©2010 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 105, pp. 627–639

Formation of Sedimentary Rock-Hosted Stratiform Copper Deposits

through Earth History
MURRAY W. HITZMAN,1,† DAVID SELLEY,2 AND STUART BULL2
1 Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401
2 Centre for Ore Deposit Research, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania Australia 7000

Abstract
Sedimentary rock-hosted stratiform copper deposits form by movement of oxidized, copper-bearing fluids
across a reduction front that results in the precipitation of copper sulfides. Large-scale production of such
oxidized fluids, as well as the formation of mobile hydrocarbons (oil) has probably been common since the for-
mation of the first red beds in the Paleoproterozoic, and deposits of this type occur in rocks from the Paleo-
proterozoic to the Tertiary. However, supergiant deposits are currently recognized in only three basins: the
Paleoproterozoic Kodaro-Udokan basin of Siberia, the Neoproterozoic Katangan basin of south-central Africa,
and the Permian Zechstein basin of northern Europe. The paucity of data regarding the Udokan deposit makes
understanding this system difficult in terms of Earth history events. Both the Neoproterozoic and the Permian
were times of supercontinent breakup with major landmasses at low latitudes. This global tectonic framework
favored the formation of failed rifts that subsequently became significant intracratonic basins with basal, syn-
rift red-bed sequences overlain by marine and/or lacustrine sediments and, in some basins located at low
latitudes, by thick evaporitic strata. The intracratonic setting of these basins allowed the development of a
hydrologically closed basinal architecture in which highly oxidized and saline, moderate-temperature basinal
brines were produced that were capable of supplying reduction-controlled sulfide precipitation over very long
time periods (tens to hundreds of millions of years). The length of time available for the mineralizing process
may be the key factor necessary to form supergiant deposits. However, examination of the absolute ages for the
Kupferschiefer (Zechstein basin) and Katangan deposits allows speculation that other factors may also have
been important. Both the Neoproterozoic and Permian were times of major glacial events. Glaciation may also
be conducive for the formation of supergiant sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits. Glacial periods
correspond to magnesium- and sulfate-rich oceans that could have been responsible for additional sulfur in
basinal brines developed during evaporite formation and would then be available during the long mineraliza-
tion process.

Introduction reviewed the evolution of genetic hypotheses for these de-

PRECIPITATION of copper sulfides from moderate-tempera-
ture, moderate- to high-salinity, oxidized fluids at oxidation-
reduction interfaces has been common since the Paleopro-
terozoic. The largest known deposits occur within sedimentary
basins, generally at the contact between subaerial red-bed se-
quences and overlying marine or lacustrine shales, siltstones,
sandstones, or carbonate rocks. Deposits in such settings have
been termed sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits
(Kirkham, 1989) or sedimentary rock-hosted stratiform cop-
per deposits (Cathles and Adams, 2005).
Sedimentary rock-hosted stratiform copper deposits consist
of relatively thin (generally <30 m and commonly <3 m) sul-
fide-bearing zones that are peneconcordant with lithologic
layering. The deposits occur in a variety of sedimentary rock
types with a variety of reductants. The configuration of the
mineralized zone ranges from sheetlike, with extensive hori-
zontal dimensions, to tabular or roll-front geometries, with
limited horizontal dimensions (Kirkham, 1989).
Sedimentary rock-hosted stratiform copper deposits were
described by Gustafson and Williams (1981) in Economic Ge-
ology 75th Anniversary Volume and by Hitzman et al. (2005)
in Economic Geology 100th Anniversary Volume. Boyle et al.
(1989) compiled work conducted through the 1970s and
1980s in the Geological Association of Canada volume entitled
Sediment-hosted Stratiform Copper Deposits. Jowett (1991)
† Corresponding author: e-mail, mhitzman@mines.edu
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posits. Geologic and economic data for these deposits have
been compiled by Mosier et al. (1986), Kirkham (1989),
Kirkham et al. (1994), Cox et al. (2003), and Hitzman et al.
(2005).
While the vast majority of sedimentary rock-hosted strati-
form copper mineralizing systems produce small, mostly
subeconomic occurrences, three basins contain supergiant
deposits (largest 1% of deposits, >24 Mt contained Cu;
Singer, 1995): the Paleoproterozoic Kodaro-Udokan basin of
Siberia (Udokan: Volodin et al., 1994), the Neoproterozoic
Katangan basin (Central African Copperbelt: Selley et al.,
2005), and the Permian Zechstein basin of Europe (Kupfer-
schiefer: Vaughan et al., 1989; Kucha, 2003) (Fig. 1). These
and three other basins, the Mesoproterozoic Keweenaw basin
of the Mid-Continent Rift of the USA (White Pine: Brown,
1971; White, 1971; Mauk et al., 1992), a Neoproterozoic-
Cambrian basin in Afghanistan (Aynak: Abdullah et al., 1977,
Ludington et al., 2007), and the Devonian to Carboniferous
Chu-Sarysu basin of Kazakhstan (Dzhezkazgan deposits:
Lur’ye and Gablina, 1978; Gablina, 1981, 1997), contain giant
deposits (largest 10% of deposits, >2 Mt contained Cu;
Singer, 1995).
The temporal distribution of basins containing giant and su-
pergiant sedimentary rock-hosted stratiform copper deposits
is clearly nonrandom. This deposit type only occurs after oxy-
genation of the atmosphere in the early Paleoproterozoic
(Knoll and Holland, 1995; Holland, 2005a, 2006). A plot of
Submitted: August 11, 2009
627 Accepted: September 11, 2009
628 HITZMAN ET AL.

