THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF QUANTITATIVE

RESEARCH DESIGN

1. SURVEY RESEARCH

DEFINITION

Survey research rely on individuals’ self-reports of their knowledge, attitudes, or

behaviors. It allows collection of data from a larger number of people and its validity of the
information is contingent on the honesty of the respondent. So it can say that survey research
is a method for gathering infomation through asking questions, which rely on the honesty of
its large sample of population.

PROCEDURES

1. Write Purpose of The Survey.

2. Defining The Problem.
The problem to be investigated by means of a survey should be sufficiently
interesting and important to motivate individuals to respond. It should define clearly
the objectives of a survey. Each question should relate to one or more of the survey’s
objectives. One strategy for defining survey questions is to use a hierarchical
approach, beginning with the broadest, most general questions and ending with the
most specific.
3. Identifying The Target Population.
4. Choosing The Mode of Data Collection.
There are four basic way to collect data in a survey:
a. Direct admistration to a group, used whenever researcher has access to all
members of particular group in one place. The instrument is administered to
all members at the same time.
b. Mail surveys, the questionnaire is sent to each individual in the sample, with
a request that it can be completed and then returned by a given date through
mail.
 c. Telephone surveys, the researcher asks questions of the respondents over the
telephone.
d. Personal interviews, the researcher conducts a face-to-face interview with the
respondent.
5. Selecting The Sample.
The subjects to be surveyed should be selected from the population interest,
randomly if possible. Researchers must ensure that the subjects they intend to
question possed the desired information and that they will be willing to answer the
questions.
6. Preparing The Instrument.
The most common types of instruments used in survey research are
questionnaire and the interview schedule.
7. Preparing The Cover Letter.
A cover letter explaining the purpose of the quetionnaire. The cover letter also
motivates the members of the sample to respond. The cover letter should be brief and
addressed specifically to the individual being asked to respond.
8. Training Interviewers.
The interviewers need to know when and how to “follow up” on an unusual
answer or one that is ambiguous or unclear. Interviewers also need training in
gestures, manner, facial expression, and dress.
9. Using an Interview to Measure Ability.
Interviews has been used extensively in this field to study both the content
and processes of cognition. Other psychologists have used interviewing procedures to
study thought processed and sequences employed in problem solving.

EXAMPLES

1. Russian and American College Students’ Attitudes, Perceptions, and Tendencies

Towards Cheating.
2. Youth Behaviors and Experiences that Influeces the Health and Well-Being in
Kansas.
 2. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH

DEFINITION

Correlational studies investigate the possibility of relationships between only two

variables, although investigations of more than two variables are common. So it can be said if
correlational research just focus on two variables only.

Correlational studies has two basic purposes—either to help explain important human
behaviors or to predict likely outcomes. Beside the basic purposes, correlational research also
has a major purpose, and it is to clarif your understanding of important phenomena by
identifying relationships among variables

BASIC STEP :

PROBLEM SELECTION

The variables to be included in a correlational study should be based on a sound

rationale growing out of experience or theory. The researcher should have some reason for
thinking certain variables may be related. As always, clarity in defining variables will avoid
many problems later on. In general, three major types of problems are the focus of
correlational studies:

1. Is variable X related to variable Y ?

2. How well does variable P predict variable C ?

3. What are the relationships among a large number of variables, and what predictions can be
made that are based on them?

SAMPLE

The minimum acceptable sample size for a correlational study is considered by most
researchers to be no less than 30. Data obtained from a sample smaller than 30 may give an
inaccurate estimate of the degree of relationship. Samples larger than 30 are much more
likely to provide meaningful results.
INSTRUMENT

Most correlational studies involve the administration of some type of instrument

(tests, questionnaires, and so on) and sometimes observation.

Design and Procedures

The basic design used in a correlational study is quite straightforward. Different
numbers of variables can be investigated in correlational studies, and sometimes quite
complex statistical procedures are used.

