these insects with moisture. The various
be put into the box through the hole in the lid. stages of the insect can be obtained by sifting the meal,
When rearing insects indoors, you must usually and some of these can be added to fresh meal to keep
make sure that the conditions of temperature and hu- the culture going.
772 Chapter35 Collecting, Preserving,and Studying Insects
Cockroaches are excellent insects for rearing, be-
cause they are fairly large and active, most people are
familiar with them, and in most places they are abun-
dant and easily obtained. A culture can be started by
trapping some adults. Cockroaches can be reared in
various types of containers, a large glass or plastic jar
covered with gauze, or even an open box, provided the
box is several centimeters deep and the upper 50 or
75 mm of the sides is smeared with petroleum jelly so
that the cockroaches cannot climb out. These insects
are practically omnivorous, and many different types of
material will serve as suitable food. Dog biscuits make
a good food. Plenty of water should be provided.
Many types of insects that have aquatic immature
stages can be reared easily from the immature to the
adult stage. The type of aquarium needed depends on
the type of insect being reared. Small forms feeding on
organic debris or microorganisms can be reared in con-
tainers as small as vials. Larger ones, particularly
predaceous forms, require larger containers. Larvae or
pupae of mosquitoes, for example, can be kept in small
containers in some of the same water in which they
were found, with a cover over the container to prevent
the escape of the adults. For vials, the simplest cover is
a plug of cotton. In many cases it is necessary to simu-
late the insect's habitat in the aquarium (for example,
have sand or mud in the bottom and have some aquatic
plants present), and in the case of predaceous insects,
such as dragonfly nymphs, smaller animals must be
provided as food. The water must be aerated for some
aquatic types. In maintaining an aquarium, try to keep
all the conditions in the aquarium as close as possible
to conditions in the animal's normal habitat.
When attempting to maintain aquatic insects in
the laboratory generation after generation, make spe-
cial provision for the different life-history stages that
frequently require special food, space, or other condi-
tions. Some mosquitoes are relatively easy to maintain
in culture in the laboratory, especially species that nor-
mally breed continuously through the warmer parts of
the year, and in which the adults do not require a large
space for their mating flights. The yellow fever mos-
quito, Aedesaegypti, is easily cultured in the labora-
tory.1At a temperature of 30°C (85°F) the development
from egg to adult requires only 9-11 days. The females
must obtain a blood meal before they can produce eggs.
A person's arm can provide this meal, but a laboratory
animal such as a rabbit (with the hair shaved from a
portion of its body) is better. Please note, though, that
the US government closely regulates the use and care
of vertebrates in the laboratory. Adult mosquitoes are
allowed to emerge in cages with a capacity of about
'Because Ihis species is an imporlant disease veClOr,special precau-
lions should be laken 10 prevent Ihe escape of any individuals reared.
0.028 m3 (1 ft3). A solution of honey in the cage pro-
vides food for the males (which do not feed on blood)
and for the females before their blood meal.
Place a small dish of water in the cage for egg lay-
ing. If paper or wooden blocks are placed in this water,
the eggs are deposited on these at the margin of the wa-
ter as it recedes. These eggs usually hatch within 10 to
20 minutes after they are placed in water at room tem-
perature, even after months of desiccation. If the larvae
are reared in large numbers, they are best reared in bat-
tery jars. As many as 250 larva e can be reared in a 150-
mm battery jar half-filled with water. The larvae can be
fed ground dog biscuit, which is sprinkled on the sur-
face of the water daily. For the first-instar larvae, use
30-35 milligrarns daily. Increase this amount for suc-
cessive instars, up to 140-150 milligrams daily for
fourth-instar larvae. Fourth-instar larvae pupate 7-9
days after the eggs hatch, and adults emerge about
24 hours later.
lt is usually fairly easy to rear adult insects from
galls. The important thing in rearing most gall insects
is to keep the gall alive and fresh until the adults
emerge. The plant containing the gall can be kept fresh
by putting it in water, or the gall can be caged in the
field. If the gall is not collected until the adults are
nearly ready to emerge (as determined by opening a
few), it can simply be placed inside a glass jar, in a vial
of water, and the jar covered with gauze. This same
procedure can be used to rear out adults of leaf miners
that pupa te in the leaf. If the leaf miner pupates in the
soil (for example, certain sawflies), grow the plant con-
taining the insect in a flowerpot cage.
Adults of some wood-boring insects are easily
reared. If the insect bores into drying or dried wood,
the wood containing the larvae can be placed in an
emergence box like that shown in Figure 35-23D. If
the insect bores only in living wood, the adults can be
obtained by placing some sort of cage over the emer-
gence holes (in the field).
Termite cultures are easily maintained in the labo-
ratory and are of value in demonstrating the social be-
havior and the wood-eating and fungus-cultivating
habits of these insects. Various types of containers can
be used for termite culture, but the best for demon-
stration purposes is either a battery jar or a glass-plate
type of container (Figure 35-26). A termite colony can
last quite a while without queens in either type of con-
tainer, but will prove more interesting if queens or sup-
plemental queens are present.
If a battery jar is used, put 6 mm or so of earth in
the bottom of the jar and place a sheet of wood on ei-
ther side of the jaro Balsa wood is best beca use the ter-
mites become established in it quickly. Put thin, nar-
row strips of a harder wood on each side between the
balsa wood and the glass, and put pieces between the
.
Figure 35-26 Glass-plate type of container for rearing
termites.
sheets of balsa wood to hold them in place. In such a
container termites become established in a few hours.
They tunnel through eanh and wood and build fungus
"gardens" (apparently an imponant source of nitrogen
and vitamins) between the wood and the glass. The
wood will be destroyed in a few weeks and must be re-
placed. Water must be added every few days: A pad of
cotton can be thoroughly moistened and placed be-
tween the glass and the wood at the top of each side.
A glass-plate type of container is somewhat similar
to the ant nest described later, but has a metal rather
than a wood frame (Figure 35-26). The container
should be about 0.3 m wide, 0.3 m high, and 13 mm
thick, and should have a pan at the base to hold it up-
right. No earth need be used in this type of container.
Place a piece of balsa wood in the container, with nar-
row strips inserted between it and the two glass plates
(front and rear). Put the termites in the space between
the wood and glass. Place a thin pad of cotton batting
ayer the top of the wood, between the two glass plates,
and thoroughly soak this with water about twice a
week. The fungus gardens are maintained here as in the
battery-jar culture.
The chief problem encountered in rearing caterpil-
lars is providing suitable food. Because many caterpil-
lars feed only on certain species of plants, you must
know the food plant of a caterpillar you want to rear.
Caterpillars can be reared in almost any son of cage,
provided the cage is cleaned and fresh food is provided
regularly. Plant food stays fresh longer if put in a small
jar of water inside the cage. A cover on the top of the
water jar, around the stem of the plant, keeps the cater-
pillars from falling into the water (Figure 35-22B).
Same caterpillars require special conditions for pupa-
tian. Butterfly larvae usually pupa te on the leaves or on
Wark with living Insects 773
the sides or top of the cage. Most moth larva e pupa te
in the comer of the cage or under debris of some son.
Moth larvae that pupa te in the ground (for example,
the larvae of sphinx moths) should be reared in a cage
containing several centimeters of soil.
Many of the larger moths pupa te in the fall and
emerge as adults in the spring, and their cocoons can
be collected in the falloIf these cocoons are brought in-
doors in the fall, they may dry out or the adults may
emerge in the middle of the winter (though the second
possibility may not be objectionable). The drying can
be prevented by putting the cocoons in ajar that has
25 mm or so of soil in the bottom and sprinkling the
soil and cocoon with water about once a week. To keep
the moths from emerging in the middle of winter, keep
them in screen cages (preferably cages containing some
dirt or debris) outdoors (for example, on the outside
windowsill of a room). If an emerging moth kept in an
outdoor cage is a female, and if it emerges at a time
when other moths of its kind are on the wing, it will of-
ten attract male moths from a considerable distance.
Because of their social behavior, ants are very in-
teresting animals to maintain in indoor cages. The sim-
plest type of ant cage, particularly for display, is a nar-
row vertical cage with a wooden framework and glass
sides (Figure 35-27). This is filled with an ant-soil
mixture obtained by digging up an ant hill, preferably
a small one under a stone or board. This mixture
should contain all stages and castes if possible. The
queen can usually be recognized by her larger size. The
glass sides of the cage should be darkened by covering
them with some opaque material; otherwise, all the
tunnels the ants make will be away from the glass and
not visible. Food and moisture must be provided. Food
can be provided by putting a few insects into the cage
from time to time or by putting a few drops of diluted
molasses or honey on a small sponge or wad of cotton
in the cage. Moisture can be provided by keeping a wet
sponge or wad of cotton on the underside of the lid or
on top of the din.
An observation beehive makes an excellent class
demonstration. It can be set up inside an open window,
and the bees can come and go at will, yet students can
watch all that goes on inside the hive. Space here do es
not permit a detailed description of how to construct
an observation beehive, but Figure 35-28 shows what
it is like. If you want to set up an observation beehive,
get in touch with a local beekeeper and ask for help
and suggestions.
A number of insects prove interesting to rear or
maintain for a short time in captivity. Singing insects
such as crickets, katydids, or cicadas can be kept caged
for a time with relatively little difficulty. If case-making
insects are caged, it often possible to observe how the
cases are made, and perhaps special materials (such as
774 Chapter35 Collecting.Preserving.
andStudyingInsects

1-3"
~ 3,.LI--
12"
- Cover
8.-~ ",
7
11-"11
11 11 Cover /

11 11 ~<-.. __-Wet sponge ¡50il

11 11 r.~1'3.]r"'" /
11 q ~ +- --
I
il 11
11 11

k\
11--lJ.
11 11
11 1(1
11 11
12"
11 11
11 11
11 iI Ant¿""
11 11 tunnels
11 11
11 !I
11 11

A
11 11
11 11
11 11
111 11
11 11
t-rr--iH
B /~
[11 111
!J"--u-J
1 4" f- 1!!.j e

Figure 35-27 Vertical type of ant cage. A, end view; B, top view of one end showing
cage construction; e, front view.

Figure35-28 Observation beehive.


colored bits of glass for caddisfly larvae usually using
sand grains) can be provided for the case. Caging
predaceous insects with their prey (particularly man-
tids), or parasitic insects with their hosts, can demon-
strate these interrelationships. With a little knowledge
of the food habits and habitat requirements of a
species, the ingenious student can usually devise meth-
ods of rearing almost any type of insect.
Photographing Insects
Photographing insects, especially in color, has be come
a common practice of both the professional entorno lo-
gist and the layperson. Insect photographs are used ex-
tensively to illustrate books, bulletins, or journal arti-
cles, for class use, and for illustrating public lectures.
Many books have been written about the photography
of insects and other natural history subjects, so we
need not go inlo this subject in detail here.
A large assortment of lenses, filters, adapters, and
synchronized flash and other lighting equipment is
currently available, so that the photographer can select
almost anything needed to photograph, either the en-
tire insect or a small part of it. Lenses are available for
almost any size of magnification desired.
Pictures of dead or mounted insects are useful for
some purposes, but pictures of living insects, or at
least insects that look alive and are in a natural pose,
are far better. Taking such pictures is often difficult,
but the problem can be solved in one of two general
ways: O) by using equipment that permits a very short
exposure time, and getting as close as possible without
disturbing the insect; and (2) by stupefying the insect
temporarily so that more time is available for taking
the photograph. Using various chemicals (for exam-
pIe, CO2) or chilling the insect, can condition it for
this type of photographic exposure. It is often possible
to get a good picture by training the camera on a spot
where the insect will eventually alight and then wait-
ing for the insect to alight there. Many insects can be
photographed by aiming the camera at a flower and
photographing the insects when they come to the
flower.
Photomicrographic equipment (camera, lighting,
and so on) has been developed that can be attached to
(or built into) a microscope. Such equipment enables
one to photograph very minute insects, or parts of in-
sects, at high magnification. The scanning electron mi-
croscope (SEM) is another piece of equipment that
produces pictures of very high magnification, often
showing details that cannot be seen with an ordinary
microscope.
You can get pictures of considerable entomological
interest without pholographing any insects at all. In-
sect nests or cocoons, damaged leaves or other objects,
wood-borer tunnels, and similar objects make excel-
DrawingInsects 775
lent photographic material and are usually much easier
to photograph than living insects.
Photographing insects has become a hobby with
many naturalists and camera enthusiasts, who choose
insects as well as flowers and birds because of their
color patterns or because they are intrigued by the
habits and biology of these animals.
Drawing Insects
A serious student will sooner or later have occasion to
make drawings of insects or insect structures, either for
personal notes, as a part of a laboratory exercise, or as
part of a research report prepared for publication. You
need not be a natural artist to prepare good drawings of
insects. The first aim of enlomological drawing is accu-
racy rather than artistry, and simple line drawings often
serve better than elaborately shaded or wash drawings.
The primary purpose in drawings of insects or in-
sect structures should be accuracy. A gifted artist can
make a freehand drawing that is fairly accurate, but
most people need some sort of mechanical aid to ob-
tain the needed precision. Several devices and tech-
niques can help you turn out an accurately propor-
tioned drawing with a minimum of effort. These
include a drawing tube, a projection apparatus, cross-
hatching, and careful measurements of the specimen. A
drawing tube is a device that fits into the light path be-
tween the eyepiece and objective lens of a microscope.
It contains a system of prisms and mirrors so arranged
that, by looking through it, you see both the object un-
der the microscope and the paper on which the draw-
ing is to be made, and can trace exactly what you see
through the microscope. It takes a little practice to
learn how to use a drawing tube, but a person who has
gotten the knack of it can turn out accurate drawings
quite rapidly. A drawing tube is a rather expensive
piece of equipment and is likely to be available only in
well-equipped university research laboratories.
Any insect or insect structure that is fairly flat and
translucent can be drawn by projection. The object to
be drawn is projected by means of a photographic en-
larger, slide projector, or other apparatus onto a sheet
of paper, and the drawing is traced over the projected
image. This is the ideal method of making drawings of
insect wings, which can be mounted between two glass
slides. Elaborate projectors can be obtained that will
give magnifications of from 4 X to 5 X up to several
hundred, but they are rather expensive. If you do not
want too much magnification, you can use photo-
graphic enlargers, slide projectors, or microprojectors.
The cross-hatching principIe can be used for mak-
ing drawings at a different scale. The object to be drawn
is observed through a grid of crossed lines and then
776 Chapter35 Collecting,Preserving,
andStudyingInsects
drawn on coordina te paper, the detail of the object being
put in one square at a time. For drawing a macroscopic
object, a grid made of crossed threads can be set up in
front of the object. For microscopic objects, a transpar-
ent disk on which fine cross-lines are etched is put into
the eyepiece of the microscope. For copying a drawing
at a different scale, a grid of one scale is put over the
drawing to be copied, and the details of the drawing are
copied one square at a time on coordinate paper that has
a different scale. With a good photocopier, reductions or
enlargements can also be easily made.
A wall chart or any gready enlarged drawing can
be made from a text figure either by projection or by
the cross-hatching method. Text drawings can be pro-
jected by an opaque projector and traced, or they can
be enlarged on a chart by using the grid principIe de-
scribed in the preceding paragraph.
If you do not have any of these mechanical aids, a
considerable degree of accuracy can still be achieved by
carefully measuring the specimen to be drawn and then
making the drawing agree with these measurements.
Measure small objects with dividers.
The simplest way to obtain a symmetrical draw-
ing, when drawing an animal (or part of an animal)
that is bilaterally symmetrical, is to draw only the right
or left half of the specimen and then trace the other
half from the first side.
Whether or not a drawing should contain some
sort of shading depends on what you wish to show.
Many drawings of insect structures (for example, most
of the drawings in this book showing anatomical char-
acters) show what they are intended to show without
any shading, or perhaps with a few well-placed lines. If
you wish to show contour or surface texture, as would
be shown in a photograph, more elaborate shading is
necessary. This shading may be done by stippling (a se-
ries of dots, as in Figure 5-28), parallel or crossed lines
(for example, the eyes in Figure U-U), a series of dots
and lines (for example, Figure 22-46), or the use of a
special type of drawing paper containing tiny raised ar-
eas (stipple board, coquille board, Ross board, and so
on, which were used in preparing such drawings as
those in Figures 26-53 and 26-65). Press-on sheets of
various types of shading, stippling, lines, cross-hatching,
and other patterns provide a quick yet satisfactory
method of providing shading and texture.
Drawings prepared for publication are ordinarily
made about twice the size at which they will be repro-
duced, sometimes larger. The subsequent reduction
tends to elimina te minor irregularities in the original
drawing. If the reduction is very great, however, the fine
lines disappear, or lines close together on the original
drawing appear run together in the printed drawing.
To learn how to prepare good drawings, study
good drawings in textbooks and research papers. By
studying carefully the details of such drawings, you
willlearn some of the tricks of giving an effect of con-
tour with minimal shading, and you will learn the
shading methods that best produce the desired effects.
You will also learn something of the preferred style of
arranging and labeling drawings.
Sources of Information
Information on insects is available in the form of litera-
ture published by federal and state organizations, fram
private organizations such as supply houses, museums,
and societies, and from a great mass of books and peri-
odicals. Much of this literature is available in a good li-
brary, and a good bit can be obtained at litde or no cost
to the student or teacher. Information is also available
from contacts with other people who are interested in
insects-amateurs and workers in universities, muse-
ums, and experiment stations. Materials such as slides,
movies, and exhibits are available from supply houses,
museums, and often various state or private agencies.
Electronic Resources
The World Wide Web probably provides the most ac-
cessible and most up-to-date information. The ease
with which web pages can be written and their capac-
ity for incorporating images have resulted in an explo-
sion of the number of resources available. A quick
search of Google finds 1.9 million hits for the word "in-
sect" and 585,000 for the esoteric term "entomology"
Many of these pages are of dubious quality, and the
onus is on the user lO determine their value. This is,
however, also the situation in the traditionally pub-
lished literature, even in journals carrying peer-
reviewed science. The difference is only a matter of
scale, in our opinion, and the real-time accessibility
clearly makes the Internet, overall, a tremendous asset.
Web pages are notoriously unstable, rapidly going
out of date or, worse, out of existence. For this reason,
we have hesitated lO recommend specific sites in this
book. Most professional societies, entomology depart-
ments, extension services, and natural history muse-
ums maintain high-quality web sites containing a wide
range of valuable information. As web-indexing ser-
vices continue to improve, they supply the best means
for rapidly locating quality material on the Internet.
Government Publications
Many government publications are available to the
public free of charge. Publications are available fOIsale
at a nominal costo A wealth of literature on insects is
available from the government.

Information on the publications of various gov-
ernmental agencies can be obtained from the Division
of Public Documents, Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC 20402 (www.access.gpo.gov).This
office publishes a number of lists of publications (one
is on insects), which are available without cost. Most
government publications on insects are published by
the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), and in-
formation on the publications of this department can
be obtained from the following sources: (1) List 11,
List of the Available Publications of the U.S. Department
of Agriculture (revised every year or so), available
from the u.s. Department of Agriculture, Washing-
ton, DC 20250; (2) indexes published by the USDA;
and (3) indexing journals, such as the Bibliography of
Agriculture.
State Publications
Many publications of state agencies are available free to
residents of that state. In some states there are several
agencies whose publications would be of interest to the
student or teacher of entomology, particularly the agri-
cultural experiment station, the extension service, the
departments of education and conservation, the bio-
logical or natural history survey, and the state museum.
Information on the publications available from these
agencies can usually be obtained by writing directly to
the agencies.
Many agricultural experiment stations are closely
associated with the agricultural college and are 10-
cated in the same town. The extension service is
nearly always a part of the agricultural college. State
departments of education or conservation are usually
located in the capital. State museums are usually 10-
cated in the capital or in the same town as the state
university. Many state universities have museums that
contain insect collections and that often publish pa-
pers on insects. State biological surveys are usually
associated with the state university or agricultural
college.
Miscellaneous Agencies
Biological supply houses are useful sources of equip-
ment, material, and often publications of interest to an
entomologist. All supply houses publish catalogs,
which are sent free or at a nominal cost to teachers and
schools. These catalogs are of value in indicating what
can be obtained from the supply houses, and many of
their illustrations suggest things that ingenious stu-
dents or teachers can prepare themselves.
Many societies, museums, and research institu-
tions publish material that is useful to entomologists.
Entomological societies (see the following section),
state biological survey organizations, and organizations
Sources of Information 777
such as the National Audubon Society (950 Third Ave.,
New York, NY 10022) will send lists of their publica-
tions on request.
Directories of Entomologists
Anyone interested in insects will find it profitable to
become acquainted with others who have similar inter-
ests. A person who is located near a university, mu-
seum, or experiment station should become ac-
quainted with the workers there who are interested in
insects. People throughout the country who are inter-
ested in various phases of entomology can often be 10-
cated on the Internet or by consulting the membership
lists of the various entomological societies, which are
usually published at intervals in the societies' journals
or various directories.
Entomological Societies
There are a great many entomological societies in the
United States, membership in which is generally open
to anyone interested in entomology. The dues vary
but are gene rally $10 or more per year. Members usu-
ally receive the publications of the society, no tices of
meetings, and newsletters. The societies of national
scope usually have meetings only once ayear. Smaller
local societies may have meetings at more frequent in-
tervals.
Some of the better-known entomological societies
in the United States and Canada, with their principal
publications, are as follows:
American Entomological Society: Transactions of the
American Entomological Society, Entomological
News.
Cambridge Entomological Club: Psyche.
Entomological Society of America: Annals of the Ento-
mological Society of America, Environmental Ento-
mology,joumal of Economic Entomology, American
Entomologist.
Entomological Society of Canada: Canadian Entomolo-
gist, Memoirs of the Entomological Society of
Canada.
Entomological Society of Washington: Proceedings of
the Entomological Society of Washington.
Florida Entomological Society: The Florida Entomolo-
gist.
Kansas (Central States) Entomological Society: jour-
nal of the Kansas Entomological Society.
Michigan Entomological Society: Great Lakes Entomol-
ogist.
New York Entomological Society: joumal of the New
York Entomological Society.
Pacific Coast Entomological Society, The pan-pacific
Entomologist.
778 Chapter35 Collecting,Preserving,
andStudyingInsects
References
Blurn, M. S., and]. P.Woodring. 1963. Preservation ofinsect
larvae by vacuurn dehydration. ]. Kan. Entorno!. Soco
36:96-101.
DeLong, D. M., and R. H. Davidson. 1936. Methods of Col-
lecting and Preserving lnsects. Colurnbus: Ohio State
University Press, 20 pp.
Gordh, G., and]. C. Hall. 1979. A critical point drier used as
a rnethod of rnounting insects frorn alcoho!. Entorno!.
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Hodges, E. R. S. CEd.). 1989. The Guild Handbook of Scientific
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Knudson,]. W 1972. Collecting and Preserving Plants and
Anirnals. New York: Harper &: Row, 320 pp.
Martin,]. E. H. 1977. Collecting, preparing, and preserving
insects, rnites, and spiders. The lnsects and Arachnids of
Canada, Part 1. Ottawa: Agriculture Canada, 182 pp.
Masner, L., and H. Goulet. 1981. A new rnodel of I1ight-
interception trap for sorne hyrnenopterous insects. En-
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Peck, S. B., and A. E. Davies. 1980. Collecting srnall beetles
with large-area "window" traps. Coleop. Bull. 34:237-239.
Roe, R. M., and C. W Clifford. 1976. Freeze-drying of spiders
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Entorno!. SocoArner. 69:497-499.
Schauff, M. E. CEd.). 2001. Collecting and preserving insects
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Southwood, T. R. E. 1966. Ecological Methods, with Particu.
lar Reference to the Study of Insect Populations. London:
Methuen, 391 pp.
Townes, H. 1972. A light-weight Malaise trapo Entorno!. News
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Woodring,]. P., and M. Blurn. 1963. Freeze-drying of spi-
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Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 131 pp.
,
Glossary
The definitions given here apply primarily to the use of these terms in this book;
elsewhere some terms may have additional or different meanings. Some terms
not listed here may be found in the Index.
abdomen The posterior of the three body divisions
(Figure 2-1, ab).
accessory cell A c\osed cell in the front wing of
Lepidoptera formed by the fusion of two branches of
the radius, usually the R2 cell (Figure 30-17, acc).
accessory gland A secretory organ associated with the
reproductive system.
accessory pulsatile organ Contractile organs that function
to move hemolymph into and out of appendages.
accessory vein An extra branch of a longitudinal vein
(indicated by a subseript a; for example, an aeeessory of
MI is designated MI.).
acrosternite The part of a sternum anterior to the
anteeostal suture.
aerostichal bristles One or more longitudinal rows of
small bristles along the eenter of the mesonotum
(Diptera; Figure 34-6, aer).
acrotergite The part of a tergum anterior to the anteeostal
suture.
aculea (pl., aculeae)Minute spines on the wing membrane
(Lepidoptera) .
aeuleate With aeuleae (Lepidoptera); with a sting
(Hymenoptera) .
acuminate Tapering to a long point.
aeute Pointed; forming an angle of less than 90 degrees.
adecticous A type of pupa in which the mandibles are
immovable and nonfunetional.
adfrontal areas A pair of narrow, oblique sc\erites on the
head of a lepidopterous larva (Figure 30-3, adO.
adventitious vein A seeondary vein, neither aeeessory nor
interealary, usually the result of erossveins lined up to
form a eontinuous vein.
aedeagus The male intromittent organ; the distal part of
the phallus; penis plus parameres.
aestivation Dormaney during a warm or dry season.
agamic Reproducing parthenogenetieally, that is, without
mating.
alinotum The notal plate of the mesothorax or metathorax
of a pterygote inseet (Figure 2-6, AN).
alula (pl., alulae) A lobe at the base of the wing (Diptera;
Figure 34-4, alu); see ealypter.
ametabolous Without metamorphosis.
anal Pertaining to the last abdominal segment (which
bears the anus); the posterior basal part (for example, of
the wing).
anal area of the wing The posterior portion of the wing,
usually inc\uding the anal veins.
anal cell A eell in the anal area of the wing; eell lA
(Diptera; Figure 34-4B, A).
anal crossing Where A branehes posteriorly from Cu + A
(Odonata; Figure 10-5, Ae).
anallobe A lobe in the posterior basal part of the wing.
anal loop A group of eells in the hind wing of dragonflies,
between Cu2, lA, and 2A, which may be rounded
(Figure 10-7B), elongate (Figure 10-7C), or foot-
shaped (Figure 10-5, alp).
anapleurite The upper and outer of the two ineomplete
subeoxal rings that form the thoracie pleurites.
anepimeron The part of the anapleurite posterior to the
pleural suture.
anepisternum The part of the anapleurite anterior to the
pleural suture.
annulated With ringlike segments or divisions.
annulated antenna An antenna eomposed of three
segments, the seape, pedicel, and flagellum; the apieal
flagellum is often subdivided (annulated); eharaeteristic
of troe inseets.
anteapical Just proximad of the apex.
anteapical cell A eell in the distal part of the wing
(leafhoppers; Figure n-u, table).
antec\ypeus An anterior division of the c\ypeus
(Figure 10-8, ac\p).
antecosta (pl., antecostae) An internal ridge on the
anterior portion of a tergum or sternum that
serves as the site of attaehment for the longitudinal
musc\es.
antecostal suture An external groove that marks the
position of the internal anteeosta. 779
780 Glossary
antecoxal sclerite A sclerite of the metasternum, just
anterior to the hind coxae.
antenna (pl., antennae) A pair of segmented appendages
located on the head above the mouthparts and usually
sensory in function (Figure 2-15).
antennal club The enlarged distal segments of a clubbed
antenna (Figure 26-3B, acl).
antennal fossa A cavity or depression in which the
antennae are located (Figure 34-5, aO.
antennal groove A groove in the head capsule into which
the basal segment of the antenna fits (Figure 26-3, agr).
antennifer A small process on the head with which the
antenna articulates.
antennule The first antennae of Crustacea (Figure 5-24,
antl).
antenodal crossveins Crossveins along the costal border of
the wing, between the base of the wing and the nodus,
extending from the costa to the radius (Odonata;
Figure 10-5, an).
antepenultimate The third from the last.
antepygidial bristle One or more large bristles on the
apical margin of the seventh (next to the last) tergum
(Siphonaptera).
anterior Front; in front oL
anterior crossvein The r-m crossvein (Diptera; Figure 34-4B,
acv).
anterodorsal In the front and at the top or upper side.
anteromesal In the front and along the midline of the body.
anteroventral In the front and underneath or on the lower
side.
anus The posterior opening of the alimentary tract
(Figure 2-22, ans).
aorta The anterior nonpulsatile portion of the dorsal blood
vessel.
apical At the end, tip, or outermost part.
apical cell A cell near the wing tip (Figure 22-50;
Figure 34-4B, SM; Figure 28-3, AP).
apical crossvein A crossvein near the apex of the wing
(Plecoptera, Figure 16-7D, apc; Hemiptera, Figure 22-11,
table).
apodeme An invagination of the body wall forming a rigid
process that serves for muscle attachment and for the
strengthening of the body wall.
apolysis The separation of the epidermis from the cuticle
(part of the process of molting).
apomorphy A derived character, that is, one that is
changed from the ancestral condition.
apophysis (pl., apophyses) A tubercular or elongate
process of the body wall, either external or internal
(Figure 2-4, apo).
appendix A supplementary or additional piece or part (of
the hemipteran wing, see Figure 22-11, ap).
appressed setae Setae that lie parallel to or in contact with
the body surface.
apterous Wingless.
apterygote A primitively wingless hexapod.
aquatic Living in water.
arcuate Bent like a bow, or arched.
arculus A basal crossvein between the radius and the
cubitus (Odonata; Figures 10-5 through 10-7, arc).
areole An accessory cell (see also basal areole).
areolet A small cell in the wing; in the Ichneumonidae,
the small, submarginal cell opposite the second m-cu
crossvein (Figure 28-31, are).
arista A large bristle, usually dorsally located, on the
apical antennal segment (Diptera; Figure 34-5, ar).
aristate Bristlelike; with an arista; aristate antenna
(Figures 2-15J, 34-19A,B).
arolium (pl., arolia) A padlike structure at the apex of the
last tarsal segment, between the claws (Orthoptera;
Figure 11-4C aro); a padlike structure at the base of
each tarsal claw (Hemiptera; Figures 22-1, 22-3A, aro).
arrhenotoky A form of parthenogenesis in which females
are produced from fertilized eggs, males from
unfertilized eggs.
articulation A joint as between two segments or structures.
aspirator A device with which insects may be picked up
by suction (Figure 35-3).
asymmetrical Not alike on the two sides.
asynchronous muscle A rapidly contracting muscle in
which the individual contractions are not initiated by a
neuronal impulse (compare with synchronous or
neurogenic muscle).
atrium (pl., atria) A chamber; a chamber just inside a
body opening.
atrophied Reduced in size, rudimentary.
attenuated Very slender and gradually tapering distally.
auricle A smalllobe or earlike structure (Hymenoptera;
Figure 28-66, au).
auxiliary vein The subcosta (Diptera; Figure 34-4, ay).
axilla (pl., axíllae) A triangular or rounded sclerite laterad
of the scutellum and usually just caudad of the base of
the front wing (Hymenoptera; Figure 28-4, ax).
axillary cell A cell in the anal area of the wing (Diptera,
Figure 34-4, axc; Hymenoptera, Figure 28-3, AX).
axillary sclerites The small sclerites at the base of the
wing that translate deformations of the thorax into wing
movements (Figure 2-11, axs).
band A transverse marking broader than a line.
basad Toward the base.
basal anal cell An anal cell near the wing base; a cell at
the base of the wing between lA and 2A (Plecoptera;
Figure 16-1, BA).
basal areole A small cell at the base of the wing; the cellal
the base of the wing between Sc and R (Lepidoptera;
Figures 30-26 through 30-28, BA).
basal cell A cell near the base of the wing, bordered at
least in part by the unbranched portions of the
longitudinal veins; in the Diptera, one of the two
cells proximad of the anterior crossvein and the
discal cell (Diptera, Figure 34-4B, B; Hymenoptera,
see Figure 28-8, B).
basal vein A vein in about the middle of the front wing,
extending from the median vein to the subcostal or
cubital vein; the first free segment of M (Hymenoptera;
Figure 28-3, 3, by).
basalare (or basalar sclerite) An epipleurite located
anterior to the pleural wing process.
basement membrane A noncellular membrane underlying the
epidermal cells of the body wall (Figures 2-2, 2-4, bm).
1(
basisternum The part of a thoracic sternum anterior to the
sternacostal suture.
beak The protruding mouthpart structures of a sucking
insect; proboscis (Figures 2-17 through 2-20, bk).
bifid Forked, or divided into two parts.
bilateral symmetry See symmetry.
bilobed Divided into two lobes.
bipectinate Having branches on two sides like teeth of a
combo
biramous With two branches; consisting of an endopodite
and an exopodite (Crustacea).
bisexual With males and females.
bituberculate With two tubercles or sweIlings.
bivalved With two valves or parts, clamlike.
blastoderm The peripheral ceIllayer in the insect egg
foIlowing cleavage (Figure 2-37C, bl).
book gills The leaflike gills of a horseshoe crab
(Figure 5-2, bg).
book lung A respiratory cavity containing a series of
leaflike folds (spiders).
borrow pit A pit formed by an excavation, where earth has
been "borrowed" for use elsewhere.
boss A smooth, lateral prominence at the base of a
chelicera (spiders).
brace vein A slanting crossvein; in Odonata, a slanting
crossvein just behind the proximal end of the stigma
(Figure 10-7E, bvn).
brachypterous With short wings that do not cover the
abdomen.
brain The anterior ganglion of the nervous system, located
above the esophagus; in insects, consisting of the
protocerebrum, deutocerebrum, and tritocerebrum.
brain hormone A chemical messenger produced by
neurosecretory ceIls in the brain that activates the
prothoracic glands to produce ecdysone (also known as
PTTH or prothoracicotropic honnone).
bridge crossvein A crossvein anterior to the bridge vein
(Odonata; Figure 10-5, bcv).
bridge vein The vein that appears as the basal part of the
radial sector, between Ml+2 and the oblique vein
(Odonata; Figure 10-5, brv).
brood The individuals that hatch from the eggs laid by one
mother; individuals that hatch at about the same time
and normaIly mature at about the same time.
bucca (pl., buccae) A sclerite on the head below the
compound eye and just above the mouth opening
(Diptera; Figure 34-5, buc).
buccula (pl., bucculae) One of two ridges on the underside
of the head, on each side of the beak (Hemiptera;
Figures 2-17, 22-1, buc).
bursa copulatrix A pouch of the female reproductive
system that receives the male genitalia during
copulation.
bursicon A hormone involved in the process of
sclerotization.
caecum (pl., caeca) A saclike or tubelike structure, open at
only one end.
calamistrum One or two rows of curved spines on the
metatarsus of the hind legs (spiders; Figure 5-7, CA).
Glossary 781
calcaria Movable spurs at the apex of the tibia (Figure 11-4F,
G, clc).
callus (pl., callí) A rounded swelling.
calypter (pl., calypteres) One or two smalI lobes at the
base of the wing, located just above the haltere (Diptera;
Figure 34-4, cal) (see also squama).
camera lucida A device enabling one to make accurate
drawings of objects seen through a microscope; when it
is attached to the eyepiece of a microscope the observer
can see both the object under the microscope and the
drawing paper at the same time.
campaniform sensillum A sense organ consisting of a dome-
shaped cuticular area into which the sensory ceIl process
is inserted like the clapper of a belI (Figure 2-27B).
campodeiform larva A larva shaped like the dipluran
Campodea (Figure 7-4A), that is, elongate and flattened,
with weIl-developed legs and antennae, and usuaIly active.
canthus A cuticular process that subdivides the eye
(Coleoptera) .
capitate With a knoblike apical enlargement; capitate
antenna (Figure 2-15F).
carapace A hard dorsal covering consisting of fused dorsal
sclerites (Crustacea; Figure 5-22, crp).
cardo (pl., cardines) The basal segment or division of a
maxilla (Figure 2-16A, cd); one of two small
laterobasal sclerites in the millipede gnathochilarium
(Figure 5-30B, cd).
carina (pl., carinae) A ridge or keel.
carinate Ridged or keeled.
carnivorous Feeding on the flesh of other animals.
caste A form or type of adult in a social insect (termites,
see Figure 19-2; ants, see Figure 28-83).
catapimeron The portion of the catapleurite posterior to
the pleural suture.
catapleurite The lower and inner of the two incomplete
subcoxal rings that form the thoracic pleurites (also
caIled the catepleurite, katepleurite, and coxopleurite).
catepisternum The portion of the catapleurite anterior to
the pleural sulcus.
caterpillar An eruciform larva; the larva of a butterfly
(Figure 30-3), moth, sawfly, or scorpionfly.
caudad Toward the taíl, or toward the posterior end of the
body.
caudal Pertaining to the taíl or posterior end of the body.
caudal filament A threadlike process at the posterior end
of the abdomen.
cell A space in the wing membrane partIy (an open cell)
or completely (a closed cell) surrounded by veins.
cenchrus (pl., cenchri) Roughened pad on the metanotum
of sawfIies (Symphyta) serving to hold the wings in
place when folded over the dorsum.
cephalad Toward the head or anterior end.
cephalic On or attached to the head; anterior.
cephalothorax A body region consisting of head and
thoracic segments (Crustacea and Arachnida; Figure 5--6).
cercus (pl., cercí) One of a pair of appendages at the
posterior end of the abdomen (Figure 2-1, cr).
cervical Pertaining to the neck or cervix.
cervical sclerite A sclerite located in the lateral part
of the cervix, between the head and the prothorax
(Figure 2-6, cvs).
782 Glossary
cervix The neck, a membranous region between the head
and prothorax (Figure 2-6, cvx).
chaetotaxy The arrangement and nomenclature of the
bristles on the exoskeleton (Diptera; Figures 34-5,
34-6).
cheek The lateral part of the head between the compound
eye and the mouth (see gena).
chelate Pincerlike, having two opposable claws.
chelicera (p\., chelicerae) One of the anterior pair of
appendages in arachnids (Figure 5-6).
cheliped A leg terminating in an enlarged pincerlike
structure (Crustacea; Figure 5-22).
chemoreceptor A sensil\um capable of detecting chemicals
(by olfaction andJor gustation).
chitin A nitrogenous polysaccharide formed primarily of
units of N-acetyl glucosamine, occurring in the cuticle
of arthropods.
chordotonal organ A sense organ, the cellular elements of
which form an elongate structure attached at both ends
to the body wall.
chorion The outer shell of an arthropod egg.
chrysalis (p\., chrysalidsor chrysalides) The pupa of a
butterfly (Figure 30-4, A,B).
cibarium A preoral cavity enclosed by the labrum
anteriorly, the hypopharynx or labium posteriorly, and
the mandibles and maxil\ae laterally
circumesophageal connective A nerve connecting the
tritocerebrallobes of the brain with the subesophageal
ganglion (Figure 2-22, cee).
cladistics School of systematics that seeks to recognize
monophyletic groups on the basis of shared derived
characters.
cladogram A branching diagram that represents the
distribution of derived character states (apomorphies,
homologies) among taxa; by extension, the cladogram
then represents the relationships among those taxa and
their evolutionary history
class A subdivision of a phylum or subphylum, containing
a group of related orders.
claval suture The suture of the front wing separating the
clavus from the corium (Hemiptera; Figure 22-1, cls).
claval vein A vein in the clavus (Hemiptera; Figure 22-10,
clv).
clavate Clublike, or enlarged at the tip; clava te antennae
(Figure 2-15D,E).
c\avus The oblong or triangular anal portion of the front
wing (Hemiptera; Figures 22-1, 22-4 cl).
c\aw tuft A dense tuft of hairs below the claws (spiders;
Figure 5-7E, CT).
c\eft Split or forked.
closed cell A wing cell bounded on all sides by veins.
c\osed coxal cavity One bounded posteriorly by a sclerite
of the same thoracic segment (front coxal cavities,
Coleoptera; Figure 26-7B), or one completely
surrounded by sternal sclerites and not touched by any
pleural sclerites (middle coxal cavities, Coleoptera;
Figure 26-7D).
clubbed With the distal part (or segments) enlarged;
clubbed antennae (Figure 2-15D-F,L,M).
clypeus A sclerite on the lower part of the face, between
'i¡; ~ the frons and the labium}Figu~.e 2-13, clp).
t~.! ", ,:;J¡(',.;- :1\" .
iC
7", _
coarctate larva A larva somewhat similar to a dipterous
puparium, in which the skin of the preceding instar is
not completely shed but remains attached to the caudal
end of the body; the sixth instar of a blister beetle, see
also pseudopupa (Figure 26-68H).
coarctate pupa A pupa enclosed in a hardened shell forrned
by the next-to-last larval skin (Diptera; Figure 2-44F).
cocoon A silken case inside which the pupa is formed.
collophore A tubelike structure on the ventral side of the
first abdominal segment of most Collembola.
collum The tergite of the first segment (Diplopoda;
Figure 5-30A, colm).
colon The large intestine; that part of the hindgut between
the ileum and the rectum (Figure 2-22, en).
colulus A slender, pointed structure lying just anterior to
the spinnerets (spiders).
commensalism A living together of two or more species,
none of which is injured thereby, and at least one of
which is benefited.
commissure A structure (trachea or nerve) that connects
the left and right sides of a segmento
common oviduct The median tube of the female internal
gen italia leading from the lateral oviducts to the
gonopore.
compound eye An eye composed of many individual
elements or ommatidia, each represented externally by a
facet; the external surface of such an eye consists of
circular facets that are very close together or of facets
that are in contact and more or less hexagonal in shape
(Figure 2-1, e, Figure 2-29C,D).
compressed Flattened from side to side.
concave vein A vein protruding from the lower surface of
the wing.
condyle A knoblike process forming an articulation.
connate Fused together or immovably united.
connective A structure (such as a trachea or nerve) that
runs from one segment to another.
constricted Narrowed.
contiguous Touching each other.
convergent Becoming c\oser distally.
convex vein A vein protruding from the upper surface of
the wing.
corbicula (p\., corbiculae) A smooth area on the outer
surface of the hind tibia, bordered on each side by a
fringe of long, curved hairs, which serves as a pollen
basket (bees).
corium The elongate, usually thickened, basal portion of
the front wing (Hemiptera; Figure 22-4, cor).
cornea The cuticular part of an eye (Figure 2-29, cna).
cornic\e One of a pair of dorsal tubular structures on the
posterior part of the abdomen (aphids; Figure 22-14C,
cm).
corniculi (sing., comiculus) See urogomphi.
coronal suture A longitudinal suture along the midline of
the vertex, between the compound eyes (Figure 2-13, es).
corpus allatum (p\., corpora allata) One of a pair of small
structures immediately behind the brain, involved in
secretion of juvenile hormone (Figure 2-26, ea).
costa (p\., costae) A longitudinal wing vein usually
forming the anterior margin of the wing (Figure 2-10,
C); a sc\erotized ridge in the cuticle.
 Glossary 783

costal area The portion of the wing immediately behind desmosome One form of subcellular attachment between
the anterior margino the plasma membranes of two adjacent cells.
costal break A point on the costa where the sclerotization deutocerebrum The middle pair of lobes of the brain,
is weak or lacking or the vein appears to be broken innervating the antennae.
(Diptera; Figures 34-22A,B, 34-24C-E, cbr). deutonymph The third instar of a mite (Figure 5-17D).
costal cell The wing space between the costa and the diapause A period of arrested development and reduced
subcosta. metabolic rate, during which growth, differentiation,
coxa (pl., coxae) The basal segment of the leg and metamorphosis cease; a period of dormancy not
(Figure 2-8, cx). immediately referable to adverse environmental
coxopleurite See catapleurite. conditions.
coxopodite The basal segment of an arthropod appendage. dichoptic The eyes separated above (Diptera).
coxosternum A sclerite representing the fusion of the dicondylic A joint with two points of articulation.
sternum and the coxopodites of a segment. diecious Having the male and female organs in different
crawler The active first instar of a scale insect individuals, any one individual being either male or
(Figure 22-63B). female.
cremas ter A spinelike or hooked process at the posterior dilated Expanded or widened.
end of the pupa, often used for attachment direct flight mechanism Generation of wing movements
(Lepidoptera; Figure 30-4, cre). by means of muscles pulling on the base of the wings.
crenulate Wavy, or with small scallops. disc The central dorsal portion of the pronotum
cribellum A sievelike structure lying just anterior to the (Hemiptera) .
spinnerets (spiders; Figure 5-8A, CR). discal cell A more or less enlarged cell in the basal
crochets (pronounced croshays) Hooked spines at the tip or central part of the wing (Hemiptera, the R cell,
of the prolegs of lepidopterous larvae (Figure 30-3, Figure 22-11; Lepidoptera, Figure 30-6, D; Diptera,
cro). Figure 34-4B, D).
crop The dilated posterior portion of the foregut, just discal crossvein A crossvein behind the discal cell
behind the esophagus (Figure 2-22, cp). (Diptera; Figure 34-4B, dcv).
crossvein A vein connecting adjacent longitudinal veins. distad Away from the body, toward the end farthest from
cruciate Crossing; shaped like a crosS. the body.
cryptonephridia Malpighian tubules that are closely distal Near or toward the free end of an appendage; that
associated with the hind gut and surrounded by a part of a segment or appendage farthest from the body.
membrane, thus separating this complex from the rest diurnal Active during the daytime.
of the hemocoel. divaricate Extending outward and then curving inward
ctenidium (pl., ctenidia) A row of stout bristles like the toward each other distally (divaricate tarsal claws;
teeth of a combo Figure 26-10A).
cubito-anal crossvein A crossvein between the cubitus and divergent Becoming more separated distally.
an anal vein (Figure 2-10, cu-a). dormancy A state of quiescence or inactivity.
cubitus The longitudinal vein immediately posterior to the dorsad Toward the back or topo
media (Figure 2-10, Cu). dorsal Top or uppermost; pertaining to the back or upper
cuneus A more or less triangular apical piece of the side.
corium, set off from the rest of the corium by a suture dorsal blood vessel Median upper tube that forms the
(Hemiptera; Figure 22-4, cun). primary portion of the circulatory system of arthropods.
cursorial Fitted for running; running in habito dorsal diaphragm An incomplete wall of muscle
cuticle (or cuticula) The noncellular outer layer of the separating the area around the dorsal blood vessel (the
body wall of an arthropod (Figures 2-2, 2-4, cut). pericardial sinus) from the rest of the hemocoel.
cymbium The tarsus of the pedipalp of a male spider. dorsallongitudinal muscles One of the primary sets of
cyst A sac, vesicle, or bladderlike structure. segmental muscles inserted on the antecostae of
successive segments (phragmata in the thorax) dorsally
and the sternum ventrally, in pterothoracic segments
deciduous Having a part or parts that may fall off or be contraction results in arching of the notum and
shed. contributes significantly to depression of the wings.
decticous A type of pupa with movable, functional dorsocentral bristles A longitudinal row of bristles on the
mandibles. mesonotum, just laterad of the acrostichal bristles
decumbent Bent downward. (Diptera; Figure 34-6, dc).
deflexed Bent downward. dorsolateral At the top and to the side.
dens (pl., dentes)The central segment of the furcula of dorsomesal At the top and along the midline.
Collembola, attached to the manubrium basally and dorsoscutellar bristles A pair of bristles on the dorsal
with the mucro attached apically. portion of the scutellum, one on each side of the
dentate Toothed, or with toothlike projections. midline (Diptera).
denticulate With minute, toothlike projections. dorsoventral From top to bottom, or from the upper to
depress To lower an appendage (e.g., leg or wing). the lower side.
depressed Flattened dorsoventrally. dorsum
Thebackor tO.~«~DAD DECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
784 Glossary
Dyar's rule The increase in width of the larval head capsule
by a factor of 1.2 to 1.4 from one molt to the next.
ecdysis (pl., ecdyses)Molting;the process of shedding the
exoskeleton.
ecdysone (or ecdysteroid) Hormone produced by the
prothoradc glands that initiates apolysis.
eclosion Hatching from the egg.
ectoparasite A parasite that lives on the outside of its host.
ejaculatory duct The terminal portion of the male sperm
duct (Figure 2-31B, ejd).
elateriform larva A larva resembling a wireworm, that is,
slender, heavily sclerotized, with short thoradc legs, and
with few body hairs (Figure 26-45B).
elbowed antenna An antenna with the first segment
elongated and the remaining segments coming off the
first segment at an angle (Figure 2-15N).
elevate To raise an appendage (e.g., leg or wing).
elytron (pl., e/ytra) A thickened, leathery, or horny front
wing (Coleoptera, Dermaptera, some Hemiptera;
Coleoptera, Figure 26-1, el).
emarginate Notched or indented.
embolium A narrow piece of the corium, along the costal
margin, separated from the rest of the corium by a
suture (Hemiptera; Figure 22-4C, emb).
embolus Structure of the pedipalp of a male spider bearing
the apex of the sperm duct.
emergence The act of the adult insect leaving the pupal
case or the last nymphal skin.
empodium (pl., empodia) A padlike or bristlelike structure
at the apex of the last tarsal segment, between the claws
(Diptera; Figure 34-2, emp).
endite The basal segment of the spider pedipalp, which is
enlarged and functions as a crushingjaw (Figure HB, C).
endocuticle (or endocuticula) The innermost and
unsclerotized layer of the cuticle (Figure 2-2, end).
endoparasite A parasite that lives inside its host (for
example, Figure 34-72B).
endophallus The inner eversible lining of the male
aedeagus.
endopodite The mesal branch of a biramous appendage
(Figure 5-1, enp).
endopterygote Having the wings developing internally;
with complete metamorphosis.
endoskeleton A skeleton or supporting structure on the
inside of the body.
entire Without teeth or notches, with a smooth outline.
entomophagous Feeding on insects.
epicranium The upper part of the head, from the face to
the neck (Lepidoptera; Figure 30-3, epcr).
epicuticle (or epicuticula) The very thin, nonchitinous,
externallayer of the cuticle (Figure 2-2, epi).
epidermis The cellular layer of the body wall, which
secretes the cuticle (Figure 2-2, 2-4, ep).
epigastric furrow A transverse ventral suture near the
anterior end of the abdomen, along which lie the
openings of the book lungs and the reproductive organs
(spiders; Figure 5-6B, C).
epigynum The external female genitalia of spiders
(Figure 5-6B).
epimeron (pl., epimera) The area of a thoradc pleuron
posterior to the pleural suture (Figure 2-6, epm).
epipharynx A mouthpart structure on the inner surface of
the labrum or clypeus; in chewing insects, a median
lobe on the posterior (ventral) surface of the labrum.
epiphysis (pl., epiphyses) A movable pad or lobelike
process on the inner surface of the front tibia
(Lepidoptera) .
epiphyte An air plant, one growing nonparasitically on
another plant or on a nonliving object.
epipleura (pl., epipleurae) The bent-down lateral edge of
an elytron (Coleoptera).
epipleurite A small sclerite in the membranous area
between the thoradc pleura and the wing bases
(Figure 2-6, epp).
epiproct A process or appendage situated above the anus
and appearing to arise from the tenth abdominal
segment; actually, the dorsal part of the eleventh
abdominal segment (Figure 2-1, ept).
episternum (pl., epistema) The area of a thoradc pleuron
anterior to the pleural suture (Figure 2-6, eps).
epistomal suture (or epistomal sulcus) The sulcus between
the frons and the clypeus (Figure 2-13, es), connecting
the anterior tentorial pits.
epistome The part of the face just above the mouth; the
oral margin (Diptera).
erudform larva A caterpillar; a larva with a more or less
cylindrical body, a well-developed head, and thorade
legs and abdominal prolegs (Figure 30-3).
esophagus The narrow portion of the alimentary tract
immediately posterior to the pharynx (Figure 2-22,
eso).
estivation See aestivation.
eusodal A condition of group living in which there is
cooperation among members in rearing young,
reproductive division of labor, and overlap of
generations.
eusternum The ventral plate of a thoradc segment
exclusive of the spinasternum.
evagination An outpocketing, or saclike structure on the
outside.
eversible Capable of being everted or turned outward.
exarate pupa A pupa in which the appendages are free and
not glued to the body (Figure 2-44C-E).
excavated Hollowed out.
excretion The elimination of metabolic wastes from the
body.
exocuticle (or exocuticula) The layer of sclerotized cuticle
just outside the endocuticle, between the endocuticle
and the epicuticle (Figure 2-2, exo).
exopodite The outer branch of a biramous appendage
(Figure 5-1, exp).
exopterygote With the wings developing on the outside of
the body, as in insects with simple metamorphosis.
exoskeleton A skeleton or supporting structure on the
outside of the body.
exserted Protruding or projecting from the body.
external The outside, that part away from the center
(midline) of the body.
exuvium (pl., exuvia) The cast skin of an arthropod.
eye, compound See compound eye.
r
eye, simple See ocellus.
eye cap A structure overhanging or capping the compound
eye (Lepidoptera; Figure 30-29B, ec).
face The front of the head, below the frontal suture
(Diptera; Figure 34-5, fa).
facet The external surface of an individual compound-eye
unit or ommatidium.
falx An interantennal suture with internal sclerotized
margins connecting the upper ends of the antennal
fossae (Siphonaptera).
family A subdivision of an order, suborder, or superfamily,
containing a group of related genera, tribes, or
subfamilies. Family names of animals end in -idae.
fastigium The anterior dorsal surface of the vertex
(grasshoppers) .
fat body An amorphous organ involved in intermedia te
metabolism, storage, and storage excretion.
feces Excrement, the material passed from the alimentary
tract through the anus.
felt line A narrow, longitudinal band of relatively dense,
closely appressed hairs (Mutillidae).
femur (pl.,femora) The third leg segment, located between
the trochanter and the tibia (Figure 2-8, fm).
libula A more or less triangular jugallobe in the front
wing that serves as a means of uniting the front and
hind wings (Lepidoptera; Figure 30-34, lib).
lilament A slender, threadlike structure.
lile A filelike ridge on the ventral side of the tegmen, near
the base; a part of the stridulating mechanism in
crickets and katydids (Figure 11-2).
liliform Hairlike or threadlike, filiform antenna
(Figure 2-15B).
lilter chamber A modification of the alimentary canal in
Homoptera in which the anterior portion of the midgut
is closely associated with the hindgut (Figure 2-23).
Oabellate With fanlike processes or projections; flabellate
antenna (Figure 2-15L).
Oabellum (pl., flabella) A fanlike or leaflike process
(Hymenoptera; Figure 28-6, flb).
Oagellomere One subsegment of the flagellum.
Oagellum (pl.,flagella) A whiplike structure; that
part of the antenna beyond the second segment
(Figure 2-15N, fl).
Oexor muscle A muscle that decreases the angle between
two segments of an appendage.
foliaceous Leaflike.
follicle A minute cavity, sac, or tube.
follicular epithelium Layer of epithelial cells surrounding
the oocyte.
fontanelle A small, depressed, pale spot on the front of the
head between the eyes Osoptera; Figure 19-3, fon).
foramen magnum The opening on the posterior side of the
head, through which pass the internal structures that
extend from head to thorax (Figure 2-13, for); also
occipital foramen.
foregut Anterior portion of the alimentary tract, from the
mouth to the midgut.
fossorial Fitted for or with the habit of digging.
Glossary 785
frass Plant fragments made by a wood-boring insect,
usually mixed with excrement.
frenulum A bristle or group of bristles arising at the
humeral angle of the hind wing (Lepidoptera;
Figure 30-6, O.
frons The head sclerite bounded by the frontal (or
frontogenal) and epistomal sulci and including the
median ocellus (Figure 2-13, fr).
front That portion of the head between the antennae, eyes,
and ocelli; the frons.
frontal bristles Bristles above the antennae, away from the
edge of the compound eye (Diptera; Figure 34-27B, fb).
frontallunule A small, crescent-shaped sclerite located
just above the base of the antennae and below the
frontal suture (Diptera; Figure 34-5, frl).
frontal suture One of two sutures arising at the anterior
end of the coronal suture and extending ventrad toward
the epistomal sulcus (Figure 2-13, fs); a suture shaped
like an inverted U, with the base of the U crossing the
face above the bases of the antennae and the arms of the
U extending downward on each side of the face
(Diptera, Figure 34-5, fs; actually a ptilinal suture).
frontal vitta Area on the head between the antennae and
the ocelli (Diptera; Figure 34-5; fv).
frontogenal suture (or frontogenal sulcus) A more or less
vertical suture on the front of the head, between the
frons and the gena.
fronto-orbital bristles Bristles on the front next to the
compound eyes (Diptera; Figure 34-5, fob).
funiculus (or funicle) The antennal segments between the
scape and the club (Coleoptera), or between the pedicel
and club (Hymenoptera).
furca A fork or forked structure; a forked apodeme arising
from a thoracic sternum (Figure 2-7, fu).
furcula The forked springing apparatus of the Collembola.
galea The outer lobe of the maxilla, borne by the stipes
(Figure 2-16A, g).
gall An abnormal growth of plant tissues, caused by the
stimulus of an animal or another plant.
ganglion (pl., ganglia) A knotlike enlargement of a
nerve, containing a coordinating mass of nerve cells
(Figure 2-22, gn).
gaster The rounded part of the abdomen posterior to the
nodelike segment or segments (Hymenoptera Apocrita).
gastric caecum Caecum located at the anterior portion of
the midgut.
gena (pl., genae) The part of the head on each side below
and behind the compound eyes, between the frontal and
occipital sulci (Figure 2-13, ge).
genal comb A row of strong spines on the anteroventral
border of the head (Siphonaptera; Figure 31-1).
generation From any given stage in the !ife cycle to the
same stage in the offspring.
geniculate Elbowed, or abruptly bent; geniculate antenna
(Figure 2-15N).
genital chamber See bursa copulatrix.
genitalia The sexual organs and associated structures; the
external sexual organs (Figures 2-32, 2-33).
786 Glossary

genovertical plate An area on the head above the antenna haustellum A part of the beak (Diptera; Figures 2-19,
and next to the compound eye (Diptera; Figure 34-5, 2-20, hst).
gvp, 34-23C, orp), also called orbital plate. head The anterior body region, which bears the eyes,
genus (pl., genera) A group of closely related species; the antennae, and mouthparts (Figure 2-1, hd).
first name in a binomial or trinomial scientific name. heart The posterior pulsatile portion of the dorsal blood
Names of genera are latinized, capitalized, and when vessel.
printed are italicized. hemelytron (pl., hemelytra) The front wing of Hemiptera
germarium Apical portion of the ovariole or sperm follicle. (Heteroptera) (Figure 22-4).
gill Evagination of the body wall or hindgut, functioning hemimetabolous Having simple metamorphosis, like that
in gaseous exchanges in an aquatic animal. in the Odonata, Ephemeroptera, and Plecoptera (with
glabrous Smooth, without hairs. the nymphs aquatic).
globose, globular Spherical or nearly so. hemocoel A body cavity filled with blood.
glossa (pl., glossae)One of a pair of lobes at the apex of hemocyte A blood cell.
the labium between the paraglossae (Figure 2-16C, gl); hemolymph The blood of arthropods.
in bees, see Figure 28-6. herbivorous Feeding on plants.
gnathochilarium A platelike mouthpart structure in the hermaphroditic Having both male and female sex organs.
Diplopoda, representing the fused maxillae and labium. hertz Cycles per second (Hz).
gonangulum A sclerite of the female external genitalia heterodynamic life cycle A life cycle in which there is a
derived from the second gonocoxa, connecting the period of dormancy.
second gonocoxa, ninth tergum, and first gonapophysis. heterogamy Altemation of bisexual with parthenogenetie
gonapophysis (pl., gonapophyses) A mesal posterior reproduction.
process of a gonopod, in the female forming the heteromerous The three pairs of tarsi differing in the
ovipositor (see Figures 2-32, gap; 8-1); first or second number of segments (Coleoptera, for example, with a
valvula. tarsal formula of 5-5-4).
gonobase The basal portion of the male external genitalia hibernation Dormancy during the winter.
from which the paramers and aedeagus arise; usually hindgut The posterior portion of the alimentary traet,
ring-shaped. between the midgut and the anus.
gonocoxa A modified coxa that forms a part of the holocrine secretion Release of enzymes by disruption of
external genitalia (= valvifer). the entire cell.
gonoplacs Lateral sheaths enveloping the ovipositor in holometabolous With complete metamorphosis.
pterygotes (= third valvulae). holoptic The eyes contiguous above (Diptera).
gonopod A modified leg that forms a part of the external holotype A specimen designated by the author of a new
genitalia. species or subspecies to which the scientific name is
gonopore The external opening of the reproductive attached. If it is found that this specimen belongs lO
organs. another species or subspecies, then the original name
gonostylus Stylus of a genital segment (abdominal be comes a synonyrn of the second name.
segment 8 or 9). homodynamic life cycle A life cycle in which there is
gregarious Living in groups. continuous development, without a period of dormaney
grub A scarabaeiform larva; a thick-bodied larva with a homologize To recognize that two characters are derived
well-developed head and thoracic legs, without from the same ancestral character.
abdominal prolegs, and usually sluggish (Figures 2-43B, homology A character that is shared between two species
26-31). because both inherited it from their common aneeslOr.
gula A sclerite on the ventral side of the head between the homonyrn One name for two or more different things
labium and the foramen magnum (Figure 26-4, gu). (taxa).
guIar sutures Longitudinal sutures, one on each side of honeydew Liquid discharged from the anus of certain
the gula (Figure 26-4, gs). Hemiptera.
gustation Taste, detection of chemicals in liquido hornworm A caterpillar (larva of Sphingidae) with a
gynandromorph An abnormal individual containing dorsal spine or horn on the last abdominal segment
structural characteristics of both sexes (usually male on (Figure 30-78).
one side and female on the other). horny Thickened or hardened.
host The organism in or on which a parasite lives; the
plant on which an insect feeds.
haltere (pl., halteres) A small knobbed structure on each humeral Pertaining to the shoulder; located in the anterior
side of the metathorax, formed from a modified hind basal portion of the wing.
wing (Diptera; Figure 6-4, hal)o humeral angle The basal anterior angle or portion of the
hamuli (sing., hamulus) Minute hooks; a series of minute wing.
hooks on the anterior margin of the hind wing, with humeral bristles The bristles on the humeral callus
which the front and hind wings are attached together (Diptera; Figure 34-6, hb).
(Hymenoptera) . humeral callus One of the anterior lateral angles of the
haustellate Formed for sucking, the mandibles not fitted thoracic notum, usually more or less rounded (Diptera;
for chewing (or absent). Figure 34-6, he).