Redstone Udokan
Spar
Lake White Kupferschiefer
Pine Dzhezkazgan
Paradox
Basin Creta, Aynak
Magnum

Central
African
Copperbelt

FIG. 1. Map of the world showing the location of the sedimentary rock-hosted stratiform copper districts and deposits
mentioned in the text.

copper metal contained in these deposits versus age of host
rock (Fig. 2) shows distinct spikes in the Neoproterozoic and
the Permian. The Udokan deposits represent a spike in the
Paleoproterozoic, although the relatively poor age constraints
of the host rocks, and even poorer age constraints for the pe-
riod of mineralization, makes temporal definition of these de-
posits difficult.
The temporal spike in the Neoproterozoic is primarily due
to the Katangan basin deposits, with a contribution from the
Aynak deposits of Afghanistan and a lesser contribution from

250
Kupf CACB ( Aynak, Red)

200

150

100

50

Dzh Udokan

WP/PI Rev
?
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
T K J Tr C D O C Neoprot Mesopr ot Paleoprot
P S

Geological Time ( Ma) and Period

FIG. 2. Contained tons of copper for sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits by age of the host rocks. Whereas host-
rock ages are relatively well constrained for the Mesoproterozoic to Tertiary, significant uncertainties exist for the exact ages
of host rocks for deposits in the Paleoproterozoic sequences. Data is taken from Hitzman et al. (2005). Kupferschiefer
(Kupf), Dzhezkazgan (Dzh), Redstone (Red), Central African Copperbelt (CACB), White Pine/Presque Isle (WP/PI), Revett
deposits (Rev).

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 SEDIMENTARY ROCK-HOSTED STRATIFORM COPPER DEPOSITS 629

the Redstone deposit of northern Canada (Chartrand et al.,
1989). The spike in the Permian is almost entirely caused by
the Kupferschiefer deposits of Europe, although a number of
much smaller deposits of Permian age, such as Creta and
Magnum (Hagni and Gann, 1976; Johnson, 1976; Smith,
1976), are recognized in North America. Good age control for
both host rocks and the duration of mineralization in the Ke-
weenaw, Katangan, and Zechstein basins allows analysis of
specific Earth history events that may be important for the
genesis of post-Paleoproterozoic giant and supergiant exam-
ples of this deposit type. Utilization of these concepts sug-
gests that the older Udokan ores may define similar geologic
events.
Basin Architecture of the Sedimentary Rock-Hosted
Stratiform Copper Deposits
Sedimentary rock-hosted stratiform copper deposits are the
products of evolving basin-scale, or at least sub-basin-scale,
fluid flow systems. Similar to all ore systems, these deposits
can be thought of as the end products of processes involving
a source(s) of metal and sulfur, a source(s) of metal-trans-
porting fluid, transport paths, possible mobile reductants, a
thermal or hydraulic pump, and the chemical and physical
factors that result in precipitation (“trapping”) of the sulfides.
Whereas the general nature of the ore fluids responsible for
the formation of these deposits is clear (Rose, 1976; Brown,
1992), exact fluid compositions in terms of metal and sulfur
contents are not known due to a lack of fluid inclusion data
(Hitzman et al., 2005). This lack of data is the result of the ab-
sence of suitable coarse minerals, containing workable fluid
inclusions, intergrown with sulfides in the vast majority of
deposits.
A wide variety of basin architectures and processes can lead
to the formation of sedimentary rock-hosted stratiform cop-
per deposits (Hitzman et al., 2005). However, supergiant de-
posits must have formed in basins with unique conditions that
allowed for the accumulation of large amounts of metal-bear-
ing fluid, sufficient reduced sulfur, large amounts of reduc-
tants, and focusing of fluid movement into relatively small
areas. The key to forming the required basin architecture is
deposition of a specific sedimentary sequence within an in-
tracratonic basin that becomes hydrologically closed (Hitz-
man et al., 2005).
The general stratigraphic sequence observed in productive
basins for both giant and supergiant deposits is a basal se-
quence of synrift red beds, often with mafic or bimodal vol-
canic rocks, that serve as a source for rock-buffered oxidized
fluids, as well as a potential source for metals, particularly
copper (Fig. 3). This oxidized sedimentary package is overlain
by marine to lacustrine sediments deposited during rift cli-
max and postrift phases of sedimentation that contain, or can
generate through burial, areally extensive zones with large

Sediment-hosted,
stratiform copper Sandstones, siltstones,
deposits and shales

Evaporites
Carbonates
SEAL
Sandstones,
siltstones
RESIDUAL
BRINES
Basement

Red beds
Bimodal volcanic
METAL rocks
SOURCE
FIG. 3. Schematic cross section across an intracratonic, hydrologically closed basin that is typical of those hosting giant
and supergiant sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits. Synrift red beds and minor bimodal volcanic rocks floor the
basin. Marine sandstones, siltstones, and shales, which may locally be organic rich, transgressively overlie this red-bed se-
quence. This siliciclastic sequence grades upward into marine carbonates that contain a thick evaporite sequence. In most
productive basins, the evaporites contain significant halite and may have evolved to magnesium and potassium salts. The
upper portion of the basin contains shallow marine to continental siliciclastic sediments. The total thickness of the sedimen-
tary sequence may range from several to more than 10 km.
The sediment-hosted stratiform copper system consists of residual brines or brines from evaporite dissolution that move
downward into the basal, oxidized red-bed sequence. Heat from burial and, in some cases, high heat flow and/or igneous ac-
tivity initiate convection of these highly saline brines, which are capable of leaching metals from both the red-bed sediments
and the basement. Oxidized, metal-rich brines circulate upward to the top of the red-bed sequence, where they encounter
organic-rich sediments that provide the reductants necessary to precipitate copper sulfides. Fluids may also utilize fault ar-
chitecture within the basin to escape to higher levels and precipitate sulfides when they encounter significant zones of either
in situ or mobile (natural gas, petroleum) reductants. The evaporite beds provide an effective top seal to the hydrologic sys-
tem, whereas the basin edges themselves provide lateral containment.