Data Collection
All the data on both variables will usually be collected within a fairly short time.
Often, the instruments used are administered in a single session, or in two sessions one
immediately after the other.

Data analysis and Interpretation

When variables are correlated, a correlation coefficient is produced. This coefficient
will be a decimal, somewhere between 0.00 and +1.00 or -1.00. The closer the coefficient is
to +1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship. If the sign is positive, the relationship is
positive, indicating that high scores on one variable tend to go with high scores on the other
variable. If the sign is negative, the relationship is negative.

EXAMPLES
1. The Correlation Between Self-Understanding And Self-Esteem In Adolescent Who
Stay In Orphanage In Malang City.
2. The relationship between IQ and Academic Achievements Students in Second Grade
of MAN Genteng in Academic Year 2013/2014
3. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

DEFINITION
It is the only type of research that directly attempts to influence a particular variable,
and when properly applied, it is the best type for testing hypotheses about cause-and-effect
relationships.In an experimental study, researchers look at the effect(s) of at least one
independent variable on one or more dependent variables.The major characteristic of
experimental research that distinguishes it from all other types of research is that researchers
manipulate the independent variable. So, this kind of research is a best type for checking the
hyphotheses about cause-and-effect relationships. Through this type, a researcher could
notice a independent variable on other(s) dependent variables.

CHARACTERISTICS
Essential Characteristics of Experimental Research :
 COMPARISON OF GROUPS
An experiment usually involves two groups of subjects, an experimental group
and a control or a comparison group, although it is possible to conduct an experiment
with only one group (by providing all treatments to the same subjects) or with three or
more groups.

 MANIPULATION OF THE INDEPENDENTVARIABLE

The second essential characteristic of all experiments is that the researcher
actively manipulates the independent variables.it means that the researcher
deliberately and directly determines what forms the independent variable will take
and then which group will get which form.

 RANDOMIZATION
An important aspect of many experiments is the random assignment of
subjects to groups. Random assignment means that every individual who is
participating in an experiment has an equal chance of being assigned to any of the
experimental or control conditions being compared.Three things should be noted
about the random assignment
of subjects to groups. First, it takes place beforethe experiment begins. Second, it is a
process of assigning or distributing individuals to groups, not a result of such
distribution.Third, the use of random assignment allows the researcher to form
groups.

GROUP DESIGN IN EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

 1. Poor Experimental Designs
2. True Experimental Design
3. Quasi – Experimental Design
4. Factorial Desin

BASIC STEP
1. Select a topic : This step is self-explanatory and usually not a problem.
2. Identify the research Problem : what specific problems of interest are.
3. Conduct a literature research : to determine what relevant studyhave been performed.
4. State the research question
5. Determine the research design
6. Determine the method (include (a) subject, (b) material and data collection
instuments, and (C) procedure.
7. Determine data analysis technique.

EXAMPLES
1. The effects of student questions and teacher questions on concept acquisition.
2. Changing teaching practices in mainstream classrooms to improve bonding and behavior
of low achievers.

4. SINGLE-SUBJECT RESEARCH

DEFINITION

Single-subject research is a type of research that closely follows the logic laid out for
experimental and quasi-experimental research. Single-subject research is particularly
appealing to researchers and practitioners in education and psychology because it is based on
an interest in the effectiveness of an intervention for a single, particular individual. The
single-case design can be used to test the effectiveness of a specific instructional strategy or a
therapeutic technique on behaviors, such as learning word definitions, academic achievement,
social behaviors, self-injurious behaviors, aggression, property destruction, and disruptive
behaviors. So, Single-subject research is kind of a research adhere the logic for experiment,
this kind of research usually interesting for researchers and practitioners in education and also
pyshology because it is based on particular individual.

