TRAINING REPORT

BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS

LIMITED,BHOPAL

TRAINING REPORT ON: T.G.M

GUIDANCE :Shri B.L.Verma

BY:

RAHUL KUMAR WAHANE

ADM NO. : 9531
BRANCH:MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE: INDIAN SCHOOL OF MINES
UNIVERSITY-DHANBAD,JHARKHAND
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We owe this moment of satisfaction with

deep sense of gratitude to our project

guide by Mr. Shri B.L. Verma .For

invaluable guidance significant &help in

my respect to accomplish the project

work. Their persisting encouragement,

ever-lasting passions & wholehearted

inspiration guidance, which help us a lot

molding the present shape of the project.

CERTIFICATE

THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT RAHUL

KUMAR WAHANE ,ROLL NO.
9531.STUDYING IN SECOND YEAR
,MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ,B.TECH
OF INDIAN SCHOOLM OF MINES
UNIVERSITY,DHANBAD HAS
SUCCESSFULLY COMPLETED THE
PROJECT ON T.G.M. DIVISION ,B.H.E.L.
BHOPAL AND GIVEN THE
SATISFACTORY ACCOUNT OF IT IN THIS
PROJECT REPORT.IN THE GUIDANCE OF
Shri B.L.Verma

DATE................... TEACHER’S SIGN

3
 HOBBING

A hobbing machine is a special form of milling

machine that cuts gears. It is the major industrial
process for cutting (as opposed to grinding) spur
gears of involute form.

The machine forms the gear via a generating process

by rotating the gear blank and the cutter (called a
hob) at the same time with a fixed gearing ratio
between hob and blank. The hob has a profile given in
cross-section by the fundamental rack for the gear
tooth profile and is in the form of a helix so that the
sides of the teeth on the hob generate the curve on
the gear. The helix has a number of cuts parallel to
the axis to form the cutting teeth and the profile is
suitably relieved to provide cutting clearance.

For a tooth profile which is a theoretical involute, the

fundamental rack is straight-sided, with sides inclined
at the pressure angle of the tooth form, with flat top
and bottom. The necessary addendum correction to
allow the use of small-numbered pinions can either be
obtained by suitable modification of this rack to a
cycloidal form at the tips, or by hobbing at other than
the theoretical pitch circle diameter. Since the gear
ratio between hob and blank is fixed, the resulting
gear will have the correct pitch on the pitch circle,
but the tooth thickness will not be equal to the space
width.
Hobbing is invariably used to produce throated worm
wheels, but it is not possible to cut all useful tooth
profiles in this way; if any portion of the hob profile is
perpendicular to the axis then it will have no cutting
clearance generated by the usual backing off process,
and it will not cut well. The NHS Swiss tooth
standards give rise to such problems. Such small
gears normally must be milled instead.

ITS COMPONENTS:-

A hobbing machine comprising: a rotatable clamp

fixture adapted to retain a gear blank; a rotatable
cutter translatable into engagement

The hobbing machine of claim 1, wherein the

sharpened peripheral edge is adjacent to the contact
surface.

The hobbing machine of claim 1, wherein the contact

surface may include compositions of high speed steel,
carbide, or abrasive compositions.

The hobbing machine of claim 3, wherein the abrasive

compositions include aluminum oxide or cubic boron
nitride.

The hobbing machine of claim 1, further comprising a

motor to power said powered spindle.

The hobbing machine of claim 1, including: a first

motor operatively connected to the clamp fixture to
rotate the clamp fixture and the gear blank at a
predetermined speed; and a second motor to power
said de-burring tool spindle.

The hobbing machine of claim 6 further including a

controller controlling output of said second motor,
wherein the predefined speed and direction of said
de-burring tool spindle is programmable through said
controller.
 The hobbing machine of claim 7, wherein said de-
burring tool spindle is translatable between two or
more positions including a first disengaged position
with respect to said first end surface and a second
engaged position with respect tosaid first end surface
and wherein position translation is programmable
through the controller.

The hobbing machine of claim 8 further comprising: a

second de-burring tool translatable into engagement
with a second end surface of the gear blank, said
second de-burring tool configured to remove burrs
from the second end surface of thegear blank; and
said second de-burring tool configured to rotate at a
predefined speed and direction, the speed and
direction selected to facilitate removal of burrs,
wherein said predefined rotary speed of said second
de-burring tool spindle isprogrammable through said
controller.

A hobbing machine for cutting gear teeth into a gear

blank, comprising: a rotatable clamp fixture adapted
to retain the gear blank; a first motor operatively
connected to the clamp fixture to rotate the clamp
fixture and the gear blank ata predetermined speed;
a rotatable cutter translatable into engagement with
the gear blank, said cutter configured to cut the gear
blank and thereby produce plurality of gear teeth and
potentially burrs; a first rotatable de-burring tool
translatableinto engagement with a first end surface
of the gear blankburring tool also including a contact
surface extending generally in the direction of the
first end surface and configured to grind off and
thereby remove others of said burrs.