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630 HITZMAN ET AL.
amounts of contained reductant. The reductant can be either
in situ organic matter or hydrocarbons that have migrated
within the basin. These reduced facies can have large lateral
extents allowing for the formation of supergiant deposits with
great strike extent.
In the Katangan and Zechstein basins, evaporitic conditions
were initiated during the rift-climax phase and persisted
throughout the subsequent postrift phase of marine and/or la-
custrine carbonate sedimentation. Thick, laterally persistent
evaporite strata play a key hydrologic role as effective seals to
underlying rift-related permeable units. Equally significant,
dense residual brines, generated during precipitation of evap-
oritic sediments, sink and may ultimately convect through, in
some instances, enormous metal reservoirs within the rift-re-
lated sediments and potentially the basement (Fig. 3). Cap-
ping carbonate or clastic sequences, such as the Nonesuch
Shale at White Pine, can provide hydrologic seals sufficient to
form giant deposits.
Major sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits form
when the evolved basinal fluids leach significant amounts of
copper and other metals from the basal synrift sediments and
volcanic rocks, and possibly from structurally controlled fluid
pathways within the upper portions of the basement, and
move upward toward a hydrologic seal to intersect oxidation-
reduction interfaces in marine and/or lacustrine sediments.
In both the Katangan and Kupferschiefer basins, there is
evidence of long periods (hundreds of millions of years) of
mineralization that suggests enormous volumes of fluids were
involved. Thus, to produce the supergiant deposits, it is nec-
essary either to have large volumes of fluids introduced into a
basin over time or to recycle fluids through convective flow.
Fluid flow of both types is recognized geologically (Cathles
and Adams, 2005). In both the Katangan and Kupferschiefer
intracratonic basins, it appears most likely that the basin ar-
chitecture was relatively hydrologically closed and that basi-
nal fluids circulated through the systems over a protracted pe-
riod. Smaller, but still significant deposits, such as the giant
White Pine-Presque Isle system in the United States (~400
Mt of 1.1% Cu; Hitzman et al., 2005), formed primarily from
a temporally limited, single pass, mechanical loading-driven
compaction hydrologic system (Swenson et al., 2004).
In many sediment-hosted stratiform copper systems, and
particularly well illustrated in the Zechstein, Katangan, and
Keweenaw basins, ore-grade mineralization is best developed
along basin margins adjacent to basement highs where the
basal red beds are relatively thin or pinch out (Jowett, 1986;
Selley et al., 2005). From a hydrological perspective, these
are sites where basinal brines are overpressured (Cathles and
Adams, 2005), and where fluid flow is concentrated and
forced to interact with the overlying reduced strata (Swenson
et al., 2004).
Host Rock Ages
Sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits are recognized
from the middle Paleoproterozoic (e.g., Udokan, Russia:
Volodin et al., 1994) to the Tertiary (e.g., Corocoro, Bolivia:
Flint, 1989, Ljunggren and Meyer, 1964; Fig. 2). A key com-
ponent for the formation of this deposit type is the presence of
oxidized rock masses, generally composed of red beds, capable
of buffering basinal fluids to an oxidized state and providing
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copper and other metals. Red beds first appeared near the
Archean-Paleoproterozoic boundary, coincident with the oxy-
genation of the atmosphere (Knoll and Holland, 1995; Holland
2005a, 2006). In addition, reductants within the rock mass
stratigraphically above the synrift sequence are necessary to
form the chemical trap that allows copper sulfides to precipi-
tate. These could be either in situ reductants or reduced mate-
rial that has also migrated into the trap area. The latter com-
monly may be hydrogen sulfide, probably with petroleum
and/or natural gas, as has been recognized in Dzhezkazgan,
parts of the Zambian Copperbelt, and the Kupferschiefer. The
capacity to produce major amounts of mobile hydrocarbons ca-
pable of forming such chemical traps was apparently first gen-
erated in the early Paleoproterozoic (Melezhik et al., 1999a, b).
Whereas significant sediment-hosted stratiform copper de-
posits are recognized in the Paleoproterozoic (e.g., Udokan
deposits), absolute ages of the sequences hosting these de-
posits are poorly constrained between 2200 and 1800 Ma
(Abramov, 2008). In the Mesoproterozoic, the age of the
Revett Formation, which hosts deposits such as Spar Lake in
the northwestern United States, is constrained by underlying
1468 Ma lower Belt sequence (Anderson and Davis, 1995)
and the overlying 1454 Ma carbonate sequence (Evans et al.,
2000). The absolute age of host rocks for the Mesoproterozoic
deposits in the White Pine district, Unites States, is approxi-
mately 1080 Ma (Davis and Paces, 1990).
The Redstone, Canada, and Aynak, Afghanistan, deposits
are Neoproterozoic age. The Redstone deposit host rocks are
<720 Ma (Chartrand et al., 1989), whereas the Aynak deposit
is hosted in rocks that are thought to be latest Neoproterozoic
(Ludington et al., 2007). The age of the Katangan host rocks
for the Central African Copperbelt ores is between 880 and
735 Ma based on a variety of geochronologic techniques (Sel-
ley et al., 2005). More recent detrital zircon studies suggest an
age between 840 and 790 Ma (Selley, unpub. data).
In the Paleozoic, ages for rocks hosting sediment-hosted
stratiform copper deposits are generally well known. The
Dzhezkazgan deposit in Kazakhstan occurs in middle Car-
boniferous rocks. The age of the host rocks for the Kupfer-
schiefer deposits are well constrained by fossil evidence to
~255 Ma.
Mineralization Ages
Despite general agreement that sulfides postdate sedimen-
tation (Jowett, 1991), the absolute age of mineralization rela-
tive to sedimentation has been difficult to document in many
sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits and districts.
Mineralization may take place relatively early in the diage-
netic history of the host sediments (e.g., White Pine/Presque
Isle: Mauk, 1993; Ohr, 1993; Redstone deposit: Chartrand
and Brown, 1985; Chartrand et al., 1989; Lustwerk and
Wasserman, 1989; Creta, Magnum deposits, United States:
Hagni and Gann, 1976; Johnson, 1976; Smith, 1976) or range
to very late diagenesis or postdiagenesis (e.g., Zambian Cop-
perbelt: Selley et al., 2005; Kupferschiefer: Vaughan et al.,
1989; Paradox basin, United States: Thorson, 2004). Mineral-
ization in these systems can thus occur from early diagenesis
to times of basin inversion and metamorphism.
Textural and sulfur isotope studies in some Permian de-
posits, such as those of the shale-hosted portion of the
 SEDIMENTARY ROCK-HOSTED STRATIFORM COPPER DEPOSITS 631