h.
r
humeral crossvein A crossvein in the humeral portion of the
wing, betweenthe costa and subcosta (Figure 2-10, h).
humeral suture The mesopleural suture (Odonata;
Figure 10-4, pIS2)'
humeral vein A branch of the subcosta that serves to
strengthen the humeral angle of the wing (Neuroptera,
Figure 27-2C, hv; Lepidoptera, Figure 30-23B, hv).
humerus (pl., humeri) The shoulder; the posterolateral
angles of the pronotum (Hemiptera).
hyalline Like glass, transparent, colorless.
hypermetamorphosis A type of complete metamorphosis
in which the different larval instars represent two or
more different types of larvae (Figure 26-68).
hyperparasite A parasite whose host is another parasite.
hypodermis See epidermis.
hypognathous With the head and the mouthparts located
ventrally (for example, as in Figure 2-13).
hypomeron In Coleoptera, the underside of the pronotum.
hypopharynx A median mouthpart structure anterior to
the labium (Figures 2-16, 2-18 through 2-20, hyp); the
ducts from the salivary glands are usually associated
with the hypopharynx, and in some sucking insects the
hypopharynx is the mouthpart structure containing the
salivary channel.
hypopleural bristles A more or less vertical row of bristles
on the hypopleuron, usually directly above the hind
coxae (Diptera; Figure 34-6, hyb).
hypopleuron (pl., hypopleura) The lower part of the
mesepimeron; a sclerite on the thorax located just above
the hind coxae (Diptera; Figure 34-6, hypl).
hypostigmatic cell The cell immediately behind the point
of fusion of Sc and R (Neuroptera, Myrmeleontoidea;
Figure 27-4, hcl).
hypostomal bridge Mesal extension of the hypostomae on
each side to meet below the foramen magnum.
hz Hertz (cycles per second).
ileum The anterior part of the hindgut (Figure 2-22, il).
imago (pl., imagoes or imagines) The adult or reproductive
stage of an insect.
in-group The taxa that are the focus of interest in a
phylogenetic study.
inclinate Bent toward the midline of the body.
indirect flight mechanism Generation of wing movements
by means of muscles producing distortions in the shape
of the thorax.
inferior appendage The lower one (Anisoptera) or
two (Zygoptera) of the terminal abdominal
appendages, used in grasping the female at the time
of copulation (male Odonata; Figure 10-4A, ept;
10-4C, ppt).
infraepisternum A ventral subdivision of an episternum
(Figure 10-4, iep).
inner vertical bristles The more mesally located of the
large bristles on the vertex, between the ocelli and the
compound eyes (Diptera; Figure 34-5, ivb).
inquiline An animal that lives in the nest or abode of
another species.
instar The insect between successive molts, the first instar
being between hatching and the first molt.
Glossary 787
instinctive behavior Unlearned stereotyped behavior, in
which the nerve pathways involved are hereditary.
integument The outer covering of the body.
interantennal suture A suture extending between the
bases of the two antennae (Siphonaptera).
intercalary vein An extra longitudinal vein that
develops from a thickened fold in the wing, more
or less midway between two preexisting veins
(Ephemeroptera; Figures 9-3, 9-4, 9-6, lCuA).
internuncial neuron (or intemeuron) A neuron that
connects with two (or more) other neurons.
intersternite An intersegmental sclerite on the ventral side
of the thorax; the spinasternum.
interstitial Situated between two segments (interstitial
trochanter of Coleoptera; Figure 26-9E, tr).
intestine Anterior portion of the hindgut, between the
pyloric valve and the rectum.
intima The cuticular lining of the foregut, hindgut, and
tracheae.
intra-alar bristles A row of two or three bristles situated
on the mesonotum above the wing base, between
the dorsocentral and the supra-alar bristles (Diptera;
Figure 34-6, iab).
invagination An infolding or inpocketing.
isosmotic With an equal concentration of solutes.
iteroparous A type of life history in which the animal
reproduces two or more times during its lifetime.
Johnston's organ A sense organ similar to a chordotonal
organ, located in the second antennal segment of most
insects; this organ functions in sound perception in
some Diptera
joint An articulation of two successive segments or parts.
jugallobe A lobe at the base of the wing, on the posterior
side, proximad of the vannallobe (Hymenoptera;
Figure 28-13, 28-14, jl).
jugal vein The most posterior of the major longitudinal
vein systems, according to Kukalová-Peck.
jugum A lobelike process at the base of the front
wing, which overlaps the hind wing (Lepidoptera;
Figure 30-5, j); a sclerite in the head (Hemiptera;
Figures 2-17, 22-1,j).
katepleurite See catapleurite.
keeled With an elevated ridge or carina.
Khz Kilohertz (kilocycles per second).
kleptoparasite A parasite that feeds on food stored for the
host larvae.
labellum The expanded tip of the labium (Diptera;
Figures 2-19, 2-20, lb!).
labial Of or pertaining to the labium.
labial gland Exocrine organ opening on or at the base of
the labium, usually functioning as salivary or silk gland.
labial palp One of a pair of small feelerlike structures
arising from the labium (Figure 2-16C, Ip).
labial suture The suture on the labium between the
postmentum and prementum (Figure 2-16C, 15).
788 Glossary
labium One of the mouthpart structures, the lower lip
(Figures 2-D, Ibm, 2-16C).
labrum The upper lip, Iying just below the clypeus
(Figure 2-D, Ibr).
labrum-epipharynx A mouthpart representing the labrum
and epipharynx.
lacinia (p\., laciniae) The inner lobe of the maxilla, borne
by the stipes (Figure 2-16A, le).
lamella (p\., lame/lae) A leaflike plate.
lamellate With platelike structures or segments; lamellate
antennae (Figures 2-15M, 26-6C,O).
lamina In the cuticle, a layer of cuticle with chitin
microfibrils oriented in the same direction.
lamina lingualis (p\., laminae linguales) One of two
median distal plates in the millipede gnathochilarium
(Figure 5-30B, 11).
lanceolate Spear-shaped, tapering at each end.
larva (p\., larvae) The immature stage, between egg and
pupa, of an insect having complete metamorphosis; the
six-Iegged first instar of Acari (Figures 5-17B, 5-19A);
an immature stage differing radically from the adult.
larviform Shaped like a larva.
laterad Toward the side, away from the midline of the
body.
lateral Of or pertaining to the side (that is, the right or left
side).
lateral oviduct A tube in the female internal genitalia
connecting the ovaries and the common oviduct.
laterotergite A tergal sclerite located laterally or
dorsolaterally.
lateroventral To the side (away from the midline of the
body) and below.
leaf miner An insect that lives in and feeds on the leaf
cells between the upper and lower surfaces of a leaL
ligula The terminallobe (or lobes) of the labium, the
glossae and paraglossae.
linear Linelike, long and very narrow.
longitudinal Lengthwise of the body or of an appendage.
looper A caterpillar that moves by looping its body, that is,
by placing the posterior part of the abdomen next to the
thorax and then extending the anterior part of the body
forward; a measuringworm.
lorum (p\., lora) The cheek; a sclerite on the side of the
head (Hemiptera; Figures 22-1, 22-11, lo); the
submentum in bees (Figure 28-6, smt).
luminescent Producing light.
lunule, frontal See frontallunule.
maggot A vermiform larva; a legless larva without a well-
developed head capsule (Diptera; Figure 2-43A).
Malpighian tubules Excretory tubes that arise near the
anterior end of the hindgut and extend into the body
cavity (Figure 2-22, mt).
mandible Jaw; one of the anterior pair of paired mouthpart
structures (Figure 2-160, md).
mandibulate With jaws fitted for chewing.
marginal cell A cell in the distal part of the wing
bordering the costal margin (Oiptera, Figure 34-4B,
MC; Hymenoptera, Figure 28-3, MC).
marginal vein A vein on or just within the wing margin;
the vein forming the posterior side of the marginal cell
(Hymenoptera; Figures 28-3, 28-19B, mv).
margined With a sharp or keellike lateral edge.
maxilla (p\., maxillae) One of the paired mouthpart
structures immediately posterior to the mandibles
(Figure 2-16A, mx).
maxillary Of or pertaining to the maxilla.
maxillary palp A small feelerlike structure arising from
the maxilla (Figure 2-16A, mxp).
maxilliped One of the appendages in Crustacea
immediately posterior to the second maxillae.
mechanoreceptor A sensillum sensitive to physical
displacement.
media The longitudinal vein between the radius and
cubitus (Figure 2-10, M).
medial crossvein A crossvein connecting two branches of
the media (Figure 2-10, m).
median In the middle; along the midline of the body.
mediocubital crossvein A crossvein connecting the media
and cubitus (Figure 2-10, m-cu).
membrane A thin film of tissue, usually transparent; the
part of the wing surface between the veins; the thin,
apical part of a hemelytron (Hemiptera; Figure 22-4,
mem).
membranous Like a membrane; thin and more or less
transparent (wings); thin and pliable (cuticle).
mentalsetae Setae on the mentum (Odonata; Figure 10-3,
mst).
mentum The distal part of the labium, which bears the
palps and the ligula (Figure 2-16C, mn); a median,
more or less triangular piece in the millipede
gnathochilarium (Figure 5-30B, mn).
merocrine secretion Release of enzymes across the cell
membrane, without destruction of the entire cel\.
meroistic ovariole Ovariole with nurse cells.
meropleuron (p\., meropleura) A sclerite consisting of the
meron (basal part) of the coxa and the lower part of the
epimeron.
mesad Toward the midline of the body.
mesal At or near the midline of the body.
mesenteron The midgut, or middle portion of the
alimentary tract (Figure 2-22, mg).
mesepimeron (p\. mesepimera) The epimeron of the
mesothorax (Figures 2-6, 26-4, epm2).
mesepisternum (p\., mesepistema) The episternum of the
mesothorax (Figures 2-6, 26-4, eps2)'
mesinfraepisternum A ventral subdivision of the
mesepisternum (Odonata; Figure 10-4, iep2)'
meson The midline of the body, or an imaginary plane
dividing the body into right and left halves.
mesonotum The dorsal sclerite of the mesothorax
(Figure 2-1, n2).
mesopleural bristles Bristles on the mesopleuron (Diptera;
Figure 34-6, mpb).
mesopleuron (p\., mesopleura) The lateral sclerite(s) of the
mesothorax; the upper part of the episternum of the
mesothorax (Oiptera; Figure 34-6, pI2)'
mesoscutellum The scutellum of the mesothorax
(Figure 2-6, scl2), usually simply called the scutellum.

mesoscutum The scutum of the mesothorax (Figure 2-6,
sct2).
mesosoma In Apocrita (Hymenoptera) the middle tagma
of the body, consisting of the three thoracic segments
and the first true abdominal segment (the propodeum).
mesosternum The sternum, or ventral sclerite, of the
mesothorax.
mesothorax The middle or second segment of the thorax
(Figure 2-1, th2).
metamere A primary body segment (usually referring to
the embryo).
metamorphosis A change in form during development.
metanotum The dorsal sclerite of the metathorax
(Figure 2-1, n,).
metascutellum The scutellum of the metathorax
(Figure 2-6, scl,).
metasoma In Apocrita (Hymenoptera) the posterior tagma
of the body, consisting of all segments posterior to the
propodeum.
metasternum The sternum, or ventral sclerite, of the
metathorax.
metatarsus (pl., metatarsi) The basal segment of the tarsus
(Figure 5-6).
metathorax The third or posterior segment of the thorax
(Figure 2-1, th,).
metazonite The posterior portion of a millipede tergum
when the tergum is divided by a transverse groove.
metepimeron (pl., metepimera) The epimeron of the
metathorax (Figure 2-6, epm,).
metepisternum (pl., metepisterna) The episternum of the
metathorax (Figure 2-6, eps,).
metinfraepisternum A ventral subdivision of the
metepisternum (Odonata; Figure 10-4, iep,).
micropyle A minute opening (or openings) in the chorion
of an insect egg, through which sperm enter the egg
(Figure 2-37, mcp).
midgut The mesenteron, or middle portion of the
alimentary tract (Figure 2-22, mg).
millimeter 0.001 meter, or 0.03937 inch (about 1/25 inch).
minute Very small; an insect a few millimeters in length or
less would be considered minute.
molt A process of shedding the exoskeleton; ecdysis; to
shed the exoskeleton.
molting gland See prothoracic glands.
monecious Having both male and female sex organs,
hermaphroditic.
moniliform Beadlike, with rounded segments; moniliform
antenna (Figure 2-15C).
monocondylic A joint with a single point of articulation.
monophyletic group A group that consists of an ancestral
species and all of its descendants; recognized on the
basis of shared derived characters (synapomorphies)
among its members.
morphology The science of form or structure.
motor neuron A neuron that forms a synapse with a muscle.
mutualism The living together of two species of organisms
with both species benefiting from the association.
myiasis A disease caused by the invasion of dipterous larvae.
myogenic Produced by muscle; contraction of a muscle
generated by that muscle itself, without neuronal
stimulus.
Glossary 789
myriapod A many-Iegged arthropod; a centipede,
millipede, pauropod, or symphylan.
naiad An aquatic, gill-breathing nymph.
nasute soldier (or nasutus) An individual of a termite
caste in which the head narrows anteriorly into a
snoutlike projection (Figure 19-2B).
neurogenic Produced by a neuron; contractions of muscle
stimulated by a neuronal impulse.
nidi In the midgut, clusters of regenerative epithelial cells.
nocturnal Active at night.
no de A knoblike or knotlike swelling.
nodiform In the form of a knob or knot.
nodus A strong crossvein near the middle of the costal
border of the wing (Odonata; Figures 10-5 through
10-7, nod).
notal wing process Point at which the notum articulates
with the wing (or axillary sclerites at the base of the
wing).
notaulus (pl., notauli) A longitudinalline on the
mesoscutum of Hymenoptera, marking the separation of
the dorsallongitudinal and dorsoventral flight muscles
(Figure 28-4A, nt); also sometimes called notaulix (pl.,
notaulices), parapsidal furrow, or parapsidal suture.
notopleural bristles Bristles on the notopleuron (Diptera;
Figure 34-6, nb).
notopleural suture A suture between the notum and the
pleural sclerites (Figure 26-4, npls).
notopleuron (pl., notopleura) An area on the thoracic
dorsum, at the lateral end of the transverse suture
(Diptera; Figure 34-6, npl).
notum (pl., nota) The dorsal sclerite of a thoracic segment;
the fused second gonapophyses of the ovipositor.
nurse cells Nutritive cells associated with the developing
oocyte.
nymph An immature stage (following hatching) of an
insect that do es not have a pupal stage; the immature
stage of Acari that has eight legs.
oblique vein A slanting crossvein; in Odonata, where Rs
crosses M'+2 (Figure 10-5, obv).
obtect pupa A pupa in which the appendages are more or
less glued to the body surface, as in the Lepidoptera
(Figures 2-44A,B, 30-4).
occipital foramen See foramen magnum.
occipital suture (or occipital sulcus) A transverse suture in
the posterior part of the head that separates the vertex
from the occiput dorsally and the genae from the
postgenae laterally (Figure 2-13, os).
occiput The dorsal posterior part of the head, between the
occipital and postoccipital sutures (Figure 2-13, ocp).
ocellar bristles Bristles arising close to the ocelli (Diptera;
Figure 34-5, ob).
ocellar triangle A slightly raised triangular area in which
the ocelli are located (Diptera; Figure 34-5, ot).
ocellus (pl., ocelli) A simple eye of an insect or other
arthropod (Figure 2-13, oc).
olfaction The sense of smell; the ability to detect
chemicals in a gas.
790 Glossary
olistheter A tongue-in-groove mechanism connecting the
first and second gonapophyses of the ovipositor.
ommatidium (p\., ommatidia) A single unit or visual
section of a compound eye (Figure 2-29D).
onisciform larva See platyform larva.
oocyte Egg.
oogenesis The production of eggs.
oogonium (p\., oogonia) The primary germ cells of the female.
ootheca (p\., oothecae) The covering or case of an egg
mass (Mantodea, Blattodea).
open cell A wing cell extending to the wing margin, not
entirely surrounded by veins.
open coxal cavity One bounded posteriorly by a
sclerite of the next segment (front coxl cavities,
Coleoptera; Figure 26-7 A), or one touched by
one or more pleural sclerites (middle coxal cavities,
Coleoptera; Figure 26-7C).
operculumn (p\., opercula) A lid or cover.
opisthognathous With the mouthparts directed backward.
opisthorhynchous With the beak directed backward.
oral Pertaining to the mouth.
oral vibrissae A pair of stout bristles, one on each side of
the face near or just above the oral margin, and larger
than the other bristles on the vibrissal ridge (Diptera;
Figure 34-5, ov).
orbital plate See genovertical plate.
order A subdivision of a class or subclass, containing a
group of related superfamilies or families.
osmeterium (p\., osmetena) A fleshy, tubular, eversible,
usually Y-shaped gland at the anterior end of certain
caterpillars (Papilionidae; Figure 30-3, osm).
ostiole A small opening.
ostium (p\., ostia) A slitlike opening in the insect heart.
out-group In a phylogenetic study, taxa outside of the focus
of interest; used to hypothesize the polarity of character
states (that is, ancestral or derived) found in the in-
group. The state found in the out-group is hypothesized
to be the ancestral, or plesiomorphic, state.
outer vertical bristles The more laterally located of the
large bristles on the vertex, between the ocelli and the
compound eyes (Diptera; Figure 34-5, ovb).
ovariole A more or less tubular division of an ovary
(Figure 2-31, ov\).
ovary The egg-producing organ of the female
(Figures 2-22, 2-31A, ovy).
oviduct The tube leading away from the ovary through
which the eggs pass (Figures 2-22, 2-31A, ovd).
oviparous Laying eggs.
ovipore The external opening of the female reproductive
system through which the eggs pass during oviposition.
oviposit To lay or deposit eggs.
ovipositor The egg-Iaying apparatus; the external genitalia
of the female (Figures 2-1, 2-32, I0-4E, and 28-5, ovp).
oviscapt Modification of the terminal abdominal segments
of a female to serve as an egg-Iaying organ.
paedogenesis The production of eggs or young by an
immature or larval stage of an anima\.
palp A segmented process born by the maxillae or labium
(Figure 2-16, Ip, mxp); the pedipalp of a spider.
palpifer The lobe of the maxillary stipes that bears the
palp (Figure 2-16A, plD.
palpiger The lobe of the mentum of the labium that bears
the palp (Figure 2-16C, plg).
panoistic ovariole Ovariole without nurse cells.
papilla A small nipplelike elevation.
paracymbium An appendage arising from the cymbium of
the pedipalp of a male spider.
paraglossa (p\., paraglossae) One of a pair of lobes
at the apex of the labium, laterad of the glossae
(Figure 2-16C, pg\).
paramere A structure in the male genitalia of insect,
usually a lobe or process at the base of the aedeagus.
paranotum Lateral expansion of the notum.
paraphyletic group A group of species, derived from a
common ancestor but not including all of its
descendants; recognized on the basis of shared ancestral
character states (symplesiomorphies).
paraproct One of a pair of lobes bordering the anus
lateroventrally (Figures 2-1 and I0-4A, ppt).
parasite An animal that lives in or on the body of another
living animal (its host), at least during a part of its life
cycle, feeding on the tissues of its host; most
entomophagous insect parasites kill their host (see also
parasitoid) .
parasitic Living as a parasite.
parasitoid An animal that feeds in or on another living
animal for a relatively long time, consuming all or most
of its tissues and eventually killing it (also used as an
adjective, describing this mode of life). Parasitoid
insects in this book are referred to as parasites.
parsimony, principie of In a scientific context, the
assumption that the simplest explanation of the data
observed is the best hypothesis.
parthenogenesis Development of the egg without
fertilization.
patella A leg segment between the femur and tibia
(arachnids; Figure 5-6).
paurometabolous With simple metamorphosis, the young
and adults living in the same habitat, and the adults
winged.
pecten A comblike or rakelike structure.
pectinate With branches or processes like the teeth of a
comb; pectinate antenna (Figure 2-15H); pectinate
tarsal claw (Figure 26-11B).
pedicel The second segment of the antenna (Figure 2-15N,
ped); the stem of the abdomen, between the thorax and
the gaster (ants).
pedipalps The second pair of appendages of an arachnid
(Figure 5-6, palp; 5-12).
pelagic Inhabiting the open sea; ocean-dwelling.
penultimate Next lO the last.
pericardial sinus The body cavity surrounding the dorsal
blood vessel, limited ventrally by the dorsal diaphragm.
perineural sinus The body cavity surrounding the ventral
nerve cord, limited dorsally by the ventral diaphragm.
peristalsis Waves of contraction.
peristome The ventral margin of the head, bordering the
mouth.
peritrophic membrane A membrane in insects secreted by
the cells lining the midgut; this membrane is secreted

when food is present and forms an envelope around the
food; it usually pulls loose from the midgut, remains
around the food, and passes out with the feces.
perivisceral sinus The body cavity surrounding the
digestive system, reproductive system, etc., between the
dorsal and ventral diaphragms.
petiolate Attached by a narrow stalk or stem.
petiole A stalk or stem; the narrow stalk or stem by which the
metasoma is attached to the mesosoma (Hymenoptera); in
ants, the nodelike first segment of the metasoma.
pH A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a medium. A
pH value of 7.0 indicates neutral; lower values indicate
acid, and higher values alkaline. Defined as -Iog [H+].
phallotreme External opening of the male reproductive
system on the aedeagus.
phallus The male copulatory organ, including any
processes that may be present at its base.
pharynx The anterior part of the foregut, between the
mouth and the esophagus (Figure 2-22, phx).
pheromone A substance given off by one individual
that causes a specific reaction by other individuals
of the same species, such as sex attractants, alarm
substances, etc.
photoperiod The relative amount of time during the day
in which it is light (or dark).
phragma (p\., phragmata) A platelike apodeme or
invagination of the dorsal wall of the thorax
(Figure 2-7, ph).
phylogenetics School of systematics that seeks to
recognize monophyletic groups on the basis of shared
derived characters.
phylum (p\., phyla) One of the major divisions of the
animal kingdom.
phytophagous Feeding on plant.
pictured With spots or bands (pictured wings;
Figure 34-77).
pilifer One of a pair of lateral projections on the labrum
(Lepidoptera; Figure 30-2, pO.
pilose Covered with hair.
planidium larva A type of first-instar larva in certain
Diptera and Hymenoptera that undergoes
hypermetamorphosis; a larva that is legless and
somewhat flattened.
plastron A bed of very dense and very fine hairs used to
hold an air bubble close to the body and across which
gas exchange takes place.
platyform larva A larva that is extremely flattened, as the
larva of Psephenidae (Figure 26-44) (also called
onisciform larva).
plesiomorphy The ancestral state of a character.
pleural Pertaining to the pleura, or lateral sclerites of the
body; latera\.
pleural apophysis (or arm) Internal process extending
from the pleural suture to the sternal apophyses.
pleural suture (or sulcus) A suture of a thoracic pleuron
extending from the base of the wing to the base of the
coxa, which separates the episternum and epimeron
(Figures 2-1, 2-6, pis).
pleural wing process The structure articulating with the
wing (specifically with the second axillary sclerite).
pleurite A lateral or pleural sclerite.
Glossary 791
pleuron (p\., pleura) The lateral area of a segment.
pleuropodium (p\., pleuropodia) Embryonic appendages of
the first abdominal segmento
pleurotergite A sclerite containing both pleural and tergal
elements.
plumose Featherlike; plumose antenna (Figure 2-151).
poikilothermous Cold-blooded, the body temperature
rising or falling with the environmental temperature.
point A small triangle of stiff paper, used in mounting
small insects (Figure 35-13).
pollen basket See corbicula.
pollen rake A comblike row of bristles at the apex of the
hind tibia of a bee (Figure 28-66, pr).
polyembryony An egg developing into two or more
embryos.
polyphyletic group A group of species that do not share a
common ancestor; such an unnatural group is usually
proposed on the basis of characters that represent
parallel or convergent characters (homoplasies).
polytomy On a cladogram a no de that gives rise to more
than two branches.
polytrophic ovariole Meroistic ovariole in which
trophocytes pass into the vitellarium with the oocyte.
porrect Extending forward horizontally; porrect antennae
(Figure 34-23G,I).
postabdomen The modified posterior segments of the
abdomen, which are usually more slender than the
anterior segments (Crustacea, Figure 5-24A, pa; see
also the postabdomen in a scorpion, Figure 5-3).
postalar callus A rounded swelling on each side of the
mesonotum, between the base of the wing and the
scutellum (Diptera; Figure 34-6, pc).
posterior Hind or rear.
posterior cell One of the cells extending to the hind
margin of the wing, between the third and sixth
longitudinal veins (Diptera; Figure 34-4B, P).
posterior crossvein A crossvein at the apex of the discal
cell (Diptera; Figure 34-4B, pcv).
postgena (p\., postgenae) A sclerite on the posterior
lateral surface of the head, posterior 10 the gena
(Figure 2-13, pg).
postgenal bridge Mesal extension of the postgenae on
each side to meet below the foramen magnum.
posthumeral bristles Bristles on the anterolateral surface
of the mesonotum, just posterior to the humeral callus
(Diptera; Figure 34-6 pb).
postmarginal vein The vein along the anterior margin of
the front wing, beyond the point where the stigmal vein
arises (Hymenoptera; Figure 28-19B, pm).
postmentum The basal portion of the labium, proximad of
the labial suture (Figure 2-16C, pmt).
postnodal crossveins: A series of crossveins just behind
the costal margin of the wing, between the nodus and
stigma, and extending from the costal margin of the
wing to Rl (Odonata; Figures 10-5, 10-6, pn).
postnotum (p\., postnota) A notal plate behind the
scutellum bearing a phragma, often present in wing-
bearing segments (Figure 2-6, PN).
postoccipital suture The transverse suture on the
head immediately posterior to the occipital suture
(Figure 2-13, pos).
792 Glossary

postoeeiput The extreme posterior rim of the head, profile The outline as seen from the side or in lateral view.
between the postoecipital suture and the foramen prognathous Having the head horizontal and the
magnum (Figure 2-13, po). mouthparts projecting forward.
postpetiole The second segment of a two-segmented proleg One of the fleshy abdominallegs of certain insect
pedicel (ants). larva e (Figure 30-3, pr\)o
postseutellum A small transverse pieee of a thoraeie prominenee A raised, produced, or projecting portion.
notum immediately behind the seutellum; in Diptera, an prominent Raised, produced, or projecting.
area immediately behind or below the mesoseutellum promote To move anteriorly.
(Figure 34-13B, pscl). pronate To turn the leading edge of the wing downward.
postvertieal bristles A pair of bristles behind the oeelli, prono tal eomb A row of strong spines borne on the
usually situated on the posterior surfaee of the head posterior margin of the prono tu m (Siphonaptera;
(Diptera; Figure 34-5, pv). Figures 31-1, 31-2A).
preapical Situated just before the apex; preapieal tibial pronotum The dorsal sclerite of the prothorax
bristles of Diptera (Figure 34-26B, ptbr). (Figures 2-1, 2-6, nI)'
prebasilare A narrow transverse sclerite, just basal to the propleural bristles Bristles located on the propleuron
mentum in the gnathoehilarium of some millipedes (Diptera; Figure 34-6, ppb).
(Figure 5-30B, pbs). propleuron (pl., propleura) The lateral portion, or pleuron,
preeosta The most anterior of the major longitudinal wing of the prothorax (Figure 34-6, pl,).
veins, aeeording to Kukalová-Peek. propodeum The posterior portion of the mesosoma, which is
predaeeous Feeding as a predator. actually the first abdominal segment united with the thorax
predator An animal that attaeks and feeds on other (Hymenoptera, suborder Apocrita; Figure 28-4, prd).
animals (its prey), usually animals smaller or less proprioception Detection by an animal of the position of
powerful than itself. The prey is usually killed and parts of its own body.
mostly or entirely eaten; eaeh predator eats many prey prosoma The anterior part of the body, usually the
individuals. cephalothorax; the anterior part of the head or
prefemur The seeond trochanter segment of the lego cephalothorax.
pregenital Anterior to the genital segments of the prosternum The stemum, or ventral sclerite, of the
abdomen. prothorax.
prementum The distal part of the labium, distad of the prothoraeic glands Endocrine glands located in the
labial suture, on which all the labial muscles have their prothorax (generally) that secrete ecdysone.
insertions (Figure 2-16C, prmt). prothoraeicotropic hormone See brain hormone.
preoral Anterior to or in front of the mouth. prothorax The anterior of the three thoraeic segments
prepeetus An area along the anteroventral margin of the (Figure 2-1, th,).
mesepisternum, set off by a suture (Hymenoptera; protocerebrum The dorsallobes of the brain, innervating
Figure 28-4, pp). (in ter alia) the compound eyes and ocelli.
prepupa A quiescent stage between the larval period protonymph The second instar of a mite (Figure 5-17C).
and the pupal period; the third instar of a thrips proventrieulus The valve between the foregut and midgut.
(Figure 23-2B). proximad Toward the end or portion nearest the body.
presutural bristles Bristles on the mesonotum proximal Nearer to the body or to the base of an
immediately anterior to the transverse suture and appendage.
adjacent to the notopleuron (Diptera; Figure 34-6, psb). prozonite The anterior portion of a millipede tergum
pretarsus (pl., pretarsi) The terminal segment of the leg, when the tergum is divided by a transverse groove.
typically consisting of a pair of claws and one or more pruinose Covered with a waxy, whitish powder.
padlike structures (Figure 2-8B-D, ptar). pseudarolium (pl., pseudarolia) A pad at the apex of the
proboseis Collectively, the extended, beaklike mouthparts tarsus resembling an arolium.
(Figure 34-36, prb). pseudoeellus Circular areas of thin, corrugated cuticle on
proclinate lnclined forward or downward. the head and body of Collembola.
proctodaeum The hindgut, or the hindmost of the three pseudoeereus (pl., pseudocerci) See urogomphi.
major divisions of the alimentary tract, from the pseudoeubitus A vein appearing as the cubitus, but
Malpighian tubules to the anus. aetually formed by the fusion of the branches of M and
procurved A line connecting a row of eyes in a spider in Cu¡ (Neuroptera; Figure 27-3B, pscu).
which the ends of the line are anterior to the center of pseudomedia A vein appearing as the media, but actually
the line. formed by the fusion of branehes of Rs (Neuroptera;
procuticle The form in which the cuticle is initially Figure 27-3B, psm).
secreted by the epidermis, before sclerotization takes pseudopupa A coarctate larva; a larva in a quiescent
place. pupalike condition, one or two instars before the true
produced Extended, prolonged, or projecting. pupal stage (Coleoptera, Meloidae; Figure 26-68H).
proepimeron (pl., proepimera) The epimeron of the pseudovipositor See oviseapt.
prothorax (Figure 26-4, epm,). pteralia See axillary sclerites.
proepisternum (pl., proepistema) The episternum of the pteropleural bristles Bristles on the pteropleuron (Diptera;
prothorax (Figure 26-4, eps,). Figure 34-6, ptb).

pteropleuron (p\., pteropleura) A sclerite on the side
of the thorax, just below the base of the wing, and
consisting of the upper part of the mesepimeron
(Diptera; Figure 34-6, pr).
pterostigma A thickened opaque spot along the costal
margin of the wing, near the wing tip (see also stigma)
(Odonata; Figures 10-5, 10-6, st).
pterothorax The wing-bearing segments of the thorax
(mesothorax and metathorax).
pterygote Winged; a member of the subclass Pterygota.
ptilinum A temporary bladderlike structure that can be
inflated and thrust out through the frontal (or ptilinal)
suture, just above the bases of the antennae, at the time
of emergence from the puparium (Diptera).
PTTH See brain hormone.
pubescent Downy, covered with short fine hairs.
pulvilliform Lobelike or padlike; shaped like a pulvillus;
pulvilliform empodium (Figure 34-2B, emp).
pulvillus (p\., pulvilli) A pad or lobe beneath each tarsal
claw (Diptera; Figure 34-2, pul).
punctate Pitted or beset with punctures.
puncture A tiny pit or depression.
pupa (p\., pupae) The stage between the larva and the
adult in insects with complete metamorphosis, a
nonfeeding and usually an inactive stage (Figure 2-44).
puparium (p\., puparia) A case formed by the hardening of
the last larval skin, in which the pupa is formed
(Diptera; Figure 2-44F).
pupate To transform to a pupa.
pupiparous Giving birth to larvae that are full grown and
ready to pupate.
pygidium The last dorsal segment of the abdomen.
pyloric valve The valve between the midgut and hindgut.
quadrangle A cell immediately beyond the arculus
(Odonata, Zygoptera; Figure 10-6F, G, q).
quadrate Four-sided.
radial cell A cell bordered anteriorly by a branch of
the radius; the marginal cell (Hymenoptera;
Figure 28-3, MC).
radial crossvein A crossvein connecting Rl and the branch
of the radius immediately behind it (Figure 2-10, r).
radial sector The posterior of the two main branches of
the radius (Figure 2-10, Rs).
radius The longitudinal vein between the subcosta and the
media (Figure 2-10, R).
raptorial Fitted for grasping prey; raptorial front legs
(Figure 22-2).
reclinate Inclined backward or upward.
rectum The posterior region of the hindgut (Figure 2-22, rec).
recurrent vein One of two transverse veins immediately
posterior to the cubital vein (Hymenoptera; Figure 28-3,
rv); a vein at the base of the wing between the costa and
the subcosta, extending obliquely from the subcosta to the
costa (Neuroptera; Figure 27-2C, hv).
recurved Curved upward or backward; in spiders, a line
connecting a row of eyes in which the ends are
posterior to the middle of the line.
Glossary 793
relationship In phylogenetic systematics (cladistics), the
relative recency of common ancestry.
remote To move posteriorly.
reniform Kidney-shaped.
reticulate Like a network.
retina The receptive apparatus of an eye.
retractile Capable of being pushed out and drawn back in.
rhabdom A rodlike light-sensitive structure formed of the
inner surfaces of adjacent sensory cells in the
ommatidium of a compound eye (Figure 2-29, rh).
Riker mount A thin glass-topped exhibition case filled
with cotton batting (Figure 35-20).
rostrum Beak or snout.
rudimentary Reduced in size, poorly developed, embryonic.
rugose Wrinkled.
saprophagous Feeding on dead or decaying plant or
animal materials, such as carrion, dung, dead logs, etc.
scape The basal segment of an antenna (Figure 2-15N,
scp).
sea pula (p\., scapulae) One of two sclerites on the
mesonotum immediately lateral of the notauli
(Hymenoptera; Figure 28-4, sea); also called parapsis.
scarabaeiform larva A grublike larva, that is, one with the
body thickened and cylindrical, with a well-developed
head and thoracic legs, without prolegs, and usually
sluggish (Figures 2-43B, 26-31).
scavenger An animal that feeds on dead plants or animals,
or decaying materials, or on animal wastes.
scent gland A gland producing an odorous substance.
scientific name A latinized name, internationally
recognized, of a species or subspecies. The scientific
name of a species consists of the generic and specific
names, and that of a subspecies consists of the generic,
specific, and subspecific names. Scientific names are
always printed in italics.
sclerite A hardened body-wall plate bounded by sutures or
membranous areas.
sclerotization The process of becoming hardened.
sclerotized Hardened.
scolopophorous organ See campaniform sensillum.
scolytoid larva A fleshy larva resembling the larva of a
scolytid beetle.
scopa (p\., scopae)A small, dense tuft of hair.
scraper The sharpened anal angle of the front wing
(tegmen) of a cricket or katydid, a part of the
stridulating mechanism.
scrobe A groove or furrow; antennal scrobe (Figures 26-3,
26-88A, G, agr).
scutellum A sclerite of the thoracic notum (Figure 2-6,
scl); the mesoscutellum, appearing as a more or less
triangular sclerite behind the pronotum (Hemiptera,
Coleoptera).
scutum The middle division of a thoracic notum, just
anterior to the scutellum (Figure 2-6, ser).
sebaceous glands Glands secreting fatty or oily materia\.
secondary segmentation Subdivision of the body of
arthropods in which the externally visible sclerites and
membranes do not correspond to the internal
attachment of longitudinal muscle.
794 Glossary
sectorial crossvein A crossvein connecting two branches
of the radial sector (Figure 2-10, s).
segment A subdivision of the body or of an appendage,
between joints or articulations.
segmented antenna An antenna composed of more than
three true, musculated segments; limited to Diplura and
Collembola.
semiaquatic Living in wet places or partially in water.
seminal vesicle A structure, usually saclike, in which the
seminal fluid of the male is stored before being
discharged; usually an enlargement of the vas deferens
(Figure 2-31B, smv).
sense cone or sense peg A minute cone or peg, sensory in
function (Figures 2-27, 23-5, scn).
sensillum (p\., sensilla) An organ capable of detecting
external stimuli.
sensory neuron A neuron capable of generating an action
potential in response to an external stimulus (such as
physical displacement, temperature, humidity,
chemicals, etc.).
serrate Toothed along the edge like a saw; serrate antenna
(Figure 2-15G).
serrula Sawlike anterior margin of the basal endite
segment on the spider pedipalp.
sessile Attached or fastened, incapable of moving from
place to place; attached directly, without a stem or
petiole.
seta (p\., setae) A bristle.
setaceous Bristlelike; setaceous antenna (Figure 2-15A).
seta te Provided with bristles.
setulose Bearing short, blunt bristles.
sigmoid Shaped like the letter S.
simple Unmodified, not complicated; not forked, toothed,
branched, or divided.
sister groups On a cladogram, the two taxa (or groups of
taxa) that arise from a single node. Sister groups are
each others' closest relatives.
spatulate Spoon-shaped; broad apically and narrowed
basally, and flattened.
spedes A group of individuals or populations that are
similar in structure and physiology and can interbreed
and produce fertile offspring, and that differ in structure
and/or physiology from other such groups and normally
do not interbreed with them.
sperm duct A tube connecting the bursa copulatrix of
ditrysian Lepidoptera to the vagina.
sperm follicle A tubelike subdivision of the testis in which
spermatogenesis occurs.
spermatheca (p\., spennathecae) A saclike structure in the
female in which sperm from the male are received and
often stored (Figure 2-31A, spth).
spermatogenesis The production of sperm cells.
spermatogonium A primary germ cell of the maleo
spermatophore A capsule containing sperm, produced by
the males of some insects.
spermatozoon (p\., spennatozoa) Functional, usually
motile, sperm cell.
spinasternum An intersegmental sclerite of the thoradc
venter that bears a median apodeme or spina, assodated
with or united with the sclerite immediately anterior to
it; also called the intersternite.
spindle-shaped Elongate and cylindrical, thickened in the
middle and tapering at the ends.
spine A thornlike outgrowth of the cuticle.
spinneret A structure with which silk is spun, usually
fingerlike in shape (Figures 5-6, 5-8).
spinose Beset with spines; spinose costa in Diptera
(Figure 34-22H).
spiracle An external opening of the tracheal system; a
breathing pore (Figures 2-1, 2-25, spr).
spiracular bristles Bristles very close to a spiracle
(Diptera; Figure 34-25, spbr).
spiracular plate A platelike sclerite next to or surrounding
the spiracle.
spur A movable spine (when on a leg segment, usually
located at the apex of the segment).
spurious claw A false claw; a stout bristle that looks like a
claw (spiders).
spurious vein A veinlike thickening of the wing
membrane between two true veins; an adventitious
longitudinal vein between the radius and the media,
crossing the r-m crossvein (Diptera, Syrphidae;
Figure 34-15A-C, spv).
squama (p\., squamae) A scalelike structure; a calypter; the
palpiger (Odonata; Figure 10-9, plg).
stadium (p\., stadia) The period between molts in a
developing arthropod.
stalked With a stalk or stem; with a narrow, stemlike base;
of veins, fused together to form a single vein.
stemmata (sing., stemma) The lateral eyes of insect larvae.
sternacostal suture (or su\cus) A suture of the thorade
sternum, the external mark of the sternal apophysis or
furca, separating the basisternum from the sternellum.
sternal apophysis (or sternal arm) See furca.
sternellum The part of the eusternum posterior to the
sternacostal suture (su\cus).
sternite A subdivision of a sternum; the ventral plate of an
abdominal segmento
sternopleural bristles Bristles on the sternopleuron
(Diptera; Figure 34-6, stb).
sternopleuron (p\., sternopleura) A sclerite in the lateral
wall of the thorax, just above the base of the middle leg
(Diptera; Figure 34-6, stp\).
sternum (p\., sterna) A sclerite on the ventral side of the
body; the ventral sclerite of an abdominal segment
(Figure 2-1, stn).
stigma (p\., stigmata) A thickening of the wing membrane
along the costal border near the apex (Figures 10-5,
10-6, 28-1, st).
stigmal vein A short vein extending posteriorly from the
costal margin of the wing, usually a little beyond the
middle of the wing (Hymenoptera; Figure 28-19B, sv).
stipes (p\., stipites) The second segment or division of a
maxilla, which bears the palp, the galea, and the lacinia
(Figure 2-16A, stp); laterallobes of the millipede
gnathochilarium (Figure 5-30B, stp).
stomadaeum The foregut.
storage excretion The removal of metabolic wastes by
isolation within certain tissues or cells.
stria (p\., striae) A groove or depressed line.
striate With grooves or depressed lines.

stridulate To make a noise by rubbing two structures or
surfaces together.
stripe A longitudinal color marking.
stylate With a style; stylelike; stylate antenna
(Figure 2-15K).
style A bristlelike process at the apex of an antenna
(Figure 2-15K, sty); a short slender, fingerlike process
(Figure 8-1, sty).
stylet A needlelike structure; one of the piercing structures
in sucking mouthparts.
stylus (pl., styli) A short, slender, fingerlike process
(Figure 8-1, sty).
subalare (or subalar sclerite) An epipleurite located
posterior to the pleural wing process.
subantennal sulcus A groove on the face extending
ventrally from the base of the antenna (Figures 2-13,
28-17, sas).
subapical Located just proximad of the apex.
subbasal Located just distad of the base.
subclass A major subdivision of a class, containing a
group of related orders.
subcosta The longitudinal vein between the costa and the
radius (Figure 2-10, Se).
subcoxa Leg segment of primitive arthropods basad of the
coxa, hypothesized to be incorporated into the thoracic
wall to form the thoracic pleurites (see also anapleurite,
catapleurite) .
subequal Approximately equal in size or length.
subesophageal ganglion The knotlike swelling at the
anterior end of the ventral nerve cord, usually just
below the esophagus (Figures 2-22, 2-26, segn).
subfamily A majar division of a family, containing a group
of related tribes or genera. Subfamily names end in -inae.
subgenal suture (or sulcus) The horizontal suture below
the gena, just above the bases of the mandibles and
maxillae, a lateral extension of the epistomal suture
(Figure 2-13, sgs).
subgenital plate A platelike stemite that underlies the
genitalia.
subgenus (pl., subgenera) A major subdivision of a genus,
containing a group of related species. In scientific
names, subgeneric names are capitalized and placed in
parentheses following the genus name.
subimago The first of two winged instars of a mayfly after
it emerges from the water.
submarginal cell One or more cells lying immediately behind
the marginal cell (Hymenoptera; Figure 28-3, SM).
submarginal vein Vein immediately behind and
paralleling the costal margin of the wing (Hymenoptera;
Figure 28-19B, sm).
submentum The basal part of the labium (Figure 2-16C,
smt).
subocular suture (or subocular sulcus) A suture extending
ventrally from the compound eye (Figure 2-13, sos).
suborder A major subdivision of an order, containing a
group of related superfamilies or families.
subquadrangle A cell immediately behind the quadrangle
(Odonata, Zygoptera; Figure 10-6, sq).
subspecies A subdivision of a species, usually a
geographic race. The different subspecies of a
species ordinarily are not sharply differentiated.
Glossary 795
They intergrade with one another and are capable of
interbreeding. (For names of subspecies, see scientific
name.)
subtriangle A cell or group of cells proximad of the
triangle (Odonata, Anisoptera; Figure 10-5, str).
successions Groups of species that successively occupy a
given habitat as the conditions of the habitat change.
sulcate With a groove or furrow.
sulcus (pl., sulcO A groove formed by an infolding of the
body wall (Figure 2-4); a groove or furrow.
superfamily A group of closely related families.
Superfamily names end in -oidea.
superior appendage One of the two upper appendages
at the end of the abdomen, a cercus (Odonata;
Figure 10-4, cr).
supinate To turn the trailing edge of the wing downward.
supplement An adventitious vein formed by a number of
crossveins being lined up to form a continuous vein,
located behind and more or less parallel to one of the
main longitudinal veins (Odonata; Figure 10-5, mspl,
rspl).
supra-alar bristles A longitudinal row of bristles on the
lateral portion of the mesonotum, immediately above
the wing base (Diptera; Figure 34-6, spb).
suture An external, linelike groove in the body wall, or a
narrow, membranous area between sclerites (Figure 2-4,
su); the boundary between two fused sclerites; the line
of juncture of the elytra (Coleoptera).
swimmeret An abdominal appendage that functions as a
swimming organ (Crustacea; Figure 5-22, sw).
symbiont An organism living in symbiosis with another
organismo
symbiosis The living together of two species, in a more or
less intimate association, benefiting both.
symmetry A definite pattern of body organization; bilateral
symmetry, a type of body organization in which the
various parts are arranged more or less symmetrically
on either side of a median vertical plane, that is, where
the right and left sides of the body are essentially
similar.
symplesiomorphy A shared, ancestral character state
among taxa.
synapomorphy A shared, derived character state among
taxa; used as the basis for recognizing monophyletic
groups.
synchronous muscle A muscle in which each contraction
is initiated by the reception of a neuronal impulse.
synonyms Two or more names for the same thing (taxon).
systematics The study of the relationships among
organisms.
taenidium (pl., taenidia) A circular or spiral thickening in
the inner wall of a trachea.
tagma (pl., tagamata) A group of segments of the body
specialized for a given function; e.g., the head, thorax,
and abdomen of insects.
tandem One behind the other, the two connected or
attached together.
tarsal claw A claw at the apex of the tarsus, derived from
the pretarsal segment of the leg (Figure 2-8, tcl).
796 Glossary
tarsal formula The number of tarsal segmen15 on the
front, middle, and hind tarsi, respectively.
tarsomere A subdivision, or "segment," of the tarsus.
tarsus (pl., tarsO The leg segment immediately beyond the
tibia, sometimes consisting of one or more "segmen15"
or subdivisions (Figure 2-8, 15).
taxon (pl., taxa) A group of organisms classified together.
taxonomy The science of classification into categories of
varying rank, and the describing and naming of these
categories.
tegmen (pl., tegmina) The thickened or leathery front wing
of an orthopteran.
tegula (pl., tegulae) A small, scalelike structure overlying
the base of the front wing (Figure 28-4, tg).
telopod (telopodite) The portion of the leg beyond the
coxopodite.
telotrophic ovariole Meroistic ovariole in which the nurse
cells remain in the germarium.
telson The posterior part of the last abdominal segment
(Crustacea); the posterior spinelike tail of the Xiphosura;
the posterior nonmetameric portion of the body.
tenaculum A minute structure on the ventral side of the
third abdominal segment that serves as a clasp for the
furcula (Collembola).
teneral A term applied to recently molted, pale, soft-
bodied individuals.
tentorial bridge A transverse, internal sclerotized bar that
unites the tentorial arms and braces the head.
tentorial pits Pitlike depressions on the surface of the
head that mark the poin15 of union of the arms of the
tentorium with the outer wall of the head. There are
usually two tentorial pi15 in the epistomal suture
(Figure 2-13, 2-14, atp) and one at the lower end of
each postoccipital suture (Figure 2-13, 2-14, ptp).
tentorium The endoskeleton of the head, usually
consisting of two pairs of apodemes (Figure 2-14).
tergite A subdivision of the tergum.
tergosternal muscles One of the primary sets of segmental
muscles inserted on the tergum dorsally and the
sternum ventrally, in pterothoracic segmen15 contraction
resul15 in depression of the notum and contributes
significantly to elevation of the wings.
tergum (pl., terga) A sclerite on the dorsal side of the
body; the dorsal sclerite of an abdominal segment
(Figure 2-1, t).
terminal At the end; at the posterior end (of the
abdomen); the last of a series.
terrestrial Living on land.
testis (pl., testes) The sex organ in the male that produces
sperm (Figure 2-31B, 15t).
thelytoky A form of parthenogenesis in which only
females are produced from unfertilized eggs, males
being very rare or absent.
thorax The body region behind the head, which bears the
legs and wings (Figure 2-1, th).
tibia (pl., tibiae) The fourth segment of the leg, between
the femur and the tarsus (Figure 2-8, tb).
tibial spur A large spine on the tibia, usually located at the
distal end of the tibia.
tormogen cell An epidermal cell associated with a seta, which
forms the setal membrane or socket (Figure 2-2, trng).
toxicognath A poison jaw (centipedes, Figure 5-32, pj; a
modified leg).
trachea (pl., tracheae) A tube of the respiratory system,
lined with taenidia, ending externally at a spiracle, and
terminating internally in the tracheoles (Figure 2-25).
tracheole The fine terminal branch of the respiratory
tubes.
translucent Allowing light to pass through, but not
necessarily transparent.
transverse Across, at right angles to the longitudinal axis.
transverse suture A suture across the mesonotum
(Diptera; Figure 34-6, trs).
triangle A small triangular cell or group of cells near the
base of the wing (Odonata, Anisoptera; Figures 10-5,
10-7, tri).
tribe A subdivision of a subfamily, containing a group of
related genera. Names of tribes end in -ini.
trichobothria Minute sensory hairs on the tarsi (spiders;
Figure 5-7C, TR).
trichogen cell The epidermal cell from which a seta
develops (Figure 2-27, trg).
tripectinate Having three rows of comblike branches.
tritocerebrum The ventrallobes of the brain.
triungulin larva The active first-instar larva of the
Strepsiptera and certain beetles that undergo
hypermetamorphosis (Figure 26-68A, 32-1F).
trochanter The second segment of the leg, between the
coxa and the femur (Figure 2-8, tr).
trochantin A small sclerite in the thoracic wall
immediately anterior to the base of the coxa
(Figure 26-9B, tn).
trophallaxis The exchange of alimentary canalliquid
among colony members of social insec15 and guest
organisms, either mutually or unilaterally; trophallaxis
may be stomodeal (from the mouth) or proctodeal
(from the anus).
trophocyte See nurse cells.
tropism The orientation of an animal with respect to a
stimulus, either positive (turning toward the stimulus)
or negative (turning away from the stimulus).
truncate Cut off square at the end.
truss cell See hypostigmatic cell.
tubercle A small knotlike or rounded protuberance.
tylus The clypeal region of the head (Hemiptera;
Figure 22-1, ty).
tymbal A sclerotized plate in the sound-producing organ
of a cicada (Figure 22-45, tmb).
tympanal hood One of a pair of tubercles or rounded
prominences on the dorsal surface of the first abdominal
segment (Lepidoptera).
tympanum (pl., tympana) A vibrating membrane; an auditory
membrane or eardrum (Figure 2-8D, 22-45, tym).
type genus See types.
type species See types.
types Specimens designated when a species or group is
described to serve as the reference if there is any
question about what that species or group includes. The
type of a species or subspecies (the holotype) is a
specimen, the type of a genus or subgenus is a species,
and the type of a tribe, subfamily, family, or superfamily
is a genus.

unisexual Consisting of or involving only females.
uríc acid Chemical commonly used by terrestrial insects
for excretion of nitrogenous wastes.
uríne Fluid containing excreted wastes.
urogomphi (sing., urogomphus) Fixed or movable
cercuslike processes on the last segment of a beetle larva
(also called pseudocerci or corniculi).
uropod One of the terminal pair of abdominal appendages,
usually lobelike (Crustacea; Figure 5-22, ur).
vagina The terminal portion of the female reproductive
system, which opens to the outside (Figures 2-22,
2-31A, vag).
valvifers The basal plates of the ovipositor, derived from
the basal segment of the gonopods.
valvulae The three pairs of processes forming the sheath
and piercing structures of the ovipositor.
vas deferens (pl., vasa deferentia) The sperm duct leading
away from a testis (Figure 2-31B, vd).
vas efferens (pl., vasa efferentia) A short duct connecting
a sperm tube in the testis with the vas deferens
(Figure 2-31B, ve).
vein A thickened line in the wing.
venter The ventral side.
ventrad Toward the ventral side or underside of the body;
downward.
ventral Lower or underneath; pertaining to the underside
of the body.
ventral nerve cord Paired nerve lying along the lower
surface of the hemocoel, containing segmentally
arranged ganglia.
ventriculus Midgut.
vermiform Wormlike.
References
Borror, D. J. 1960. Dictionary of Word Roots and Combining
Forms. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield, 134 pp.
Brown, R. W 1954. Composition of Scientific Words. Wash-
ington, DC: Author, 882 pp.
Carpenter, J. R. 1938. An Ecological Glossary. London:
Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner, 306 pp.
Dorland, W A. N. 1932. The American Illustrated Medical
Dictionary; 16th ed. Philadelphia: W B. Saunders,
1493 pp.
Gordh, G., and D. H. Headrick. 2001. A Dictionary of Ento-
mology. Wallingford, UK: CABI Pub., 1050 pp.
Hanson, D. R. 1959. A Short Glossary of Entomology with
Derivations. Los Angeles: Author, 83 pp.
Henderson, I. F., and W D. Henderson. 1939. A Dictionary of
Scientific Terms. 3rd ed., revised by J. H. Kenneth. Lon-
don: Oliver and Boyd, 383 pp.
Jaeger, E. C. 1955. A Source Book of Biological Names and
Terms. Springfield, IL: C. C. Thomas, 317 pp.
Glossary 797
vermiform larva A legless, wormlike larva, without a well-
developed head (Figure 2-43A).
vertex The top of the head, between the eyes and anterior
to the occipital suture (Figure 2-13, ver).
vesicle A sac, bladder, or cyst, often extensible.
vestigial Small, poorly developed, degenera te,
nonfunctional.
vibrissae, oral See oral vibrissae.
vitellarium Portion of the ovariole in which vitellogenesis
takes place.
vitelline membrane The cell wall of the insect egg; a thin
membrane lying beneath the chorion (Figure 2-37, vm).
vitellogenesis Transfer of vitellogenins to the developing
oocyte with consequent increase in size of the oocyte.
vitellogenin Yolk precursor molecule.
vulva Opening of the vagina (= ovipore).
vulvar lamina The posterior margin (usually prolonged
posteriorly) of the eighth abdominal sternite (female
Anisoptera).
wireworm An elateriform larva; a larva that is slender,
heavily sclerotized, with few hairs on the body, and with
thoracic legs but without prolegs; the larva of a click
beetle (Figure 26-45B).
Y-vein Two adjacent veins fusing distally, forming a Y-
shaped figure (for example, the anal veins in the front
wing, Figure 30-32).
zoophagous Feeding on animals.
Jardine, N. K. 1913. The Dictionary of Entomology. London:
West, Newman, 259 pp.
Nichols, S. W. 1989. The Torre-Bueno Glossary of Entomol-
ogy. New York: New York Entomological Society, 840 pp.
Pennak, R. W 1964. Collegiate Dictionary of Zoology. New
York: Ronald Press, 583 pp.
Smith, J. B. 1906. Explanation of Terms Used in Entomology.
Brooklyn: Brooklyn Entomological Society 154 pp.
Snodgrass, R. E. 1935. PrincipIes of Insect Morphology. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 667 pp. (Reprínted in 1993 by Cor-
nell University Press)
Torre-Bueno, J. R. de la. 1937. A Glossary of Entomology.
Lancaster, PA: Science Press, 336 pp.
Tuxen, S. L (Ed.). 1970. Taxonomist's Glossary of Genitalia
of Insects, rey. ed. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 359 pp.
Tweney, C. F., and L E. C. Hughes (Eds.). 1940. Chambers'
Technical Dictionary. New York: Macmillan, 957 pp.
 Credits
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sion from copyright holders. In the event of any question arising as lO the use
of any material, we will be pleased to make the necessary corrections in future
printings. Thanks are due to the following authors, publishers, and agents for
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Photographs
Chapter 2. 32: (left) Lowell Nault; (middle) Courtesy of Foster F.
Purrington; (right) Ohio Agricultural Research and Development
Center. 40: (bottom) Ohio Agricultural Research and Development
Center. 41: (left) Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center;
(top right) Courtesy of Foster F. Purrington; (bottom right)
Courtesy of Foster F. Purrington.
Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center; 322: (top left)
Illinois Natural History Survey; (top right) Illinois Natural HistOry
Survey; (bottom left) Illinois Natural History Survey; (bottom
right) Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center; 323: (all)
Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center; 325: (all)
Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center; 326: Ohio
Agricultural Research and Development Center; 328: (all) Ohio
Agricultural Research and Development Center.

