English grammar notes - linkers

Contents

1. Reasons and results

2. Contrast
3. Comparing
4. Adding points
5. One sentence or two?
6. Linking with prepositions
7. Other ways of linking and other relationships

It was raining so I stayed at home.

It was raining. Therefore, I stayed at home.

Although it was raining, I went for a walk.

I always go to bed early, whereas my sister goes to bed very late.

Reasons and results

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Linkers are words or phrases that we use to link (i.e. connect or join) ideas.

It was raining. I stayed at home.

In this example, we can see that the first idea, 'It was raining.' is the reason for the second
idea, 'I stayed at home.' Or, 'I stayed at home' is a result of 'It was raining.' We can use
linkers such as so or therefore to make the relationship between the two ideas clear.

It was raining so I stayed at home.

It was raining. Therefore, I stayed at home.

We could also change the order and put the result before the reason and use a linker such
as because.
I stayed at home because it was raining.

The linkers so, because and therefore show a relationship of reason and result, or cause
and effect.

Contrast

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Let’s look at another example:

It was raining. I went for a walk.

This time there is a different relationship between the two ideas. People don't usually go
for a walk if it is raining. The second idea doesn't normally follow from the first one. It is
unexpected. This relationship, where the ideas are different or opposing, is called
contrast.

We can use linkers such as but, although and however to show contrast and make the
relationship between the ideas clear.

It was raining but I went for a walk.

Although it was raining, I went for a walk.
It was raining. However, I went for a walk.

Comparing

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Sometimes we want to compare two things that are different:

I always go to bed early.

My sister goes to bed very late.

This is also a kind of contrast and we can make the relationship clear using linkers such
as while, whereas, but, however or on the other hand.
I always go to bed early, whereas my sister goes to bed very late.
I always go to bed early. My sister, on the other hand, goes to bed very late.

Adding points

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One other common relationship between ideas is addition, when we want to add ideas.
These can be very simple:

I like seafood.
I like spicy food.

We could add these ideas with linkers such as and, also and too:

I like seafood and spicy food.

I like seafood. I also like spicy food.
I like seafood. I like spicy food too.

In written English, we sometimes want to add ideas such as points in an argument. This is
common when writing essays and reports:

The cost of relocation would be very high.

There are no suitable premises currently available.
A move would be unpopular with staff.

In formal writing we can join ideas like these with linkers such as furthermore, moreover,
what is more, in addition and besides
.
The cost of relocation would be very high. Furthermore, there are no suitable premises
currently available and a move would be unpopular with staff.

Note that simple linkers like and, too and also are often used in formal writing along with
the more formal ones. But linkers such as moreover and furthermore are mostly used for
more formal writing and would sound strange in simple conversation:

I like seafood. What is more, I like spicy food.

One sentence or two?

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You will notice that we can link two ideas in one sentence or two. Your choice will
usually depend on how complicated each idea is and whether you are speaking or writing.
Simple ideas in spoken English are often joined with simple linkers like and, but, because
and so:

I felt tired so I went to bed early.

More complex ideas in written English are often joined in two sentences:

The disadvantages of relocating to a new site on the coast are considerable. Therefore
we recommend retaining the existing premises in London for the time being.

When we link ideas in one sentence, each idea usually has a clause and the linker is
usually a conjunction
:
The linkers and, but, so, while, whereas, and although are conjunctions and join ideas as
clauses in one sentence.

The linkers however, on the other hand, therefore, furthermore etc. are adverbs and link
ideas in two sentences.

Linking with prepositions

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Some linkers are prepositions. They can link the same kinds of ideas but the grammar is
different. They don’t link clauses or sentences. They show a link between a word or
phrase, usually a noun or noun phrase, and the whole sentence.

Contrast
We can use the preposition despite and the phrase in spite of (which works in the same
way) to show contrast:

I went for a walk despite the rain.

In spite of her heavy cold, she managed to give a brilliant presentation.

Note that the ideas following despite (the rain) and in spite of (her heavy cold) are not
clauses, they are nouns or noun phrases.

Reason and result

We can use due to and because of (not because) in the same way:

Due to the terrible weather we have cancelled the picnic.

Note that the idea following due to (the terrible weather) is a noun phrase.

Addition.
Besides can be used as a preposition to add ideas (it can also be used as an adverb).

Besides the problem with transport, we also had to deal with a difficult financial
situation.

Note how the idea following besides (the problem with transport) is a noun phrase.
Linkers – contrast, addition, reason and result

What is the relationship between the pairs of sentences below - contrast, addition or
reason and result?

Use a linking expression to make the relationship between the ideas more clear.

The Trocadero Plaza is popular with shoppers.

The Trocadero Plaza has good public transport.

Most tourists go to Golden Sands Beach.

Golden Sands Beach is one of the most polluted in the country.

I'm going to do a course in Italian next year.

I'm going to improve my Mandarin next year.

I'm not very good at languages.

I'm going to do a course in Mandarin next year.

I'm quite good at languages.

I'm going to take courses in Korean, Japanese and French next year.
The traffic was terrible this morning.

I managed to get to work on time.

The traffic was terrible this morning.

I was about 25 minutes late for work.

Smoking is bad for your health.

Smoking is antisocial because many people find it unpleasant.

Smoking is a waste of money.

I don't think Charlie Wong would be a good candidate for this job.

He is hard working and reliable.

He has no experience in this area.

He has never shown the slightest interest in this kind of work.

He is rather old.

Some possible answers (There are many others)

The Trocadero Plaza is popular with shoppers because it has good public transport.
Most tourists go to Golden Sands Beach.

However, it is one of the most polluted in the country.

I'm going to do a course in Italian next year.

I'm also going to improve my Mandarin.

I'm not very good at languages so

I'm going to do a course in Mandarin next year.

OR (depending on how you look at it)

Although I'm not very good at languages,

I'm going to do a course in Mandarin next year.

I'm quite good at languages so

I'm going to take courses in Korean, Japanese and French next year.

OR (depending on how you look at it)

Even though I'm quite good at languages,

I'm going to take courses in Korean, Japanese and French next year.

Although the traffic was terrible this morning,

I managed to get to work on time.

The traffic was terrible this morning.

Therefore, I was about 25 minutes late for work.

Smoking is bad for your health and it is antisocial because many people find it unpleasant. Besides, it is a
waste of money.

I don't think Charlie Wong would be a good candidate for this job.

Although he is hard working and reliable, he has no experience in this area

and he has never shown the slightest interest in this kind of work.

Besides, he is rather old.