Kupferschiefer district (Schneiderhöhn, 1923; Sawłowicz,
1992) and those in the Flowerpot Shale of Oklahoma and
Texas (Lockwood, 1972; Hagni and Gann, 1976; Johnson,
1976; Smith, 1976), suggest that at least some copper-bearing
sulfide was precipitated in the shallow subsurface by bacter-
ial sulfate reduction. Larger deposits, however, display sul-
fide-nonsulfide mineral textures suggesting that significant
sulfide precipitation ranged from early to late diagenesis (e.g.,
Kupferschiefer: Kucha, 1981; Oszczepalski, 1989; Spar Lake:
Hayes and Einaudi, 1986). Sulfides at the Mesoproterozoic
White Pine deposit have sulfur isotope compositions, sug-
gesting that some sulfides were early diagenetic and that later
sulfide precipitation involved abiotic sulfate reduction (Hoy
and Ohmoto, 1989). The Neoproterozoic Zambian Copper-
belt deposits contain hypogene sulfides that were recrystal-
lized at middle to upper greenschist metamorphic facies con-
ditions and are thus equivocal indicators of the timing of the
original mineralization. Evidence for the replacement of for-
mer hydrocarbon accumulations in several arenite-hosted
Zambian deposits provides at least a late diagenetic age con-
straint for some portion of the ores (Selley et al., 2005). The
wide range of sulfur isotope compositions of sulfides in the
Zambian deposits (Dechow and Jensen, 1965; McGowan et
al., 2003; Selley et al., 2005) suggests a complex, multistage
history of sulfide precipitation. In fact, Gustafson and Williams
(1981) argued that such complex sulfur isotope signatures are
characteristic of this deposit type. The anomalously heavy sul-
fur isotope compositions of several arenite-hosted ores of the
Zambian Copperbelt are characteristic of sour gas, a reducing
agent unlikely to have been generated in significant volumes
until latest diagenesis (Selley et al., 2005).
There is geochronologic evidence that sulfide precipitation
occurred over a highly protracted period from early diagene-
sis through basin inversion and deformation (Hitzman et al.,
2005) in several basins. Such a period could be in excess of
100 m.y.
The Mesoproterozoic White Pine/Presque Isle deposits
show multiple sulfide ages (Fig. 4), with the major mineral-
ization event having taken place during active rifting and early
diagenesis (Mauk, 1993). A more structurally controlled
event, due to basin inversion and compression, resulted in
minor additional copper precipitation 20 to 30 m.y. later
(Bornhorst et al., 1988; Ohr, 1993).
The Re-Os geochronology in the Neoproterozoic Central
African Copperbelt also supports a protracted period of min-
eralization (Fig. 4). Some sulfide precipitation has been doc-
umented relatively soon after host-rock deposition. An 815
Ma mineralization age is reported for copper sulfides in the
stratigraphic hanging wall of the Konkola deposit compared
to a host rock age of approximately ~840 Ma (Barra et al.,
2004). However, Re-Os sulfide geochronology more com-
monly records multiple periods of sulfide growth that took
place during very mature stages of basin development. Data
from stratiform ores of the Nkana-Mindola, Chibuluma West,
and Nchanga deposits indicate sulfide growth at ~ 576 Ma, a
period that corresponds with the earliest stages of basin

250
Kupf CACB

200
Cu, millions of t onnes

150

100

50

Udokan

WP/ PI
?
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
T K J Tr C D O C Neoprot Mesoprot Paleoprot
P S

Geological Time ( Ma) and Period

FIG. 4. Contained copper for sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits by age of host rocks (gray); red curves schemat-
ically illustrate the probable ages of sulfide precipitation in the major districts. Mineralization in the Central African Cop-
perbelt (CACB) and the Kupferschiefer (Kupf) extends to significantly younger ages (>100 m.y.) than the host rock, whereas
the age of mineralization in the White Pine/Presque Isle (WI/PI) system is early relative to host-rock age. Host-rock age and
tonnage data are taken from Hitzman et al. (2005). Mineralization age data is mainly from Kulig et al. (1994), Michalik
(1997), Bechtel et al. (1999), Swenson et al. (2004), and Selley et al. (2005).