Chapter 4.65: WA. Foster; 71: DonaldJ. Borror; 72: WA. Foster;
73: WA. Foster; 75: (al\) L.R. Nault, Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center; 77: A.M. Vargo; 78: H. Briegel; 80: WA. Foster;
84: WA. Foster; 87: all WA. Foster; 88 WA. Foster; 89: (top left)
WA. Foster; (bottom left) J.G. Murtha; (right) J.G. Murtha; 90:
left WA. Foster; (top right) Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center; (bottom right) Ohio Agricultural Research
and Development Center; 91: (top left) Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center; (middle left) Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center; (bottom left) WA. Foster; (bottom right)
WA. Foster; 92: all WA. Foster.
Chapter 5. 123: Courtesy of U.S. Public Health Service.
Chapter 10. 203: Dwight M. DeLong; 204: Dwight M. DeLong.
Chapter 11. 211: DonaldJ. Borror; 217: Ohio Agricultural Research
and Development Center; 218: (top) Dwight M. DeLong; 221:
Donald J. Borror.
Chapter 12. 228: Ohio Agricultural Research and Development
Center.
Chapter 14. 232: Reproduced with perrnission of Simon van
Noort/Iziko Museums of Cape Town, South Africa.
Chapter 19. 257: (all) Davidson
Chapter 22. 305: Donald J. Borror; 309: Illinois Natural History
Survey; 318: (top left) Moser; (top right) Ohio Agricultural Research
and Development Center; (bottom) Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center; 320: (left) Illinois Natural History Survey;
798 (right) Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center; 321:
Chapter 26.367: DonaldJ. Borror; 411: (all) Dwight M. DeLong:
412: (all) Dwight M. DeLong; 414: (left) Courtesy of Wo\cott and
the Journal of Agriculture of the University of Puerto Rico; (right)
Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center; 415: (all)
Dwight M. DeLong; 419: (top) Davidson; (bottom) Knull;
431: Dwight M. DeLong; 441: Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center; 444: Knull; 448: (al\) Ohio Agricultural
Research and Development Center.
Chapter 28. 488: NorrnanJohnson; 495: NormanJohnson;
504: (all) NormanJohnson; 509: NormanJohnson; 519: (all) Ohio
Agricultural Research and Development Center; 522: Norrnan
Johnson; 543: NormanJohnson; 544: (all) NorrnanJohnson;
545: (bottom right) NormanJohnson; 546: (all) NormanJohnson;
547: Teale; 548: (all) NormanJohnson; 551: (bottom left) USDA;
551 (bottom right) USDA.
Chapter 30. 604: Dwight M. DeLong; 605: (all) Ohio Agricultural
Research and Development Center; 606: Ohio Agricultural Research
and Development Center; 607: (left) Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center; (middle) Dwight M. DeLong; (right) Ohio
Agricultural Research and Development Center; 609: Dwight M.
DeLong; 610: Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center;
611: Davidson; 612: Dwight M. DeLong; 613: Ohio Agricultural
Research and Development Center; 614: (top left) Dwight M.
DeLong; (middle left) Dwight M. DeLong; (bottom left) Ohio
Agricultural Research and Development Center; (top right) Ohio
Agricultural Research and Development Center; (bottom right)
Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center; 615: (all)
Dwight M. DeLong; 617: Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center; 618: (all) Illinois Natural History Survey;
619: (all) Dwight M. DeLong; 620: (al\) Dwight M. DeLong;
621: (all) Dwight M. DeLong; 623: (al\) Dwight M. DeLong;

624: (all) Dwight M. DeLong; 625: (top left) Dwight M. DeLong;
(top right) Dwight M. DeLong; (middle left) Dwight M. DeLong;
(bottom left) Dwight M. DeLong; (bottom right) Dwight M.
DeLong; 626: (all) Dwight M. DeLong; 627: Ctop left) Dwight M.
DeLong; (middle) Dwight M. DeLong; (bottom) Dwight M. DeLong;
629: (all) Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center;
630: (top left) Dwight M. DeLong; (middle left) Dwight M. DeLong;
(top right) Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center;
(bottom right) Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center;
631: Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center; 633: (all)
Dwight M. DeLong; 634: (all) Dwight M. DeLong; 635: (top left)
Dwight M. DeLong; (top right) Dwight M. DeLong; (middle left)
Dwight M. DeLong; (middle right) Dwight M. DeLong; (bottom left)
Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center; (bottom right)
Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center; 636: Cleft)
Dwight M. DeLong; (right) Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center; 637: (top left) Dwight M. DeLong; (top right)
Dwight M. DeLong; (top middle left) Dwight M. DeLong; (top
middle right) Dwight M. DeLong; (bottom middle left) Dwight M.
DeLong; (bottom middle right) Dwight M. DeLong; (bottom left)
Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center; (bottom right)
Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center; 638: Ctop)
Dwight M. DeLong; (top middle) Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center; (bottom middle) Ohio Agricultural Research
and Development Center; (bottom) Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center; 639: (bottom left) Ohio Agricultural Research
and Development Center; (middle right) Carl W. Albrecht; (bottom
right) Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center; (top)
Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center; 640: (all)
Dwight M. DeLong; 641: (top left) Dwight M. DeLong; (bottom left)
Dwight M. DeLong; Ctop right) Knull; (bottom right) Knull.
Chapter 34. 730: Ctop) Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center; 731: Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center; 732: (all) Illinois Natural History Survey;
738: Illinois Natural History Survey; 740: (all) Ohio Agricultural
Research and Development Center.
Chapter 35. 765: (all) Dwight M. DeLong; 766: Dwight M. DeLong;
771: Courtesy of Davidson; 773: Dwight M. DeLong; 774: Dwight
M. DeLong.
lIIustrations and Text
Chapter 2. 5: Fig. 2-1 from R.E. Snodgrass, PrincipIesof Insect
Morphology, Comell University Press, 1993, lig. 35C, p. 70.
6: Fig. 2-3 from K. Arms and P.S.Camp, Biology, Saunders College
Publishing, 1987, p. 38. 7: Fig. 2-7a, b from RE. Snodgrass,
PrincipIesof InsectMorphology, Comell University Press, 1993,
lig. 92A, p. 166 and 39B, p. 77. 10: Fig. 2-9 from R.E. Snodgrass,
PrincipIesof InsectMorphology, Comell University Press, 1993,
lig. 105, p. 194. 13: Fig. 2-11 from RE. Snodgrass, PrincipIes of
InsectMorphology, Comell University Press, 1993, lig. 122, p. 219.
15: Fig. 2-12a, b from RE. Snodgrass, PrincipIes of Insect
Morphology, Comell UniversityPress, 1993,lig. 129, p. 232 and
lig. 130, p. 233. 16: Fig. 2-13 from R.E. Snodgrass, PrincipIes of
Insect Morphology, Comell University Press, 1993, lig. 56, p. 106.
17: Fig. 2-14 from R.E. Snodgrass, PrincipIes of InsectMorphology,
Comell University Press, 1993, lig. 58B, p. 109. 22: Fig. 2-20 from
R.E. Snodgrass, PrincipIes of Insect Morphology, Comell University
Press, 1993, lig. 174C, p. 323. 22: Fig. 2-21a, b from RE. Snodgrass,
PrincipIesof InsectMorphology, Comell University Press, 1993,
lig. 168, p. 308. 22: Fig. 2-21c from R.E. Snodgrass, PrincipIesof
InsectMorphology, Comell University Press, 1993, lig. 168, p. 308,
Credits 799
lig. 169E, p. 310. 24: Fig. 2-22 from R. Matheson, Entomologyfor
Introductory Courses,Comstock Publishing Company, 1947, lig. 51,
p. 63. 30: Fig. 2-26 from RE. Snodgrass, PrincipIes of Insect
Morphology, Comell University Press, 1993, lig. 249, p. 479.
34: Fig. 2-29b, c from R.E. Snodgrass, PrincipIes of Insect
Morphology, Comell University Press, 1993, lig. 28D, p. 539,
lig. 283A, p. 545. 34: Fig. 2-29d from R Matheson, Entomologyfor
Introductory Courses,Comstock Publishing Company, 1947,
lig. 38-1, p. 49. 36: Fig. 2-31 from R.E. Snodgrass, PrincipIes of
InsectMorphology, Comell University Press, 1993, lig. 284A, p. 553,
lig. 292A, p. 568. 38: Fig. 2-32a, c from R.E. Snodgrass, PrincipIes of
InsectMorphology, Comell University Press, 1993, lig. 313A, p. 610,
lig. 312D, p. 609. 39: Fig. 2-33 from R.E. Snodgrass, PrincipIes of
InsectMorphology, Comell University Press, 1993, lig. 298B, p. 586.
42: Fig. 2-37 from R.E. Snodgrass, PrincipIes of InsectMorphology,
Comell University Press, 1993, lig. 4B, p. 19, lig. 7A, 7C, p. 21.
43: Fig. 2-38 from R.E. Snodgrass, PrincipIes of InsectMorphology,
Comell University Press, 1993, lig. 11, p. 26. 43: Fig. 2-39 from
R.E. Snodgrass, PrincipIes of InsectMorphology, Comell University
Press, 1993, lig. 13, p. 29. 45: Fig. 2-40 from w.J. Baerg, "Eastem
strawberry louse," ArkansasAgricultural Experiment Station Bulletin
179,1922, ligs. 1-5. Used by permission of the Arkansas
Agricultural Experiment Station. 46: Fig. 2-41 from P.A. Readio,
"Studies on the biology of the genus Corizus (Coreidae, Hemipter),"
Annals of the Entomological Societyof America Vol. 21, 1928,
p. 189-201. Used by permission. 47: 2-43b, c, d from Alvah
Peterson, Larvae of Insects:An Introduction to Nearctic species,
1948, Vol. Il, lig. OlA, C46G, C46K. Used by permission.
47: Fig. 2-42 used by permission of the Utah Agricultural
Experiment Station.
Chapter 5. 105: Fig. 5-4 courtesy of the Institute of Acarology.
107: Fig. 5-5 fromJ.M. Gosline, M.E. DeMont, and M.W. Denny,
"The structure and properties of spider silk," Endeavour 10:37-43,
1986, lig. 5. Used by permission of Elsevier. 124: Fig. 5-11a used
by permission of the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station.
130: Fig. 5-13 used by permission of Dr. Dana Wrensch on beha\f of
Donald E. ]ohnston. 132: Fig. 5-16 used by permission of Dr. Dana
Wrensch on beha\f of Donald E. ]ohnston. 133: Fig. 5-18 from
H.E. Hodgkiss, "The Eriophyidae of New York: Il. The maple mites,"
NewYork AgriculturaI Experiment Station TechnicalBulletin 163,
p. 5-45, 1930, pl. 1, ligs. 1,2. Used by permission of the New York
Agricultural Experiment Station. 134: Fig. 5-19 courtesy of the
Institute of Acarology. 135: Fig. 5-21 from c.c. Hoff, "The
pseudoscorpions of Illinois," IIlinois Natural History Survey Bulletin
24(4):413-498,1949, lig. 26, 28, 47. Used by permission of the
Illinois Natural History Survey. 140: 141: 147: Fig. 5-33d from
J.H. Comstock, an Introductionto Entomology, Cornstock Publishing
Company, 1933, lig. 31, p. 23.
Chapter 6. 157: 6-2d used by permission of the Utah Agricultural
Experiment Station. 157: Fig. 6-2a from M. Hebard, "The
Dermaptera and Orthoptera of Illinois," IIlinois Natural History
Survey Bulletin 20(3):125-279, lig. 155. Used by permission
of the Illinois Natural History Survey. 157: Fig. 6-2c, e from
H.H. Ross,"How to collect and preserve insects," IIlinois Natural
History Circular 39, 1949, lig. 38, 38, 40. Used by permission of
Illinois Natural History Survey 159: Fig. 6-5a from H.H. Ross,
"How 10collect and preserve insects," IIlinois Natural History
Circular 39, 1949, lig. 38, p. 40. Used by permission of Illinois
Natural History Survey. 159: Fig. 6-6 from H.H. Ross, "How 10
collect and preserve insects," IIlinois Natural History Circular 39,
1949, lig. 27, p. 35. Used by permission of Illinois Natural History
Survey. 162: Fig. 6-9d from H.H. Ross, "How to collect and
preserve insects," IIlinois Natural History Circular 39, 1949,
lig. 18, p. 31. Used by permission of Illinois Natural History
Survey.
800 Credits
Chapter 7.170: Fig. 7-1 from H.E. Ewing, "The Protura ofNorth
America," Annals of the Entomological Society of America Vol. 33,
1940, p. 495-551, Fig. 1. Used by permission. 173: Fig. 7-2
used by permission of Dr. Richard j. Snider. 174: Fig. 7-3 from
K.A. Christiansen and P.F.Bellinger, The Collembola of North
America North of the Rio Grande, Grinnell College, 1980-1981,
Fig. 1049B. Used by permission. 175: Fig. 7-4a, c from E.O. Essig,
CollegeEntomology,1942,lig. 29, lig. 30. Used by permission.
Chapter 8. 180: Fig. 8-2 used by permission of lllinois Natural
History Survey.
Chapter 9. 182: Fig. 9-2a from j.w, Leonard, "A New Baetis from
Michigan (Ephemeroptera)," Vol. 43, Annals of the Entomological
Society of America, Vol. 43, 1950, p. 155-159, pl. I. Used by
permission. 182: Fig. 9-2c from B.O. Burks, "New heptagenine
mayflies," Annals of the Entomological Society of America Vol. 39,
1946, p. 607-615, lig. 2. Used by permission.
Chapter 10. 195: Fig. 1O-2a from E.M. Walker, "The nymph of
Aeschna verticalis Hagen." The Canadian Entomologist 73: 229-231,
1941, lig. 1, p. 230. Used by permission of the Entomological
Society of Canada. 195: Fig. 10-2b from E.M. Walker, "The nymph
of Gomphus quadricolor Walsh (Odonata)." The Canadian
Entomologist 64: 270-273, 1932, lig. 1, p. 271. Used by permission of
the Entomological Society of Canada. 195: Fig. 10-3a, b from
P. Garman, "The Zygopter, or damsel-flies, of lllinois," Bulletin of the
IIIinois State Laboratory ofNatural History 12(4): 411-586,1917.
Chapter 11. 210: Fig. 11-1 used by permission of Richard A.
Alexander. 210: Fig. 11-2 used by permission of Richard A.
Alexander. 217: Fig. 11-6a used courtesy of the Ohio Agricultural
Research and Development Center. 218: Fig. 11-7 used courtesy of
the Universite de Montreal Departement de Sciences Biologiques.
218: Fig. 11-8 used courtesy of the Universite de Montreal
Departement de Sciences Biologiques. 219: Fig. 11-10 from
M. Hebard, "The Dermaptera and Orthoptera of lllinois," IIIinois
Natural HistorySurveyBulletin20(3):125-279, lig. 160. Used by
permission of the lllinois Natural History Survey. 222: Fig. 11-14
from M. Hebard, "The Dermaptera and Orthoptera of lllinois,"
IIIinoisNatural HistorySurveyBulletin20(3):125-279,lig. 158.
Used by permission of the lllinois Natural History Survey.
222: Fig. 11-14b, c used courtesy of the Universite de Montreal
Departement de Sciences Biologiques. 222: Fig. 11-15 used courtesy
of the Universite de Montreal Departement de Sciences Biologiques.
224: Fig. 11-16 used courtesy of the Universite de Montreal
Departement de Sciences Biologiques. 224: Fig. 11-17 a from
M. Hebard, "The Dermaptera and Orthoptera of lllinois," IIIinois
Natural HistorySurveyBulletin20(3):125-279,lig. 116. Used by
permission of the lllinois Natural History Survey. 224: Fig. 11-17b, c
used courtesy of the Universite de Montreal Departement de
Sciences Biologiques. 225: Fig. 11-18 from M. Hebard, "The
Dermapteraand Orthoptera of lllinois," IIIinoisNatural History
Survey Bulletin 20(3):125-279,lig. 164. Used by permission of the
lllinois Natural History Survey.
Chapter 12. 228: Fig. 12-1 used courtesy of the Ohio Agricultural
Research and Development Center.
Chapter 14. 232: Fig. 14.1 reproduced with permission ofThom GIas.
Chapter 15. 234: Fig. 15-1 used Courtesy of Fulton and the Oregon
Agricultural Experiment Station.
Chapter 16. 240: Fig. 16-2a from T.H. Frison, ''The stoneflies, or
Plecoptera,of Illionois,"IIIinoisNatural HistorySurveyBulletin
20(4),1935, lig. 1, p. 283. Used by permission of lllinois Natural
History Survey. 241: Fig. 16-3 from P.H. Harden, "The immature
stages of some Minnesota Plecoptera," Annals of the Entomological
Societyof America Vol. 35, 1942, p. 318-331, pl. 1 lig. 2, pl. II lig. 3
and lig. 4. Used by permission. 242: Fig. 16-5 from T.H. Frison,
"The stoneflies, or Plecoptera, of lllionois," IIIinois Natural History
Survey Bulletin 20(4), 1935, lig. 3a, p. 286. Used by permission of
Illinois Natural History Survey. 244: Fig. 16-8 from T.H. Frison,
"Studies of North American Plecopter with special reference lOthe
fauna of Illinois," Bulletin of the IlIinois Natural History Survey 22(2):
253-355. Used by permission.
Chapter 17. 248: Fig. 17-1 from E.O. Essig, CollegeEntomology,
1942, lig. 68. Used by permission.
Chapter 18. 251: Fig. 18-1 from A.M. Claudell, "Zoraptera not
an apterous order," Proceedings of the Entomological Society of
Washington 22: 84-97, 1920.
Chapter 20.260: Fig. 20-1 from M. Hebard, "The Dermaptera and
Orthoptera of Illinois," IlIinois Natural HistorySurvey Bulletin
20(3):125-279, lig. 152. Used by permission of the Illinois Natural
History Survey.
Chapter 21. 266: Fig. 21-3 used courtesy of the Universite de
Montreal Departement de Sciences Biologiques.
Chapter 22. 274: Fig. 22-6 from H.B. Hungerford, "Food habits of
corixids," Joumal of the New York Entomological Society25:1-5, 1917.
286: Fig. 22-15 used by permission of Dr. Michael Kosztarab.
287: Fig. 22-16 used by permission of Dr. Michael Kosztarab.
288: Fig. 22-17 from Re. Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis
of the Hemiptera of Missouri, pt. m," American Midland Naturalist
31(3):638-683,1944, lig. 74. Used by permission. 290: Fig. 22-19
fromj.A. Slater and RM. Baranowski,How to Know the TrueBugs
(Hemipter; Heteroptera), McGraw-Hill,1978, lig. 170,253,427,437,
459,418, and 489. Used by permission. 290: Fig. 22-20 fromj.A.
Slater and RM. Baranowski,How to Know the TrueBugs (Hemipter;
Heteroptera), McGraw-Hill,1978, lig. 170,253,427,437,459,418,
and 489. Used by permission. 291: Fig. 22-23 fromj.A. Slater and
RM. Baranowski,How to Know the True Bugs(Hemipter;
Heteroptera), McGraw-Hill,1978, lig. 170,253,427,437,459,418.
and 489. Used by permission. 292: Fig. 22-24 from R.e. Froeschner,
"Contributions to a synopsis of the Hemiptera of Missouri,
pt. IV, Hebridae, Mesoveliidae, Cimicidae, Anthocoridae,
Cryptostemmatidsae, Isometopidae, Meridae," American Midland
Naturalist 42(1):123-188, lig. 89, 90. Used by permission.
293: Fig. 22-26 fromj.A. Slater and RM. Baranowski, How to
Know the TrueBugs (Hemipter; Heteroptera), McGraw-Hill,1978,
lig. 170,253,427,437,459,418, and 489. Used by permission.
294: Fig. 22-27a, b from R.e. Froeschner, "Contributions to a
synopsis of the Hemiptera of Missouri, pt. m," American Midland
Naturalist 31(3):638-683, 1944, lig. 68,69. Used by permission
294: Fig. 22-27c from Osborn and Drake, "Tingitoidea of Ohio,"
Ohio Biological Survey Bulletin 2(4): 217-215, 1916. 295: Fig. 22-28
from H.H. Knight, "The plant bugs, of Miridae, of lllinois," Bulletin
of theIIIinoisNatural History Survey22(1):1-234, 1941, ligs. 112,
158, 162, 144, 167, 168. Used by permission of the lllinois Natural
History Survey. 295: Fig. 22-29a from Re. Froeschner,
"Contributions to a synopsis of the Hemiptera of Missouri, pt. m,"
American Midland Naturalist 31(3):638-683, 1944, lig. 76. Used by
permission. 295: Fig. 22-29b fromj.A. Slater and RM. Baranowski,
How to Know the TrueBugs (Hemipter; Heteroptera), McGraw-Hill,
1978, lig. 170,253,427,437,459,418, and 489. Used by
permission. 296: Fig. 22-30 from Re. Froeschner, "Contributions
to a synopsis of the Hemiptera of Missouri, pt. IV,Hebridae,
Mesoveliidae, Cimicidae, Anthocoridae, CryplOstemmatidsae,
Isometopidae,Meridae,"AmericanMidland Naturalist 42(1):123-188,
..
lig. 91, 93. Used by permission. 297: Fig. 22-31 from R.e.
Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis of the Hemiptera of
Missouri, pt. 1lI," American Midland Naturalist 31(3):638-683, 1944,
lig. 72, 75, 81, 82, 83, 86. Used by permission. 298: Fig. 22-32 from
Re. Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis of the Hemiptera of
Missouri, pt. n Coreidae, Aradidae, Neididae," American Midland
Naturalist 27(3):591-609, 1942, lig. 53, 54. Used by permission.
298: Fig. 22-33 from Re. Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis
of the Hemiptera of Missouri, pt. 1lI," American Midland Naturalist
31(3):638-683, 1944, lig. 73. Used by perrnission. 298: Fig. 22-34
from Re. Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis of the Hemiptera
of Missouri, pt. n Coreidae, Aradidae, Neididae," American Midland
Naturalist 27(3):591-609, 1942, lig. 50. Used by permission. 299:
Fig. 22-35 from R.e. Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis of the
Hemiptera of Missouri, pt. 1lI," American Midland Naturalist
31(3):638-683, 1944, lig. 56, 60, 61, 63, 64, 67. Used by permission.
301: Fig. 22-37a, b from Re. Froeschner, "Contributions to a
synopsis of the Hemiptera of Missouri, pt. 1lI," American Midland
Naturalist 31(3):638-683,1944, lig. 77, 78. Used by perrnission.
301: Fig. 22-37c fromJ.A. Slater and RM. Baranowski, How to
Know the True Bugs (Hemipter; Heteroptera), McGraw-HiIl, 1978,
lig. 170,253,427,437,459,418, and 489. Used by permission.
302: Fig. 22-38 from Re. Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis
of the Hemiptera of Missouri, pt. n Coreidae, Aradidae, Neididae,"
American Midland Naturalist 27(3):591-609, 1942, lig. 28,42,45,
46,47,51. Used by permission. 303: Fig. 22-39 from Re.
Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis of the Hemiptera of
Missouri, pt. 1. Scutelleridae, Podopidae, pentatomidae, Cydnidae,
Throeocoridae," American Midland Naturalist 26(1): 122-146,1941,
lig. 24, 25. Used by permission. 303: Fig. 22-40 from R.e.
Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis of the Hemiptera of
Missouri, pt. 1. Scutelleridae, Podopidae, pentatomidae, Cydnidae,
Throeocoridae," American Midland Naturalist 26(1): 122-146, 1941,
lig. 20, 21. Used by permission. 304: Fig. 22-41 from R.e.
Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis of the Hemiptera of
Missouri, pt. 1. Scutelleridae, Podopidae, pentatomidae, Cydnidae,
Throeocoridae," American Midland Naturalist 26(1): 122-146, 1941,
lig. 31, 33, 34, 36. Used by permission. 304: Fig. 22-42 from Re.
Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis of the Hemiptera of
Missouri, pt. 1. Scutelleridae, Podopidae, pentatomidae, Cydnidae,
Throeocoridae," American Midland Naturalist 26(1): 122-146,1941,
lig. 19,22,29. Used by permission. 305: Fig. 22-43 used by
permission of the IIIinois Natural History Survey. 316: Fig. 22-51
from H. Osborn, "The Fulgoridae of Ohio," Ohio Biological Survey
Bulletin No. 35 6(6):283-357, 1938, lig. 2, 5a, 5b, 5c, 13Aa, 16Bb,
18A, 25, 26A, 27B, 33, 35A, 38B. Used by permission of Ohio
Biological Survey, Inc. 317: Fig. 22-53 from G.F. Knowlton and
MJ. janes, "Studies on the biology of Paratrioza cockerelli (Su!c),"
Annalsof the EntomologicalSociety of AmericaVol.24, 1931,
p. 283-291, pl. 1, lig. 1. Used by perrnission.
Chapter 23. 335: Fig. 23-3 from P. Pesson, "Ordre des Thysanopter
Haliday, 1836 (Physapoda Burm., 1838) ou thrips" Traite de
Zoologie 10:1805-1869, 1951, lig. 1647 1619a, lig. 1626B. Used
by permission of Masson et Cie, Paris. 336: Fig. 23-4 from
LJ. Stannard, "The thrips, or Thysanoptera,of IIIinois,"IlIinois
Natural History Survey Bulletin 29(4):215-552, ligs. 93, 94, 89.
Used by permission of the IIIinois Natural History Survey.
336: Fig. 23-4a used by permission of the Utah Agricultural
Experiment Station. 337: Fig. 23-5 from LJ. Stannard, "The thrips,
or Thysanoptera,of IIIinois,"IlIinois Natural History Survey Bulletin
29(4):215-552, ligs. 62, 64, 65, 66, 68. Used by permission of
the IIIinois Natural History Survey. 337: Fig. 23-6a from L.A.
Mound and R Marullo, "Two new basal-clade Thysanoptera from
California with Old World aflinities," Journal of the New York
EntomologicalSociety 106: 81-94, 1998, Fig. 9. Used by permission.
337: Fig. 23-6b from S.F.Bailey, "The thrips of California, pan 1:
Credits 801
Suborder Terebrantia," Bulletin of the California ¡nsect Survey
4(5):143-220, 1957, lig. 20. Used by permission of the Regents of
the University of California Press. 337: Fig. 23-6c, d from L.A.
Mound, BS Heming, andJ.M. Palmer, "Phylogenetiv re!ationships
between the families of recent Thysanoptera (Instects)," Zoological
Journal ofthe Linnean Society 16: 111-141, 1980, Fig. 39, Fig. 40.
Used by permission of Blackwell Publishing.
Chapter 24.342: Fig. 24-1 from KM. Sommerman, "Bionomics of
Ectopsocus pumilis" Psyche50(3-4): 53-64. Used by permission.
352: Fig. 24-8a, c from KM. Sommerman, "Description and
bionornics of Caecilius manteri n. sp. (Corrodentia)," Proceedingsof
the EntomologicalSocietyofWashington 45(2): 29-39, 1943, Pl. 1,
lig 3 and lig. 4. Used by permission of the Entomological Society of
Washington. 352: Fig. 24-8b, e from KM. Sommerman, "Bionomics
of Amapsocus amabilis (Walsh) (Corrodentia, Psocidae)," Annals of
the Entomological Society of America Vol. 37, 1944, p. 359-364, pl. I
lig. 1, lig. 2. Used by perrnission. 352: Fig. 24-8d from National Pest
Control AssociationServia TechniciansHandbook,p. 88, Copyright
11:>
1996 by the National Pest Management Association. Used by
permission. 352: Fig. 24-8f from A.B. Gurney, "A synopsis of the
psocids of the tribe Psyllipsocini, including the description of an
unusual new genus from Arizona (Corrodentia: Empheriidae:
Empheriinae)," Annals of the Entomological Society of America
Vol. 36, 1943, p. 195-220. pl. 1lI lig. 23. Used by permission.
352: Fig. 24-8f from A.B. Gurney, "Nomenclatorial notes on
Corrodentia, with descriptions of two new species of Archipsocus,
Journalof the WashingtonAcademy of Sciences29(11): 501-515, 1939,
Fig. 1, p. 503. Used by permission of the Washington Academy of
Sciences.
Chapter 25. 357: Fig. 25-1 from RE. Snodgrass, PrincipIes of ¡nsect
Morphology, Cornell University Press, 1993, lig. 35C, p. 70.
Chapter 26. 402: Fig. 26-14 from R.H. Arneu,jr. and M.e. Thomas,
American Beetles, lig. 1.5, The American Entomological Institute,
Ann Arbor, MI. Used by permission of CRC Press. 402: Fig. 26-15c
used by perrnission of the IIIinois Natural History Survey.
404: Fig. 26-18 from Alvah Peterson, Larvae of ¡nsects:An
introduction to Nearctic species,1948, Vol.n, lig. C41D, C42F,C44B.
Reprinted by permission. 406: Fig. 26-21 from Alvah Peterson,
Larvae of ¡nsects: An introduction to Nearctic species, 1948,
Vol. n, lig. C42A, C4lB, C41A, C42B. Reprinted by permission.
407: Fig. 26-23afrom E.S. Ross, "New Histeridae (Coleoptera) form
the burrows of the Florida pocket gopher,"Annals of theEntomological
Societyof America Vol. 33, 1940, p. 1-9, Fig. 1. Used by permission.
407: Fig. 26-23b from Q.D. Whee!er, "Slime mold beetles of the
genus Anisotoma," SystematicEntomology 4:251-309, Fig. 1, p. 252,
1979. Used by permission of Blackwell Publishing. 409: Fig. 26-24a
from R.H.Arneu,jr. and M.e. Thomas, AmericanBect/es,lig. 3.22,
The American Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by
permission of CRC Press. 409: Fig. 26-24b from RH. Arneu, jr.,
The Beetlesof the United States(A manual for identilication),
lig. 1.23. The American Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor, MI.
Used by permission of CRC Press. 409: Fig. 26-25a from R.H.
Arneu,jr. and M.e. Thomas, AmericanBeetles,lig.2.21,The
American Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by
permission of CRC Press. 409: Fig. 26-25b from RH. Arneu, jr.,
The Bect/esof the United States(A manual for identilication),
lig. 2.17. The American Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor, MI.
Used by permission of CRC Press. 410: Fig. 26-26a from L.
Watrous, "Lathrobium (Tetartopeus)," Systematic Entomology5:
303-338, Fig. 1, p. 304,1980. Used by permission ofBlackwell
Publishing. 410: Fig. 26-26b from RH. Arneu,jr. and M.e. Thomas,
American Beetles,lig. 1.22, The American EntomologicalInstitute,
Ann Arbor, MI. Used by perrnission of CRC Press. 410: Fig. 26-26c
fromJ.M. Campbell, "A revision of the genus Sepedophilus Giste!
802 Credits
(Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) of America north of Mexico," Memoirs
of the Entomological Society of Canada No. 99, lig. 3, p. 59. Used by
permission of the Entomological Society of Canada. 410: Fig. 26-26c
fromJ.M. Campbell, "A revision of the genus Sepedophilus Giste!
(Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) of America north of Mexico," Memoirs
of the Entomological Society of Canada No. 99, lig. 3, p. 59. Used by
permission of the Entomological Society of Canada. 410: Fig. 26-27
from RH. Amen, ]r. and M.e. Thomas, American Beet/es, lig. 4.22,
The American Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by
permission of CRC Press. 414: Fig. 26-30 from G.N. Wolcon,
"The insects of Puerto Rico," joumal of Agriculture of the University
of Puerto Rico 32(2): 255-822. Used by permission of the
Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Puerto Rico.
416: Fig. 26-35a, b from RH. Amen,]r. and M.e. Thomas,
American Beetles, lig. 1.35, 1.37. The American Entomological
Institute, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by permission of CRC Press. 416:
Fig. 26-35c fromRH. Amen, ]r., The Beet/esoftheUnitedStates
(A manual for identilication), lig. 1.32. The American Entomological
Institute, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by permission of CRC Press.
417: Fig. 26-36 from R.H. Amen,]r. and M.e. Thomas, American
Beetles, lig. 1.39. The American Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor,
MI. Used by permission of CRC Press. 418: Fig. 26-37 fromJ.N.
Knull, "The Buprestidae of Pennsylvania (Coleopter)," The Ohio
State University Studies 2(2), 1925.418: Fig. 26-38 fromJ.N. Knull,
"The Buprestidae of Pennsylvania (Coleopter)," The Ohio State
University Studies 2(2), 1925. 419: Fig. 26-42 from RH. Amen, ]r.
and M.e. Thomas, American Beetles, lig. 1.42. The American
Entomological InstitUte, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by permission of CRC
Press.420: Fig. 26-43a from RH. Amen, ir. The Beet/esoftheUnited
States (A Manual for Identilication), lig. 1.39, The American
Entomological InstitUte, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by permission.
420: Fig. 26-43b, c from RH. Amen,]r. and M.e. Thomas,
American Beetles, lig. 1.43, 1.44. The American Entomological
Institute, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by permission of CRC Press.
421: Fig. 26-44a, b from Alvah Peterson, Larvae of Insects:An
introduction to Nearctic species, 1948, Vo\. 1, lig. C43G, C43H.
Reprinted by permission. 421: Fig. 26-44c from R.H. Amett, ir.
and M.e. Thomas, American Beetles, lig. 1.48. The American
Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by permission of CRC
Press. 422: Fig. 26-45d from RH. Amen,]r. and M.e. Thomas,
American Beet/es,lig. 1.56. The AmericanEntomologicalInstitute,
Ann Arbor, MI. Used by permission of CRC Press. 423: Fig. 26-46
from RH. Amen, ]r. and M.e. Thomas, American Beet/es, lig. 1.59,
1.61. The American Entomological InstitUte, Ann Arbor, MI. Used
by permission of CRC Press. 424: Fig. 26-48 from R.H. Amen, ir.
and M.e. Thomas,AmericanBeetles,lig. 1.66. The American
Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by permission of CRC
Press. 425: Fig. 26-49a-d, f from G.H. Griswold, "StUdies on the
biologyof four common carpet beetles," Comell University
Agricultural ExperimentStation Memoir 240: 5-75,1941, ligs. 12,28,
31,34,36. Used by permission. 425: Fig. 26-4ge from Alvah
Peterson, Larvae of Insects:An introduction to Nearctic species,1948,
Vo\. n, lig. C45B. Reprinted by permission. 426: Fig. 26-50 from
G.N. Wolcon, "The insects of Puerto Rico," joumal ofAgricultureof
the University of PuertoRico 32(2): 255-822. Used by permission of
the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Puerto Rico.
426: Fig. 26-52 from R.H. Amen, ir. The Beet/esof the United States
(A Manual for Identilication), lig. 1.62, 1.64, The American
Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by permission. 427:
Fig. 26-53 from R.E. White, "The Anobiidae of Ohio (Coleoptera,"
Ohio Biological SurveyBulletin (new series) 1(4): 1-58,1962, lig. 3,8,
11, 13, 16,22. Used by permission of Ohio Biological Survey, Inc.
429: Fig. 26-55 fromJ.M. Knull, "The checkered beetles of Ohio
(Coleopter: Cleridae)," Ohio Biological SurveyBulletin 42: 269-359,
1951, lig. 3, 5, 13,29,36,44,50,52. Used by permission of Ohio
Biological Survey, Inc. 430: Fig. 26-56a from RH. Amen, ]r.
and M.e. Thomas,AmericanBeet/es,lig. 1.74. The American
Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by permission of CRC
Press. 430: Fig. 26-56b from R.H. Amen, ]r. The Beet/esof the Uniled
States (A Manual for Identilication), lig. 1.67, 1.89, The American
Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by permission.
431: Fig. 26-58a from R.H.Amen,]r. and M.e. Thomas, American
Beet/es,lig. 1.82. The American EntomologicalInstitute, Ann Arbor,
MI. Used by permission of CRC Press. 432: Fig. 26-59 from R.H.
Amen,]r. and M.e. Thomas, AmericanBeet/es,lig. 1.84,2.95,1.92.
The American Entomological InstitUte, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by
permission of CRC Press. 432: Fig. 26-60a, b from RH. Amen, Jr.
and M.e. Thomas, AmericanBeetles,lig. 1.96, 1.88. The American
Entomological InstilLlte, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by permission of CRC
Press. 432: Fig. 26-60c from RH. Amen,]r. The Beet/esof the United
States(A Manual for Identilication), lig. 1.92, 1.98, 1.102, The
American Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by
permission. 436: Fig. 26-64 from RH. Amett,]r. and M.e. Thomas,
American Beet/es,lig. 1.104,3.106, 1.114. The American
Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by permission of CRC
Press. 437: Fig. 26-65i from M.P. Liles, "A stUdy of the life history of
the forked fungus beetle, Bolitotherus comutus (Panzer) (Coleopter:
Tenebrionidae)," Ohio joumal of Science56: 329-337, 1956. Fig. 3
(upper center). Used by permission of the Ohio Academy of Science.
438: Fig. 26-66 from R.H. Amen,]r. and M.e. Thomas, American
Beet/es, lig. 1.109, 1.115. The American Entomological Institute,
Ann Arbor, MI. Used by permission of CRC Press. 439: Fig. 26-67a,
e, f, d from EG. Wemer, WR Enns, and EH. Parker, "The Me!oidae
of Arizonae," University of Arizona Agricultural ExperimentStation
TechnicalBulletin 175, 1966, lig. 59,64,96, 103. Used by
permission. 439: Fig. 26-67b, c from WJ. Baerg, "Control measures
for blister beetles," ArkansasAgriculturalExperiment Station Bulletin
201, 1925, lig. 1, lig. 2. 439: ig. 26-68 from WR. Horsfall, "Biology
and control of common blister beetles in Arkansas," Arkansas
Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 436, 1945, Fig. 5, p. 18.
Used by permission the Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station.
440: Fig. 26-69a from RH. Amen,]r. The Beet/esof the UnitedStates
(A Manual for Identilication), lig. 1.83, The American
Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by permission.
440: Fig. 26-69b from RH. Amen,]r. and M.e. Thomas, American
Beet/es,lig. 3.115. The AmericanEntomological Institute, Ann
Arbor, MI. Used by permission of CRC Press.. 441: Fig. 26-7 I from
Alvah Peterson, Larvae of Insects:An introduction to Nearctic species,
1948, Vo\. n, lig. C14K, Cl4C, Cl4E. Reprinted by permission.
443: Fig. 26-73 fromJ.N. Knull, "The long-homed beetles of Ohio
(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)," Ohio Biological Survey Bulletin 39:
133-354, 1946, lig. 5, 6, 11, 19, 22, 25, 33, 64. Used by permission
of Ohio Biological Survey, Inc. 444: Fig. 26-74 fromJ.N. Knull,
"The long-homed beetles of Ohio (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae),"
Ohio Biological Survey Bulletin 39: 133-354, 1946, lig. 3, 27, 35,
61,65,95. Used by permission of Ohio Biological Survey, Inc.
448: Fig. 26-78a used by permission of the Utah Agricultural
Experiment Station. 448: Fig. 26-78b used courtesy of the Ohio
Agricultural Research and Deve!opment Center. 449: Fig. 26-80
used by permission of the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station.
449: Fig. 26-82 used courtesy of the Ohio Agricultural Research
and Deve!opmentCenter. 451: Fig. 26-84 from RH. Amen,]r. The
Beet/esof the United States(A Manual for Identilication), lig. 1.107,
The American Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor, MI. Used by
permission. 461: Fig. 26-90b from E.L. Sleeper, "A synopsis of the
genus Barinus Casey in North America (Coleoptera Curculionidae):
Ohio joumal of Science56: 76-86, 1956, Fig. 1. Used by permission
of the Ohio Academy of Science. 463: Fig. 26-92 reprinted by
permission of Roy W Rings. 464: Fig. 26-93 from R.H. Amen,Jr.
The Beet/esof the United States(A Manual for Identilication),
lig. 1.109, The American Entomological Institute, Ann Arbor, MI.
Used by permission. 464: Fig. 26-94 courtesy of the Oregon State
Agricultural Experiment Station. 465: Fig. 26-95 from B.J. Kaston,
"The native e!m bark beetle Hylurgopinus rulipes in Connecticut,"
If
Bulletin of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station No. 420,
1939, Fig. 1.
Chapter 27.474: Fig. 27-5 from H.H. Ross, "How to collect and
preserve insects," Illinois Natural History Circular 39, 1949, fig. 44,
p. 44. Used by permission of lllinois Natural History Survey.
475: Fig. 27-6 from Alvah Peterson, Larvae of Insects: An introduction
to Nearctic species, 1948, Vo\. n, fig. N4C, N4E, N4F, N4B. Reprinted
by permission. 477: Fig. 27-9 from H.H. Ross, "How to collect
and preserve insects," Illinois Natural History Circular 39, 1949,
fig. 42, p. 42, fig 43, p. 43. Used by permission of lllinois Natural
History Survey. 478: Fig. 27-11 from Alvah Peterson, Larvae of
Insects: An introduction to Nearctic species, 1948, Vo\. n, fig. N3E.
Reprinted by permission.
Chapter 28. 490: Fig. 28-9 from H.H. Ross, "A generic classification
of the Nearctic sawflies (Hymenoptera, Symphyta)," Illinois
Biological Monographs15(2), p. 141. Used by permission.
523: Fig. 28-44a from D. De Leon, "The morphology of Coe\oides
dendroctoni Cushman (Hymenoptera: Bradonidae),journal of the
New YorkEntomologicalSociety42: 297-317, 1934, Pl. XIX. Used by
permission of the New York Entomological Society.523: Fig. 28-44b
from H.L. Parker, "Notes on Meteorus (Zemiotes) nigricollis
Thomson, an occasional parasite of the European corn borer,"
Proceedingsof the EntomologicalSocietyof Washington33: 93-103,
1931, Fig. 1. Used by permission of the Entomological Society of
Washington. 523: Fig. 28-He from BJ. Kaston, "The native e\m
bark beetle Hylurgopinus rufipes in Connecticut," Bulletin of the
ConnecticutAgricultural ExperimentStation No. 420, 1939, Fig.18.
524: Fig. 28-45a from A.M. Vance, "Microgaster tibialis Nees as a
hymenopterous parasite of Pyraustanubilalis Hubn. in Europe,"
Annals of the EntomologicalSocietyof America Vo\. 25, 1932,
p. 121-135, Fig. 1. Used by permission. 527: Fig. 28-48a, e from
G.H. Griswold, "On the bionomics of a primary parasite and of two
hyperparasites of the geranium aphid," Annals of the Entomological
Societyof America Vo\. 22, 1929, p. 438-457, p\. 1 fig.4, p\. n
fig.4. Used by permission of the Entomological Society of America.
527: Fig. 28-49a, b from B.B. Fulton, "Notes on Habrocytus
cerealellae, parasite of the Angoumois grain moth," Annals of the
EntomologicalSocietyof America Vo\. 26, 1933, p. 536-553, fig. 1,
fig. 2. Used by permission. 527: Fig. 28-49c, d from G.H. Griswold,
"On the bionomics of a primary parasite and of two hyperparasites
of the geranium aphid," Annals of the Entomological Society of
America Vo\. 22, 1929, p. 438-457, fig. 2, fig. 3. Used by permission.
529: Fig. 28-52 from 1.]. Condit, "Caprifigs and Caprification,"
Bulletin of the California Agricultural Experiment Station 319:
341-375,1920, fig. 5. 530: Fig. 28-53a from G.H. Griswold, "On the
bionomics of a primary parasite and of two hyperparasites of the
geranium aphid," Annals of the EntornologicalSocietyof America
Vo\. 22, 1929, p. 438-457, p\. III fig. 4. Used by permission.
536: Fig. 28-58 from D.W Clancy, "The insect parasites of the
Chrysopidae (Neuroptera)," University of California Publicationsin
Entomology7:403-496, 1946, fig. 2. Used by permission of the
Regents of the University of California Press. 542: Fig. 28-65 from
R.H. Davidson and B.]. Landis, "Crabro davidsoni Sandh., a wasp
predacious on adult leafhoppers," Annals of the Entomological Society
of America Vo\. 31, 1938, p. 5-8, Fig. 1, Fig. 3. Used by permission.
548: Fig. 28-75b, c from R.W Burrell, "Notes on the habits of
cenain Australian Thynnidae," journal of the New York Entomological
Society43:19-29, 1935, p\. IV.Used by permission.
Chapter 29. 559: Fig. 29-1 from H.H. Ross, "The caddis flies, or
Trichopter,of lllinois," Illinois Natural History SurveyBulletin
24(1):1-326,1944, figs. 541, 133, 188, 281. Used by permission of
the lllinois Natural History Survey. 559: Fig. 29-2 from H.H. Ross,
"Thecaddis flies,or Trichopter,of lllinois," Illinois Natural History
SurveyBulletin 24(1):1-326, 1944, fig. 21. Used by permission of the
Credits 803
lllinois Natural History Survey. 560: Fig. 29-3 From H.H. Ross,
"The caddis flies,or Trichopter,of lllinois," Illinois Natural History
Survey Bulletin 24(1):1-326, 1944, figs. 4520, 333, 162,212,77,
629, 76. Used by permission of the lllinois Natural History Survey.
561: Fig. 29-4 from H.H. Ross, "The caddis mes, or Trichopter, of
lllinois," Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin 24(1):1-326,1944,
figs. 80-90. Used by permission of the lllinois Natural History
Survey. 562: Fig. 29-5 from H.H. Ross, "The caddis flies, or
Trichopter,of lllinois," Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin
24(1):1-326, 1944, figs. 59-64, 321, 214. Used by permission of the
lllinois Natural History Survey. 562: Fig. 29-6 from H.H. Ross, "The
caddis tlies, or Trichopter,of lllinois," Illinois Natural History Survey
Bulletin 24(1):1-326, 1944, figs. 69-75. Used by permission of
the lllinois Natural History Survey. 564: Fig. 19-7a, b, c used
by permission of Dr. John Morse. 564: Fig. 29-7d-j D-J, from
D.E. Ruiter, "Generic key to the adult ocellate Limnephiloidea of
the Western Hemisphere (lnsecta: Trichoptera)," Misc. Contrib. Ohio
Biological Survey Bulletin No. 5, 2000. Used by permission of Ohio
Biological Survey, lnc. 564: Fig. 29-71-m from H.H. Ross, "The
caddis flies,or Trichopter,of lllinois," IllinoisNatural History Survey
Bulletin 24(1):1-326, 1944, figs. 208, 210. Used by permission of the
lllinois Natural History Survey. 567: Fig. 29-8 from H.H. Ross, "The
caddis flies,or Trichopter,of lllinois," Illinois Natural History Survey
Bulletin 24(1):1-326, 1944, figs. 136,465,672,710,833,906,904,
762, 862. Used by permission of the lllinois Natural History Survey.
567: Fig. 29-8 from H.H. Ross, "The caddis flies, or Trichopter,
of lllinois," Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin 24(1):1-326,
1944, figs. 136,465,672,710,833,906,904,762,862. Used by
permission of the lllinois Natural History Survey. 568: Fig. 29-9
From H.H. Ross, "The caddis flies, or Trichopter, of lllinois,"
Illinois Natural History SurveyBulletin 24(1):1-326,1944, figs.641,
588,393,420,602, 540,863. Used by permission of the lllinois
Natural History Survey.
Chapter 30. 573: Fig. 30-4 from Alvah Peterson, Larvae of Insects:
An introduction to Nearctic species,1948, Vo\. 1,fig. 010F, 0100,
010A, 010e. Reprinted by permission. 597: Fig. 30-3-b from
].H. Comstock, an Introduction to Entomology, Comstock Publishing
Company, 1933, fig. 771, p. 629. 599: Fig. 30-33 from].H.
Comstock, an Introduction lo Entornology, Comstock Publishing
Company, 1933, fig. 755, 765, 759, 757, 754, 763 600: Fig. 30-34
from].H. Comstock, an Introduction to Entornology, Comstock
Publishing Company, 1933, fig. 762, p. 622, fig. 719, p. 593.
612: Fig. 30-45b from Alvah Peterson, Larvae of Insects:An
introduction to Nearctic species,1948,Vo\. 1,fig.L23B.Reprinted by
permission. 616: From WH. Lange,Jr., "Biology and systematics of
plume moths of the genus Platyptilia in California," Hilgardia 19:
561-668, P\' 8, Fig. A and Fig. C, 1950. 632: Fig. 30-74 from Alvah
Peterson, Larvaeof Insects:An introductionto Nearctic species,1948,
Vo\. 1, fig. L23A-E. Reprinted by permission.
Chapter 31. 649: Fig. 31-1 used by permission of Roben E. Lewis.
650: Fig. 31-2 used by permission of Roben E. Lewis. 651: Fig. 31-3
used by permission of Robert E. Lewis. 653: Fig. 31-4 used by
permission of Roben E. Lewis. 654: Fig. 31-5 used by permission
of Roben E. Lewis. 655: Fig. 31-6 used by permission of Roben E.
Lewis. 657: Fig. 31-7 used by permission of Roben E. Lewis.
Chapter 32. 663:Fig.32-1from Alvah Peterson, LarvaeofInsects:
to Nearctic species, 1948, Vo\. n, fig.MlA. Reprinted
An introduction
by permission.
Chapter 33. 670: Fig. 33-1d, e from H.L. Parker and H.D. Smith,
"Additional notes on the strepsipteron Eoxenos laboulbenei
Peyerimhoff," Annals of the Entornological Societyof America Vo\. 26,
1933, p. 217-233. Used by permission of the Entomological Society
of America.
804 Credits

Chapter 34.707: Fig. 34-28 from O.A.Johannsen, "Aquatie new species," Joumal of the New York Entomological Society 25:67-80,
Diptera, Part 1, Nemoeera, exc\usive of Chironomidae and 1917.727: Fig. 34-60 from Fig. 3, p. 113 in G.F. Knowlton,
Ceratopogonidae," Comell University Agricultural Experiment Station "Biological control of the beet leafhopper in Utah," Proceedingsof
Memoir 164, 1933, lig. 96. Used by permission. 708: Fig. 34-29 from the Utah Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters 14:111-139, 1937.
WE. Dove, D.G. Hall andJ,B. Hull, "The salt marsh sand fiy 728: Fig. 34-61a, b from eL. Metcalf, "Preliminary repon on the
problem (Culicoides)," Annals of the Entomological Society of life-histories of two species of Syrphidae," The Ohio Naturalist
America Vol. 25, 1932, p. 505-527, pl. !l and pl. Ul, lig. 2. Used by 11(7):337-346,1911. 729: Fig. 34-62 from Alvah Peterson, Larvae
permission of the Entomological Society of America. 709: Fig. 34-30 of Insects: An introduction to Nearctic species, 1948, Vol. !l, lig.
from O.A. Johannsen, "Aquatie Diptera, Part 1, Nemocera, exc\usive D31F, D31G, D30D, D32F, D32A. Reprinted by permission.
of Chironomidae and Ceratopogonidae," Comell University 730: Fig. 34-63 used eourtesy of the Ohio Agricultural Research and
Agricultural Experiment Station Memoir 164, 1933, lig. 132, lig. 152, Development Center. 731: Fig. 34-66 used by permission of the
lig. 166. Used by permission. 709: Fig. 34-31 from H.E. Branch, Utah Agricultural Experiment Station. 738: Fig. 34-79 from G.N.
"The life history of Chironomus cristatus Fabr. With deseriptions of Wolcott, "The insects of Puerto Rico," Joumal of Agriculture of the
the species" Joumal of the New York Entomological Society 31:15-30, University of Puerto Rico 32(2): 255-822. Used by permission of
1923.710: Fig. 34-32 from O.A. Johannsen, "Aquatic diptera, Part IV the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Puerto
and Part Y," Comell University Agricultural Experiment Station Rico. 742: Fig. 34-85 from Alvah Peterson, Larvae of Insects: An
Memoir 210, 1937, lig. 134, lig. 135. 710: Fig. 34-33 From O.A. introduction to Nearctic species, 1948, Vol. !l, lig. D38A. Reprinted by
Johannsen, "Aquatic Diptera, Pan 1, Nemocera, exc\usive of pennission.
Chironomidae and Ceratopogonidae," Comell University Agricultural
Experiment Station Memoir 164, 1933, lig. 173, lig. 187, lig. 188. Chapter 35. 750: Fig. 35-3 from D.M. DeLong and R.H. Davidson,
711: Fig. 34-35 from T.J, Headlee, The Mosquitoes of New Jersey and Methods of collecting and preserving insects, 1936, lig. 4. Used by
TheirControl,1945,p 20,42,93, 121.Usedby pennission of permission of Ohio State University Press. 750: Fig. 35-4 from
Rutgers University Press.715: Fig. 34-40f, g from O.A. Johannsen, D.M. DeLong and R.H. Davidson, Methods of collecting and preserving
"Aquatic Diptera, Part 1, Nemocera, exc\usive of Chironomidae insects, 1936, lig. 2. Used by pennission of Ohio State University
and Ceratopogonidae," Comell UniversityAgriculturalExperiment Press. 754: Fig. 35-7 from D.M. DeLongand R.H.Davidson, Metkods
Station Memoir 164, 1933, lig. 209, lig. 210. 718: Fig. 34-45 From of collecting and preservinginsects, 1936, lig. 6. Used by permission
B.B. Fulton, "A luminous fiy larva with spider traits (Diptera, of Ohio State University Press. 756: Fig. 35-10 from D.M. DeLong
Mycetophilidae)," Annalsof theEntomologicalSocietyof America and R.H. Davidson, Methodsof collecting and preserving insects,
Vol. 34, 1941, p. 289-302, pl. !l, lig. 4. Used by permission of the 1936, lig. 7. Used by pennission of Ohio State University Press.
Entomological Society of America. 721: Fig. 34-47b from H.H. Ross, 756: Fig. 35-8 from H.H. Ross, "How to collect and preserve
"The Rocky Mountain blaek fiy Symphoromyia atripes (Diptera: insects," IIlinois Natural History Circular 39, 1949, lig. 11, p. 22.
Rhagionidae)," Annals of the Entomological Society of America Used by permission of Illinois Natural History Survey. 756: Fig. 35-9
Vol. 33, 1940, p. 254-257, pl. 1, Fig. 1. Used by pennission. from H.H. Ross, "How to collect and preserve inseets," IlIinois
722: Fig. 34-49 from H.H. Sehwardt and D.G. Hall, "Preliminary Natural History Circular 39, 1949, lig. 12, p. 23. Used by permission
studies on Arkansas horse-fiies," ArkansasAgriculturalExperiment of Illinois Natural History Survey. 757: Fig. 35-11 from H.H. Ross,
Station Bulletin 256, 1930. Used by pennission the Arkansas "How to colleet and preserve insects," IIlinoisNatural History
Agricultural Experiment Station. 724: Fug. 34-53 from F.R. Cole, Circular 39, 1949, lig. 16, p. 27. Used by pennission of Illinois
"Notes on Osten Sacken's group; Poecilanthrax, with deseriptions of Natural History Survey.
..

Index
Numbers in italics refer to pages bearing illustrations; numbers in boldface in-
dicate the most important page references. Common names of species and sub-
species are listed in the singular; those of more inclusive groups are listed as
plurals. Many items not in this index may be found in the glossary.

