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Rules of Mixture
The mechanical and physical properties of composite materials depend
in a complex way on the type, form, quantity and arrangement of the
constituents. Rules of mixture are equations which attempt to express
these dependencies in a predictable fashion. Several different
approaches have been used (summarised in Daniel and Ishai, 1994 and
discussed in more detail by Gibson, 1994), but they are all based on
various degrees of simplification, and may be semi-empirical. It
follows that the user should treat the predictions with caution,
especially if properties are to be used for anything more than
preliminary design, and should endeavour to understand the
assumptions underlying the formulae.
The sign and nomeclature convention used here is shown in Fig. 6.1.
The orthogonal axes 1, 2 and 3 relate to the fibre direction, in-plane
transverse and through-thickness transverse directions respectively.
3
3
1
2 1
Fig. 6.1: Orthogonal directions
in unidirectional ply. 2
We note that the unidirectional ply has two different in-plane tensile
moduli (E1 and E2). To a first approximation, E3 E2. We also need
two values of Poisson’s ratio to describe the lateral contraction resulting
from in-plane tension, as shown in Fig. 6.2. The conventional notation
is that ij denotes the contraction in the j-direction when stress is
applied in the i-direction.
6-1
1
fibre
direction
(‘1’)
2 = - 12 1
2
fibre
direction
(‘1’)
Fig. 6.2: Definition of in-plane
Poisson’s ratios in orthotropic 1 = - 21 2
material
From Fig. 6.2, it can be deduced that the lateral strain (2) resulting
from a stress applied in the fibre direction (‘1’) is much larger than the
longitudinal strain (1) resulting from a transverse (‘2’) applied stress.
Hence, 12 > 21. In fact the Poisson’s ratios and moduli are related by:
12 E1
(6.1)
21 E 2
1A f A f m A m (6.2)
Applying Hooke’s law we replace stress with the product of strain and
modulus:
E11A E f f A f E m m A m (6.3)
6-2
But we have assumed equal strain (1 = f = m), so:
E 1A E f A f E m A m (6.4)
Af A
or E1 E f Em m (6.5)
A A
The terms Af / A and Am / A are the ‘area fractions’ of fibre and matrix
respectively. In our unidirectional composite, these are clearly
equivalent to the constituent volume fractions, so we can write:
E1 E f Vf E m Vm E f Vf E m 1 Vf (6.6)
12 f Vf m Vm (6.7)
We should, however, take note of the fact that reinforcing fibres may
not be isotropic. Carbon and aramid, for example, rely on a three-
dimensional oriented microstructure for their exceptional mechanical
properties, but quoted values almost always refer to the axial direction.
There seem to be few data available on transverse properties (partly
because they are obviously very difficult to measure). Shindo (2000)
quotes values for the ratio of longitudinal to transverse modulus from
about 16 for high strength carbon fibre, up to more than 80 for highly
oriented high modulus carbon fibre. Hence both Ef and possibly f in
Equations 6.6, 6.7 and the other rules of mixture presented here should
be interpreted with care – this applies to thermal as well as elastic
properties.
For loading in the transverse (‘2’) direction, the state of stress in the
relatively flexible matrix is much more complex, and not surprisingly
the transverse modulus E2 turns out to be a matrix-dominated property.
Generally, the rules of mixture are based on simply assumptions of
stress distribution, and are much less reliable than those for longitudinal
properties.
6-3
found, for example, in Matthews and Rawlings (1999) or Hull and
Clyne (1996). The result is:
1 Vf Vm
E2 Ef Em
Ef Em
or E2 (6.8)
Vf E m Vm E f
Em
E2 (6.9)
1 Vf
which is of course independent of the modulus of the reinforcement.
Em
Em (6.10)
1 2m
E m 1 Vf
E2 (6.11)
1 Vf
Ef Em
where
E f E m
The parameter is adjustable, but is usually close to unity. Equation
(6.10) is generally considered to more reliable than the simpler
alternative.
6-4
taken as 70 GPa and 3 GPa respectively. Note that the simple constant
stress model for E2 is a lower bound.
60
50
E1 (equation 6.6)
modulus (GPa)
40
30 E2 (equation 6.11)
20
E2 (equation 6.10)
Fig. 6.3: Rules of mixtures
modulus for UD glass/epoxy 10
composite. Matrix Poisson’s E2 (equation 6.9)
ratio taken as 0.4. 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
fibre volume fraction
As the tensile modulus relates tensile stress and strain, so the shear
modulus is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain:
ij
G ij
ij
Note that the subscripts ‘ij’ indicate the plane in which the shear
modulus is defined.