The hobbing machine for cutting gear teeth into a

gear blank of claim 11, further comprising: a second
de-burring tool translatable into engagement with a
second end surface of the gear blank, said second de-
burring tool configured toremove burrs from the
second end surface of the gear blank as the gear
teeth are being cut by the rotatable cutter; and a
spacer adapted to position said second de-burring
tool at a predetermined distance from the first de-
burring tool, said spacersecured at one end to said
powered spindle, said spacer secured at an opposing
second end .

VERTICAL LATHE MACHINE TEETH

MACHINE
GRINDING
The Milling Machine uses a rotating milling cutter to
produce machined surfaces by progressively
removing material from a work piece. The vertical
milling machine also can function like a drill press
because the spindle is perpendicular to the table and
can be lowered into the work piece.

THE CONTROLS

START/STOP

The green button starts the spindle motor and the red
button shuts the motor off.

Variable motor drive

Variable Motor Drive used on some of the Milling

Machines

FORWARD/REVERSE
 This switch changes the rotation direction of the
spindle. When the milling machine is in high range
this switch is in the forward position for cutting but in
low range the switch is in the reverse position.
Putting the switch in the opposite position while
remaining in the same range reverses the rotation of
the spindle.

HAND BRAKE

Also known as the spindle brake, it is used to bring

the spindle rotation to a stop after the power is
turned off and to aid in removing collets and chucks.
The spindle can be locked by pressing or pulling the
brake and then pushing it up.

SPINDLE SPEED

This wheel is used to change the speed of the spindle

for both high range and low range. The milling
machine must be running when changing the speed.

POWER FEED

The power feed uses a motor to control the motion of

the longitudinal feed in either direction at various
speeds. Not all of the milling machines in the shop
have this option.

CROSS-FEED HANDWHEEL

This handwheel moves the table in and out.

 VERTICAL FEED HANDCRANK

This is used to raise and lower the table.

Vertical Milling Machine

QUILL FEED HANDLE

You can raise and lower the quill (spindle) with this
handle.

QUILL LOCK

Pushing this lever down will lock the quill, pulling it

back up releases the lock. The quill must be locked
when milling.

QUILL STOP

The quill stop can be adjusted by hand to set a limit

on the quill travel is also used to disengage the quill
feed. This is useful when multiple holes have to be
drilled to the same depth.

QUILL FEED LEVER AND SELECTOR

These are used to activate the power feed for the

quill. The selector will adjust the speed of the power
feed and the lever activates the drive. The quill feed
can
 BORE GRINDING
A bore grinding machine having a horizontal work
table rotatably mounted on a base. The work table
has a portion of its central area cut away to form a
passageway opening for a vertical tool spindle
assembly which is mounted with its top portion in
said opening. The tool spindle assembly is mounted
on a vertical slide which allows the top portion of the
spindle assembly to be raised above the top surface
of the work table when in grinding position and
allowed to be lowered back into said passageway
opening where it is out of the way and below the top
of the table during loading and unloading of the work
pieces to be machined. A wheel dressing unit is
mounted below the top of the passageway opening
which dresses the grinding wheel upon movement
thru the opening. A retractable guard cover is
mounted below the top of the opening to cover the
grinding wheel when a worker is loading or unloading
the parts to be machined on the top of the table. A
combination wheel guard and coolant hood is
pivotally mounted on the top of the work table
support and it covers the work piece and work table
during the grinding operation while coolant is being
 floodingly circulated therewith. A plurality of cams
are used to control the x axis movement of the work
table with respect to the grinding wheel and the y
axis movement of the wheel feed slide with respect to
the work while a work rotation gear forming a part of
the rotatable table is connected to a drive motor that
controls the concurrent rotation of the work table.

CNC
Computer Numerical Control (CNC)
Drilling
Computer Numerical Control (CNC) Drilling is
commonly implemented for mass production. The
drilling machine, however, is often a multi-function
machining center that also mills and sometimes turns.
The largest time sink for CNC drilling is with tool
changes, so for speed, variation of hole diameters
should be minimized. The fastest machines for drilling
varying hole sizes have multiple spindles in turrets
with drills of varying diameters already mounted for
drilling. The appropriate drill is brought into position
through movement of the turret, so that bits do not
need to be removed and replaced. A turret-type CNC
drilling machine is shown below.

A variety of semi-automated drilling machines are

also used. An example is a simple drill press which, on
command, drills a hole of a set depth into a part set
up beneath it.

In order to be cost-effective, the appropriate type of

CNC drilling machine needs to be applied to a
particular part geometry. For low-volume jobs,
manual or semi-automated drilling may suffice. For
hole patterns with large differences in sizes and high
volume, a geared head is most appropriate. If holes
are close to each other and high throughput is
desired, a gearless head can locate spindles close
together so that the hole pattern can be completed in
one pass. For further reference for CNC processes,
please refer to the CNC, metal forming section.