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632 HITZMAN ET AL.
inversion (Selley et al., 2005). Subsequent postpeak-meta-
morphic, fracture-hosted, Cu-Mo-U mineralization occurred
at the Kansanshi deposit at ~512 to 502 Ma (Torrealday et al.,
2000), whereas a postorogenic extensional phase of mineral-
ization at ~450 Ma is recorded by the breccia-related Cu-Zn-
Ga ores of Kipushi (Schneider et al., 2007). Uranium-Pb
geochronology of uraninite, a phase intimately associated
with, but commonly postdating, stratiform copper mineraliza-
tion in the Central African Copperbelt, also reveals a pro-
tracted history of fluid flow, with ages between 670 and 503
Ma (Darnley et al., 1961; Cahen et al., 1971, 1984; Meneghel,
1981; Richards et al., 1988; Loris et al., 1997).
Abundant evidence also exists for protracted sulfide pre-
cipitation in the Permian Kupferschiefer (Jowett, 1992; Large
et al., 1995; Michalik and Sawłowicz, 2001; Fig. 4). Potas-
sium-Ar dating in the Kupferschiefer and underlying
Weissliegendes sandstones suggests that authigenic illites as-
sociated with mineralization formed over a broad time range,
from early diagenesis to synorogenic Alpine uplift and inver-
sion (Kulig et al., 1994; Michalik, 1997; Bechtel et al., 1999).
The relative amounts of sulfides precipitated throughout the
long time intervals of mineralization in the sediment-hosted
stratiform copper deposits remains speculative. At White
Pine, late sulfides appear to represent a very small fraction of
the total ore. Textural evidence in the Kupferschiefer indi-
cates that much of the sulfide was deposited relatively early,
although sulfide precipitation clearly continued, perhaps spo-
radically, over an extended period with a probable spike in
mineralization intensity during Alpine orogeny. In the Cen-
tral African Copperbelt, geochronologic constraints, coupled
with the need to have generated and mobilized significant
volumes of hydrocarbon and/or sour gas, suggest that much of
the classical stratiform mineralization was likely to have been
formed late in the basin’s history. Postpeak metamorphic cop-
per mineralization typically forms a relatively minor compo-
nent of sediment-hosted stratiform ores, but in the cases of
Kansanshi (Broughton et al., 2002) and Kipushi (Intiomale
and Oosterbosch, 1974) forms large economic orebodies.
The combination of textural, isotopic, and geochronologic
data provides compelling evidence that the mineralization
processes responsible for the formation of sediment-hosted
stratiform copper deposit systems may occur from near the
time of sediment deposition to late in a basin’s history (Fig. 4).
Significant deposits, such as White Pine, can form from sin-
gle-pass, mechanical load-driven compaction (Swenson et al.,
2004). However, the evidence indicates that two of the basins
containing supergiant deposits underwent very prolonged pe-
riods of mineralization (>100 m.y.), which suggests that con-
vection must have been established to recycle mineralizing
fluids. This implies that these basins were relatively tectoni-
cally quiescent for long periods.
Critical Factors for the Formation of
Sediment-Hosted Stratiform Copper Deposits
Sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits require oxi-
dized metal source beds (red beds), reduced facies to serve as
metal traps, and saline brines capable of leaching and carry-
ing metals. To form significant deposits, mineralizing fluids
must be confined within the red beds and expelled through
relatively focused zones, often in areas of stratal pinch out or
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linear structural zones. Potentially productive host rock se-
quences and geometric configurations are commonly found
in rift basins.
Supercontinent breakup is ideal for producing rift basins
within continental masses that may have had a connection to
world oceans, but which did not evolve into passive margin
basins. Passive margin basins are inherently leaky with dense
fluids able to migrate seaward out of the sedimentary pile and
seawater able to infiltrate the basinal sediments thus diluting
the basinal brines (Fig. 5A). Large, sediment-hosted strati-
form copper deposits appear to be most likely to form in in-
tracratonic basins that are capable of containing moderate- to
high-salinity basinal fluids for long time periods without sig-
nificant leakage or dilution (Fig. 5B). Both the Katangan and
Zechstein basins formed in an intracratonic, rather than a
passive margin, setting.
Strakov (1962) and Kirkham (1989) noted that most sedi-
ment-hosted stratiform copper deposits occur in sedimentary
rocks that were deposited within 20° to 30° of the paleoequa-
tor. Continental areas in such low latitudes are amenable to
having a desert environment, and rift basins produced by con-
tinent breakup in such settings typically have basal sequences
composed of red beds. Overlying marine or lacustrine se-
quences are likely to include a significant proportion of evap-
oritic strata that are common in many, but not all, basins con-
taining these types of deposits (e.g., Kirkham 1989, 2001).
Evaporite deposition is important for the geohydrology of
sediment-hosted stratiform copper systems because it allows
for the formation of dense, high-salinity residual brines that
can sink into the lower portion of the sedimentary sequence
(Hitzman et al., 2005). These dense brines, once present, are
capable of leaching metals from the basal, oxidized red-bed
sequence. The evaporites themselves are important in estab-
lishing a regional aquiclude, or seal, within the basin stratig-
raphy and allowing for the possibility of establishing a long-
lasting intrabasinal fluid reservoir within which convective
cells can develop (Hitzman et al., 2005). Rupturing of the
evaporite seal during basin-inversion–driven halokinesis may
allow upward escape of potentially mineralizing basinal brines
to higher stratigraphic levels, where they could interact with
zones containing reductants and cause cross-stratal sulfide
precipitation, such as occurred at the Kansanshi and other de-
posits in the Central African Copperbelt (Hitzman et al.,
2005).
The area of present-day Europe best illustrates the tectonic
configuration required to form an intracratonic basin suitable
for the generation of large sediment-hosted stratiform copper
deposits during the Late Permian (Fig. 6). During this period,
northern Europe occupied the southern margin of the
Pangean continent and was located at low latitudes (Fig. 6A).
Incipient rifting, to north of the Tethys Ocean, led to the for-
mation of several major intracratonic basins likely intermit-
tently connected through narrow rift basins to the Tethys
Ocean to the south and the Panthalassic Ocean to the north
(Fig. 6B). Progressive filling of the Zechstein basin began
with deposition of synrift siliciclastic and volcanic rocks.
These were later transgressed by marine-derived sediments,
including the organic-rich, marine Kupferschiefer Formation
immediately overlying the red beds, and subsequent Zech-
stein carbonate and evaporite sediments, setting the favorable
632
 SEDIMENTARY ROCK-HOSTED STRATIFORM COPPER DEPOSITS 633

A.