A
Acartophthalmidae, 674, 739 Acrolophus, 596, 605
aaroni, Neoneura, 205 Acartophthus nigrinus, 739 Acroneuria, 242, 245
Aaroniella, 348 Acentria, 603 Acrosternite, 8, 8
Abdomen, 5, 5, 7-9,8 Aceratogallia, 311, 314 Acrosticta, 696
digestive system in, 23-26 sanguino lenta, 312 Acrotergite, 8, 8
excretory system in, 26-27 Acerentomidae, 169, 170 Actenopsylla, 652
genitalia of, 8-9 Acetic acid, 339 Actenoptera, 700
metameres in, 7-8, 8 Achaearanea tepidariorum, 108 hilarella, 736
segmentation of, 8 Acheta domesticus, 224 Actias luna, 632, 634, 634
Abedus, 290 Achiilidae, 538 acutangulus, Thasus, 301
abietus, Adelges, 321,323 Achilidae, 270,280,283,316,317 Adalia sp., 365
abortivaria, Dyspteris, 628 Achostemata, 368, 401 Adecticous pupae, 49
Acaeliinae, 522 Acid Adela caeruleella, 604
Acalymma acetic, 339 Adelges, 282, 322
virratus, 448 hydrochloric, 578, 579 abietus, 321, 323
vittatum, 449 lactic, 761 cooleyi, 322
Acalypta lillianis, 294 uric,27 Adelgidae, 270,280, 282, 285, 321, 322
Acalyptrate muscoid flies, 674, 719, Acidogona melanura, 737 Adelidae, 600, 604
728, 729, 734-742 Acinopterus, 311 Adelina plana, 437
Acanalonia bivittata, 316 Aclerdidae, 270, 285, 326 Adelphocoris rapidus, 294,295
Acanaloniidae, 283, 316, 317 Acmaeodera Adephaga, 368,376, 401
Acanthametropodidae, 184, 187, 189 prorsa, 419 Aderidae, 369, 398, 440
Acanthocephala femorata, 302 pulchella, 418 Adiheterothripidae, 335, 337, 338
Acanthoceridae, 368 Acontiinae, 638 Adimeridae, 369
Acanthocerus aeneus, 411 Acorduleceridae, 482 adnixa, Rhaphidia, 469, 476, 476
Acanthoclisini, 478 Acorn moth, 609, 609 advena, Ahasverus, 431
Acanthococcus azalea, 326 Acortophthalmidae, 674, 700 Aedes, 712
Acanthodomatidae, 280 Acragidae, 574 Aedes, 712, 713
Acantholyda, 483, 484, 516 acrea, Estigmene, 641 aegypti, 711, 714
Acanthopterocetetes unifascia, 603 Acrididae, 212, 214, 215,216 solicitans, 711, 711
Acanthopteroctedidae, 573, 574, 580 key to subfamilies of, 215 taeniorhynchus, 711
Acanthopteroctoidea, 574, 575, 577 Acridinae, 210 Aedes stimulans, 711
Acanthoscelides obtectus, 447, 447 Acroceratidae, 673 Aegeriidae, 574
Acanthosomatidae, 270, 303 Acroceridae, 673, 686, 721 Aegialites, 440
Acari, 129 Acrolepiidae, 574, 597, 608 aegypti, Aedes, 711 714
Acariformes, 132 Acrolepiopsis incertellus, 608 aeneus, Acanthocerus, 411
Acaroidea, 134 Acrolophidae, 574, 596, 597, 605 aeneus, Malachius, 430
805
 806 Index

Aenictopenchenidae, 269, 288 champlaini, 417,419 Alypia, 593

Aeolothripidae, 335, 336, 337, 338 planipennis, 417 octomaculata, 638, 638
Aeolothrips, 337 Agriotes, 374 Alysiinae, 522
aequabilís, Calopteryx, 194 Agromyza, 698, 703 Amalaraeus, 652
aerarium, Chlorion, 541 Agromyza parvicomis, 739 Amaradix, 652
aereus, Helops, 437 Agromyzidae, 674, 698, 703, 704, Amatidae, 575
Aeshinidae, 195 739, 740 Amaurobiidae, 108, 110, 112, 118, 126
Aeshna, 200 Agrosoma, 311 Amaurochrous cinctipes, 303
constricta, 203 Agrotis, 638 Amauronematus, 489
verticalis, 195 Agula, 476 Amber-winged skimmer, 204
Aeshnidae, 195, 197,200,200,201, Agulla, 471, 476 ambigua, Casarinaria, 525
203,203 Agyrtidae, 391, 408 Amblycera, 357
Aestivation, 49-50 Ahasverus advena, 431 Amblypygi, 102, 103, 105, 105
Aetalion, 307 Airborne sound Ambositridae, 482
Aetalion, 284, 310 detection of, 33 Ambositrinae, 536
Aetalionidae, 270, 283, 284, 284, 307 Alaus oculatus, 422 Ambrosia beetles, 370, 453, 455, 464,
Aetheca, 652 albida, Syneta, 448 464,464,465
Aethes rutilana, 615 Alceris gloverana, 614 Ambush bugs, 271, 296,297,297
aevandensis, Zootermopsis, 256 Alcitoidea, 616 Ambylcorypha, 221
affinis, Hylaeus, 543 Alderflies, 154,469,471,474,474,474 Ameletidae, 187, 189
affinis, Pseudococcus, 325 Alder psyllid, 317 Amelinae, 261
African bee, 547 aldrichi, Psilocephala, 726 americana, C imbex, 517
African pigs, 356 Alena, 476 americana, Harrisina, 609, 612
AGA killing solution, 339 Aleurocanthus woglumi, 318 americana, Hetaerina, 205
Agallia, 311, 314 Aleurodothrips fasciapennis, 339 americana, Melanophthalma, 432
Agalliana,311 Aleyrodidae, 285, 318 americana,Silpha, 408,409
Agallinae, 311, 312, 313, 314 Aleyroidea, 270 americana, Stenoponia, 655
Agalliopsis, 311, 314 Aleyroididae, 270 americana phalaeas, Lycaena, 623
Agamic generation, 534 Alfalfa caterpillar American cockroach, 263, 265
Agaonidae, 505, 532 parasite of, 530 americanum, Heteroplectron, 561
Agaontidae, 482 alfreduges, Eutrombicula, 134 americanum, Malacosoma, 630, 630
Agapostemon, 543 algidella, Stenoma, 609 americanus, Boreostolus, 288
Agaristidae, 575 aliciae, Dixa, 709 americanus, Nallachius, 477
Agaristinae, 592, 593, 595, 638 Alimentary tract americanus, Narceus, 145
Agarodes, 569 as air reservoir, 44 americanus spinolae, Bembix, 542
Agarodes crassicomis, 561, 562 embryonic formation of, 42, 43 Ameromicromus, 472
Agathidinae, 522 Allantus cincutus, 516 Ametabolous metamorphosis, 46
Agathomyia, 701 Alleculidae, 369 Ametropodidae, 188, 189
Agdistidae, 575 Alleculinae, 376, 436 Amitermes, 257
Agdistis, 616 Allocapnia, 242 Ammophila nigricans, 541
Agelenidae, 106, 110, 112, 118, 126 Allocoris pulicaria, 303 Ammotrechidae, 135
Agelenopsis oregonensis, 110 Allograpta obliqua, 728 ammulatus, Manophylax, 564
agilis, Orchestia, 140 Allomyia bifosa, 564 Amnion, embryonic formation or, 43
Agoaontidae, 482 Allonemobius fasciatus, 224 Amoebaleria, 696
Agonidae, 482, 515, 532 Alloxystidae, 482 Ampeloglypter sesotris, 462
Agonoxenidae, 574 allynii, Eupelmus, 528 Amphalius, 652
Agonoxeninae, 602, 609 Alonao-Zarazaga, M.A., 451 Amphiagrion saucium, 206
Agraulis, 582 alpha, Poecilanthrax, 724 Amphibolips sp., 535
vanillae, 624 Alsophila pometaria, 628, 629 Amphicerus bicaudatus, 426
agrestis, Tegenaria, 106 altematus, ldiocerus, 312 Amphicyrta dentipes, 419
Agria Alticini, 449 Amphientomidae, 342, 347, 347, 353
emma, 194, 206 Altimeter, 753 Amphinectidae, 123, 124, 126
fumipennis, 205 Alucita hexadactyla, 616 Amphipoda, 140, 140
Agrilus Alucitidae, 575, 584 Amphipsocidae, 344 349, 350, 353, V
arcuatus, 417 Alucitoidea, 575, 616 Amphipsylla, 652
bilineatus, 418 Alydidae, 270, 278, 301, 302 Amphipsylla sibirica, 654
bilineatus carpini, 419 Alydus eurinus, 302 Amphipsyllinae, 652, 654, 654, 658

Io.c
1(

Index 807

Amphipyrinae, 638 Anisopodiinae plumose, 19

Amphisbatidae, 574, 601 mycetobiidae, 673 segmentation of, 17, 19
Amphizoidae, 368, 378, 405 Anisopodinae, 673, 682, 683, 715 serrate, 19
ampla, Doa, 635 Anisoptera setaceous, 19
Ampulicidae, 482 classification of, 197,202 structure of, 17
Ampulicomorpha confus, 538 Anisota, 591, 632 stylate, 19
amputatris, Apamea, 637 Anisotomidae, 368 types of, 17, 18, 18
Anabrus simplex, 221 Anistoma globosa, 407 Antennae filliform, 18, 19
Anacampsidae, 574 annulata, Camba la, 145 Antennifer, antennal sclerite, 17, 18, 19
Anacamptodes clivinaria profanata, 629 annulatus, Gammarus, 140 Anterior tentorial pits, 15, 16
Anacharis, 498 annulatus, Manophylax, 564 Antheraea polyphemus, 632, 634, 634
Anacharitinae, 534 annulatus, Psilonyx, 724 Anthicidae, 369, 398, 399, 440, 440
Anagasta huehniella, 617 annulipes, Crossocerus, 542 Anthidium, 544
Anagrapha falcifer, 638 annulipes, Euborellia, 236 Anthoboscinae, 547
Anajapygidae, 169, 175 Anobiidae, 369, 372, 375, 388, 396, 427 Anthocoridae, 272, 277
Anajapyx hermosa, 175, 175 Anobium, 366 Anthomyia, 699
Anal veins, 12 punctatum, 427,428 Anthomyiidae, 674, 695, 699, 729,
Anapidae, 112, 117, 125 anomala, Ornithophaga, 658 729, 730
Anapleurite, 10 anomalipes, He/orus, 536 Anthomyza, 706
Anarsiidae, 574 Anomiopsyllinae, 652, 655, 656, 658 Anthomyzidae, 674, 704, 706
Anasa tristis, 301,302 Anomiopsyllus, 652 Anthonomus, 460
Anas junius, 203, 203 montanus, 655 grandis, 459
Anastatus japonicus, 528 Anomologidae, 574 quadrigibbus, 459
Anax, 195 Anoncia, 602 signatus, 459
Anaxipha exigua, 224 Anophe/es, 710, 711, 712, 712, 713, Anthophoridae, 482
Anaxyelidae, 482, 489, 490, 518 713,714 Anthrax, 721
Anchorius, 433 punctipennis, 710, 711, 711 Anthrenus
Ancothoridae, 270, 296 quadrimaculatus, 711 jlavipes, 425
Ancylis comptana, 615 Anoplodera, 443 megatoma, 425
ancylivorus, Macrocentrus, 523 Anoplophora glabripennis, 445 scrophulariae, 425
Ancyloxipha numitor, 619 Anoplotermes, 254, 257 Anthribidae, 370, 381, 451, 451
Andrena, 492, 494, 495, 544 Anoplura, 154, 357 Anthrophora terminalis, 546
caerulea, 671 Anormenis, 280 Anthropotamus, 184, 185
Andrenidae,482,492,494,495,495,543 septentrionalis, 316 Anthropotamus sp., 184
Andrenids, 543 Anostostomatidae, 212, 214, 219 antiopa, Nymphalis, 624
Andreninae, 492, 543 Anostraca, 137 Antispila, 599
Anemotaxis, 63 Ant Antlike flower beetles, 369, 398, 399,
Anepisternum, 10 castes of, 552 440, 440
Aneshnoidea, 195 Antaeotricha schlaegeri, 608 Antlike leaf beetles, 369, 440
Angel insects, 250 antaeus, Cocytius, 635 Antlike stone beetles, 395, 408
Anglewing butterflies, 624 Ant cage, 774 Antlions, 154,469,470,473,478,478
Angoumois grain moth Antecosta, 8, 8 adult,478
parasites of, 533 Antecostal suture, 8, 8 Ant-loving crickets, 225
angraeci, Conchaspis, 327 Antenna Ant nests, 521, 538, 622
angulare, Labrium, 410 segmented,370 Antrodiatidae, 111, 113, 120
angusticollis, Zootermopsis, 256 Antennae, 16 Ants, 79-81, 154,483,552, 767
Animal relationships annulated, 17, 19 as inquilline habitat, 86
commensals (inquillines), 86-87 arista te, 19 parasites of, 533, 536
mutualist, 86 capitate, 19 predaceous, 416
parasites, 87-88 clubbed, 19 rearing of, 773, 774
predators, 88-90, 90 filiform, 19 societies of, 79
Anisembia texana, 248 flabellate, 19 castes in, 79
Anisembiidae, 248 function of, 19 food in, 79
anisocentra, Homadaula, 615 geniculate, 19 nests in, 79
Anisolabididae, 236, 236 lamellate, 19 new colonies formation, 79
Anisopodidae, 673, 682, 683, 684, moniliform, 18, 19 queen and female workers in, 79
685, 715 pectinate, 19 worker types in, 79
808 Index

Ants-cont'd Aphis Aquatic beetles, 404

trophobiotic relationships gossypii, 320 Aquatic bugs
of,86 pomi, 320 backswimmers, 270, 291, 291, 292
velvet, 483, 548, 548 Aphis mellifera, 70 broad-shouldered water striders,
worker, 491 Aphodian dung beetles, 413, 414 269,272, 275,293
Anuraphis maidiradicis, 319, 320 Aphodiinae, 413, 414 creeping water, 270, 291, 291
Anurida maritima, 172 Aphrodes, 311, 315 gerromorpha, 270, 292
Anurogryllus muticus, 225 Aphrodinae, 315 giant water, 269, 289,290
Anus, 24 Aphrophora, 307 pygmy backswimmers, 270, 292
Anyphaenidae, 112, 119, 128 permutata,31O shore bugs, 270, 293
Aonidiella aurantii, 328 apicalis, Hylobittacus, 666 spiny shore bugs, 270, 293
Aorta, 24, 27 apicedentatus, Vostox, 237 velvet water bugs, 269,292, 292
Apache degeerii, 316 Apidae, 482,487, 493, 494, 495, 539, water measurers, 269, 292, 292
Apamea amputatrix, 637 545 water striders, 269,272, 275,
Apanteles, 522 Apinae, 493, 546 293, 293
diatraeae, 524 Apiocera, 687 water treaders, 269, 292, 292
thompsoni, 524 Apioceratidae, 673 Aquatic insects
Apantesis, 641 Apioceridae, 673, 722 rearing and maintaining, 772
Apataniidae, 560, 564, 568, 568 Apion, 375, 453 Aquatic mammals
Apatelodes, 590, 631 longirostre, 453 \ice of, 362
torreJacta, 627 Apionceridae, 673, 687 aquilegivora, Phytomyza, 739, 740
Apatelodidae, 575 Apionidae, 370 Arachnia, 100, 102, 105
Apatelodinae, 590, 591, 631 Apis, 494 Arachnophobia, 111
Apate monacha, 426 melliJera, 546, 547 Aradidiae, 270, 278,298, 298
Apaturinae, 625 Aplodontia, 408 Araecerus Jasciculatus, 451
aperus, Apterobittacus, 666 Aplodontia ruja, 658 Araneae, 102, 103, 105
Aphe\inidae, 482, 505, 527, 531 Aplomyiopsis epilachnae, 525, 735 classification of, 112
parasites of, 534 Aplopus mayeri, 228 key to families of, 113
Aphe\inids, 531 Apocrita, 481, 483, 485, 486, 516, 519, Araneidae, 108, 112, 117, 125
Aphelinus jucundus, 527 519 Araneomorphae, 111, 122
Aphid fIies, 674, 738 parasitic, 520 Araneus
Aphid galls, 322 predaceous, 520 diadematus, 108
Aphididae, 270, 285, 319 Apoidea, 482, 483, 486, 492, 493, 494, diadmatus, 108
Aphidiidae, 482 520, 538 Araphe carolina, 300,301
Aphidiinae, 500, 522 Apomorphies, 53 arborera, Brochymena, 304
Aphidoidea, 270, 273 Apophysis, 7, 7 Arbutus, 616
Aphidolestes meridionalis, 71 7 Appendages Archaeognatha, 152
Aphids, 154,270,477,527, 538 development of, 43 Archaeopsyllinae, 652, 656, 657, 659
apple grain, 320 Appendages, Arthropoda, 101, 101 Archasia galeata, 308
corn root, 320 appendiculatus, Ascaloptynx, 478 Archeocrypticidae, 369, 399, 434
cotton, 320 Apple, 604, 631 Archilestes, 205
gall-making, 320, 321 Apple leaf, 610 archippus, Limenitis, 625
giant bark, 320, 320 Apple-leaf trumpet miner, 605 archippus astyanax, Limenitis, 625
hyperparasite of, 520 Apple maggot, 738 Archips argyrospilus, 615
migratory behavior of, 69 Apple red bug, 295 Archipsocidae, 342,343,348,349,350,
parasites of, 319, 527, Apples, 605, 611 352, 354
530, 534 Apple seed chalcid, 529 Archipsocus, 343, 348
pea, 320 Apple skeletonizer, 615 nomas, 341
pine, 321 Apple tree borer, 445 Archostemata, 368
potato, 320 Apstomyia elinguis, 724 Arctic butterfIy, 626, 627
predators of, 717 Aptania zonella, 564 Arctics, 626
rose, 320 Apterobittacus aperus, 666 Arctiidae, 572, 575, 589, 592, 593,594,
rosy apple, 319,320 Apterygote insects, 177 594, 595
spruce,321,322,323 collecting and preserving, 180 Arctiinae, 593, 641
willow, 320 references on, 180 Arctopsylla, 648
wooly, 320 Apterygotes, 155 arcuata, Drepana, 627
wooly apple, 320, 321 aquatica, Podura, 172, 173 arcuatus, Agrilus, 417
r

Index 809

Arenivaga, 265 Ash-gray leaf bugs, 270,298, 298 Atteva punctella, 607
Areolet, 523 ashinae, Blatella, 266 Atteva sp., 607
Argas persicus, 131 Asian long-horn beetle, 445 Attevidae, 574
Arge humeralis, 517 Asilidae, 673, 675, 687, 689, 723 Atyphloceras, 652
argeninus, Oecanthis, 211 Asilinae, 723 Atypidae, 111, 113, 120
argenteomaculatus, Sthenopis, 603 Asiloidea, 673 Auchenorrhyncha, 158, 268, 269,
Argia, 205 Asilus, 675 273,282
Argidae, 482, 489 asini, Haematopinus, 362 parasitoids of, 538
argiolus, Celastrina, 623 Asiopsocidae, 342,344, 349, audax, Phidippus, 124
Argiope, 125 350,353 Audiospectographs, 211
argyospilus, Archips, 615 Asopinae, 302, 303 Audiospectrographs
Argyreidae, 575 asparagi, Crioceris, 447, 448 of cicada calling songs, 305, 306
Argyresthia, 607 Asparagus, 447 Auditory attractants, 71
Argyresthiidae, 574 Asparagus beetle audiospectrograph examples, 71
Argyresthiinae, 602 spotted,447 Augochlora, 543
Arhyssus lateralis, 302 striped, 447, 448 Augochlorella, 543
Arilus cristatus, 296, 297 Aspen leafminer, 607 Augochloropsis, 543,544
Ariope aurantia, 106, 124 asperipuntella, Wockia, 615 Augoumois grain moth, 611
Arixenidae, 235 Asphondylia websteri, 718 augustatus, Cixius, 316
Arixenina, 235 Aspiceratinae, 534 Aulacaspis rosae, 328
armatus, Cysteodemus, 439 Aspirators, 749, 750 Aulacidae, 482, 496, 509,510, 522
Armored scales, 270, 327 tube type, 750 Aulacids, 522
false, 270 vial type, 750 Aulacigaster, 704
Armyworm, 638, 639 Assassin bugs, 271, 296, 297, 297 Aulacigasteridae, 674
adult,637 Associative learning, 64 Aulacigaster leucopeza, 740
Aroga websteri, 611 classical conditioning in, 64 Aulacigastridae, 674, 700, 702, 704, 740
Arolium, 11, 11 operant conditioning in, 64-65 Aulonothroscus, 422, 422
Arrhenodes, 452 Astatidae, 482 aurantia, Ariope, 106, 124
minutus, 453 Asteia, 698 aurantii, Aonidiella, 328
Artace, 631 Asteiidae, 674, 698, 702, 740 auratus, Chrysochus, 448
Artematopodidae, 368, 390, 421 asterius, Papilio, 621 aureofasiatus, Pseudochorutes, 173, 173
arthemis, Limenitis, 625 Asterolecaniidae, 270, 286, 326 auricrinella, Epimartyria, 603
Arthenidae, 270, 278, 300 Astigmata, 134 auricularia, Forficula, 234, 235, 237
Arthromacra, 373 Astiidae,674 Austrotinodes mexicanus, 564
Arthropelidae, 184, 189 Ataenius spretulus, 414 Automeris, 591, 632, 633
Arthropoda, 90, 155 atalanta, Vanessa, 625 Automeris io, 633, 633
appendages of, 101, 101 Atelocerata, 142 Autosomes, 39
characters of, 99 Atheas mimeticus, 294 Autostichidae, 574, 610
classification of, 100, 111 Athericidae, 673 autumnalis, Musca, 731, 732
herbivorous,81 Atherix, 688, 720 Axillary muscle, 15
phytophagous, 18 Atlanticus, 221 axyidris, Harmonia, 433
references on, 148 Atlides halesus, 623 Ax)'myia, 684
zoophageous, 81 atra, Orsodacne, 445 furcata, 715
Artiidae, 640 atripes, Dicosmoecus, 564 Axyrnyiidae, 673, 684
Asaphes lucens, 530 atripes, Symphoromyia, 721 Azalea, 326
Ascalapha odorata, 637, 638 Atropidae, 368 azalea, Acanthococcus, 326
Ascalaphiae, 478 atropurpureus, Eupelmus, 528 Azalea bark scale, 326
Ascalaphid,473 Attacidae, 575 Azinidae, 574
Ascalaphidae, 470, 474, 479 Attacus, 631
B
Ascaloptynx appendiculatus, 478 Attagenus
Asceloconchaspis milleri, 327 megatoma, 425,425 bachmanii, Libytheana, 624
Aschiza, 674, 719 scrophulariae, 425 Backswimmers, 270, 291, 291
Asciidae, 575 Attelabidae, 382, 452 Bacteriidae, 227, 228
Asellus communis, 141 Attelabus, 452 Bad-wing geometer moth, 628, 629
Asellus oniscus, 141 nigripes, 451, 452 Badwing moths, 628
Aseminae, 442, 443, 444 Attelbidae, 370, 451, 452 Baeioterigyna, 706
Asemum striatum, 443 Attellabinae, 452 Baeonotidae, 718
810 Index

Baeonotus, 705 Batrachedra, 609 Beetles, 18, 154, 365

Baetidae, 183, 184, 185, 190 Batrachedridae, 574, 601, 609 ambrosia, 370, 453, 455, 464, 464,
Baetis brunneicolor, 184 Bats 465
Baetiscidae, 184, 185, 186, 188, 190 parasites of, 731 antlike flower, 369, 398, 399, 440,
Baeus, 537,537 Batteries, 773 440
Bagoninae, 457, 461 Battus philenor, 621 antlike leaf, 369, 440
Bagworms, 606 Beach flea, 140, 140 antlike stone, 395, 408
bakeri, Byturus, 432 Beach flies, 674, 740 aphodian dung, 413, 414
Balanus sp., 139 Beak,20,21 aquatic, 404
Bald-faced hornet, 551 Bean beetle, 735 asaparagus, 447, 448
Ballooning, 106 Bean stalk weevils, 463 Asian long-horn, 445
Banchinae, 526 Bears, fleas of, 659 bark, 370,453,455,464, 464,523
Banded thrips, 336 Beating umbrella, 750, 750 bark-gnawing beetles, 369, 428
Band-winged grasshoppers, 157 Beaver bean, 735
Banksiola selina, 562 parasites of, 384, 408 bess, 368, 379, 411
barberi, Diabrotica, 449 Beaver, mountain, fleas of, 658 blister, 369, 398, 438, 439
Barber's fluid, 755 beckeri, Stichotrema, 671 borers, 445
Barce uhleri, 297 Bed bugs, 270, 278,296, 296, 297 bostrichid, 426 426
Bardonnel, A., 341 common, 296, 296 bumble flower, 416, 416
Baridinae, 456, 461 Bedellia, 599, 608 burrowing water, 368, 405
Barinus bivattatus, 461 somnulentella, 608 carpet, 425
Bark, 417, 421 Bedellidae, 574, 596, 599 carrion, 383, 391,408, 409
Bark beetles, 370, 453, 455, 464, 464 Bedelliidae, 608 case-bearing leaf, 446, 448
conifer, 369, 440 Beech,518 cerealleaf, 447, 448
cylindrical, 369, 435 Beech trees, 453 characters used in identification of,
deadlog, 369,399, 400,440 Bee flies, 673, 724 370
egg gallery, 465, 465 Beehive, observational, 773, 774 characters used inidentifying, 370
elm, 465 Bee-killer wasp, 540, 542 checkered, 428, 429, 3369
minute, 369, 433 Bee lice, 674, 740 cicada parasite, 368, 383, 417, 417
narrow-waisted, 369, 383, 394, Bee milk, 80 cigarette, 427, 427
398,440 Bee moth, 617 classificaton of, 367
parasite of, 523 Bees, 154, 483, 537, 538 click, 18, 369,374, 384, 422, 422
Bark-crevice scales, 270, 326 bumble, 482, 539,545,546 clown, 368, 407
Bark-gnawing beetles, 369, 428 carpenter, 482, 541, 545,545,545, collecting and preserving, 466
Barklice, 341 545 confused flower, 437
Bark scale classification of, 538 conifer bark, 369, 440
azalea, 326 cuckoo,482,539, 545,545, 545, crawling-water, 368, 405, 405
Bark weevils 545, 546 cylindrical bark, 369, 435
broad-nosed,457,458,462 digger, 482, 545, 546 darkling, 369, 436, 436, 437
Barnacles, 139 eusocial, 539 dead log bark, 369, 399, 400, 440
goose, 139, 139 honey, 482, 539, 545, 546, 547 deathwatch, 369, 388, 427, 427
rock, 139, 139 killer, 547 derrnestid, 369, 387, 388, 389, 424,
Baryconus, 537 kleptoparasite, 539 767
Baryscapus bruchophagi, 527 leaf-cutting, 482, 544 dogwood borer, 441
Basalare, 10, 15 lice of, 674 Douglas fir, 464, 465
flight and, 14 nurse, 81 drugstore, 427, 427
Basalar muscle, 14, 15 orchid, 482, 545, 546 dry-fungus, 369, 393, 429
Basal segment, 11, 11 parasites of, 543, 546 dung, 157, 413
Basement membrane, 6, 6, 7 parasitic, 544 dusky sap, 430
Basiaeschna janata, 201 plasterer, 482, 543 earth-boring dung, 368, 379,412,
Baskettails, 203 pollen-collecting, 539 412
bassettella, Euclemensia, 610 rearing of, 773 elephant, 413, 415
Bat bugs, 270, 296 short-tongued, 540 elm bark, 465
Batesiam minicry, 625 stingless, 545 false click, 368, 421
Batesian mimicry, 90-91 sweat, 482 false clown, 368, 407
Bat flies, 674, 731 yellow-faced, 482, 543 false darkling, 369, 434
bathyscoides, Glaciacavicola, 408 Beet leafhopper, 310 false firefly, 369, 424

false flower, 369, 399, 441
false longhorn, 369, 438
false skin, 369, 395, 433
false soldier, 369, 424
feather-winged, 408
flea, 449, 449, 450
flour, 537
flower, 369, 413, 415, 416, 440
fruitworm, 369, 432, 432
grain, 537
green june, 549
green june beetle, 416
ground, 18, 368, 378,401, 402
hairy fungus, 369, 432, 434
handsome fungus, 369, 385, 433
Hercules, 415
hermit flower, 415
hister, 368, 407, 407
irondad, 369, 394, 435
Jacobsons, 369,424
jugular-horned, 369, 437
June, 535
june, 414, 414, 416
key to families of, 377
ladybird, 365, 369,385,433, 433
leaf, 369, 396, 445, 447, 448, 448
leaf-mining, 446, 450, 450
lined flat bark, 369, 396, 431
lizard, 369, 397, 431
long-horned leaf, 446, 447,447
long-toed water, 420, 420
mammal nest, 384, 408
marsh, 368, 384, 416, 417
metallic wood-boring, 368, 383,
390,417,418,519
Mexican bean, 525
minute bark, 369, 433
minute bog, 368, 378, 401
minute brown scavenger, 369,
386,434
minute fungus, 369, 385, 432,434
minute marsh-loving, 368, 420
minute moss, 368, 382, 408
minute tree fungus, 369, 434
mud-loving, 368, 389, 420, 421
narrow-waisted bark, 369, 383, 394,
398,440
net-winged, 369, 387, 422, 423
palm, 369, 440
palmetto, 369, 392, 430
parasites of, 416, 526
parasitic flat bark, 369, 397, 431
phytageonous, 365
pill, 368, 390, 417
pine, 465
pinning, 756, 756
pleasing fungus, 369, 431, 432, 3979
polypore fungus, 369, 400, 434
potato, 449, 449
powderpost, 426, 426
predaceous, 365, 428
predaceous diving, 368, 405, 406
predators of, 433, 540
primitive carrion, 408, 409
rain, 368, 379, 411
red cross, 369, 400, 441
red milkweed, 445
references on, 466
reticulated, 368, 378, 401
rhinoceros, 413, 415
root-eating, 369, 392, 430
round fungus, 384, 407, 408
rove, 368,383, 384,386,409,410
sap, 18, 369,393,430,430
saw-toothed grain, 431, 431
sawyer, 444
scarab, 368, 370, 412
scarabacid, 549
scavenger, 368, 369, 386, 406, 434
seed, 446, 447
shining flower, 369, 397, 431, 432
ship timber, 369, 428
short -circuit, 426
short-winged mold, 409, 410
silken fungus, 369, 431
skiff, 368, 378, 401
skin, 368,369,370,387,388,389,
412,412,424
snout, 369, 370, 450, 454, 454,
455, 460, 461
soft-bodied plant, 368, 384,
416,417
soft-winged flower, 392, 429, 430
soldier, 369, 387, 424
spider, 369, 388, 426, 427, 428
spruce, 465
~a~368,379,411, 411
Texas,368,390,421
tiger, 368, 378, 401
tooth-necked fungus, 369, 424, 424
tortoise, 446, 450, 450
travertine, 368, 420
trout-stream, 368, 405
tumbling flower, 369, 434, 435
twig girdler, 445
twig pruner, 441
water, 420, 420
water-penny, 368,375,390,391,
420,421
wedge-shaped, 369, 398, 400, 435
whirlygig, 368, 370, 403, 404
wood-boring, 374, 464, 522, 537
wounded-tree, 369, 424
wrinkled bark, 368, 378, 401, 402
Index 811
Behavior, 3
causal system of, 65, 66
changes in, 65-66
composition and pattern of, 62-63
control of, 66
feeding, 71, 74
genetics of, 69-70
hill-topping, 476
life history strategies, 68-69
mating, 68, 70, 71, 73, 73
migratory, 68
modification of, 63-65
nesting, 67, 67-68, 74
release mechanisms in
innate, 65
interlocking, 65
sequential, 65
social, 74, 78, 79
temporal structure of, 65-68
Behavioral interactions
ant societies, 79
comparison between termites and
eusocial hymenoptera, 76-77
copulation, 72-73
courtship, 71-72, 72
honey bee society, 79-81,80
mating, 70-71, 71, 73, 73-74
nesting and paren tal care, 74
paper wasp societies, 78, 78-79
social communication, 76
social systems, 74-76, 75
termite societies, 77, 77-78
Behavior modification, 64-65
Behninglidae, 184, 185, 186, 188, 190
Belastoma, 290
Belastomatidae, 269, 271
belfragei, Cyrpoptus, 316
belfragei, Protenor, 301
belfragei, Trogonidimimus, 225
Belidae,370,382,451
bella, Nannothemis, 203, 204
Belostomatidae, 269, 274, 275, 289, 290
Belytidae, 482
Belytinae, 536
parasites of, 536
Belytinae, 510
Bembix americanus spinolae, 542
Beraea, 569
gorteba, 561, 562
Beraedidae, 560,561,562, 565, 569
Berlese funnel, 180,339,554, 750, 751
Berlese's fluid, 762
Berosus, 366
Berothidae, 470, 477
Berries, 302, 415, 539
Berry plants
parasites of, 518
812 Index

Berytidae, 270, 298, 298 Bittcacomorphella, 708 Body hairs, 539

Bess beetles, 368, 379, 411 bivattatus, Barinus, 461 Body temperature, 2, 30
Bessbugs, 368, 379, 411 bivattus, Melanoplus, 217 Body wall, 6, 6-7, 7
Bethylidae, 482, 497, 509, 515, 537 bivilgatum, Polyzonium, 145 Boisea, 272
Betsy beetles, 368, 370, 379, 411 bivittata, Acanalonia, 316 trivittata, 301,301,302
betularia, Biston, 629 bizonia, Stictocephala, 307, 308 Bolas spiders, 125
Bibio, 675, 683, 715 Blaberidae, 263, 264, 266 Bolbomyia, 720
Bibionidae, 673, 675, 683, 684, 715 Blaberus, 264, 266 boli, Spharagemon, 218
Bibionomorpha, 673 Blacinae, 522 Bolitotherus comutus, 436, 437
bicaudatus, Amphicerus, 426 Blackberries, 605, 611 Bollworm
biceps, Systelloderes, 288 Blackberry, 433 pink, 610
bicolor, Callitula, 530 Black flies, 673, 714, 714, 715 Boloria, 624
bicomis, Neomida, 437 Black hunter thrips, 339 Bombidae, 482
Biddies, 197,200,203 Black-light, 751 Bombycidae, 575,586, 587, 590,
bifidus, Tylozygus, 310 Black scavenger flies, 674 590, 591
bifosa, Allomyia, 564 Black scavenger fly, 739 Bombycinae, 631
Big-eyed bugs, 270, 299, 300 Black swallowtail, 621 Bombycoidea, 575,631
Big-headed flies, 674, 727, 727 Black widow spider, 106, 124 Bombyliidae, 673, 674, 687, 691,692
biguttatus, Endomychus, 432 blarinae, Doratopsylla, 655 Bombyx, 586
Biionidae, 673 Blastobasidae,574 mori,631
bilineatus, Pangaeus, 303, 671 Blastobasinae, 596, 597,601,609 Booklice, 341
Billbugs, 455, 459, 460, 461 Blastobasine, 609 Booklung, 107,109
maize, 459, 461 Blastobasis glandulella, 609, 609 Borage, 608
timothy, 461 Blastoderm, 62 Borboropsis, 700
billneata, Hexagenia, 184 Blastophaga psenes, 529, 532 borealis, Brunneria, 261
bimaculata, Thelia, 308, 538 Blastula, 42 borealis, Calephelis, 622
Binomen,57 Blatella borealis, Epilachna, 434
Binomials,57 asahinae, 266 borealis, Helicopsyche, 561
Biological species concept, 52 germanica, 266,266 borealis, Helicopysche, 567
Biotic communities and ecosystems Blatta orientalis, 265 borealis, Oecleus, 316
food chains and webs, 96, 96-97 Blattaria, 154, 155, 156 borealis, Stemocranus, 316
insect impact in Blattellidae, 263, 264,264, 265, 266 Boreidae, 665, 667, 667
insect diversity and, 93-95, 94 Blattidae, 263, 264,265,265 Boreostolus americanus, 288
population size and control Blattodea, 153, 154, 156, 161, 164,211, Borers, 441, 441
artificial control, 95-96 263,669 corn, 523
exogenous and endogenous classification of, 263 European corn, 618, 618
factors in, 93 collecting and preserving, 267 moths, 608
insect impact on, 93-96 key to families of, 264 peach tree, 612
Biphyllidae, 369, 395, 433 parasites of, 540 pin-hole, 464, 464
bipunctata, Neoxabea, 224 references on, 267 po tato stalk, 461
bipunctatus, Rhizophagus, 430 Blepharicera, 683 sugarcane,617
Birches, 516 Blephariceridae, 673, 683, 714 Boreus bruma lis, 667
Birch leafminer, 518 Blephariceromorpha, 673 Boridae, 369, 400, 440
parasite of, 524 Blepharoceratidae, 673 Boros, 440
Birds, lice of, 357, 358, 359, 360, 362 Blissidae, 277, 299,300 Bostrichidae, 388, 394, 395, 426, 426
bisselliella, Teineola, 605 B lissus Bostrichiformia, 369
Biston betularia, 629 insularis, 300 Bot flies, 674, 732, 733
Biting leucopterus, 299,300 cervid, 733
defensive, 4 Blister beetles, 369, 398, 438, 439 horse, 732
Biting insects, 20, 21 Blood meal, 772 human, 732
Biting midges, 708 Blood-sucking snipe fly, 721 robust, 732
Bittacidae, 662, 664, 664, 665, 666 Bloodworms, 701 sheep, 733
Bittacids, 667 Blotch miner, 518 Botherideridae, 369,385,394,433
Bittacomorpha, 681 Blow flies, 674, 679, 695, 729, 730 Bouin's solution, 180, 760
Bittacus, 663, 664, 665, 666 Blue dasher, 204 Bourletiella hortensis, 174
Bittcacomorpha Bluets, 206 Bovicola bovis, 362
clavipes, 708 Body, segmentation of, embryonic, 42-43 bovis, Bovicola, 362
If

Index 813

bovis, Hypoderma, 732 brevis, Cryptotermes, 256 gnat, 269, 288

Box elder bug, 270,272, 301,302 brevis, Haloperla, 245 harlequin, 303, 304
Boxes Bristletails, 152, 156 jumping ground, 2y2, 269, 270,
carrying, 770, 771 Broad-headed bugs, 270, 278,301,302 277,294
dust-proof, 764 Broad-nosed bark weevils, 457, 458, 462 key to families of, 273
emergence, 770, 771 Broad-nosed weevils, 458, 460, 461, 462 kissing, 297
museum drawers, 764,765 Broad-shouldered water striders, 269, lace, 270, 293, 294
pinning, 764 272, 275, 293 leaf, 270, 272, 277,294,298,298,
sleeve, 770 Broad-winged damselflies, 197, 199,205 312
Brachycentridae, 561 Brochymena arborera, 304 leaf-footed, 278, 301, 302
560,561,562,566,567,569 Bromius obscurus, 448 leafhoppers, 270, 310, 311
Brachycentrus, 569 Brothers, D.]., 481 lygaeid, 158
numerosus, 561, 562, 567 Brown-hooded cockroach, 266 masked bedbug hunters, 297
Brachycera, 642, 673, 687, 688, Brown rec\use spider, 106, 123, 123 mesquite, 301
690, 719 Bruchelidae, 370 Mexican bed, 297
Brachycistidinae, 547 Bruchidae, 369 milkweed, 299, 299
Brachypanorpa, 666 Bruchinae, 446, 447 pinning, 756, 756
oregonensis, 665 Bruchomyiinae, 708 plant, 270,272, 277,294
Brachypsectra fulva, 421 bruchophagi, Baryscapus, 527 predators of, 540
Brachypsectridae, 368, 390, 421 Bruchophagus platypterus, 529, 533 rapid plant, 295
Brachypteridae, 359, 392, 429, 430 bruma lis, Boreus, 667 seed, 299, 299
Brachys, 417 brunneicolor, Baetis, 184 shield-backed, 270, 302, 303
ovatusI, 418 Brunneria borealis, 261 spined soldier, 303,304
Braconidae, 482, 496, 499, 500, 510, brunneum, Orthosoma, 444 splittlebugs, 270, 284, 309, 309
513,514,515,522,522, Brush-footed butterflies, 623 squash, 301, 302
523,524 Bubonic plague, 659 stilt, 270, 298, 298
parasites of, 534 Bucculatricidae, 574, 606 stink, 157, 270, 280, 301, 303, 303,
Braconids, 524, 526 Bucculatriicidae, 596 304
Braconinae, 523 Bucculatrix pomífoliella, 606 terrestrial turtle, 303
bractatus, Halticus, 294, 295 Buenoa, 291 thread-legged, 296, 297, 298
Bracygastra, 552 Buffalo gnats, 673, 714 toad, 270, 290, 291
Bradynobaenidae, 483, 549 Bugs, 154 unique-headed, 269, 288
Bradysia, 705 ambush,271,296,297,297 velvety shore, 270, 290
Brain apple red bug, 295 water striders, 269,293, 293
structure of, 30, 30 assassin, 271,296, 297,297 wheel, 297
Brain hormone (prothoracicotropic backswimmers, 270,291,291 Bugs, pinning, 756
hormone [PTTH]), 35 bat, 270, 296 Bumble bee, 482, 539, 545, 546
in metamorphosis, 48 bed,270,296, 296, 297 Bumble flower beetle, 416, 416
in molting, 44 big-eyed, 270,299, 300 Bumelia, 615
Brambidae, 617 blood-sucking conenose, 297 Buprestidae, 368, 383, 390, 417, 418,
Branch borers, 426, 426 box elder, 270, 272, 301, 302 419,519,540
Branchinae, 526 broad-headed, 270, 278, 301,302 Buprestoidea, 368
Branchiopods, 154 broad-shouldered water striders, Burnets, 612
Branchipoda, 137 269,272, 275,293 Bur oak scale, 325, 325
brassicae, Brevicoryne, 320 burrower, 270, 279, 302,303 Burrower bugs, 270, 279,302,303
Brassolidae, 575 characters used in identifying, 271 Burrowing water beetles, 368, 405
Brathinidae, 368, 409 chinch, 299,300 Burrowing webworms, 605
Braula coeca, 740 c\assification of, 269 Burrows, 543
Braulidae, 674, 706, 740 creeping water, 270, 291,291 Bursa copulatrix, 36
Brenthidae, 370 damsel, 272, 277, 278, 279, buscki, Pyragropsís, 236
Brentidae, 370,375, 382, 451, 452, 453 294,295 Bush crickets, 212, 224
Brentinae, 452 dust, 297 Bush katydids, 212, 222
brevicomis, Dendroctonus, 465 flat, 270,297, 298, 298 Butterflies, 154, 158,573,581,582,
brevicoris, Metaleptea, 217 flower, 296 620
brevicornis, Sphyracephala, 735 four-lined plant, 295 alfalfa, 622
Brevicoryne brassicae, 320 garden fleahopper, 295 arctics, 626
brevifrons, Hesperinus, 716 giant water, 269, 289,290 blues, 622, 623
814 Index

Butterflies-cont'd cases of, 560,567 Calliceratidae, 482, 485

brush-footed, 623 characters used in identification Calligrapha, 449
cabbage, 621 of, 561 Callimomidae, 482
checkerspots, 624 classification of, 560 Callipappus, 325
coppers, 622, 623 collecting and preserving, 569 Calliphora, 675, 695
crescents, 624 finger-net, 560,562, 566 Calliphoridae, 674, 675, 694, 729, 729
emperor, 625 key to families of, 563, 565 Callirhipidae, 368, 389, 421
goatweed, 625 large, 560,561,568, 569 Callirhytis lanata, 535
hackberry, 625 long-horned, 560, 567, 569 Callistopsyllus, 652
hairstreaks, 622, 623 micro-, 560, 567,567 Callitula bicolor, 530
harvesters, 622, 623 net-spinning, 560, 560, 561, 562, Callobius deces, 108, 11 O
Hunter's, 625 566 Callosamia, 591
jutta arctic, 626, 626 northern, 560, 567,567 pramethea, 632, 634, 634
little wood satyr, 626, 626 primitive, 560,562, 567 callosus, Sphenophorus, 461
metalmarks, 622 references on, 570 Calobatidae, 674
milkweed, 626 saddle-case making, 550, 567,567 Calopteran
monarch, 626, 627 snail-case, 560, 560, 561, 562, reticulatum, 423
orange sulphur, 622 566,569 terminale, 423
orange-tips, 621, 621 trumpet-net, 560, 566 Calopterygidae, 194, 197,205
painted lady, 625 tube-making, 560 566 Calopteryx, 195,200, 205
pearly eye, 626, 626 turtle-shaped case-making, 560, aequabilis, 194
pine, 621 567,567 maculata, 205
pupation of, 773 Caeciliusidae, 342, 344, 348, 349, Calosoma scrutator, 402
satyrs, 626 352, 353 Calptratae, 719
scales on, 571 Caelifera, 211, 215 Calypteratae, 674
snout, 623 caementarium, Sceliphran, 540 Calypteres,676
spreading, 757, 758, 758 Caenidae, 182, 184, 185, 189, 190 Calyptrate muscoid flies, 674, 728,
sulphurs, 621 Caenocholax fenyesi, 671 729, 729, 730-734
swallowtails, 621 Caenotus inomatus, 726 Cambala annulata, 145
viceroy, 625 caerulea, Andrena, 671 Cambalida, 143, 144,145
whites, 621 caeruleella, Adela, 604 Cambrian era, 101
wood nymphs, 626 Cages for live insects, 769, 770 Cambrian period, 154, 155
yellows, 621 ant, 774 Came! crickets, 219
zebra, 624 carrying, 770, 771, 771 camellifolía, Pteraphylla, 221
Butterfly caterpillars, 86 cylindrical screen, 770 Camel's hair brush, 755
Byropidae, 357, 360, 361 emergence box, 770, 771 Came!spiders, 135
Byrrhidae, 368, 390, 417 flowerpot, 770, 771 Cameraria hamadryaldella, 606, 607
Byrrhoidea, 368 jar, 769, 770, 773 Camilla glabra, 741
Byrrhus, 419 screen, 769, 770, 771 Camillidae, 675, 705, 741
Byturidae, 369, 393, 432, 432 sleeve, 770 Camouflage, 3
Byturus Caging insects Campaniform sensillum, 31, 32
bakeri, 432 in fie!d, 771, 771 Campanulate, 532
unicolor, 433 Calamoceratidae, 560, 561, 565, 569 campestris, Lyctocoris, 296
calca rata, Goera, 561 Campodea folsomi, 175
e calcarata, Saperda, 445 Campodediae, 169, 174, 175, 175
Cabbage, 303,608, 638 calcara tus, Thrips, 339 campodeiformis, Grylloblatta, 230
Cabbage looper, 637 calcitrans, Stomoxys, 732, 732 Campodeiform larvae, 49
Cacopsylla Calcium cyanide, 748 Camponotus, 554
mali, 318 Calephelis pennsylvanicus, 554
pyricola, 318 borealis, 622 Campopleginae, 525, 526
Cacopsylla pyricola, 318 virginiensis, 622 Campoplginae, 526
Cactoblastic cactorum, 617 California red scale, 328 Campsicneumus, 706
cactorum, Cactoblastic, 617 califomica, Phrygamidia, 636 Camptonotus caralínensis, 219
Cactus flies, 674, 735 califomicum, Chalybion, 540 Camptoprasopella, 697
Cactus moth, 617 calífomicus, Ptinus, 428 Canacidae, 674, 701, 703, 740
Caddisflies, 154, 558,559, 560, 567 Calíothrips, 337 canadensis, Dendraides, 438
adult, 568 Callaspida, 498 canadensis, Loania, 671
 Index 815

canadensis, Profenusa, 518 Carrion beetles, 383, 391, 408, 409 Cave spiders, 135
canadensis, Spathius, 523 Carrying boxes, 770, 771 Ceanothus, 603
canadensis, Tetranychus, 133 Carteretta, 652, 658 Cebrionidae, 369
candida, Saperda, 445 caryae, Curculio, 459 Cebrioninae, 422
canis, Ctenocephalides, 649, 659 caryae, Longistigma, 320,321 Cecidiomyiidae, 705
canis, Trichodectes, 362 caryae, Lophocampa, 641 Cecidomyia ocellaris, 717
canium, Dipylidium, 659 caryaecaulis, Phylloxera, 323, 323 Cecidomyidae, 673
Cankerworms Casarinaria ambigua, 525 Cecidomyiid, 717
fall, 628, 629 Casebearers, 609 Cecidomyiidae, 673, 682, 683, 685,
spring, 628 cigar, 609, 610 705, 707
Cannula pellucida, 217 pistol,609 parasites of, 537
canosaria, Nepytia, 628 Case-bearing leaf beetles, 446, 448 Cecidomyiids, 527
Cantharidae, 369, 384, 387, 424 casei, Piophila, 736 parasite of, 527
Canthon, 413 Case maker moths, 604 Cecidomyiinae, 718
Canthyloscelididae, 673, 682, 716 Case-making clothes moths, 605 Ceciomyiidae, 716
Canthylsoelididae, 673 Case-making insects cecropia, Hyalophora, 632, 633, 634
Capitalization, 57 caging of, 773 Cecropia moth, 632
capitata, Ceratitis, 738 Case-making moths, 608 Celastrina argiolus, 623
Capitate antenna, 370 caseyi, Enneboeus, 434 Celery, 608
Capitate antennae, 19 Casinaria texana, 526 Celicerae, 111
capitatus, Cupes, 401 Cassida pallidula, 450 Celithemis, 204,204
Capnochroa fuliginosa, 436 cassidea, Chelymorpha, 450, 450 elisa, 204
Caponiidae, 111, 115, 116,122 castaneus, Eupsophulus, 366 Cellar spiders, 112, 115, 116, 123
Caprifig, 532 Castes Cells
caprolus, Pseudolucanus, 411 ant, 79,552 closed,676
Captotermes, 254 self-sacrificing sterile, 75-76 discal, 13, 575
formosanus, 256 termite, 77 marginal, 486
cara, Catocala cara, 637 Castor, 408 retinal, 33, 34
cara, Protoneura, 205 Cat semper, 33
Carabidae, 366, 368, 372, 378,401 fleas of, 649 submarginal, 486
Carboniferous period, 154, 155 Catallagia, 652 triangle, 13
Carbon tetrachloride, 749 Catapleurite, 10 tricogen, 31
Carcinides, 141 Catepimeron, 10 trophocyte, 35, 36
Carcinophoridae, 236 Catepistemum, 10 wing membrane, 12-13
cardinalis, Rodolia, 434, 741 Caterpillars, 521, 741 cellularis, Sphacophilus, 517
Cardiochilinae, 522 alfalfa, 530 celtidismamma, Pachypsylla, 318
Cardo, 19,20 butterfly, 86 Cenocoeliinae, 522
cardui, Vanessa, 625 eastem tent, 630, 630 Cenozoic era, 154
Carneocepahala inchworm, 628 Centipedes, 145, 146
Carneocephala, 311, 315 lepidopteran, 571 soil, 136, 147
Camidae, 674, 704, 705, 706, 741 parasites of, 526, 527, 533 stone, 136, 147
Camoidea, 674 pink scavenger, 610 Central pattern generator, 62
Camoy fluid, 191 rearing of, 773 Centrodora speciosissima, 527
Carnus, 706 redhumped, 636 Centrotinae, 307
hemapterus, 741 saddleback, 526, 612 Centrutoides, 104
carolina,Araphe, 300,301 salt-marsh, 641 Cephalacia, 516
carolina, Dissosteira, 217 slug, 612 Cephaloidae, 369
carolina, Stietia, 540 tent, 630, 630, 631 cephalom, Thinodytes, 530
carolinensis, Narvesus, 297 wooly-bear, 641 Cephenemyia, 732, 733
Carpenter, F.M., 470 Catocala Cephidae, 482,489, 489, 490, 518
Carpenter bees, 482, 545, 545, 545, 545 cara, 637 Cephoidea, 482
carpenteri, Dendrocerus, 520 ultronia, 638 Cephronidae, 482, 497, 499
Carpet beetles, 425 Catocalinae, 637 Cephus, 489
Carpophilus lugubris, 430, 430 Catonia impunctata, 316 cinctus, 518,519
Carposina fernaldana, 616 Catopidae, 368 pygmaeus, 518
Carposinidae, 575, 600, 616 Cautethia grotei, 635 Cerambycidae, 375,381,392,441,
carribeanus, Diradius, 248 Cave crickets, 219 442,443
 816 Index

Cerambycinae, 369, 442, 443, Chaetopsylla, 648, 652, 659 Chelonariidae, 368, 389, 421
444, 445 lotoris, 653 Chelonarium lecontei, 421
Cerapaehyinae, 553 Chaetosemata, 571 Cheloninae, 522, 524
Ceraphronidae, 482, 520 Chaetotaxy, 677, 679 Chelonus texanus, 524
Ceraphronids, 520 Chafers, 414, 414 Chelopistes meleagridis, 359
Ceraphronoidea, 482, 510 Chagas disease, 297 Chelymorpha cassidea, 450, 450
Ceratinidae, 482 Chaining behavior, 65 Chemical defense, 4
Ceratitis capitata, 738 Chalastogastra, 481 Chemical drying, 760
Ceratoeampidae, 575 Chalcedetinae, 533 Chemical senses, 31, 31
Ceratoeampinae, 632 Chalcidae, 482, 507 Chemical signals
Ceratocanthidae, 368, 379, 411 Chalcididae, 482, 502, 502, 503, 530, in sexual attraction, 71
Ceratocombidae, 269, 289 532,533 in social eommunication, 76
Ceratomcampinae, 591 Chalcidoid, 485, 516, 526 Chemoreceptors, 31
Ceratophyllidae, 651, 653, 654, 658 Chalcidoidea, 483, 483, 502, 503, 506, cheopis, Xenopsylla, 657, 659
Ceratophyllinae, 652, 653, 658 507, 520, 526,527, 528, 529, Cherries, 631
Ceratophyllus, 652 530 Cherry sawfly, 518
gallinae, 653 Chalcidoids, 154,532, 537 Cherry trees, 625
Ceratophyllus species, 658 seed, 533 Chersodromia, 706
Ceratopogonidae, 673, 685, 708, 708 Chalcids Chewing mouthparts, 20
Cercaclea tarsipunctata, 561 apple seed, 529 Chickweed geometer moth, 628, 629
Cercerini, 540 clover seed, 527, 529 Chiggers, 133, 134
Cerceris clypeata, 542 seed, 482 Chilacis typhae, 300
cercerisella, Fascista, 609 Chalcinoids, 527 Chilocorus, 375
Cercocarpus, 608, 629 Chalcophora fortis, 418 Chilopoda, 145, 146
Cercopidae, 270, 284,309, 309 Chaldioidea, 482, 485, 485, 486 key to orders of, 146
Cercus, 9 Chalmisinae, 446, 448 references on, 148
Cercyonis, 581 Chalybion, 540 Chimbachinae, 609
pegala, 626 califomicum, 540 Chinch bugs, 299, 300
cerealella, Sitotroga, 611 Chamaemyia, 697, 698 Chincilla lice, 357, 361
cerealellae, Pteromalus, 532 Chamaemyiidae, 674, 697, 698, 702, Chinese wax seale, 327
Cereals, 539, 617 738 Chionaspis, furfura, 328
cerealum, Limothrips, 339 Chamaemylidae, 703 Chionaspis, pinifoliae, 328
Cerebrum, 30, 30 champlaini, Agrilus, 417 chiridota, Lacosoma, 630
cerifus, Ceroplastes, 327 Chaoboridae, 673, 686 Chiromyzidae, 673
Cermanbycidae Chaoborus, 709, 709 Chironomidae, 683, 685, 705, 709, 709
long-horned beetles, 369, 441 Chaoborus, flavicus, 709 Chironomus
Cerococcidae, 270, 286, 326 Charaxinae, 625 plumosus, 709
Cerococcus kalmiae, 326 Charidotella sexpunctata bicolor, 450 tentans, 71 O
Cerodontha dorsalis, 736 Charipidae, 482 Chitin, 6, 7
Cerophytidae, 368, 394, 421 Charipinae, 534 Chlidanotinae, 615
Cerophytum, 421 charitonius, Heliconius, 624 Chloealtis conspersa, 218
Ceroplastes, 327 Chauliodes, 475, 476 Chloral hydrate, 761, 762
cerifus, 327 Chauliognathus pennsylvanícus, 424 Chlorion aerarium, 541
Certopogonidae, 673, 682, 683, 685 Cheekered beetles, 428, 429, 3369 chloromera, Tiben, 305
Cervix Checkered skipper, 619 Chloroperla, 244
ofhead, 15, 16 Checkerspot butterflies, 624 Chloroperlidae, 244, 244, 245
cervula, Ischnura, 206 Cheimophila salicella, 609 Chloropidae, 674, 698, 703, 703, 706,
Cerylon, 433 Cheiracanthium, 127 741
castaneum, 433 inclusum, 106 Chlorotettix, 311, 315
Cerylonidae, 369, 386, 394, 433 meldei, 110 Chlosyne, 624
Cetoniinae, 413, 415, 416 mildei, 106 Choragidae, 370
Cetophthalmidae, 654 Cheleutoptera, 153 Chordotonal organs, 32
Ceuthophilus, 219 Chelicerata, 100, 101 Choreumida, 143, 144, 145
maculatus, 219 collecting and preserving, 136 Choreutes pariana, 615
Ceutorhynchinae, 458, 462 references on, 136 Choreutidae, 574, 600, 615
Ceutorhynchus, 462 Chelisoches morio, 237 Choreutoidea, 574
rapae,462 _. "
Chellisochidae, 237 Chorion (eggshell), 36, 41, 42
.>J .!~!:- ~f1~~'~~ ..<, ~ . ", p .~).. ?~{
 Index 817

Chorisoneura, 265 Cicadidae, 280, 283 optimality criteria for, maximum

Choristoneura, 614 Cicindela, 403 likelihood, 55
funiferana, 614, 614 hirticollis, 403 principie of parsimony and, 55, 56
occidentalis, 614 sexguttata, 403 Clambidae, 368, 388, 417
Chromagrion, 205 Cicindelidae, 368, 378, 401 clara, Phytoliriomyza, 739, 740
Chromosomes, 39 Cidae, 393 clarus, Epargyreus, 619
Chrusopidae Cigar casebearer, 609, 610 clarus, Trichopsocus, 354
parasites of, 536 Cigarette beetle, 427, 427 Classification, levels of, 56
Chrysalidslchrysalis, 573 ciliata, Corythuca, 294, 294 Clausia, 697
Chrysalis, 48 Cilidae, 369, 434 Clavate antenna, 370
of sulphur butterfly, 48 Cimberidae, 369 clavatum, Trypoxylon, 541
chrysanthemi, Rhopalomyia, 718 Cimbex, 490 clavatus, Mydas, 724
Chrysaugidae, 575 americana, 517, 51 7 clavipes, Bittcacomorpha, 708
Chrysididae, 500, 508, 537 Cimbicidae, 482, 490, 517 clavipes, Cucujus, 431, 431
Chrysidoidea, 520 Cimex clavipes, Nephila, 125
Chrysobothris, 374 hemipterus, 296 Claw, 11, 11
femorata, 417 lectularius, 296, 296 Cleaning specimens, 755, 755
jloricola, 418 Cimicidae, 270, 278,296, 296, 297 Clearing, of lepidoptera wings, 761
trinerva, 419 Cimicoidea, 270 Clearwing moths, 612
Chrysochista linnella, 609 Cimicomorpha, 270, 293 Cleonus, 454
Chrysochus Cincinnus, 587, 629, 630 Cleptes, 537
auratus, 448 cincticollis, Euborellia, 236 Cleridae, 369,375, 392,428,429
cobaltinus, 448 cincticomis, Mantispa, 476 Cleroidea, 369
chrysocoma, Goniops, 721 cinctipes, Amaurochrous, 303 Click beetle, 18, 374
Chrysolina, 449 cinctus, Allantus, 516 Click beetles, 369, 384, 422, 422
Chrysomelidae, 369, 381, 396,441, cinctus, Cephus, 518 eyed,422
445,446,540 Cinderalla, 704 false, 368, 421
Chrysomelinae, 446, 448 cinerascens, Ocetis, 567 Click mechanism, beetle, 371
Chrysomeloidea, 369 cinerea, Phryganea, 568 Cliff swallows
Chrysopa, 473, 477 Cinetidae, 482 parasites of, 659
Chrysoperla, 477 cingulata, Oncideres, 445 Climacia, 472, 475, 478
Chrysopidae, 470, 473, 477 cintipes, Mochlonyx, 709 Climaciella, 477
parasites of, 534 Circadian rhythm, 63 Clinidium, 401
Chrysops, 720, 721 Circular-seamed flies, 674, 719 sculptilis, 402
fulginosus, 721 Circulatory system, 24, 27-28 clio, Clioperla, 240
pikei, 722 Circulifer, 311 Clioperla clio, 240
univittatus, 722 Circulifer tenellus, 310 Clistogastra, 482
chrysorrhoea, Euproctis, 640 Cirrhopinae, 522 clivinaria profanata, Anacamptodes, 629
Chrysuginae, 592 Cirripedia, 139 Close-wing moths, 617
Chyromidae, 674, 704, 741 Cis fuscipes, 432 Clothes moths, 605
Chyromyidae, 694, 700 Cisidae, 369 case-making, 605
Chyromyiidae,674 Cisseps fulvicollis, 640, 642 common, 605
Cicada-killer wasp, 540,542 Citheronia regalis, 633 webbing, 605
Cicada parasite beetle, 368, 383, citri, Planococcus, 325 Clover, 309, 432
417, 417 citricola, Pseudocaecillius, 354 Clover hayworm, 617
Cicadas, 154,268,270,280,305, 305 Citrus, 738 Clover heads, 615
beetle parasite of, 368, 383, 417, Citrus mealybug, 325, 325 Clovers, 539, 622
417 Citrus trees, 318, 328 Clover seed chalcid
dog-day, 305, 306 Cixiidae, 270,280,316, 316 parasite of, 527, 529
parasites of, 368, 383, 417, 417 Cixius, 280 Clover weevils, 461, 463
periodical, 306, 307 angustatus, 316 Clown beetles, 368, 407
seventeen-year, 306, 307 Cladistics (phylogenetic systematics), 53 Clubbed antennae, 19
thirteen-year, 306, 307 Cladocera, 137 Clubiona obesa, 110
Cicadellidae, 270, 284,310,310,311, Cladogram Clubionidae, 110, 112, 127
311,313 bootstrap value for, 55 Clubtails, 197, 200,201,202,203
key to subfamilies of, 311 Bremmer support values for, 55 Clunio, 705
Cicadellinae, 310, 311,312, 315 hierarchical branching of, 53, 54, 55 Clusids, 740

UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
81BUOTECA
-
818 Index

Clusiidae, 674, 697, 700, 740 Coeliodes dendroctoni, 523 Plecoptera, 245
Clusiids, 740 Coelioxys, 492, 544 Psocoptera, 354
Clusiodidae, 674 Coelopa frigida, 739 references on, 778
clymene, Neoperla, 245 Coelopidae, 674,738, 738 regulations and permissions for, 746
clypealis, Leptoglossus, 302 Coelops sp., 738 Thysanoptera, 339
clypeata, Cerceris, 542 Coenagrionidae, 194, 197, 199, Zoraptera, 250
Clypeus, 15, 16 205,206 Zygotera, 207
Clythiidae, 674 Coenomyia, 688, 719 Collecting and preserving apterygote
Clytrinae, 446, 448 ferruginea, 719 insects
Clytus marginicollis, 444 Coenus delius, 304 Chelicerates, 136
Cnemotettix, 219 coffeae, Saissetia, 326 Crustacea, 136
Coarctate larva, 438 Coidae, 369, 575 Diptera, 742
Coarctate pupa e, 49 Coleophora, 599, 609 Hemiptera, 328
cobaltinus, Chrysochus, 448 malivorella, 609 Lepidoptera, 642
Coboldia, 705 serratella, 609, 610 Myriapods, 148
Cobubatha, 638 Coleophoridae, 574, 597,597, 599, Neuroptera, 479
Cobweb spiders, 112, 113, 117, 601,602,609,609,609,609 Thysanura, 188
124, 125 Coleophorinae, 609 Trichoptera, 569
Coccidae, 270, 285,286, 326 Coleoptera, 153, 154, 156, 157, 161, Collecting and preserving of
coccidivora, Laetilia, 617 163,164,165,166,167,365, Coleoptera, 466
Coccids, 324 519,522,524,526,528,669 Collecting bag, 753
ensign, 325, 325 characters used in identification Collecting equipment, 746
gall-like, 326 of,370 aquatic, 753
giant, 324 characters used in identifying, 370 Collecting insects, 745
coccinea, Graphocephala, 315 classification of, 367 Collembola, 152, 153, 155,156,162,
Coccinellidae, 369,376, 385,433,433 collecting and preserving, 466 169,170
Coceo idea, 270, 324 collecting and preserving of, 466 antennae in, 19
Coccoloba diversifolia, 327 key to families of, 377 collecting and preseerving, 175
Coccus hesperidium, 326 parasites of, 522,530, 532, 533, key to families of, 171
Cochineal insects, 270, 326 536,537,540 references on, 176
Cochiolyia hominovorax, 730, 731 references on, 466 Colletes, 492
Cochliidae, 574 sound production in, 366 Colletidae, 482, 487, 491,492,494,
Cochylidae, 574 wood-boring, 524 543
Cochylini, 615 coleoptrata, Scutigera, 146 Colletinae,492,543
cocherelli, Paratrioza, 317, 318 Coleotechnites, 611 Collophore, 171
Cockroaches, 153, 154, 156, 211,263, Coliadinae, 621 Colobognatha, 143, 145
521, 753 Colias, 582 Colopha, 282
American, 263, 265 eurytheme, 622 Colopha ulmicola, 321
brown-hooded, 266 philodice, 622 Color, 2
classification of, 263 colichopeza, Nyphomyia, 715 distinguishing of, 34
collecting and preserving, 267 Colladonus, 311, 315 Coloradia pandora, 633
German, 263, 266 Collecting and preserving apterogote Colorado po tato beetle, 449, 449
giant, 263, 266 insects Colorado tick fever, 131
key to families of, 264 Blattodea, 267 columba, Tremex, 518
Madeira, 266 Collembola, 175 columbianum, Propsilloma, 536
oriental, 263, 265 Dermaptera, 237 Colydiidae, 369, 433, 435
rearing of, 772 Diplura, 175 Commensalism, 81
references on, 267 Embiidina, 249 Commensals (inquillines)
sand, 263, 265 Entognatha, 175 categories of, 86
Suroma, 266 Ephemeroptera, 191 hosts for, 86
Cockscomb gall, 321 Grylloblattodea, 228 Common mosquitoes, 710, 711
Cocoon, 538, 573 Grylloblattodea249 Common sawflies, 482, 517, 518
Cocytius antaeus, 635 Mantodea, 261 Common scorpionflies, 662, 665, 666
Codulegastridae, 197,200,203 Odonata, 206 Common snipe flies, 721
Codyluridae, 674 Orthoptera, 225 Common snipe fly, 721
coeca, Braula, 740 Phasmatodea, 228 Common stoneflies, 241, 242,244,245
Coelidiinae, 311, 312, 313, 315 Phthiraptera, 363 Common walkingsticks, 227, 228
 Index 819

Common whitetail skimmers, 204 constricta, Aeshna, 203 Corydalidae, 469, 470, 471, 475
Communication Contact stimulation Corydalus, 475, 475
ant, 553 in communication, 76 comutus,475
chemical, 71, 76 eonveJgens, Hippodamia, 433 Corylophidae, 369, 385, 394, 395,
honey bee, 547 convexus, Cylisticus, 141 432, 434
in honey bee colony, 80 cookii, Suioestrus, 733 Corynetidae, 369, 428
social, 76 cooley, Adelges, 322 Corythuea ciliata, 294, 294
communis, Asellus, 141 Cootie, 362 Cosmopterigidae, 574, 601, 602, 610
communis, Pyrgus, 619 Copepoda, 139 Cosmopterix, 610
Community associations. See Biotic Copiidae, 357, 360,361 Cosmopterygidae,574
community associations eopiosus, Dactyloehelifer, 135 Cossidae, 574,586, 587
animal, 86-93 Copiphorinae, 212, 219, 220,221 Cossoidea, 574
microbial,81-83 Copophrorinae, 212, 220, 221 Cossonidae, 370
plant, 83-86 Copper butterflies, 622 Cossoninae, 457, 458, 462
Competition, 65 Copris, 413 Costae, 7
Complete metamorphosis, 46-48, 47, Copromophoidea, 616 Costal breaks, 677
48 Copromorphidae, 575, 588, 600 eostalis, Hypsopygia, 617
Compound eyes, 662 Copromorphoidea, 575 Costa vein, 12
Lepidoptera, 571 Copromyza, 701 costrirostris obliquus, Listroderes, 462
comptana, Aneylis, 615 Coptodisea splendoriferella, 604 Cotalpa,415
Comstock,].H., 12, 13, 13, 14,470,575 Coptotomus, 406 lanigera,415
Comstock-Needham, 678 nterrogatus, 406 Cotinis, 415, 416
Comstock-Needham system of venation Copulation, 72-73 nítida, 416
terminology, 12, 13, 14 Corbiculae, 532 Cotton, 539
Comstock-Needham wing Cordulegaster obliquus, 203 Cotton stainers, 270, 300, 301
nomenclature, 198, 198 Cordulegastridae, 203, 203, 203, Cottony maple scale, 326
coneavus, Lixis, 463 203,203 Coulee cricket, 221
Conchaspididae, 270,327 Corduliidae, 198,201,202,204 Courtship behaviors, 71-72, 72, 73
Conehaspis angraeci, 327 Corduliinae, 197,203,203 fighting in, 72
Conchostrata, 137, 138 Coreidae, 278, 301,302 rituals and feeding in, 71-72
concinna, Sehizura, 636 Corethrellidae, 673, 686, 709 spider, 109
concinna, Suragina, 720 Corethrelliidae, 673 Courtship sound, 366
concisa, Entylia, 308 Corethridae, 673 Cow dung, 414
Coneonse bugs Corinnidae, 112, 120, 128 Coxa, 11, 11
bloodsucking, 297 Corinthiscus leueophaeus, 429 Coxo-trochanteral joint, 12
confus, Ampulicomorpha, 538 Corioxenidae, 670, 671, 671 Coydidae, 394
confusum, Tribolium, 437 Corixia,274 coypus, Pitrufquenia, 361
Conifer bark beetles, 369, 440 Corixidae, 270,274, 290, 290 Crab louse, 357,360, 361,363
Conikrs, 517, 539,611 Corixoidea, 270 Crabronidae, 482
Conifer sawflies, 482, 491, 517 Corn, 299,415,611, 639 Crabroninae, 540
Coniopterygidae, 469, 470, 476 Corn borer, 523 Crabs, 136, 140, 140
Coniopteryx, 473 European, 523, 524, 618, 628 green, 141
Conioscinella, 706 parasite of, 524 Crab spiders, 110, 124
Conocephalinae, 212, 220, 221, 222 southwestern, 524 Crambidae, 575, 585, 603, 609
Conoeephalus fasciatus, 222 western, 524 Crambinae, 585
Conoderinae, 457, 462 Cornea, 33, 34 Crambus, 585, 617
Cononotidae, 369 Corneagenous cells, 33, 34 Cramcinae, 617
Conopidae, 674, 691, 691, 695, 696, Corn earworm, 638 Cramptonomyia speneeri, 718
735 adult of, 637 Cramptonomyiidae, 673
Conopoidea, 674 larva of, 639 Crane flies, 673, 681, 701, 707
Conorhinopsylla, 652 Corn !lea beetle, 450 phantom, 673, 708
Conotelus, 410 comutus, Bolitotherus, 436,437 primitive, 673, 708
obseurus, 430 eomutus, Corydalus, 475 winter, 673, 707
conotraeheli, Tersiloehus, 525, 526 corona, Theliopsyehe, 562 Craponius inaequalis, 462
Conotraehelus, 375, 453, 463 Corpora allata, 37 crassicomis, Agarodes, 561, 562
nenuphar, 463, 463 Corrodentia, 154 erawfordi, Somatothrips, 336
conspersa, Chloealtis, 218 Corrodopsylla, 652 Crawling-water beetle, 368, 405, 405
820 Index

Crayfish, 136, 137, 140 Crustaceans, 101, 136, 137, 138, 139, Cuerna, 311, 315
Creatina, 545 140, 141, 155 Cuitheroniidae, 575
Creeping water bugs, 270, 291, 291 cruxrufa, Porypria, 441 Culex, 710, 712, 713, 714
Cremastobombycia, 602 Cryotococcidae, 285 restuans, 711
Cremastocheilus, 415, 416 Cryptocephalidae, 369 Culex pipiens, 711
Cremifania, 702 Cryptocephalinae, 446, 448 Culicidae, 673, 683, 685, 710
crenata, Stenelmis, 420 Cryptocercidae, 263 Culicoidae,673
Creophilus maxillosus, 410 Cryptocerus, 265 Culicoides, 709
Creosote bush, 476 punctulatus, 265 Culicomorpha, 673
crepuscularis, neureclipsis, 564 Cryptochetidae, 674, 702, 741 culta, Paracantha, 737
Crescent butterflies, 624 Cryptochetum iceryae, 741 cunea, Hyphantria, 641
cresphontes, Papilio, 620, 621 Cryptococcidae, 270, 326 cuniculi, Spilopsyllus, 659
Cretaceous period, 154, 155 Cryptococcus, 326 Cupedidae, 368, 378, 401
Cribellum, 109, 110, 113 Cryptolestes, 431 Cupes capitatus, 401
Crickets, 20, 153,209, 212 cryptomeriae, Ectopsocopsis, 354 Cupesidae, 368
anomalous, 212 Cryptonephridia Cupidae, 368
ant-Ioving, 212, 225 Malphigian tubules in, 27 Cupidinidae, 575
bush, 212, 224 Cryptophagidae, 369, 431 Curcubits, 539
camel, 212, 219 Cryptopidae, 147 Curculio
cave, 212,219,219,219 Cryptorhynchinae, 457, 462 caryae, 459
field,21~ 211,211, 224,224 Cryptostematida, 275 nasicus, 459
ground,212,224,224 Cryptostemma, 289 occidentis, 459
house, 224,224 Cryptotermes,254 Curculionidae, 367, 370,372,375,381,
house and field, 212 brevis, 256 453,540
hump-winged, 212, 222 Crysididae, 482 key to subfamilies of, 455
Jerusalem, 212,219 Crysidoidea, 482, 485 Curculioninae, 458, 459, 460, 461
mole, 212, 225,225 Ctenicera noxia, 422 Curculionoidea, 369, 450, 455
pygmy mole, 212 Ctenidae, 112, 119, 127 Curculio sp., 454
sand, 212, 219 Ctenizidae, 111, lB, 120, 122 Curculliidae, 575
scaly, 212, 225 Ctenocephalides felis, 649, 657, 659 Curicta, 289
short-tailed, 212 Ctenopelmatinae, 526 Currants, 518
silk-spinning, 219 Ctenophthalamus pseudogrytes, 655 Currant-worm, 518
snowy tree, 222 Ctenophthalamus pseudogyrtes, 658 Cursorial insects, 263
sound production in, 209, 210, 211 Ctenophthalmidae, 652, 655, 658 curtipennis, Isohydnocera, 429
stone, 212,219 Ctenophthalminae, 652, 655, 655, Curtonotidae, 675, 696, 700,704,741
tree, 211, 211, 212,223,224 656,658 Curtonotum, 696
Criocerinae, 446, 447, 448 Ctenophthalmus, 652 helvum, 741
C rioceris, 447 Ctenophyllus, 652 custator, Thyanta, 304
asparagi, 447, 448 Ctenucha virginica, 642 Cuterebra, 693, 732
duodecimpunctata, 447, 448 Ctenuchidae, 575 Cuterebridae, 674
crispata, Lagoa, 611 Ctenuchinae, 592, 594 Cuticle, 6, 6, 44
cristatus, Arilus, 296, 297 Cuban laurel thrips, 339 Cutworm, yellowheaded, 637
Critical-point drying, 760 Cubitus vein, 12 Cyanide, 748, 749
crocata, Dysdera, 121, 122 Cucjidae, 369, 393, 431, 431 Cybaeidae, 112, lIS, 118, 126
Crocus geometer, 629 Cucjoidea, 369 Cybipinae, 533
Crosophilidae, 674, 70S, 706 Cuckoo bees, 482, 539, 545, 545,545, Cyclocosmia, 122
Cross-hatching principie, in 545, 546 Cyclominae, 459, 462
drawing, 775 Cuckoo wasps, 482, 485, 533, 537 Cycloplasis, 603
Crossocerus annulipes, 542 Cuclotogaster heterographus, 362 Cycloplasis panicifoliella, 608
Cross-pollination, 539 Cucujiformia, 369 Cyclorrhapha, 673, 674, 719
C rovettia theliae, 538 Cucujus clavipes, 431, 431 Cydia
Cruciferous plants, 303, 608 Cuculionoidea, 369 deshaisiana, 615
Cruisers, 197, 198,201, 202, 202, 203, Cucumber beetles pomonella, 613, 614
204 spotted, 448 Cydnidae, 270, 279,279, 302,303
Crustacea striped, 448, 449 Cydosia nobilitella, 638
collecting and preserving, 136 Cucumbers, 449 Cyladidae, 370
references on, 151 cucumeris, Epitrix, 449, 449 Cyladinae, 452
IJ

Index 821

Cylas, 452 eastern forktail, 206 Decticinae, 221 221

formicarius elegantulus, 453, 453 gills, 193 Decticous pupae, 49
Cylindrotomidae, 673 narrow-winged, 197, 199, 205 Deer flies, 673, 720, 722
Cylindrotominae, 681, 707 pinning, 756 Defense
Cylísticus convexus, 141 shadow, 197,205 chemical,621
Cymatodera undulata, 429 spreadwing, 195, 197,205,299 Defenses, 3
Cymbium, 109 sprites, 206 camouflage, 91, 92
cymela, Megisto, 626 Damselfly, 160 chemical, 4, 90
Cymidae, 270, 278, 300 Danaidae, 575 concealment,91-92
Cymoninus notabilis, 300 Danainae, 573, 577,581, 584 disguise, 90-91
Cyniphids, 534 Danaus, 581 escape and evasion, 92
Cynipidae, 482, 497, 534 Danaus gilippys, 627 against herbivores, 85-86
galls of, 535 Danaus plexippus, 626 insect, 86
Cynipoidea, 482, 485, 486, 498, Dance flies, 674, 725, 726 mechanical, 90
520,533 Dance fly, 158 mimicry, 90, 90, 90-91, 91
Cyperus, 608 Dancers, 205 plan85-86t
Cyphoderris, 222 Dances, of honey bee, 80 against predators, 89-90, 90
monstrosa, 222 Dantana, 636 thanatosis, 91
Cyphoderus similís, 174 Dantana ministra, 636, 636 degeerii, Apache, 316
Cyphonidae, 368 Daphnia sp., 138 Deinopidae, 114, 121, 124
Cyphophthalmi, 129 Darkling beetles, 369, 436, 436, 437 Deinopis spinosa, 121
Cypridopsis, 138 Dark-winged fungus gnats, 718 delius, Coenus, 304
Cyrnellus marginalís, 562 Darners, 195, 197,200,200,201, Delotelis, 652
Cyrpoptus belfragei, 316 203, 203 Deloyala guttata, 450
Cyrtacanthacridinae, 212, 216, 216 Dascillidae, 368, 384, 389, 390, 416, Delphacidae, 270, 280,315,316
Cyrtaucheniidae, 111, 113, 122 417,421 Deltocephalinae, 310, 311, 312,314,315
Cyrtidae, 673 Dascilloidea, 368 Deltochilum, 413
Cyrtonotidae, 675 Dascillus davidsoni, 416 Dendrocerus carpenteri, 520
Cyrtosiinae, 673, 692 Dascyeridae, 368, 409 dendroctoni, Coeliodes, 523
Cyrtoxipha, 224 Dascyllidae, 368 Dendroctonus, 367,464
Cysteodemus, 440 Dasineura leguminicola, 718 brevicomis, 465
armatus, 439 Dasyceridae, 368 frontalis, 465
Cytilus, 419 Dasycerus, 411 obesus, 465
Dasydemellidae, 342, 344, 347, 348, ponderosae, 465
D 349,353 pseudotsugae, 464, 465
Dabrotica undecimpunctata howardi, 448 Dasymutilla, 511 Dendroides canadensis, 438
Dacnidae, 432 Dasypodinae, 543 Dendroleon, 473
Dactylocerca rubra, 248 Dasypodoninae, 723 Dendroleontini,478
Dactylochelifer copiosus, 135 Dasypsyllus, 652 Dendrotus maculatus, 424
Dactylopiidae, 270, 288, 326 Dasytidae, 369 denticrus, Megaphasma, 228
Dactylopsyllinae, 652, 653, 654, 658 Data labels, 763 dentiger, Mermessus, 108
Dacylopsylla, 652 Datana, 590 dentipes, Amphicyrta, 419
Daddy-longlegs, 129, 129 Date scales, 270,327,327 Deoclona yuccasella, 609
Daktulosphaira vitifolíae, 322, 323 davidsoni, Dascillus, 416 Deoclonidae, 574, 609
Dalbulus, 311 Davies, A.E., 753 Depressariidae, 574
Dalceridae, 574, 587, 612 Davis, D.R., 605 Depressariinae, 601, 603, 608, 609
Dalcerides ingenita, 612 Dead log bark beetles, 369 399, Depressaris pastinacella, 608, 609
Dampwood termites, 256 400,440 Derbidae, 270, 283,316,316
Damsel bugs, 272, 277,278,279, Dead logs, 516 Dermacentor variabilis, 131
294,295 Deathwatch beetles, 366, 369, 388, Dermanyssus gallinae, 131
Damselfies, 478 427,427 Dermaptera, 153, 155, 156, 157, 161,
Damselflies, 29, 153, 155, 156, 193, debilís, Micromalthus, 401 211,234
197,205 Decapoda, 140 characters of, 236
bluets, 206 decemlineata, Leptinotarsa, 449, 449 classification of, 235
broad-winged, 197, 199,205 deceptus, Typocerus, 443 collecting and preserving, 237
classification of, 197 deces, Callobius, 108, 110 key to families of, 235
copulation, 195 declivis, Scobicia, 426 references on, 237
822 Index

Dermatobia hominis, 732, 733 Dicerca diprioni, Dipriocampe, 531

Dermatophagoides, 134 lepida, 418 Diprionidae, 482, 490, 516
Dermestes, 373, 375, 425 tenebrosa, 418,419 Dipseudopsidae, 560, 564, 565
lardarius, 425 Dichelonyx, 414 Dipsocoridae, 269,275, 277,289
Dermestidae, 369, 372, 375, 387,388, Dichotomius, 413 Dipsocoromorpha, 269,289
389,400,424 Dicondylic legjoint, ll-12, 12 Dipsodoidea, 269
Dermestid beetles, 369, 387, 388, Dicosmoecus atripes, 564 Diptera, 153, 156, 157, 158, 161,
389,424 dicotylis, Macrogyropus, 361 162,164,166,167,522,
Derodontidae, 369, 380, 382, 424, 424 Dictynidae, ll2, ll4, ll5, ll6, 524,526,669
Derodontoidea, 369 ll8, 126 biting, 20, 21
Derodontus, 380, 424 Dictyopharidae, 270, 283,316, 317 characters used in identifying, 675
Derolathrus, 424 Dictyoptera, 154, 156 classification of, 673
desahaisiana, Cydia, 615 Didymops, 200, 203 collecting and preserving, 742
Desidae, 123, 124, 126 Diel (daily) rhythms, 63 hyperparasites of, 521
Desmia funeralis, 528 differentialis, Melanoplus, 217 key to families of, 680
Desmocerus palliatus, 443, 445 diffinis, Hemaris, 635 larvae of, 642
destructor, Mayetioloa, 716, 71 7 Digestion, 26 mouthparts of, 20-21,21, 22
Detritivores, 81 Digestive enzymes, 24, 26 nonbiting, 22, 22
animal, 93 Digestive system, 23-26 parasites of, 526, 532, 533, 534,
dung-feeding, 93 Digger bees, 482, 545, 546 536,537,540
plant, 92-93 Digger wasps, 67, 67, 68 references on, 743
Deuterophlebiidae, 673, 682, 715 Diguetidae, ll2, ll5, 123 venation of, 676, 676, 677
Deutocerebrum, 30, 30 Dikerogammarus fasciatus, 140 Dipylidium canium, 659
Development. See also Metamorphosis Dilaridae, 470, 474, 477 Diradius
eggs in, 40, 40-41, 41 dimidatus, Meteorus, 528 carribeanus, 248
embryonic, 41-44 diminuta, Hymenolepis, 659 lobatus, 248
postembryonic, 44-45 Dineutus, 373, 403 vandykei, 248
sex determination in, 39-40 americanus, 404 Disapididae, 270
Devonian period, 154, 155 Dionycha, ll2, 127 Discal cell, 575
Dexiidae,674 Diopsidae, 674, 697, 735 Discocephaline, 302
diabasia, Heptagenia, 184 Diopsoidea, 674 discostrigella, Ethmia, 608
Diabrotica Dioptidae, 575, 635 Diseases
barberi, 449 Dioptinae, 587, 590 anthrax, 721
undecimpunctata howardi, 449 Dioryctria, 617 bubonic plague, 659
virifera, 449 Diphyllobothrium latum, 139 Chagas, 297
Diactraea saccharalis, 617 Diphyllostoma, 4ll Colorado tick fever, 131
diadematus, Araneus, 108 Diphyllostomatidae, 368, 379, 4ll Dutch elm, 465
Diadociddidae, 673 Diplazontinae, 526 dysentery, 730
Dialysis, 720 Diplocoelus, 433 encephalitis, 714
Diamondback moths, 608 Diploda filiariasis, 714
Dianthidium, 544 classification of, 142 Lyme, 131
Diapause, 50 references on, 148 malaria, 713
Diaperis, 436 Diplolepis, 498 plant,31O
maculata, 437 Diplolepis rosae, 535 psychodid, 708
Diaphania hyalinata, 609 Diplopoda, 142 relapsing fever, 131
Diapheromera femorata, 228, 228 key to orders of, ll2, 143 Stewart's, 450
Diaphram, 27 Diplostrava tick-bome, 131
Diapriidae, 482, 497, 499,510,536, Diplotoxa, 703 transmission of, 82-83, 708
536,536,536 Diplura, 19, 152, 153, 155, 156 trypanosome, 297
Diapriids, 536 collecting and preserving, 175 tsutsugamushi, 133
collection of, 536 key to families of, 174 tularemia, 721
Diapriinae, 536, 536 references on, 175 West Nile fever, 714
parasites of, 536 Dipluridae, lll, 113, 120 yellow fever, 713
Diaspididae, 287, 288,327 Dipper, white enameled, 753 disjunctus, Odontotaenius, 380, 411,411
Diastatidae, 675, 705, 741 dippiei, Hystrichopsylla, 653 Dissosteira carolina, 217,218
diatraeae, Apanteles, 524 Dipriocampe diprioni, 531 Disteniidae, 369
Diatraea grandiosella, 524 Diprion, 517 Disteniinae, 442
 Index 823

Distina undata, 442 Dorycephalus platyrhynchus, 312 duodecimpunctata, C rioceris, 447, 448
distinctus, Dolophilodes, 560 Doryctinae, 522 Dusky sap beetle, 430
Ditomyiidae, 673 Dorylaidae, 674 Dust bugs, 297
Ditrysia, 573, 574 Douglas fir, 518 Dusty-wings, 469, 476
di vergens, Mycetobia, 715 Douglas fir beetle, 464, 465 Dutch elm disease, 465
diversifolia, Coccoloba, 327 Douglasiidae, 574,601,606 Dyar's rule, 45
diversiungis, Holojapyx, 175 Dracaena spp., 605 Dynastes
Dixa, 683 Draeculacephala, 311,315 gran ti, 415
aliciae, 709 mollipes,31O tityus, 415, 415
Dixidae, 673, 683, 685, 714 Dragonflies, 18, 153, 155, 156, 160, 193 Dynastinae, 415
Dixids,714 classification of, 197 Dysaphis plantaginea, 320
Doa ampla, 635 pinning, 756 Dysdera crocata, 121, 122
Dobsonflies, 154,469,475,475,475, pond species, 197, 205 Dysdercus suturellus, 300,301
475,476 venation of, 197 Dysderidae, 111, 116, 121, 122
Dock, 623 vernacular names for, 198 Dysentery, 730
Doeringiella, 495, 545 Drawing insects, 775 Dyseriocranis auricyanea, 603
Doeringiella lunata, 545 mechanical aids for, 775, 776 Dysmicohermes, 475
Dog for publication, 776 Dysodia ocultana, 617
fleas of, 659 Drepana, 593 Dyspteris abortivaria, 628
tapeworm of, 659 Drepana arcuata, 627, 627 Dysticidae, 368, 378, 405
Dog-day cicadas, 305, 306 Drepanidae, 575, 590, 591, 592, 593, Dysticus verticalis, 406
Dog lice, 357, 360, 361 593, 627 Dystiscidae, 368, 406
Dog tick, 131 Drepanoidea, 575
E
Dogwood twig borer, 441 Dromogomphus spoliatus, 203
Doidae, 593, 635 Drones Eacles imperialis, 632, 633
Dolerus, 489 honey bee, 80, 81 Earth-boring dung beetles, 368, 379,
Dolichoderinae, 554 Drosophila, 706 412,412
Dolichopodidae, 674, 690, 692, 692, Drosophila sp., 742 Earthen tubes, 254
706, 726, 727 Drosophilidae, 675, 741 Earwigflies, 666
Dolichopsyllus, 652 Drosophilid fly, 679 Earwigs, 153, 155, 156, 157,211,234
Dolichopus, 692 Drugstore beetle, 427, 427 black, 236, 237
Dolichovespula maculata, 550,551 Drumming, 239 European, 234, 235,237
dolobrata, Leptoptema, 294,295 Drumming katydid, 212, 222 little, 236, 237
Dolomedes, 127 drummondi, Melanophila, 419 pinning, 756
Dolophilodes distinctus, 560 dryas, Lestes, 194 spine-tailed, 235,237
Dolophilus shawnee, 562 Dry-fungus beetles, 369, 393, 429 striped, 236, 237
domestica, Musca, 731 Drying chamber, 760 Earworm
domestica, Thermobia, 179, 180 Drying methods corn,638
Domestic pets chemical,760 Eburia quadrigeminata, 444, 445
. fleas of, 659 dehydration, 760 Ecdyses, 44
domesticus, Acheta, 224 Drying specimens stage between, 45, 45f
domina, Palaemnema, 205 time, 758 Ecdysone, 35,35, 44,48
dominica, Rhizopertha, 426 Dryinid, 509 Echidnophaga, 652
Donaciinae, 446, 447, 447 Dryinidae, 482, 508, 515, 538 Echidnophaga gallinacea, 659
Doodlebugs, 478 Dryinids, 538 Echinophthiriidae, 357, 361, 362
Doratopsylla, 652 parasites of, 536 Echmepteryx, 343, 345
Doratopsylla blarinae, 655 drymo, Perlinella, 245 Eciton, 553
Doratopsyllinae, 652, 655, 656, 658 Dryocampa ribicunda, 633 Ecitoninae, 553
Dorilaidae,674 Dryomyzidae, 674, 696, 701, 739 Eclosian, 44
dorsale, Rygchium, 550 Dryophthorinae, 455, 459 Ecnomidae, 560, 564,565,566
dorsalis, Cerodontha, 736 Dryopidae, 389, 420, 420 Ectoderm, 42
dorsalis, Odontota, 450, 450 Drywood termites, 256 Ectoedemia, 604
dorsalis, Stemocranus, 316 dubia, Scolia, 549 Ectognatha, 152, 153
Dorsallongitudinal muscles, 10, 10, Dung beetles, 157, 413 Ectoparasites, 522
14, 15 Dung flies, 674, 733 Ectopsocidae, 342, 342,343,347,350,
dorsata, Pteronarcys, 245 parasites of, 532 351,354
Dorycephalinae, 311, 312, 313, 314 small,741 Ectopsocopsis cryptomeriae, 354
824 Index

Ectopsocus,343, 348 Elm bark beetles,465 Enicocephaloidea, 269

Ectotrophi, 152, 153 Elm borer, 445 Enneboeuscaseyi,434
edentulus,Peltodytes,405 Elm disease,Dutch, 465 Ennomosmagnarius, 628, 629, 629
Edessinae,302 Elm leaf miner, 518 Enoclerusichneumoneus,429
Efferia, 687 Elms, 516, 539 Enodia portlandia, 626
Egg-bursters,44 Elm saw!ly,517 Enopterinae, 212, 224
Egg case,41 Elm scale,326 Ensifera, 212, 218
Eggplant !lea beetle, 449, 449 elongatus,Tomocerus,173, 174 ensiger,Neoconocephalus,220, 221
Egg rafts, mosquito, 710, 711 Elytron, 365, 376 Ensign coccids, 270
Eggs,2-3, 37, 42 Elytron, 234 Ensign scales,325, 325
deposit of, 41 Embidopsocus,345, 347 Ensign wasps, 482, 521, 522
development of, internal and Embiidina, 153, 155, 156, 161, 164, Entelegynae, 112, 123
external, 37, 41 211,247 Entiminae, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462
formation of, 37 collecting and preserving, 249 Entinibryidae, 169, 171, 172, 173
mosquito, 710, 711 key to families of, 248 Entognatha, 152, 155
production of, 37 parasitesof, 537 classification of, 169
shapesof, 40, 40-41, 41 referenceson, 249 collecting and preserving, 175
Eggshell,41 Embioptera, 154 referenceson, 175
Eicocephalomorpha, 269,288 Embolemidae, 482, 499, 538 Entomobryasocia, 173
Ejaculatory duct, 36, 37 Embryonic development, 41-44, Entomological societies, 776
Elacatis,440 42,43 Entomological Society of America list
Elachista,598, 600 stagesof, 41-44, 42, 43 of common names, 59
Elachistidae, 574,598, 600, 600, 602, superficial cleavagestagein, 41, 42 Entomologists, directories of, 776
608,609 Emeralds, 197, 198,201,202,203,204 Entrotrophi, 152
Elachistinae, 609, 610 striped, 203 Entylia concisa,308
Elaphidion,443 Emergenceboxes, 770, 771 Enzymes
Elaschistidae,574, 602 emma,Agria, 206 in digestion, 24, 26
Elasmidae,482 Emmescalabiata, 435 Eocene period, 154
Elasminae,504 Emperor butterflies, 625 Eosentomidae, 169, 170
Elasmuchalateralis, 305 Emphyastesfucicola, 462 Eoxenoslaboulbenei,670
Elasmus,504 Empididae, 674, 690, 692, 706, 725, Epalpus, 675
Elasphidiomoidesvillosus, 441 726 Epargyreus,579
elassa,Naniteta, 630 Empididoidea, 674 clarus, 619
Elasteroidea,368 Empoasca,310, 311, 315 Epeolus,545
Elasteroideslugubris, 428 fabae, 310,310, 311 Epermeniapimpinella, 616
Elateridae, 369, 384, 388, 422, Enallagma, 199,206 Epermeniidae, 602
422,437 hageni,196 Epermeniodea, 616
Elateriformia, 368 Encephalitis, 714 Epermenioidea, 575
Elateriform larvae, 49 Encharitidae, 532 ephemeraeformis,Thyridopteryx, 605,
Elateroidea,368 Encyrtidae, 482, 504 505, 506, 527, 606,606
electa,Zonosemata,737 531,531,532 Ephemerella,184, 185
Electronic resources,776 Enderleinellidae, 357, 361, 362 Ephemeridae, 184
Elenchidae, 670, 671 Enderleinellus,362 Ephemeropter, 155
Eleodes,436 Endocrine system,35, 35 Ephemeroptera, 12, 153, 155, 156, 158,
suturalis, 437 Endocuticle, 6, 6 159, 159, 163, 181, 185,188
Elephant beetles,413, 415 Endoderm formation, 42, 43 characters of, 183
Elephants, lice of, 356 Endomychidae, 369, 385, 386, 394, classification of, 184
Elfins, 623 395,433 collecting and preserving, 191
elingiuis,Apstomyia,724 Endomychus biguttatus, 432 keys to families of, 186
Elipsocidae, 342,343,348, 350, 351, Endoparasites,522 referenceson, 191
353 Endophallus,39 venation terminologies in, 183
Elipsocus,343 Endopizaviteana,615 Ephermerellidae, 184, 185, 190
elisa, Celithemis,204 Endopterygota, 156 Ephermeridae, 184, 186, 188, 190
Ellabella, 616 Endria, 311 Ephydra, 698, 703
Ellipura, 155 inimica, 312 riparia, 742, 742
Elm, 517 Engravers,455, 464, 464 Ephydridae, 675, 698, 703, 705, 706,
Elm, American, 462 Enicocephalidae, 269, 273, 288 742
 Index 825

Ephydridea, 675 Eriococcidae, 270, 288, 326 Eulema polychroma, 546

ephyre, Perlinella, 245 Eriocraniidae, 573, 574, 580, 603 Eulichadidae, 368, 390, 421
Epicauta Eriocranioidea, 573, 574, 575, Eulophidae, 482, 502, 503, 503, 504
lemniscata, 439 577,603 505,506,527, 531
pennsylvanica, 439 Eriophyoidea, 132 Eulophids, 531, 532
pestifera, 438, 439 Eriosoma lanigerum, 320, 321 Eumastacidae, 211, 213, 215
vittata, 438 Erirrhininae, 456, 459 Eumenes fraternus, 550
Epichlorops, 698 Eristalis, 691, 728, 729 Eumenidae, 483
Epiclerus nearticus, 531 tenax, 728 Eumeninae, 550
Epicuticle, 6, 6-7 Ermine moth, 607 Eumolpianus, 652
Epigastric furrow, 109, 111 eros aloga, Teogrodera, 439 Eumolpinae, 446, 448
Epigynum, 107, 111 Erotylidae, 369, 431, 432, 3979 Euparagia, 513, 550
Epilachna Eructiform larvae, 49 Euparagiinae, 513, 550
borealis, 434 Eryinidae, 575 Eupelmidae, 482, 505, 506, 508, 528,
varivestis, 434 Erythemis simplicicollis, 204, 205 531, 532
epilachnae, Aplomyiopsis, 525, 735 erythrocephalus, Lithobius, 146 Eupelmids, 532
Epilachna varivestis, 525 Erythroneura, 310, 311, 315 Eupelminae, 532
Epilobium, 609 Esophagus, 24,24 Eupelmus
Epimartyria auricrinella, 603 Estigmene acrea, 641 allynii,528
Epipaschiidae, 575 Ethmia discostrigella, 608 atropurpureus, 528
Epiplemidae, 575 Ethmiidae, 574 vesicularis, 528
Epipleminae, 588, 628 Ethmiinae, 608 euphorbiae, Macrosiphum, 320
Epipleura, 376 Ethyl acetate, 749 Euphoria, 415, 416
Epipleurite, 10 Ethyl alcohol, 760, 761 inda, 416
Epiproct, 9 Ethylene glycol, 751 Euphorinae, 522, 523
Epipsocidae, 342, 348, 353 Eubasilissa parda lis, 568 Eupistidae, 574
Epipsocus, 348 Euborellia Euplectrus, 527
Epiptera, 280 annulipes, 236 Euproctis chrysorrhoea, 640
Epipyropidae, 574, 587, 611 cincticollis, 236 Eupsophulus castaneus, 366
Epistomal sulcus, 15, 16, 16, 17 Eubranchipus, 138 Euribiidae, 674
Episyron quinquenotadus, 549 Eubriidae, 368 eurinus, Alydus, 302
Epitapus, 705 Eucharidae, 482 European com borer, 523, 524, 618,
Epitedia, 652 Eucharididae, 482, 500,506 618
Epitheca, 200, 201, 203 Eucharitidae, 532, 533 parasite of, 523, 524
Epithecta Euchloe, 582 European elm scale, 326
princeps, 203 Eucinetidae, 368, 391, 416, 416 Eurosta sp., 738
Epithelium Eucinetus terminalis, 416 Euroxa, 638
of foregut, 24 Euclea, 587 Eurupterida, 100, 102, 102
of midgut, 24-25 Eucleidae, 574 Eurycotis jloridana, 265
Epitrix Euclemensia bassettella, 610 Eurydites marcellus, 620
cucumeris, 449, 449 Eucnemidae, 368, 387, 421 Eurygaster integriceps, 301
fuscula, 449, 449 eucnemidarum, Vanhornia, 535 eurymi, Pteromalus, 530
hirtipennis, 449 Eucoilidae, 482 Eurypogonidae, 368
eremicola, Osmoderma, 416 Eucoilinae, 498, 534 Eurypogon sp., 421
Eremobatidae, 135 Eucoilines, 534 eurytheme, Colias, 622
Eremoblatta, 265 Euconnus clavipes, 409 Eurytides marcellus, 621
Eremochrysa, 477 Eucosmidae, 574 Eurytoma pachyneuron, 529
Eresoidea, 112, 124 Eucromiidae, 575 Eurytomidae, 482, 502, 507, 508, 529,
Erethistes, 454 Eudeilnea, 592 532,533
Eretmoptera, 705 Euderces, 445 Eurytomids
Ergates, 444 pini,443 phytophagous, 533
Ericacea, 616 Eudiagogus, 460 Eusattus
ericae, Nysius, 299 Euetheola, 415 pons, 437
Ericerus pela, 327 Euglenidae, 369 reticulatus, 366
erichsonii, Laricobius, 424 Euholognatha, 241, 244 Euscelidius, 311
erichsonii, Pristiphora, 518 Euholopsyllus, 652 Euscelis, 311, 315
Erinnidae,673 glacilalis, 657 Euschistus variolarius, 304
 --

826 Index

Eusocial behavior False pit scales, 326 West Nile, 7\4

comparison of termites and False skin beetles, 369, 395, 433 yellow, 772
hymenoptera, 76-77 False soldier beetles, 369, 424 fibriata, Pleocoma, 4\2
Eutrombicula alfreddugesi, 134 Family names, 57 ficorum, Gynaikothrips, 339
Euura, 5\8 Fangs Fieberiella, 311
Euxesta stigmatis, 738 spider, \11 Field crickets, 212, 224, 224
Euxestus, 433 Fannia, 693, 73\ Fig, 532
Evamoidea, 521 Fanniidae, 674, 693, 695, 729, 731 Smyrna, 532
Evaniidae, 482, 496, 500, 509, 521 farinalis, Pyralis, 6\7 wild, 532
Evanoidea,482,485,520 fasciata georgiensis, Phymata, 297 Figitidae, 482, 498, 498, 499, 534
Evaporation of preservation fluid, 76\ fasciatus, Allonemobius, 224 Figitinae
Everes, 623 fasciatus, Conocephalus, 222 1,498
Everlastings, 625 fasciatus, Dikerogammarus, 140 Fig wasps, 482, 529, 532, 532
Exarate pupae, 49 fasciatus, Glischrohílus, 430 Filiariasis, 714
Excretory system, 26-27 fasciculatus, Araecerus, 451 Filipalpia, 241
Excultanus,311 fascipennis, Aleurodothrips, 339 Filistatidae, 122
exigua, Anaxipha, 224 fascista cercerisella, 609 Filistatids, 110
exigua, Fulgoroeceia, 611 fasiatus, Oncopeltus, 299 Filliform antennae, 18, 19
exílis, Gomphus, 201 Fat body, 26 Firebrat, 180
exitiosa, Synanthedon, 612, 613 Fattigia, 569 Firebrats, \53, 156, 162
Exocuticle, 6, 6, 44 Fauriellidae, 335, 337, 338 Fireflies, 384, 423
Exoskeleton Feather mites, 133 Firefly beetles
growth of, 44 Feather winged beetles, 408 false, 369, 424
Exploratory learning, 65, 65 Feeding behavior, 3, 71, 74 Firs,5\6
exsectoides, Formica, 554 in courtship, 7\-72 fiscellaria, Lambdina
Extensor muscle, 12, 12 felis, Ctenocephalides, 649, 659 Fishflies, 154,469,475,476
External reproductive system, 37-39 Felt lines, 548 Fishing spiders, 112, 118
extemus, Gomphus, 203 Felt scales, 270, 326 Fitchiella robertsoni, 316
Eye, 2 Female reproductive system fitchii, Rhopalosiphum, 320
apposition, 33 external, 37-38, 38 Fitton, M.G., 524
compound, 33, 34, 34 internal, 35-37, 36 Flabellate antenna, 370
spider, 121 egg development in, 37 Flabellate antennae, 19
superposition, 33 femoralis, Pipiza, 729 Flagellomeres, 17,370
Eye cap, 578 femorata, Acanthocephala, 302 Flagellum, 17, 18
Eyes femorata, Chrysobothris, 417 Flannel moths, 611
hairy, 624 femorata, Diapheromera, 228, 228 Flat-footed flies, 674, 728
Eyespots, 621 femoratus, Pelocoris, 291 Flatidae, 270,316, 317
Femoro-tibial joint, 12 flavescens, Tomocerus, 174
F Femur, 11, 11 flavicus, Chaoborus, 709
fabae, Empoasca, 310,310, 311 femurrubrum, Melanoplus, 217 flavida, Psychomyia, 561
Fabrics, pests of, 57\, 605 fenestra, Rhyacophíla, 559 flavipes, Anthrenus, 425
Face fly, 674 fenestralis, Scenopinus, 725, 725 flavipes, Reticulitermes, 253, 256, 257,
Fairy flies, 482 Feniseca tarquinius, 623 258
Fairyflies, 526 Fenusa Flea beetles, 449, 449, 450
Fairy moths, 604 pusilla, 5\8,518 Fleas, 154,648
Fairy shrimps, 137, 138 ulmi,5\8 cat, 649
falcifer, Anagrapha, 638 fenyesi, Caenocholax, 671 classification of, 652
Fall armyworm, 638 femaldana, Carposina, 616 collecting and preserving, 659
Fall cankerworm, 628, 629 Ferridae, 27\,271 dog,659
False armored scales, 270, 327 ferruginea, Coenomyia, 719 human, 162
False blister beetle, 369, 399, 438, 438 Fever identification of, 650
False click beetles, 368, 421 Colorado tick, 131 key to families of, 652
False clown beetles, 368, 407 Oroya, 708 pig, 659
False darkling beetles, 369, 434 pappataci, 708 rabbit, 659
False firefly beetles, 369, 424 relapsing, 131 rat, 659
False flower beetle, 369, 399, 441 rocky Mountain spotted, 13\ references on, 660
False longhorn beetles, 369, 438 Texas cattle, 131 sticktight, 659
 Index 827

subfamilies of, 653, 654, 655
water, 138
Flesh flies, 674, 733
Flesh fly, 731
Flexible learning, 64
Flexor muscle, 12, 12, 23
Flicker-fusion frequency, 34
Flies, 154,477,674
acalyptrate muscoid, 674, 734-742
aphid, 674, 738
bat, 674, 731
beach, 674, 740
bee, 673, 724
big-headed, 674, 727, 727
black, 673, 714, 714, 715
black scavenger, 674, 739
blood-sucking, 707, 708
blow, 674, 679,695, 729, 730
bot, 674, 732, 733
cactus, 674, 735
calyptrate muscoid, 674, 728,
729-734
circular-seamed, 674, 719
crane, 681, 701, 707, 708
dance, 158, 674, 725, 726
deer, 673
drosophilid, 679
dung, 532, 674, 741
flat-footed, 674, 728
flesh,674, 731, 733
flower, 674, 728
flower-Ioving, 673, 722
flutter, 674, 736, 736
fmit, 674,737, 737, 738
goldenrod gall, 738
grass, 673, 674, 723,724, 741
Hessian, 528, 530, 716, 717, 718
horse, 673, 676
house, 730, 732
hover, 728
humpbacked, 674,727, 727
leaf-miner, 674, 739, 740
long-horned, 673, 707
long-Iegged, 674, 726, 727
louse, 674, 731
march, 673, 715
marsh, 674, 739, 739
minute black scavenger, 718
moth, 673, 708
musoid, 674, 694, 698, 728,729
mydas, 674, 724, 725
ox warble, 732, 733
parasites of, 534
phantom crane, 673
picture-winged, 674, 738, 738
pinning, 756
pomace, 675, 741, 742
predaceous, 720
predators of, 540
references on, 743
robber, 676, 723, 723
mst, 674, 735
sand, 673, 708
screwworm, 731
seaweed, 674,738, 738
shore, 675, 742, 742
short-horned, 673
skipper, 674, 736
small fmit, 675
small-headed, 673, 721, 723
snipe, 18, 673, 720, 721
soldier, 673, 719, 720
spear-winged, 674, 727
stable, 732
stalk-eyed, 674, 735
stiletto, 674, 725
stilt-Iegged, 674, 734
syrphid, 526, 534, 674
tachinid,525, 734, 734, 745
tangle-veined, 673, 722
thick-headed, 674, 735, 736
tme, 156
tsetse, 674
vinegar, 675
warble, 674, 732, 733
window, 674,725,725
winter crane, 673
Fligh t
muscle temperature for, 30
wings in, 14
jJoecosa, Psylla, 317
jJorieola, Chrysobothris, 418
jJoridana, Eurycotis, 265
jJoridanus, Odontotaenius, 411, 411
jJoridanus, Oomorphus, 448
jJoridanus, Sehizomus, 105
jJoridanus, Smithurus, 173
Floridaxenos monronesis, 671
jJoridensis, Merothrips, 338
jJoridensis, Rhytidops, 739
Flour beetles, 537
Flour moths, 617
Mediterranean,617
parasites of, 537
Flower beetles, 369, 413, 415, 416, 440
antlike, 369, 398, 399, 440, 440
bumble, 416, 416
false, 369, 399, 441
shining, 369, 397, 431, 432
soft-winged, 392,429, 430
tumbling, 369, 434, 435g
Flower bugs, 296
Flower flies, 674, 728
Flower-Ioving flies, 673, 722
Flowerpot cage, 770, 771
Flowers, 302, 533, 538, 539
Flutter flies, 674, 736
Flying squirrel, fleas of, 658
Follicle, 36
folsomi, Campodea, 175
Food,3
Food chain, 81
insect role in, 96-97
Foods, stored, 425
Food web, 81, 82, 94
insect role in, 96, 96-97
Footmen moths, 640
Foot-spinners, 247
Foramen magnum, 15, 16
Forbes, WT.M., 579
Forceps, 180
Foregut, 23,42
differentiation of, 24, 24
embryonic development of, 43
Foreschner, R.e., 269
Forester moths, 638
Forficula aurieularia, 234, 237
Forficulidae, 237
Forficulina, 235
Forktail damselfly, 206
Formica, 554
exseetoides, 554
sanguinea, 554
formiearius elegantulus, Cylas, 453, 453
Formicidae, 483, 491, 552
Formicinae, 554
formosalis, Nigetia, 637
formosanus, Captotermes, 256
fortis, Chalcophora, 418
Fowl tick, 131
Foxella, 652
ignota, 653
Fragonflies
pinning, 756
Frankliniella
fusea, 339
oecidentalis, 339
tritici, 339
Franklinopthrips, 333
fratemus, Eumenes, 550
Freeze-drying, 760
frigida, Coelopa, 739
Friseanus, 311, 315
Fritillaries, 624, 624,624, 624
gulf, 624
Froghopper, 158
Froghoppers, 270,280, 284,309, 309
Frons, 15, 16
frontalis, Dendroetonus, 465
frontalis, Psilotreta, 561
frugiperda, Spodoptera,638
828 Index

Fruit flies, 674, 737, 737, 738 galeata, Archasia, 308 Gasterophilus, 693, 732
Mediterranean, 738 Galeriidae, 575 haemorrhoidalis, 732
small, 741,742 Galerucinae, 446, 448, 449, 449 inermis, 732
Fruits, 416 Gallacticidae, 574, 602, 615 intestinalis, 732, 733
Fruits, dried, 617 Gallacticoidea, 574 Gasteruptiidae, 482, 496, 509,510, 522
Fruit tree leafroller, 615, 615 gallaesolidaginis, Gnorimoschema, 609 Gasteruptionidae, 482
Fruit trees, 328, 616 Galleria mellonella, 617 Gastric caeca
Fruitworm beetles, 369, 432, 432 Galleries, 410 of midgut, 24,24
Fucelliinae, 729 metallic wood-boring Gastrula,42
fucicola, Emphyastes, 462 beetle, 417 Gauld, LD., 524
fulgens, Urania, 628 Gall gnats, 673, 716 Gaultheria, 616
fulginosus, Chrysops, 721 gallicola, Podapion, 453 Geina periscelidactylus, 616
Fulgoridae, 316,317 gallinacea, Echidnophaga, 659 Gelastocoridae, 270, 274,274, 290,291
Fulgoroeceia exigua, 611 gallinae, Ceratophyllus, 653 Gelastocoris, 274
Fulgoroidea, 270,280, 311,315 gallinae, Dermanyssus, 131 oculatus, 291
fuliginosa, Capnochroa, 436 gallinae, Menopon, 358, 361 Gelastocoroidea, 270
fultoni, Oceanthus, 223 Gall inquilines, 533 Gelatocombidae, 276
fultoni, Oifelia, 718, 718 Gall insects Gelechiid,611
fulva, Brachypsectra, 421 parasites of, 532 Gelechiidae, 574, 596, 597, 598, 602,
fulvicollis, Cisseps, 641, 642 rearing, 772 609,610,611
fulvicollis, Hemiptarsenus, 527 Gall-like coccids, 270, 326 Gelechoidea, 573, 574, 608
Fumigation, chemical, 362 Gall-like scales, 326 Gelleriinae, 617
fumipennis, Agria, 205 Gall makers, 533 Gena, 15, 16
funeralis, Desmia, 528 Gall midges, 673, 716, 717 Genetics,69-70
Fungi, 298 Gall mites, 132 behavior and, 69-70
Fungivoridae, 673 Gall moth Geniculate antennae, 19
Fungus, 538 goldenrod, 609, 611 Genitalia
Fungus beetles Galls, 518, 532, 533, 553, 611, 717 female, 35-38, 36, 38
hairy, 369, 432, 434 Agrilus champlaini, 419 male, 36, 37, 38,39
handsome, 369, 385, 433 cecidomyiid, 717 studies of, 762
minute, 369, 385, 432, 434 elm cockscomb, 322 Genus,56
minute tree, 369, 434 goldenrod, 738 Geocoridae, 270,299, 300
pleasing, 369, 431, 432, 3979 hickory, 323, 323 Geometer moths, 628
polypore, 369, 400, 434 metallic wood-boring bad-wing, 629
tooth-necked, 369, 424, 424 beetle, 417 chickweed, 628, 629
Fungus gnats, 673, 718, 718, 718, 718, oak-apple, 535 crocus, 629
718, 718 oak leaf, 534 notch-wing, 628, 629
dark-winged, 673 pine-cone willow, 717, 717 Geometridae, 575, 588, 589, 590, 603,
parasites of, 526, 536 poplar, 322 628, 628, 628, 628
Fungus weevils, 370, 451, 451 stems, 534 Geometroidea, 575, 627
Funiculus, 371 witch hazel, 322 Geomyza, 706
funiferana, Choristoneura, 614, 614 woolly oak gall, 535 Geomyzaprinus goffi, 407
Funnels Gall wasps, 482, 534,535 Geomyzidae,674
Berlese, 750, 751 Gammarus annulatus, 140 Geophilomorpha, 146, 147
Winkler, 750, 751 Ganglia Georcoridae, 278
fur, Ptinus, 426 central nervous system, Georyssidae, 368
furcata, Axymyia, 715 30,30 Geotrupes splendidus, 412
furcata, Scudderia, 222 Ganglion Geotrupidae, 368, 379, 412, 412
furcillata, Physocephala, 736 esophageal, 30,30 Geranomyia, 707
fuifura, Chionaspis, 328 frontal, 30 German cockroach, 263, 266
fusca, Frankliniella, 339 Garden fleahopper, 295 germanica, Blatella, 266, 266
fuscipes, Cis, 432 Garrya veatchii, 338 Germarostres, 411
fuscula, Epitrix, 44i, 449 Gaseracantha, 125 Germ layers
Gas exchange embryonic development, 42
G Gerra sevorsa, 638
in aquatic insects, 29
gagates, Mallochiola, 294, 294 Gasoryctria, 603 Gerris, 272
Galea, 19,20 Gasterophilidae,674 Gerris sp., 293
 Index 829

Gerroidea, 269 Gnaptodontinae, 522 granarium, Trogoderma, 425

Gerromorpha, 269 Gnatbugs, 269,288, 288 granarius, Sitophilus, 459
gertschi, Tricholepidion, 179 Gnathamitermes, 257 grandiceps, Metisotoma, 172
Geusibia, 652 Gnathochilarium, 142, 143 grandii, Macrocentrus, 523
Ghost moths, 603 Gnats grandiosella, Diatraea, 524
Giant coccids, 270, 324 Buffalo, 673, 714 grandis, Anthonomus, 459
Giant cockroach, 263, 266 dark-winged fungus, 673, 718 granulata, Larca, 135
Giant crab spiders, 108, 112, 128 fungus, 526, 536, 673, 718, 718, Graohocephala, 311
Giant lacewings, 470, 478 718, 718, 718, 718 Grape berry moth, 615
Giant silkworm moths, 631 gall, 673, 716 Grape leaffolder
Giant skipper, 620 root, 673 parasite of, 528
Giant swallowtail, 621 wood, 673, 715 Grape leaf skeletonizer, 609
Giant water bugs, 269, 289, 290, 369 Gnorimoschema,611 Grape plume moth, 616
gibbicollis, Hemicoelus, 428 Gnorimoschema gallaesolidaginis, 609 Grapes, 416
gibbosa, Trichodesma, 427 Gnostidae, 369 Grape vines, 616
gilippys, Danaus, 627 Goatweed butterflies, 625 Graphocephala, 311, 315
Gills, 9, 29 godmanni, Naupactus, 462 coccinea, 315
damsel fly, 193 Goera calcarata, 561 Grapholitha molesta, 614
isopoda, 140 Goeridae, 560, 561, 566, 567 Grasses, 299,302,415,518,
nymphulinae,618 Goes tigrius, 444 539,639
stonefly, 239,240 Goldenrod, 297 stems of, 533
glabra, Camilla, 741 Goldenrod gall fly, 738 Grass flies, 673, 723, 741
glabripennis, Anoplophora, 445 Goldenrod gall moth, 609, 611 Grasshoppers, 11, 24, 30, 153, 209
Glaciacavicola bathyscoides, 408 Gomphocerinae, 210, 212, 217 band-winged, 157, 211, 217,
glacialis, Oemopteryx, 241 Gomphus, 200 218
glacilalis, Euholopsyllus, 657 exilis, 201 desert long-horned, 211, 215
Gladiolus thrips, 339 extemus, 203 leaf-rolling, 219
glandulella, Blastobasis, 609, 609 quadricolor, 195 lubber, 212, 215
Glaphyridae, 368, 379, 411 Gompidae, 195, 197,200,201, 202, migratory, 217
Glaresidae, 368, 370, 412 203 monkey, 211, 215
Glaresis, 412 Gonangulum, 38 parasites of, 533
glaucus, Papilio, 620, 621 Gonapophysis, 38, 38 pinning, 756, 756
Gliders, 205 Goniops chrysocoma, 721 pygmy, 157, 212, 218
Glischrohilus Gonobase, 39 red-Iegged, 217
fasciatus, 430 Gonocoxa, 37-38,38 short-horned,215
quardrisignatus, 430 Gonopods, 37 silent slant-faced, 210, 217
Global positioning system, 753 Gonostylus, 38 sound production, 210, 211
globosa, Anistoma, 407 Gooseberries, 518 spur-throated, 217
Glomerida, 143, 144 gorillae, Pthirus, 363 stridulating, 217
Glossae, 20,20 gorteba, Beraea, 561, 562 two-stripped, 217
Glossoma intermedium, 567 Gossyparia spuria, 326 Grass miners, 609
Glossosomatidae, 560, 563, 567, 567 gossypiella, Pectinophora, 610, 611 Grass moths, 617
gloverana, Alceris, 614 gracilis, Oxidus, 145 Grass scales, 270, 326
Gloveria, 631 Gracillaria, 599 grataria, Haematopis, 628
Glowworms, 384, 423 Gracillariidae, 596, 599,599, 601, 602, Gravity, sense of, 32
Glue, 760 606 Graybacks, 197, 202
Glutops, 720 Gracillarioidea, 574, 606 Green-eyed skimmers, 197,203
Glycerine, 762 Grain, stored, 571, 617 Greenhouse plants, 318
Glycobius speciosus, 444 Grain moths Greenhouse scales, 326
Glyphidocera, 609 Angoumois, 533 Green june beetle, 416
Glyphidocera juniperella, 609 parasites of, 537 parasite of, 549
Glyphidoceridae, 574, 600, 609 Grain pests, 431 griseus, Lethocerus, 290
Glyphipterigidae, 574, 608, 609 Grains, 299 Grocer's itch, 134
Glyphipterix impigritella, 608 Grain thrips, 339 grotei, Cautethia, 635
Glyphipterygidae,574 Grain weevils, 455, 459, 460 Ground beetles, 18, 368,371,378,
Glyponinae, 311, 313 Graminella,311 401,402
Gnaphosidae, 110, 112, 119, 127 Grammia, 641 Ground crickets, 212,224,224
830 Index