HEAT TREATMENT

CARBURISING:
 Carburising can be carried out in the temperature
range 850 - 1000°C using a variety of processes to
produce the carbon:

Pack carburising uses a solid granular form of

carbon such as charcoal with an activator to
assist the its break down to give active carbon
which can diffuse into the steel surface.

Salt bath carburising uses a liquid form of a

carbon containing species such as sodium
cyanide, potassium cyanide or calcium cyanide.

Gas carburising uses a gaseous atmosphere in a

sealed furnace usually containing propane
(C3H8) or butane (C4H10).

Gas carburising is the most frequently used

technique. The depth to which the carbon diffuses is
controlled by the surface concentration of carbon,
and the temperature and time of carburising.

Low Pressure Carburising (LPC) is an advanced

technology that offers the design engineer an
alternative to atmosphere carburising for improved
case depth uniformity, dimensional control, part
cleanliness, and process flexibility. LPC is a method of
pure carburisation combined with pure diffusion. The
steel surface is vacuum conditioned eliminating
surface oxide, trapped gases and foreign material
that may deter carbon saturation of the austenite.
High Pressure Gas Quenching (HPGQ) offers a number
of attractive benefits including unprecedented part
cleanliness and less overall dimensional change.
Fixed or variable cooling rates are applied as required
to control hardness and distortion with the ability to
vary quench pressure depending on load size,
material type and part section thickness. Product
consistency and repeatability are excellent using high
pressure gas quenching.Low pressure vacuum
carburising has been successfully applied to a number
of different components including gears, shafts,
bearings, tool holders and fuel injection components
to name a few. Industrial sectors such as automotive,
aerospace, off-road, autosport, agricultural, power
generation and tooling have already found particular
benefits.

Carburising involves the diffusion of carbon into the

surface layers of a low carbon steel at high
temperatures. Controlled cooling after carburising
(water, oil or polymer quenching) produces hard
martensitic layers at the surface (this is due to the
increased hardenability of the carbon enriched
surface region).

This 3% nickel–chrome–molybdenum steel is used

when a core strength of 55 to 80 tons/sq.in is
required along with a case hardness of around 60
Rockwell C.

Distortion can arise from:

 Heavy machining prior carburising

Retained austenite on quenching

Poor design

Metallurgical anomalies in the steel.

This is most likely due to the presence of retained

austenite on heat treatment. It is recommended that
the steel is carburised and hardened in two separate
cycles.

An alternative grade depends on the size of the

component. However it is likely that a steel to AISI
8620 should form a cheaper alternative and yet
produce the required properties. Similar carburising
and heat treatment parameters are applicable to both
steels.

This grade of steel can be successfully carburised. It

is basically a 0.30%C version of carburising grade
EN36 (832M13).

A greater carbon potential must be used in order to

drive the carbon into the surface and a two stage
treatment is recommended to overcome any potential
problems with retained austenite

This grade of steel can be successfully carburised. It

is basically a 0.30%C version of carburising grade
EN36 (832M13).

A greater carbon potential must be used in order to

drive the carbon into the surface and a two stage
treatment is recommended to overcome any potential
problems with retained austenite.

This grade of steel can be successfully carburised. It

is basically a 0.30%C version of carburising grade
EN36 (832M13).

A greater carbon potential must be used in order to

drive the carbon into the surface and a two stage
treatment is recommended to overcome any potential
problems with retained austenite.

Although EN 40B is often used in the un-nitrided

condition for applications requiring high tensile
strength at temperatures up to 600ºC, it is intended
to be nitrided to improve wear and corrosion
resistance.

Nitriding is usually carried out at temperatures

around 500ºC and prior tempering should have been
done at a higher temperature.

STRESS REVEALING

A process for permitting defects or stresses in a

structure to be revealed, including (a) securing by
molecular bonding of a face of a first element
containing crystalline material with a face of a second
element containing crystalline material, so that the
faces have offset crystalline lattices, the securing
 causing the formation of a lattice of crystalline
defects andor stress fields in a crystalline zone next
to the securing interface, and (b) reducing the
thickness of one of the elements until at least a thin
film is obtained which adheres to the other element,
along the securing interface to form the structure,
the thickness of the thin film being such that its free
face does not reveal the crystalline defect lattice
andor the stress fields, but allowing to perform (c)
treatment of the thin film resulting in that its free
face reveals the crystalline defect lattice andor the
stress fields.

HARDENING

Precipitation Hardening

The process of precipitation hardening, also called

age hardening, is widely used to add strength to
metal alloy materials. The precipitation hardening
capabilities of Applied Thermal Technologies, Inc.
include stainless steel, high temperature alloys and
titanium.