Sandstones,
siltstones BASINAL FLUID
ESCAPE
Sandstones, siltstones,
and shales

Evaporites Carbonates

Deep water
carbonates
Basement Red beds

B.

Sandstones, siltstones,
and shales

Carbonates

Evaporites

BASINAL FLUID
Sandstones, CIRCULATION
siltstones

Red beds

Basement

FIG. 5. Schematic cross sections of sedimentary basins. A. Cross section of a passive margin basin with a thin rift sequence
overlain by continental siliciclastic sediments (sandstones and siltstones) that grade seaward into evaporates and then car-
bonates. The carbonate sediments prograde seaward and overlap deeper water carbonates. This carbonate-rich sequence is
covered by deltaic to slope basin siliciclastic sediments (sandstones, siltstones, and shales). Basinal fluids in this system are
able to escape from the sedimentary sequence vertically and laterally. B. Cross section of an intracratonic rift basin with a
basal red-bed sequence and overlying siliciclastic, carbonate, and evaporite sediments. Basinal fluids in this system are
trapped by confining basement and lateral sediment pinch-outs.

stratigraphy for sediment-hosted stratiform copper mineral-
ization. The Zechstein basin underwent progressive sag phase
deposition into the Mesozoic, with basin inversion during the
Alpine orogeny at ~120 Ma; mineralization appears to have
occurred throughout this >100-m.y. period. Unlike the White
Pine system, where Swenson et al. (2004) were unable to
demonstrate convection, geologic evidence in the Kupfer-
schiefer suggests that convection cells were established in
basal red-bed−filled depocenters (Jowett, 1986), perhaps
through both mechanical loading and differential heat input,
and later due to basin inversion associated with the Alpine
orogeny.
Formation of Supergiant Deposits—
Unique Attributes of the Permian and Neoproterozoic
The available evidence suggests that for at least two of the
supergiant sediment-hosted stratiform copper districts (Kupfer-
schiefer and Katangan basins) a unique attribute is the lengthy

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 633

634 HITZMAN ET AL.

A.

general area
of ice cap

B.
Panthalassic continental

Ur
Land
Land Ocean carb sediments

al
fo
on
periodic a

ld
te

be
pla
ingression of tfo

lt
marine water rm
to basin continental
margin shelf
Laurentia

Land
Zechstein
Basin
periodic
ingression of
Land continental marine water
(red bed) German, Polish
sediments
to basin
Kupferschiefer
lf
districts he
Sahara Platform in s
ma rg
l
e nta
a te tin
1000 km a r bon rm con Tethys
c tfo ocean floor
pla

FIG. 6. Paleoreconstructions for the Late Permian (~255 Ma). A. World view showing the location of present-day Europe,
just north of the equator and on the southern edge of the Pangean continent. Gray areas indicate areas of land. The thick
black lines are subduction zones. The pink oval represents the approximate location of the Zechstein basin. The figure is
modified from Scotese (2004). B. Paleogeographic map showing the location of the intracontinental Zechstein basin, to the
northwest of the Tethys Ocean, and the outlines of present-day continental areas. The Zechstein basin is the largest of a num-
ber of rift basins formed in the area of the present-day North Atlantic and Western Europe. The Zechstein basin had inter-
mittent connection with both the Tethys Ocean to the southeast and to the Panthalassic Ocean to the north through rift
troughs. This intermittent influx of marine water, combined with the location near the equator, allowed for the development
of a significant thickness of evaporites within the basin. The locations of the two major known areas of Kupferschiefer min-
eral deposits in Germany and Poland, along the southwestern edge of the basin, are illustrated. This figure is modified from
Ziegler (1982, 1988).

time span of mineralization compared with districts contain-
ing smaller deposits. Is time the only critical factor for gener-
ation of supergiant deposits? Are there other features related
to the age of the Kupferschiefer and Katangan basins that
could be important for the generation of such large deposits?
Whereas evaporites are undoubtedly important for the gen-
eration of supergiant sediment-hosted stratiform copper de-
posits, there is a poor correlation between the age of host
rocks for the deposits and the amount of preserved halite in
the geologic record (Knauth, 2004; Hay et al., 2006; Fig. 7).
Evaporites are a key feature of the basins hosting supergiant
deposits, but it nevertheless does not appear that sediment-
hosted stratiform copper deposit form at times of maximum
evaporite deposition.
The late Neoproterozoic and the Permian were both times
of supercontinent breakup and evaporite deposition. They
were also periods during which major glacial events occurred
(Fig. 7). The triggers for these glacial events remain poorly
known, although eruption of large amounts of subaerial
basalt at low latitudes has been implicated (Goddéris et al.,
2003), along with differences in sensitivity of the carbon
cycle to loss of shallow-water environments and resulting

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 SEDIMENTARY ROCK-HOSTED STRATIFORM COPPER DEPOSITS 635

250
Ice Ages
Kupf CACB

m(Mg+2 ) i/ m(Ca+2 ) i in ocean water

200 8
Preserved halite
Cu, millions of t onnes

accumulations
150 6

100
? 4

50 2
aragonit e sea
calcit e sea

WP/ PI
0
0 500 1000
Tert Cret Jur Tr P Carb Dev S Ord C Neoproterozoic Mesoproterozoic