PROCEDURE

1. Establishing a Baseline
With the single-subject, the comparison point is the baseline condition. To
establish a baseline, repeated observations of the natural frequency of the behavior of
interest are first made. Because the baseline serves as a point from which the
treatment effects are judged, it is important that a stable baseline be established. An
optimal baseline requirement for any given response is that it be stable.
2. Analysis of Treatment Effects
The analysis of treatment effects will be more understandable to you if we
give an overview of the design strategy. It is customary to refer to the baseline phase
of an experiment as the “A” condition and the treatment phase as the “B” condition. If
there are different kinds of treatment conditions, then the others are referred to as “C”,
“D”, etc.
3. Intra-Participant Replication
We are using intra-participant replication when the conditions are repeated
with the same participant. Intra-participant replication focuses on the individual
participant and identifies the factors affecting the participant. Systematic behavioral
changes can be observed by introducing and withdrawing the treatment condition. It
demonstrates that our method is reliable, the treatment effect is real, and we have
control over behavior.
4. Inter-Participant Replication
 We are using inter-participant replication to demonstrate the same effect
consistenly in other participants. Inter-participant replication establishes the generality
of the findings, i.e., showing the effect occurs in more than one research participant.
5. Reversible and Irreversible Behavior
We refers to the behavior as being reversible behavior and irreversible
behavior refers to those occasions when the original baseline cannot be recovered
after the treatment has been withdrawn.
6. Multiple Baseline Procedures
Multiple baseline procedure allows the researcher to perform intra-participant
replication with different responses rather than the same response. The multiple
baseline procedure requires that baselines be provided for several different responses
and that these responses be independent of each other.

EXAMPLES

1. The Effect of Self-Monitored Relaxation Breathing Exercise on Male Adolescent

Aggressive Behavior
2. The Effect of Teaching Students with Chronic Disciplinary Problems to Self-Monitor
Their Performance

5. CASUAL-COMPERATIVE RESEARCH

DEFINITION
 Casual-comperative research is a research design which the investigators attempt to
determine the cause or sencsequences of differences that already exist between or among
groups of individuals. The researcher's goal is to determine whether the independent variable
affected the outcome, or dependent variable, by comparing two or more groups of
individuals. So, casual-comperative research is a research design that seeks to find
relationships between independent and dependent variables after an action or event has
already occurred.

PROCEDURES

1. Identify a research problem.

2. Select a defined group and a comparison group.

The researcher has a number of options for creating the groups that yield more or
less control over the differential selection threat to internal validity. Some strategies
that researchers can use to control the threat of differential selection include the
following:
a. Matching on particular characteristics of relevance
b. Using a statistical technique such as analysis of covariance to control for
preexisting differences
c. Eliminating subjects with specific characteristics (e.g., those with multiple
disabilities)
d. Analysis of subgroups

3. Collect data on relevant independent and dependent variables and on relevant

background characteristics.
Their independent variables included race/ethnicity and region of the country.
Their dependent variable was identification of a disability or a specific type of
disability.

4. Analyze and interpret the data, with special focus on competing explanations.
a. The researchers graphed the data and calculated descriptive statistics in
order to reveal overall trends in over- or underrepresentation.
 b. Calculated correlations to examine the relationship between racial
representation and state poverty data.
c. Conducted analyses of variance (ANOVA) to look at regional differences
and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) to control for the effects of
poverty.
-(Zhang and Katsiyannis, 2002)-

EXAMPLES

1. Internet Use, Abuse, and Dependence Among Students at a Southeastern Regional

University
2. The relationship between years of experience and job satisfaction

Sources:

Fraenkel, Jack R., Wallen, Norman E., and Hyun, Hellen H. (2012). How to design and
Evaluate Research in Education 8th Edition. San Francisco: McGraw-Hill.
Lammers, William J., Pietro Badia. (2005). Fundamentals of Behavioral Research. Australia:
Belmont, CA.
Mertens, Donna M. (2010). Research and Evaluation in Education and Psychology:
Integrating Diversity with Quantitave, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods. California:
SAGE Publications, Inc.
Ross, Steven M., and Morrison, Gary R. (38) Experimental Research Method.