We began our company in 1992 to service the medical

and specialty components industries in Northern
Indiana and have since expanded nationally. If you
are in search of a precipitation hardening type
solution, call (574) 269-7116. For questions, please
enter your contact information on our web site and
then click the next button. We will respond ASAP. We
 can also do a titanium cast design, a stainless steel
solid cast and an alloy cast.

Applied Thermal Technologies can comply with the

following industry standards and specifications:

AMS 2675, Nickel Alloy Brazing, AMS 2750,

Pyrometry, AMS 2759, Heat Treatment of Steel Parts–
General Requirements, AMS 2759/3, Heat Treatment–
P.H. , C.R. , and Maraging Steel Parts, AMS 2759/4,
Heat Treatment–Austenitic Corrosion Resistant Steel
Parts, AMS 2759/5, Heat Treatment–Martensitic
Corrosion Resistant Steel Parts, AMS 2769, Heat
Treatment of Parts in Vacuum,AMS 2773, Heat
Treatment–Cast Nickel Alloy and Cobalt Alloy
Parts,AMS 2774, Heat Treatment–Wrought Nickel
Alloy and Cobalt Alloy Parts,AMS 2801, Heat
Treatment of Titanium Alloy Parts, MIL-B-7883, MIL-H-
6875, MIL-H-81200

TURNING

Turning is the process whereby a lathe is used to

produce "solids of revolution". It can be done
manually, in a traditional form of latheA wire cut
electric discharge machine having rollers is disclosed.
It has a wire electrode disposed in a working zone of
the electric discharge machine. This wire electrode is
rolled by a rolling device so that the cross-sectional
area of this wire electrode changes from a circular
area into an elongated one. After rolled, the wire
electrode has two parallel rolled flat surfaces. The
working width between these flat surfaces is smaller
than the original diameter of the wire electrode
before rolled. So, the cutting width is narrower than
before. By using the rolled wire electrode, this
invention can reduce the cutting width limit. I can
improve the precision of the product, without
changing the material property of the wire electrode.
And, it can reduce the cost of the wire electrode.

flushes material away

serves as a coolant to minimize the heat affected

zone (thereby preventing potential damage to the
workpiece)

acts as a conductor for the current to pass between

the electrode and the workpiece.

In wire EDM a very thin wire serves as the electrode.

Special brass wires are typically used; the wire is
slowly fed through the material and the electrical
discharges actually cut the workpiece. Wire EDM is
usually performed in a bath of water.

If you were to observe the wire EDM process under a

microscope, you would discover that the wire itself
does not actually touch the metal to be cut; the
electrical discharges actually remove small amounts
of material and allow the wire to be moved through
the workpiece. The path of the wire is typically
controlled by a computer, which allows extremely
complex shapes to be produced.
Perhaps the best way to explain wire EDM is to use an
analogy. Imagine stretching a thin metal wire
between your hands and sliding it though a block of
cheese cutting any shape you want. You can alter the
positions of your hands on either side of the cheese
to define complex and curved shapes. Wire EDM
works in a similar fashion, except electrical discharge
machining can handle some of the hardest materials
used in industry. Also note, that in dragging a wire
through cheese, the wire is actually displacing the
cheese as it cuts, but in EDM a thin kerf is created by
removing tiny particles of metal.

Electrical discharge machining is frequently used to

make dies and molds. It has recently become a
standard method of producing prototypes and some
production parts, particularly in low volume
applications. For more details regarding a typical
application, you can read about a custom bronze
branding-iron that was made with EDM.

Electrical discharge machines (EDM) remove metal

from a workpiece by using a series of electric sparks
to erode material. An electrical discharge machine is
considered to be the most precision oriented
manufacturing process and is widely used for creating
simple and complex shapes and geometries. EDM
machining is favored in situations where high
accuracy of work and low count is required. An EDM
machine consists of a workpiece and the wire
electrode. A workpiece is sometimes dipped in a
dielectric to develop a potential difference between
the workpiece and wire electrode. Electrical discharge
machine supply is applied to the workpiece. Electrical
discharge machines (EDM) work by eroding the
material that appears in the electrical discharge path.
This material is responsible for generating an arc
between the workpiece and wire electrode. The wire
electrode rotates acts as wire EDM tooling and
rotates a two-three axis and cuts the internal cavities
in the workpiece. There are many types of electrical
discharge machines (EDM). Examples include a CNC
EDM and a wire EDM machine. A CNC EDM is a
computer numerical control machine and is used for
removing metal using electrical discharge spark
erosion. A wire EDM machine is designed for precision
machining purposes and is used for cutting prismatic
metal components. Other electrical discharge
machines (EDM) are commonly available.