Geological Time (Ma) and Period

FIG. 7. Correlation of the ages of host rocks and mineralization for sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits (1100
Ma–present), as well as the ages of major glacial events (in blue; Eyles and Young, 1994), ages of preserved halite accumu-
lations (in yellow) [modified from fig. 2 of Knauth (2004) and including data compiled by Hay et al. (2006) and evidence for
significant ~750–800 Ma evaporites in the Katangan and Central Australian basins (e.g., Lindsay, 2002; Jackson et al., 2003)],
and variation in seawater chemistry as portrayed by the m(Mg2+)i/m(Ca2+)i ratio (purple dashed line). The seawater chem-
istry data during the Phanerozoic are based on analyses of fluid inclusions in halite (Horita et al., 2002) and from before 500
Ma, they are based on the results of Hardie (2003). The horizontal line at the ratio of approximately 1.5 shows the break be-
tween the aragonite (>1.2) and calcite (<1.2) seas of Sandberg (1985).
The plot illustrates temporal correlations between periods of major sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits and ice
ages and Mg2+-rich, and therefore sulfate-rich seawater. There appears to be little correlation of mineralization ages with
periods of increased halite precipitation. Note that the much smaller White Pine system does not appear to correlate with
ice ages.

carbon dioxide-climate feedback for the Proterozoic (Ridg-
well et al., 2003). Oscillations of cosmic-ray flux to the Earth
have also been proposed as a driving mechanism for the
Earth’s icehouse-greenhouse cycles (Schlager, 2005). Major
worldwide glacial events have the potential to significantly
alter ocean and atmospheric chemistry (Crowell, 1999; Hoff-
man and Schrag, 2002), which can lead to changes in weath-
ering patterns and thus sedimentation rates.
Whether or not the Earth experienced a “snowball earth”
event (Hoffman and Schrag, 2002) is still being vigorously de-
bated (Jenkins et al., 2004), but it is clear that the Neopro-
terozoic was a time of widespread glaciation with ice caps ap-
parently extending into low latitudes (Fairchild and Kennedy,
2007). Melting of both Sturtian and Marinoan ice sheets in
the region of the Katangan basin would have lead to increased
sedimentation rates, similar to those documented during the
Pleistocene (Droxler and Schlager, 1985; Marshall and
Clarke, 1999). Increased sedimentation into the basin during
the postrift and sag phases could have driven increased com-
paction and perhaps initiated or accelerated salt tectonics,
analogous to events that are thought to have occurred in the
Gulf of Mexico during the Pleistocene (Shaffer and Lowrie,
1985). Rapid increased sediment loading, combined with
more active salt tectonics, may have been sufficient to provide
the mechanical energy required to initiate or sustain convec-
tion within the basal portions of the Katangan basin.
Whereas the Permian Zechstein basin also formed subse-
quent to a major glacial event, it was located far from major
ice caps (Fig. 6A). It is unlikely that glacial melting would
have led to increased sedimentation rates in this case, al-
though Molnar (2004) speculated that periods of unstable cli-
mate, such as those associated with the transition between
glacial periods, could lead to generally increased sedimenta-
tion distant from glacially affected areas.
Plotting the distribution of sediment-hosted stratiform cop-
per deposits (both host rock and mineralization ages) from
1100 Ma to present against the times of known ice ages pre-
served halite distribution, and ocean chemistry (portrayed
utilizing the ratio of Mg2+ to Ca2+) suggests potentially signif-
icant correlations that might be considered to better under-
stand the generation of supergiant deposits (Fig. 7). For both
the Kupferschiefer and Katangan districts, there is a general
temporal association with a relative increase in the magne-
sium content of seawater. Sulfate abundance in seawater
tracks that of magnesium through time (Horita et al., 2002).
Because the Mg/Ca ratio in the oceans increases with the