Ground-nesting wasps, 540 hageni, Enallagma, 196 functions 0[, 5

Ground pearls, 270, 324 hageni, Tanypteryx, 202 posterior surface of, 17
Growth, postembryonic, 44-45 Hahniidae, 112, 118, 126 segmentation 0[, 17
GrylJacrididae, 212, 219 haimbachi, Zelleria, 607 structure of, 14-15, 16
GrylJidae, 209,210,212,214 Hairs Hearing, 33
GrylJinae, 224 of sphecid wasps, 539 Heart, 24, 27
Grylloblatta campodeifonnis, 230 Hair sensilla, 32 Heart rate, 28
GrylJoblattaria, 153, 155, 156 in hearing, 33 Hebms sobrinus, 292
Grylloblatta sp., 230 in "mechanical sense, 31,31 Hecalinae, 310, 312
GrylJoblattidae, 230 Hairstreak butterflies, 622 Hecalus, 311
GrylJoblattids, 230 Hairy fungus beetles, 369, 432, 434 Hecalus lineatus, 310
GrylJoblattodea, 164, 230 Halcitidae, 543 Hectopsylla, 652
colJecting and preserving, 228 halesus, Atlides, 623 psittacei, 652, 657
references on, 229, 231 Halictidae,482,487,492 Hectopsyllinae, 652, 656, 657, 659
Gryllodes, 225 Halictids, 543 Helaeomyia petrolei, 642, 742
GrylJoidea,212 Halictinae, 492, 543 Helcomyzidae, 674, 675, 700
GrylJoptera, 153 Halictophagidae, 670, 670, 671 Helconinae,522
GrylJotalpoidae, 212, 214 Halictophagus Helecomyza, 739
Gryllus, 20, 224 oncometopiae, 670 Heleidae, 673
pennsylvanicus, 224, 225 serratus, 670 helena, Panorpa, 663, 664, 666
Gryllus pennsylvanicus, 211 Haliplidae, 368,377,404 Heleomyza, 697
Gryon, 537 Haloperla, 245 Heleomyzidae, 675, 696, 697, 704,
Gula, 17 brevis, 245 706, 741
GuIar suture, 17 Halticus bractatus, 294,295 Helice, 602
Gumaga, 569 hamadryaldella, Cameraria, 606, 607 Helichus lithophilus, 420
Gum arabic, 762 hamamelidis, Honnaphis, 321 Heliconians, 624, 624
gutta, Deloyala, 450 Handmaid moths, 636 Heliconididae, 575
gwyni, Polygenis, 653 Handsome fungus beetles, 369, Heliconiinae, 582, 624, 624
Gymmosomatidae, 674 385,433 Heliconius charitonius, 624
Gymnetron, 460 Hanging flies, 662, 663, 664,664, 665, Helicopsyche borealis, 561
Gymponana, 310,310, 311 666,666 Helicopsychidae, 560,560,561, 566,
Gynaikothrips jicomm, 339 Haploembia solieri, 248 567, 569
Gynandropmorphs, 40 Haplogynae, 111 Helicopysche borealis, 567
gyoptis, Scaphinotus, 402 Haplogyne condition, 122 Helicoverpa zea, 637, 638, 639
Gyponana, 311 Haplothrips Heliodinidae, 574, 603, 608
Gyponana angulata, 311, 314 hispanicus, 335 Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis, 336
Gyponinae, 311, 3D, 314 kurdjumovi, 339 Heliozelidae, 599, 602, 604
Gypsy moth leucanthemi, 339 Heliozelids, 604
parasite of, 527, 528 verbesci, 339 Helminthidae, 368
Gyrinidae, 368, 370, 372,403,404 Hardwoods, 518 Helminthomorpha, 143, 144
Harlequin bug, 303,304 Helochara, 311, 315
H Harlomillisia, 174 Helops aereus, 437
Habituation, 64 oculata, 174 Helorid, 536
Hackberry, 133 Hannonia axyidris, 433 Heloridae, 482, 500, 501,536, 536,
Hackberry butterflies, 625 Harpalus, 373 536, 536
Hackled-band orb-weaver spiders, 112, Harrisina americana, 609, 612 Heloms anomalipes, 536, 536
114,124 Hartigia, 490 helvum, Curtonotum, 741
Hadeninae, 638, 639 Harvester butterflies, 622, 623 hemaptems, Camus
Haematobia irritans, 732 Harvest mites, 133, 134 Hemaris, 588
Haematomyzidae, 357 Harvetmen spiders, 129, 129 Hemaris difjinis, 635
Haematopinidae, 357,359,361,362 HaustelJum, 21, 22,22 Hemelytron, 268
Haematopinus suis, 359, 362 Hawk moth, 634, 645 Hemerobiidae, 469, 472,474,477
Haematopis, 589 Hawthorn, 418 Hemicoelus gibbicollis, 428
grataria, 628 Hawthorn sawfly, 518 Hemileuca maia, 633, 633
haemorrhoidalis, Gasterophilus, 732 Head, 5, 5 Hemileucinae, 591
haemorrhoidalis, Heliothrips, 336 antennae of, 17-19, 18 Hemimetabolous insects, 46, 48
haemorrhoidalis, Sarcophaga, 731 appendages of, 16 Hemimetabolous metamorphosis, 46
 Index 831

Hemipeplidae, 369 herricki, Psephenus, 420, 421 Hilarimorpha, 724

Hemipeplus, 440 Hersiliidae, 112, 117, 124 Hilarimorphidae, 673, 691, 724
Hemipsocidae, 342,348, 349, 354 hesperidium, Coccus, 326 Hilarimorphids, 724
Hemipsocus, 348 Hesperiidae, 575, 580,581, Himatolabus pubescens, 452
pretiosus, 354 619,619 Hindgut, 23, 25,42,43
Hemiptarsenus fulvicollis, 527 Hesperiinae, 579, 620 Hippelates, 741
Hemiptera,25, 153, 154, 156, 157, Hesperinidae, 673 Hippoboscidae, 674, 688, 698,
157, 158, 160, 161, 162, Hesperininae, 716 706, 720
166,268,669 Hesperinus brevifrons, 716 Hippodamia convergens, 433
characters used in identifying, 271 Hesperioidea, 575, 619, 619 Hirmoneura, 722
classification of, 269 Hesperocorixa, 290 hirtipennis, Epitrix, 449
collecting and preserving, 328 Hessian fly, 716, 717,718 hispanicus, Haplothrips, 335
filter chamber in, 25, 25-26 parasite of, 528, 529, 530 Hispidae, 369
hyperparasites of, 521 Hetaerina, 205 hispidum, Trimenoponon, 361
key to families of, 273 americana, 205 Hispinae, 446, 450, 450
mouthparts of, 20,21 Heterocampidae, 575, 635 Hister beetles, 368, 407, 407
parasites of, 532, 534, 537, 540, 734 Heterocera, 573 Histeridae, 368, 372, 391, 407
parasitoids of, 538 Heteroceridae, 368, 389, 420, 421 Histeromerinae, 522
predators of, 531 Heterocheila, 739 Histogenesis, 45-46
references on, 330 Heterodoxus, 361 Histolysis, 45
sternorrhynchous, 526, 531 Heterogastridae, 270 histrionica, Murgantia, 303
Hemipteroid groups, 156 Heterogastroidae, 270, 278, 300 HMDS (hexamethyldisilazane)
hemipterus, Cimex, 296 heterographus, Cuclotogaster, 362 drying, 760
Hemlock looper, 629 Heterojapyx, 175 Hmerobioidea, 469
Hemocytes, 27-28 Heteronemiidae, 227,228 hobomok, Poanes, 619
Hemolymph, 27-28, 46 Heteroneuridae, 674 Hobomok skipper, 619
hemocytes in, 27-28 Heteroneurous venation, 573, 576, 577 Hodges, R.W, 574
in metamorphosis, 46 Heteroplectron, 569 Hoffmannophila pseudospretella, 609
in molting, 27 americanum, 561 Hog louse, 359
plasma in, 27 Heteropoda venatoris, 108 Holcocera, 597
Hemolymph pressure, 28 Heteroptera, 154, 158 Holly, 326
hempaterus, Carnus, 741 Heteropterinae, 620 Holocranum saturejae, 300
Henicopidae, 147 Heterotermes, 256 Holognatha, 241
Hennig, W, 53 Heterothripdae, 335, 336, 337, 338 Holojapyx diversiungis, 175
Henopidae, 673 Heterothrips, 337, 338 Hololepta, 373
Henry, T.]., 269 salicis, 336 Holometabalous insects, 46, 48
Hepialidae, 573, 574,576, 580, 603 hexadactyla, Alucita, 616 Holometabola, 156, 662
Hepialid moth, 604 Hexagenia billneata, 184 Holophyletic groups, 53
Hepialoidea, 574, 575, 577, 603 Hexapoda, 100, 152, 154 Holorusia grandis, 707
Heptagenia diabasia, 184 characters of, 152 Holothyrina, 131
Heptageniidae, 182, 186, 189 classification of, 152 Homadaula anisocentra, 615
Herbivores key to orders of, 157 Homaemus parvulus, 303
defenses against, 85-86 phylogeny of, 154, 156 Homaledra sabalella, 609
insect, 86 references on, 167 Homalodisca, 311, 315
plant, 85-86 wingless, 162 Homalonychidae, 112, 119, 127
generalists and specialists, 85 hexfasciata, Orchesella, 172 hominis, Dermatobia, 732, 733
Hercules beetle Hibernation, 50 hominovorax, Cochiolyia, 730, 731
eastern, 415 Hibiscus, 615 Homolobinae, 522
Hercules beetles, 413, 415 Hickory, 516, 539, 632, 641 Homologous character, 53
Heriades, 544 Hickory gall aphid, 323,323 Homoneurous venation, 573
Heriidae, 674, 697, 700 Hickory horned devil, 632 Homonyms, 58
Hermatia illucens, 720 Hickory trees, 453 Homoporus nypsius, 530
Herminiiae, 637 Hickory tussock moth, 641 Homoptera, 154,268
Hermit flower beetle, 415 Hieeroxestidae, 574 Honey bees, 482, 539, 545, 546, 547
hermosa, Anajapyx, 175 hiemalis, Platygaster, 537 communication, 547
heros, Megalodacne, 431 Hieroxestinae, 597 queen, 80, 81
heros, Mydas, 724 hilarella, Actenoptera, 736 workers, 80, 80
832 Index

Honey bee society Humidity sense, 34 Hymenoptera, 153, 154, 156, 156, 159,
castes in, 80, 81 humile, Linepithema, 554 162, 165, 167, 519, 524, 528,
communication in, 80 Hummingbird moths, 634 539,669
dance in, 80 Humpbacked flies, 674, 727, 727 characters used identifying, 483
pheromones in, 80 Hump-winged crickets, 222 collecting and preserving, 554
importance of, 79-80 Hunterellus, 531 key to families of, 486
nests of, 80 Hunter's butterflies, 625 parasites of, 530, 532, 533, 534, 540
new colony formation in, 80-81 Hyadina, 706 parasitic, 496
Honeydew, 311, 319, 325, 477 Hyalinata, Diaphania, 609 predators of, 540
Honey locust, 615 hyalinus, Perilampus, 533 references on, 555
Hood's solution, 760 Hyalophora, 631, 634 hyoscyami, Pegomya, 730
Hook-tip moths, 627 cecropia, 632, 633, 634 Hypeninae, 637
Hoplitis, 544 Hyblaea puera, 616 Hypera postica, 461
Hoplopleuridae, 357, 361, 362 Hyblaedoidea, 575 Hyperinae, 459, 461, 463
Hoplopsyllus, 652 Hyblaeidae, 575, 616 Hyperosce\ididae, 673
Hoppers, 154, 268, 270 Hybosoridae, 368, 379,412 Hyperparasites, 524
pinning, 756 Hybosorus illigeri, 412 Hyphantria, 572
predators of, 540 Hydraenidae, 368, 382, 386, 408 cunea, 641
treehoppers, 270, 306, 308 Hydre\idae, 675 Hypochilidae, 111, 114, 122
Hoppers, large Hydrobiosidae, 560, 563, 567 Hypoderma, 693, 732
pinning, 756 Hydrochloric acid, 578, 579 bovis, 732
Hordnia,311 Hydromeriidae, 275 lineatum, 732, 733
Honnaphis hamamelidis, 321 Hydrometra martini, 292 Hypodermatidae, 674
Hormone, 35, 35 Hydrometridae, 269,292,292 Hypogastrura nivicola, 172
brain, 44, 48 Hydrometroidea, 269 Hypogastruridae, 169, 170, 172, 173
juvenile, 35,35, 48,49 Hydrophilidae, 366, 368, 386, 392, Hypognathous mouthparts, 16
prothoracicotrophic, 48 404, 406 Hyponomeutidae, 574
Honnopsylla, 652 Hydrophiloidea, 368 Hypopharynx, 19,20,20
Hornets,483,549,550 Hydrophilus triangularis, 404, 407, 407 Hypoprepia miniata, 640
bald-faced, 550 Hydropophagus obcordata, 436 Hypoptidae, 574
Hom fly, 674 Hydroporus, 406 Hypostomal bridge, 17
homii, Macrovelia, 292 Hydropsyche simulans, 559, 561, 568 Hypsolophidae, 574, 607
Homtails, 482, 518, 519, 519, 524 Hydropsychidae, 559, 560,561,562, Hypsopygia costalis, 617
parasites of, 534 565,566,568 Hystrichopsylla
Homworms, 634, 634, 635 Hydropsychoidea, 560 dippiei, 653
tomato, 635, 635 Hydroptila waubesiana, 559 schefferi, 658
Horse fly, 673, 676, 720, 722 Hydroptilidae, 559, 560,560, 563, 567, Hystrichopsyllidae, 652, 653, 654, 658
Horse guard wasps, 540 568,568 Hystrichopsyllinae, 652
Horseshoe crabs, 100, 101, 102, 102 Hydroptiloidea, 560 Hystrichopsylloidea, 652
hortensis, Bourletiella, 174 Hydroscapha natans, 401
House crickets, 212, 224, 224 Hydroscaphidae, 368, 378, 401
House fly, 22,22, 674, 730, 732 Hyella knickerbockeri, 140 Iassinae, 311, 313
Hover flies, 728 Hylaeidae, 482 lbalia, 498
Hoyer's chloral hydrate, 762 Hylaeinae, 487, 491, 543 Iba\iidae, 482, 498, 498, 533
Hoyer's medium, 354 Hylaeus, 487, 491, 492, 495 iceryae, Cryptochetum, 741
hubbardi, Marginitennes, 256 agginis, 543 1ceryae purchasi, 741
hubbardi, Oligembia, 248 Hylastinus obscurus, 465 Icerya purchasi, 434
hubbardi, Usazoros, 250, 251 Hylema platura, 730 Icheneutinae, 522
Hubellia marginifera, 222 Hyles lineata, 635 icheumoneus, Sphex, 540
Humans Hylobittacus apicalis, 666 ichneumoneus, Enoclerus, 429
fleas of, 162 Hylobius Ichneumonidae, 496, 497, 499,510,
Humans, \ice of, 357, 360, 362 pales, 463 511,512,515,523,525
humanus capitis, Pediculus, 362 postica, 463 Ichneumonids, 154,521,523,524,526
Humeral angles, 271 punctata, 463 gregarious, 524
Humeral cross vein, 12 Hylotomidae, 482 parasites of, 533
humeralis, Arge, 517 Hylurgopinus, 373 Ichneumonoidea, 482, 485, 522
Humeron, 376 Hymenolepis diminuta, 659 Ichumonidae, 482, 485
 Index 833

Identification, 60-61 Insect nets, 747, 747 invicta, Solenopsis, 553

Identification labels, 763, 764 Insect pin, 755 io, Auromeris, 633
Idiocerinae, 311, 312, 313, 314 Insect pollination, 539 Ipomoea, 608
Idiocerus, 311 Insects, 155 Ips, 464
alternatus, 312 benefits or, 1 pini, 464, 465
Idiogastra, 482 biting, 4 lronclad beetles, 369, 394, 435
Idiomacromerus, iperplexus, 529 color or, 2 lronwood,418
Idolothrips marginatus, 339 common names or, 59 irritans, Haematobia, 732
Idris, 537 communication in, 4 irritans, Pulex, 657, 659
ignota, Foxella, 653 defenses or, 3, 4, 90-91 irroratus, Paraphlepsius, 312
illigeri, Hybosorus, 412 rood or, 3 isabe/la, Pyrrharctia, 641
illucens, Hermatia, 720 hemimetabolous, 46, 48 Ischnocera, 357
illustris, Lucilia, 730 holomatabolous, 46, 48 Ischnopsyllidae, 652, 653, 654, 658
imbricornis, Prionous, 444 in medicine, 1 Ischnura
immaculata, Scutigere/la, 148 packing and shipping, 768 cervula, 206
immaculatus, Myrme/eon, 478 parasitic, 81, 82, 87-88, 520 verticalis, 206
imperialis, Eacles, 632, 633 phytophagous, 85-86 islossoni, Rhopalotria, 451
Imperial moth, 632 predacious, 88-90, 90 Ismarinae, 536
impigrite/la, Glyphipterix, 608 rearing indoors, 771 Isochnus, 459
impunctata, Catonia, 316 reproduction in, 2 Isogenoides, 244
inaequalis, Craponius, 462 reproductive powers or, 2 Isohydnocera curtipennis, 429
inaequalis, Spilopsyllus, 659 scale, 154 Isonychilidae, 186, 187, 190
Incense-cedar wood wasps, 482, 518 sense organs or, 2 Isoperla, 244
incertellus, Acrolepiopsis, 608 size or, 2 transmarina, 241
Inchworm caterpillar, 628 stinging, 4 Isopoda, 140
Incisalia, 623 winged, 153, 154, 155 Isoptera, 153, 154, 156, 160, 165,
Incisitermes, 256 wingless, 153 211,252
minor, 256 wings of, 2 key to ramilies or, 254
inclusum, Cheiracanthium, 106 Insemination, extragenital, 72-73 Isotoma propinqua, 172
inconsequens, Taeniothrips, 335,335, insidiosus, Orius, 296, 296 Isotomidae, 169, 170, 172, 172, 173
336, 338 Insight, 65 Isotomurus tricolor, 172, 173
inconspicua, Neurotoma, 516 insignis, Myodopsylla, 653 Issidae, 270,316
Incurvariidae, 574, 597, 604 insignis, Orthezia, 325 lthomiidae, 575
Incurvarioidea, 573, 574, 604, 5775 Instar, 45, 45, 46, 46, 47, 48 Ithonidae, 469, 474, 476
Indiopsocus, 344, 348 Instinct Ithonid lacewings, 469
Industrial melanism, 629 closed, 64 lthyceridae, 370, 382, 452, 453
inermis, Gasterophilus, 732 learning vs., 64 Ithycerus, 452
Inrormation sources, 776 open,64 noveboracencis, 453
ingenita, Dalcerides, 612 insularis, Blissus, 300 Itonididae, 673
inimica, Endria, 312 insulata, Notonecta, 291 Iverticalis, Ischnura, 206
Inoce\i\iidae, 469, 470, 471, 476 intacta, Leucorrhinia, 205 Ivie, M.A., 377
Inocelliid snakeflies, 469 integer,Janus, 518 Ixodida, 131
inopina, Neopsylla, 655 integriceps, Eurygaster, 301 Ixodiphagus, 531
inornatus, Caenotus, 726 Integument, 6, 6
intermedium, Glossoma, 567 J
inornatus, Pemphredon, 541
Inostemma, 537,538 Internal reproductive system, 35-37 Jacobsoniidae, 386
inquisitor, Rhagium, 443 International Code or Zoological Jacobson's beetles, 369, 424
inquisitor, Zarhopalus, 527 Nomenclature, 56 Jacosoniidae, 369, 424
Insecta, 152 International Code of Zoological jamaicensis, Xyloryctes, 415
Insect collection Nomenclature (ICZN), 56, 57 janata, Basiaeschna, 201
housing, arranging, and caring ror, internum,Sympetrum, 196 janus integer, 489, 490, 518
764, 765, 766 interpunctella, Plodia, 617 Japlopti\idae, 574
parasites or, 425 interruptus, Polycentropus, 559 japonica, Popillia, 414
protecting, 767, 767, 768 intestina lis, Gasterophilus, 732, 733 japonicus, Anastatus, 528
synoptic, 764, 765 Intestine, 25 Japygidae, 169, 174, 175
Insectivores, \ice or, 357, 361, 362 Intima, 23, 24 jayvalii, Pecaroecus, 362
Insectivorous plants, 86 inumerabilis, Pulvinaria, 326, 326 je/lisonia, 652
834 Index

Jerusalem cricket, 212, 219 Key to orders of knickerbockeri, Hyella, 140

Johnston's organ, 32 Arachnida, 103 Koch, CL., 122
Jointworm Chilopoda, 146 Koebelia, 311, 314
wheat, 529 Diplopoda, 112, 143 Koebeliinae, 311, 314, 314
jonesi, Pseudoerinna, 720 Hexapods, 157 KOH, 363
]ordanopsylla, 652 spiders, 112 KOH solution, 354
jucundus, Aphelinus, 527 Key to subfamilies of Korscheltellus, 603
Jugatate venation, 573 Acrididae, 215 Kristensen, N.P., 574
Jugular-horned beetles, 369, 437 Araneae, 113 Krombein K.V.D.P., 481
Julida, 143, 144, 145 Blattodea, 264 kuehniella, Anagata, 617
Jumpers, 532 Caddisflies, 563, 565 Kukalova-Peck system of
fleas, 649 Cerambycidae, 442 venation, 14
Jumping bristletails, 177, 178 Cicadellidae, 311 Kunzeana marginella, 312
Jumping ground bugs, 269, 270,272, Coleoptera, 377 kurdjumovi, Haplothrips, 339
277,294,294 Collembola, 171 kuvanae, Ooencyrtus, 527, 531
Jumping plantlice, 270, 317 Curculionidae, 455
Jumping spiders, 110, 112, 121, 124, L
Dermaptera, 235
124 Diplura, 174 Label
June beetles, 18, 414, 414, 416 Diptera, 680 geographic data, 763
parasite of, 535 Embiidina, 248 identification, 754
Juniper, 615 Hemiptera, 273 Labeling, 762, 763
juniperella, Glyphidocera, 609 Hymenoptera, 486 Labial gland, 24
]uníperus, 609 Hymeoptera, 486 Labial palps, 20, 20
junius, Anas, 203,203 Isoptera, 254 Labia minor, 237
Jurassic period, 154, 155 Lepidoptera, 579 labiata, Emmesca, 435
jutta, Oeneis, 626 Mantodea, 261 Labidomera, 449
Juvenile hormone, 35,35 Mecoptera, 652, 664 Labidura riparia, 237
in metamorphosis, 48-49 Neuroptera, 470 Labiduridae, 236,237
Odonata, 198 Labiidae, 236,237
K Labium
Orthoptera,212
KAAD mixture, 761 Phasmatodea, 227 ofhead, 16, 16
Kahle's solution, 191, 760 Phthiraptera, 357 laboulbenei, Eoxenos, 670
Kala-azar, 708 Plecoptera, 242 Labrium angulare, 410
kalmíae, Cerococcus, 326 Protura, 170 lacca, Lucifer, 327
Kalotermitidae, 255, 256 Psocoptera, 342 Lace bugs, 270, 293,294
Karumiidae, 368 scarabaeidae, 413 Lace~ngs, 154,469,470,477,478
Katydid, 11 Siphonaptera, 563, 565, 652 beaded, 470, 477
Katydids, 209,210, 211,211, Strepsiptera, 670 brown, 469, 477
212,219 Tettigoniidae, 219 common, 469, 477, 477
big pine-tree, 212 Thysanoptera, 335 giant, 470, 478
bush,212,220,222 Thysanura, 174 green, 470
cone-headed, 212, 220, 221 Trichoptera, 563, 565 ithonid, 469
drumming, 212, 222 Killer bee, 547 parasites of, 534, 536
matriarchal, 222 Killing agents, 748, 749 pleasing, 470, 477
meadow, 212, 222 Killing bottles, 748 Lachesilla, 343
pine-tree,21O calcium cyanide, 748 Lachesillidae, 342, 343,348, 350,
shield-backed, 212 corked, 748 351,353
sound production in, 209, 210 cyanide, 748, 749 Lachlania, 185, 186
true, 212, 221 potassium cyanide, 749 Lachnus salignus, 320
Kenolla, 311 Killing jar, 642, 748 Lacinia, 19,20
Keriidae, 270, 285, 327 Kim, K.C, 357 Lacosoma, 629
Kermesidae, 270, 326 Kinnaridae, 270, 283, 317 chiridota, 630
Keroplatidae, 673 Kinseana marginella, 312 Lacosomidae, 575
Keroplatinae, 684 Kissing bugs, 297 Lac scales, 270, 327, 327
Keys Kleidocerys, 671 Lactic acid, 761
analytical, 60 Kleptoparasites, 110,539,543 Lactrodectus
use of, 60 Klinotoxis, 63 reclusa, 108
lIIf

Index 835

Lactura, 612 Lasiochillidae, 277 Leafrollers

pupula, 612 Lasioderma serricome, 427 fruit tree, 615, 615
Lacturidae, 574, 612 Lasioglossum, 543 raspberry, 482
Ladybird beetles, 365, 369, 385, Latent leaming, 65 Leaf-rolling sawflies, 482
433,433 lateralis, Arhyssys, 302 parasites of, 450, 450
Laemobothriidae, 357, 358, 360,361 lateralis, Elasmucha, 305 Leaf shelter, 619
Laemobothrion, 358 lateralis, Tettigidea, 218 Leaming, 64-65, 65
Laemophloeidae, 369, 396,431 Latheticomyia associative, 64-65
Laetilia coccidivora, 617 lineata, 735 exploratory, 65
laevis, pachyplectrus tricolol; 735 latent, 65
Lagoa crispata, 611 laticeps, Stratiomys, 720, 720 Least skipper, 619
Lagoidae, 574 latimanus, Megachile, 544 Lecanium, 25
Lagriidae, 369 latipennis, Oecanthis, 211 Lecanodiapsis, 326
Lagriinae, 436 Latridiidae, 369, 386, 434 Lecanodiaspididae, 270, 326
Lagynodes, 520 Latrodectus, 106 lecontei, Che/onarium, 421
Lagynodinae, 520 Latrodectus sp., 124 lecontei, Neodiprion, 516
Lalapa lusa, 547 latum, Diphyllobothrium, 139 Lecontia, 440
Lambdina fiscellaria, 629 Lauxaniidae, 674, 696, 697, 701, 738 lecteolaris, Leuculodes, 635
Lamellate antenna, 370 Lauxanioidea, 674 Ledrinae, 310, 311,312, 313, 314
Lamellate antennae, 19 lavis, Me/oe, 439 Leg
Lamina, 6 Lawn grasses, 300 articulation mechanisms of,
Laminae, 442, 443, 444 Lawrence, J. F., 451 11-12, 12
Lamprosomatinae, 446, 448 Lead-cable borer, 426 strucutre of, 11, 11
Lamp-shade spiders, 111, 114 Leafaxil borer, 609 thorax and, 9
Lampyridae, 384, 387, 400, 423, 423 Leaf beetles, 369, 396, 445, 448, 448 Leg joints, 11-12, 12
lanata, Callirhytis, 535 antlike, 340, 369 leguminicola, Dasineura, 718
Languria mozardi, 431, 432 case-bearing, 446, 448 Leiodidae, 384, 385, 392, 408
Languriidae, 369, 397, 431, 431 leaf-mining, 446, 450, 450 Leiomyza, 674, 703
Laniatores, 129 long-homed, 446, 447, 447 Leishmania, 708
lanigerum, Eriosoma, 320,321 Leaf blotch miners, 606, 607 Leks, 70, 73
Lantemflies, 317 Leafbugs, 270,272, 277,294,295 Lema, 447, 448
Laphriinae, 723 ash-gray, 270, 298, 298 trilinea, 447,448
Lappet moths, 630, 631, 631 Leaf cutter lemniscata, Epicauta, 439
Larca granulata, 135 water liIy, 618 Lepas sp., 139
Larch, 631 Leaf-cutting bees, 482 Lepeletier, 518
Larch sawfly, 518 Leaf folder Lephe/isca, 582
Large-Iegged thrips, 336 grape, 528 Lephridae, 482
Largidae, 270, 272, 279, 300,301 Leaf-footed bugs, 278, 301, 302 lepida, Dicera, 418
Largus, 272 Leafhoppers, 281, 542 Lepidocyrtus paradoxus, 172
succinctus, 301 beet, Lepidopsocidae, 341, 343,351
laricis, Tolype, 631 characters of, 312, 312 Lepidoptera, 153, 154, 156, 162,
Laricobius erichsonii, 424 parasites of, 538 163,165,166,523,526,
Larvae, 46, 47 potato, 310 528, 571, 600
campodeiform, 49 sound production by. 311 characters used in
common mosquito es, 710 sugarcane, 316 identifiying, 575
Diptera, 642 Leaf miners, 522, 606, 611 classification of, 573
elasteriform, 49 Leafminers, 674, 739, 740 collecting and preserving, 642
eructiform, 49 Leaf miners head structure of, 572
midge, 709 aspen, 607 key to families of, 579
mosquito, 710, 710 birch,518 mounting, 642
predaceous, 642 Leafminers parasites of, 526, 530, 532, 533,
scarabeiform, 49 spinach, 730 537,540,734
types of, 49 Leaf miners pinning, 642, 756, 756
vermiform, 49 white oak, 607 references on, 643
Larvaevoridae, 674 Leaf-mining sawflies spreading, 642, 758, 758
Lasiocampidae, 575, 591,592 birch, 524 Lepidosaphes ulmi, 324, 328
Lasiocampoidea, 575 parasites of, 527 Lepidostoma, 569
 --

836 Index

Lepidostomatidae, 560, 561, 562, Leuculodes lecteolaris, 635 lineata, Latheticomyia, 735
565,569 Levemidae,574 lineatum, Hypoderma, 732, 733
Lepidotrichidae, 179 Libellula lineatus, Hecalus, 310
Lepisma saccharina, 179 luctuosa, 204,204 lineatus, Poecilocapsus, 294,295
Lepismatidae, 179 pulchella, 204,204 lineolaris, Lygus, 294
Leptidae, 673 Libellulidae, 195, 196, 197, 198, 200, Linepithema humile, 554
Leptinidae, 368 201,202,203,204 Linnaeus, c., 58
Leptinillus, 408 libocedri, Syntexis, 518 Linnella, Chrysochista, 609
Leptinotarsa decemlineata, 449 librocedrii, Syntexis, 518 Linognathidae, 357, 361, 362
Leptocera, 701 Libumiella omata, 316 Linognathus
Leptoceridae, 560, 561, 562, 565, Libytheana bachmanii, 624 setosus, 362
567, 569 Libytheidae, 575, 583 stenopsis, 362
Leptoceroidea, 560 Libytheinae, 573, 624 vituli, 362
Leptoconops, 709 Lice, 154, 166,356 Linyphiidae, 112, 115, 116, 117, 126
Leptodidae, 276 chewing, 356, 357 Liocranidae, 112, 120, 128
Leptodiridae, 368 classification of, 356 Liodidae, 368
Leptogastridae, 673, 687 collecting and preserving, 363 Liometophilus manni, 462
Leptogastrinae, 723 key to families of, 357 Liopteridae, 482, 498, 509, 534
Leptoglossus clypealis, 302 poultry, 356 Liothrips vaneeckei, 336, 339
Leptohyphes, 185, 186 references on, 363 Liparidae, 575
Leptohyphidae, 185, 186, 190 sucking, 356, 357 Liposcelididae, 342, 344, 345,345,346,
Leptonetidae, 112, 116, 123 Lichnanthe, 411 347, 351,352
Leptophlebiidae, 183, 185, 186, 188, Life history Liposcelis, 341, 344
189, 190 strategies in, 68 liriodendri, Toumeyella, 326
Leptopodidae, 270, 293 variations in, 49-50 Liriopeidae, 673
Leptopodomorpha, 270, 293 Light attractants, 751 Listroderes costrirostris obliquus, 462
Leptopsylla, 652 Lightningbugs, 384, 423, 423 Listronotus, 460, 462
segnis, 658 Lights oregonensis, 462
signis, 654 for specimen collection, 642 Listroscelidinae, 212,220, 221
Leptopsyllidae, 652, 654, 654, 658 Ligula, 20, 20 Listroscellidinae, 212, 219,
Leptopsyllinae, 652, 654, 658 Ligyrus, 415 220, 221
Leptoptema dolobrata, 294,295 Lilac, 631 Lithidae, 574
Leptothrips mali, 339 Lilies Lithobiidae, 147
Lepturinae, 442, 443, 444, 445 parasite of, 530 Lithobiomorpha, 146, 147
Leptysma marginícollis, 217 Lilioceris, 447 Lithobius erythrocephalus, 146
Leptysminae, 212, 217 lillianis, Acalypta, 294 Lithocolletidae, 574
Leptysminae, 217 Lily bulb thrips, 339 Lithocolletis, 602
Lesteremiinae, 718 Limacodidae, 574,587, 588,612 lithophilus, Helichus, 420
Lestes, 195 limbatus, Prionocyphon, 416 Lithosiinae, 575, 588, 595, 640
dryas, 194 Limenitidinae, 625 Little earwigs, 236, 237
Lestidae, 194, 195, 197,205,299 Limenitinae, 582 Live insects
Lethocerus, 271, 274 Limenitis, 582 in captivity, 769
Lethocerus griseus, 290 archippus, 625 Livestock
leucanthemi, Haplothrips, 339 archippus astyanax, 625 fleas of, 659
leucoloma, Naupactus, 461 arthemis arthemis, 625 Lixinae, 457, 463
Leucoma salicis, 640 Limnaecia, 602 Lixis concavus, 463
Leucopelmonus, 490 Limnebiidae, 368 Lizard beetles, 369, 397, 431
leucopeza, Aulacigaster, 740 Limnephilidae, 560, 563, 564,567,567 Llaveia, 325
leucophaeus, Corinthiscus, 429 Limnephiloidea, 560 loa, Loa, 721
leucopterus, Blissus, 299,300 Limnephilus rhombícus, 564, 567 Loa loa, 721
Leucorrhinia, 205 Limnichidae, 368, 390, 420 Loania canadensis, 671
intacta, 205 Limniidae, 368 lobatus, Diradius, 248
Leucospidae,482, 502, 526, 532, 533 Limonia, 707 Lobelia, 460
Leucospids, 533 Limoniidae,673 lobifera, Rhyacophila, 562
leucostigma, Orgyia, 639, 639 Limoniinae, 681, 707 Lobiopa, 373
Leuctra, 242, 243 Limothrips cerealum, 339 Lobsters, 136, 140
Leuctridae, 241, 242,243,243,244 lineata, Hyles, 635 Locust leaf miner, 450
..

Index 837

Locusts, 462 luteolus, Xylastodoris, 270, 293 Macropsinae, 311, 312,313,314

migratory behavior of, 69 Lutrochidae, 368, 389, 420 Macropsis viridis, 312
Logs,421,516 Lutrochus, 420 Macrosiphum euphorbiae, 320
fallen, 538 Lyal, C.H.C, 451 Macrospinae, 311, 313, 314
Lomamyia, 477 Lycaena, 582 Macrosteles, 311, 315
Lonchaea, 696 Lycaena phalaeas americana, 623 Macrostemum zebratum, 562, 568
Lonchaeidae, 674, 696, 697, 700, Lycaenid, 622 Macroteleia, 537,537
701, 736 Lycaenidae, 573, 575,582, 622 Macrovelia homii, 292
Lonchopteridae, 674, 689, 690, 727 Lycaeninae, 582, 623 Macroveliidae, 269, 277, 292
Loneura, 344 Lycidae, 369, 387, 422, 123 Macroxyela, 489, 490
Longchaeidae, 674 Lycodoidea, 112, 127 macswaini, Procampodea, 175
Long-horned flies, 673, 707 Lycomorpha pholus, 640, 640 maculata, Calopteryx, 205
Long-horned leaf beetles, 446, 447, 447 Lycosidae, 112, 118, 121, 127 maculata, Dolichovespula, 550,551
longicomis, Odontoloxozus, 735 Lycosoidea, 112 maculatta, Psoa, 426
longipala, Supella, 266 Lycotocoridae, 270, 277, 296 maculatus, Ceuthophilus, 219
longipennis, Pachydiplax, 205 Lyctidae, 369 maculatus, Dendrotus, 424
longirostre, Apion, 453 Lyctocoris campestris, 296 maculifrons, Vespula, 550,551
longispinus, Pseudococcus, 325 lydia, Plathemis, 204,204 maculiventris, Podisus, 303
Longistigma, 282 Lydidae, 482 Madeira cockroach, 266
Longistigma caryae, 320, 321 Lygaeidae, 270,272, 277, 279,299, 299 maderae, Rhyparobia, 266
Long-legged flies, 674, 726, 727 Lygaeus, 272 maderae, Tetramesa, 529
Longtailed mealybug, 325 Lygidea mendax, 294, 295 Maematopinus asini, 362
Long-toed water beetle, 420, 420 Lygistorrhinidae, 673 Magacyllene, 445
Loopers, 628 Lygus, 272 Magdalis, 460, 463
cabbage, 637 lineolaris, 294 Maggots, 642, 717
hemlock, 629 oblineatus, 269 apple, 738
mountain mahogany, 629 Lymantria, 595 Magicicada, 280, 282, 306, 306
Lophocampa caruae, 641, 641 dispar, 639, 640 Magicicada septendecim, 305, 306, 306
Lotisma trigonana, 616 Lymantriidae, 575, 594, 595, 603, 639 magnarius, Ennomos, 628, 629, 629
lotoris, Chaetopsylla, 653 Lyme disease, 131 magnatella, Scythris, 609
Louse flies, 674, 731 Lymexylidae, 369, 383, 391, 428 magnifica, Macromia, 204
Louse flies CHippoboscidae), 212 Lymexyloidea, 369 maia, Hemileuca, 633, 633
Lovebugs, 716 Lymnaecia phragmitella, 610 maidiradicis, Anuraphis, 320
Loxocera, 694, 695, 735 Lynchia, 689, 698 maidis, Sphenophorus, 461
Loxosceles, 106 Lynx spiders, 112, 118, 121, 127 Maize billbug, 459, 461
reclusa, 106, 121, 123, 123 Lyonetiidae, 574, 596, 608 major, Xerophloea, 310
Lucanidae, 368, 379, 380, 411, 411 Lyonetiids, 608 Malachiidae, 369
Lucanus, 373 Malachius aeneus, 430
M
lucens, Asaphes, 530 Malacopsyloidea, 652
lucidus, Polyergus, 554 Machilidae, 39 Malacosoma, 591
Luciferase,424 Machiliidae, 178, 179 americanum, 630, 630
Luciferinase,424 Machimia tentoriferella, 610 Malacostraca, 139
Lucifer lacca, 327 Mackenziella psocoides, 174, 1 74 Malaise, R., 751
Lucilia illustris, 730 Mackenziellidae, 169, 172, 173, 174 Malaise trap, 191
Lucinidae, 373 Macrocentrinae, 522, 523 Malaise traps, 554
luctuosa, Libellula, 204,204 gregarious, 522 Malaraeus, 652
Ludwig, H.W, 357 Macrocentrus Malaria, 713
lugubris, Carpophilus, 430 ancylivorus, 523 Male reproductive system
lugubris, Elasteroides, 428 grandii, 523 external, 38-39, 39
lugubris, Pedilus, 440 Macrodactylus, 414 internal, 36, 36-37
lugubris, Thryris, 609 subspinosus, 414 mali, Leptothrips, 339
luna, Actias, 632, 634, 634 Macrogyropus dicotylis, 361 malifoliella, Tisheria, 605
lunata, Doeringiella, 545 Macrolepidoptera, 573 malivorella, Coleophora, 609
Lunule, frontal, 680 Macromia, 203 Mallochiola gagates, 294, 294
lusa, Lalapa, 547 magnífica, 204 Mallodrya, 437
luteola, Xanthogaleruca, 449 Macromiinae, 203 Mallophaga, 154,356
luteolus, Scapoideus, 315 Macropidinae, 543 Malphigian tubules, 24, 25, 26-27
 --

838 Index

Malthaca, 586 Markov chains, 65 Medetera,727

Marnbradidae, 284 marlatti, Phoenicoccus, 327 Media vein, 12
Marnrnal nest beetles, 384, 408 Marsh beetles, 368, 384, 416,417 Mediterranean flour rnoth, 617
Marnrnals, lice of, 357, 358, 360, 362 Marsh flies, 674, 739, 739 Mediterranean fruit fly, 738
Mandible, 16, 16, 19, 20,20 Marsh treaders, 269 Megabothris, 652
mandibularis, Prostomis, 437 Marsupiallice, 357, 360, 361 Megachile, 544
Mandibulate rnoths, 603 Martarega, 291 latimanus, 544
Manduca martini, Hydrometra, 292 Megachilidae, 482, 492, 495, 495, 539
quinquemaculata, 635, 635 Masariidae, 483 Megachilinae, 544
sexta, 635 Masarinae, 513, 538, 550 Megacyllene, 375
manni, Liometophilus, 462 Masked bedbug hunters, 297 Megalodacne heros, 431
mannipara, Trabutina, 325 Mason wasps, 483, 549, 550 Megalodontoidea,516
Manophylax annulatus, 564 Mastophora, 125 Megalopodidae, 369, 381, 445
Mantidflies, 469, 470, 476, 477 Mating, 70, 71, 73, 73 Megaloptera, 469, 474,474,474
Mantids, 153, 154, 155, 156, 211, sexual encounter in, 70-71 Megalopyge, 586
260,261 territories for, 70 Megalopygidae, 574, 585, 586, 611
Carolina, 260, 260 Mating systerns Megalothorax minimus, 172
Chinese, 260 rnonogyny, 73 Megaphasma denticrus, 228
European, 261 polygyny, 73 Megarhyssa, 510, 526
narrow-winged, 260 sex-role rule in, 73-74 Megarthroglossus, 652
praying, 261 Matriarchal katydid, 212, 222 Megasceliinae, 446, 448
Mantinae,261 mauritanicus, Tenebroides, 428 Megaspilidae, 482, 497, 499
Mantispa, 474, 477 Maxilla, 16, 19, 20 Megaspilids, 520
cincticomis, 476 maya, Mantoidea, 261 Megaspilinae, 520
Mantispid,476 mayeri, Aplopus, 228 Megaspillidae, 520
Mantispidae, 469, 470, 476, 477 Mayetioloa destructor, 716, 717 Megathymidae, 575
Mantis religiosa, 261 Mayflies, 159, 181, 182, 187 megatoma, Anthrenus, 425
Mantodea, 153, 154, 155, 156, 161, McAlpine,].E, 678, 680 megatoma, Attagenus, 425, 425
211,260,669 Meadowhawks, 204 Megista cymela, 626
collecting and preserving of, 261 Meadow katydid, 212, 221,222,222, Megophthalrninae, 311, 313, 314
key to farnilies of, 261 222 Meinertellidae, 178, 179
parasites of, 537 Meadow plant bug, 295,295 Melandryidae, 369, 399, 434
references on, 262 Meal, stored, 571 Melanism, industrial, 629
Mantoidea maya, 261 Mealybugs, 270 Melanolestes picipes, 297
Manton, S., 90,142 citrus, 325, 325 Melanophila drummondi, 419
Manton, S.M., 169 longtailed, 325 Melanophora roralís, 733
Mantophasma, 232 parasites of, 527, 537 Melanophthalma americana, 432
Mantophasrnatodea, 153, 155, 156, 232 Measuringworms, 628 Melanoplinae, 212, 216,216, 216
references on, 233 Mechanical senses, 31, 31-32,90 Melanoplus, 11,213,216,216
Maple,518 functions of, 31 bivattus, 217
Maple leaf spot, 717, 717 gravity, 32 differentialís, 217
maraisi, Praedatophasma, 232 rnovernent of surrounding femurrubrum, 217
Marava pulchella, 237 rnediurn, 32 sanguinipes, 217,217
marcellus, Eurydites, 620, 621 organs of, 31, 31 melanopus, Oulema, 447, 448
March flies, 673, 715 pressure Melanothrips, 335
Margarodidae, 270, 324 proprioception (joint position), 32 Melanthrips, 337
margina lis, Cymellus, 562 tactile, 31, 31-32 melanura, Acidogona, 737
marginata, Morella, 435 Mecinus, 460 melanura, Nacerdes, 438
marginatus, Idolothrips, 339 Meciocobothriidae, 111, 120, 1113 Melasidae, 368
marginella, Kinzeana, 312 Meconema thalassinum, 222 meldei, Cheiracanthium, 110
marginicollis, Leptysma, 217 Meconernatinae, 212, 222 meleagridis, Chelopistes, 359
marginifera, Hubellía, 222 Mecoptera,38, 153, 154, 156, 160, 160, Meleoma, 477
Marginitermes, 256 165,522,524,662 melinus, Strymon, 623
hubbardi, 256 classification of, 662 melíssa semidea, Oeneis, 626
Margopsylla, 652 collecting and preserving, 667 Melittidae, 482, 495
marinicollis, Clytus, 444 key to families of, 664 mellifera, Apis, 546, 547
mari tima, Anurida, 172 references on, 667 Mellindae, 482
 Index 839

mellita, Necydalis, 444 Metalmark butterflies, 622 Microcentrus, 284, 307

mellonella, Galleria, 617 Metameres, 5, 7 Microcopteryx, 600
Meloe, 438 Metamorphosis, 3, 45, 46, 156 Microcoryphia, 38, 152, 153, 155, 156,
lavis, 439 ametabolous, 46 163,177
Meloidae, 369,376, 383, 398, 438, apurometabolous, 46 key to famiies of, 178
439, 669 beetle, 365 Microdon, 691, 729
Melolonthinae, 413, 414,414 brain hormone in, 48 Microgaster tibialis, 524
Melonworm, 609 complete, 46-48, 47, 48 Microgastrinae, 522, 524
Melophagus ovinus, 731, 731 control of, 48 Microhexura montivaga, 120
Melusinidae, 673 ecdysone in, 48 Microlepidoptera, 573, 597, 598,
Melyridae, 384, 392, 429, 430 hemimetabolous, 46 599, 609
Membracidae, 270, 306,308 hemolymph in, 46 Micromalthidae, 368, 401
Membranes histogenesis in, 45-46 Micromalthus debilis, 401
embryonic development of, 43-44 histolysis in, 45 Micropeplidae, 368, 409
Menacanthis stramineus, 361 holometabolous, 46, 48 Micropezidae, 674, 696, 700, 734
menapia, Neophasia, 621 hormones in, 48-49 Microphthrius, 362
mendax, Lygidea, 294, 295 hypermetabolic, 48 Microphysidae, 276
Menfenillidae, 669 hypermetamorphosis, 46, 48 Microplontus, 462
Menocera, 673 imaginal discs in, 45 microptera, Romalea, 215
Menopon gallinae, 358, 361 incomplete, 46 Micropterigidae, 571, 574, 600, 603
Menoponidae, 357, 358, 360, 361 intermedia te, 48 Micropterigoidea, 577
Menotaxis, 63 larval stage in, 46, 47 Micropterioidea, 574, 575, 580,603
Mercury-vapor bulbs, 751 naiads in, 46 Micropterygidae, 574
meridionalis, Aphidolestes, 71 7 nymphs in, 46 Micropterygoidea, 574
Meringis, 652 paurometabolous, 46 Microscope slide mounting, 761
Mermessus dentiger, 108 pupal stage in, 46-48, 48 Microscope sUdes, 354
Merope, 667 simple, 46, 46 Microsporidae, 368, 378, 401
tuber, 666 types of, 46 Microvelia, 293
Meropeidae, 666 Metasoma, 523 Midges, 709, 709, 709, 709, 709, 709
Merostomata, 102 Metasyrphus, 692 biting, 673, 708
Merothripidae, 335, 336, 337, 338 Metathorax, 9, 10 dixid, 709
Merothrips, 337 Meteorus gall, 673, 716
jloridensis, 338 dimidatus, 528 mountain, 673, 715
morgani, 336, 338 nigricollis, 523 net-winged, 714, 673673
Merragata, 292 Methochinae, 547 phantom, 673, 709
Merycidae, 369 Metisotoma grandiceps, 172 solitary, 673
Mesitiopterus, 537 Metopiidae, 674 Midgut, 42, 43
Mesoderm formation, 42, 43 metraloas, Miastor, 717 chemical digestion in, 26
Mesolecanium nigrofasciatum, 327 Metretopodidae, 185, 186, 189, 190 differentiation of, 24-25
Mesopscocus, 343 Metrius, 366 Migratory behavior, 68-69
Mesopsocidae, 342,343,344,347, mexicana, Secundeisemia, 532 of aphids, 69
350,353 mexicana, Triozocera, 670, 671 of locusts, 69
Mesopsocus, 347 Mexican bean beetle of monarch butterfly, 69
Mesoptiliinae, 457, 463 parasite of, 525 migromaculata, Willowsia, 172
Mesothelae, 111 Mexican bed bugs, 297 mildei, Cheiracanthium, 106
Mesothorax, 9, 10 Mexicanjumping-bean moth, 615 Miletinae, 623
Mesotigmata, 131 mexicanus, Austrotinodes, 564 Milichia, 703
Mesovelia, 272 mexillosus, Creophilus, 410 Milichiidae, 673, 674, 698, 703,
mulsanti, 292 Miastor metraloas, 717 704, 741
Mesoveliidae, 269,272,292, 292 Michener, C.D., 483, 543 Milkweed beetle, 445
Mesoxaea, 544 Micrasema, 569 Milkweed bug, 21, 299, 299
Mesozoic era, 154 Micrathena, 125 Milkweed butterfly, 626
Mesquite bug, 301 Microbial relationships milleri, Asceloconchaspis, 327
Metabolism, 23 mutualists in, 81 Miller's itch, 134
Metaleptea brevicoris, 217 pathogens and parasites, 82 Millipedes, 142, 143, 154, 155
Metallic wood-boring beetles, 368, 374, arthropod vectors of, 82-83 Mimalloinidae, 629
383,390,417,418,519 Microcentrum, 221 Mimallonidae, 575, 587,587, 591,630
840 Index

Mimallonoidea, 575, 629 Mocis, 638 Morphidae, 575

mimeticus, Atheas, 294 Mogoplistidae, 212, 214, 225 morrisonarius, Pero, 628
Mimetidae, 108, 112, 117, 125 Mogulones, 462 Mosquitoes, 20,21, 673, 712
Mimetus puritanus, 108 Molanna Aecles, 713, 714
Mimicry uniophila, 562, 567 Anopheles, 712, 713, 713
Batesian, 90-91, 625 Molannidae, 560, 562, 565, 567, 569 Culex, 713,714
Wasmannian,91 Mole crickets, 225, 225 house, 711
Mimosa, 615 Molecular mechanisms larvae, 13, 713
Mimosa webworm, 615 in embryonic development, 43 Psorophora, 713
Mineral cases, 569 Molecular studies rearing of, 772
Miners, 605, 608 of arthropoda, 100 saltmarsh, 711, 711
apple-Ieaf trumpet, 605 molesta, Grapholitha, 614 woodland, 711, 712
leaf blotch, 606, 607 molesta, Solenopsis, 554 Moth, 22 22-23
moths, 604 molitor, Tenebrio, 27 Moth flies, 673, 708
miniata, Hypoprepia, 640 mollipes, Draeculacephala, 310 Moths, 154, 573
minimus, Megalothorax, 172 mollis, Rhopalotria, 451 acorn, 609, 609
ministra, Dantana, 636, 636 Molting, 44 augoumois grain, 533, 611
minar, Incisitermes, 256 brain hormone in, 48 badwing, 628
minar, Labia, 237 Dyar's rule for, 45 bee, 617
Minute black scavenger flies, 673, 718 ecdysone in, 44 black witch, 637
Minute bog beetles, 368, 378, 401 of exo- and endoskelton, 44-45 cactus, 617
Minute brown scavenger beetles, 369, Molting glands, 44, 48-49 case maker, 604, 608
386,434 Molytinae, 458, 461, 463, 463 clearwing,612
Minute fungus beetles, 369, 385, Mompha,61O close-wings, 617
432,434 Momphidae, 574 clothes, 605
Minute marsh-Ioving beetles, 368, 420 Momphina, 602 darling underwing, 637
Minute moss beetles, 368, 382, 408 Momphinae, 601, 610 diamondback, 608
Minute tree fungus beetles, 369, 434 monacha, Apate, 426 epipleminae, 628
minutus, Neelus, 173 Monarch butterfly, 626 ermine, 607
Miocene period, 154 migration of, 63 fairy, 604
Mioctenopsylla, 652 Moniliform antennae, 18, 19 flannel,61l
Miogryllus, 225 Monochamus, 443 flour, 537, 617
Miracinae, 522 notatus, 444 forester, 638
Miridae, 270,272, 277, 278, 294, 295 Monocondylic leg joint, 11, 12, 12 geometer, 628, 629
Mischocyttarus, 550 monodon, Notoxus, 440 ghost, 603
Miscopastrinae, 532 Monoedidae, 369 goldenrod gall, 609, 611
Misumenops sp., 124 Monommatidae, 369, 435, 436 grain
Mites, 129, 129 Mononychus vulpeculus, 462 parasites of, 537
acariform, 132, 132 Monophyletic groups, 53, 56 grape berry moth, 615
beetle, 134 Monopsyllus, 652 grass, 617
feather, 133 Monotomidae, 369, 392, 393, 396, 430 gypsy, 527
gall, 132, 133 Monotrysia, 573, 574 handmaid, 636
harvest, 133, 134 Monphylla terminata, 429 hawk, 634, 635
itch, 133, 134 monronesis, Floridaxenos, 671 hepialid, 604
mange, 134 monstrosa, Cyphoderris hook-tip, 627
opilliocariform, 129, 129 montana, Rossiana, 564 imperial, 632
parasitiformes, 130 montanus, Anomiopsyllus, 655 lappet, 630, 631
predators of, 339 montivaga, Microhexura, 120 loopers, 628
red, 133 Montrysia, 573, 604 mandibulate, 603
scab, 134 Monyandry, 73 measuring worms, 628
sheep scab, 134 Mordellidae, 369, 397, 434, 435 Mexican jumping-bean, 615
spider, 132 Morella marginata, 435 noctuid, 636, 637
tarsonemidae, 133 morgani, Merothrips, 336, 338 notch-wing, 628, 629
water, 133 mori, Bombyx, 631 parasites of, 526
Miturgidae, 106, 112, 120, 127 mori, Tetraleurodes, 318 plume, 616
Mochlonyx, 709 morio, Chelisoches, 237 pupation of, 773
",.'.' ~,cincliEes,J09. ". . . morio, Priophorus, 518 royal, 631, 632
i~':';"~~.L"';\'", .~':'3 1:,:'" ~ ¡", '.,'¡.-~r\r(."",~J

,,~.
." ~',""
~ ~"
h'-
 Index 841

royal walnut, 632 basalar, 10 Mydasidae, 674

sack-bearer, 604, 629, 630 dorsal, 10, 10, 14, 15 Mydidae, 674, 687, 724
shield bearers, 604 flexor, 23 Mygalornorphae, 111, 120
silkworm, 631 in flight, 10, 14,30 Mygalomorphs, 110, 111
smoking, 612 roregut, 24 Myiasis, 730
snout, 617 legs, 11, 12, 12f cutaneous, 730
sphinx, 634, 645 or meso- and rnetathorax, 10 intestinal, 730
tiger, 640, 641, 641, 641, 641, 641 rnetabolisrn or, 23 nasal, 730
tortricid, 523 neurogenic, 23 Mymaridae, 482, 497, 502, 503,
tussock, 639 synchronous, 23 526, 526
tussock, hickory, 641 tergostemal, 14, 15 Myrnarommatidae, 482
tussock, white-marked, 639, 639 thoracic, 14 Mymarornrnatoidea, 482, 485
wasp, 640 visceral, 23 Mymaronrnmatidae, 516
wax, 617 wing,3,14 Myodopsylla, 652
window-winged, 617 Muscoidae, 674, 693, 696, 699, insignis, 653
yucca, 604 729, 731 Myopsocidae, 349, 354
Mountain rnahogany looper, 629 Muscoid flies Myriapoda, 100
Mountain rnidges, 673, 715 acalyptrate, 674, 734-742 collecting and preserving, 148
Mountain pine beetle, 465 calyptrate, 674, 677, 694, 698, Myrientomata, 169
Mounting, 755, 757, 759 728, 729-734 Myrmarornmatidae, 502
display, 766 race fly, 674 Myrmecochory, 84
Lepidoptera, 578, 642 hom fly, 674 Myrmecocystus, 554
on rnicroscope slides, 761, 762 house fly, 674 Myrmecolacidae, 670, 671
srnall insects, 749, 759 stable fly, 674 Myrmecophila pergandei, 225
Mounting and preserving insects, 755 tsetse fly, 674 Myrmecophiles, 86
Mounting boards, 757 Muscoids, 689 Myrmecophilidae, 212, 214, 225
Mounts Muscomorpha, 19, 21,21, 21-22, Myrmecophytes, 84, 84
glass, 767, 767, 768, 769 673, 719 Myrmeleon immaculatus, 478
Riker, 766, 767, 768, 769 rnouthparts or, 21,21, 22,22 Myrmeleontidae, 470, 473, 473, 478,
Mouthparts, 16,16, 16-17, 19-21,20,21 structure or, 19 478,478,478
Diptera, 20-21,21, 22 Museum specimens, 428, 764, 765 Myrrneleontoidea, 478
ernbryonic developrnent of, 43 muticus, Anurogryllus, 225 Myrmex, 460
haustellate (sucking), 20 muticus, Scaphinus, 442 subglaber, 461
Herniptera, 20, 21 Mutillidae, 483, 511,514,516,548 Myrmicinae, 491,553
rnandibulate, 19-20 Mutillids, 548 Myrrnosinae, 483
siphoning-sucking Mutualism, 81 Mysmenidae, 112, 117, 125
in Lepidoptera, 22-23 Mutualism, plant-insect, 83-84t mystaceus, Rhagio, 721
variations in, 20 Mutualists, 81-82 Mythicornyiinae, 673, 692
Movernent pattems, 62 Muzinum, 484 Myxophaga, 368, 401
mozardi, Languria, 431, 432 Mycetaea subterranea, 433 Myzininae, 547
Mrhynchites bicolor, 453 Mycetobia, 673, 682, 683, 684, 685 Myzinum, 511
mucorea, Trocobaris, 462 Mycetobia, 684
Mud-daubers, 482, 540 N
divergens, 715
organ-pipe, 541 Mycetobiidae, 673 Nabicula subcoleoptrata, 295
Mud-loving beetles, 368, 389, 420, 421 Mycetobiinae, 715 Nabidae, 272, 277, 278, 279, 294, 295
Mulberry whiteflies, 318 Mycetophagidae, 369, 395, 434 Nabis, 271, 272
Mullein thrips, 339 Mycetophagus punctatus, 432 americoferus, 295, 295
mulsanti, Mesovelia, 292 Mycetophilidae, 526, 673, 675, 684, Nacerdes melanura, 438
multistriatus, Scolytus, 465 685, 706, 718, 718 N-acetylglocosamine, 6, 7
Murgantia histrionica, 303 parasites or, 526 Naearctic, 536
Musca, 693, 699 Mycomyia, 675 naevana, Rhopobota, 615
autumnalis, 731, 732 Mycteridae, 369, 398, 440 Naiads, 46
domestica, 731 Mycterus, 440 Nallacius
Musca domestica, 22 Mydas, 687 americanus, 477
Muscles, 23 clavatus, 724, 725 puchellus, 477
asyrnchronous, 23 heros, 724 Names, 59
axillary, 15 Mydas flies, 674, 724, 725 authors', 56