There are several ways in which electrical discharge

machines (EDM) function. Electrical discharge
machines (EDM) are used where fast turn around time
is required. Electrical discharge machines (EDM)
works by removing the workpiece that generates an
arc with the wire electrode and creating a cavity in
the workpiece. The dimensional accuracy required for
an electrical discharge machine is + / - 0.0005 inches
per inch. Electrical discharge machines (EDM) also
require a 0.0003 feature profile accuracy across the
workpiece cutting path. Electrical discharge machines
(EDM) are designed and manufactured to meet most
industry specifications.

EDM is a machining method primarily used for hard

metals or those that would be impossible to machine
with traditional techniques. One critical limitation,
however, is that EDM only works with materials that
are electrically conductive. EDM or Electrical
Discharge Machining, is especially well-suited for
cutting intricate contours or delicate cavities that
would be difficult to produce with a grinder, an end
 mill or other cutting tools. Metals that can be
machined with EDM include hastalloy, hardened tool-
steel, titanium, carbide, inconel and kovar.

EDM is sometimes called "spark machining" because

it removes metal by producing a rapid series of
repetitive electrical discharges. These electrical
discharges are passed between an electrode and the
piece of metal being machined. The small amount of
material that is removed from the workpiece is
flushed away with a continuously flowing fluid. The
repetitive discharges create a set of successively
deeper craters in the work piece until the final shape
is produced.

There are two primary EDM methods: ram EDM and

wire EDM. The primary difference between the two
involves the electrode that is used to perform the
machining. In a typical ram EDM application, a
graphite electrode is machined with traditional tools.
The now specially-shaped electrode is connected to
the power source, attached to a ram, and slowly fed
into the workpiece. The entire machining operation is
usually performed while submerged in a fluid bath.
The fluid serves the following three purposes:

Jig boring machines are mainly to perform machining

operations like boring, drilling, reaming, counter
boring holes in metal jigs and counter-sinking holes in
metal work pieces. Some jig boring machines are used
for accurately enlarging the existing holes and
making their diameters highly accurate.
 Jig boring can also maintain high accuracy between
multiple holes or holes and surfaces. Some jig boring
machines are designed to machine holes with the
tightest tolerances possible with a machine tool. The
constant demand for accuracy within many branches
of metalworking has been fulfilled with the help of
applications possible by jig-boring machines.

For long holes such as those found in gun bores, gun

drills are used. The length of the hole requires that
coolant be delivered through the shaft of the gun drill
to the cutting front. The coolant also serves to eject chips
from the cutting area and to move them back and out of the hole
entrance. The figures below illustrate a gun drill and the
cutting/cooling configuration.

Jig Boring
Jig boring is used to accurately enlarge existing holes
and make their diameters highly accurate. Jig boring
is used for holes that need to have diameter and total
runout controlled to a high degree. Typically, a part
has holes machined on regular equipment and then
the part is transferred to a dedicated jig boring
machine for final operations on the especially
accurate holes. Jig boring can also maintain high
accuracy between multiple holes or holes and
surfaces. Tolerances can be held readily within ±.005
mm (±0.0002 inches). Dedicated jig boring machines
are designed to machine holes with the tightest
tolerances possible with a machine tool.

When designing a part with holes, it is important to

determine what holes must be jig bored. The reason
for this is that jig boring requires extra time and
attention, and the jig boring machine at the machine
shop may have a back log of jobs. Jig boring can
therefore have a big impact on the lead time of a
part. A cross section of a hole being jig bored is
shown below.

Standard boring can be carried out on a mill fitted

with a boring head or on a lathe. Boring is most
accurate on a lathe since a lathe is dedicated to solids
of revolution (axially symmetric parts).

Carburising involves the diffusion of carbon into the

surface layers of a low carbon steel at high
temperatures. Controlled cooling after carburising
(water, oil or polymer quenching) produces hard
martensitic layers at the surface (this is due to the
increased hardenability of the carbon enriched
surface region).

This 3% nickel–chrome–molybdenum steel is used

when a core strength of 55 to 80 tons/sq.in is
required along with a case hardness of around 60
Rockwell C.

Distortion can arise from:

Heavy machining prior carburising

Retained austenite on quenching

Poor design
 Metallurgical anomalies in the steel.

This is most likely due to the presence of retained

austenite on heat treatment. It is recommended that
the steel is carburised and hardened in two separate
cycles.

An alternative grade depends on the size of the

component. However it is likely that a steel to AISI
8620 should form a cheaper alternative and yet
produce the required properties. Similar carburising
and heat treatment parameters are applicable to both
steels.

This grade of steel can be successfully carburised. It

is basically a 0.30%C version of carburising grade
EN36 (832M13).

A greater carbon potential must be used in order to

drive the carbon into the surface and a two stage
treatment is recommended to overcome any potential
problems with retained austenite

This grade of steel can be successfully carburised. It

is basically a 0.30%C version of carburising grade
EN36 (832M13).

A greater carbon potential must be used in order to

drive the carbon into the surface and a two stage
treatment is recommended to overcome any potential
problems with retained austenite.
This grade of steel can be successfully carburised. It
is basically a 0.30%C version of carburising grade
EN36 (832M13).

