Professional Documents
Culture Documents
• 7 February 2011
* Masochists only
• X-rays • X-rays
• Generation of X-rays • Generation of X-rays
• Interaction of X-rays • Interaction of X-rays
with matter with matter
• Accessory equipment • Accessory equipment
What are X-rays? What are X-rays?
• Type of electromagnetic radiation • Shorter wavelength than visible light
– Can act as wave or particle (photon) • Higher energy than visible light
– No mass, no charge • High energy makes them Ionizing Radiation
– Travel at speed of light
Cathode Cathode
• Number of electrons released is directly • Number of X-rays produced is directly
proportional to: proportional to electron number & mAs
– Current across filament (milliamperes = mA) • Operator selects mAs (or mA and s
– Exposure time (seconds = s) separately)
• mAs = mA x s
– 10 mAs = 600 mA x 1/60 s Time selector (s)
– 10 mAs = 100 mA x 1/10 s
mA selector
Cathode Cathode
• Number of X-rays produced is directly • Focal Spot size • Small focal spot:
proportional to mAs determined by greater detail (spatial
filament size & resolution)
• Operator selects mAs (or mA and s focusing cup • Large focal spot:
separately) • Most machines have routine work (higher
mA selector 2 filaments output capability)
Time (s) or
mAs selector
Cathode Cathode
• Air
• Fat
• Fluid / Soft Tissue
• Bone / Mineral
• Metal
Atomic Number and Density
Gas
Low Z High Z
Mineral
ST
Fat Metal
• Make radiographed
part thinner
• Collimate
• Use (antiscatter) grid
• Use air gap technique
Collimators Collimators
• X-rays are emitted from target in all
directions
– Lead housing blocks most photons
– Remainder go thru window, but even this
small beam is wider than is needed for most
purposes
• Use a collimator
– Restrict X-ray beam to area of interest
Collimators Collimators
• Original collimators were lead cones
– We still use the phrase “cone down” when
referring to collimation
• Now sets of lead shutters – variable
aperture – much more versatile
• Required by OSHA for radiation safety
• Improves image quality by reducing
scatter radiation
Collimators Collimators
Cone Collimator – Lead Shutters –
Fixed Aperture Variable Aperture
Collimators Collimators
• Used to minimize scatter
– Fewer photons passing through material at
the edges means less opportunity to deflect No Collimation
into the area of interest +
No Patient ID
• Must walk fine line Label
– Only include what you need in the field, but =
make sure the study is complete
• Always collimate at least a little bit
Grids
• Plates with thin lead strips alternating with
radiolucent material
• Placed between patient and film
– Decreases scatter reaching film
– DOES NOT decrease scatter reaching staff
• Generally located in table or Bucky tray, but
can have loose varieties
• Grid absorbs many of the scatter photons,
but also some primary photons
– Exposure technique must be increased
Grids
• Focused grids most common
– Lead strips angled to match X-ray beam
divergence
– Distance from tube to grid must match grid’s
focal distance
• Grids can be unfocused (parallel strips)
Grids
• Grids generally not used if part thickness
<10cm
– Not enough scatter produced to be worth it
Grids
• High grid ratio
– Remove more scatter photons
– Also remove more primary photons
– Thus require higher exposure technique
• Low grid ratio
– Less elimination of scatter
– Exposure technique doesn’t have to be
increased as much
• Common grid ratio is 8:1 or 10:1
Trouble with Grids Trouble with Grids
• Need to increase exposure technique • Damaged grid strips will be visible on
– Often 3-5x higher than without grid image
• Grid lines visible on image • Poor alignment of grid and X-ray beam will
– Distracting cause various types of grid cutoff artifact
– Use Potter-Bucky mechanism (tray in table) to
oscillate grid during exposure and blur lines
– DR systems may have software-based grid
line suppression