UNNERSIDAD
DECAlDAS
BIBLIOTECA
842 Index

Names-cont'd Neoephemeridae,185, 186, 190 Neuroptera, 153, 154, 156, 160, 163,
common, 56, 59 Neohennes, 476 165,469,469,471,472,473,
endings in, 57 Neoheterocerus pallidus, 420 524
family, 56, 57 Neoholla, 3ll, 315 classification of, 469
genus-level, 56 Neolema, 447 collecting and preserving of, 479
scientific, 56, 57 Neolepolepis occidentalis, 346 hyperparasites or, 521
in scientific nomenclature, 57 Neomida bicomis, 437 key to ramilies or, 470
species, 52, 57 Neoneura aaroni, 200, 205 parasites of, 533, 537
subfamily, 56, 57 Neoneurinae, 522 references on, 479
superfamily, 56, 57 Neoperla clymene, 245 Neuropteroid orders, 156
tribal, 57 Neophasia menapia, 621 Neurostena, 696
Naniteta, 629 Neophemera, 185, 186 Neurotoma inconspicua, 516
elassa, 630 Neophylax stolus, 564 nevadensis, Hemileuca, 633
Nannothemis bella, 203, 204 Neopsylla, 652 Newton, A.F., jr., 451
Nanopsocus, 345 Neopsylla inopina, 655 Nezaa viridula, 303
Naohennes pubescens, 325 Neopsyllinae, 652, 655, 656, 658 ni, Trichoplusia, 638
Naphthalene flakes, 768 Neoptera, 155, 164 ni, Trochoplusia, 637
Narceus, 143 Neorhynchocephalus, 687 Nicoletidae, 179
americanus, 145 Neostylops shannoni, 670 Nicoletiinae, 179
Narvesus carolinensis, 297 Neotennes, 256 Nicrophorus, 373, 408,409
nasicus, Curculio, 459 Neottiophilidae, 674 sayi, 409
Nastima, 706 Neoxabea bipunctata, 224 niger, Pytho, 436
natans, Hydroscapha, 401 Neozeloboria, 548 Nigetiafonnosalis, 637
Naucoridae, 270, 271, 275, 291, 291 Nepa, 289 Nightshade, 449
Naupactus Nepa apiculata, 289 nigricans, Ammophila, 541
godmanni, 462 Nephelodes, 638 nigricollis, Meteorus, 523
leucoloma, 461 Nephila clavipes, 125 nigricoxum,Simulium, 714, 715
Neanura muscorum, 172 Nepidae, 269, 274, 289 nigrinis, Acartophthus, 739
Neararctic, 538 Nepiomorpha, 343 nigripes, Attelabus, 451, 452
nearctia, Plecia, 715, 716 perpsocoides, 346 nigripes, Orchelimum, 221
Nearctic, 540 Nepoidea, 269 nigrofasciatum, Mesolecanium, 327
nearticus, Epiclerus, 531 Nepomorpha, 269, 271,274,289 nigromaculata, Willowsia, 172
Necrobia, 375 Nepticula, 604 Nigronia, 471, 476
rufipes, 428 Nepticulidae, 574,577,596,597,597 Ninidae, 270, 277, 300
Necrophoridae, 368 Nepticuloidea, 573, 574, 604 Nionia,311
Nectar, 538, 539 Nepytia canosaria, 628 palmeri, 311, 315
Necydalis mellita, 444 Neriidae, 674, 735 Nioniinae, 311, 313, 315
Needham, ].G., 12 Nerioidea,674 nítida, Cotinis, 416
Neelidae, 169, 171, 172, 173 Nervous system nítida, Rhysella, 525, 526
Neelus minutus, 173 central, 30, 30-31 Nitidulidae, 369, 372,383,393,410,
Negha, 471, 476 sense organs or, 31-34, 34 430, 430
Nematocera, 642, 683, 707 Nesbitt's solution, 761 nivalis, Taeniopteryx, 241
Nemeobiidae, 575 Nesticidae, ll2, ll5, ll7, 126 nivea, Panchlora, 266
Nemesiidae, lll, 113, 122 Nesting, 74 nivicola, Hypogastrura, 172172
Nemestrinidae, 673, 686, 687, 722 digger wasp, 67, 67, 68 nobilitella, Cydosia, 638
Nemestrinioidea, 673 Nests Noctuidae, 575, 592, 593, 595, 636,
Nemobiinae, 224, 224 termite, 77, 254 636
Nemobius, 213 Nets larvae of, 638
Nemonychidae, 382, 451,3369 collapsible, 747, 750 Noctuinae,638
Nemoura, 242, 243 dip, 753 Noctuoidea, 575
trispinosa, 241 insect, 642, 747, 747 Nocturnal insects, collecting, 746
Neocoelidiinae, 3ll, 314, 315 Net-winged beetles, 369, 387, Nola
Neoconocephalus, 220, 221 422,423 ovilla, 640
ensiger, 220, 221 Net-winged midges, 714 sorghiella, 640
Neocurtilla hexdactyla, 225,225 Neumouridae, 241,242,243, triquetrana, 640
Neodiprion, 490, 517 243, 244 Nolidae, 575, 590, 640
lecontei,516 Neureclipsis crepuscularis, 564 Nomada, 494, 545,546
1I
I

Index 843
I

Nornadidae, 482 Nyphomyia oculatus, Alaus, 422

Nornadinae, 493, 495, 545, 545 dolichopeza, 715 oculatus, Gelastocoris, 291
nomalipes, Helorus, 536 walkeri, 715 ocultana, Dysodia, 617
Nornenclature nypsius, Homoporus, 530 Odinidae, 674
cornrnon, 59-60 Nysius ericae, 299 Odiniidae, 674, 704, 740
International Code of Nyssonidae, 482 Odonata, 14, 153, 155, 156, 159, 160,
Zoological, 56 Nyssoninae, 540 160, 163, 193-197
references on, 61 classification of, 197
scientific, 56-57
o collecting and preserving, 206
Norniinae, 543 Oak-apple gall, 535 key to farnilies of, 198
Nopalea, 326 Oaks, 534,539,605 references on, 207
Northern cloudy wing skipper, 619 Oak trees, 453, 462, 463 venation of, 197
Norvellina,311 Oak wax scale, 326 Odontoceridae, 560,561,562, 566, 569
Norway rat, 659 Oakworms, 635, 636 Odontocorynus, 454
No-see-ums, 673, 708 obcordata, Phelopsis, 436 Odontoloxozus, 697
Nosodendridae, 369, 388, 390, 424 Oberea, 445 longicomis, 735
I bimaculata, 445
Nosodendron, 424 Odontopsyllus, 652
Nosopsyllus, 652 tripunctata, 441 Odontopus, 463
notabilis, Cymoninus, 300 obesa, Clubiona, II O Odontota dorsalis, 450, 450
Notal wing processes obesa, Rhagovelia, 293 Odontotaenius, 373
anterior and posterior, 13, 13-14 obesus, Dendroctonus, 465 disjunctus, 380, 411, 411
I
notatus, Monochamus, 444 obliqua, Allograpta, 728 floridanus, 411, 411
Notch-wing georneter rnoth, 628, 629 obliquata, Penthe, 434 odorata, Ascalapha, 637, 638
Noteridae, 368, 378, 405 obliquus, Cordulegaster, 203 Oebalus pugnax, 304
I
Oecanthinae, 212, 223
I Notiophilidae,
Notodontidae,
675
575, 590, 590, 635,
obliteralis, Synclita, 617
oblongus, Tibellus, 108 Oecanthis
I 636, 636 Obrussa, 597 argentinus, 211
I
Notondontidae, 587 obscura, Scolopendra, 146 latipennis,211
Notonecta, 291 obscurofasciella, Tinagma, 606 oecellaris, Cecidomyia, 717
Notonecta insulata, 291 obscurus, Conotelus, 430 Oecleus borealis, 316
Notonectidae, 270, 291, 291 obscurus, Hylastinus, 465 Oecobidae, 112
Notonectoidea, 270, 274 Obtect pupae, 49 Oecobiidae, 124
Notostraca, 137 obtectus, Acanthoscelides, 447, 447 Oecophoridae, 574, 602, 609, 610
Notoxus, 440 occatoria, Sibovia, 312 Oedancala, 300
monodon, 440 occidentalis, Choristoneura, 614 Oederneridae, 369, 399, 438, 438
Noturn, 14 occidentalis, Frankliniella, 339 Oedipodinae, 212, 217, 217
noveboracencis, Ithycerus, 453 occidentalis, Neolepolepis, 346 Oedlidius, 317
nubilalis, Ostrinia, 617 occidentalis, Pachysphinx, 635 Oemopteryx glacialis, 241
numerosus, Brachycentrus, 561, 562, 567 occidentis, Curculio, 459 Oeneis, 626
nummitor, Ancyloxipha, 619 Occipital foramen, 15, 16 jutta, 626
Nurse bee, 81 Occipital sulcus, 15, 16 melissasemidea,626
Nursery-web spiders, 112, 118, 127 Oceanthus,213 polixtenes katahdin, 626
nutalli, Trichodes, 429 fultoni, 223 Oestridae, 674, 692, 693, 729, 732, 733
Nuts, 617 quadrimaculatus, 223 Oestrus, 693
nvicta, Solenopsis, 671 Ocellus, 33 ovis, 733
Nycteribiidae, 674 Ocetis cinerascens, 567 Ogre-faced spiders, 112, 114,124
Nycteridopsylla, 652 Ochodaeidae, 368, 379, 412 Oinophila, 605
Nyrnphalidae, 573, 575, 578, 582, Ochodaeus musculus, 412 Oinophilidae, 574
584,623 Ochrotrichia unio, 567 Olceclostera, 631
Nyrnphalinae, 584 Ochsenheimeria, 597, 607 Oldenbergiella, 700
Nymphalis antiopa, 624 vacculella, 607 oleae, Saissetia, 326
Nymphornyiidae, 673, 680, 705 Ochsenheimeriidae, 574, 600 Olethreutidae, 574
Nyrnphs, 46 Ochteridae, 270, 274, 290 Oligembia hubbardi, 248
Mayfly, 181, 182 Ochthiphilidae, 674 Oligentornata, 152
terrnite, 77 Ochyroceratidae, 112, 116, 123 Oligocene period, 154
Nyrnphulidae, 575 octomaculata, Alypia, 638, 638 Oligoneuriidae, 185, 186, 191
Nyrnphulinae, 603, 618 oculata, Harlomillisia, 174 Oligothrips oreios, 337, 338
844 Index

Oligotoma saundersíi, 248 Orchelimum, 221,221 Ortheziidae, 270, 284,286,325, 325

Oligotomidae, 248 nigripes, 221 Orthoptera, 37, 38, 153, 154, 155,
Olistheter, 38 Orchesella hexfasciata, 172 156, 157, 157, 161, 165,
Olognatha,143 Orchestes, 459 209,213,669
Omaseus, 371 Orchestia agilis, 140 classification of, 211
OmatidiurnJomatidia, 33, 34 Orchid bees, 482, 545, 546 collecting and preserving, 225
Omethidae, 369, 387, 424 Orchid scale, 327 flight in, 14
Ommatidiea, 170 Orchopeas, 652 key to families of, 212
Omoglymmius, 401 Orders parasites of, 537
Omomyia, 737 relative size of, 153 predators of, 540
Omophronidae, 368 Ordovician period, 101, 154 references on, 225
Omorgus, 412 oregonensis, Agelenopsis, 110 sound production in, 209
Oncideres cingulata, 445 oregonensis, Brachypanorpa, 665 Orthopteroid orders, 155
Oncodidae, 673 oregonensis, Listronotis, 462 Orthorrhapha, 673
Oncometopia, 311,315 oregonensis, Paratyphloceras, 658 Orthosoma brunneum, 444
undata, 310 oregonensis, Trichopsylloides, 658 Orussidae, 482, 490, 516
oncometopiae, Halictophagus, 670 ordos, Oligothrips, 337, 338 Orussoidea, 482
Oncopeltus fasciatus, 299 Oreta, 593 Orussus, 489, 490
Oncopoduridae, 169, 171, 174 Oifeliafultoni, 718, 718 oryzae, Sitophilus, 459
Oniscomorpha, 143, 144 Organ-pipe wasps, 540 Oryzaephilus surinamensis, 431
Oniscus asellus, 141 Orgilinae, 522 Oschsenehimeriidae, 607
Onocopodura, 174 Orgyia, 595, 641 Oschsenheimeriinae, 597
Onychiuridae, 169, 170, 171, leucostigma, 639, 639 Oscinidae, 674
172, 173 Orgyidae, 575 oscurus, Bromius, 448
Onychiurus, 172 Oribatida, 134, 134 Osmia, 495, 544
ramosus, 1 73 Oriental cockroach, 263, 265 Osmoderma eremicola, 416
Oocytes, 35-36 orientalis, Blatra, 265 ostiniodes, Thysanosoma, 341
Ooencyrtus, 531 Oriental sore, 708 Ostomatidae, 369
kuvanae, 527, 531 Orientation Ostomidae, 369
Oogonia, 35 kineses in, 63 Ostracoda, 137,138, 139
Oomorphus floridanus, 448 migration in, 63 Ostracoderms, 154
Oonopidae, 112, 116, 123 taxes in, 63 Ostrinia nubilalis, 617
Oothecae, 263 Oriorhynchus, 462 Otitidae, 674
operculella, Phthorimaea, 611 ovatus, 462 Otter, river, lice of, 357, 361, 362
Ophion,51O sulcatus, 462 Oulema, 447
Ophioninae, 526 Oriridar, 674 melanopus, 447, 448
Opíinae, 522 Orius, 272 Ovaries, 35, 36
Opillones, 129 insidiosus, 296, 296 Ovarioles, 35, 36,36
Opisodasys, 652 Orrnyridae, 482, 506, 532, 532 polytrophic, 36
Opisthandria, 143, 144 Ornamental trees, 328 telotrophic, 36
Opisthognathous mouthparts, 16 omata, Libumiella, 316 ovatus, Oriorhynchus, 462
Opisthorhynchous mouthparts, 16 Ornate pit scales, 326 ovatus, Pterocolus, 452
Opisthosoma, 101 Orneodidae, 575 Oviducts, 36, 36
Opisthothelae, 111 Omithophaga, 652 common, 36
Opogoma, 605 anomala, 658 lateral, 36
sacchari, 605 Orobittacus, 666 median, 36
Opomyza, 703 Orocharis saltator, 224 ovilla, Nola, 640
Opomyzidae, 674, 703, 704, 706, 740 Oropsylla, 652 ovinus, Melophagus, 731, 731
Opomyzoidea, 674 Oroya fever, 708 Ovipositor, 37, 38
Opostegidae, 574, 596, 604 Orphnephilidae, 673 ovis, Oestrus, 733
Opriastes, 454 Orsodacne atra, 445 ovis, Psoroptes, 134
Optimality theory, of behavior, 55, 66 Orsodacnidae, 369, 381, 445 Owlflies, 154,469,470,479
Opuntia, 326 Ortalidae,674 Oxacis trimaculata, 438
Orangedog swallowtail, 621 Ortalididae, 674 Oxaeidae, 482
Orange-tip butterfly, 621, 621 orteba, Beraea, 561 Oxaeinae, 543
Orbiculariae, 112 Orthezia, 325 Oxidus gracilis, 145
Orchard fruits, 539 insignis, 325 Ox warble flies, 732, 733
Orchard trees, 133 solidaginis, 325 Oxycarenidae, 270, 278, 300
.
Index 845

Oxygen panicifoliella, Cucloplasis, 608 of Lepidoptera, 526

atmospheric, 29 Panorpa, 663, 664, 665, 667 psychodids, 708
host body fluids, 29-30 helena, 663, 664, 666 transmission of, 82-83
water, 29 nuptialis, 666 twisted-wing, 154,669,670
Oxyopidae, 112, 118, 121, 127 Panorpha, 9 Parasitica, 520
Oxytorinae, 526 Panorpidae, 662, 665, 666 Parasitic flat bark beetle, 369, 397,
Oystershell scale, 324, 328, 328 Panorpids, 667 431, 431
Ozyptila pacifica, 121 Panorpodidae, 662, 664, 665, 666 Parasitic Hymenopeta, 522
Panorpoids, 156 Parasitic insects, caging with hosts, 775
p
Panphiliidae, 516 Parasitic wood wasps, 482
Pachydiplax longipennis, 205 Pantala, 205 Parasitism, 81
Pachygronthidae, 300 Pantheidae, 575, 593, 639 gregarious, 532
Pachyneuridae, 673, 682, 718 Pantomorus, 460 solitary, 532
pachyneuron, Eurytoma, 529 panurga, 492 Parasitoids, 81, 523
pachyplectrus laevis, 412 Panurginae, 492, 543 Paraspinal furrows, 486
Pachypsylla celtidismamma, 318 Paper wasps, 483, 485, 549, Paratanus, 311
Pachysphinx occidentalis, 635 550,551 Paratrioza cockerelli, 317, 318
Pachytroctidae, 342, 345, 352 Paper wasp societies Paratyphloceras, 652
pacidus, Phylocentropus, 564 nests in, 78, 78-79 oregonensis, 658
pacifica, Ozyptila, 121 Papilio, 572, 581 Paravelia, 293
pacifica, Stylops, 671 cresphontes, 620, 621 Parcoblatta spp., 266
Packing and shipping insects, 768 glaucus, 620, 621 pardalis, Eubasilissa, 568
padella, Yponomeuta, 607 polyxemes asterius, 621 Parenting, 74
Paedogenesis, 3, 37, 717 polyxenes asterius, 620 pariana, Choreutes, 615
Pagaronia, 311, 315 troilus, 621 Parlsey
Painted lady butterfly, 625 Papilioidea, 620 mines in, 616
Palaemnema domina, 200, 205 Papilionidae, 572, 573, 575, 581, Parnassian, 620
Paleacrita vemata, 628 584,620 Parnassiidae, 575
Palearctic, 610 Papilioninae, 581 Parnassiinae, 581, 620
Paleartic region, 658 Pappataci fever, 708 Pamassius, 581
Paleocene period, 154 papula, Lactura, 612 Parnidae, 368
Paleoptera, 155 Parabolocratus viridis, 312 Paronellidae, 169, 171, 174
Paleozoic era, 101, 154 Paracantha culta, 737 Parrellathrips ullmanae, 337, 338
pales, Hylobius, 463 Paraclemsia acerifoliella, 605 Parsnip, 608
palliatus, Desmocerus, 443, 445 Paracoelidia, 311, 315 Parsnip webworms, 608, 609
pallidula, Cassida, 450 Paracotalpa, 415 Parthenogenesis, 39
pallidus, Neoheterocerus, 420 Paracymbium, 109 arrhenotoky in, 39
Pallopteridae, 674, 702, 736, 736 Paradichlorobenzene, 768 thelytoky in, 39-40
Palm beetles, 369, 440 paradoxus, Lepidocyrtus, 172 parvicomis, Agromyza, 739
palmeri, Niona, 311,315 Paraglossae, 20, 20 parvula, Urodes, 615
Palmetto beetles, 369, 392, 430 Parajapygidae, 175 parvulus, Homaemus, 303
Palm leaf skeltonizer, 609 parallelopipedum, Trogoxylon, 426 parvus, Pselaphochemes, 135
Palpatores, 129 Parameres, 39, 39 Passalidae, 368,373,379,380,411
Palpifer, 19, 20,20 Parandra, 375, 442, 443 Passandridae, 369, 397, 431
Palpigradi, 102, 103, 104, 105 Parandridae, 369 pastinacella, Depressaris, 608, 609
paludatus, Stemechus, 461 Parandrinae, 442, 443 Patent-leather beetles, 368, 379, 411
Pamphiliidae, 482 Paraneotermes, 256 Pathogens, 81
Pamphilius persicum, 516 Paraphlepsius, 281, 311 host insect, 82
Pampillidae, 516 irroratus, 312 plant, 83
Panchlora nivea, 266 Paraphyletic groups, 53, 56 propagative and cydopropagative, 83
Pandeletelius, 460 Parasatoids, 87-88, 88 transmission of, 82-83
pandora, Coloradia, 633 Parasites, 521, 527, 528 Patterns of movement
pangaeus, 279 beaver, 384, 408, 658 central generator of, 62
bilineatus, 303 diff swallow, 659 fixed-action, 62
Pangaeus bilineatus, 671 ecto, 87, 87 modal-action, 62
paniceum, Stegobium, 427, 427 endo,87 Paurometabola, 155
Panic grass, 608 host insect, 82 Paurometabolous metamorphosis, 46
846 Index

Pauropoda, 147, 147,147, 147, Pentaromomorpha, 270 pestifera, Epicauta, 438

147, 147 Pentatomidae, 270, 280, 303, 304 Petaitails, 197, 202
references on, 148 Pentatominae, 302, 304 Petaluridae, 197,201,202
Pauropus sp., 147 Pentatomomorpha, 270, 293 Petauristidae, 673
Paussidae, 368 Pentazonia, 143 Peterson, A., 579
Paxyllommatinae, 497 Penthe Petiolata, 482
Paxylommatidae, 482 obliquata, 434 Petritrophic membrane, 25
Peach,516 pimelia, 434 Petrochelidon pyrrhonota, 659
Peach tree borer, 612, 613 Penthimia, 311, 314 petrolei, Helaeomyia, 642, 742
Peacock flies, 737 Penthimiinae, 311, 313, 314 Petropis rotulata, 317
Pearman,j.V, 341 Peranabrus scabricollis, 222 Peucetia viridans, 121
Pearshaped weevils, 370, 451, 452, 453 Percaroecidae, 357, 361, 362 Peusdophasmatidae, 227, 228
Pear thrips, 336 Perdita, 544 Phaenicia sericata, 730
Pecari tajacu, 659 perdix, Scolops, 316 Phaeoses, 605
Pecaroecus jayvalii, 362 pergandei, Myrmecophila, 225 phaerites politus, 407
Peccaries, lice of, 357, 361, 362 Pergidae, 482, 491, 516 Phalacridae, 369, 397, 431, 431
Peck, j., 14 Pericopidae, 575 Phalacropsylla, 652
Peck, S.B., 753 Peridroma, 638 Phalacrus politus, 432
peckius, Polites, 619 Perilampidae, 482, 497, 506, 507, 528, Phalaenidae, 575
Peck's skipper, 619 532,533 phalangioides, Pholcus, 121
Pectinate antennae, 19 Perilampus Phanaeus, 413
Pectinophora, 596 hyalinus, 533 vindex, 412
gossypiella, 610, 611 platygaster, 528 Phaneropterinae, 212, 219, 220
Pedicel, 17, 18 Periodical cicadas, 306, 307 Phanomeris phyllotomae, 524
Pediculidae, 357, 362 Periplaneta, 264 Phantom crane flies, 673
Pediculus humanus capitis, 362 Peripsocidae, 342,343, 350,351,353 Pharynx, 24,24
Pedilidae, 369 Peripsocus, 343 Phasiidae, 674
Pedilus lugubris, 440 periscelidactylus, Geina, 616 Phasmatida, 155
pedo, Sega, 222 Periscelidae, 674 Phasmatidae, 227, 228
pegala, Cercyonis, 626 Periscelididae, 674, 703, 740 Phasmatodea, 153, 156, 164, 211
Pegomya hyoscyami, 730 Perithemis tenera, 204 classification of, 227
pela, Ericerus, 327 Perkinsiella saccharicida, 316 key to families of, 227
Pelecinidae, 482, 499, 500, 535 Perla, 241 Phasmatoptera, 153
Pelecinus polyturator, 535 Perlampids, 533 Phasmida, 153
Pelecorhynchidae, 673, 686, 720 Perlesta placida, 245 Pheidole, 553
Peleopodidae, 574, 600, 610 Perlidae, 241, 242,244,245 Phelopsis obcordata, 435
Pelidnota punctata, 415, 415 Perlinella Phengodes plumosa, 423
pellionella, Tinea, 605, 605 drymo, 245 Phengodidae, 384,387,400,423
pellucida, Cannula, 217 ephyre, 245 Pheromones
Pelocoris, 271, 291 Perlodidae, 241, 244, 245 alarm, 79
femoratus, 291 Permian period, 154, 155, 662 in bee colonies, 80
Peltodytes, 404 permutata, Aphrophora, 310 in cornrnunication, 76
edentulus, 405 perniciousus, Quadraspidious, 327,328 trail-rnaking, 79
Peltoperla, 244 Pero morrisonarius, 628 Phidippus audax, 124
Peitoperlidae, 241,241,243,245 Peromyscopsylla, 652 Philaenus, 280
Pemphigus Peronyma sarcinata, 737 spumarius, 309,309
populitransversus, 321 Perophoridae, 575 Philanthidae, 482
vagabundus, 322 Peroplaneta, 265 Philanthinae, 540
Pemphredon inornatus, 541 Perothopidae, 368 Philanthini, 540
Pemphrendonidae, 482 Perothops, 422 Philanthus ventilabris, 542
Pencillata, 143 perplexus, Idiomacromerus, 529 philenor, Battus
penetrans, Tunga, 657 perpsocoides, Nepiomorpha, 346 Phileurus, 415
Penis (aedeagus), 36,37,39,39 Persea, 615 philodice, Colias, 622
Pennants, 204 persicum, Pamphilius, 516 Philodrornidae, 112, 119, 128
pennsylvanicus, Camponotus, 554 persicus, Argas, 131 Philopotamidae, 560,562, 563, 566
pennsylvanicus, Chauliognathus, 424 Persimmon, 632 Philopotamoidea, 560
pennsylvanicus, Gryllus, 211, 224, 225 personatus, Reduvius, 296, 297 Philopteridae, 357, 359, 360, 362
..

Index 847

Philotarsidae, 342, 348, 349, 353 Phylogenetic systematics, 53, 55 Pink bollworm, 610
Phílothennus, 433 Phylogeny, of Hexapoda, 154, 156 Pink scavenger caterpillar, 610
Phithiraptera, 153, 154, 156 Phyloxera Pinning
Phlaeothripidae, 335, 339 grape, 322, 323 beetles, 756
Phlebotominae, 708 Phylumlphyla, 56 dragonl1ies, 756
Phlegyas, 300 Phymata,271 grashoppers, 756
Phlocidae, 112, 115, 116, 121, 123 fasciata georgiensis, 297 hoppers, 756
Phobocampe unicincta, 525 Phymatinae, 297 Lepidoptera, 642, 756, 756
Phoenícoccus marlatti, 327 Physapoda, 154 Pinning blocks, 756
Phoenicococcidae, 270, 288, 327 Physegenua, 696 Pinning boxes, 764
Pholcus phalangioides, 121 Physocephala, 691 Pinning specimens, 755, 756
pholus, Lycomorpha, 640, 640 furcillata, 736 Pins, insect, 753, 755
Phoridae, 674, 688, 706, 727, 727 Phytodiectus vulgaris, 525, 526 Piophíla, 696, 697
Phonnía regina, 730 Phytoliriomyza clara, 739, 740 casei, 736
Photinae, 261 Phytomyza aquílegivora, 739, 740 Piophilidae, 674, 696, 697, 700,
Photographing insects, 775 Phytomyzidae, 674 736, 736
Photomicrographic equipment, 775 Phytophagous (herbivorous) Piophiliidae, 700
Photoperiod, 50 arthropods,81 pipiens, Culex, 711
Phragmata, 10, 10 Piazorhinus, 463 Pipiza femoralis, 729
phragmitella, Lymnaecia, 610 picea, Zenoa, 421 Pipunculidae, 674, 690, 692, 692, 727
Phratora, 449 picipes, Melanolestes, 297 Pipunculus, 692
Phrydiuchus, 462 pictípes, Simulium, 715 Pirate spiders, 108, 112, 117
Phrygamidia califomíca, 636 Picture-winged flies, 674, 738, 739 Pisauridae, 112, 118, 127
Phryganea cinerea, 568 Pieridae, 573, 575,582, 584,621 Pissodes, 463
Phryganeidae, 560,561,568, 569 Pierids, 621 strobi, 461, 463
Phryganeoidea, 560 Pierinae, 621 Pissurina sp., 121
Phryneidae, 673 Pieris rapae, 621 Pistol casebearer, 609
Phthiraptera, 162, 356 Piesmatoidea, 270 Pisuaridae, 121
cIassification of, 356 Pigment, of corneagenous cells, 33-34 Pitrufquenia coypus, 361
collecting and preserving, 363 Pigweed, 298, 641 Pit scales, 270, 326
key to families of, 357 pikei, Chrysops, 722 false, 270, 326
references on, 363 pílicomis, Schizocerella, 517 ornate, 270, 326
Phtorimae operculella, 611 PiII beetles, 368, 390, 417, 419 placida, Perlesta, 245
Phyciodes, 624 Pillbugs, 140, 141 plana, Adelina, 437
Phycitidae, 575 PiII millipedes, 144 Planidia, 533
Phycitinae, 617 pimelia, Penthe, 434 Planídia, 533
Phycodromidae, 674 Pimoidae, 112, 117,126 Planidium, 722
Phygadeuon subfuscus, 525 pimpinella, Epennenia, 616 Planipennia, 469, 476
Phygadeuontinae, 525, 526 Pimplinae, 524, 526 planipennis, Agrilus, 417
Phyllapalpus, 213 Pinchingbugs, 368, 379, 411, 411 Plankton net, 141
Phyllocnistidae, 574 Pine Plannipennia, 476
Phyllocnistis, 606, 607 ponderosa, 621 Planococcus citri, 325
Phyllocoptes variabilis, 133 white, 418 plantaginea, Dysaphis, 318
Phyllomyzidae, 674 Pine aphids, 270 Plant bugs, 269, 270,272, 277,
Phyllonorcyter, 602 Pine beetles 294,295
Phyllopalpus mountain, 465 Planthopper parasites, 611
pulchellus, 224 southern, 465 Planthoppers, 270, 315, 315-317
Phyllophaga, 373 western, 465 Plantlice, 270, 319
portoricensis, 414 Pine butterl1y, 621 jumping, 317
Phyllophaga sp., 414 Pine-cone willow gall, 717, 717 Plant relationships
Phyllorerans, 322 Pine gall aphid, 321 myrmecochory, 84
phyllotomae, Phanomeris, 524 Pine needle scale, 328 pollination, 83-84
Phylloxera, 282 Pines, 418, 633 Plants
caryaecaulis, 323, 323 Pine-tree katydid, 210, 212 herbivorous, 85-86
Phylloxeridae, 270,280, 322 píni, Euderces, 443 insectivorous, 86
Phylocentropus placidus, 564 pini, Ips, 464, 465 Plasmodium, 713
Phylogenetic analysis software, 55 pinifoliae, Chionaspis, 328 Plasterer bees, 482, 543
848 Index

Plastoceridae, 369 Plum curculio, 463, 463, 526 Polyphaga, 368, 376, 406
Plate-thigh beetles, 368, 391, 416, 416 Plume moths, 616 Polyphagidae, 263, 264,265
Plathemis, 195 grape, 616 polyphemus, Antheracea, 632, 634, 634
Iydia, 204, 204 many-plume, 616 Polyphylecty, 53, 56
platura, Hylema, 730 plumosa, Phengodes, 423 Polyplacidae, 357, 359, 363
Platycentropus radiatus, 568 Plumose antennae, 19 Polyplacidae, 362
Platydesmida, 143, 144, 145 plumosus, Chironomus, 709 Polyplax spinulosa, 359
platygaster, Perilampus, 528 Plusaetis, 652 Polypore fungus beetles, 369, 400, 434
Platygaster hiemalis, 537 Plusiidae, 575 Polypria cruxrufa, 441
Platygastridae, 482, 497, 501,501, Plusiinae, 638 Polypriidae, 369, 400, 441
537,538 Plutella xylostella, 608 Polyseal caps, 761
Platygastrids Plutellidae, 574, 602, 608 Polysphinctini, 526
parasite of, 530 Pny~a, 684, 705, 718 Polystoechotes, 472
Platygastroidea, 482, 485, 501, scabei, 719 punctatus, 478
520,537 Poanes hobomok, 619 Polystoechotidae, 470, 472, 478
Platypezidae, 674, 690, 692, 701, 728 Podagrionidae, 482 Polytomy, 55
Platypodidae, 370 Podapion gallicola, 453 polyturator, Pelecinus, 535
Platypodinae, 455, 464, 464 Podisminae, 212, 216, 216 polyxenes asterius, Papilio, 620
Platypsylla, 408 Podisus maculiventris, 303 Polyzoniida, 143, 144, 145
Platypsyllidae, 368 Podopinae, 302 Polyzonium bivirgatum, 145
platypterus, Bruchophagus, 529 Podura aquatica, 172, 173 Pomace flies, 675, 741
Platypus, 375, 464 Poecilanthrax pometaria, Alsophila, 628, 629
wilsoni, 464 alpha, 724 pomi, Aphis, 320
platyrhynchus, Dorycephalus, 312 signatipennis, 724 pomifoliella, Bucculatrix, 606
Platyrrhinidae, 370 Poecilocapsus lineatus, 294,295 pomonella, Cydia, 613, 614
Platystictidae, 197, 200, 205, 299 Pogonomyrmex, 553 pomonella, Rhagoletis, 738
Platystomatidae, 674, 696, 702, 738 Poison ivy, 517 Pompilidae, 483
Platystomidae, 370 Poison jaws, 146 Pompilids, 539
Play dead, 374, 417 Polistes, 511, 550 Pompillidae, 511, 512, 549
Pleasing fungus beetle, 369, 431, fuscatus, 551 Pond damsels, 197, 199,205,206
432,3979 Polistes, in paper wasp societies, 78 ponderosae, Dendroctonus, 465
Plecia nearctia, 715, 716 Polistinae, 550, 550 Ponderosa pine, 621
Plecoptera, 153, 155, 156, 160, Polites peckius, 619 Pondhawk, 204
163,239 politum, Trypoxylon, 541 Ponds, 181
classification of, 239 politus, Phalacrus, 432 Ponera, 491, 553
collecting and preserving, 245 polixtenes katahdin, Oeneis, 626 Ponerinae, 491
key to families of, 242 Pollen, 428,477, 538,539,543 Ponpilids, 549
references on, 245 Pollination, 1,83-84 pons, Eusattus, 437
Plectreuridae, 112, 116, 123 insect, 539 Popil/ia japonica, 414
Pleidae, 274 wind, 539 popil/iavora, Tiphia, 547,548
Pleistocene period, 154, 155 Polxenida, 143, 144 Poplar borer, 441, 445
Pleochaetis, 652 Polyandry, 73 Poplar leaves, 321
Pleocoma, 412 Polycentropidae, 559 Poplars, 539, 631
fimbriata, 412 Polycentropodidae, 560, 564, 565, 566 populitransversus, Pemphigus, 321
Pleocomidae, 368, 379, 411 Polycentropus interruptus, 559 porcinus, Pulex, 659
Plesmatidae, 270, 276, 298, 298 polychroma, Eulema, 546 Poricondylinae, 718
Pleural apophysis, 10, 11 Polyctenidae, 270, 296 portlandia, Enodia, 626
Pleural wing process, 9, 10, 13, 14 Polydesmida, 143, 144 Portulaca,517
Pleurite, 10 Polyembryony, 3, 44, 520 Postembryonic growth, 44-45
Pleuron, 7, 8, 10, 10 polyergus, 554 Posterior notal wing processes, 13
Pleuroneura, 516 lucidus, 554 Posterior tentorial pits, 15, 16, 17
Pleuropodism, 8 Polygenis, 652 Postgena, 15, 16
plexippus, Danaus, 626, 627 gwyni, 653 Postgenal bridge, 17
Pliconeoptera, 155 Polygonia, 624 postica, Hylobius, 463
Pliocene period, 154 Polygynous family postica, Hypera, 461
Plodia interpunctella, 617 Polymitarcyidae, 186, 191 Postnotum, 9, 10, 10
Plum, 516 Polyneoptera, 155 Postoccipital suture, 15, 16
 Index 849

Potamanthidae, 184, 185, 186, 191 Prodoxidae, 596, 597, 604 Pseudocaecillidae, 342, 354
Potassium cyanide, 749 Prodoxus, 604 Pseudocaecillius citricola, 354
Potassium hydroxide, 761 Produridae, 169, 171, In, 173 Pseudochorutes aureofasiatus, 173
Potato, 449, 635 Profenusa canadensis, 518 Pseudococcidae, 270,286
Po tato flea beetle, 449 Progressive provisioning, 540 Pseudococcus
Potato leafhopper, 310 Projection apparatus, 775 affinis, 325
Potato psyllid, 317 Prolegs, 9 longispinus, 325
Potato stalk borer, 461 Promachus, 687 Pseudoerinna jonesi, no
Potato tuberworm, 611 promethea, Callosamia, 632, 634, 634 pseudogyrtes, Ctenophthalamus, 658
Potomanthidae, 182 Prominents, 636 Pseudolucanus, 380
potoricensis, Phyllophaga, 414 Promotion, 14 Pseudolucanus capriolus, 411
Potter wasps, 483, 549, 550 Pronation, 14 Pseudomasaris, 513, 550
Poultry lice, 356 Pronunciation, 58 Pseudomyrmicinae, 553
Powderpost beetles, 426, 426 Pronymphal membranes, 44 Pseudopaeodes, 579
Powerpost termites, 256 Prophalangopsidae, 212, 214,222 Pseudophyllinae, 212, 219, 221
Praedatophasma, 232 propinqua, Isotoma, In Pseudopomyzidae, 674, 704, 735
Praedatophasma maraisi, 232 Proprioception, 32 Pseudopostega, 604
Prayidae,574 Propsilloma columbianum, 536 Pseudopupa,438
Praying mantis, 261 Propylene glycol, 751 Pseudoscorpions, 135, 135
Precambrian era, 154, 155 Prorhinotermes, 254, 256 pseudospretella, Hoffmannophila, 609
Predaceous beetles, 368, 405, 406 prorsa, Acmaeodera, 419 Pseudotettix, 311
Predaceous diving beetles, 368, Prosoma, 101 pseudotsugae, Dendroctonus, 464, 465
405,406 Prostigmata, 132 Psila rosae, 735
Predaceous insects, 517 Prostomidae, 369, 394, 437 Psilidae, 674, 704, 735
caging with prey, 775 Prostomis mandibularis, 437 Psillidae, 694, 695
Predation, 81 Protenomide, 170 Psilocephala aldrichi, 726
Predators, 88-90, 90 Protenor belfragei, 301 Psilonyx annulatus, 724
Preserving insects, 755 Protentomidae, 169, 170 Psilotreta
in fluid, 760 Prothoracic glands, 44, 48-49 frontalis, 561
Pretarsus, 11, 11 Prothorax, 9, 9 Psilotreta sp., 562
pretiosus, Hemipsocus, 354 Protocerebrum, 30,30 psittacei, Hectopsylla, 652, 657
Priacma serrata, 401 Protoneura cara, 205 Psittopsylla, 652
Price, M.A., 357 Protoneuridae, 197, 199,200,205 Psoa maculata, 426
Primitive carrion beetles, 408, 409 Protoplasa, 681 Psocidae, 342, 344, 347, 348, 351, 354
Primitive crane fijes, 673 fitchii, 708 Psocids, 154, 162,341
Primitive weevils, 370, 451 Prototrupoidea, 537 psocoides, Mackenziella, 174, 174
princeps, Epitheca, 203 Protoxaea, 544 Psocomorpha, 342, 353
Prioninae, 442 Protura, 9, 152, 153, 155, 156, 161, 169 Psocoptera, 162, 341
Prionocyphon limbatus, 416 key to families of, 170 classification of, 341
Prionoglaridae, 344, 345,345, 351 Proturans, 152, 169 collecting and preserving, 354
Prionous imbricomis, 444 Proventriculus, 24 key to families of, 342
Prionoxystus, 586 pruninosia, Tibian, 305, 603 references on, 354
robiniae, 613, 614 Prygotidae, 697 Psoidae, 369
Priophorus morio, 518 Pryraloidea, 575 Psoquillidae, 346, 351
Priority, in nomeclature, 58 Psalididae, 236 Psorophora, 683, 712, 713
Pristiphora erichsonii, 518 Pscoptera, 153, 154, 156, 159 Psoropitidae, 134
Probethylus schwarzi, 538 Pselaphidae, 368, 409 Psoroptes ovis, 134
Procaine vials, 761 Pselaphochemes parvus, 135 Psychidae, 574, 588, 600, 603
Procampodea macswaini, 175 Pselaphognatha, 143 Psychiidae, 606
Procempodeodae, 169, 175 psenes, Blastophaga, 529, 532 Psychoda, 683
Prociphilus tessellatus, 318, 321 Psephenidae, 368,375,390,391, Psychodidae, 673, 683, 685, 708
Proctodaeum, 23, 25,43 420,421 Psychodinae, 708
Proctotrupidae, 482, 500, 501,501, Psephenus, 375 Psychodomorpha, 673
520,536 herricki, 420, 421 Psycholids, 708
Proctotrupoidea, 482, 485, 501, 535 Pseudaletia unipuncta, 637, 638, 639 Psychomyia jlavida, 561
Procuticle, 6, 6 Pseudergates, 254 Psychomyiidae, 560, 560, 561, 565
Prodidomidae, 112, 119, 127 Pseudironidae, 186, 189, 191 Psychomytidae, 561
 --

850 Index

Psylla pubis, Pthirus, 363 Pyralid

alder, 318 Publications coccid-eating, 617
apple sucker, 318 government, 776 Pyralidae, 573, 575, 584, 585, 585, 592,
gall-making, 318 sta te, 776 617
pear, 318 puchellus, Nallacius, 477 Pyralinae, 585, 617
wooly alder, 318 puera, Hyblaea, 616 Pyralis, 585
Psylla, 282 pugnax, Oebalus, 304 farinalis, 617
fioccosa, 317, 318 pulchella, Acmaeodera, 418 Pyraloidea, 585, 617
Psyllid pulchella, Libellula, 204,204 Pyraustidae, 575
alder, 31 7 pulchella, Marava, 237 Pyraustinae, 609, 618
potato, 317 pulchellus, Phyllopalpus, 224 Pyrginae, 579
Psyllidae, 270, 280, 282, 285, 317 Pulex, 652 Pyrgota iundata, 736
Psyllids, 154 irritans, 657, 659 Pyrgotidae, 674, 736
parasites or, 534 porcinus, 659 Pyrgus communis, 619
Psyllipsocidae, 341, 343, 344, 345, simulans, 659 pyrina, Zeuzera, 613
345, 351 pulicaria, Allocoris, 303 Pyrochroidae, 369, 398, 399, 400, 440,
Psyllipsocus, 343, 344, 345 Pulicidae, 652, 656, 659 440
Psylloidea, 270 Pulicinae, 652, 657, 659 Pyrochroid beetle, 440
Ptecticus, 675, 719 Pulicoidea, 652 Pyroderces rileyi, 610, 610
Pterocolus ovatus, 452 pulsatorium, Trogium, 346 Pyrophorus, 422
Pterolonchidae, 574 Pulse, 209 Pyrrharctia isabella, 641
Pteromalidae, 50, 482, 502, 508, 527, Pulvillus, 11, 11 Pyrrhocoridae, 270, 300, 301
531,532,5072 Pulvinaria inumerabilis, 326, 326 pyrrhonota, Petrochelidon, 659
Pteromalids, 531, 532 punctata, Hylobius, 463 Pythidae, 369 399, 400, 440
Pteromalinae, 532 punctatum, Anobium, 427, 428 Pytho niger, 436
Pteromalus, 527 punctatus, Mycetophagus, 432
cerealellae, 532 punctatus, Polystoechotes, 478 Q
eurymieurytheme, 530 punctella, Atteva, 607 Quadraspidious perniciousus, 327,328
Pteromarcyidae, 241, 242,242,243, punctipennis, Anopheles, 710, 711 quadricolor, Gomphus, 195
245 punctulatus, Cryptocerus, 265 quadrigeminata, Eburia, 444, 445
Pteromarcys, 242, 243 Punkies, 673, 708, 708 quadrigibbus, Anthonomus, 459
Pteronarcys dorsata, 245 Pupae, 46-48, 48 quadriguttatum, Scaphidium, 410
Pterophoridae, 575, 584 adecticous, 49 quadrimaculatus, Anopheles, 711
Pterophoroidea, 575, 616 coarctate, 49 quadrimaculatus, Oceanthus, 223, 224
Pterophylla camellifolia, 221,221 common mosquitoes, 710 quadrisignatus, Glischrohilus, 420
Pterotermes, 256 decticous, 49 Queen
Pterothorax, 9, 10 exarate, 49 ant, 79
Pterygota, 37, 38, 39, 39 obtect, 49 honey bee, 80, 81
Pterygota, 153 types or, 49 termite, 78, 253
Pthiridae, 357, 361, 363 Pupipara,674 quinquemaculata, Manduca, 635, 635
Pthirus purchasi, 1cerya, 434 quinquenotadus, Episyron, 549
gorillae, 363 purchasi, Iceryae, 741 quinquevittatus, Tabanus, 722
pubis, 360, 363 puritanus, Mimetus, 108
Ptilidae, 368, 408 Purshia, 629 R
Ptiliidae, 382 pusilla, Fenusa, 518 Rabbits, fleas or, 659
Ptilodactylidae, 369, 388, 420 Pycnogonida, 135 rabida, Rabidosa, 121
Ptilodexia, 689 Pycnoscelus surinamensis, 266 Rabidosa rabida, 121
Ptiloneuridae, 342,344,348, Pygidicranidae, 236, 236 Racket organs, 135
349,353 pygmaeus, Cephus, 518 Racoons, fleas or, 659
Ptinidae, 369 Pygmy backswimmers, 270, 292 radiatus, Platycentropus, 568
Ptinus Pygmy grasshopper, 212, Radius vein, 12
californicus, 428 218,218 Ragwort, 622
fur, 426 Pygmy grasshoppers, 157 Rain beetles, 368, 379, 411
Ptychopteridae, 673, 681 Pygmy mole cricket, 212 Ramondionuminae, 455, 459
Ptychopteromorpha, 673 pylades, Thyorybes, 619 ramosus, Onychiurus, 173
pubescens, Himatolabus, 452 Pyloric valve, 25 rapae, Ceutorhynchus,462
pubescens, Naokermes, 325 Pyragropsis buscki, 236 rapae, Pieris, 621
f

Index 851

Raphidia adnixa, 476 Resin base Rhopobota naevana, 615

Raphidiidae, 469, 470, 471, 476, 476 for slide mounts, 762 Rhyacophila
Raphidiodea, 469 Respiratory system, 28, 28-29 fenestra, 559
Raphidioptera, 469, 476, 476, 476 restuans, Culex, 711 lobifera, 562
Raphihidiid snakeflies, 469 Reticulated beetles, 368, 378, 401 Rhyacophilidae, 559, 560,563,567
rapidus, Adelphocoris, 294, 395 reticulatum, Calopteron, 423 Rhyacophiloidea, 560
Raptophasma, 232 reticulatus, Eusattus, 366 Rhychopsyllus, 652
Rasnitsyn, A.P., 481 Reticulitermes, 256 Rhynchites, 452
Raspberres, 605, 611 jlavipes, 253, 256, 257, 258 Rhynchitidae, 370
Raspberry,433 Retinaculum, 170 Rhynchitinae, 451, 452
Raspberry cane borer, 445 Rhabdon, 33, 34 Rhynchophora, 369
Raspberry leaf sawfly, 518 Rhabdophaga strobiloides, 717 Rhynchophoridae, 370
raterna, Rhadinopsylla, 655 Rhadinopsylla, 652 Rhynchophorus cruentatus, 459
Ratlouse,spined,359 fraterna, 655 Rhynchophthirina, 356, 357
Rats Rhadinopsyllinae, 652, 658 Rhyopsocus, 341
fleas of, 659 Rhagio mystaceus, 721 Rhyparobia, 266
lice of, 357, 359, 361, 362 Rhagionidae, 673, 683, 686, 687, maderae, 266
Rearing 688, 720 Rhyparochromidae, 270, 272,277,
ants, 773, 776 Rhagium inquisitor, 443 298,299
bees, 773 Rhagoletis pomonella, 738 Rhyphidae, 673
caterpillars, 773 Rhagonidae, 720, 721 Rhysella nitida, 526
mosquitoes, 772 Rhagovelia, 293 Rhysinnae, 524,525
termites, 772, 773 obesa, 293 Rhysodes, 373
wood-boring insects, 772 Rhamnaceae, 603 Rhysodidae, 368, 372, 378, 401
Rearing insects Rhaphidophoridae, 212, 214,219 Rhyssematus, 454
ants, 773, 776 Rhinoceros beetles, 413, 415 Rhyssodidae, 368
aquatic, from immature stages, 772 Rhinophoridae, 674, 694, 729, 733 Rhytidops jloridensis, 739
bees, 773 Rhinotermes, 254 Richardiidae, 674, 701, 702, 737
caterpillars, 773 Rhinotermitidae, 255,255, 256 Richards, O.W, 483, 486
cockroaches, 772 Rhinotoridae, 675 Ricinidae, 357, 361
mosquitoes, 772 Rhipiceridae, 368, 372, 375, 383,389, Ricinucleids, 128
termintes, 772, 773 41 7, 417 Ricinulei, 128
wood-boring insects, 772 Rhipiphoridae, 369, 669 Riek and Kukalová-Peck wing
reclusa, Loxosceles, 121 Rhizopertha dominica, 426 nomenclature, 197
Recluse, brown, 106, 123, 123 Rhizophagidae, 369 Riker mount, 759, 759, 766, 767
RecLUm,24, 25 Rhizophagus bipunctatus, 430 riley, Pyroderces, 610, 610
Redbugs, 133, 134 Rhodobaenus, 460 Riodinidae, 575
Red bugs, 270, 300, 301 tredecimpunctatus, 459 Riodininae, 622
Red cross beetle, 369, 400, 441 Rhogadinae, 522 riparia, Ephydra, 742, 742
Redheaded pine sawfly, 517 Rhogovelia, 272 riparis, Labidura, 237
Red-humped caterpillar, 636 rhombicus, Limnephilus, 564, 567 Ripiphoridae, 369, 398, 400, 435
Red milkweed beetle, 445 Rhopalidae, 270,272, 301,302 Rivellia, 696
Reduviidae, 271,296,297,297 Rhopalocera (butterflies), 573 Robber flies, 673, 676, 687, 723
Reduvioidea, 270 Rhopalomeridae,674 robertsoni, Fitchiella, 316
Reduviuspersonatus,296, 297 Rhopalomyia chrysanthemi, 718 robiniae, Prionoxystus, 613, 614
Reflex(es),62 Rhopalopsyllidae, 520, 652, 653, 653, Rock crawlers, 153, 155, 156, 211, 228
regalis, Citheronia, 633 655,656,658 Rocky Mountain spotted fever, 131
regina, Phormia, 730 Rhopalopsyllus, 652 Rodent nests, 537
Relapsing fever, 131,362 Ctenocephalides, 652 Rodents
Relaxing, 755 Rhopalosiphum fitchii, 320 !ice of, 357, 359, 361, 362
Relaxing chamber, 755 Rhopalosoma, 510 Rodolia cardinalis, 434, 741
religiosa, Mantis, 261 Rhopalosomatidae, 483, 510, 513, Roesler, R., 341
Remotion, 14 515,549 Romalea,213
Reproductipm, 2 Rhopalosomidae, 483 microptera, 215
Reproductive system Rhopalotria Romaleidae, 214, 215
female, 35-37, 36 mollis, 451 Root-eating beetles, 369, 392, 430
male, 37-39, 39 slossoni, 451 Root gnats, 673, 718
852 Index

Ropalomeridae, 674, 699, 739 Saginae, 212, 222 Sawflies, 154,483,485,516,522

Rophitinae, 543 Sagridae, 369 birch leafminer, 524
Ropronia, 536 Saissetia cherry, 518
garmani, 536 coJJeae,326 common, 482, 517,518
Roproniidae, 482, 500, 501, 536 oleae, 326 conifer, 482, 491, 517
roralis, Melanophora, 733 Salatoria, 153 elm, 517
rosae, Aulacaspis, 328 Saldidae, 270,272, 277,293 hawthorn, 518
rosae, Diplolepis, 535 Salicella, Cheimophila, 609 larch,518
rosae, Psila, 735 salicis, Heterothrips, 336 larvae of, 516, 572
Rose scale, 328 salicis, Leucoma, 640 leaf-mining, 524
Rosickyiana, 652 salignus, Lachnus, 320 leaf-rolling, 482
Ross, H.H., 483, 484 Saliva, 81 parasites of, 526, 533
Rossiana montana, 564 in digestion, 26 predators of, 537
Rossianidae, 560,564, 565, 568 nurse bee, 81 raspberry leaf, 518
Rostrum, 22, 22 Salivary channel, 21,21, 22,22 redheaded pine, 517
rotulata, Petropis, 317 Salivary gland, 20 stem, 482, 486, 518, 519
Round dance, of honey bee, 80 Salpingidae, 369, 383, 394, 398,440 stout-bodied, 517
Round fungus beetle, 407 saltator, Orocharis, 224 web-spinning, 483
Rove beetles, 368, 383, 384, 386, Salticidae, 112, 119, 121, 124, 128 wheat stem, 518, 519
409,410 Salticus scenicus, 121 Saw-toothed grain beetles, 431, 431
Royal jelly, 80, 81 Salt-marsh caterpillar, 641 Sawyer beetles, 444, 444
Royal moths, 631, 632 Saludua,272 scabei,Pnyxia, 719
Royal palm bugs, 270, 293 Sandalidae, 368 scabricollis, Peranabrus,222
Royal walnut moth, 632 Sandalus, 373, 417 scabrosus, Trox, 412
RTA clade, 112 petrophya, 417 Scale insects, 25, 154, 324,
RTA (retrolateral tibial apophysis Sand cricket, 212, 219 324, 538
clade), 112, 126 Sand fleas, 140, 140 predators of, 531
rubicunda, Dryocampa, 633 Sand flies, 673, 708 Scales
rubicundulum, Sympetrum, 198 disease vector, 708 armored, 270, 327
rubovillosum, Xestobium, 427, 427 Sand wasps, 540, 542 bark-crevice, 326
rubra, Dactylocerca, 248 sanguinea, Formica, 554 bur oak, 325, 325
rubrocinctus, Selenothrips, 334 sanguinipes, Melanoplus, 217,217 butteriy, 571
ruja, Aplodontia, 658 sanguinolenta, Aceratagallia, 312 Chinese wax, 327
rufipes, Necrobia, 428 San Jose scale, 327 cottony maple, 326, 326
Rugs santyisuga, Triatoma, 297 date, 327
cotton stainers, 270, 300, 301 Sap beetles, 369, 393, 430, 430 elm, 326
red, 270, 300,301 Saperda, 445 ensign, 323, 325, 325
Ruma, 623 calcarata, 441, 445 false armored, 327
Rust flies, 674, 735 candida, 445 felt, 326
Rutelinae, 414 tridentata, 445 gall-like, 326
rutilana, Aethes, 615 vestita, 441 grass,326
Rygchium dorsale, 550 Sapromyzidae, 674 greenhouse, 326
Ryralidae, 575 Sapygidae, 483, 514, 548 lac,327
Rysella nitida, 525 sarcinata, Peronyma, 737 oystershell, 324, 328, 328,328
Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis, 731 pit,326
S San Jose, 327, 328
Sarcophagidae, 674, 694, 729,
sabalella, Homaledra, 609 730, 733 50ft, 326
saccharalis, Diactraea, 617, 617 Sarcoptidae, 134 terrapin, 327
sacchari, Opogoma, 605 Sassafras tree, 463 tortoise, 326
saccharina, Lepisma, 179 saturejae, Holocranum, 300 tree, 325, 325, 326, 328
sacer, Scarabaeus, 413 Saturnids, 631, 631, 632 tulip tree, 326
Sack-bearer moths, 629, 630 Saturniidae, 573, 575, 591,591, 631, wax, 325, 326
Saddleback caterpillar, 526, 612 631,632 Scaly crickets, 225
parasites of, 526 Satyrid butterflies, 626 Scanning electrom microscope, 775
Saddlebags, 205 Satyrinae, 573, 575, 581, 584, 626 Scape, 17, 18
Saddle-case makers, 560, 567 Satyrs, 626 Scaphidiidae, 368, 409
Saenis, 184, 185 saucium, Amphiagrion, 206 Scaphidiumquadriguttatum, 410
1

Index 853

Scaphinotus, 401 schlaegeri, Antaeotricha, 608 Screwworm fly, 731

guyotis, 402 Schoenobiidae, 575 scriptus, Sepedophilus, 410
Scaphinus muticus, 442 Schreckensteiniidae, 574, 602 Scrobe, 370, 370
Scaphoideus, 311 Schreckensteinioidea, 574, 615 scrophylariae, Anthrenus, 425
Scaphytopius, 311 Schuh, R.T., 269 scrophylariae, Attagenus, 424
Scapoideus, 311 schwarzi, Probethylus, 538 scrutator, Calosoma, 402
luteolus, 315 Sciara, 684 Scud
Scapteriscus, 225 Sciaridae, 526, 673, 682, 705, 718 freshwater, 140
Scarabaeidae, 368, 370, 373, 411, 412 parasites of, 526 Scudderia, 213, 221
key to subfamilies of, 413 Sciarids, 718 furcata, 222
parasites of, 535 Scientific nomenclature Scudderoa, 11
Scarabaeid beetle capita\ization in, 57 Scuds
parasites of, 722 priority in, 58 freshwater, 140
Scarabaeiformia, 368 roles in, 56-57 sea, 140
Scarabaeiform larvae, 49 types in, 58 scutellaris, Stenocolus, 421
Scarabaeinae, 413 Sciomyzidae, 674, 691, 696, 697, 700, Scutelleridae, 270,302,303
scarabaeoides, Sphaeridium, 407 701, 739, 739 Scutellum, 9, 10
Scarabaeus sacer, 413 Sciomyzoidea, 674 Scutigera coleoptrata, 146
Scarab beetles, 368, 370, 412 Sciophilinae, 684 Scutigerella immaculata, 148
parasites of, 549 Scirtidae, 368, 384, 389, 390, 416, 417 Scutigeromorpha, 146, 147
plant-feeding, 414,415 Sclerite, 15, 15 Scutum, 9, 10
Scarcophaga, 695 axillary, 13, 13 Scydmaenidae, 395, 408
Scarhophagidae, 729 body wall, 7, 7 Scythrididae, 574
Scarites subterraneus, 402 cervical, 9, 9 Scythridinae, 602
Scathophaga, 699 Sclerogibbidae, 482, 508, 514, 538 Scythris magnatella, 609
Scathophagidae, 674, 693, 695, Sclerogibbids, 538 Scythropiidae, 574
699, 733 Scleroracus, 311 Scytodidae, 112, 115, 123
Scatomyzidae,674 Scobicia declivis, 426 Sea \ions, \ice of, 357, 361, 362
Scatophagidae, 674 Scolia, 513 Seals, \ice of, 357, 361, 362
Scatopidae, 705 dubia, 549 Seam squirrel, 362
Scatopsidae, 673, 705, 718 Sco\iidae, 483, 511, 512,513, 520, 549 Sea scuds, 140
Scavenger beetles Scolopendra, 146 Sea spiders, 135
minute brown, 369, 386, 434 obscura, 146 Seaweed flies, 674, 738, 738
water, 368, 386, 406 Scolopendrella sp., 147 Sebastiana, 615
Scavenger flies, 673 Scolopendridae, 147 Secondary segmentation, 8
black, 674, 739 Scolopendromorpha, 146, 147 Sectorial cross vein, 12
minute, 718 Scolophorous organ (chordotonal Secundeisemia mexicana, 532
Sce\ionidae, 482, 501, 537,537, 537, organs),32 Seed beetles, 446, 447
537 Scolops, 317 Seed borers, 609
Sce\ionids, 537 perdix,316 Seed bugs, 299, 299
Sce\ionines, 537 Scolothrips, 338 Seed chalcidoids, 533
Sceliphron, 540 Scolytidae, 370, 523 Seed chalcids, 482
caementarium, 540 Scolytinae, 367 Seeds, 298
scenicus, Salticus, 121 Scolytus, 375, 464 Sega pedo, 222
Scenopindae, 725 multistriatus, 465 Segestriidae, 111, 116, 123
Scenopinidae, 674, 687, 690 Scopae, 539 Segmentation
Scenopinus fenestralis, 725, 725 Scopeumatidae, 674 antenna, 17, 19
Scent gland, 621 Scorpionflies, 154, 160, 662 body, 42-43
schefferi, Hystrichopsylla, 658 common, 662, 665, 666 head,I6-17
Schistocerca, 216 short-faced, 662, 664, 665, 666 secondary, 8
gregaria, 216 snow, 665, 667, 667 Segments, 5
Schizocerella pilicomis, 517 Scorpions, 102, 103, 104, 104, 104, segnis, Leptopsylla, 658
Schizomida, 10, 102, 103, 105 104, 104, 154, 155 Selenopidae, 112, 128
Schizomus floridanus, 105 windscorpions, 135 Selenothrips rubrocinctus, 334
Schizopodidae, 368 Scotogramma, 638 Self-sacrificing sterile castes, 75-76
Schizopteridae, 269, 276, 289 Scotophaeus blackwalli, 110 selina, Banksiola, 562
Schizura concinna, 636 Scraptiidae, 369, 399, 441 Sematuridae, 575, 588, 628
854 Index