Precipitation Hardening

The process of precipitation hardening, also called

age hardening, is widely used to add strength to
metal alloy materials. The precipitation hardening
capabilities of Applied Thermal Technologies, Inc.
include stainless steel, high temperature alloys and
titanium.

A process for permitting defects or stresses in a

structure to be revealed, including (a) securing by
molecular bonding of a face of a first element
containing crystalline material with a face of a second
element containing crystalline material, so that the
faces have offset crystalline lattices, the securing
causing the formation of a lattice of crystalline
defects andor stress fields in a crystalline zone next
to the securing interface, and (b) reducing the
thickness of one of the elements until at least a thin
film is obtained which adheres to the other element,
along the securing interface to form the structure,
the thickness of the thin film being such that its free
face does not reveal the crystalline defect lattice
andor the stress fields, but allowing to perform (c)
treatment of the thin film resulting in that its free
face reveals the crystalline defect lattice andor the
stress fields.

A greater carbon potential must be used in order to

drive the carbon into the surface and a two stage
treatment is recommended to overcome any potential
problems with retained austenite.
 Although EN 40B is often used in the un-nitrided
condition for applications requiring high tensile
strength at temperatures up to 600ºC, it is intended
to be nitrided to improve wear and corrosion
resistance.

Nitriding is usually carried out at temperatures

around 500ºC and prior tempering should have been
done at a higher temperature.

machine tool is referred to as having computer

numerical control, better known as CNC. and is
commonly used with many other types of machine
tool besides the lathe.

When turning, a piece of material (wood, metal,

plastic even stone) is rotated and a cutting tool is
traversed along 2 axes of motion to produce precise
diameters and depths. Turning can be either on the
outside of the cylinder or on the inside (also known as
boring) to produce tubular components to various
geometries. Although now quite rare, early lathes
could even be used to produce complex geometric
figures, even the platonic solids; although until the
advent of CNC it had become unusual to use one for
this purpose for the last three quarters of the
twentieth century. It is said that the lathe is the only
machine tool that can reproduce itself.

The turning processes are typically carried out on a

lathe, considered to be the oldest machine tools, and
can be of four different types such as straight
turning, taper turning, profiling or external grooving.
Those types of turning processes can produce various
shapes of materials such as straight, conical, curved,
or grooved workpiece. In general, turning uses simple
single-point cutting tools. Each group of workpiece
materials has an optimum set of tools angles which
have been developed through the years.

, which frequently requires continuous supervision by

the operator, or by using a computer controlled and
automated lathe which does not. This type of machine
tool is referred to as having computer numerical
control, better known as CNC. and is commonly used
with many other types of machine tool besides the
lathe.

When turning, a piece of material (wood, metal,

plastic even stone) is rotated and a cutting tool is
traversed along 2 axes of motion to produce precise
diameters and depths. Turning can be either on the
outside of the cylinder or on the inside (also known as
boring) to produce tubular components to various
geometries. Although now quite rare, early lathes
could even be used to produce complex geometric
figures, even the platonic solids; although until the
advent of CNC it had become unusual to use one for
this purpose for the last three quarters of the
twentieth century. It is said that the lathe is the only
machine tool that can reproduce itself.

The turning processes are typically carried out on a

lathe, considered to be the oldest machine tools, and
can be of four different types such as straight
turning, taper turning, profiling or external grooving.
Those types of turning processes can produce various
shapes of materials such as straight, conical, curved,
or grooved workpiece. In general, turning uses simple
 single-point cutting tools. Each group of workpiece
materials has an optimum set of tools angles which
have been developed through the years.

The bits of waste metal from turning operations are

known as chips (North America), or swarf in Britain. In
some locales they may be known as turnings.

TEMPERING

Tempering is a heat treatment technique for metals,

alloys and glass. In steels, tempering is done to
"toughen" the metal by transforming brittle
martensite into bainite or a combination of ferrite and
cementite. Precipitation hardening alloys, like many
grades of aluminum and superalloys, are tempered to
precipitate intermetallic particles which strengthen
the metal.
 The brittle martensite becomes strong and ductile
after it is tempered. Carbon atoms were trapped in
the austenite when it was rapidly cooled, typically by
oil or water quenching, forming the martensite. The
martensite becomes strong after being tempered
because when reheated, the microstructure can
rearrange and the carbon atoms can diffuse out of the
distorted BCT structure. After the carbon diffuses, the
result is nearly pure ferrite.

In metallurgy, there is always a tradeoff between

strength and ductility. This delicate balance
highlights many of the subtleties inherent to the
tempering process. Precise control of time and
temperature during the tempering process are critical
to achieve a metal with well balanced mechanical
properties.