1 V V
f m (6.12)
G12 G f G m
G m 1 Vf
G12 (6.13)
1 Vf
Gf Gm
with (6.14)
G f G m
6-5
Again, the parameter is approximately equal to 1.
E2
G 23 (6.15)
21 23
If our unidirectional ply (Fig. 6.1) has transverse isotropy, we expect 13
= 12 (see Equation 6.7). Hull and Clyne (1996) give the following
expression for the other out-of-plane Poisson’s ratio in terms of the
bulk modulus (K):
E2
23 1 21 (6.16)
3K
1 Vf Vm
where
K Kf Km
Ef Em
with Kf and K m
31 2 f 31 2 m
6-6
Table 6.1: Rules of mixtures values for elastic constants of UD E-glass
fibre/epoxy (units of tensile and shear moduli are GPa).
Table 6.3: Constituent properties for Tables 6.1 and 6.2 (Gibson,
1994).
6-7
6.5 Multidirectional Ply – in-plane tensile modulus
A correction factor to allow for the loss of efficiency if fibres are not
perfectly aligned in the load direction was given by Krenchel (1964) as:
o i cos 4 i (6.18)
E L o E f Vf E m (1 Vf ) (6.19)
orientation o
unidirectional 1
biaxial 0.5
45o 0.25
random (in-plane) 0.375
random (3D) 0.2
6-8
Assuming that the path of a tow in a woven fabric is sinusoidal, the
orientation factor can be obtained numerically as a function of weave
crimp angle (Grove and Summerscales, 2000). The results are shown
in Fig. 6.4. In a woven reinforcement, both orientation factors should
be combined to allow for in-plane and out-of-plane deviation from the
load direction.
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
Fig. 6.4: Calculated
orientation distribution 0.75
factor for a plain weave tow
with varying crimp angle. 0.7
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Crimp angle (degrees)
6-9
Fig. 6.5: Finite element
model of single glass fibre
(blue) embedded in epoxy
resin. The model is
axisymmetric about the
upper edge, and is subjected
to a uniaxial tensile strain.
Upper picture shows
undeformed mesh – note
high shear strain at fibre end.
D 2 DL c
f (6.20)
4 2
Lc is the length of the fibre over which the interfacial shear forces act.
Fig. 6.6: Schematic Referring to Fig. 6.7, it is clear that the average tensile stress in the
variation of fibre tensile
stress and interfacial shear
stress in a ‘short’ fibre.
6-10
(Matthews & Rawlings,
1999)
L
Fig. 6.7: Tensile and shear Lc / 2
stres distribution for a single
fibre embedded in a matrix
(Daniel & Ishai, 1994).
fibre is less than its maximum value of Ef m, where m is the strain in
the matrix. Moreover, if the fibre length L < Lc, then the tensile stress
nowhere reaches its maximum value. Lc is thus referred to as the
critical length – defined as the minimum length of fibre required for the
tensile stress to reach its failure value. At this point, from Equation
6.20 we have:
f D
Lc (6.21)
2
Table 6.5: Critical length and aspect ratio for some composite systems
(from Matthews and Rawlings, 1996).
6-11
L
ave
f fmax 1 c (6.22)
2L
tanh L / 2
L 1 (6.23)
L / 2
8G m
where
E f D ln 2R D
2
1
0.9
0.8
length correction factor
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
Fig. 6.8: Theoretical length
correction factor for glass 0.2
fibre/epoxy, assuming inter- 0.1
fibre separation of 20 D.
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
fibre length (mm)
6-12
is of course also due to the fact that typical volume fractions are much
lower than with aligned, continuous reinforcements.
E 83 E 1 58 E 2
G 18 E 1 14 E 2
E
1 (6.24)
2G
20
18
16
Poisson's ratio x 10
modulus (GPa) and
14 E
12
10
G
8
6
4
Fig. 6.9: Elastic constants of
2D random glass fibre- 2
reinforced epoxy. Poisson’s 0 x 10
ratio is multiplied by 10 for 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
clarity.
fibre volume fraction
6-13
6.8 Exercises
5. Using Equation 6.22, estimate the fibre length at which you would
expect a glass/polyester composite to have 95% of the strength of one
reinforced with continuous fibres.
6. Sketch and label the variation of tensile stress along the length of a
high strength carbon fibre of length L = Lc if it is aligned in the load
direction and the applied strain is 0.1%.
6-14
longitudinal tensile modulus 240 GPa and an ultimate tensile strength
of 2500 MPa. (a) What is the interfacial shear strength of the
composite? (b) If the composite has a longitudinal modulus of 80 GPa,
what was the applied stress at fibre failure? (Gibson, 1994).
6-15