Seminal vesicle, 36, 37 Shadow damsels, 197,205 Silk sac

Semper cells, 33 shannoni, Neostylops, 670 spider, 109
Senses shawnee, Dolophilus, 562 Silk-spinning crickets, 212, 219
chemical, 31, 31 Sheep ked, 731 Silkworm moths, 631
hearing, 33 Sheep tick, 731 giant, 631
humidity, 34 Shelters Silpha, 408
mechanical, 31, 31, 31-32,32 tent, 630 americana, 408,409
proprioception, 32 Shield-backed bugs, 270, 302, 303 bituberosa, 409
temperature, 34 Shield-backed katydids, 221 221 Silphidae, 368, 372, 383, 391,
vision, 33-34,34 Shield-bearer moths, 604 408,409
Sensil\um Shingling Silurian period, 154, 155
campaniform, 31, 32 Lepidoptera, 642 Silvanidae, 369, 381, 396, 431, 431
chemical, 31, 31 Shining flower beetles, 369, 397, Silverfish, 153, 156, 179, 753
hair, 31, 32 431,432 Silver-spotted skipper, 619
hearing, 33 Ship timber beetles, 369, 428 Silvicola, 683
mechanical, 31, 31-32, 32 Shore bugs, 270, 293 Silvicolidae, 673
proprioception, 32 Shore flies, 675, 742, 742 similis, Cyphoderus, 174
structure of, 31 Short -circuit beetle, 426 simplex, Anacrus, 221
tactile, 32 Short-homed flies, 673 simplex, Spilopsyllus sp., 659
vision, 33 Short-tailed crickets, 212 simplex, Taeniothrips, 336, 339
Sensory organs, chaetosemata, 571 Short-winged mold beetles, simplicicollis, Erythemis, 204, 205
Sepedon, 674, 691, 696 409,410 simulans, Hydropsyche, 559,
Sepedophilus scriptus, 410 Shrimps, 136 561,568
Sepsidae, 674, 699, 739 mantis, 140 simulans, Pulex, 659
Sepsids, 739 Shrubs, 301, 309 Simuliidae, 673, 683, 685, 714, 714
septendecim, Magicicada, 305, 306, 306 Sialidae, 469, 470, 471, 474, 475 Simulium, 683
septentrionalis, Anonnenis, 316 Sialis, 475, 476 nigricoxum, 714, 715
Sera, 43-44 infumata, 475 pictipes, 715
sericata, Phaenicia, 730 mohri,474 Sinea, 271, 275
Sericostomatidae, 560, 561, 562, Sialodea, 469 Singing insects
566,569 Sibine stimulea, 612, 612 in captivity, 773
Sericotomatidae, 561 sibirica, Amphipsylla, 654 Siphlonuridae, 186, 187, 191
Sericotomatoidea, 560 Sibovia, 311 Siphonaptera, 153, 154, 156, 162,162,
Serphidae, 482 occatoria, 312 166, 648
serrata, Priacma, 401 Sicariidae, 112, 123 characters used in identification
Serrate antennae, 19 Sickle dance of, 650
serratdla, Coleophora, 609, 610 honey bee, 80 classification of, 652
serratus, Halictophagus, 670 Sierolomorphidae, 483, 514, 548 collecting and preserving, 659
serricome, Lasiodenna, 427 Sifters, 750 key to families of, 652
Serropalpidae, 369 Sigalphinae, 522 references on, 660
Sesids,612 signatipennis, Poecilanthrax, 724 Siphunculata, 154
Sesiidae, 572, 574, 584, 612, 612 signatus, Anthonomus, 459 Siricidae, 482, 488, 490, 518
Sesiodea, 574 Signiphoridae, 482, 505, 531 parasites of, 534
sesotris, Ampdoglypter, 462 Signiphorids, 531 Siricids, 518
Setaceous antennae, 18, 19 signis, Leptopsylla, 654 Siricoidea, 482
setosus, Linognathus, 362 Silk Sisyra, 478
Sex determination araneoid sticky, 111 Sisyridae, 470, 472, 475, 478
arrhemotoky, 39 centipede, 146 Sitona, 462
autosomes in, 39 cribellate, 111 Sitophilus
chromosomes in, 39 ecribellate, 111 granarius, 459
parthenogensis in, 39-40 Embiidina, 247 oryzae, 459
thelytoky, 39-40 Lepidoptera, 571 Sitotroga arealella, 611
sexnotdla, Stagmatophora, 609 structural properties of, 106, 107 Skeletal muscles, 23
Sex pheromones, 71 Silken fungus beetles, 369, 431 Skeleton, 6
sexpunctata bicolor, Charidotdla, 450 Silk glands, 247, 573 Skeletonizers, 609, 615
sexta, Manduca, 635 Silk production palm leaf, 609
Sexual attraction, 71 spider, 106, 111 Skiff beetles, 368, 378, 401
 Index 855

Skimmers, 195, 196, 197,200,201, Snout moths, 617 Sound production

202,203,204,204,205 Snow scorpionflies, 665, 667, 667 in beetles, 366, 367
amber-winged, 204 sobrinus, Hebrus, 292 in cica das, 305, 305, 306
blue dasher, 204 socia, Entomobrya socia, 173 crickets, 209,210, 211,211
common whitetail, 204 Social behavior, 74, 78, 79 ensifera, 218
dot-tailed whiteface, 204 Social communication grasshoppers, 210, 211
eastern amberwing, 204 mechanisms of, 76 katydids, 209, 210, 211
eastern pondhawk, 204 messages of, 76 in lealhoppers, 311
green-eyed, 197,203,205 trophallaxis in, 76 in Orthoptera, 209
meadowhawks, 204 Social spiders, 110 Southwestern corn borer
12-spotted, 204 Social systems parasite of, 524
whiteface, 204 advantages of, 74 Sowbugs, 140, 141
widow, 204 eusocial, 74, 75 Spalangiinae, 532
Skin beetles, 368, 369, 370, 387, 388, kinetic selection in, 76 Sparasiidae, 108, 112, 119, 128
389,412,412,424 mutualistic aggregation, 75-76 Sparganothidae, 574
Skipper flies, 674, 736, 736 parasocial, 74 Spathius canadensis, 523
Skippers, 619, 619 parental manipulation in, 76 Spear-winged flies, 674, 727
checkered, 619 presocial, 74 Speciation,53
giant, 620 semisocial, 74 Species
Hobomok,619 subsocial, 74 concept of, biological, 52, 53, 57
least, 619 Societies name in, 57
northern cloudy wing, 619 ant, 79 speciosissima, Centrodora, 527
Peck's, 619 honey bee, 79-81,80 speciosus, Glycobius, 444
silver-spotted, 619, 619 paperwasp, 78, 78-79 speciosus, Sphecius, 542
tawny, 620 termite, 76, 77 Speleketor, 344, 345
Slant-faced grasshoppers, 210, 218 Sodium chloride, 578, 579 spenceri, Cramptonomyia, 718
Slater, J.A., 269 Sodium hypochlorite, 578, 579 Spercheidae, 368
Sleeve box, 770 Sod webworms, 617 Sperm,37
Sleroracus, 311 Soft-bodied plant beetles, 368, 384, Spermatazoan,37
Slide mounts, 761, 762 416,417 Spermatheca, 36-37
permanent, 762 Soft scales, 270, 326 Spermatogenesis, 37
temporary slide, 762 Soft-winged flower beetles, 392, 429, 430 Spermatogonia, 37
Slides Solanus, 449 Spermatophore,37
microscope, 354, 761 Soldier beetles, 369, 387, 424 Speyeria, 582
Slug caterpillars, 612 false, 369, 424 Sphacophilus cellularis, 517
Small fruit flies, 675 Soldier flies, 673, 719, 720 Sphaeridiidae, 368
Small-headed flies, 673, 721, 723 Soldiers Sphaeridium scarabaeoides, 407
Smerithinidae, 575 termite, 77, 253, 253, 254 Sphaeriidae, 368
Smicripidae, 369, 392, 430 Solenopsis, 491 Sphaeritidae, 368, 388, 407
Smilax, 609 invicta, 553, 671 Sphaeroceridae, 675, 701, 702,
Sminthuridae, 169, 172, 173 molesta, 554 706, 741
Sminthurus solidaginis, Orthezia, 325 Sphaeroceroidea, 674
floridanus, 173 solieri, Haploembia, 248 Sphaeropsocidae, 342, 353
viridis, 174 Solifugae, 135 Spharagemon boli, 218
Smithers, eN., 341 Solitary bees Sphecidae, 482, 494, 494, 511, 539, 540
Smitipsylla maseri, 648, 650, 651 predators of, 428 Sphecid wasps, 541, 542
Smoky moths, 612 Solitary midges, 673 Sphecius, 540
Smyrna fig, 532 sollicitans, Aedes, 711, 711 Sphecius speciosus, 542
Snakeflies, 154,469,476 Somatochlora, 203 Sphecodes, 487, 492, 543
squareheaded, 469 Somatothrips crawfordi, 336 Sphecoidea, 494
Snipe flies, 18, 673, 720, 721 somnulentella, Bedellia, 608 Sphecoid wasps, 538
blood-sucking, 721 sorghiella, Nola, 640 Sphenophorus, 459
common, 721 Sound callosus, 461
Snout beetles, 369, 370, 370, 450, 451, airborne, detection of, 33 maidis, 461
452,453,454,455,460 character of, 33 Sphex, 494
in biological control, 451 in communication, 76 icheumoneus, 540
Snout butterflies, 624 production of, 33, 122 Sphingidae, 573, 575, 588,588, 634
856 Index

Sphinididae, 369, 393, 429 Spilopsyllinae, 652, 656, 657, 659 Stegobium paniceum, 427, 427
Sphinx moths, 634, 635 Spilopsyllus, 652 Stehr, EW, 579
clear-winged, 635 cuniculi, 659 Stelis, 544
white-lined, 635 inaequalis, 659 Stemmata, 34
Sphyracephala, 697 simplex, 659 Stemomatinae, 598
brevicomis, 735 Spinach flea beetle, 449 Stem sawflies, 482, 486,519
subbifasciata, 735 Spinach leafminer, 730 Stenelmis crenata, 420
Spicata, 652 Spined soldier bug, 303, 304 Stenistomera, 652
Spicebush swallowtail, 621 Spinneret, 107, 109,110, 111,122 Stenocolus scutellaris, 421
Spider beetles, 369, 388, 426, 427, 428 spinosa, Deinopis, 121 Stenocorus, 445
Spider egg sacs, 524 spínulosa, Polyplax, 359 Stenoma algidella, 609
Spider mites, 132 Spiny shore bugs, 270, 293 Stenomatidae, 574
Spiders, 102, 103, 105, 108, 110, 155, Spiracle Stenomatinae, 608, 609
524,540 abdominal, 7, 8 Stenomatinae, 598
black widow, 106, 124 tracheal, 28, 28, 29 Stenomicra, 702
bolar, 135 Spirobolida, 143, 143, 144,145 Stenopelmatidae, 212, 214,219
brown recluse, 106, 123, 123 Spirostreptida, 143, 144, 145 Stenopelmatus, 219
camel, 135 Spitting spiders, 112, 123 Stenopis, 576
cellar, 112, 116, 123 Spittlebugs, 270, 284,309, 309 argenteomaculatus, 604
classification of, 111 economic effect of, 309 Stenoponía, 652
cobweb, 112, 113, 117, 124, 125 spledidus, Geotrupes, 412 americana, 655
crab, 110, 124 splendoriferella, Coptodisca, 604 Stenoponiiae, 652, 655, 655, 658
fear of, 111 Spodoptera, 638 stenopsis, Linognathus, 362
fishing, 112, 118 Spodoptera frugiperda, 638 Stenopsocidae, 342, 349, 353
folding-door, 111, 113, 120 spoliatus, Dromogomphus, 203 Stenotrachelidae, 369, 397, 438
giant crab, 108, 112, 128 Spondylidae,369 Stephanidae, 482, 510, 520,521
hackled-band orb-weavers, 112, 114 Spondylinae, 442, 443 Stephanids, 520
harvestmen, 129, 129 Spondylis uníformís, 442 Stephanoidea, 482, 485, 486
jumping, 110, 112, 121, 124, 124 Spongillaflies, 470, 475, 478 Stephanosomatidae, 674
key to families of, 112 Spreading stercorea, Typhaeca, 434
key to orders of, 112 butterflies, 757, 758, 758 Sterilization
lamp-shade, 111, 114 Spreading board, 757, 757 heat, 362
Iynx, 112, 118, 121, 127 Spreading insects, 757 Stemechus paludatus, 461
medically important, 106 spretulus, Ataeníus, 414 Stemocranus
nursery-web, 112, 118, 127 Spring cankerworm, 628 borealis, 316
ogre-faced, 112, 114, 124 Springtails, 152, 156, 162, 169,170, dorsalis, 316
orb-weavers, 124, 125, 126 171 Stemopsylla, 652
parasites of, 132,532,537,549 Sprites, 206 Sternorrhyncha
pirate, 108, 112, 117 Spruce aphids, 270 parasites of, 537
purse-web, 111, 113, 120 Spruce beetle, 465 Sternorrhynchara, 268, 270,282, 317
reproduction and development Spruce gall aphid, 321, 321m 322m 323 Sternorrhynchous Heminoptera
of, 109 spumarius, Philaenus, 309, 309 parasites of, 531
sea, 135 spuria, Gossyparia, 326 Sternum, 7, 8
silk sac, 109 Squareheaded snakeflies, 469 Stewart's disease of corn, 450
spitting, 112, 123 Squash bugs, 301, 302 Sthenopis, 603
stridulation of, 109 Squirrels, lice of, 357, 361, 362 argenteomaculatus, 603, 604
structural characteristics of, 106, Stable flies, 20,21 thule, 603
107, 108, 109 Stable fly, 674, 732 Stíchotrema beckeri, 671
tarantulas, 111, 122 Stag beetles, 368, 379, 411, 411 Stictia carolina, 540
three-clawed, 112, 124 Stagmatophora, 602 Stictocephala bizonía, 307,308
trapdoor, 111, 113, 120, 122 sexnotella, 609 Stictopleptura, 445
types of, 110, 112, 116, 123 Stagomantis carolina, 260 stigmatis, Euxesta, 738
wandering, 112, 119, 127 Stalk-eyed flies, 674, 735 Stigmella, 604
wolf, 110, 112, 118, 121, 127 stansburyi, Tricranía, 439 Stigmellidae, 574
Spider wasps, 483, 549, 549 Staphylinidae, 368, 383, 384, 386, Stigmelloidea, 574
Spiketails, 197, 200,203 409,410 Stiletto flies, 674, 725
Spilomyía, 691 Stathmopodidae, 574 Stilt bugs, 270, 298, 298
 Index 857

stilt-Iegged flies, 674, 734 striders Supella longipalpa, 266

stimulans, Aedes, 711 broad-shouldered water, 269, 272, superfamily,57
sting, 2, 4, 520 275,293 supination, 14
ant, 553 water, 271, 271 Suragina concinna, 720
scorpion, 104 stridulation surinamensis, Oryzaephilus, 431
stinging insects, 549 beetle, 366,367 surinamensis, Pycnoscelus, 266
stingless bees, 545 spider, 109 suroma cockroach, 266
stink bugs, 157, 270, 280, 301, 303, spiders, 109 suture, 7, 376
303,304 striped earwigs, 236, 237 antecostal, 8, 8
stipes, 19,20 striped walkingsticks, 227, 228 frontal, 678, 680
stolus, Neophylax, 564 strobi,Pissodes,461, 463 guIar, 17
stomatopoda, 140 strobiloides, Rhabdophaga, 717 pleural, 9
stomodaeal valve, 24 strongylophthalmyiidae, 674 postoccipital, 5
stomodaeum, 23, 24, 24, 43 structure, 5, 5 ptilinal, 719
Stomoxys calcitrans, 732, 732 Strymon melinus, 623 suturellus, Dysdercus, 300, 301
stone centipedes, 146, 147 stylate antennae, 19 swallowtails, 620, 620-621
stone crickets, 212, 219 Stylogaster, 736 black, 621
stoneflies, 29, 153, 155, 156, 159, 181, stylopidae, 669, 670, 670, 671 giant, 621
239,240 Stylops pacifica, 671 orange dog, 621
classification of, 239 stylus, 9 spicebush, 621
collecting and preserving, 245 subalare, 10, 15 zebra, 621
common, 241,242,244,245 flight and, 14 swarm
giant, 241, 242,242,243,245 subalare muscles, 14, 15 grasshopper, 217
green, 244,244, 245 subaptera, Trichomalopsis, 530 honey bee, 80-81, 547
key to families of, 242 subbifasciata, Sphyracephala, 735 mayfly, 181
perlid,240 subcoleoptrata, Nabicula, 295 termite, 77-78
references on, 245 Sub costa vein, 12 sweat bees, 482
roachlike, 241,241,243,245 subcoxa, 10 sweeping, 536, 747, 748
rolled-wing, 241, 242,243,243,244 subesophageal ganglion, 30, 30 sweet corn, 430
spring, 241, 242,243,243,244 subfamily names, 57 sweet potato, 517
winter, small, 243, 245 subfuscus, Phygadeuon, 525 sweet potato weevil, 453, 453
stoppers, vial, 761 subgenalsulcus, 15, 16 swifts, 603
stout-bodied sawflies, 517 subglaber, Myrmex, 461 Syanthedon, 572
straight-snouted weevils, 370, 451, subimago, 181, 191 Symbiosis, 81
452, 453 suborder, 56 symmocidae,574
strainers, 753 subphylum, 56-58 Sympetrum, 201,205
stramineus, Menacanthis, 361 subspecies, 52, 57, 58 intemum, 196
Strategus, 415 subterranea, Mycetaea, 433 rubicundulum, 198
stratiomyidae, 673, 675, 686, subterraneus, Scarites, 402 sympherobiidae, 469
687, 719 subvirescens, Tomosvaryella, 727 symphiles, 86
stratiomyiidae, 673 succinctus, Largus, 301 Symphoromyia, 720, 721
stratiomyomorpha, 673, 719 sucking mouthparts, 20 atripes, 721
Stratiomys, 675, 719 sugarcane borer, 617 symphyla, 148
laticeps, 720, 720 sugarcane leafhopper, 316 Symphyta, 481, 488, 489, 490, 516
strawberries,615 sugaring, 753 symphytes, 516
strawworm sugar maple, 133 Symphytognathidae, 112, 115, 125
wheat, 529 Suioestrus, 732 Symplesiomorphies, 53
streams, 181 cookii, 733 Synanthedon, 613
streblidae, 674 suis, Haematopinus, 359, 362 exitiosa, 612
strength, 4 sulcatus, Oriorhynchus, 462 Synapomorphies, 53
strepsimaninae, 595, 637 sulcifroms, Tabanus, 722 Synchroa, 437
strepsiotera, 164 sulcus, 7 Synchroidae, 369, 437
strepsiptera, 153, 154, 156, 157, 166 epistomal, 16, 17 Synclita obliteralis, 617
collecting and preserving, 671 occipital, 15, 16 Synecthrans, 86
key to families of, 670 subgenal, 15, 16 Syneta albida, 448
references on, 671 sulphur butterfly, 48 Synetinae, 446, 448
striatum, Asemum, 443 sunscopions, 135 Synneuridae, 673
858 Index

Synoeketes, 86 Tagma, 5 tentans, Chironomus, 710

Synopeas, 537,538 abdomen, 7-9 Tent caterpillars, 630, 630
Syntectidae, 482 head, 14-23 eastern, 630
Syntexidae, 482 thorax, 9-14 forest, 631
Syntexis, 490 tajacu, Pecari, 659 Tenthredinidae, 482, 489, 490, 491,518
libocedrii, 518 Talaeporiidae, 574 Tenthredinoidea, 482, 516
Syntomidae, 575 Tamarix, 325 Tentorial arms, 15, 16
Syrbula, 216 Tanaoceridae, 211, 214,215 Tentorial bridge, 16, 17
Syrphidae, 526, 674, 691, 692, Tanaostigmatidae, 482, 505, 531, 532 Tentorial pits, 15, 16
692, 728 Tangle-veined flies, 673, 722 tentoriferella, Machimia, 610
parasites of, 526, 534 Tanhypezidae, 674, 700 Tentorium
Syrphid flies, 674 Tanuderidae,673,707 head, 16, 17
larvae, 729 Tanyderidae, 673, 681, 681, 708 Teogroderaeros aloga,439
Syrphus Tanypezidae, 674, 704, 735 Tephritidae, 674, 698, 700, 737, 738
torvus, 728 Tanypteryx hageni, 202 Tephritoidea, 674
vittafrons, 729 tapetzella, Trichophaga, 605 tepidariorum, Achaearanea,108
Systelloderes biceps, 288 Tapeworm, 659 teraophthalmus, Tetropes, 445
Systellognatha, 241, 245 Tarantulas, 111, 122 Teratembiidae, 248
System tardus, Triaenodes, 562, 567, 568 Terebrantes, 520
circulatory, 27 tarquinius, Feniseca, 623 Terebrantia, 335
digestive, 23 tarsipunctata, Cercaclea, 561 Terebratia, 333
endocrine, 35 Tarsomeres, ll, 374 Tergosternal muscles, 14, 15
excretory, 26 Tarsonemidae, 133 Tergum, 7, 8, 9
internal reproductive, 35 Tarsopsylla, 652 Teridiidae, 112, 113, 115, 117
nervous, 30 Tarsus, ll, 11 Terilochinae, 525
respiratory, 28 Tawny skipper, 620 terminalis, Anthrophora, 546
tracheal, 28 Taxon,56 terminalis, Calopteron,423
Systema Natura, 58 Taxonomy, 56 terminalis, Eucinetus,416
Systematics, 52-56 Techypachidae, 368 terminata, Monphylla, 429
phylogenetic, 53 Tegenaria agrestis, 106 Termitaria, 254
Tegeticula, 596, 604 Termite colonies
T behavioral interactions in, 77,
Tegmina, 234
tabaci, Thrips, 339 Teig pruner, 441 77-78
Tabanidae, 540, 673, 675, 686, Teineola bisselliella, 605 castes in, 77
720, 721 Telegeusidae, 384, 423 founding of, 77-78
Tabanomorpha, 673, 719 Telemidae, 112, 115, 123 Termite cultures
Tabanus, 675, 720 Telenominae, 537 maintenance of, 772, 773
atratus, 721, 721 Telephoridae, 369 Termites, 153, 154, 156, 211, 252,
quinquevittatus, 722 Teliapsocus, 344, 347, 348 256,478
sulcifrons, 722 Telotaxis, 63 castes, 253, 253
tabidus, Trachelus, 519 Temnochila virescens, 428 collecting and preserving, 258
Tachardiella, 327 Temperature comparison with hymenoptera,
Tachinidae, 673, 674, 675, 694, 729 body, 30 76-77
Tachinids, 521, 524,525 sense of, 34 damage from, 257
Tachninidae, 734, 734, 735 tenax, Eristalis, 728 dampwood, 256, 256
Tachopteryx thoreyi, 202 Tendipedidae, 673 drywood,256
Tachyerges, 459 Tenebriodes sp., 428 economic importance of, 257
Tachygonus, 462 Tenebrio molitor, 27 glass-plate container for, 773, 773
Tactile sense, 31, 31-32 Tenebrionidae, 369, 372,376, 393, 436, habits of, 254
Taeniaptera, 696 436,437 key to families of, 255
Taeniopterygidae, 241,241,243,244 Tenebrionoidea, 369 powderpost, 256
Taeniopteryx, 242 Tenebroides mauritanicus, 428 rearing of, 772, 773
nivalis, 241 tenebrosa, Diara, 418 references on, 258
taeniorhynchus, Aedes, 711 tenebrosa, Diarca, 419 soldiers, 253, 255
Taeniothrips tenellus, Circulifer, 310 subterranean, 257, 258
ínconsequens, 335, 335, 336, 338 tenera, Perithemis, 204 winged,252,253,254,259
simplex, 336, 339 Tengellidae, 112, 120, 126 worker, 253, 253, 254
 Index 859

Termitidae, 257 Therevidae, 674, 687, 690, 725, 726 Thyanta custator, 304
Termitophiles, 86 Theridiidae, 112, 115, 124, 125 Thyatiridae, 575
Termopsidae, 255, 256 Theridiosomatidae, 112, 117, 125 Thyatirinae, 590, 627
Terrapin scale, 327 Thennobia domestica, 179, 180 Thylodrias, 425
Terrestrial turde bug, 303 Thick-headed flies, 674, 735, 736 Thynnidae, 483
Tersilochus conotracheli, 525, 526 Thinodytes cephalom, 530 Thyorybes pylades, 619
Tertiary period, 154, 155 Thironomidae, 673 Thyphocybinae, 311
Tertrigidae, 213, 214 Thisde, 622 Thyreocordidae, 302, 303
tessellatus, Prociphilus, 318, 321 Thomisidae, 112, 119, 128 Thyreophoridae, 674
Tetanocera, 697, 701 thompsoni, Apanteles, 524 Thyrididae, 575, 591,592, 609
vicina, 739 Thorax, 5, 5 Thyridoidea, 575, 616
Tetanoceratidae, 674 endoskeleton of, 10 Thyridopteryx, 588
Tetanoceridae, 674 in flight, 14 ephemeraefonnis, 605, 606, 606
Tethina, 703 function of, 9 Thyris, 591
Tethinidae, 674,703, 704, 741 legs on, 11, 11-12, 12 lugubris, 609
Tetracampidae, 482, 505, 508, 531 musc\es of, 10, 10 Thysanidae, 482
Tetragnathidae, 125 of Panorpa, 9 Thysanoptera, 159, 162, 333, 335
Tetraleurodes mori, 318 segments of, 9 c\assification of, 335
Tetramesa, 533 wings on, 12-14 collecting and preserving, 339
maderae, 529 thoreyi, Tachopteryx, 202 key to families of, 335
tritici, 529 Thorictidae, 369 mouth parts of, 334
Tetrangnathidae, 112, 116, 117 Thorn skeletonizer, 615 references on, 340
Tetranychidae, 132 Thrassis, 652, 658 Thysanosoma ostiniodes, 341
Tetranychus canadensis, 133 Thread-Iegged bugs, 296, 297, 298 Thysanura, 38, 152, 153, 156, 162, 163,
Tetraopes, 445 Threadtails, 197, 199,200,205 177, 179,669
tetraophthalmus, 445 Thread-waisted wasps, 482, 485, 540 collecting and preserving, 180
tetraophthalmus, Tetraopes, 445 Three-c\awed spiders, 112, 124 key to families of, 179
Tetratomidae, 369, 400, 434 Thriaenodea tardus, 562 male genitalia of, 38
Tetropium, 444 Thrididae, 617 references on, 180
Tettigidea lateralis, 218 Thridoids, 616 Tibellus oblongus, 108
Tettigonidae, 209,210, 211,211 Thripidae, 335, 336, 337, 338 Tibia, 11, 11
Tettigoniidae, 212, 214, 219 Thrips, 154, 159, 333,333,334,335, tibialis, Microgaster, 524
336,336,338,339,3373 Tibicen
key to subfamilies of, 219
parasites of, 537 banded, 336 chloromera, 305
Tettigoniinae, 212, 222 characteristics of, 337 pruninosa, 305,305
texana, Anisembia, 248 c\assification of, 335 Tibio-tarsal joint, 12
texana, Casinaria, 526 collection and preserving, 339 Ticks, 129
Texananus, 311 gladiolus, 339 dog, 131
texanus, Chelonus, 524 grain, 339 fowl, 131
Texas beede, 368, 390, 421 greenhouse, 336 hard, 131, 131
Texas catde fever, 131 key to families of, 335 Ixodida, 131
thalassinum, Meconema, 222 large-Iegged, 336 soft, 131, 131
Thasus acutangulus, 301 lilIybulb, 336, 339 Tiger beedes, 368, 378, 401, 403
Thaumaleidae, 673, 685, 714 mouthparts of, 334 Tiger moths, 640, 641, 641
Thaumastocoridae, 270, 293 mullein, 339 tigrius, Coes, 444
Thaumastocoroidea, 270 pear, 335 Time and energy budgets, 68
Thecesternus affinis, 462 redbanded, 334 Timemas, 153
Thecla, 582 references on, 340 Timematidae, 227, 228
Theisoa, 602 six-spotted, 339 Timothy, 539
Thelia bimaculata, 308, 538 tobacco, 339 Timothy billbug, 459, 461
theliae, Crovettia, 538 western flower, 339 Tinagma, 599
Theliopsyche, 569 Thrips obscurofasciella, 606
corona, 562 calcaratus, 339 Tinea pellionella, 605, 605
Theliopyschie sp., 561 tabaci, 339 Tineidae, 574, 597, 600, 601,
Thelytoky, 39-40 Throscidae, 369, 384, 387, 422 605,605
Themira, 699 thule, Sthenopis, 603 Tineoidea, 573, 574, 605, 606
Theraphosidae, 111, 113, 122 Thyanoptera, 153, 154, 156, 159 Tinigidae, 270, 276, 293
 --

860 Index

Tinobregmus, 311 Trabutina mannipara, 325 Trichopsocus, 343

vittatus, 312 Trachea, 28, 28 clarus, 354
Tiphia, 513 Tracheal system, 28, 28-29 Trichopsylloides, 652
popilliavora, 547,548 closed, 29 oregonensis, 658
Tiphidae, 483, 484, 511, 513, 514, open,28 Trichoptera, 153, 154, , 163,558,573
516,547 Trachclus tabiduss, 519 characters used in identification of,
Tiphids, 547 Tracheoles, 28 561,561,562,564
Tiphiinae, 547, 547 Trachymyrmcx, 553 classification of, 560
Tiphioidea, 520 Tramea, 205 collecting and preserving, 569
Tipula, 681 transmarina, Isoperla, 241 key to families of, 563, 565
Tipula sp., 707 Transmission, 83 references on, 570
Tipulidae, 673, 681, 682, 705, 707 Trap-door spiders, 111, 113,120,122 Trichord sensila, 32
Tipulinae, 707 Traps, 763 Trichosirocalus, 462
Tipulomorpha, 673 flight-intercept, 753 Tricodes, 428
Tischeriidae, 574,599, 601, 605 light, 751, 752 Tricogen cell, 31
Tischeroidea, 574, 577, 604, 605 Malaise, 751, 752 tricolor, Isotomurus, 172, 173
Tisheria, 599 malaise, 554 tricolor, Latheticomyia, 735
malifoliella, 605 open-topped baited box, 753 Tricorythodes, 185, 186
Tisherioidea, 574 pan, 751, 753 Tricrania stansburyi, 439
Titaniidae, 674 pitfall, 751, 752 Tridactylidae, 212, 218
Titanoecidae, 112, 126 trasipunctata, Cercaclea, 561 tridentata, Sapcrda, 445
Toad bugs, 270, 290,291 Traubella, 652 Trigonalyid, 521
Toad weevils, 462 Travertine beetle, 368, 420 Trigonalyidae, 482, 510, 512, 520, 521
Tobacco,449,539,635 Trechaleidae, 112, 127 Trigonalyids, 521
Tolype, 631 Tree crickets, 212, 223, 224 Trigonalyoidea, 482, 485
laricis, 631 snowy, 222 trigonana, Lotisma, 616
vcllida, 631, 631 Treehoppers, 270, 306, 308 trilnea, Lema, 448
Tomato, 635 buffalo, 307 Trilobita, 100, 101, 101
Tomatoes, 449 Trees, 537, 539, 604 Trilobites, 154, 155
Tomato hornworm, 635, 635 Tree seeds, 617 trimaculata, Oxacis, 438
Tomoceridae, 169, 171, 173,174 Tremcx columba, 518,519 Trimenoponidae, 357, 360, 361
Tomocerus Trench fever, 362 Trimenoponon hispidum, 361
clongatus, 173, 174 Trepidariidae, 674 Trimiomclba dubia, 409
jlavescens, 174 Triaenodes tardus, 567, 568 trinerva, Chrysobothris, 419
Tomosvaryclla subviresccns, 727 triangularis, Hydrophilus, 407, 407 Trinomials, 57
Tooth-necked fungus beetles, 369, Triassic period, 154, 155 trinotata, Trocobaris, 461
424,424 Triatoma, 297 Triozocera mexicana, 670, 671
Tooth-nosed snout beetles, 370, 451 sanguisuga, 297 Tripludia, 638
torrcfacta, Apatclodes, 627 Tribe, 57 tripunctata, Obera, 441
Tortoise beetles, 446, 450, 450 Tribolium, 436 triquetrana, Nola, 640
argus, 450, 450 confusum, 437 trispinosa, Nemoura, 241
egglant, 450, 450 Trichadenotecnum, 347 tristis, Anasa, 301,302
Tortoise scales, 270, 326 Trichiotinus, 416 tritici, Frankliniella, 339
Tortricidae, 574, 588,598, 599,600, Trichoceratidae, 673 tritici, Tetramesa, 529
603,615 Trichoceridae, 673, 681, 681, 707, 707 Tritocerebrum, 30, 30
Tortricid moths, 523 Trichodectes canis, 362 trivittata, Boisea, 301,301,302
parasites of, 523, 526 Trichodectidae, 357, 358, 360, 362 Trixagidae, 369
Tortricinae, 615 Trichodesma, 373, 375 Trixagus, 422
Tortricoidea, 573, 574 gibbosa, 427 Trixoscelididae, 675
torvus, Syrphus, 728 Trichodes nutalli, 429 Trochanter, 11, 11
Torymidae, 482, 485, 502, 507, 508, Trichogrammatidae, 482, 502, 503 Trochantero-femoral joint, 12
515,529,532,532,533 Tricholepidion gertschi, 179 Trochantin, 10
Torymus varians, 529 Trichomalopsis subaptera, 530 Trochoplusia ni, 637
Toumcyclla liriodcndri, 326 Trichomyiinae, 708 Trocobaris
Townes, H., 524, 751 Trichophaga tapetzclla, 605 mucorea, 462
Toxotus, 443, 445 Trichoplusia, ni, 638 trinotata, 461
cylindicollis, 443 Trichopsocidae, 342, 347,354 Troctomorpha, 345, 351
/.'~~;.-'_ !,~"."~ ::¡-: ~ f;...l'.~;""1""".'ifJt
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ol.; i.t"; .Ú~ 1IJ.\;'\'¡J~~t!,.,' tN!: 'J.
tl-,:'~~'Y or'~' ~_ 000.'"
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 Index 861

Trogidae, 368, 370,373,412 Types Urticating hairs, 122

Trogiidae, 346, 351 genus, 58 Usazoros hubbardí, 250,251
Trogiomorpha, 341, 345,351 holotype, 58
Trogium pulsatorium, 346 species, 58
V
Trogodenna granarium, 425 typhae, Chilacís, 300 vacculella, Ochsenheímeria, 607
Trogonídimímus belfrageí, 225 Typhaeca stercorea, 434 Vacuum drying, 760
Trogossitidae, 369, 392, 428 Typhlocyba, 310, 311, 315 vagabundus, Pemphígus, 322
Trogoxylon parallelopípedum, 426 Typhlocybinae, 310, 311,312, 315 Valenzuela, 344, 348
troilus, Papilio, 621 Typhus, 362 Valgus, 416
Trophallaxis, 254 scrub, 133 Valvula, 36, 36, 38
Trophocytes, 35, 36 Typocerus, 445 vandykeí, Díradíus, 248
Tropíduchidae, 270, 283, 317 deceptus,443 vaneeckeí, Liothrips, 336, 339
Tropotaxis, 63 Vanessa
Trout-stream beetles, 368, 405 U atalanta, 625
Trox, 373 Uchneumonoidea, 520 carduí, 625
scabrosus, 412 Uenoidae,560,563,564,569 vírginiensis, 625
True bugs, 268 uhleri, Barce, 297 Vanhornía eucnemídarum, 535
True flies, 156 Ulidíidae, 674, 696, 699, 701, 702, Vanhorniidae,500, 501,501, 535
Trupaneidae, 674 703, 738 vanillae, Agraulis, 624
Trupneidae,674 ullmanae, parrellathrips, 337, 338 variabilis, Dennacentor, 131
Trypetidae, 674 ulmí, Fenusa, 518 varíabilís, Phyllocoptes, 133
Tryphoninae, 525 ulmí, Lepídosaphes, 324, 328 varians, Torymus, 529
Trypoxylon, 540 ulmícola, Colopha, 321 varíolarius, Euschístus, 304
clavatum, 541 Uloboridae, 112, 114, 124 varivestís, Epilachna, 434,525
politum, 541 Ultrasoníc cleaners, 755 Vas deferens, 36, 37
Tsetse fly, 674 Ultraviolet, 751 Vas efferens, 36
Tsutsugamushi disease, 133 ultronía, Catocala, 638 Vectors
tuber, Merope, 666 undata, Dístína, 442 biological, 83
Tuberworm, potato, 611 undata, Oncometopía, 310 mechanical, 82-83
Tubilifera, 335 undata, Pyrgota, 736 transmision via, 82-83
Tularemia,131, nI undecímpunctata howardí, Díabrotíca, Vegetables, 170, 539
Tulip tree, 463 448, 449 Veins
Tulip tree scale, 326 undulata, Cymatodera, 429 crossveins, 12
Tullbergia,In Ungulates, lice of, 357, 359, 361, 362 longitudinal, 12
Tumblebeetles, 413 unícíncta, Phobocampe, 525 Veliidae, 269, 271,271,272, 275,
Tumblers, 711 unicolor, Byturus, 433 293, 293
Tumbling flower beetles, 369, 434, 435 unífascía, Acanthopterocetetes, 603 vellída, Tolype, 631, 631
Tunga, 652 unífonnís, Spondylis, 442 Velvet ants, 483, 548, 548
penetrans, 657 uní o, Ochrotrichía, 567 Velvet water bugs, 269,292,292
Tunginae, 652, 656, 657, 659 uníophila, Molanna, 562, 567 Velvety shore bugs, 270, 290
Turkey louse, 359 unipuncta, Pseudaletía, 637, Venation, 573
Tussock moths, 639, 639 638, 639 Comstock-Needham terminology
hickory, 641 Unique-headed bugs, 269, 288 system for, 12, 13
Twelve-spotted skimmer, 204 unívíttatus, Chrysops, 722 heteroneura, 573, 576
Twig borers, 426, 426 uptialis, Panorpa, 666 homoneura, 573, 575, 576
Twig girdler, 417, 445 Uranafulgens, 628 pattern of, 12
Twig pruner beetle, 441 Uranía, 587 Venation terminmology
Twigs, 553, 611 Uranids, 628 Ephemeroptera, 183
Twisted-wing parasites, 154 Uraniidae, 575,587, 588,591,628 Venation terminologies
Tychíus, 454 Uric acid, 27,27 Kukalova-Peck system, 14
pícírostrís, 459 Uroceridae, 482 Venation terminology
Tylidae,674 Urocerus, 490 Diptera, 676, 676, 677
Tylodenna, 462 Urodes parvula, 615 Odonata, 197
Tylozygus, 311 Urodídae, 573, 574,601,615 venatorus, Heteropoda, 108
Tylozygus bifidus, 310 Urodoidea, 574 Venhorniidae, 482
Tymbals, 305, 306 Urodus, 573 Venom, 554
Tympanal organ, 33 Uropygi, 102, 103, 104, 105

U¡~OAD DECALDAS
8UOTECA
862 Index

Venom glands, 106 Visual signals, in sexual attraction, 71 sphecoid, 538

ventílabris, Phílanthus, 542 viteana, Endopiza, 615 spider, 483, 549, 549
Ventrites, 376 Vitellogenesis, 36 square-headed, 542
verbesci, Haplothrips, 339 vitifoliae, Daktulosphaira, 322, 323 stephanid, 520
Veriform larvae, 49 vittafrons, Syrphus, 729 thread-waisted, 482, 485, 540
Vermíleo, 720, 721 vittata, Epicauta, 438 tiphid, 547, 548
Vermileonidae, 673, 721 vittatum, Acalymma, 449 vespid, 521
Vermilionidae, 673 vittatus, Tinobregmus, 312 weevil, 540, 542
Vermipsyllidae, 652, 653, 654, 659 vituli, Linognathus, 362 wood,482,488,490, 519,522
Vermispsyloidea, 652 Vostox apicedentatus, 237 Water, for caged insects, 771
vemata, Paleacrita, 628 vulgaris, Phytodiectus, 525, 526 Water base
Verruga peruana, 708 vulpeculus, Mononychus, 462 for s!ide mounts, 762
Vertex, 15, 16 Vulva, 37 Water beetles
verticalis, Aeshna, 195 burrowing, 368, 405
W
verticalis, Dysticus, 406 craw!ing, 368, 405, 405
vesicularis, Eupelmus, 528 Waggle dance, honey bee, 80 long-toed, 420, 420
Vesidae, 483 walker, Nyphomyia, 715 Water boatmen, 270, 290, 290
Vespa, 513 Walkingsticks, 153,211,227,227, Water bugs
Vespid, 521 228,537 giant, 269, 289,290
Vespidae, 511,512,513,513,514,521, classification of, 229 ve\vet, 279, 290
538,549 collecting and preserving, 225 Water fleas, 138
parasites of, 521 common, 227, 228 Waterleaf families, 608
Vespids, 539 keys to fami!ies of, 227 Water liIy leaf cutter, 618
social, 550 references on, 229 Water measurers, 269, 292, 292
Vespinae, 550,551 striped, 227, 228 Water mites, 133
Vespoidea, 483, 485, 486, 520 winged, 227,228 Water-penny beetles, 368, 375, 390,
Vespula, 550 Walnut, 632 391,420,421
maculifrons, 550,551 Walruses, !ice of, 357, 361, 362 Water scavenger beetles, 368, 386, 406
vestita, Sarperda, 441 Walshiidae, 574 Waterscorpions, 269, 289, 289
Vesupla, in paper wasp societies, 78, 79 Wandering spiders, 112, 119, 127 Water striders, 271,271
Vibration, detection of substrate, 33 Warble flies, 674, 732, 733 Water tigers, 405, 406
Viceroy butterfly, 625 ox, 732, 733 Water treaders, 269,292, 292
vicina, Tetanocera, 739 Wasmannian mimicry, 91 waubesiana, Hydroptíla, 559
villosus, Elasphidiomoides, 441 Wasp moths, 640 Wax moth, 617
vindex, Phanaeus, 412 Wasps, 154, 537 Wax scales, 270, 326
Vinegar flies, 675 bee-killer, 540, 542 Chinese, 327
Vinegarons, 105 cicada-killer, 542 Oak,325
virescens, Temnochíla, 428 cuckoo, 482, 485, 533,537 Webbing clothes moths, 605
virginica, Ctenucha, 642 digger, 67, 67, 68 Webspinners, 153, 155, 156
virginica, Xylocopa, 545 ensign, 482, 521, 522 Web-spinners, 211, 247
virginiensis, Calephelis, 622 eulophid,531 collecting and preserving, 249
virginiensis, Vanessa, 625 fig,482,529,532,532 key to fami!ies of, 248
viridans, Peucetia, 121 gall,482,534,535 references on, 249
viridis, Macropsis, 312 ground-nesting, 540 Web-spinning sawflies, 482
viridis, Parabolocratus, 312 horse guard, 540 websteri, Aroga, 611
viridis, Smithurus, 174 incense-cedar wood, 482 websteri, Asphondylia, 718
viridis, Xerophloea, 312 mason, 483, 549, 550 Webworms, 608
viridula, Nezaa, 303 mud-dauber, 540, 541 burrowing, 605
virifera, Diabrotica, 449 organ-pipe, 540 mimosa, 615
virratus, Acalymma, 448 paper, 483, 549, 550,551 parsnip, 608, 609
Visceral muscles, 23 parasites of, 537 sod,617
Vision parasitic, 532 Weeds, 301, 302
compound eyes in, 33 potter, 483, 549, 550 Weevils
stereoscopic, 34 sand, 540, 542 bean stalk, 463
Visual organs so!itary, 540 broad-nosed, 458, 460, 461, 462
in immature insect, 34 sphecid, 541 broad-nosed bark, 457, 458, 462
 Index 863

clover, 461, 463 spread positions of, 757 Xestobium, 366

fungus, 370,451, 451 thorax and, 9 rufovillosum, 427, 427
grain, 455, 459, 460 veins of, 12-13, 13 Xestocephalinae, 311, 314, 315
leaf-rolling, 370, 451, 452 Winkler funnel, 750, 751 Xestocephalus, 311
pales, 463 Winkler funnels, 554 Xiphocentronidae, 560, 565, 566
pea~shaped, 370,451, 452, 453 Winter crane fIies, 673 Xiphosura, 100, 102, 102
primitive, 370, 451 Wireworms, 422 Xiphosurans, 154, 155
straight-snouted, 370, 451, 451, Witch hazel, 322 Xiphydria, 489, 490, 519
452,453 Wockia asperipuntella, 615 Xiphydriidae, 482
sweet potato, 453, 453 woglumi, Aleurocanthus, :>18 Xiphydriid wood wasps
toad, 462 Wolf spiders, 110, 112, 118, parasites of, 522
true, 370, 453 121, 127 Xlophagomorpha, 719
white pine, 461, 463 Wolves Xyelecia, 516
Weevil wasps, 540,542 fIeas of, 659 Xyelidae,489,490,490, 516
Western corn borer, 524 Wood,417 Xyeloidea, 482
West Nile fever, 714 Wood-boring beetles, 519, 537 Xylastodoris luteolus, 270, 293
Wheat, 639 parasites of, 520 Xylocopa, 545
pests of, 533 parsites of, 522 vÍlxinica, 545
Wheat jointworm, 529 predators of, 433 Xylocopidae, 482, 487, 493, 602
Wheat stem sawfIy, 518,519 Wood-boring Coleoptera, 524 Xylocopinae, 545
Wheat strawworm, 529 Wood-boring insects Xylodopa, 487
Wheel bugs, 297 rearing,772 Xylomya, 688
Whipplei, Yucca, 609 rearing of, 772 Xylomyidae, 673, 686, b719
Whipscorpions, 102, 103, 104, 105 Wood gnats, 673, 715 Xylophagidae, 673, 682, 686,
micro-, 102, 103, 104, 105 Wood nymph butterfIies, 626, 626 719, 720
short-tailed, 102, 103, 105 Woodpeckers, 658 Xylophagomorpha, 673
tailIess, 102, 103, 105, 105 Wood rat Xylophagus, 688, 719
Whirlygig beetles, 368,370,403,404 fIeas of, 658 Xylophids,719
Whiteface skimmer, 204 Wood wasps, 482, 488, 490,519, Xylopinae, 545
WhitefIies, 154,270,318 522,524 Xyloryctes jamaicensis, 415
mulberry, 318 incense-cedar, 482, 518 Xyloryctidae, 574, 609
White grubs, 414 parasitic, 482, 488, 489, 490, 519 xylostella, Plutella, 608
White oak leafminer, 607 xiphydriid, 522 Xylphagidae, 673
White pine weevil, 461, 463 Woolen fabrics, 605
Whites, 621 Woollybear caterpilIars, 641 y
Widow skimmers, 204 Woolly oak gall, 535 Yellow-faced bees, 482, 543
Wild carrot, 516 Worker ants Yellow fever, 713
Wild cherry, 604 parasites of, 522 Yellow fever mosquito, 772
Wild fig, 532 Workers Yellow-headed cutworm, 637
Wild parsnip, 516 ant, 79 Yellow jackets, 483, 549, 550
WilIow gall, 717 bee,80,80 Yolk
WilIows, 516, 517, 518, 539, 625 termite, 77, 253,253, 254 embryonic formation of, 43
WiIlowsia nigromaculata, 172 Worm lions, 673, 721 Yolk proteins, 36
Window fIies, 674,725, 725 Wounded tree beetles, 369,424 Yponomeuta, 607
Window-winged moths, 617 Wrinkled bark beetles, 368, 378, padella, 607
Wind pollination, 539 401,402 Yponomeutidae, 574, 601, 602,607
Windscorpions, 135 Yponomeutoidea, 573, 574, 607
Winged walkingsticks, 227, 228
x Ypsolopha, 607
Wings XA mixture, 761 Ypsolophidae, 574, 597, 600, 607
articulation of, 13, 13-14 Xanthogaleruca luteola, 449 Yucca moths, 604
attachment to thorax, 13 Xanthotype, 589 yuccasella, Deoclona, 609
fIexing mechanisms in, 14 Xenopsylla, 652 Yucca whipplei, 609
location of, 9 cheopis, 657, 659
movements of, 14 Xerophloea, 312
Z
muscles of, 12, 13, 14,15 major, 310 Zanolidae, 575
notal processes of, 13, 13-14 viridis, 312 Zarphopalus inquisitor, 527
 --

864 Index

zea, Helicoverpa, 637, 638, 639 Zonosemata electa, 737 Zorapterans, 154, 156, 250
Zebra swallowtail, 621 Zoophageous arthropods, 81 Zoridae, 112, 128
zebratum, Macrostemum, 562, 568 Zootermopsis, 256 Zorocratidae, 112
Zelleria haimbachi, 607 aevadensis, 256 Zoropsidae, 112, 127
Zenoa picea, 421 angusticollis, 256 Zygaenidae, 574, 585,586, 588, 609,
Zenodochium, 596, 610 Zopheridae,369,394,435 612
Zeugloptera, 573 Zopherus, 435 Zygaenoidea, 574, 611
Zeugophora, 445 Zoraptera, 153, 154, 156, 161, 165,250 Zygentorna, 153
Zeuzera pyrina, 613 collecting and preserving, 250 Zygoptera, 193, 194, 197,205
Zeuzeridae,574 references on, 251 classification of, 197
Zodariidae, 112, 118, 126 winged, 250, 251 collecting and preserving, 207
zonella, Aptania, 564 wingless, 250
ov, oral vibrissae
ovb, outer vertical bristles
ovd, oviduct
ovl, ovariole
ovp, ovipositor
ovt, ovarian tubule
ovy, ovary
p, palp, laterallobe
P, posterior cel!
pa, postabdomen
pab, postalar bristles
pb, posthumeral bristles
pbr, pol!en brush
pbs, prebasilare
pc, postalar cal!us
pcb, precoxal bridge
pelp, postelypeus
pen, pore canal
pcv, posterior cross vein
pdp, pedipalp
pe, penes
ped, pedicel
pf, pilifer
pg, postgena
pgc, pigment cel!
pgl, paraglossa
ph, phragma
phtr, phallotreme
phx, pharynx
pj, poison jaw or
toxicognath
pl, pleuron
plap, pleural apophysis
plf, palpifer
plg, palpiger, squama, or
proleg
pIs, pleural suture, humeral
suture
plw, posterolateral wart
pm, postmarginal vein
pmr, paramere
pmt, postmentum
pn, postnodal cross vein
PN, postnotum
pnwp, posterior notal wing
process
po, postocciput
poI, postocular lobe of
prothorax
por, postoccipital ridge
pos, postoccipital suture
pp, prepectus
ppb, propleural bristles
ppt, paraproct
pr, pollen rake or pecten
prb, proboscis
pre, pronotal comb
prct, proctodeum
prd, propodeum
prl, proleg
prmt, prementum
pro, prosoma
ps, posterior spiraele
psb, presutural bristles
psel, postscutel!um
pseu, pseudocubitus
psl, paired second lobe
psm, pseudomedia
psp, posterior spiraele
pt, pteropleuron
ptar, pretarsus
ptb, pteropleural bristles
ptbr, preapical tibial bristles
pd, genu or patel!a
ptp, posterior tentorial pit
ptsp, preapical tibial spur
pul, pulvillus
pv, postvertical bristles
pvp, perivulvar pores
pwp, pleural wing process
py, pygidium
q, quadrangle
r, radial cross vein
R, radial vein
ree, rectum
ret, retina
rg, ring segment
rh, rhabdom
Rs, radial sector
rspl, radial supplement
rv, recurrent vein
s, sectorial cross vein
sa, sensoria
sap,superiorappendage
sas, subantennal sulcus
sb, subalare
sbm, subalar musele
se, subcostal vein or salivary
ehannel
Se, subcostal vein,
subcostal cell
sea, scapula
seb, scutellar bristles
sel, scutellum
sen, sense cone
sep,scape
ser, scar left on mandible
where cusp has broken off
sct, scutum
SCV,subcostal vein
sd, subdiscal or subdiscoidal
vein
sdp, spiracular disc pore
se, seta
sec, secretion of adult
segn, subesophageal
ganglion
sgo, scent gland opening
sgp, subgenital plate
sgr, subgenal ridge
sgs,subgenalsulcus
sh, bivalved shel!
51, suspensory ligament
sld, salivary duet
slg, salivary gland
sm, submarginal vein
SM, submarginal or apieal cel!
SMD, submedian cel!
smf, submedian fold
smm, submedian macroduct
smml, submarginal
macroducts
smt, submentum
smv, seminal vesiele
snc, sensory cell
50S, subocular sulcus
sp, spine or spur
spb, supra-alar bristles
spbr, spiracular bristles
spn, spinneret
spr, spiraele
spt, sperm tube
spth, spermatheca
spthg, spermathecal gland
spv, spurious vein
sq, subquadrangle
ss, setal socket
st, stigma
stb, stemopleural bristles
std, stomodaeum or foregut
stg, prostemal groove
sd, mesostemallobe
stn, stemum
stns, prostemal suture
stp, stipes
stpl, stemopleuron
str, subtriangle
stra, spiracular trachea
strp, stridulatory pegs
sty, style, stylet, or stylus
stys, stylet sac
su, sulcus or suture
sv, stigmal vein
sw, swimmeret
t, tergum
tb, tibia
tbr, tergal bristles
te, transverse costal vein
teb, transverse cubital vein
tel, tarsal elaw
te, teeth on prothorax
tg, tegula
th, thorax
thap, thoracic appendages
d, transverse lanceolate vein
tm, transverse median vein
tmb, tymbal
tmg, tormogen cel!
tn, trochantin
tnt, tentorium
tr, trochanter
trb, trichobothria
trd, transverse radial or
transverse marginal vein
trg, trichogen cell
tr gills, tracheal gills
tri, triangle
trs, transverse suture
ts, tarsus
tsm, tergostemal musele
tsp, tibial spur
tst, testis
ttb, tentorial bridge
tub, prostemal tubercle
tv, transverse vesiele
ty, tylus
tym, tympanum
un, uneus
ur, uropod
vag, genital ehamber or
vagina
ve, ventral circulus
vd, vas deferens
ve, vas efferens
ver, vertex
vlv, ovipositor valvula
vrn, vitelline membrane
vnt, ventriculus
vtra, ventral trachea
VU,vulva
w, wing
wb, base of wing
x, connection between
axillary selerite and
epipleurite
y, developing young
ye, yolk cell
yo, yolk
 ~

Measurement Tables

Metric to English Englishto Metric

Length Length
1 mm = 0.03937in 1 in = 25.4001 mm = 2.54001 cm
1 m = 39.37in = 3.28083ft = 1.0936yd 1 ft = 304.8 mm = 0.3048 m
1 km = 3280.833ft = 0.62137mi 1 yd = 914.4 mm = 0.9144 m
1 mi = 1609.35 m = 1.60935 km
Area
1 mm2 = 0.00155 in2 Area
1 m2 = 10.76387 ft2 = 1.195986 yd2 1 in2 = 6.452 cm2
1 hectare = 2.471 acres 1 ft2 = 929.088 cm2
1 yd2 = 0.8361 m2
Volume 1 acre = 0.40469 hectares
1 cm3 = 0.0610 in3
Volume
1 m3 = 35.315 ft3 = 1.3080 yd3
lliter = 1.05671 qt 1 in3 = 16.387 cm3
1 ft3 = 28,316.736 cm3= 0.02832 m3
Weight 1 yd3 = 764,551.872 cm3 = 0.765 m3
1 g = 0.03527 oz
1 kg = 2.2046 lb Weight
1 oz = 28.3495g
Speed Ilb = 453.5924g = 0.45359kg
1 mlsec = 3.28083 ftls = 2.23693 mph
1 kmlhr = 0.91134 ftlsec = 0.62137 mph Speed
1 ftlsec = 0.3048 mlsec = 1.09728 kmlhr
1 mph = 0.447 mlsec = 1.6M35 kmlhr
CharlesA. Triplehorn is emeritus facuLty at
Ohio State University. His researchinterests
incLudesystematicsand biogeographyof CoLeoptera,
with researchprimariLyfocused on the LargefamiLy
Tenebrionidae(especiaLLythose of the WesternHemi-
sphere). Since 1992, he hasfocused on two particuLar
projects: a revision of the genus ELeodes,and of the
NeotropicaLDiaperini. TripLehornis a former president
of the American EntomoLogicaLSociety.
Norman F. Johnsonis a professorof bioLogy
at Ohio State University and curator of the
Ohio State University insect coLLection.His
research interests incLude the systematics of
parasitic Hymenoptera and the Proctotrupoidea, with
a particuLar focus to date on the SceLionidae. In
1992 he assumed the position of director of the OSU
Insect CoLLection.
11

ti 1111111 nuu

ISBN 0-03-096835-6
THOMSON
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BROOKS/COLE
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