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636 HITZMAN ET AL.
precipitation of gypsum, the positive correlation of magne-
sium and sulfate abundances in seawater through time must
be due to an increase in the total amounts of either calcium
or sulfate in the ocean. An increase in calcium could be due
to reactions that promote the exchange of magnesium for cal-
cium. This could include an increase in the rate of seawater
cycling through hot basalt at midocean ridges (Spencer and
Hardie, 1990; Hardie, 1996, 2003) or an increase in the rate
of dolomite formation (Holland and Zimmermann, 2000;
Holland, 2005b). Variations in seawater sulfate could be due
to changes in the rate of burial and weathering of gypsum ver-
sus pyrite (Berner, 2004).
Higher Mg2+ concentrations occur during low sea-level
stands (Horita et al., 2002). Most workers consider that
changes in seawater chemistry are driven primarily by
changes in the flux of seawater through the midocean ridges
(Spencer and Hardie, 1990; Hardie, 1996, 2003) or coupled
tectonic and biogenic processes (Holland and Zimmermann,
2000; Berner, 2004; Holland, 2005b). However, world climate
may also be a fundamental driver for seawater composition.
Seawater chemistry could be important for the formation of
supergiant sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits. In
particular, sulfate-rich seawater may increase the amount of
total sulfur that can be fixed in basinal sediments as sulfate or
sulfide and, therefore, that is available for eventual incorpo-
ration into copper sulfides. High seawater sulfate levels in
magnesium-rich oceans should also increase the relative
amount of sulfur in residual evaporative brines (Lowenstein
et al., 2001). Although mechanisms are unclear, increased
amounts of sulfur in residual brines may be critical for the
formation of supergiant sediment-hosted stratiform copper
deposits, perhaps by altering diagenetic reactions within the
sedimentary rock pile that could include the amount of quartz
precipitation and thus influence the degree and longevity of
sedimentary rock permeability.
Exploration Considerations
Sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits form in any lo-
cation where basinal fluids passing through a series of highly
oxidized rocks can obtain copper, which is then precipitated
as the fluids encounter a reductant that destabilizes the com-
plexing ability of the fluid. Many deposits appear to have
begun formation during diagenesis when mineralizing fluids
became focused into constrained areas by stratigraphic and/or
structural architecture.
However, to form supergiant sediment-hosted stratiform
copper deposits, a number of major features must be present:
abundant, highly oxidized metal source rocks, highly reduced
strata in a position favoring interaction with significant
amounts of fluid that previously passed through the oxidized
stratal package, and significant thicknesses of evaporites cap-
ping the reduced strata to serve as a hydrologic seal and a
source of high-salinity (and sulfur-rich?) brines. It is critical
that the basin is relatively quiescent for long periods of geo-
logic time, but sufficient energy must be input to promote
convection of fluids within the basal section of oxidized clas-
tic rocks. Evidence suggests that in addition to these factors,
seawater chemistry may be important for the genesis of large
deposits. Periods of Earth history with sulfate-rich oceans ap-
pear to be the most favorable.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 636
Post-Archean periods of supercontinent breakup have the
greatest potential to form basins that are conducive for the
production of sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits.
Synrift basins formed during such periods need to be located
in low latitudes to facilitate evaporite formation. Thus, explo-
ration should target periods of Earth history that had suitable
plate tectonic configurations. Such configurations are known
in the Permian and Neoproterozoic. Although such condi-
tions undoubtedly existed earlier in the Proterozoic, our cur-
rent ability to accurately reconstruct plate configurations for
this period is limited. Nonetheless, reconnaissance geologic
studies to confirm the existence of sedimentary basins with
significant basal oxidized clastic sedimentary sequences (typ-
ically red beds), with overlying strata that include discrete in
situ reduced layers or the potential to generate and trap mo-
bile hydrocarbons, and an upper thick evaporite cap (that may
often have disappeared from the geologic record) are needed
to evaluate the potential for this deposit type.
These criteria indicate that further supergiant deposits
should be found in Permian or Neoproterozoic basins. The
Zechstein basin is the largest known basin containing all of
the favorable ingredients in the Permian. Continued explo-
ration of covered areas in this basin is certainly warranted.
The Neoproterozoic breakup of Rodinia resulted in the for-
mation of a number of small- to moderate-sized rift basins
that may have the favorable stratigraphic architecture. Thus,
in addition to continued exploration in the highly productive
Katangan basin, exploration should concentrate on covered or
poorly explored areas that may contain hydrologically closed
basins of this age.
The late Paleoproterozoic through early Neoproterozoic
(~1.8−0.8 Ga) contains relatively few sediment-hosted strati-
form copper deposits. This period of Earth history appears to
have been remarkably tectonically, and possibly climatically,
stable (Holland, 2005a). Although ocean chemistry is be-
lieved to have fluctuated in terms of Mg/Ca ratios throughout
this period (Hardie, 2003), no major glacial events have been
recognized (Fig. 8). Evaporites were deposited during this
time, but the major sediment-hosted stratiform copper de-
posits of this age, within the Belt and Keweewan basins, did
not form in the major evaporitic basins. Holland (2005a) has
also speculated that the amount of organic matter entering
the oceans during this time was probably much less than dur-
ing the Phanerozoic. This relative paucity of organic matter
may have resulted in much less common reduced sedimen-
tary rock facies that are critical for formation of sediment-
hosted stratiform copper deposits.
The presence of the supergiant middle Paleoproterozoic
Udokan system offers potential that other productive basins
of similar age can be located. Better understanding of the
Udokan deposit and basin geology would allow us to develop
a more robust picture of this deposit type in early Earth his-
tory. However, more work is required not only at Udokan it-
self but also on the tectonic configuration of continental
masses, seawater history, and climate of the Paleoproterozoic.
It is interesting to note that the age of the Ukokan host rocks
(2200–1800 Ma) is slightly younger than the age of a major
Paleoproterozoic glacial event(s) (2400–2200 Ma; Crowell,
1999). At least one of these Paleoproterozoic glacial events
appears to have affected low latitudes (Evans et al., 1997).
 SEDIMENTARY ROCK-HOSTED STRATIFORM COPPER DEPOSITS 637

Ice Ages
250
Kupf CACB

m(Mg+2 ) i/ m(Ca+2 ) i in ocean water

200 8
Cu, millions of t onnes

150 6
Suspected age
of Udokan host rocks

100 4

50 2
aragonit e sea
calcit e sea Udokan
WP/ PI
? 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
T K J Tr C D O C Neoprot Mesoprot Paleoprot
P S

Geological Time ( Ma) and Period

FIG. 8. Correlation of the ages of host rocks and mineralization for sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits (2500
Ma–present), as well as ages of major glacial events (Eyles and Young, 1994) and the variation in seawater chemistry as por-
trayed by the m(Mg2+)i/m(Ca2+)i ratio (purple line). Seawater chemistry data during the Phanerozoic (500 Ma–present) are
from Horita et al. (2002) and data from the Proterozoic are from Hardie (2003). There appears to be a correlation between
times of significant sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposit formation with glacial periods and intervals of magnesium-
rich ocean chemistry. The data would predict that the age of the Udokan system is probably close to 2200 Ma.

This period of the Paleoproterozoic may also have been a
time of magnesium- and sulfate-rich seawater (Hardie, 2003;
Fig. 8). Thus, similar to the deposits in the Zechstein and
Katangan basins, there may be an association between the su-
pergiant Udokan sediment-hosted stratiform copper system
and glaciation and sulfate-rich seawater (Fig. 8).
Better understanding of paleoplate configurations through
Earth history will be critical for future exploration for addi-
tional giant and supergiant deposits of this type. The paucity
of major sediment-hosted stratiform copper districts indi-
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cates that a number of specific and unique conditions need
to be met to ensure efficient production of this deposit type,
and this appears to have happened rarely throughout Earth
history.
Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge excellent critical reviews by
David Broughton, Lawrence Cathles, III, Richard Goldfarb,
and Heinrich Holland that led to significant improvements in
the manuscript.
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