SHOT PEENING
 Shot peening is a process used to produce a
compressive residual stress layer and modify
mechanical properties of metals. It entails impacting
a surface with shot (round metallic, glass or ceramic
particles) with force sufficient to create plastic
deformation. It is similar to sandblasting, except that
it operates by the mechanism of plasticity rather than
abrasion: each particle functions as a ball-peen
hammer. In practice, this means that less material is
removed by the process, and less dust created.

Peening a surface spreads it plastically, causing

changes in the mechanical properties of the surface.
Shot peening is often called for in aircraft repairs to
relieve tensile stresses built up in the grinding
process and replace them with beneficial compressive
stresses. Depending on the part geometry, part
material, shot material, shot quality, shot intensity,
shot coverage, shot peening can increase fatigue life
from 0%-1000%.

Plastic deformation induces a residual compressive

stress in a peened surface, along with tensile stress
in the interior. Surface compressive stresses confer
resistance to metal fatigue and to some forms of
corrosion. The tensile stresses deep in the part are
not as problematic as tensile stresses on the surface
because cracks are less likely to start in the interior.

Shot peening may be used for cosmetic effect. The

surface roughness resulting from the overlapping
dimples causes light to scatter upon reflection.
 Because peening typically produces larger surface
features than sand-blasting, the resulting effect is
more pronounced.

Shot peening was originally developed by John Almen

when he was working for Buick Motor Division of
General Motors Corporation. He noticed that shot
blasting, as it was called back when he was working,
made the side of the sheet metal that was exposed
begin to bend and stretch. John Almen also created
the Almen Strip to measure the comprehensive
stresses in the strip created by the ball peening
operation. One can obtain what is referred to as the
"Intensity of the Blast Stream" by measuring the
deformation on the Almen strip that is in the shot
peening operation. As the strip reaches a 10%
deformation, the Almen strip is then hit with the
same intensity for twice the amount of time. If the
strip deforms another 10%, then you have the,
"Intensity of the Blast Stream."

A study done through the SAE Fatigue Design and

Evaluation Committee showed what shot peening can
do for welds compared to welds that didn't have this
operation done. The study claimed that the regular
welds would fail after 250,000 cycles when welds that
had been shot peened would fail after 2.5 million
cycles, and outside the weld area. This is part of the
reason that shot peening is a popular operation with
aerospace parts. However, the beneficial prestresses
can anneal out at higher temperatures.

ECC-EDDY CURRENT CLUTCH

 Eddy Current clutches give torque as a function of
RPM. The faster you turn the rotor, the more torque.
This means by increasing or decreasing the RPM, you
can get infinite torque adjustment. Typically, we rate
the clutch with a gain factor (k), which is gram
millimeters/rpm or Newton meters/rpm and we design
the clutch to have an operating "slip rpm" between 1
and 300 rpm.

JIG BORING

Jig boring is used to accurately enlarge existing holes

and make their diameters highly accurate. Jig boring
is used for holes that need to have diameter and total
runout controlled to a high degree. Typically, a part
has holes machined on regular equipment and then
the part is transferred to a dedicated jig boring
machine for final operations on the especially
accurate holes. Jig boring can also maintain high
accuracy between multiple holes or holes and
surfaces. Tolerances can be held readily within ±.005
mm (±0.0002 inches). Dedicated jig boring machines
are designed to machine holes with the tightest
tolerances possible with a machine tool.
When designing a part with holes, it is important to
determine what holes must be jig bored. The reason
for this is that jig boring requires extra time and
attention, and the jig boring machine at the machine
shop may have a back log of jobs. Jig boring can
therefore have a big impact on the lead time of a
part. A cross section of a hole being jig bored is
shown below.

Standard boring can be carried out on a mill fitted

with a boring head or on a lathe. Boring is most
accurate on a lathe since a lathe is dedicated to solids
of revolution (axially symmetric parts).

Gun Drilling
For long holes such as those found in gun bores, gun
drills are used. The length of the hole requires that
coolant be delivered through the shaft of the gun drill
to the cutting front. The coolant also serves to eject
chips from the cutting area and to move them back
and out of the hole entrance. The figures below
illustrate a gun drill and the cutting/cooling
configuration.
Jig boring machines are mainly to perform machining
operations like boring, drilling, reaming, counter
boring holes in metal jigs and counter-sinking holes in
metal work pieces. Some jig boring machines are used
for accurately enlarging the existing holes and
making their diameters highly accurate.

Jig boring can also maintain high accuracy between

multiple holes or holes and surfaces. Some jig boring
machines are designed to machine holes with the
tightest tolerances possible with a machine tool. The
constant demand for accuracy within many branches
of metalworking has been fulfilled with the help of
applications possible by jig-boring machines.

ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINE WIRE

CUTTING
EDM is a machining method primarily used for hard
metals or those that would be impossible to machine
with traditional techniques. One critical limitation,
however, is that EDM only works with materials that
are electrically conductive. EDM or Electrical
Discharge Machining, is especially well-suited for
cutting intricate contours or delicate cavities that
would be difficult to produce with a grinder, an end
mill or other cutting tools. Metals that can be
machined with EDM include hastalloy, hardened tool-
steel, titanium, carbide, inconel and kovar.
EDM is sometimes called "spark machining" because
it removes metal by producing a rapid series of
repetitive electrical discharges. These electrical
discharges are passed between an electrode and the
piece of metal being machined. The small amount of
material that is removed from the workpiece is
flushed away with a continuously flowing fluid. The
repetitive discharges create a set of successively
deeper craters in the work piece until the final shape
is produced.

There are two primary EDM methods: ram EDM and

wire EDM. The primary difference between the two
involves the electrode that is used to perform the
machining. In a typical ram EDM application, a
graphite electrode is machined with traditional tools.
The now specially-shaped electrode is connected to
the power source, attached to a ram, and slowly fed
into the workpiece. The entire machining operation is
usually performed while submerged in a fluid bath.
The fluid serves the following three purposes:

flushes material away

serves as a coolant to minimize the heat affected

zone (thereby preventing potential damage to the
workpiece)

acts as a conductor for the current to pass between

the electrode and the workpiece.

In wire EDM a very thin wire serves as the electrode.

Special brass wires are typically used; the wire is
slowly fed through the material and the electrical
 discharges actually cut the workpiece. Wire EDM is
usually performed in a bath of water.

If you were to observe the wire EDM process under a

microscope, you would discover that the wire itself
does not actually touch the metal to be cut; the
electrical discharges actually remove small amounts
of material and allow the wire to be moved through
the workpiece. The path of the wire is typically
controlled by a computer, which allows extremely
complex shapes to be produced.

Perhaps the best way to explain wire EDM is to use an

analogy. Imagine stretching a thin metal wire
between your hands and sliding it though a block of
cheese cutting any shape you want. You can alter the
positions of your hands on either side of the cheese
to define complex and curved shapes. Wire EDM
works in a similar fashion, except electrical discharge
machining can handle some of the hardest materials
used in industry. Also note, that in dragging a wire
through cheese, the wire is actually displacing the
cheese as it cuts, but in EDM a thin kerf is created by
removing tiny particles of metal.

Electrical discharge machining is frequently used to

make dies and molds. It has recently become a
standard method of producing prototypes and some
production parts, particularly in low volume
applications. For more details regarding a typical
application, you can read about a custom bronze
branding-iron that was made with EDM.
 Electrical discharge machines (EDM) remove metal
from a workpiece by using a series of electric sparks
to erode material. An electrical discharge machine is
considered to be the most precision oriented
manufacturing process and is widely used for creating
simple and complex shapes and geometries. EDM
machining is favored in situations where high
accuracy of work and low count is required. An EDM
machine consists of a workpiece and the wire
electrode. A workpiece is sometimes dipped in a
dielectric to develop a potential difference between
the workpiece and wire electrode. Electrical discharge
machine supply is applied to the workpiece. Electrical
discharge machines (EDM) work by eroding the
material that appears in the electrical discharge path.
This material is responsible for generating an arc
between the workpiece and wire electrode. The wire
electrode rotates acts as wire EDM tooling and
rotates a two-three axis and cuts the internal cavities
in the workpiece. There are many types of electrical
discharge machines (EDM). Examples include a CNC
EDM and a wire EDM machine. A CNC EDM is a
computer numerical control machine and is used for
removing metal using electrical discharge spark
erosion. A wire EDM machine is designed for precision
machining purposes and is used for cutting prismatic
metal components. Other electrical discharge
machines (EDM) are commonly available.

There are several ways in which electrical discharge

machines (EDM) function. Electrical discharge
machines (EDM) are used where fast turn around time
is required. Electrical discharge machines (EDM)
works by removing the workpiece that generates an
arc with the wire electrode and creating a cavity in
the workpiece. The dimensional accuracy required for
an electrical discharge machine is + / - 0.0005 inches
per inch. Electrical discharge machines (EDM) also
require a 0.0003 feature profile accuracy across the
workpiece cutting path. Electrical discharge machines
(EDM) are designed and manufactured to meet most
industry specifications.
 WIRE CUTTING EDM
A wire cut electric discharge machine having rollers is
disclosed. It has a wire electrode disposed in a
working zone of the electric discharge machine. This
wire electrode is rolled by a rolling device so that the
cross-sectional area of this wire electrode changes
from a circular area into an elongated one. After
rolled, the wire electrode has two parallel rolled flat
surfaces. The working width between these flat
surfaces is smaller than the original diameter of the
wire electrode before rolled. So, the cutting width is
narrower than before. By using the rolled wire
electrode, this invention can reduce the cutting width
limit. I can improve the precision of the product,
without changing the material property of the wire
electrode. And, it can reduce the cost of the wire
electrode.